09:42 08/07/2013
The reign of Catherine II lasted for more than three and a half decades, from 1762 to 1796.
a804f5880ca9ceb1e578805c1450b2ab1beca729 It was filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was being done under Peter the Great.
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6587cd0afac182ce76942987da96917ca4062971 Subject: "The Greek project" - the utopia of Voltaire and Catherine II Tags: Persons Gavriil Derzhavin Peter I Alexander Radishchev Nikolai Karamzin Catherine II Alexander Suvorov
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711e5f6b93988215abcc609090039db109701888 There are many legends and more or less reliable stories about brave navigators who visited North America long before Columbus.
d196b4761a29f8e5c9bc7704363fcc4d9a9441d9 Among them are Chinese monks who landed in California around 458, Portuguese, Spanish and Irish travelers and missionaries who allegedly reached America in the VI, VII and IX centuries.
b8f3003427e92471199fb8442d39e7c66fcd9710 It is also assumed that in the X century Basque fishermen fished on the Newfoundland shoals.
56c0506285135d92c138aac25224578406b58890 The most reliable, obviously, is the information about the Norwegian navigators who in the X—XIV centuries" visited North America, getting here from Iceland.
784ca4c980b1a19a7c9be59e94f07416e03e559e It is believed that the Norman colonies were not only in Greenland, but also in Labrador, Newfoundland, New England and even in the Great Lakes region.
107f2e073df6e21a72d599a070729364da4bcd46 However, the settlements of the Normans already fell into decline in the XIV century, leaving no noticeable traces in relation to the relations between the cultures of the northern part of the American and European continents.
5d13faad6a0887f1cf16e758a205d44c6669156c In this sense, the discovery of North America began anew in the XV century.
d35ff228600fea79764c05969abfdc3e845788b5 This time, the British reached North America earlier than other Europeans.
36fcff1f4c1c15f0bd4c046417660eb0cb307f17 Since the era of Great geographical Discoveries, America has always attracted the attention of Europeans.
84247b262797f67eb976cf648dd9fc19f84e2e04 The Spanish conquistadors were the first to come to the lands that subsequently became part of the United States.
fe10b12871bcfaaa05b8f6cb05b0214005cee87e Almost half of the Viceroyalty of New Spain founded by them was located where Texas, California, New Mexico, etc. are located today.
a87cebd5361402cc96da0dcdd1af87d0cfb1079d The Spanish origin also has the name of the state of Florida — this is how the Spaniards called the lands they knew in the south-east of North America.
78857276e3869233b80d4e17aa9d45ceef07dd0d In the valley of the Hudson River, the colony of New Netherlands arose; to the south, in the valley of the Delaware River, New Sweden.
e0f9d053c1bb9e93b38d535ff7df85b79d76926f Louisiana, which occupied vast territories in the basin of the largest river on the continent, the Mississippi, was the possession of France.
d4535faf15e23a576060b90317b8a309ba8c05f4 In the XVIII century, the northwestern part of the continent, modern Alaska, began to be developed by Russian industrialists.
2ac5dae2baafffd821ac5cb264067df8156a9d6d But the most impressive successes in the colonization of North America were achieved by the British.
fdb7f2121bcdbb48cd52c23d707277c0e91b1392 The ideologist of the English colonization of North America was the famous chaplain Gakluyt.
f2c93de6d91626e64c935df1f4b9a42a93d27d2e In 1585 and 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh, on the orders of Queen Elizabeth I of England, made two attempts to establish a permanent settlement in North America.
0fcb4e049b6648b0ddcd7b2d990b02d186fa8522 A reconnaissance expedition reached the American coast in 1584 and named the open coast Virginia (English Virginia — "Virgin") in honor of the" virgin queen " Elizabeth I, who never married.
0f0ff013f37d86c2da8a6ac4ce79b22963ac8914 Both attempts ended in failure — the first colony, founded on Roanoke Island off the coast of Virginia, was on the verge of destruction due to Indian attacks and lack of supplies and was evacuated by Sir Francis Drake in April 1587.
107dc80af20654e0120c9187ff8632fde526fd97 In July of the same year, the second expedition of colonists, numbering 117 people, landed on the island.
769db5bd23384a463fbeaaa6c9f4d7a40511b5eb It was planned that in the spring of 1588, ships with equipment and food would arrive in the colony.
eaf5027913d9d2ea701898d801e30166481c7de8 However, for various reasons, the supply expedition was delayed for almost a year and a half.
2606bb523fbe5c4cd493d8108002ae26a733e57f When she arrived at the site, all the buildings of the colonists were intact, but no traces of people, except for the remains of one person, were found.
5860558c4470f5e00798da0fddde5d1700e9da52 At the beginning of the XVII century, private capital entered the business.
364a1309786ca53ab78c416593390b5e3725aed6 In 1605, two joint-stock companies received licenses from King James I to establish colonies in Virginia.
915a6e05d3e6b673e91fee3a459e3dcbadc4668f It should be borne in mind that at that time the term "Virginia" meant the entire territory of the North American continent.
2d2cbc79fe30ef5f948710aade1712cb8c4d8b1a On December 20, 1606, the colonists set sail on board three ships and after a difficult, almost five-month voyage, during which several dozen people died of hunger and disease, in May 1607 they reached the Chesapeake Bay.
c25ab2a19387acc577965614c7d477064e9a2389 Over the next month, they built a wooden fort, named after the king Fort James (the English pronunciation of the name James).
d0ea7fe7b5d7ed9e932d9790bcae65c5d9601852 The fort was later renamed Jamestown, the first permanent British settlement in America. [2]
23bc0ba152adf79a4a9d1eac162d793897c23494 The official historiography of the United States considers Jamestown the cradle of the country, the history of the settlement and its leader, Captain John Smith of Jamestown, is covered in many serious studies and works of fiction.
2a7e14cb439fa6f7de9d3728cefe5cdf3e2c131f The latter, as a rule, idealize the history of the city and the pioneers who inhabited it, (for example, the popular cartoon Pocahontas).
f5c90760a3f3de8df2b20c4dd44ddc995bf467fc In fact, the first years of the colony were extremely difficult, in the famine winter of 1609-1610, no more than 60 out of 500 colonists survived, and, according to some evidence[3], the survivors were forced to resort to cannibalism to survive the famine.
2569bc6cf39f8c9a82294c4159f1c24926453a5e Within 75 years after the appearance of the first English colony of Virginia in 1607, 12 more colonies emerged — New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
554d2debe26db33f5c174f85eccffcedbcdd3c8f The first colonists of North America did not differ in any single religious beliefs or equal social status.
c2ef49d534e571e6fb0c73815ec4fd5d6d32e94c For example, shortly before 1775, at least a third of the population of Pennsylvania was already made up of Germans( Lutherans), Mennonites and representatives of other religious beliefs and sects.
28a29318ff053684ab66c624c83fc1f2d9f0e130 The Spanish colonization of the New World dates back to the discovery of America by the Spanish navigator Columbus in 1492, which Columbus himself recognized as the eastern part of Asia, the eastern coast of either China, or Japan, or India, because the name West Indies was assigned to these lands.
4d7fb911985d69a7fedb0306229dfdc83e03de36 The search for a new way to India is dictated by the development of society, industry and trade, the need to find large reserves of gold, for which demand has sharply increased.
746b49019f4a49919584087453af46de23d8ad5f Then it was believed that there should be a lot of it in the" land of spices".
536064c4a5437a01d94c3d1f7d580c143f029702 The geopolitical situation in the world has changed and the old eastern routes to India for Europeans, who now passed through the lands occupied by the Ottoman Empire, have become more dangerous and impassable, meanwhile there was a growing need to implement other trade with this rich land.
bae0d2083e03f422cf83083817fe5bf2f02e7638 At that time, some people already had the idea that the earth was round and that India could be reached from the other side of the Earth-by sailing west from the then known world.
a69826cf16338199a4ca155be372c8419522ee6a If the English navigators reached North America by sea, the Spaniards moved here by land from the southern regions, as well as from their island possessions in America-Cuba, Puerto Rico, San Domingo, etc.
120ef938da14a28811d000fc6e7382c06a7c027f The Spanish conquerors captured the Indians, plundered and burned their villages.
83add5839d056df2685ed470f6bcac09c1078e2b The Indians responded to this with stubborn resistance.
82af09b650c720847ad8919d13d14e0f78d13243 Many invaders found death on the land that they never conquered.
21eed042910e8dcd9f16497615ab3d6e902347ad Ponce de Leon, who discovered Florida (1513), was mortally wounded in 1521 by Indians while landing in Tampa Bay, where he wanted to establish a colony.
b4853fc81763b945b3633a6d3f06888023aecfe9 In 1528, a hunter for Indian gold, Narvaez, also died.
b01b0ce77c1290b26aa0a014c32886e5ab194dd2 Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the Narvaez expedition, wandered for nine years in the southern part of the North American continent among the Indian tribes.
8fae6b8240031be88e65406ba6e5765903a87936 At first he was enslaved, and then, after being freed, he became a merchant and a medicine man.
737a546ba6589a4696f89ecb558b443646d14f18 Finally, in 1536, he got out to the shores of the Gulf of California,already conquered by the Spaniards.
534380afb0e8266945d4c289a69eba76e8036a7f De Vaca told a lot of wonderful things, exaggerating the wealth and size of the Indian settlements, especially the" cities " of the Pueblo Indians, which he happened to visit.
a1b1cb89bad7ceb69bfd984e64c726cdf27baec1 These stories aroused the interest of the Spanish nobility in the areas lying north of Mexico, and gave an impetus to the search for fabulous cities in the south-west of North America.
65f6b27c78af96ea5d1370304fec338cd90a3dab In 1540, the Coronado expedition set out from Mexico in a northwestern direction, consisting of a detachment of 250 horsemen and infantry, several hundred allied Indians and thousands of enslaved Indians and Negroes.
aab3ac80804e3f871e5b4e31456c9d1ec7ea4cba The expedition passed through the arid deserts between the Rio Grande and the Colorado rivers, capturing the "cities" of the Pueblo Indians with the usual cruelty for the Spanish colonizers; but neither the expected gold nor precious stones were found in them.
2c81a5007aa573b8818b6286ca9cdd01bad115f9 For further searches, Coronado sent detachments in different directions, and after wintering in the Rio Grande Valley, he moved north, where he met the Prairie Pawnee Indians (in the current state of Kansas) and got acquainted with their semi-nomadic hunting culture.
9452b7b999519bf7f1cac961a5a1e228abc17ba6 Not finding the treasure, the disappointed Coronado turned back and. having collected the remnants of his troops on the way, he returned to Mexico in 1542.
f32b3067ae7c2990e7a8839712fdb3d967c4ab9d After this expedition, the Spaniards became aware of a significant part of the continent within the present-day states of Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas and the southern parts of the states of Utah and Colorado, the Grand Canyon of Colorado was discovered, information about the Pueblo Indians and prairie tribes was obtained.
e68d288bffdad76db25238a767c17936617cf5eb At the same time (1539-1542), the expedition of de Soto, a member of Pizarro's campaign, was equipped to the south-east of North America.
3443c988c97daf5b607f436f30fe5a31fbf43528 As soon as the stories of Cabez de Vaca reached him, de Soto sold his property and equipped an expedition of a thousand people.
6b79e19e680b0388dc2822d4dd13a26f8c346bf4 In 1539, he sailed from Cuba and landed on the west coast of Florida.
3a8c7e3ab77ff6d0e95be10d5be643f2ae5a029f For four years, De Soto and his army wandered in search of gold across the vast territory of the present US states: Florida, Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana and the southern part of Missouri, sowing death and destruction in the country of peaceful farmers.
6f0e9d0510c359124bc19f5e9414bcd4e6cf21cb As his contemporaries wrote about him, this ruler was fond of killing zhndeytsev as a sport.
2c72db5de87ec8cc71ad89c4a05a7b283558f0b9 In the north of Florida, de Soto had to deal with Indians who, since the time of the War, had vowed to fight the aliens for life and death.
017ab59e0cad107c84f4816a8b20c88a8959aedf It was especially difficult for the conquerors when they reached the lands of the Chickasaw Indians.
c8c74b9045efa415d9b620570a6eebbd7af8c5da In response to the outrages and violence of the Spaniards, the Indians once set fire to the de Soto camp, destroying almost all the food and military equipment.
de938bd1dd56b9a7da8bf179afb347522d3c2589 Only in 1542, when de Soto himself died of a fever, the pitiful remnants (about three hundred people) his once richly equipped army on makeshift ships barely made it to the shores of Mexico.
a4618daa19dfe76737c6fc4953eb986a7ad691d3 This ended the Spanish expeditions of the XVI century. into the depths of North America.
792ce1eeee3ce4d42132f72cb8fe7c78caa20819 By the beginning of the XVII century, Spanish settlements occupied a fairly large territory both on the Atlantic coast of North America (in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina) and on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.
62314c6e227698087a89fe7a9e92c53a8c3eda54 In the west, they owned California and the areas that roughly corresponded to the current states of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.
f440a169d4492aff20b841c00bcfdcc6d7a02a9e But in the same XVII century.
da903a85400106c08d2a9a638079b14595b532f1 Spain began to be pressed by France and England.
e1fbf81c67a638683e02d011e081680e50c597a9 Thus, the influence of Spanish colonization was limited to the southwest.
40166064fc70c09c7dcfb88b5b7fcfe4a1d2d223 Soon after the Coronado expedition, missionaries, soldiers, and settlers appeared in the Rio Grande Valley.
0663977f1a1d85e868a780d031b0bdad182385df They forced the Indians to build forts and missions here.
d83d7e3ef648d456a2857465f1ea47ee8455cd95 San Gabriel (1599) and Santa Fe (1609), where the Spanish population was concentrated, were among the first to be built.
bffc43d352b8ac63229d08725d130a5f0fc4aa79 In 1763, Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, which the British occupied during the Seven Years ' War.
a42cce87644100364b474f9dc10ffa3e4de64b78 The main driving force of French colonization for a long time was the pursuit of valuable furs, but the seizure of land did not play a significant role for the French.
e128d4b93fa03e96ab6c949a04f07241473e17f3 The French peasants, although burdened with feudal duties, remained, unlike the landless English yeomen, landowners, and there was no mass flow of immigrants from France.
0bc48bad9419f8d3988bea431d9dfa05e1e94865 The French began to gain a foothold in Canada only at the beginning of the XVII century, when Samuel Champlain founded a small colony on the Acadia Peninsula (southwest of Newfoundland), and then the city of Quebec (1608).
bdc7143920ded339457c0128a967a57990804bc4 By 1615, the French had already reached Lakes Huron and Ontario.
91d7e29a8e30eda390e7f8772c3198535ef88b6d The open territories were given by the French crown to trading companies; the lion's share was captured by the Hudson's Bay Company.
410924fdb0ed49e489cd5882b4868b07266a563e Having received a charter in 1670, this company monopolized the purchase of furs and fish from the Indians.
dcaa478e87dddc7cd4a47bf95ceab5c019d58fb9 Along the banks of rivers and lakes, company posts were set up on the way of Indian nomads.
9bb47f933d35082957c3f81fd55cf79a8b90461a They turned the local tribes into "tributaries" of the company, entangling them in networks of debts and obligations.
98372f02ae40660186052500aa42a0d80a60d57b The Indians were drunk, corrupted; they were robbed, exchanging precious furs for trinkets.
4e63c24c615b45030ceaba754aeb57b14c29bc11 The Jesuits who appeared in Canada since 1611 diligently converted the Indians to Catholicism, preaching humility before the colonizers.
b5bdeb8d28f14e6a79cb06d4810c47b6a4247db7 But with even greater zeal, keeping up with the agents of the trading company, the Jesuits bought furs from the Indians.
5a3609f1e77c66f8bea0da2830b1167f8a25be4f This activity of the order was not a secret to anyone.
ebb8f19f0005b13ddad6a48f1418b5781a342fe6 Thus, the Governor of Canada, Frontenac, informed the French government (the 70s of the XVII century) that the Jesuits would not civilize the Indians, because they wanted to keep their guardianship over them, that they cared not so much about the salvation of souls as about the extraction of all good, and their missionary activity was an empty comedy.
2ee3c8a7c9832c2177113a150339d500d3ae5c54 There were various forms of representative government in all the colonies, but the majority of the population was deprived of the right to vote.
4defbc8d14902c2974abb36e390302d7a020b086 The colonies differed greatly in the types of economic activity.
271e9102cbd674d4bee1115f1a78b737909a360e In the north, where small-scale farming prevailed, domestic crafts related to it developed, foreign trade, shipping and marine crafts were widely developed.
2b4a362af6efb6b383cad550c12476d1c03a044f In the south, large agricultural plantations dominated, on which tobacco, cotton, and rice were grown.
2427413b6ad0ef1bb0f1898022287d0df51bbf66 The growing production required workers.
95a098bf680c61f5205a010f84fdd0a87db4adc5 The presence of undeveloped territories to the west of the borders of the colonies doomed any attempts to turn the poor whites into hired labor, since there was always an opportunity for them to leave for free lands.
518542939dae1f2fd3010fe5e22027eca6ecff4f It was not possible to force the Indians to work for the white masters.
3a148ea06f66086018bf0348d0e1ad008b34c673 Those of them who were tried to make slaves quickly died in captivity, and the endless war that was waged by the settlers against the Indians led to the mass extermination of the red-skinned aborigines of America.
181c0e52c65506cb19a35842387df6bbf0b329b8 The problem with the labor force was solved by the mass import of slaves from Africa, who were called Negroes in America.
a290cb8d6f300e87fc81219d32f6ca42e57e300a The slave trade became the most important factor in the development of the colonies, especially the southern ones.
9b768a17f0fa8f9a520c04139be9fdcc7976dfc7 By the end of the XVII century, Negroes became the predominant labor force and the actual basis of plantation economy in the south.
056394e2ffbd5cfb8fd6abb9dfa6d1c862321531 At the time of the European invasion of America, the level of development of its peoples was not the same in different parts of the continent.
648c2d85389d33b6148d08495db6d8ea61501de3 The tribes of most of North and South America were at different stages of the primitive communal system, and the peoples of Mexico, Central America and the western part of South America were already developing class relations at this time; they created high civilizations.
b26805876647fe8c8871fbc698349c768f47b95e It was these peoples who were first subjected to conquest; the Spanish conquerors in the XVI century destroyed their states and culture and enslaved them.
6cd6329cd238bc711775ef6d339ba4594e836a79 America was settled from Northeast Asia by tribes related to the Mongoloids of Siberia.
46403d43703513ff7791f1560a5c380d65f6ec9f According to their anthropological type, the American Indians and, to an even greater extent, the Eskimos who moved to America later, are similar to the population of North and East Asia and are part of a large Mongoloid race.
cb952cdeb24222c1903f49971d3402c4d16a489e The migration could have begun at the end of the Ice Age, when there was obviously a land bridge between Asia and America on the site of the current Bering Strait.In the post-glacial era, the migration could also continue by sea.
6991c2c0faa804b9aae0a6beabfd74b39845727b By the beginning of the XVI century. the population of North America consisted of a large number of tribes and nationalities.
767622d78900efcad2b92440fee7b0026265f2d5 According to the types of economy and historical and ethnographic community, they were divided into the following groups: coastal hunters and fishermen of the Arctic zone — Eskimos and Aleuts; fishermen and hunters of the northwest coast; hunters of the northern strip of present — day Canada; farmers of the eastern and southeastern parts of North America; bison hunters — prairie tribes; wild seed collectors, fishermen and hunters-tribes of California; peoples with developed irrigation agriculture in the southwest and south of North America.
789a2f531b6d10ffdebdb52fe6e24ab3899c1a95 The main type of production activity of the Eskimos was hunting seals, walruses, whales, polar bears and arctic foxes, as well as fishing.
fc2c3fcb6c89f92864e3e47d718de302a5da3f71 The weapons were darts and harpoons with movable bone tips.
497e1f1f7358c55c04039966ae8c8e6c806bc517 A spear-thrower was used.
120ec53f09e8c29b07d1a55e2629c5c74d459630 Northwest Coast Indians Typical for this group were Tlingits.
170a6f30bd97e39f5fa00e8259fd0a46660f7a1e The main source of their existence was fishing; salmon fish was their main food. The lack of plant food was compensated by the collection of wild berries and fruits, as well as algae.
b763330d70963828fd6bc23a6f59bb2c3fed22af Tribes of the eastern part of North America — Iroquois, Muskogee tribes, etc. - they lived sedentary, engaged in hoe farming, hunting and gathering.
5811c49ffe83a38d589a2f4626584e686d459283 They made tools from wood, bone and stone, and used native copper, which was processed by cold forging. They didn't know about iron.
a77b5c867245178bf0b6dc3948272315401003e3 The weapons were a bow with arrows, clubs with a stone pommel and a tomahawk.
d08d85b2a134a9538fca075234da83860b99ee9a The Algonquian word "tomahawk" was then called a curved wooden club with a spherical thickening at the fighting end, sometimes with a bone tip.
ea84381ed160998ce711c3f4c029037b3829744b The dwelling of the coastal Algonquian tribes was a wigwam-a hut made of the trunks of young trees, the crowns of which were joined together.
4f81e21b6c9f8b1b5283553966885528606b9193 The dome-shaped skeleton formed in this way was covered with pieces of tree bark.
e2e36c8aa99cb65441f618c3ac0546048fcece8e At the beginning of the XVI century, the tribes of the eastern part of North America had a primitive communal system.
f9daae352edb4ef43bfec3b90a2499caec76289f The most typical of the entire group of eastern tribes were the Iroquois.
8573263fe5679493e4ee7f33bf665544816eefc6 The lifestyle and social structure of the Iroquois were described in the second half of the XIX century by the famous American scientist Lewis Morgan, who reconstructed the main features of their system before colonization.
3baecb05774691b93c1a19952d913c2a37478718 The Iroquois lived around Lakes Erie and Ontario and on the Niagara River. The central part of the territory of the present state of New York was occupied by five Iroquois tribes: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk.
5adff99f8b5784b364d9204c2c6fff9b048eab6c In the Great Lakes region, the Indians collected wild rice, which formed dense thickets near the muddy shores.
46b6f6031ea84b60b6789137b9c107b3e42a5688 For harvesting, they went out on boats, moving with the help of long poles.
6423a3a31bbfe080dffc01486d734d076924c1df A big role was played by hunting deer, elk, beaver, otter, marten and other forest animals.
57ee9acad9a06873349ff1872771a572056ffbc2 Especially a lot of prey was obtained from corral hunting.
7016422f3d324c7cdc8a31b9e509a0783e2d8c70 We fished in spring and summer.
ca67e689edc5175fcf8b923da6f6e125938a749e The dwelling of the Iroquois was the so-called longhouses.
2a4506325bd57991ef1b0c53506761fc7c8f0830 The basis of these houses were wooden posts driven into the ground, to which plates of tree bark were tied with the help of bast ropes.
85a98003479c9242e6decaf21510082c36c91b46 Inside the house there was a central passage about 2 m wide; here, at a distance of about 6 m from each other, there were hearths.
5c9ac4088982f59c4bad5527cf9fbb16f04fc48a Above the hearths in the roof there were holes for the smoke to escape.
a05c1973bb01f622f0ab2b19e1aa475f395bf736 In the forests of modern Canada, tribes of several language families lived: Athapascan (Kuchins, Chaypewai), Algonquian (part of the Ojibwe Chippewa, Montagnais Naskapi, part of the Cree) and some others.
2658843461bb2ba724fbc91bba0d63241a8a7daa The Indians of the forests of the North lived and hunted in groups representing tribal collectives.
c1491a9c4cdd2a4df883a51700f5dc556b461a16 Numerous Indian tribes lived on the prairies.
1af52f8c9e4c707239a0b8fe02237e7a4acd4ba7 Their most typical representatives were the Dakota, Comanche, Arapahee and Cheien. the Oti tribes showed particularly stubborn resistance to the European colonizers.
9781e21f420005509d1632fc3566f4ff9948c404 Despite belonging to different language families, the prairie Indians were united by common features of economic activity and culture.
35c9ac233d5a23c233ffa02f6b1f7265da5ba5c6 The main source of their existence was bison hunting. The bison provided meat and fat for food, fur and leather for clothing and shoes, as well as for covering huts.
48a17b6d20278edcc1cef69aef8e4ed4a3fc88ff The prairie Indians did not know metal, they used stone axes and hammers, flint knives, scrapers and arrowheads.
151cd68a9c106af40e252a6918e757d81b7119b3 Most of the prairie tribes lived in a conical tent made of buffalo hides.
235edfc3cad7184c60b94a94315b442a054e7a73 The Indians of California were one of the most backward groups of the indigenous population of North America.
9f021399de579ef918a503180eafb6dd024290f1 A characteristic feature of this group was extreme ethnic and linguistic fragmentation; the tribes of California belonged to several dozen small language groups.
4e518c15c0ef10612227602c7cc6d87e4d940468 The Indians of California knew neither settlement nor agriculture.
7ba5965fcb1b6ff0a6135a71a5188d20f57c4280 Colonization of America
75fa3794593d37257658dfcbc10214db8014796e The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on October 26, 2014;
e41fa2e1318ebe5ed02663377b5d847db372be7c 1 The history of the discovery of America by Europeans 1.1 The Pre Columbian era 1.2 The Voyages of Columbus
5a1480892d0ec0b5a78f1fc48a834211ae728e62 2 Colonization of South and Central America in the XV XVII centuries 3 Colonization of North America (XVII—XVIII centuries) 3.1 English colonies 3.2 Settlement of New England
ca7826177108ad04fb4c7674bf2cb327f5536521 4 The Thirteen Colonies 4.1 Prerequisites for the War of Independence
3bd950d93991952d6898c2b72099e94f50010410 5 Canada 6 Florida 7 Caribbean Islands 8 Central America 9 South America 10 Chronology of the founding of English colonies 10.1 French colonies 10.2 Spanish colonies 10.3 Portuguese colonies 10.4 Dutch colonies 10.5 Swedish colonies 10.6 Russian colonies 10.7 Scottish colonies 10.8 Courland colonies 10.9 Mexican colonies
4f7ca4bcd62c11714c81f86fd1fa42c3bfb7d6b3 11 Notes 12 See also 12.1 References
a4c20fbfbf826bc8426845b1023ffc4914cc1bf0 The history of the discovery of America by Europeans[edit / edit wiki text]
35cf843b5e12cf6765c3308c9ccb4aa042ed92f8 Pre Columbian era[edit / edit wiki text]
d9fb754a969f5c3442b4452e1df7368e4d6c0aa9 Currently, there are a number of theories and studies that allow us to believe with high probability that European travelers reached the shores of America long before the expeditions of Columbus.
0158fdfd1b8f2e67d2c5ef7bb80b047dd1c0bf29 However, there is no doubt that these contacts did not lead to the creation of long term settlements or the establishment of strong ties with the new continent, and thus did not have a significant impact on the historical and political processes in both the Old and the New World.
5f990ed70b86838430c8b81acfa52b5dc11ced8a For more information, see Contacts with America before Columbus, American Viking campaigns
c84252e7228f0456c90c400643030cdaf366fb2c Columbus ' Travels[edit / edit wiki text]
ffb10d6efafbed5e4c3897c23806e12a545634d0 Main article: Christopher Columbus
cee9ddca740720c7d1561d9cd15fd4ac82467d4f Colonization of South and Central America in the XV XVII centuries[edit]
ac60c6c34b7c3c533ae04e41c0eb6ac7c17b11cf Chronology of the most important events:
ddaca611170168dc2119292d360f198b4c354da1 1492 Christopher Columbus lands on the island. 1499 Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda reach the mouth of the Amazon. 1502 Vespucci, after a second trip, finally comes to the conclusion that the open continent is not part of India. 1513 After a 100 day trek through the jungle, Vasco Nunes de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama and comes to the Pacific coast for the first time. 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon goes in search of the legendary fountain of eternal youth.
28bdee93e705c0bec0a5d71c9d26699a675009bc Having failed to reach the object of his search, he nevertheless discovers gold deposits.
fcfd3f6e94d6a7c4aba8d1a25b29167743489209 Gives the name of the Florida Peninsula and declares it a Spanish possession. 1519 Fernando Cortez enters Tenochtitlan, captures the Emperor Montezuma, thereby beginning the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
404996d83a32699c2fe26fa93d660d3369b38a35 His triumph leads to 300 years of Spanish rule in Mexico and Central America. 1522 Pascual de Andogoya discovers Peru. 1523 Spain establishes a permanent military base and settlement in Jamaica. 1531 Francisco Pizarro invades Peru, destroys thousands of Indians and conquers the Inca Empire, the most powerful state of the South American Indians.
ce20960f78c1478c5599e3a73433d1e88c75d082 A huge number of Incas die from chickenpox brought by the Spaniards. 1536 Spanish settlers found Buenos Aires, but after five years they were forced to leave the city under the onslaught of the Indians.
20657c5d5d1988a3fb176a5775d9b4a21bef87a7 History of Central America from 1700 to 1983
c1d1c4383392128a3c15cf389f7c1a86514d9ba0 1538 The foundation of Bogota[1][2]. 1539 The first printing house in the New World opens in Mexico City. 1540 Opening of The Grand Canyon. 1541 Hernando de Soto reaches the shores of the Mississippi. 1541 Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago. 1551 The first universities are founded in Lima and Mexico City. 1553 The book "Chronicle of Peru" by Pedro Cies de Leon was published, for the first time describing the history and geography of South America. 1565 St. Augustine was founded — the first European settlement on the territory of the modern United States. 1567 The foundation of Rio de Janeiro. 1580 The re foundation of Buenos Aires. 1605 (or 1609 according to other sources) - The foundation of Santa Fe, the capital of the Spanish colony of New Mexico (now a US state).
bac7e4b6bc4e590ba8b0ce857c7f94e67a67a0dd See also Conquistador.
a0f1644f3dcedf0d1e1e6bbe5fe19e20ffbd7cff Colonization of North America (XVII XVIII centuries)[edit / edit wiki text]
ac10c39565adf058edb874632fd3ee66f03b2e11 History of North America from 1750 to 2000
cc2fac5c42e1b71156f380d0aa3d601bf53ebb66 By the middle of the XVI century, Spain's dominance on the American continent was almost absolute, the colonial possessions stretching from Cape Horn to New Mexico brought huge revenues to the royal treasury.
40a62dacf9669ab4808458ea06bbcf9dd6805b63 Attempts by other European states to establish colonies in America were not crowned with noticeable success.
08a13b424c6f2b39e8959945e39ace452447017e [3].
e864b2e5cece14e8d9c1bf7b3dc4e4898782c25a But at the same time, the balance of power in the Old World began to change: the kings spent the flows of silver and gold flowing from the colonies, and were little interested in the economy of the metropolis, which, under the weight of an inefficient, corrupt administrative apparatus, clerical dominance and lack of incentives for modernization, began to lag more and more behind the rapidly developing economy of England.
b912aa060f2385ad89c2ee58c1304aca05737de8 Spain was gradually losing its status as the main European superpower and mistress of the seas.
cd16b766a69a038277323e5fb3bb31445393177d The long term war in the Netherlands, the huge funds spent on fighting the Reformation throughout Europe, the conflict with England accelerated the decline of Spain.
c2d3814f52dd5219beb39ba05b59bcd8f7b6d998 The last straw was the death of the Invincible Armada in 1588.
2ad5ff6104f870a6b1395eaf24ba4e9b573811ad After the British admirals, and to a greater extent a violent storm, defeated the largest fleet of that time, Spain retreated into the shadows, never recovering from this blow again.
090f03a3a8259a1e204f21ce42e55fb766be3d21 The leadership in the" relay race " of colonization passed to England, France and Holland.
2d141435a155d8a8f83d71e5dc018bcad1d94e9a English colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
1bcd8c14d2f09ca972e0d457799877143b00a788 Main article: English Colonization of America
da2ea2106454f97e6631e05a5b87359442c104f9 A reconnaissance expedition reached the American coast in 1584 and named the open coast Virginia in honor of the" virgin queen " Elizabeth I, who never married.
7147aaf027872659d32a3a5ed65cd403e5d2048b The exact fate of the colonists has not been established to this day[1].
05c76873a0bfd18268e0d8aa70ed72da448e8a68 In 1605, two joint stock companies received licenses from King James I to establish colonies in Virginia.
e3a64fba77e1cc812c11d90a9fc288ac36b02404 The first of the companies — the" London Virginia Company "(Eng. Virginia Company of London) — received the rights to the southern, the second — the" Plymouth Company " (Eng. Plymouth Company) - to the northern part of the continent.
4f93dcb5ae7c8be4f687954881f907f199676998 Despite the fact that both companies officially proclaimed the main goal of spreading Christianity, the license granted them the right to "search and extract gold, silver and copper by all means".
0bfbb727aecd245b14199a1eaf6df4a741211ce4 On December 20, 1606, the colonists set sail on board three ships and after a difficult, almost five month voyage, during which several dozen people died of hunger and disease, in May 1607 they reached the Chesapeake Bay.
dc5da56c0cce2bde8012c8beda977e69f5de8475 The fort was later renamed Jamestown, the first permanent British settlement in America.
9e1f57cb8ad50345182bd20bb4f837cb7c2288a2 An American stamp issued for the tercentenary of the founding of Jamestown
971c4fc1a7c6d095ea33a864383a2a3eba547b21 In the following years, when the issue of physical survival was no longer so acute, the two most important problems were strained relations with the indigenous population and the economic feasibility of the colony's existence.
3bb87f2a34bd707f9e973eb94118e0feb8b13dd2 To the disappointment of the shareholders of the London Virginia Company, neither gold nor silver was found by the colonists, and the main commodity produced for export was ship's wood.
d6cbe5107093aeeb35de2cceba4d1313e4f76364 Despite the fact that this product was in a certain demand in the metropolis, which had exhausted its forests, the profit, as well as from other attempts at economic activity, was minimal[4].
c140b1ad422df6464565b82faec08b9a7882bd17 The situation changed in 1612, when the farmer and landowner John Rolfe managed to cross a local variety of tobacco grown by the Indians with varieties imported and from Bermuda.
322a7e921051ccfe8859fc7e611bcff7d6e33686 The resulting hybrids were well adapted to the Virginia climate and at the same time met the tastes of English consumers.
69211d227481a6eef04ce78998f2609b1094b196 The colony acquired a source of reliable income and for many years tobacco became the basis of the economy and exports of Virginia, and the phrases "Virginia tobacco", "Virginia blend" are used as characteristics of tobacco products to this day[5][6]. Five years later, the export of tobacco amounted to 20,000 pounds, a year later it was doubled, and by 1629 it reached 500,000 pounds[5].
719386166e7b15b3b535d0e92f849d5cf340dc57 John Rolfe rendered another service to the colony: in 1614, he managed to negotiate a peace with a local Indian chief.
508b67bd5dc8a4ac9989c894a0d730bfefc555af The peace treaty was sealed by a marriage between Rolf and the chief's daughter, Pocahontas.
067e3f949d33684b1f8c5e3b592b47be11b5ac78 In 1619, two events occurred that had a significant impact on the entire future history of the United States.
e561ef070d4a3fffb3bef84e2c70790fa401d768 This year, Governor George Yeardley decided to transfer part of the power to the House of Burgesses, thereby establishing the first elected legislative assembly in the New World.
0f2b2e07298ee7f4d7c8734574fb0ee2a9ba701e The first meeting of the council was held on July 30, 1619[7].
5e95d236881e2f4ec900c65bab4bf68b1e5bd6d7 In the same year, the colonists acquired a small group of Africans of Angolan origin.
5ef0faacf474db094e004c5487521321bc598681 Although they were not formally slaves, but had long contracts without the right to terminate, it is customary to count the history of slavery in America from this event[8].
4ba486c0baea65e4bcdd1c7e031d379d51f75999 In 1622, almost a quarter of the colony's population was destroyed by rebellious Indians.
de2f6e5b6d0f59390a5eee8c4b6d7dd1e25178ff In 1624, the license of the London Company, whose business had declined, was revoked, and from that time Virginia became a royal colony.
9dd1768247b843b6a1e419fe201572b3fec47d36 The governor was appointed by the King, but the colony council retained significant powers.
c2d35c6c12db8acfe1a69bc7ca8ce3d415e090df The settlement of New England[edit / edit wiki text]
27112fcd9080598572fad0dd4207098ca225b51a The ship "Mayflower", which transported the" pilgrim fathers " to the New World.
ec376ab4f0fef8f1b9c0f75876a058d2eb5f20a9 Painting by William Halsall, 1882.
020f2e941d0ab3d6ef5998bf807e91f8a1cc0265 In September 1620, the ship "Mayflower" arrived on the Atlantic coast of Massachusetts with 102 Calvinist Puritans ("Pilgrim Fathers").
bb9ef855a1c0a710660bb1ac97871c6b71d0df3b This event is considered the beginning of the purposeful colonization of the continent by the British.
158da0a5ae0c27b759058572f407bf85e5c93eb3 They concluded an agreement between themselves, called the Mayflower Agreement.
03efecdce86b51286ebcf8c9eb5781dcda037f03 It reflects in the most general form the ideas of the first American colonists about democracy, self government and civil liberties.
95e1b39e19726d5c5481d1528afeac43e117fe10 Later, similar agreements were concluded between the colonists of Connecticut, New Hampshire and Rhode Island.
4db35a1cf3993d1aafef07fd33cf2686f0f98e9e Robert W. Weir.
60ee51b5b124bb6391966caf2530e52fd480950b The pilgrim fathers board the ship. 1844.
3ca2fc8a2abe13e74729b6951bbc6b3e01625af2 After 1630, in the Plymouth Colony — the first colony of New England, which later became the Massachusetts Bay Colony, new English Puritan settlers founded at least a dozen small towns.
e4e3fc9d5ac2f9c02340439a88ca3258d7aa65cb The immigration wave of 1630-1643 brought about 20 thousand people to New England, at least 45 thousand more settled in the colonies of the American south or on the islands of Central America.
e6a9c2b6ec1dca979f1f72cec7c7ef6d5b85855d Thirteen colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
9a106ec079c2fc0fec0c9e00fd14e06cd274c1c0 Within 75 years after the appearance of the first English colony of Virginia in 1607, 12 more colonies emerged — New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
3a0d202e0ab1ec22cfb17a39b4c2c5eefae1a4b4 English Catholics settled in Maryland, French Huguenots settled in South Carolina.
f789d7b78f350ad721469f109eea6ec901bc722f The Swedes settled Delaware, Polish, German and Italian artisans preferred Virginia.
dcfde43a50dd8aa65024af2b645d57d9aac6550e From among them, hired workers were recruited by farmers.
2c8c48acc93565126d7c98ef65d992da810bde9c The colonists often found themselves defenseless against Indian raids, one of which served as the impetus for the uprising in Virginia in 1676, known as the Bacon Rebellion.
21329231ce250e72a0bc1b4fec5570f61ad60dc4 The uprising ended in vain after Bacon's unexpected death from malaria and the execution of 14 of his most active associates.
425e08a7f093ddf7b8baa5350f6163dc251ede95 Since the middle of the XVII century, Great Britain tried to establish full control over the economic operations of the American colonies, implementing a scheme in which all industrial goods (from metal buttons to fishing vessels) were imported to the colonies from the mother country in exchange for raw materials and agricultural goods.
ae1e09d4df0bca9b647523f7ae48a7dc2abbc4a7 Under this scheme, English entrepreneurs, as well as the English government, were extremely uninterested in the development of industry in the colonies, as well as in the trade of the colonies with anyone other than the mother country.
b6b4d68eaeeb6da6808e55f0245918282d0238a3 Meanwhile, American industry (mainly in the northern colonies) has achieved significant success.
5122a4976128dbc87f615a2a732b1bc84f95be21 Especially American industrialists succeeded in building ships, which allowed them to quickly establish trade with the West Indies and thereby find a market for domestic manufactory.
302d56cbf75333762d0be2da957768eee54f2681 The English parliament considered these successes so threatening that in 1750 it issued a law prohibiting the construction of rolling mills and iron processing workshops in the colonies.
c77046ba653170bfd001afd093ac49001513ba0a The foreign trade of the colonies was also subjected to harassment.
2974b0d1ccec100ab071c5a074f9fa479a9f6b77 In 1763, the shipping laws were passed, according to which goods were allowed to be imported and exported from the American colonies only on British ships.
2fefba9908be3f92e60d4faea1d423c3a409920b In addition, all goods intended for the colonies had to be loaded in Great Britain, regardless of where they were transported from.
e98239cbbd5bb73dc827e9be7ea34bf7e1a47dda Thus, the metropolis tried to put all the foreign trade of the colonies under its control.
82c3363e72e8d92837edb03c76a3b010aee2ca1d And this is not counting the many duties and taxes on goods that the colonists personally imported home.
a2f6c24181234a41736a33191bf60f269af4cc64 Prerequisites of the War of Independence[edit / edit wiki text]
adda32faa6a41e10a109d25eb560b12c717ef948 By the second half of the XVIII century, the population of the American colonies was increasingly acting as a community of people who were in confrontation with the mother country.
0286eb9bbf021d9690a9ff5a67299ff5ee84420d The development of the colonial press played a significant role in this.
914c5e4b28cc82bad8f8611bd86473737ae83945 The first American newspaper appeared in April 1704, and by 1765 there were already 25 of them.
8f43708b8f86b76b9b9941316031e08850664336 The Stamp Duty Law, which hit American publishers hard, added fuel to the fire.
5c0e3cd64ed2649c2424b287bc211d80ad6e3bd0 American industrialists and merchants, who were extremely dissatisfied with the colonial policy of the metropolis, also showed discontent.
5796f18033b926f80e15828ad21d00f91a5f915d The presence of British troops (who remained there after the Seven Years ' War) on the territory of the colonies also caused dissatisfaction of the colonists.
b6a7e3730dfa7d70fcea0338a3340b6840c0ffa7 Demands for independence were increasingly voiced.
ce7eb7f4868d04db19d96e1b9f9d23cf36fff985 Feeling the gravity of the situation, both Great Britain and the American bourgeoisie were looking for a solution that would satisfy the interests of both the mother country and the colonies.
e84f2138a1a58111c3621b9e7406df9f97978c1d So, in 1754, on the initiative of Benjamin Franklin, a project was put forward to create a union of the North American colonies with their own government, but headed by a president appointed by the British king.
eb0fa1c8c1f8c7b80ff46a79840500997403552b Although the project did not provide for full independence of the colonies, it caused an extremely negative reaction from the British government.
13dd21e979fc6491497d181c5da9456f2d7022e6 All this became the prerequisites for the War of Independence of the United States.
58c97959ceb5de8ecc515dab71f9d235eecf8e8a Canada[edit / edit wiki text]
bb82cec2df0dbc30f1727923d703dc4c0cce1664 Main article: History of Canada
8c7f805105b89b2c0679f785ee95c0cc89499809 In 1497, several expeditions to the island of Newfoundland, associated with the names of the Cabots, marked the beginning of England's claims to the territory of modern Canada.
a08f257705365bdcfaa08305df1f616e38f4ec1c In 1763, under the Treaty of Paris, New France passed into the possession of Great Britain and became the province of Quebec.
237c2a2debe10bacc95776a441eac6cf3770e8ea Rupert's Land (the area around Hudson Bay) and Prince Edward Island were also British colonies.
0828aca86610f0fd959488568631baef31027a2b Florida[edit / edit wiki text]
6efd51d9e8d5fb2e8a28c9733742466a1165dafd The British divided Florida into East and West and engaged in attracting immigrants.
88c14c295f894650367251451c4925fa2fb2e820 To do this, the settlers were offered land and financial support.
8a123017ab785656947d26ff93477404b4556b60 In 1767, the northern border of West Florida was significantly moved, so that West Florida included parts of the modern territories of the states of Alabama and Mississippi.
30b42ca2491f7f3db54f9dba074102209a874507 During the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain retained control of East Florida, but Spain was able to capture West Florida thanks to an alliance with France, which was at war with England.
c2d5fcce639dd1e98d86c5c0ba429aaf64ce29a7 According to the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1783 between Great Britain and Spain, all of Florida was ceded to Spain
a2dfcb4f8214aee9b658eda7fd600959b517a540 Islands of the Caribbean region[edit / edit wiki text]
c11b8a6a5fea90b4602440d62265c1bea03e33d9 The first English colonies appeared in Bermuda (1612), the islands of St. Kitts (1623) and Barbados (1627) and were then used to colonize other islands.
bae2307997e9184fe7d29450dc9e4b52a6946c38 In 1655, Jamaica, taken from the Spanish Empire, was under the control of the British.
1bfb7a75be542d383a6912ef78c99084e87e59fa Central America[edit / edit wiki text]
0a88b4d8a87c74d91c9a5580b254c052b0b7f43b In 1630, the agents of the British founded the Providence Company, whose president was the Earl of Warwick, and secretary was John Pym, occupied two small islands near the Mosquito Coast and established friendly relations with the locals.
6394c266c35ad211335b8172b9d59e77d8bc6f7e From 1655 to 1850, England, and then Great Britain, claimed a protectorate over the Miskito Indians, but numerous attempts to establish colonies were unsuccessful, and the protectorate was disputed by Spain, the Central American republics and the United States.
4fc9ed7f24ec9eccc8a616ebf422a2b3289bee31 The objections from the United States were caused by fears that England would gain an advantage in connection with the proposed construction of a canal between the two oceans.
d5e1c866a237feeaea1e34edd9b20a4d3c13e586 In 1848, the capture of the city of Greytown (now called San Juan del Norte) by the Miskito Indians with the support of the British caused a great stir in the United States and almost led to war.
3f3385898eae32ac1f5e10b253ac4f8c46165610 However, by signing the Clayton Bulwer Treaty of 1850, both powers pledged not to strengthen, colonize or dominate any part of the territory of Central America .
2a44964407b54f9d12b02200105261086d2bfdfe In 1859, Great Britain transferred the protectorate to Honduras.
845314d8ee6a98cc77aef4c9bddbb4791ea8dd7c The first English colony on the banks of the Belize River appeared in 1638.
f4829253e7789ff725d644f065cf2474c36df2ab In the middle of the XVII century, other English settlements were created.
a307e5f2d730b2a6f5291b5741e90071e05004e9 Later, British settlers engaged in harvesting the wood of the campesha tree, from which a substance was extracted that was used in the manufacture of dyes for fabrics and was of great importance for the wool spinning industry in Europe (see the article Belize#History).
e2c15c2107597e68680d75007472c84c34087320 South America[edit / edit wiki text]
97b0d25e9e3265d2248eabfe0af1cb7fe5de0d4e In 1803, Britain seized the Dutch settlements in Guiana, and in 1814, under the Treaty of Vienna, it officially received the lands united in 1831 under the name British Guiana.
d984591bc98aa7f9945697697cd50ec358b4132b In January 1765, British captain John Byron explored Saunders Island on the eastern tip of the Falkland Islands archipelago and announced its annexation to Great Britain[9].
06c21886fbc28002d372d7550f8b9a1fce652b58 Captain Byron named the bay on Saunders Port Egmont.
26788a604ef592c3eee8ea72e269aa416d92978b Here, in 1766, Captain McBride founded an English settlement.
d8b6ed60820662c1c6f713f2e3c35181b01d266f In the same year, Spain acquired French possessions in the Falklands from Bougainville and, having consolidated its power here in 1767, appointed a governor.
b49d37fb9c0f920172d1fb5257384c1d94dc4eef In 1770, the Spanish attacked the Port of Egmont and drove the British from the island.
837af84ca821a7d43d4e4b7f0622cfc72ac37a54 This led to the fact that the two countries were on the verge of war, but a later peace treaty allowed the British to return to the Port of Egmont in 1771, while neither Spain nor Great Britain abandoned their claims to the islands[9].
65b70d81d2c9707edca3487d58454e09394f320f In 1774, on the eve of the impending War of Independence of the United States, Great Britain unilaterally left many of its overseas possessions, including the Port of Egmont.
1059b4b03b5e82314b5c7bd7a5d69d6922c72db7 Leaving the Falklands in 1776, the British installed a memorial plaque here to confirm their rights to this territory.
f319b9c69399246372fccfb254dcc01eca958af2 From 1776 to 1811, a Spanish settlement remained on the islands, ruled from Buenos Aires as part of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata.
2f13eb779aab57fedb0f1c1c7af9d80b955205d1 In 1811, the Spaniards left the islands, also leaving a tablet here to prove their rights.
87ac71cf9d0586a85e654c6986823e4647521461 After the declaration of independence in 1816, Argentina declared the Falklands its own.
57d9f265cdac774efade09bb2dc7003e244d81cd In January 1833, the British landed on the Falklands again and notified the Argentine authorities of their intention to restore their power on the islands.
11aa2fa506e339c33f37058b21f5e3763bd8cbf4 Chronology of the founding of the English colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
158f21fdede7c3d07b0d447c2e53fede1b7657e8 1607 Virginia (Jamestown) 1620 — Massachusetts (Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay Settlement) 1626 — New York 1633 — Maryland 1636 — Rhode Island 1636 — Connecticut 1638 — Delaware 1638 — New Hampshire 1653 — North Carolina 1663 — South Carolina 1664 — New Jersey 1682 Pennsylvania 1732 — Georgia
7b082a2e57c423015a10e0e82ee86f91def2ecf9 French colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
b9302aa4a405bb6a0598029d256b3abd44dd1473 Main article: French Colonization of America
3014c8ba99fce1403fa844d2f8d29c2e6e68297a By 1713, New France was reaching its largest size.
06df25494171d806e83524a52c2f1ab9fbdead76 It included five provinces:
55ba58e478514a3cc4d9aa6466d3db3cd4ab2f7c Acadia (modern Nova Scotia and New Brunswick). Hudson Bay (modern Canada) The New Land of Louisiana (the central part of the United States, from the Great Lakes to New Orleans), divided into two administrative regions: Lower Louisiana and Illinois (French: le Pays des Illinois).
91997eb8180433adc56377105aba814c74365904 Spanish colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
bb4e0514940d270c678946e22c76a562d6910085 Main article: Spanish Colonization of America
1e26d238caa118092dd79ad6c6d4cc64249bea5d At that time, some people already had the idea that the earth was round and that India could be reached from the other side of the Earth by sailing west from the then known world.
1c420403ff169bac48433da11332d0890b90dc45 Columbus made 4 expeditions to the region: the first 1492 -1493 the discovery of the Sargasso Sea, the Bahamas, Haiti, Cuba, Tortuga, the foundation of the first village, in which he left 39 of his sailors.
161213d307d2dad6dfe8a63dc0f5d557819a57ea He declared all the lands to be the possessions of Spain; the second (1493-1496) years — the complete conquest of Haiti, the discovery of the Lesser Antilles, Guadeloupe, the Virgin Islands, the islands of Puerto Rico and Jamaica.
472398f36fac3166a7fb104c532fe0184d30e6c4 The foundation of Santo Domingo; the third (1498-1499) years — the discovery of the island of Trinidad, the Spaniards set foot on the coast of South America
9125d7be37b2f2513ac4598b603f04e5b1f60f0c Portuguese colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
6e081593ee1189b7c4faecb5ce3f4440cd40628c Colonial Brazil
6b8b631690e71dfb243511a72a751d8e6a720803 Dutch colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
d2294f087b0699d30b84dd2729f7e01306d57048 New Netherlands
0144cb9662210217ccd096c389448bce02e6305c Swedish colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
fe43994e3205cc04bcc63d2c59a469823f53987f New Sweden
cee91463c554d6b10d802d10b7bacb97e2e4bdb4 Russian colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
4ba44f577947b46e6bc61d0c8ba58760449690ed Main article: Russian America
7621e0db50a836161ebadfac6825f5c4e1e70953 Alaska (1744-1867)
66778e5d149de9bf4338b999ec42a9160aa1ae24 Fort Ross (1812-1841) Elizabethan Fortress (Hawaii) (1816-1817)
009e07593c0c09d75bb887a2a68a8f7c04a32d72 Chirikov 18th century G. I. Shelikhov, who was called the Russian Columbus, created the first Russian settlements in America.
2a7afbdaa105b661ad98f282add634bfec12db9b He founded a trading company, promoted the fur bearing animal fishery on the northern Pacific Islands and in Alaska.
3f867b1d7e4ba8387d89c16a505dbd30a242f33e G. I. Shelikhov conducted active trade with local residents and promoted the exploration and development of Alaska Russian America
dfa430e59e714606e895318dd916d312dd417597 Scottish colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
2f3920ed59a42c5790b938f4df85bf91e56bf904 Main article: The Scottish Colonization of Darien
ff9d3a1f2a1742d50e9a1f4fa2d933870c164332 Courland colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
a2beab86bc10a45bb37906f3fdb4e3a70bd4cf42 Main article: Courland Colonization of America
8d984f7bd803645b37c8d1b8cf7a6f187b95036a Mexican colonies[edit / edit wiki text]
d80c21b6d8b78776eae3e838cfea222a9a599bd9 The Spanish Crown eventually assigned Mexico to manage the Philippines archipelago in Asia.
899c775eae470031e5b3216461aa24b927d2f907 Thus, the latter became a colony of the colony.
28d217b2afafef5e28ae77c7ee3d281962401a3a ↑ Juan de San Martin and Antonio de Lebrija.
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0630f17225a154b36f5c1b3453bf17c678fa4559 Гон Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada.
234293c09b4bf9e2faf06e81f32320edeab957d1 Summary of the Conquest of the New Kingdom of Granada" (1539; 1548-1549).. www.kuprienko.info (A. Modest) (April 20, 2010). Verified on April 20, 2010.
9db7512dae43a04b1c829a4a5259dc2e2df09e77 Archived from the original source on August 21, 2011.
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04cfa9cdcf711ad4aceb90ed3a6adbf8e9a9e1f5 [hide] State expansionism of modern and modern times Metropolis • Colony • Terra nullius • The Doctrine of Discovery • Imperialism • Hegemony • Colonialism • Semi colony • Secession • Decolonization • Neocolonialism • Postcolonialism is Overseas
419e225a8d3c83aab63f49d07324e5d7a3647bf6 Colonial empires Colonies of Great Britain • Colonies of Germany • Colonies of Spain • Colonies of the Netherlands • Colonies of Portugal • Colonies of France • Colonies of Italy
816284da4543c3ad7e0fd97c5c2edc0ba87c1e2b External territories of Australia • Overseas expansion of Austria Hungary • Colonies of Belgium • Colonies of Venice • Colonies of Genoa • Colonies of Denmark • Colonies of Courland • Possessions of the Order of Malta • Possessions of Muscat and Oman • Kingdom of New Zealand • Possessions of Norway • Colonies of Russia • Overseas expansion of the United States • Overseas expansion of Wales • Colonies of Sweden • Colonies of Scotland • Colonies of Japan
7b1081b0bc4593c2700c0fabca3ab909d0c95766 Continental
4844f702c4882225ea1873397e8486b5a9f68266 The Brazilian Empire • The Mughal Empire • The Habsburg Monarchy • The German Empire • The Possessions of Denmark • The Mexican Empire • The Possessions of the Ottoman Empire • The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth • The expansion of Russia • The Expansion of the Third Reich • The French Empire • the Safavid Empire • The continental expansion of the United States • The Qing Empire • The Swedish Great Power • The Japanese Empire
9ebbd3578864197cc3f0f7c63e37293b73c51dae Great Geographical discoveries • The Colonization of America • The Colonial Division of Africa • The expansionism of the great powers in Asia[en] (The Big Game • Unequal Treaties)
a5394076807ceb8f12c1118862c0cb4841cf6509 • The history of the development of Australia • Territorial claims in Antarctica
8d6c603b036d358ee8d7181e3faebfb5a4e69533 Lists of: the largest states in history • modern dependent territories
0e3a90a37a939fa91b8fe72cf8516d5b54b051c7 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonization of America&oldid=75255623"
7e5ef5538659285c06b586e9f2bdefe692deb61b Categories: Colonization of America Geopolitics History of America Colonialism
e17c6ebf1640bd81ebf44c4286d3255c8cc684ee Aragonés العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bosanski Català Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Euskara ─ارسی Suomi Võro Français Furlan Galego Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ─_kų Latina Lietuviû Mirandés Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Polski Português Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina Srpski / srpski Svenska ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Ukrainka TinNg ViệT Winaray 中文
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8ff20d7105a6b1705ce124ae4c001ce258d81dc0 Colonization of North America
d84a1a265cc2e663bc11b4c64da557c04c98225e Content 1.
b78199c1fbb6f66d7cd380c718603635991c5a1b The first colonies in North America 2.
75c423c0d16a5d8af89ae9c273f2686fb28257b1 Reasons for the colonization of America 3.
940a2f1b8cd44cbac928039e166cdce4fc05820e English Colonies in America 3.1. Thirteen (13) colonies 4.
a42ab5929621482a8e5b3b543cfc7f605648ef35 Features of the colonization of North America 4.1.
aff5b34650816b0ff173ba0973b743151541f494 The economy of the colonies 4.2. Slavery in the colonies
77dbc403a94162ad32e1e64ad713bc7e0b090819 Main Article: US History
28d1241c7a618602426c4097e14c866d9b58ea86 The first colonies in North America
08c1ee4588d3e893f929efbe5d8ad668eb11e2f1 The Spanish origin also has the name of the state of Florida — this is how the Spaniards called the lands they knew in the south east of North America.
39955a2cfed320afc8b3077bb007d328364c2a9e Reasons for the colonization of America
367db70c08fe8d900bca1c1a4819857a58b18937 For immigrants from the British Isles and from other European countries across the ocean, wide material opportunities opened up, the hope of free labor and personal enrichment attracted them here.
a7c6057a3ef7eb9f5952c53112f825bfddcf54df America was also attracted by its religious freedom.
cb8d3d3ecc2aa5436caa867a99dc38496e2d45c8 Many Englishmen moved to America during the revolutionary upheavals of the mid XVII century.
40fee4f596232f11cd0032af7e429f8dff07d7ee Religious sectarians, ruined peasants, and the urban poor were all in the colony.
def52c4be27268c24c1b5a8b89787f26c716d123 All kinds of adventurers and adventurers also rushed across the ocean; criminal criminals were exiled.
3d69435bf40aaad44ab0ca05cf54d75ee9209fe2 The Irish and Scots fled here when life in their homeland became completely unbearable.
41f4a1620d1f25075bf8efa24ec805f36f2da058 English colonies in America
e13377470cd5e51ab02d3d294bcae996b43e44f2 Thirteen (13) colonies
43e6c11270b22fe6962756ac0fd458aa4963b4ac The systematic colonization of North America began after the establishment of the Stuart dynasty on the English throne.
772217d6b1658bff8ab6f113cc7934f83c2581ba The first British colony of Jamestown was founded in 1607 in Virginia.
b903d24151b1afe6bdb14dc096f5aeca473b1d3c Then, as a result of the mass migration of English Puritans overseas, the development of New England began.
15857bc7794c4288c701b12e23451d3c04efc7a7 The first Pu Ritan colony on the territory of the modern state of Massachu Sets appeared in 1620.
408e31acf0cf8e34781125e163fa0ba499667f4d In the following years, immigrants from Mas Sachusets, dissatisfied with the religious intolerance that reigned there, founded the colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island.
9036b26739b64674a71c041718fc860d48e5b26f After the "Glorious Revolution", the colony of New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts.
390585182d718d71396f2bda49a5827d3bfca7ed On the lands north of Virginia, granted by Charles I to Lord Baltimore, the colony of Maryland was founded in 1632.
c4b06765a177ccef7ef56ff6d2ce19807d8050f1 On the lands located between Virginia and New England, the Dutch and Swedish colonists were the first to appear, but in 1664 they were captured by the British.
5dd252b8c46c23477a8c43e849da0c643c3617ad New Netherlands was renamed the colony of New York, and the colony of New Jersey arose to the south of it.
74ef919da84b1d567cf30f5185557eaa140a4801 In 1681, W. Penn received a royal charter for lands north of Maryland.
a50cf4e6327e972620715eb02248904f6b5f4166 In honor of his father, the famous admiral, but the colony was named Pennsylvania.
4df10c2ee277a8cdb23e4cf14409d331dddfdd61 During the XVIII century, Delaware was separated from it.
17128b5ba31e034a12e472541928047c2321dda0 In 1663, the settlement of the territory south of Virginia began, where the colonies of North Carolina and South Carolina later appeared.
d84f100736d16a95b29b68878eb3e00df7909a71 In 1732, King George (George) II allowed the development of the lands between South Carolina and Spanish Florida, which were named Georgia in his honor.
ef0e2a3e222ddb56d21b92d1e01494ecb02fe4b0 Five more British colonies were founded on the territory of modern Canada.
f4a7c47432be11f3a4280891070a14deb8812d99 Features of the colonization of North America
dbedefd505d704df43e8fb732bced41a1d90f244 Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru
47642e78b30bb8b4592e309b592764c43d8799c0 The economy of the colonies
b334551fa239d06cac546e67c3080dbafa408786 In the north, where small scale farming prevailed, domestic crafts related to it developed, foreign trade, shipping and marine crafts were widely developed.
444bfc3a63458990b4a989fc36ff03d73280d32f Those of them who were tried to make slaves quickly died in captivity, and the endless war that was waged by the settlers against the Indians led to the mass extermination of the red skinned aborigines of America.
583bc0e0ce432595c9ac5ed6c6b164bf708deee1 Colonization of America History of North America Geopolitics Colonialism History of the United States
8f98450e14045b0b9bbb6e85b5ffc8ad01a8a709 Questions for this article: Tell us about the colonization of America.
2885e8fe1d9c54064d7bae1c4354a77638e582f3 What are the reasons for mass emigration to America?
a8e1e98dca4b9a81e1871ec4126974dcee776c15 What are the features of economic life in the northern and southern colonies of North America?
fe5d81b07c0cd5a185bb48403b0d9ff67fa5c3be Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru
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b0f35a8fa00fe7ccef64176e24de1a7e5cf220a0 The landing of the Puritans in New England
b2aedeafbfc70a1722e349e9d9d3b0cb00f9ceac Previous Play Pause Next Move 1: 1 Close
256fcb97587d1c811e115081722591ee93037a5c English Colonization of America
3786e492672323b97464dcdbaace6fd7c3827655 See also: Colonization of America
1177fab12308199baf707818783a1b5630e89985 The English colonization of America is the settlement of North America by immigrants from England, and from 1707 from Great Britain, then, from 1801, from the United Kingdom.
0aa0f4b54d3272addb187c7668a31eb4db5be4f0 European colonies in America (XVI XVIII centuries).
3878f105514a7e415dded0c723fcd67ce256ccd8 1 First attempts 1.1 Settlement of New England
1f4eee17c4e50e00eb68118ec09728bc3be888c4 2 The Thirteen Colonies 2.1 Prerequisites for the War of Independence
ebbb6546742936aac9ced671d5c67ed0646072f5 3 Canada 4 Florida 5 Caribbean Islands 6 Central America 7 South America 8 Chronology of the founding of the English colonies 9 Notes
741419c8a788ce5c64b3ee8ec223555e68966a28 The first attempts[edit / edit wiki text]
7c37aa507aa53a90747d735bb9945443fa56210f [2] The official historiography of the United States considers Jamestown the cradle of the country, the history of the settlement and its leader, Captain John Smith of Jamestown, is covered in many serious studies and works of fiction.
1282e580aba8ac046221bd0c8566e04dbd73095e The situation changed in 1612, when the farmer and landowner John Rolfe managed to cross a local variety of tobacco grown by Indians with varieties imported from Bermuda.
781c20b44390070a98358cbe8f12904798f46da4 The English Parliament considered these successes so threatening that in 1750 it issued a law prohibiting the construction of rolling mills and ironworking workshops in the colonies.
15d2cab24b62a3854a561e28ebba4669ff0634d5 In 1630, British agents founded the Providence Company, whose president was the Earl of Warwick and secretary was John Pym, occupied two small islands near the Mosquito Coast and established friendly relations with the locals.
aef4fa53950c25b827a29396f9f76225fff6bf61 However, by signing the Clayton Bulwer Treaty of 1850, both powers pledged not to strengthen, colonize or dominate any part of the territory of Central America.
f987dcba94ba1df82f473cd0e7c09a9af06295fd The bay on Saunders was named by Captain Byron as Port Egmont.
26634f3fde7f5a0ee47fe4503feec00bd375c619 In 1770, the Spaniards attacked the Port of Egmont and drove the British from the island.
22b514c93a2bd500b750e126bd7ec058fa764355 1607 Virginia (Jamestown) 1620 — Massachusetts (Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Settlement) 1626 — New York 1633 — Maryland 1636 — Rhode Island 1636 — Connecticut 1638 — Delaware 1638 — New Hampshire 1653 — North Carolina 1663 — South Carolina 1664 — New Jersey 1682 Pennsylvania 1732 — Georgia
25d6dfa865fa348ef01379509a5af345a8cd99e6 ↑ Information on the "Lost Colony" on the website of the National Park Service (English).
164e1274b772a170e15196565904f813be7465cf ^ The chronology of the settlement on the site of the historical society of Jamestown (dead link with 05-09-2013 (841 days) — history, copy) (English). ↑ Historical journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Journal, ↑ Information about the "Virginia Company of London" on the website of the National Park Service (English).
c7fff7889dab6232979d66ae32483091a6cd9b1b ↑ Go to page: 1 2 Information on the website of the society of protection of monuments and the history of Virginia (English).
2c851c46b6fc0406ca210fe306d5891be3102588 Доклад Report by Captain Powell, Library of Congress of the United States (eng.) ↑ http://www.nps.gov/archive/colo/Jthanout/1stASSLY.html Information on the website of the US National Park Service] (English) ↑ Information on the website of the Virginia Society for the Protection of Monuments and History (English) ↑ Go to: 1 2 Graham Pascoe & Peter Pepper.
f534ec681b00a8aa9bdb33704b0bd178d30eb0b1 Getting it right: The real history of the Falklands/Malvinas.
4eceaa72899a6916b6d2158cb7530f543e482d28 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Английская colonization of America&oldid=72915159"
341d36de4af2ca7febe0100415b031156d85ee27 Categories: History of England History of Great Britain History of the USA Colonization of America
668fc2fe15ade38f15c78011520dceb838f4ac94 Hidden category: Wikipedia:Articles with non working links since September 2013
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84cca0e673897e9559577b8818151abd407a4ece Ethnographic blog about the peoples and countries of the world their history and culture
a89e5fc59b91a8cddd6b9f60d2455f77e81a228a The main catalog The peoples of Australia and Tasmania the peoples of Oceania the Peoples of Africa the Peoples of East Asia the Peoples of America the Peoples of the European part of the former USSR the Peoples of the Caucasus the Peoples of Near Asia the Peoples of Foreign Europe the Peoples of Siberia the Peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan the peoples of Southeast Asia The peoples of South Asia The number and settlement of the peoples of the world The history of geographical discoveries The History of the Ukrainian people East Slavic ethnography Folklore and ethnography of the peoples of the world
d999ff6691d7475263d7e761498301f6f4df4a69 The most interesting notes
ddd361ced12bb4c8738c09c66271275e9eefa983 The population of Foreign Europe: characteristics
238d4fe3490c4781551db94c3a01e868383631b1 The ethnic composition of the population of foreign Europe
7c937f438bb46adfe2d168f41e3766844b60e82b Negroes of the USA: a brief historical sketch
8b18a99b0bba9d4c240d3d1bb3bb7f2eee6b5c30 Colonization of North America.
a06189ec24ae7f343ff72f9e2e6ba272665c0a30 English colonies
d7999dfc6edc1128c6d23b220e0e4c61f2238eb5 Anterior Asia: characteristics
885300ceb3bf42f56e4f32a0a9c766414e426539 The population of East Asia.
1c64a02ef0af05cddc1432d5d24fccc1006b1120 Population density
3dbdc9dc30538e4db96188a56d587f023a0c9c9c The peoples of South Africa: Bushmen, Bantu, Hottentots
a67d000b9905f54bb423a5d1bdb80362eab1f199 Anthropological types
2e57e3fc0341075c9adaf914c41823556545f001 German folk song, dance, musical instruments
b33db41e856adf69b2666b79f48da1dc0a4ebf66 Food and clothing of Chechens.
faf1a620101848abc0734e496d8c20c49bbc5ba5 Social and family relations
4856572ed01c569bbc026209c8115fa77f46a5da Folklore of the Germans.
6aa347b7f697a6cb7809a492b1919ac0cf60ede2 German folk tale, schwank
63a62ce45f7b1f28aa83f534b5545e291a2e1558 English food and clothing
ff462e2a27fbf6b1dea6847ab480c1a50219350e The main cultivated plants of Africa
16289684a80640cc5b81802b542821dca711d12d The Mediterranean race.
7e2949681e7164621bcf374b0c22e638dc7ce9fc The Negroid race
0aaa6ac4b46992a093a4c6b0f0047144ba39ec2c Ethnic composition of the population of Eastern Tropical Africa
36d6fbdb63d0079e84719dae98749b7b1cbb1dda Clothing of Belarusians
4e6b099f45560e7107490ad13401ddd57e373da4 The Russian language and its dialects
577c44188aac399528e4ffcfae50ba7deb851eae Uighur clothing.
e5e5b63b2b86e536fec0c0555880eb0540a2e34b Family and ritual.
c03bec5cee7262c06c7a38d6b3f9cccc156445ba Food.
160a1639b309ef3fe8737e414ce99dbd1a86d486 Literature, art
9c58a387edf2303c7e08f93e73cf56e24cc40dc9 Some features of the formation of the American nation
bad2baf46d5196a703bb3b38196a9452fc20fd33 German folk costume
72550e94c04c1ddd388b92ba263ba99582c3fb22 The peoples of Africa
a53e5d7ce3819bfa91508b08622dafd848c1a11a Migration of the population of Foreign Europe in the XIX XX centuries
2e4f33be2706ddc39c3aecc8659a9ed6e345e451 General characteristics of the population of modern Mexico.
a2262c6e15161604f409be3975e5f3c9d1305575 National minorities of Mexico
96188fa0e3e63709503f42ee76a8bb0aac84aeb1 Musical folklore of Ukrainians
a8e489b66eb1cc9ed394d17d65981e8792199f5b The religion of the Negroes.
f5f2aae4aeb6aa729cf6f9c3c10dd13e30422938 The Negro family
9d01aed0deae880bf95f57c7a5d6271166d2b3d4 Ethnography -
ff2ecd9b4f851a861b87bda6490815325f2097b3 The peoples of America
798e17135ab550755b166542ceeaae92fafd844d English expeditions in North America
fd98117c5527228b53107ee593e546eeb469239f English discoveries in America begin with the voyages of John Cabot (Giovanni Gabotto, or Cab botto) and his son Sebastian, Italians in the English service.
3390ca36101107e9461c2bf16cf5373fd0fb7209 Cabot, having received two caravels from the English king, had to find a sea route to China.
96e3dd5f74ff4a0c002509c4d32e3c1400d216c5 In 1497, he apparently reached the shores of Labrador (where he met Eskimos), and also, possibly, Newfoundland, where he saw Indians painted with red ochre.
52fd5c117dbf180e94cd7b26d02877ee8769bdd4 This was the first meeting of Europeans with the "redskins" of Northern Akhmerika in the XV century.
72f6c5e1515e71bc1cd8d88a49475438bce02d25 In 1498, the expedition of John and Sebastian Cabot again reached the shores of North America.
7e9b99200902c5b098e9d9244e51a10697063b05 The immediate practical result of these voyages was the discovery of the richest fish shoals off the coast of Newfoundland.
4bc3a7bc484d4d2b72010f7041f90a55799005a0 Whole fleets of English fishing vessels were drawn here, and their number increased every year.
d2d309a0f59b4e62706e339816c790ec2c4450a5 Spanish Colonization of North America
d2a7346363502bf003622fed2d9c2db552d57be1 If the English navigators reached North America by sea, the Spaniards moved here by land from the southern regions, as well as from their island possessions in America Cuba, Puerto Rico, San Domingo, etc.
a3171c95c0ec0d2c8dd7dc603cb6329beb96b335 These stories aroused the interest of the Spanish nobility in the areas lying north of Mexico, and gave an impetus to the search for fabulous cities in the south west of North America.
a3b5d6ca47476e5d107ec8632c1b4ca9858470c4 For further searches, Coronado sent detachments in different directions, and after wintering in the Rio Grande Valley, he moved north, where he met the Prairie Pawnee Indians (in the current state of Kansas) and got acquainted with their semi nomadic hunting culture.
39916eef9882ca0e12368cac14eb78732d203a8f After this expedition, the Spaniards became aware of a significant part of the continent within the present day states of Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas and the southern parts of the states of Utah and Colorado, the Grand Canyon of Colorado was discovered, information about the Pueblo Indians and prairie tribes was obtained.
8ee54a10721268505bf4d98c04625455108e2861 At the same time (1539-1542), the expedition of de Soto, a member of Pizarro's campaign, was equipped to the south east of North America.
e73953ae38019f6f3c66441f380041b97c7cb1b5 The French colonialstemissippies divided the possessions of the Spanish crown in Mexico and in Florida.
f92f012605b15218f99344ae090e7c75b8a67bf0 To the north of Florida, the further penetration of the Spaniards was blocked by the British.
fdbbbc13e3cef5f54374620a3bc24e29e290c5ee The steady weakening of Spain, especially since the end of the XVI century, the decline of its military, and above all, naval power, undermined its position.
da0182ae65a52c8382ec6cdb26623c6e0981ec57 The most serious contenders for domination in the American colonies were England, Holland and France.
a6735eefcc1be0b93e7202c8c6cc6471dca6e8b2 The founder of the first Dutch settlement in America, Henry Hudson, built huts for storing furs on Manhattan Island in 1613.
23ac078359c0723e9cd8cd907fd27a96caa43cf6 The city of New Amsterdam (later New York) soon appeared on this place, which became the center of the Dutch colony.
9ddab18232c18b70662a0d3d13d73a907fc64a0a The Dutch colonies, half of whose population were English, soon passed into the possession of England.
631910f1c7ffadb02b269b2afe465c01e422be14 The beginning of French colonization was laid by fishing entrepreneurs.
8c7332613b97084e14e146eb90f8dd573872366c Since 1504, Breton and Norman fishermen began to visit the Newfoundland shoals; the first maps of the American coasts appeared; in 1508, an Indian was brought to France "for show".
409725370d1052e5f0895e69587bbdc17667d32d Since 1524, the French King Francis I sent navigators to the New World for the purpose of further discoveries.
526528ca9f74f3dca4d50fceec0283736e9f289b Especially noteworthy are the voyages of Jacques Cartier, a sailor from Saint Malo (Brittany), who for eight years (1534-1542) explored the vicinity of the Bay of St. St. Lawrence, ascended the river of the same name to the island, named by him Mont Royal (Royal Mountain; now, the city of Montreal), and called the land along the banks of the river New France.
0d443be222e4ddd615966f633d8db426a36dee83 We owe to him the earliest news about the Iroquois tribes of the St. Lawrence River; the sketch and description of the fortified Iroquois village (Oshelaga, or Hohelaga) and the dictionary of Indian words compiled by him are very interesting.
7af66d6c9655bf6a684063347bf0b0fa55d1c0c9 In 1541, Cartier founded the first agricultural colony in the Quebec region, but due to a lack of food supplies, the colonists had to be taken back to France.
f0a1b84b21ee1243bfdb99ef81943d97a6b8633f This was the end of the attempts of the French colonization of North America in the XVI century.
ec27b4bc27ebddd81a840b46a67084a9d42c122f They resumed later — a century later.
5431e6845f82c96a91e6c56135418fad134e273f Establishment of French colonies in North America
9b2adcca719983c98b4b486b9e28eae3a4284c96 The beginning of English colonization and the first permanent English colonies of the XVII century.
4f38bd2f623af44a47e69fb36f055d6dbd1f41e7 The French colonizers of Canada very soon had competitors in the face of the British.
82aeaf71e5fa27850c58ac20c6beb754252639a7 The British government considered Canada a natural continuation of the British crown's possessions in America, based on the fact that the Canadian coast was discovered by the English Cabot expedition long before the first voyage of Jacques Cartier.
7f959fc755ed97eb6e616b3a8c1a48f1fb8a773c Attempts to establish a colony in North America by the British took place as early as the XVI century, but they were all unsuccessful: the British did not find gold in the North, and the seekers of easy profit neglected agriculture.
dbf5013df3906a19c6ff85d15737816f9daea103 Only at the beginning of the XVII century. the first real agricultural English colonies appeared here.
3ee69c4ed17fa2ac6d34004bbf450aece5cab986 The beginning of the mass settlement of the English colonies in the XVII century. opened a new stage of colonization of North America.
6040e72d5c6de5b9e4874e867ed386fdf8fd92ea The development of capitalism in England was associated with the success of foreign trade and the creation of monopolistic colonial trading companies.
0e6e298320d37525c0aca53566c1963ffdca96d3 For the colonization of North America by subscribing to shares, two trading companies were formed that had large funds: London (South.,. or Varginsky) and Plymouth (North); royal charters placed at their disposal lands between 34 and 41° S. S. and unlimited into the interior of the country, as if these lands belonged not to the Indians, but to the government of England.
a901252f2988103b7b6b512cb9c119391cd4dffe The first charter for the establishment of a colony in America was received by Sir Humphrd D. Kilbert.
28c4633dce7a4bdcb47d9f8335804d3ea1a308c5 He conducted a preliminary expedition to Newfoundland and was wrecked on the way back.
af585c835d93af09c6015fddf612d737f9fda94e Gilbert's rights passed to his relative, Sir Walter Raleigh, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth.
2c5e44a7879d1cfe80380a4c13e5fca19e5ef770 In 1584, Reilly decided to establish a colony in the area south of the Chesapeake Bay and named it Virginia in honor of the" virgin queen " (Latin virgo — girl).
c6a9f762351c5412c0186367c20ee10d5ec66fc4 The following year, a group of colonists went to Virginia, settling on the island of Roanoke (in the current state of North Carolina).
9fcc265047fa523fe3c89330e2ea0d6437719da2 A year later, the colonists returned to England, as the chosen place turned out to be harmful to health.
7b87145d854d25e743fd18869c75ecf7ad6bdb5b Among the colonists was the famous artist John White.
a5b26875ab4cefcf1407f3d35197e00afbc8465e He made many sketches from the life of local Algoikin Indians.1 The fate of the second group of colonists who arrived in Virginia in 1587 is unknown.
6f53fd3b08a240a70ca34d8c2a13318bac3c0a14 At the beginning of the XVII century, Walter Reilly's project to create a colony in Virginia was carried out by a commercial Virginia company, which expected large revenues from this enterprise.
f28163a4b3b3f0e9a0899d2389241b9a975af8f1 The company, at its own expense, delivered immigrants to Virginia, who were obliged to work out their debt for four to five years.
5b237c44d978c3371b3e1bb296565b91b8c6ab7b The place for the colony (Jamestown), founded in 1607, was chosen unsuccessfully — swampy, with a lot of mosquitoes, unhealthy.
ed6817ccb300ddbecf444121d3f200ac17f2c78c In addition, the colonists very soon turned the Indians against them.
2f109af8faa8d6d5adce8da394346a384a1752cb Diseases and skirmishes with the Indians in a few months claimed two thirds of the colonists.
04b78e9999b5a048063164a6450e6d090149c520 Life in the colony was built in a military way.
c1d5b6390c77b887fed10a2ae532eb2457ebfe64 Twice a day, the colonists were gathered by drumming and marching, sent to the fields to work, and every evening they also returned to Jamestown for lunch and for prayer.
cc2681373c07a9cd50c3412c00691c3242640ce4 Since 1613, the colonist John Rolfe (who married the daughter of the chief of the Powhatan tribe — "princess" Pocahontas) began to cultivate tobacco.
c4595b6ec7889e490a7ae66a07118c189fd3c812 Since that time, tobacco has long been an item of income for the colonists and even more so for the Virginia Company.
c2ccec116047f0c79f7bf8921e9f52bd52be2c38 Encouraging immigration, the company gave the colonists land plots.
e839f1806da9459086852c10ad968cb7d802c206 The poor, who worked out the cost of the way from England to America, also received an allotment, for which they made payments to the owner of the land in a firmly fixed amount.
f9fb2e13896bab2443e91dfcc06205321d229e96 Later, when Virginia became a royal colony (1624), and when its management passed from the company into the hands of a governor appointed by the king, with the presence of censored representative institutions, this duty turned into a kind of land tax.
45a33dd7d882fbf5d10cc2e15a9a424810953a59 The immigration of the poor soon increased even more.
ac533283c71ec436d09993fc4f9b6acfd1a50c88 If in 1640 there were 8 thousand inhabitants in Virginia, then in 1700 there were 70 thousand..1 In another English colony — Maryland, founded in 1634, Lord Baltimore immediately after the foundation of the colony introduced the allotment of land to colonists planters, large entrepreneurs.
b0f291ceaca04c0190b97c42ac95e50bcf955a60 Both colonies specialized in tobacco cultivation and therefore depended on imported English goods.
9571becb53382ea881f76ea6ccd2df1fddac6753 The main labor force on the large plantations of Virginia and Maryland were the poor people exported from England.
8702de134ff8b1a19ab001e0d432cd8f39966fb8 Throughout the XVII century.
24b178ec0c01cc3d1c9b51ca0ad8368df925c58f "indentured servants," as these poor people were called, who were obliged to work out the cost of the way to America, made up the majority of immigrants to Virginia and Maryland.
75c3347218f03df98ea2743164cbb0b95d873424 Very soon, the labor of bonded servants was replaced by the slave labor of Negroes, who began to be imported to the southern colonies from the first half of the XVII century. (the first large batch of slaves was delivered to Virginia in 1619),
9f3917cba0e6790fa6960ac61d71c4a8e58d6d82 Since the XVII century, free settlers appeared among the colonists.
b59e0bc96f52021b19b0f487543a7c5ecbfab617 The English Puritans — "pilgrim fathers", some of whom were sectarians who fled from religious persecution at home, went to the northern Plymouth colony.
f3247ddfb7e2f01838cc7d7ebecf2f6094a9304d In this party there were settlers who belonged to the Brownist sect.2 Leaving Plymouth in September 1620, the ship "May flower" ("May flower") with the pilgrims arrived at Cape Cod in November.
fe97ffd85c85cc48ac42b84c7325ec1f4d21d3f8 In the first winter, half of the colonists died: the settlers mostly townspeople—did not know how to hunt, cultivate the land, or fish.
845b913575c9a7d414fb191d3a8a973da166d3e9 With the help of the Indians, who taught the settlers how to grow corn, the rest of them eventually not only did not die of hunger, but even paid off their debts for their passage on the ship.
f1f39bc32049b4dc9b9e902327341d86385a5063 The colony founded by sectarians from Plymouth was called New Plymouth.
7049e14759dedf6e42fc7ae230bb8d1caca54b0a In 1628, the Puritans, who suffered oppression during the reign of the Stuarts, founded the colony of Massachusetts in America.
efce43848eecbc9ae1b41b484c808e536b7259c0 The Puritan church enjoyed great power in the colony.
8cba2a29be1b2493874a1032d1406d488b14db6d A colonist received the right to vote only if he belonged to the Puritan church and had good reviews of the preacher.
18ef6e86c82bf256e28d386a3414e4599777e213 In this order, only one fifth of the adult male population of Massachusetts had the right to vote.
3acb1b6f11a818b78a334cdc94cf187597ac762a During the years of the English Revolution, aristocratic emigrants ("cavaliers") began to arrive in the American colonies, who did not want to put up with the new, revolutionary regime in their homeland.
933edc75d9009899e5659c07de667201a9be149a These colonists settled mainly in the southern colony (Virginia).
8553abb1af60b6e49219a12de2429c2bfda1da17 In 1663, eight courtiers of Charles II received a gift of land south of Virginia, where the colony of Carolina was founded (later divided into Southern and Northern).
05ac3f2772300369581b3c18896e80ec291595b0 Tobacco culture, which enriched the large landowners of Virginia, spread to the neighboring colonies.
88e3dad31fb325238fa61609c693ef440acdf499 However, in the Shenandoah Valley, in western Maryland, and also south of Virginia— in the swampy areas of South Carolina — there were no conditions for growing tobacco; rice was grown there, as in Georgia.
c8d797613061a22905677838f03a658d28b1e08c The owners of Carolina made plans to make a fortune on the cultivation of sugar cane, rice, hemp, flax, the production of indigo, silk, i.e. goods that are scarce in England, imported from other countries.
ce88ceda03f8df10bfdb871fc2299c78c04d0631 In 1696, the Madagascar rice variety was imported to Carolina.
7ef6d39e7364484d94ae1bd4bd36062291284c10 Since then, its cultivation has become the main occupation of the colony for a hundred years.
60484834e8fddcfc871db64027213a51abe0a29e Rice was grown in riverine marshes and on the seashore.
2b277d2a2afac52004202e0188e58fe363385e6c The hard work under the scorching sun in the malarial swamps was shouldered by the Negro slaves, who in 1700 made up half of the population of the colony.
2f5675d9cca76b180f4f20563ff51a0de0547810 In the southern part of the colony (now the state of South Carolina), slavery took root even more than in Virginia.
a1f0888f3470e98b08c0e9c9f515082cfb25a711 Large plantation slaveholders, who owned almost all the land, had rich houses in Charleston — the administrative and cultural center of the colony.
e37b19a72f0705a8dfe3b810614bbbf488f64aac In 1719, the heirs of the first owners of the colony sold their rights to the English Crown.
02423a5a4f06c8390f2473145b8fb0ae85e9f0eb North Carolina was of a different character, inhabited mainly by Quakers and refugees from Virginia — small farmers who were hiding from debts and excessive taxes.
55a570de0a176bea688894e3aff3e71391db69e6 There were very few large plantations and few slaves there.
24b08fc319b997b8cd5421d52d36a72a23784fa3 North Carolina became a crown colony in 1726.
af0cacb5ac763e060bd58a160f93c2d4cd367c5b In all these colonies, the population was mainly replenished by immigrants from England, Scotland and Ireland.
7d8ccaab8eb56f7219f9e361fe4afa65c1f8256d The population of the colony of New York (formerly the Dutch colony of New Netherlands) with the city of New Amsterdam (now New York) was much more diverse.
509b4d2ed47e4d63941b15646083d11b43bf071a After the capture of this colony by the British, it was received by the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II of England.
07f9608ae9f4ec852a22ec7e28dce4b314f9456a At that time, there were no more than 10 thousand inhabitants in the colony, but they spoke 18 different languages.
3fe257a62164ca8297544f28100aa5aba5e0df8e Although the Dutch did not make up the majority, Dutch influence in the American colonies was great, rich Dutch families enjoyed great political weight in New York.
2b14ddf03df8dac8adb66ee8cc728ebea762a4b9 Traces of this influence remain to this day: Dutch words have entered the language of Americans; the Dutch architectural style has left its imprint on the appearance of American cities and towns.
743ece44ee57cf7deb37d2533be6e8c38ebd417e The English colonization of North America was carried out on a large scale.
82dfaaad54db85bb9c15e65dc45ea45374927f5b America seemed to the poor in Europe to be the promised land, where one could find salvation from the oppression of large landowners, from religious persecution, from debts.
e04815abeaa5880bca4b5942ae4ea2d50ed1681c Entrepreneurs recruited immigrants to America; they did not limit themselves to this, they organized real raids, their agents got people drunk in taverns and sent those recruited in a drunken state to ships.
4be903688423f1fa2dc948b3da3048b0a392f4d9 English colonies emerged one after another.1 The population in them increased very quickly.
4d250d7c5ba461ead87e2d780e38d184f0382cfb The agrarian revolution in England, accompanied by the mass landless settlement of the peasantry, drove out of the country a lot of robbed poor people who were looking for an opportunity to get land in the colonies.
284b804192d6701edeab84b37468c303f9feb7ee In 1625, there were only 1980 colonists in North America, in 1641— 50 thousand immigrants from England alone.2 According to other sources, in 1641 there were only 25 thousand colonists in the English colonies.3 After 50 years, the population has grown to 200 thousand.4.
f5a8c1e2a2436005a136ff750ed9fef5a1ab6121 In 1760 it reached 1695 thousand.
e3071ad1c8c0b2718afb449024f2e829772f9369 (of these, 310 thousand negroes are slaves)5, and in five years the number of colonists has almost doubled.
9c3a65da038d653ff9661576ddb24297a81bc78e The colonists waged a war of extermination against the owners of the country — the Indians, taking away their land.
063986cb38ef733a91ca39884a1a7a2f6eeb7cb6 In just a few years (1706-1722), the tribes of Virginia were almost completely exterminated, despite the "kinship" ties that connected the most powerful of the leaders of the Virginia Indians with the British.
ca6cd1e8c07ea8c4d4c7ae63a1fd4d78b9e24873 In the north, in New England, the Puritans resorted to other means: they acquired land from the Indians through "trade deals".
7b14c323b467004661675cda6f79ba009ec1d9d2 Subsequently, this gave rise to official historiographers to assert that the ancestors of the Anglo Americans did not encroach on the freedom of the Indians and did not seize, but bought their lands, concluding contracts with the Indians.
c6e0842f4c984aaedec9204ba6b864e918746177 For a handful of gunpowder, a bunch of beads, etc., it was possible to "buy" a huge plot of land, and the Indians, who did not know private property, usually remained unaware of the essence of the transaction concluded with them.
78bb5d7b961d273faa2cd22ca5d36c652cbe7fbe In the Pharisaic consciousness of their legal rightness, the settlers expelled the Indians from their lands; if they did not agree to leave the land chosen by the colonists, they were exterminated.
9959348c9dbe36ed14efc5a51d077b06a42e6053 The religious fanatics of Massachusetts were particularly ferocious.
98dbece633eb292a2b9b1f36409d64e09397756e The church preached that the slaughter of Indians was pleasing to the Lord God.
d6b27dd7b2dc2a113721fe01b1f1b5f78ace8e08 In the manuscripts of the XVII century. it is reported that a certain pastor, hearing about the destruction of a large Indian village, from the church pulpit praised God for the fact that six hundred pagan "souls"were sent to hell on that day.
34d7a13bc1daf69d52fc31d4b88a5622c6e3d44a The shameful page of colonial policy in North America was represented by the awards for scalps ("scalp bounty").
0319659bde0495179f5e28f158f5a38a2495edbe As shown by historical and ethnographic studies (Georg Friederitsi), the philistine opinion that the custom of scalping has long been very widespread among the Indians of North America is completely wrong.
17dabc722320bfc375639809c486e7b7e6355156 This custom was previously familiar only to a few tribes of the eastern regions, but it was also used relatively rarely among them.
9508880541e85f226e14909d900d7590fd4f31db It was only with the arrival of the colonialists that the barbaric custom of scalping really began to spread more and more widely.
1d4b1aa38175cc10fb191d456cc9bcf1f5d81016 The reason for this was primarily the intensification of internecine wars fomented by the colonial authorities; wars, with the introduction of firearms, became much more bloody, and the spread of iron knives made it easier to cut the scalp (previously wooden and bone knives were used).
a88d5fe168bdcec79af4c94cdff29cb50e6087a5 The colonial authorities directly and directly encouraged the spread of the custom of scalping, assigning bonuses for the scalps of enemies both Indians and whites, their rivals in colonization.
601a7eab80258b6603f32492fccc0f12adbd3789 The first prize for scalps was awarded in 1641 in the Dutch colony of New Netherlands: 20 m of wampum1 for each Indian scalp (a meter of wampum was equal to 5 Dutch guilders).
9346efb48c347e4b0350aaf0d7cfe23459d02a43 Since then, for more than 170 years (1641-1814), the administration of individual colonies has repeatedly appointed such bonuses (expressed in English pounds, in Spanish and American dollars).
39770333d1332a837759a7a338c7613fd6c030ef Even Quaker Pennsylvania, which was famous for its relatively peaceful policy towards the Indians, in 1756 allocated 60 thousand pounds. art. specifically for bonuses for the scalps of Indians.
8b63a07d61b41a1a762493c614986b5ca8280601 The last prize was offered in 1814 in the territory of Indiana.
64415a2fac7e377355e8e8d47aeb0ef2ff0ff9aa Some exception to the cruel policy of exterminating the Indians was, as mentioned above, Pennsylvania a colony that was founded in 1682 by a rich Quaker, the son of an English admiral, William Penn for his like minded people who were persecuted in England.
6a59017dbdfff9fa32350babd4d48cc4040b0f01 Penn sought to maintain friendly relations with the Indians who continued to live in the colony.
4ef23f28187e13391adf9a5f1b81642f66a208e7 However, when the wars between the English and French colonies began (1744-1748 and 1755-1763), the Indians who had formed an alliance with the French became involved in the war and were forced out of Pennsylvania.
e2c0121cb1602d092e9880a4918d07b99704107a In American historiography the colonization of America most often appears as if the Europeans colonized "vacant land", i.e. the territories, not actually populated индейцами1.
e7a4809c105af3264d3c7c79d1d2d167027bf46c In fact, North America, and the Eastern part in particular was, in conditions of economic activity of the Indians, quite densely populated (in the XVI century on the territory of the present United States was inhabited by about 1 million Indians).
5bfce1119d135fb70c28deb8574d829cf8bf546b The Indians, who were engaged in hunting and slash and burn agriculture, needed large land spaces.
f1099b1c9f554ccd6c7c48549a7488679e0a3fe7 By driving the Indians off the land, "buying" land plots from them, the Europeans doomed them to death.
3b6c034dab96c4a33853477ea7a63a6cc861a99b Naturally, the Indians resisted as best they could.
801b68caf4764ee15d3257f332b7504144ee3ab4 The struggle for land was accompanied by a number of Indian uprisings, of which the so — called "war of King Philip" (Indian name Metacom), a talented leader of one of the coastal Algonquin tribes, is especially famous.
6bcde73f8216b2a05b51b7eba890123e89a0e63c In 1675-1676.
505e67f9c5149c04068f6c69fe1b03d2a564a062 Metacom raised many tribes of New England, and only the betrayal of a group of Indians saved the colonists.
1c3c107e98eff4a4bb5e5d8a01ec8d6e94f4bfdf By the first quarter of the XVIII century, the coastal tribes of New England and Virginia were almost completely exterminated.
75afd1f00f35d0275da612752a9f9c690a6f5afd The relations of the colonists with the local Indians were not always hostile.
5e0194b24cec4899415dce4b985050d18dbca33f Ordinary people poor farmers very often maintained good neighborly relations with them, adopted the experience of the Indians in agriculture, learned from them to adapt to local conditions.
d9bfb4bc638af692e0395e36bb6571fc98a33618 So, in the spring of 1609, the colonists of Jamestown learned how to grow corn from captured Indians.
676d3ac990308b3980e7ee97964baa88cc2fb4b1 The Indians set fire to the forest and planted corn mixed with beans between the charred trunks, fertilizing the soil with ash.
ca11b3b4f44fc51a315becb276620f55b5137885 They carefully tended the crops, hoed the sprouted corn and destroyed weeds.
a06eabeba508d103ec20ec4b1493ca7e03a0de07 Indian corn saved the colonists from starvation.
9642063fafe22d4d85ea38d908d4ed1c870e2fb9 The inhabitants of New Plymouth were no less indebted to the Indians.
3ef63106f20ba6719f71b9a5139653ad1c76ad5d After spending the first difficult winter, during which half of the settlers died, in the spring of 1621 they cleared the fields left by the Indians and sowed 5 acres of English wheat and peas as an experiment, and 20 acres — under the leadership of one Indian — corn.
035e7d576a59ebd5726651bbdede28916763adbb Wheat did not take birth, but corn sprang up, and since then, throughout the colonial period, it has been the main agricultural crop in New England.
bc5ca94f88e5398eb36ac6092c6d322207de7495 Later, the colonists achieved good wheat harvests, but it did not displace corn.
f82321127152eb10f4acd9b9c675184a2ba982da Like the Indians, the English colonists stewed meat with grain and vegetables, fried corn kernels, and ground the grain into flour using wooden Indian knives._stulami. Traces of many borrowings from Indian cuisine are reflected in the language and food of Americans.
8740d10a1ab665c97a0fc8c68c6a7575a9b6c9ce So, in the American language there are a number of names of corn dishes: pone (corn tortilla), homini (hominy), maga (porridge made of corn flour), hasti pudding ("improvised" flour custard pudding), hald korn (shelled corn), sakkotash (a dish made of corn, beans and pork)2.
9ad09288f277f724fe593933bd7a33f1b7158030 In addition to corn, European colonists borrowed from the Indians the culture of potatoes, groundnuts, pumpkins, zucchini, tomatoes, some varieties of cotton and beans.
b212998a6c3a2f7a30ca4446f70ed5aafce3b3f1 Many of these plants were exported by Europeans from Central and South America in the XVII century. to Europe, and then get to North America.
6f446b4db623f65ed7be92194f4166a3a810a927 This was the case, for example, with tobacco.
abefac211f1b236630e45ce4f7d6167581803866 The Spaniards, the first Europeans to adopt the custom of smoking tobacco from the Indians, appropriated the monopoly of its sale.
8c3699b779e5ca038154737e24e1e41611aaac9b The colonists of Virginia, as soon as the problem of food was solved, began to experiment with local varieties of tobacco.
45a65250334cc55aec3e7dd02aca7ac59fb9a1c5 But since they were not very good, they sowed all the fertile lands in the colony free from corn and other cereals with tobacco from the island of Trinidad.
be847986fc68515d9e7eba30298780b4cd417e2a In 1618, Virginia sent tobacco to England for 20 thousand pounds, in 1629 — for 500 thousand pounds.
9e1cb49cc876caa8fdc96a7176c2f664c713a152 Tobacco in Virginia during these years served as a means of exchange: taxes and debts were paid with tobacco, the first thirty suitors of the colony paid for brides brought from Europe in the same "currency".
492e68ec2465318ce91eac8a0a382e12239c43cc Three groups of English colonies
37297856911474f09497fbb179a9279757150474 But the nature of production and the social structure of the English colonies can be divided into three groups.
1044a8f845a28ec4db6be84f2a674ba3dd360cd2 Plantation slavery developed in the southern colonies (Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina, Georgia).
c0a58ba26945fb6c362ac6c41394dd5651625635 There were large plantations that belonged to the landed aristocracy, more connected by origin and economic interests with the aristocracy of England than with the bourgeoisie of the northern colonies.
4023cc31a224305dc2435e03aecbdbc3ac31d73d Most of all, goods were exported to England from the southern colonies.
65406220d1c1034ebb80373a186a80c3ee6f21d8 The use of slave labor of Negroes and the labor of" bonded servants " has become very widespread here.
e5aca3d3ae9d7a36d1fd370d0d249e0b38d864d1 As you know, the first Negro slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619; in 1683 there were already 3 thousand slaves and 12 thousand slaves.
af4d08266a4fd626626cbabf430ae7f0fc1b1d29 "bonded servants"1.
91a433372020e40eb33218fff613bd08718f345a After the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), the English government received a monopoly on the slave trade.
b10e6a0d4a1a156d5206a6fe90fe5850d79b8301 Since that time, the number of Negro slaves in the southern colonies has been increasing more and more.
5196a775ac38bf12b90d1d2efa117fb4cc9bed10 Before the Revolutionary War, there were twice as many blacks in South Carolina as whites.
22c608d09156ad9459fd70b313fbe8ab6e517729 At the beginning of the XVIII century. in all the English colonies of North America there were 60 thousand, and by the beginning of the War of Independence — about 500 thousand negro slaves.2 The southerners specialized in the cultivation of rice, wheat, indigo and, especially in the early years of colonization, tobacco.
cc9cea4f8564b5c99a4572e9c1c3c3a17a773476 Cotton was also known, but its production before the invention of the cotton gin (1793) played almost no role.
3cb327ea903fe580377e5b2f6372484a0ec30e14 Tenants who rented land on the basis of sharecropping, mining or for money settled next to the planter's extensive lands.
e15784580868ddd5762e0c78e57d7a54ac0e9d2f Plantation farming required extensive land, and the seizure of new land was proceeding at an accelerated pace.
3e5de9c23271e8addb5c318953523941892b31c8 In the northern colonies, united in 1642, in the year of the outbreak of the English Civil War, in one colony — New England (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut), Puritan colonists prevailed.
3991d96e52297e1be37894ce6c90673ee01c7ff1 The New England colonies located along the rivers and near the bays remained isolated from each other for a long time.
b0393a940029743c8547c01b90f71b78888fc2b6 The settlement went along the rivers connecting the coast with the interior of the continent.
6fcba4230687d321e9c46804614a24730b7f53e6 Zahv more and more large territories were being developed.
d0211b0d10c3d54f501a24fba32595a6d9c279f3 The colonists settled in small settlements organized on a communal basis, initially with periodic redistribution of arable land, then only with a general pasture.
df733c5fb34961a13e41762386e5842061ebf9e9 In the northern colonies, small scale farming land ownership was formed, and slavery did not spread.
9e074fa05cb4f6ffde0e1c460fa6e6cfd4e9a11d Shipbuilding, fish and timber trade were of great importance.
3f3a15a7570cc342c828eda185273fa97982234b Maritime trade and industry developed, and the industrial bourgeoisie grew, interested in the freedom of trade restricted by England.
7eaa150fe287072784eae835178d9f81e7e565c2 The slave trade became widespread.
47448aca2fa6a032793e27480ad0be04865a50cc But even here, in the northern colonies, the rural population was the overwhelming majority, and the townspeople kept cattle for a long time, had vegetable gardens.
a26496e32ce839729aa07a0aa18fbfd2400e6098 In the middle colonies (New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania), a farm that produced grain crops or specialized in raising livestock developed on fertile lands.
14a58ca2cfe7dbdbcd4daa207a72eafd8d4b71e4 In New York and New Jersey, large scale land ownership was more widespread than in others, and the owners of the land leased it out in sections.
fd6ef16f1a6abe54217762598aa276e59ac7135a In these colonies, settlements were of a mixed nature: small towns in the Hudson Valley and Albany and large land holdings in Pennsylvania and in parts of the colonies of New York and New Jersey.
b74ea7abc27b03881fab96211138e95229862f27 Thus, several ways of life have long coexisted in the English colonies: capitalism at the manufacturing stage, closer to the English than, for example, to the Prussian or Russian of the same time; slavery as a way of manufacturing capitalism until the XIX century, and then (before the war of the North with the South) — in the form of plantation slavery in capitalist society; feudal relations in the form of remnants; patriarchal way of life in the form of small scale farming (in the mountainous western regions of the North and South), among which, although capitalist stratification occurred with less force than among the farmers of the eastern regions.
32cc9d7b21e003038ae5c16de3214be41faf0655 All the processes of the development of capitalism in North America took place in the peculiar conditions of the presence of significant masses of free farming.
b68d1b28484270e55c16fc48ecf46aa6b8e3b765 In all three economic regions, into which the English colonies were divided, two zones were created: the eastern one, which had been inhabited for a long time, and the western one, the border strip with the Indian territories — the so called "frontier" (frontier).
cf1534bb0a9f1ed9140d9125706528809f0f73e4 The border was continuously retreating to the west.
6d5fb940388b84338f57491efc8ee93ac17d3e01 In the XVII century. it passed along the Alleghany Ridge, in the first quarter of the XIX century.
2a7ac4017365346fb6aa0b8bad6848e3ca97eab0 - already on the Mississippi River.
31a350db93938c3ce9c931616cf9e34f885fff6b The inhabitants of the "border" led a life full of dangers and a difficult struggle with nature, which required great courage and cohesion.
68f94808431ca5bfc33d565492fd0c6ecf5472a5 These were "bonded servants" who had fled from the plantations, farmers who were oppressed by large landowners, urban people who were fleeing from taxes and religious intolerance of sectarians.
3dbebe999a18007a65859900d1384282fd8f50e4 The unauthorized seizure of land (squatting) was a special form of class struggle in the colonies.
2612cf6d7e223d4d28230f460a9bdbfad8833b41 The discovery of Oceania.
d50c4eb32a8733f61e44dedafac94745f2dd2fe6 The first voyages.
d7b5c9af99b6d50d566f0a658dc9433c7c14563f French and English expeditions of the 60-80s of the XVIII century
57fa20f9a3ecaed612eea60970d35b44a36ea9c8 Papuans of New Guinea: natural conditions, history of discovery and colonization
f0ea1e6cca0b5a48cbd8472979fe68ae15aefe05 History of the written language of the peoples of North Africa
a49a6469874ccc7d6d71ff850c3f24fbe2c39867 The Colonial Partition of North Africa
582dc9fd4f7196c700113722779d17db90d62e71
565e2db09bd1141a7c24f2db40ecd3ff5e357f3d Chapter III.
79e25bb4ee584344538052b129da220510aa88f4 The peoples of America before the beginning of European colonization
365d3b40cca83dd9145be1996a8e59dba41c6266 The peoples of America before the beginning of Euro European colonization
7a80b48408e9d48434c91b1813958d895ddcabb4 The history of the peoples of the American continent before their meeting with Europeans in the XVI century developed independently and almost without interaction with the history of the peoples of other continents.
bbdc4009e87bdec4ea1e3423c268bb369e2602a4 Written monuments of ancient America are very scarce, and the available ones have not yet been read.
fadda4263f80fcf8589ed46a49f31a7e285fdb72 Therefore, the history of the American peoples has to be restored mainly from archaeological and ethnographic data, as well as from oral tradition recorded during the period of European colonization.
654d887a76e56eaa455b54779c897c9e79b23981 The development of the vast expanses of the new continent with alien natural conditions, alien flora and fauna presented difficulties for the settlers, overcoming which required great effort and a long time.
8f540f8172bfc6b8493be72c6c2a31c412cb7757 The migration could have begun at the end of the Ice Age, when there was obviously a land bridge between Asia and America on the site of the current Bering Strait.
712a3e814d56fdc913a8095d8e9df2d43a0e3635 In the post glacial era, the migration could also continue by sea.
3153a691f78beb161fc089ab7e0704da15d6a560 Judging by the geological and paleontological data, the settlement of America occurred 25-20 thousand years before our time.
27bb801bd18893586054a85e1ed730c1b77094dc The Eskimos settled along the Arctic coast in the first millennium AD or even later.
2afaaf05cbcb8172b6705b3d73faf3b25d4549b4 The tribes of hunters and fishermen who moved in separate groups, whose material culture stood at the Mesolithic level, moved in search of prey, as can be concluded from archaeological sites, from north to south along the Pacific coast.
af48726cd98fe2aedb47f2513eb2dd347aecbb61 The similarity of some elements of the culture of the indigenous population of South America with the culture of the peoples of Oceania gave rise to the theory of the settlement of the entire American continent from Oceania.
eff656fdf004721060b59869756ce76adae42fd4 There is no doubt that the connections of Oceania with South America in ancient times took place and played a certain role in the settlement of this part of America.
59ec8fcaf39ef8dce420d0f76bcf5308247ae65f However, some similar elements of culture could develop independently, and the possibility of later borrowings is not excluded.
0c5ce95498132d2cd892038077d68e77ed6fb841 For example, the sweet potato culture spread from South America to Oceania, the banana and sugar cane were brought to America from Asia.
dbc217efd7aeaf789ed6ab39ffee9a6bfc037270 Ethnographic and linguistic data indicate that the movements of ancient Indian tribes took place over vast areas, and often the tribes of some language families were settled between the tribes of other language families.
b238367a374e9ede05257a963e5049b1593e80eb The main reason for these migrations was, obviously, the need to increase the land area with extensive farming (hunting, gathering).
747c97e4a0bd46d594b1dd3fe2b1ef4e7b703c31 However, the chronology and specifically the historical situation in which these migrations took place remain as yet unlit.
266b959e4ba0ade9866fbbb25c1f9fbe0e1a1283 1. North America
0c31b1f934219be62ca2f59d9487b797a78c5b71 According to the types of economy and historical and ethnographic community, they were divided into the following groups: coastal hunters and fishermen of the Arctic zone — Eskimos and Aleuts; fishermen and hunters of the northwest coast; hunters of the northern strip of present — day Canada; farmers of the eastern and southeastern parts of North America; bison hunters — prairie tribes; wild seed collectors, fishermen and hunters tribes of California; peoples with developed irrigation agriculture in the southwest and south of North America.
a71ddffa73c3723728a034181442d7246dd51384 A spear thrower was used.
8de51e076574a4a46b0da33b196da8448995a9d2 Fish were caught with fishing rods with bone hooks.
0494d99c25cbde4949a7a3fa870b2d00b232b86d The walrus and the seal provided the Eskimo with almost everything he needed: meat and fat were used for food, fat was also used for heating and lighting the dwelling, leather served to cover the boat, and a canopy was made from it for the inner part of the snow hut.
8349dfba8eefe3d54e3e1ee07ee774f566df2ccf The fur of bears and arctic foxes, the skins of deer and musk ox were used for the manufacture of clothing and shoes.
76e7bdefcce167edbf178ada24f97fd187920fca The Eskimos ate most of their food raw, which protected them from scurvy.
0cbb6cd1f8014ba44d87021bd8f324124b723b7a The name Eskimos comes from the Indian word "eskimantik", which means "eating raw meat".
77f47aa93e48f13ba29b0442cfeec97e2f564c6b The peoples of North America before the European conquest
fc1aaa8ee351201b01836e22880520119c7ecf94 The main source of their existence was fishing; salmon fish was their main food.
a1006f472e73dcfc659c4264bd561ed33044b4bd The lack of plant food was compensated by the collection of wild berries and fruits, as well as algae.
c05f369adeb79b9bfbeb8b248edfe1038b3a732e For each type of fish or marine animals there were special harpoons, darts, spears, nets.
4e725f257c41610bc30bc2240d116c17089c48dd The Tlingit used bone and stone polished tools.
53b9e342ed49cb644456041709232a9977b899c1 Of the metals, they knew only copper, which they found in its native form; it was forged in a cold way.
1147c3e4327292c1202f65870c1d01d09b3a8443 Hammered copper tiles served as a means of exchange.
cf10e91a1229ee10b251837e84d6c2e11b90c4e3 Pottery was not known.
9c63c589f5e121812f75781b025bafbd076551c0 Food was cooked in wooden vessels, throwing hot stones into the water.
498b29f6a3fdaaf9eb69e357b1982dbbec1c2d31 This tribe had neither agriculture nor animal husbandry.
b51d643eadee593435f0fda6657e90228b66efd1 The only tamed animal was a dog, which was used for hunting.
ccc581c939146e79f47cac11dc7e35ac8bf6143d An interesting way in which the Tlingit received wool is that they drove wild sheep and goats into fenced areas, sheared them and set them free again.
e80ed0224d81b5092002aef901b8fe7f4c67b088 Capes were woven from wool, and later shirts were made from woolen fabric.
f8b6244031d75268a60751d54ca68d0405a0ea50 Tlingit residents of the year on the ocean.
e627a9be9c3b4e572602676beb676d0cf4c9756e Here they hunted sea animals, mainly sea otters.
5d64e86180abdaf589176191c16374d722b1aaaa The houses were built of logs cut with stone adze, without windows, with a smoke hole in the roof and a small door.
a45d27d8c33279ec9bb79d07e6be43cf6a5a78e0 In the summer, the Tlingit went up the rivers to catch salmon and gather fruit in the forests.
7e4961907d22e658033b013677235e4e2f4a2787 The Tlingit, like other Indians of the northwest coast, had developed an exchange.
4ab52ce6399dae54a74d9c8dd22321905436a851 Dried fish, ground into powder, fish oil and furs were exchanged for products made of cedar, for spearheads and arrows, as well as for various ornaments made of bone and stone.
d0af087ae149fca617f65afbd0d20931162e3294 Slaves and prisoners of war were also exchanged.
1810cc5ddf98a34dd50357c6523eb5344ff2f053 The main social unit of the northwestern tribes was the clan.
a8a4172bd619229fbcccf5c9627640397fdc2451 The genera, called by the names of totemic animals, were united in phratries.
87fca613451b9b43f258e1d153eb68b1537cfd9f Individual tribes stood at different stages of transition from the maternal to the paternal gens; among the Tlingit at birth, the child received the name of the maternal gens, but in adolescence he was given a second name according to the paternal gens.
3a75d49da76980c74c24f8f0698bb66b92f54b61 At the conclusion of the marriage, the groom worked for the bride's parents for a year or two, then the young ones went to the husband's family.
3e8241cb14abb59b160f7579c62d29d1f076cc1c The particularly close relationship between the maternal uncle and the nephews, the partial inheritance on the maternal side, the relatively free position of a woman all these features indicate that the tribes of the northwest coast retained significant remnants of matriarchy.
ad00320af84e89a8474171fe2b0679cedf2c0f75 There was a household community (barabora), which conducted a common household.
617e4a7ce1babb928baa4feacc27cee00268c41e The development of exchange contributed to the accumulation of surpluses among the elders and leaders.
3f35743a06db15a19ed0a232f7b8cab632bbbf17 Frequent wars and the capture of slaves further increased their wealth and power.
594ab8f83331506e8f2d671406d45c5a68f89cd5 The presence of slavery is a characteristic feature of the social system of these tribes.
4428ff0f386e269aaf8e68f918c047194b09d7da The folklore of the Tlingit, as well as some other northwestern tribes, paints a picture of a rudimentary form of slavery: slaves were in the possession of the entire tribal community, or rather its subdivision, the barabora.
edefd0b207521ba283a6f2d77431dfbe86a25306 Such slaves — several people per barabor performed household chores and participated in fishing.
0433dcefe6343e0682138085c9e6b4a1debf9a1e It was patriarchal slavery with the collective ownership of slaves by prisoners of war; slave labor did not form the basis of production, but played a subsidiary role in the economy.
2f7f05e8f36a84920528af9225ca67f26c641b0b Indians of the eastern part of North America
0df74483869d4afc71e0ff62512cf816015b6025 They made tools from wood, bone and stone, and used native copper, which was processed by cold forging.
6b23f18760ca96ef982e394d774fb944a15c45ac They didnot know about iron.
0d9d876c6f0d8377572eb10e809194a89dee5953 The dwelling of the coastal Algonquian tribes was a wigwam a hut made of the trunks of young trees, the crowns of which were joined together.
9c0bf040f481dd0c1a20cfd1da014316ad213ad4 The dome shaped skeleton formed in this way was covered with pieces of tree bark.
4513c96d959686b44b251cf958bc6d59cc9006a7 The Iroquois lived around Lakes Erie and Ontario and on the Niagara River.
96406ac6bb9079b9a0175de39bb414fe579c82f0 The central part of the territory of the present state of New York was occupied by five Iroquois tribes: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk.
ae8fd56da277d9b996f126c7432740db041a38e2 Each tribe had a special dialect.
9408e8001f39696957d7dfad185f0508cdd19966 The main source of existence of the Iroquois was hoe farming of the slash and burn type.
bfb5b96ad57a15d73223b4509c1da957ec75f8af The Iroquois grew corn (maize), beans, peas, sunflowers, watermelons, zucchini, tobacco.
1de2e51784f765e6d1abb8cc2bacb00c54109842 They collected wild berries, nuts, chestnuts, acorns, edible roots and tubers, mushrooms.
2a286de2d4f2fefe7845eb698814f4a7f45713c1 Their favorite delicacy was maple juice, it was boiled and consumed in the form of molasses or hardened sugar.
3e7ccf3fb636879f84342945089512ed0c8c1ef2 The women sitting in the canoe grabbed bunches of rice stalks, bent them down with ears of corn and, hitting them with sticks, beat the grains that fell to the bottom of the boat.
8c32edf4867d2dad584128ce201fd63a1bffc6e4 The tools of the Iroquois were hoes and axes made of polished stone.
1c88d769b0273d99aeee7ff50ae28e1e120b9e70 Knives and arrowheads and spears were made of native copper.
19d390459f1a7e59df3463d1677af65c3e573ae6 Pottery was developed, although without a potter's wheel.
1a545ca8babe2386362887074beb3516b235e253 For the manufacture of clothing, the Iroquois processed skins, especially deer, making suede.
fa22cde0cc66c93a286519b9f418acd62e451f35 The dwelling of the Iroquois was the so called longhouses.
72b5a6a35c935c08b612728ec76dff1a94e03795 Along the walls there were wide platforms, fenced off on both sides by piers.
075b256a89ac6c4b6d682179955762243ea0efe4 Each married couple had a separate sleeping room about 4 m long, open only to the hearth.
023c504877a766b55609ffa11135dc3b4b7c7529 For every four rooms located opposite each other in pairs, one hearth was arranged, on which food was cooked in a common boiler.
303b407a63b1e9d49d559f1f15f2d6d6461fea05 Usually there were 5-7 hearths in one such house.
97e1550dbc22ede4b03a5b091478370d6d53eabd There were also common storerooms adjacent to the house.
dba16fccd7a79953233ce5c5d2094460527bb085 The "Long House" clearly shows the character of the smallest social unit of the Iroquois — ovachira.
4a2ce93e4dea454623fbd747dc5639ef6f7bdc71 Ovachira consisted of a group of blood relatives, descendants of one ancestress.
443a4b4446856e545a71e2f1deb9252b5d4f8ef8 It was a matriarchal tribal community in which production and consumption were collective.
a4c19d39942d87537ba55950323ec4b689a1f9d3 The land — the main means of production belonged to the family as a whole, the ovachirs used the plots allocated to them.
417da74c3bc581132b6e74efffe4cfbc622ec02d A man who got married went to live in the house of his wife's ovachira and participated in the household work of this community.
8a1cc4193851c4f5aa7c1ac47aa914b3e2830514 At the same time, he continued to maintain his belonging to his ancestral community, performing social, religious and other duties with his relatives.
0919a7dfd17000e614033a3d009e97905cbf7269 The children belonged to ovachira and the mother's family.
c58cc03ebaaab5d659f0554009c9217191076d53 The men hunted and fished together, cut down the forest and cleared the soil, built houses and protected villages from enemies.
b409e0d8a0e989ccaffc425ad0f7cc8b91e1672c Ovachira women worked together on the land, sowed and planted plants, harvested crops and stored supplies in common storerooms.
33a43ce272a0a85853a11065468bfa666342400f Agricultural and household work was managed by the oldest woman, she also distributed food supplies.
5e62772e92dd3bc3cbce8a34b738503718e24333 Hospitality was widespread among the Iroquois.
498af29a977c625a0e234bcf8bc2196658c4c701 There could be no hungry people in an Iroquois village as long as there were supplies left in at least one house.
41ddcd60fa0f23a7fd1114a64e8d8c16889a0e3b All power within ovachira belonged to women.
43ddc232f45a581be88c4b725b153e3f15686edf The head of ovachira was the ruler, who was chosen by women as mothers.
89734cff19b2dca83bbf1be10902cd80b3782a00 In addition to the ruler, the women of the mother chose a military leader and a "foreman for peacetime".
0ffc9e88b641ebcc1ebbd210cbeb1136ec58c6da The latter was called a sachem by European authors, although "sachem" is an Algonquian word and the Iroquois did not use it.
84423a26aaff9ff81c8d123325c6f24e4d1c8c8b The rulers, sachems and military leaders formed the tribal council.
d0765552d996c45f705ef7e4feaee68c5280886e After the colonization of America began, but before the Iroquois came into contact with Europeans, around 1570, five Iroquois tribes formed an alliance: the Iroquois League.
31cd644b1307509114de8702c57e8400cc4fd4d3 Legend attributes its organization to the mythical Hiawatha.
4cf1cce221e03664dd4bb6304100acb4ae05d244 At the head of the League was a council, which was composed of the sachems of the tribes.
186a4cdc17cf8e2d744b0de60c9540a01babf2a1 The council was attended not only by sachems, but also by ordinary members of the tribe.
eeaeb96bcaab1f1e307b66c750e46d99afa63a43 If an important issue had to be resolved, the League's tribes would gather completely.
ad877de54a2f45c8ec39539bb946e5dcbfe87e97 The elders were seated around the fire, the rest were placed around.
6e5649365f20180e4b1d39d360fe96839415aded Everyone could participate in the discussion, but the final decision was made by the League Council; it had to be unanimous.
5f53e1e96c2c493fc8fde32a9e266753b86a02ff The voting was carried out by tribes; each tribe, therefore, had the right of veto.
d92569489e77cf5b93d6018fb997cb98c062dcf4 The discussion was held in strict order, with great solemnity.
8d2c69141033d952df97a680e477ae52a190aea4 The Iroquois League reached its heyday in the 70s of the XVII century.
6bfe16fc700030431eadd415cd7a7f56e3c986b8 Forest Hunting Tribes of Canada
2993b96277691f4a28d50cd366027cd73ae3ad02 The main occupation of these tribes was hunting caribou, elk, bear, wild sheep, etc. Fishing and the collection of wild seeds were of secondary importance.
b499a4aaf31230f92c5581e95dbf44ed3f42fac1 The main weapons of the forest tribes were bows and arrows, clubs, clubs, spears and knives with stone tips.
a5bec4070db1ae5d6e727ad08882407a1215df16 The forest Indians had dogs that were harnessed to wooden useless toboggan sleds; they carried luggage during migrations.
ead814486892cf0ac728e2c3f16d8fb57a8a48d9 In the summer, they used birch bark shuttles.
62d9aec9eb53474a02b2d1cdec49273f3610da48 During the winter, separate groups of hunters moved through the forest, almost without meeting one another.
2f5f36050fa35819bcc2db49f828a20ebe34ebd7 In the summer, groups gathered in the traditional places of summer camps located along the banks of rivers.
e6c88a9e40d248a1c11d8286cc43c9952888e4c2 There was an exchange of hunting products, tools and weapons, and festivals were held here.
526c0f23bdb017732e369271374335d764f76cf9 Thus, intertribal ties were maintained, barter trade developed.
57a3a684f2a2d5292f7ee916e15e4007262c7cd0 Prairie Indians
9878b4accc1c9d5206939ef0104bd8244ec11fc7 The main source of their existence was bison hunting.
dc30d94b411295f4d1e12f126fa7a8316b9ef9fe The bison provided meat and fat for food, fur and leather for clothing and shoes, as well as for covering huts.
3dfb3ecd9dda2ff01c9b9fc59dc4c1c585bbca53 The prairie Indians hunted on foot,
c7dd3c3fa2c93b4271354fc6d297e6f5eaa2148a ( Only in the second half of the XVIII century. the Indians tamed the horse.
5eedaf5748e9e6c9d0e3cfd1420d355743f440dc Once brought by the first colonists from Europe, these animals, partially feral, formed herds of so called mustangs.
12e7b7ca8c9a2c87727056945eb758e317be3f9e The Indians caught and circled them.) with dogs, using a bow and arrow.
cc602c533b4a2010792f1f8b5eca3e0d04b6d87c The hunt was collective.
71c48579ae0639932e2d7b08fb887c10c685413a Individual hunting was prohibited.
39b63913a6caa47a12d529b7caaae553ab502ea6 Those who violated the ban were severely punished.
b0988cb145323982ce42e062deb49b137519f7a8 The battle weapons were bows, spears and maces with a stone top.
a3e0273161f8146f00cc52fc616fb88c4a4e2e77 They used round and oval shields made of bison skin.
88c462fcfce262fc0244b1fd3223da64882dc394 In the camp, which was a temporary settlement, tents were placed in a circle — it was more convenient to repel sudden attacks of enemies.
5a1c6b616453a779313c0270f04d1b20327ee455 A tribal council tent was being erected in the center.
246bf91beac522e3084244ed6f55e7bcb84801d4 The prairie Indians lived in tribes divided into clans.
fa453707a0bcc68bd87eb775e71c8df30184155f At the time of the arrival of Europeans, some tribes still had a matriarchal organization.
5aa0378264f30be6a874300bd5249b41b9c9ccd8 Others have already made the transition to the paternal family.
8c1a60f83c73ff35e626d3df85421cdce8fd9ed5 California Indians
cd0c2c7f39ee92810bf39c3ae89c5b47b8b72e1f They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering.
9e1764d1450532b9561a4ec76ca8311b91d5dd2e The Californians invented a way to remove tannin from the flour of acorns and baked cakes from it; they also learned how to remove poison from the tubers of the so called soap root.
9d4cea44c99acecb613996433650a21125082c0a They hunted deer and small game with a bow and arrow.
e612c42ec1692ded66768f39574dfee3859941d3 Corral hunting was used.
01ef2c2a8ef3442fa9a663f5570c377223a4fc29 The Californians had two types of housing.
8cc4946c5942f9041d174269ac56a5a5c0edbd62 In summer, they lived mainly under canopies made of branches covered with leaves, or in conical huts made of poles covered with bark or branches.
0c7d70e1caf3d96279fb3190ed5cf5400847fb13 In winter, semi underground domed dwellings were built.
e834e37dcdab83d41ebd8aeda85be8c1e0c46767 Californians wove waterproof baskets from young tree shoots or roots, in which they cooked meat and fish: water poured into the basket was brought to a boil by immersing hot stones in it.
6986567aec3a6a6b6e4ad9b14938d644af72e7e9 The Californians were dominated by a primitive communal system.
23373b09b8047192182c74604e22654698f28a61 The tribes were divided into exogamous phratries and clans.
fd87e157fcc5284aea73156a785f8d1689f799d1 The tribal community, as an economic collective, owned a common hunting territory and fishing grounds.
5e72508b545d94b53b3f2e717901172765ca01c5 The Californians retained significant elements of the maternal family: the great role of women in production, the maternal account of kinship, etc.
b38f01e4ed7333ed4e76f6e96b933f7023ce78b7 Indians of the southwest of North America
543017ffd8f1b6c47b2e2430de1b61a14593a1fb The most typical of this group were the Pueblo tribes.
18a1926e478ffbda125ac0bf1fd8f93b90086eb1 Archaeological data allow us to trace the history of the Pueblo Indians to the first centuries of our era.
cd4570ada9890fac2e0ff5b8063c5f7a5062a266 In the VIII century, the Pueblo Indians were already engaged in agriculture and created a system of artificial irrigation.
6f53761360150467f9be8d8e196096f72a6f8cbd They planted corn, beans, pumpkin and cotton.
b2bb76b3a332387bc95edd70a9b14dab2a1466e1 They had developed pottery, but without a potter's wheel.
f4a8046269f9743bc7aaedba0f494c3795d1d7b3 The ceramics were distinguished by the beauty of the form and the richness of the ornament.
ad420e7ea4f1333f740c645d92c21a87886f81dc They used a loom and made fabrics from cotton fiber.
48436f9a8aaf7f2f2a9846ac9c119cc7c985462a The Spanish word "pueblo" means a village, a community.
13a2b17f4f28985603edc4e1b1266592d6b64ad6 The Spanish conquerors named this group of Indian tribes after the villages that struck them, which were one common dwelling.
97d30ded5e1653005cb241ae835ee22266990353 The pueblo's dwelling consisted of a single mud brick structure, the outer wall of which enclosed the entire village, making it inaccessible to attack from outside.
9fbefb618c671a85e2f6e15f57e2fb61f699f629 The living quarters descended in ledges into the fenced yard, forming terraces, so that the roof of the lower row served as a courtyard platform for the upper one.
5ef164ec8f3f392d23f4a62e1884f503e914bb44 Another type of pueblo dwellings are caves dug in the rocks, also descending by ledges.
d051e266c3846f5f0a042e59424085d29d5d9646 Up to a thousand people lived in each of these villages.
d9b8dad8cf48b998d06b7902fa7a687a84e174d5 In the middle of the XVI century, during the invasion of the Spanish conquerors, the pueblo villages were communities, each of which had its own territory with irrigated lands and hunting grounds.
72d9d128c6796e5bc909e5ba76097102e551b165 The cultivated land was distributed among the genera.
4643a9ee61d1d2060eb72e8f03a0a3c7b235ba6b In the XVI—XVII centuries, the maternal family still prevailed.
0dded31a9ebea74062c444e5ea21a340078ab4a6 At the head of the family was the "oldest mother", who, along with the male military leader, regulated intra natal relationships.
fd8d88b0c57524ffc2d685cb6aaac5f2e2ab2389 The household was conducted by a consanguineous group consisting of the female head of the group, her single and widowed brothers, her daughters, as well as the husband of this woman and the husbands of her daughters.
3859944d101646f7c712fc2794b2255662dcd8a3 The household used the plot of ancestral land allocated to it, as well as the granary.
f74d1b6c92bf460338b7c7e9d98085f47fdeb531 Spiritual culture of the Indians of North America
3e037c6cdb7a7e12d9a6e9edc76e7b1f161abe7c The dominance of tribal relations was also reflected in the religion of the Indians — in their totemic beliefs.
dc050d91c0d0e9c8e90e0e785f638176b689a1d7 The word" totem "in the Algonquin language literally meant "his kind".
ea1e52a58278c2ee1c3c3e5aa2e8969fd2376017 The totem was considered to be animals or plants, after which the genera were named.
0fafe61402d6ca3ffdeeeac5da05500032ddada4 Totems were considered as if they were relatives of members of this genus, having a common origin with them from mythical ancestors.
601ffd1da8fdf4653f3c0250e456dd1926ad4ce0 The beliefs of the Indians were permeated with animistic ideas.
ef9270141191a2687051b31f922914dad37b89d7 The more developed tribes had a rich mythology; from the host of nature spirits, the supreme spirits were distinguished, to whom the control of the world and the destinies of people was attributed.
1cc07a1fcb5541a09be0dc6675ec8908198fbbcc Shamanism dominated the cult practice.
2cbdeb5f7660664e25dd0aca917e9230de7d97f6 The Indians knew the starry sky, the location of the planets well and were guided by them in their travels.
30dccd4aebbb63cda76d376589f2eb523ba068b8 After studying the surrounding flora, the Indians not only consumed wild plants and fruits for food, but also used them as medicines.
2384599466c2544f2d50bbc9f5fb8d65ad4dc7e5 The modern American pharmacopoeia borrowed a lot from traditional Indian medicine.
fe7f973471a0acba0506023f07ad3100e08bfada The artistic creativity of the North American Indians, in particular their folklore, was very rich.
c3172c57fb74410de066f704793f1a95f47ac499 In fairy tales and songs, nature and the life of the Indians were poetically depicted.
a2bfbe9f0398fc07c95f475695e38a479b3a8398 Although the heroes of these legends were often animals and forces of nature, but their life was drawn by analogy with human society.
4c32eeaacf19f3526facc6211ede0279ca72ec64 In addition to poetic works, the Indians also had historical legends that were told by the elders at meetings.
846d1f4bea942d3bd674364b97d38d4a5ccd6824 Among the Iroquois, for example, when approving a new sachem, one of the elders told the audience about the events of the past.
c403e8d8158d3c92655aefe30b777b26a26b2851 During the story, he was sorting through the bundles of white and purple beads, carved from shells, fastened in the form of wide strips or sewn in the form of a pattern on strips of fabric.
8ed70df354a6d37d1300b449979a1e0c64896949 These stripes, known to Europeans by the Algonquian name wampum, were usually used as ornaments.
3200995973693914dc67511fef24292666b335d3 They were worn in the form of belts or shoulder straps.
0ef44faa5bf5cbad54ad37bc2a41dbd8479465b7 But wampum also played the role of a mnemonic tool: while telling, the speaker ran his hand along the pattern formed by the beads, and as if he recalled distant events.
08fb96b87717a0d992a5d67b3fdc0ee3fbd59a01 Wampum was also transmitted through messengers and ambassadors to neighboring tribes as a sign of authority, served as a kind of symbol of trust and an obligation not to break promises.
ee82263495bb365e35a35d582ebc0578acb1fca1 The Indians developed a system of conventional signs with which they transmitted messages.
910092bd4002a50d4444d43a8407b0fed6b05fe0 By signs carved on the bark of trees or made up of branches and stones, the Indians gave the necessary information.
0f8db8032a80e83306777b7c8a2a88b9e3a37eac Messages were transmitted over a long distance with the help of bonfires, smoking during the day, burning with a bright flame at night.
bc61f4cba97ef7862e32dfb7d0e1539e1e61aa07 The peak of the spiritual culture of the Indians of North America was their rudimentary writing pictography, picture writing.
d81c1d886b70c6bacea9bce0be0df37311f25564 Dakota made chronicles or calendars drawn on leather; the drawings conveyed in chronological order the events that occurred in a given year.
624ed5309a04662cdcdbbc6a66300c8cf44e6aa4 2. South and Central America, Mexico
035764f794a948a64355bb25779167f87442f3b5 Vast areas of South America were inhabited by tribes with primitive technology, belonging to various language families.
5f52ae81440fb27824b5e9353bab8baf0fec15de Such were the fishermen and gatherers of Tierra del Fuego, the hunters of the steppes of Patagonia, the so called Pampas, the hunters and gatherers of eastern Brazil, the hunters and farmers of the forests of the Amazon basin and the Orinoco.
40216e4fe48f83e069e8860d14874eebc7773fd3 The peoples of South America before the European conquest
30a0976bb26ba4a4059494cda81abe6ae4a0c5b2 Ognezemeltsy
aef9630e602ec5a9685721f3a9db3d91ff578951 The Ognezemeltsy were among the most backward tribes in the world.
b37bd8ecc79b9affecf3affd91b895183e286c27 Three groups of Indians lived in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago: Selknam (she), Alakalufs, Yamana (Yagans).
6f66a8134185a9d6e04164f79dbfd307e4bda4e4 The Selknam lived in the northern and eastern parts of Tierra del Fuego.
4c841e3ca9ef71361cd36e869e784efd7879b632 They hunted the guanaco llama and collected the fruits and roots of wild plants.
3c2efb1d89b5b1dc515c59928801f1725fa93699 Their weapons were bows and arrows.
b590bc4bbde0679a3103fcd13e36b33145dcb103 On the islands of the western part of the archipelago, alakalufs lived, engaged in fishing and collecting shellfish.
081103c10e817dc8191453fa6295f56598e1440e In search of food, they spent most of their lives in wooden boats, moving along the shores.
3feae5664315b5b032e3766f04c905cfe9da9d9f A smaller role in their life was played by hunting birds with a bow and arrow.
47f9b9c643759b53e4b02d5c3ed583a96b9ae71b Yamana lived by collecting shellfish, fishing, hunting seals and other marine animals, as well as birds.
00f5298a37c93f4efe92ec859ae5affea2fdd0b1 Their tools were made of bone, stone and shells.
248a092409335db8421e1ae594a2e426583d622f A bone harpoon with a long belt served as a weapon for sea fishing.
23e5e8171f27969a25369f53aa06471dba2ca341 Yamana lived in separate clans called Ukur.
62ff679d907572d3ba6cde59aa2297958c51075a This word denoted both the dwelling and the community of relatives who lived in it.
6084eb9430faa15593d4ac244a305dec9729e5af In the absence of members of this community, their hut could be occupied by members of another community.
2ca17f23b6ce7575b9a4fc621528ef1937f1bff2 The meeting of many communities was rare, mostly in the case when the sea washed up a dead whale on the shore; then, provided with food for a long time, the yamana held festivals.
fe8cba7ef24c878db03d26d21cec1d98526bc55c There was no stratification in the Yaman community, the oldest members of the group did not use power over their relatives.
e0f689a437434d09e9e0bdc8dfaf0ddf08f11305 A special position was occupied only by healers, who were credited with the ability to influence the weather and cure diseases.
aadb7dd3c035d8552f64787061cb3490bbab1b40 The Pampa Indians
ae40c7751c03d2f0908ef607a8aabfdef3a8d1e6 By the time of the European invasion, the Pampa Indians were wandering hunters on foot.( In the middle of the XVIII century, the inhabitants of the Pampa Patagonians began to use horses for hunting. )
8406721fa5a86a0c2fc95d40093885ebcdcffd5f The main object of hunting and a source of food were guanacos, which were hunted with a bola — a bundle of belts with weights attached to them.
de97ba0ad407ffa24397b7aaee1648e0506b8355 The Pampa hunters did not have permanent settlements; they erected tents made of 40-50 guanaco skins on temporary camps, which served as housing for the entire community.
ca5a875ec09d1b3047d8179a295ba7136a0dd4f0 The clothes were made of leather; the main part of the costume was a fur cloak, which was tied at the waist with a belt.
471776afd7d2b9f6b81626583dbf1a7e93d3e723 The Patagonians lived and roamed in small groups of blood relatives, uniting 30-40 married couples with their offspring.
c1e001110cadeeef6739407f8c8cccee21b576c1 The power of the leader of the community was reduced to the right to give orders during transitions and hunting; the leaders hunted along with others.
a0c4c44662b9e4c4178b9b3d6c4607191d1c8fe2 The hunt itself was of a collective nature.
928287a12f2dc197c0e0d9873b40d9efa0047c19 Animistic beliefs occupied a significant place in the religious beliefs of the Pampa Indians.
65305140557145486705c8c247445632f47df956 The Patagonians inhabited the world with spirits; the cult of deceased relatives was especially developed.
40c4a0c7a9f2368e49ecf47c154db325632ecd47 The Araucanians lived in the southern part of central Chile.
8c6c22b30047e59e18759897377d3d2171ac80f6 Being under the influence of the Quechua tribes, the Araucanians were engaged in agriculture and bred llamas.
587f32e52267def1ce1c030a4920d21273c8f930 They developed the manufacture of fabrics from the wool of the guanaco llama, pottery and silver processing.
f4e28465f04dd943e30923150b573f462bdbc4de The southern tribes were engaged in hunting and fishing.
8926f420b11b7c37adb9d67a004d98f8c406c736 The Araucanians became famous for their stubborn resistance to European conquerors for more than 200 years.(In 1773, the independence of Araucania was recognized by the Spaniards.
700530ac2606a559010bb844c3258ea86e438080 Only at the end of the XIX century. the colonizers took possession of the main territory of the Araucanians. )
15a5d9819d86e7f89088848e14f8036c6a4bfd01 Indians of Eastern Brazil
be2d3df26fd0c60875067e4f46b36ea631867c46 The tribes of the group that lived on the territory of Eastern and Southern Brazil — Botocuda, Canella, Cayapo, Shawants, Kaingang and others, smaller ones, were mainly engaged in hunting and gathering, making transitions in search of game and edible plants.
fe0213c10ffa01809b870f5f7293d381527d9d94 The most typical for this group were botocudes, or boruns, which before the invasion of European colonizers, they inhabited the coast, and later were pushed into the interior of the country.
db9c5810d40cec6bd4840a3ed0d5deb0c4bc3e64 Their main tool was a bow, with which they hunted not only small animals, but also fish.
1c2a35501b7c63b87dba3c7429b23162b41db896 Women were engaged in gathering.
3a2004395e511ac1839cd7eac60b8b9bea087910 The shelter of the Botocudes was a barrier from the wind, covered with palm leaves, common to the entire nomad.
f289c6cd76dd25dbe9c4a9d643bbc68dbd67e5ef Instead of dishes, they used wicker baskets.
ec0f0148cdb2cdd89307820e7676b562e7f86294 A kind of decoration of botocudes were small wooden disks inserted into the slits of the lips — "botoka" in Portuguese.
87952012a5a601b7b617809dfb3463eade62e8a9 Hence the name of botocudes.
b6b72ae76de442755029be6c57ee7e9ee06a3ce3 The social structure of the Botocudes and their close tribes is still poorly studied.
a1ab56af3d78c2a9386084c24daf883a84e96033 It is known, however, that in their group marriage, the relationship between the sexes was regulated by the laws of exogamy.
29fd0bd5f74e6309932b5acb944ea990ac92dc0f The Botocudes maintained a maternal kinship account.
d675486b3662ae16936926301e02341e0af71ac8 In the XVI century.
4617e12b4dc3286831d82fde3879302f3aac302a The" forest Indians " of Brazil resisted the Portuguese invaders, but it was suppressed.
673f09f209e509474e5db1846460cf5182ae63d6 Indians of the Amazon and Orinoco Rainforests
464105aa74bfdcb17140c167972b8b12c5baf880 During the initial period of European colonization, numerous tribes belonging to different language groups, mainly Arawaks, Tupi Guarani and Caribs, lived in the north eastern and central part of South America.
1c1adffca07bc89153312955e2d4cf98c7f608c8 They were mostly engaged in slash and burn agriculture and lived sedentary.
5f872de46e319282cdd529814d3501b99f607b58 In the conditions of the tropical forest, the main material for the manufacture of tools and weapons was wood.
aa953574f831b46f6891034b325d814b6fc9d074 But these tribes also had polished stone axes, which served as one of the main objects of intertribal exchange, since there were no suitable stone rocks on the territory of some tribes.
f423e04226e29c759bc9d41f4e25700722fcd2f5 Bone, shells, and the shells of forest fruits were also used for making tools.
84e7f3396cdf83fb9bd21eca6726cd97f30758da Arrowheads were made of animal teeth and sharpened bone, bamboo, stone and wood; the arrows were feathered.
fb8f451815734684f6bbdb11ca46fe3f66495fd6 An ingenious invention of the Indians of the tropical forests of South America was the arrow throwing tube, the so called sarbakan, which was also known to the tribes of the Malacca Peninsula.
8d0a278f2ff27a4a151f3b4396850cc2e764f5d0 For fishing, boats were built from tree bark and single tree dugouts.
c743542203d0e9e9e6ad12f2a76894a4fce3f2eb We wove nets, nets, tops and other gear.
3adaa3f1342e7a1bdc5c31df84dec99e099f53d2 The fish was beaten with a spear, shot at it with bows.
643c5fd4c4991e8a8649e91dc21e74d805dabc39 Having achieved great skill in weaving, these tribes used a wicker cot hammock.
1212e9f431a47d2f182105f3a007e089fb638d0b This invention, under its Indian name, has spread all over the world.
01c86a6ebdd953c3f0fcb0b2ca9324d4924b7ca0 To the Indians of the tropical forests of South America, humanity also owes the discovery of the medicinal properties of the bark of the cinchona tree and the emetic root of ipecacuanha.
4a4c5005a0d52979a422a64d6411b7ccabda1555 The tribes of the tropical forests were engaged in slash and burn agriculture.
21648056d5efe371227fed7011af4fcf11f5b89f Men prepared plots, built fires at the roots of trees and cut down the trunk with stone axes.
405f0d296f9717ad2eb624460f31f21630f3efec After the trees dried up, they were felled, the branches were burned.
c4ef7d0f630251ce29941bcd434c188a1d7714f2 The ash served as fertilizer.
57c09e5c8323cb64067a0d0b9038b6df94827f14 The landing time was determined by the position of the stars.
28683be289fe465cb2a241063339072f762e4df0 The women loosened the ground with gnarled sticks or sticks with the shoulder bones of small animals and shells impaled on them.
d3401339765b4f53eda0934e59dd5e6f4e0624dd Cassava, corn, sweet potatoes, beans, tobacco, cotton were grown.
70086b03415497c8d5f79b7c8e39d85245750893 The forest Indians learned to purify cassava from poison by squeezing the juice containing prussic acid, drying and frying the flour.
86f7b1bc6da8a2d301453aa9a7d299c865cd25c6 The Indians of the Amazon and Orinoco basin lived in tribal communities and led a common household.
908c329443911518638385b0fc6edfaeef5df89e Among many tribes, each community occupied one large dwelling that made up the entire village.
75a7899647c140f165174dd573c77488842cdd31 Such a dwelling was a round or rectangular structure covered with palm leaves or branches.
16a5dfe382ce2b3478f83a50fb4d934cc4c41b31 The walls were made of posts intertwined with branches, they were covered with mats and smeared.
42a0a0f17501932fe5182fb4c106426e6699f3e7 In this collective dwelling, each family had its own hearth.
7a0365855d3a525f218dba8e71eca356b161ba00 Hunting and fishing grounds were in the collective possession of the community.
281f345582fb7be20d5793d182c71b4fc36cb9cb The products obtained from hunting and fishing were divided among everyone.
b2a411d386a7950e444be106473538b157e7a1cd Most of the tribes before the invasion of Europeans were dominated by the maternal family, but there has already been a transition to the paternal family.
e20013150b6d1daab71e7fd08673b45dab6991b4 Each village was a self governing community with an elder leader.
02153ac46a52dae78a52a0d631dcb80efb7af660 Among these tribes by the beginning of the XVI century. there was not only a union of tribes, but also a common intra tribal organization.
05832b48e57b417913115e23f3d63e4091c848f4 The artistic creativity of the described Indian tribes was expressed in dances performed to the sounds of primitive musical instruments (horns, pipes), in games that imitated the habits of animals and birds.
48bb62fdeb7d08d113bd352f75367fcc3cf82db6 The love of jewelry was manifested in the coloring of the body with a complex pattern using vegetable juices and in the manufacture of elegant headdresses made of colorful feathers, teeth, nuts, seeds, etc.
ffe6ad85f18bd2ce03d9c153c869851c40f925a1 Ancient peoples of Mexico and Central America
a70cad5c066c95c61cf0d3b47b7f72a8e10809d1 The peoples of the southern part of the northern continent and Central America have created a developed agricultural culture and a high civilization based on it.
7bdba8e2e786769858847be42cd09a17f5ef7f2d Archaeological data, finds of stone tools and the skeleton of a fossil man, indicate that man appeared on the territory of Mexico 15-20 thousand years ago.
25185288e2a2a9730514c1bfc56aa6f046202fa2 Central America is one of the earliest areas of culture of corn, beans, pumpkin, tomatoes, green pepper, cocoa, cotton, agave, tobacco.
70b6018d364a5e083e72da8a574611751a96a85b The population was placed unevenly.
7e1ea7ba6d20bcdb1c697d51599e8dd4c2ab7d9d The areas of settled agriculture — in central Mexico and in the highlands of southern Mexico were densely populated.
a5b9135c157e3fe8edbfb4528790f0e5c513cb86 In areas with a predominance of shift agriculture (for example, in Yucatan), the population was more dispersed.
f836c6828e892fe69cb55050e4b96771e958a7f8 Large areas of northern Mexico and southern California were rarely inhabited by wandering tribes engaged in hunting and gathering.
e953a9774289b847e0f3e132c3161276c7f9c1f0 The history of the tribes and peoples of Mexico and Yucatan is known from archaeological finds, as well as from the Spanish chronicles of the conquest.
7adbd5932beb15a7c49e5cce740eee29d0b1789b The archaeological period of the so called Early Cultures (before the third century BC) was the time of the Neolithic, the period of gathering, hunting and fishing, the time of the domination of the primitive communal system.
0d71e6abf2899075c8941b454f3c27774f1e0140 During the period of Middle cultures (III century BC— IV century AD), agriculture appeared in the form of slash and burn, shifted During this period, differences in the level of development of tribes and peoples of different parts of Mexico and Yucatan begin to make themselves felt.
a37e5fbc58527d64514c2d30065ad7559e58b16a In central and southern Mexico and in Yucatan, class societies had already emerged during this period.
36ec42329ddb4e6edd2b29387bbedf02967ed9dd But the development did not stop there.
af06f79da70e34d4d89630adc1ef5a8f5a61b8ec On the verge of our era, the peoples of these regions of America rose to a higher level.
ec9a4ae334e19c9481f79b41d6768fb347012a05 The Maya are the only people in America who have left written monuments.
ddf545a82e70288c3985e42eaeb32e435fa2844a At the beginning of our era, the first cities of the state began to form in the southern part of Yucatan, to the northeast of Lake Peten Itza.
c4e7f8a92af19eeae76eed14580656a5dd3d863f The oldest known monument — a stone stele in the city of Vashaktun is dated to 328 AD .
d1fef8b544f24b3baa573850c59410b00f4cc32c A little later, cities appeared in the valley of the Huomacinta River Yashchilan, Palenque and in the extreme south of Yucatan — Copan and Quirigua.
8cb85da4e7bb36f3af81c6bf81aac5f44693f0a4 The inscriptions here are dated to the V and the beginning of the VI century.
8056392e40fa70430224f1d5d434c83e45318907 Since the end of the IX century, dated inscriptions have been broken off.
3fc5a7cc9fcfde5b0a756d3264f967956888a10b Since that time, the oldest Mayan cities have ceased to exist.
0dd1303095ceead433d0bf45cefdf10005144500 The further history of the Maya developed in the north of Yucatan.
16aaeb05a50cc7cca4bc9d258daf9aab4a0e4766 The main type of production among the Maya was slash and burn agriculture, the forest was cleared with stone axes, and thick trees were only cut down or stripped of their ring shaped bark; the trees withered on the root.
f937c5cb546febd0a49e75aa01ee799cb12d7e68 The dried and fallen forest was burned out before the onset of the rainy season, which was determined by astronomical observations.
08a6984a0ddfb3be10d8fe6330f63669795b6041 Just before the rains began, the fields were sown.
dc98f7819cde44668d004e49cf83753083900271 The land was not cultivated in any way, the farmer only made a hole with a sharp stick and buried corn and beans in it.
21244d31e2eca5cfc5548d1edf91db7d251f44ce The crops were protected from birds and animals.
1abe15be8d10711d46624487b94b4e8c73319085 Corn cobs were tilted down to dry in the field, after which they were collected.
f1c02a6e592aa3f91790b48d04725b4d63bb03a2 On the same plot, it was possible to sow no more than three times in a row, as the harvest was increasingly reduced.
0c3f951899a558f67f269d40005a43f6b8ad2ef1 The abandoned plot was overgrown, and after 6-10 years it was burned out again, preparing for sowing.
49f1915a3a63d5dbff82d63dc871f79c25947179 The abundance of free land and the high productivity of corn provided farmers with considerable prosperity even with such a primitive technique.
4f4c7617a289284b25b79c5c22250e426adc691b The Maya received food of animal origin from hunting and fishing.
0d6fd901e916080276888ff51fa6a6433757f5d2 They didnot have any pets.
b355f65b22b0f2693667464a10b5c779316c9bf3 The birds were hunted with the help of throwing tubes that shot clay balls.
f4f6bad876c882879a3bbb7f0142bdd090a03d50 Military weapons were also darts with flint tips.
1fb66b71d31f01a38e55e9e012e745199c00fbe7 The Maya borrowed the bow and arrow from the Mexicans.
3866428543c02d230a279d23807baba0d07c9db9 They also received copper hatchets from Mexico.
fb5c461a8de54802f0a5c6d93f97627b729594de There were no ores in the Maya country and metallurgy could not have arisen.
88f0cb3ae43c0465a2e4b634543f82009525a226 From Mexico, Panama, Colombia and Peru, art objects and jewelry were delivered to them — precious stones, shells and metal products.
013594275bb6102d0df8945bb7c9029aee5d9b8b The Maya made fabrics from cotton or agave fiber on a loom.
ba7e948f0addeaa1378a37ab5267d793cc7b0d95 Ceramic vessels were decorated with convex modeling and painting.
ea1472b75342c29ca5acb2bb6cb48367cacdf1f3 Intensive exchange trade was conducted within the Maya country and with neighboring peoples.
1092cf849b8a21b71611fe2fba5693be0fc522b0 In exchange, agricultural products, cotton yarn and fabrics, weapons, stone products — knives, arrowheads, mortars were received.
c208ad853779c652083ccbb13ff0c9eaa6c4ca1f Salt and fish came from the coast, corn, honey, fruits from the central part of the peninsula.
96af21d5ca0a51a578ef35792f8dbc0914f502a7 Slaves were also exchanged.
74014dec21b1bcc9684ba7dcd4ae42fdef3ff4b4 The universal equivalent was cocoa beans; there was even a rudimentary credit system.
8abbab08cde77ee0f75c968a55346ca55277542f Although fabrics and vessels were made mainly by farmers, there were already skilled artisans, especially jewelers, stone carvers, embroiderers.
d2eab3e6f8a13186ab8dab8b4270460bef392ad3 There were also merchants who delivered goods over long distances by water and by land, with the help of porters.
54badabdb67ebcb1fc28b15ebe366df789257f79 Columbus met off the coast of Honduras a dugout boat from Yucatan, loaded with fabrics, cocoa and metal products.
7e8a07ec540ad0df176702526c3f7d62f13c6570 The inhabitants of the Maya village formed a neighboring community; usually its members were people with different ancestral names.
610b73a5676dd57dbf8b004c621536aeb09aa71d The land belonged to the community.
77d23ad6e68d7be6b84375cd6bfd2310c06f31f1 Each family received a plot of land cleared of forest, after three years this plot was replaced by another.
b2586f27184e8a0e1717079954903595e62e846f Each family collected and stored the harvest separately, she could exchange it and exchange it.
0483ef748cea24b53728a4d522ea975c9606b63e Apiaries and plantings of perennial plants remained in the permanent ownership of individual families.
be6163d5ec7f23840b60c27c865b2ba7ab2d4e30 Other jobs hunting, fishing, salt extraction — were carried out together, but the products were shared.
5ce4a096dcf31994a57b6122d14dc3e77edbc6fe In the community in the Maya kingdom, there was already a division into free and slaves.
65342aa2075f69266723bedd5b65e059e8422897 The slaves were mostly prisoners of war.
c235a4c5b3ddd4b3b1708c7c4f1235c80b621eda Some of them were sacrificed to the gods, others were left as slaves.
f19d1c7d883147764a30ef10ca7ff1bc5432b3b4 There was also the enslavement of criminals, as well as debt slavery of fellow tribesmen, the debtor remained a slave until he was redeemed by his relatives.
d02731e623adfd766bbf61c2c0eb64ae39e18193 Slaves performed the hardest work, built houses, carried luggage and served the nobles.
5891fb8b7f9143157cd7701f67a62fd6b0a08b9a The sources do not allow us to clearly determine in which branch of production and to what extent slave labor was mainly used.
4937750f026fa305654d80bb8a5ee27bed228857 The ruling class was the slaveholders the nobles, the highest military and priests.
89c449ead2ee4a07de1603e2255ed14535a384cf The nobles were called almshen (literally - "the son of the father and mother").
974ead438944717c5a2a14e6baf9a450e45e9ed0 They owned plots of land on the rights of private property.
c9d9cecfc9e7f42e4ed4ebaaaaeea33a53fe9a65 The rural community performed duties in relation to the nobles and priests: the community members cultivated their fields, built houses and roads, delivered various supplies and products to them, in addition, maintained a military detachment and paid taxes to the supreme power.
808cbe42aa952e1f609d2075e5bdb0596f8680f5 There was already a stratification in the community: there were richer and poorer community members.
8189bd0683f800b66eb1661305746f44ceb37cbe Mayan hieroglyphs.
8130dd7493b2e5373a3ec04afe7b9af1fb4c6a29 A page from the Dresden Codex, one of the three surviving Maya manuscripts
1460a7d8a704aa23553b374f6f3e4568452162e6 The Maya had a patriarchal family that owned property.
4bcb5d6b999ab0435b2d2720d45e1d8896902887 To get a wife, a man had to work for her family for a while, then she went to her husband.
e80e80ba641e93ad3ff653bfc8a9378e910ef5d0 The supreme ruler of the city state was called halach vinik ("great man"); his power was unlimited and hereditary.
b0ac194a99241f8777ff694edf4955c682667d3d Ha lach viyik's advisor was the High priest.
c99f45fa42b36d0117622b39fd604e4fdef0df2e The villages were ruled by his viceroys — batabs The position of the batab was for life; he was obliged to obey the halach vinik implicitly and coordinate his actions with the priests and two or three advisers who were with him.
68bceb68b8ea658c5c2afd4017a695bcba435e06 The batabs supervised the performance of duties and had judicial power.
4c704bd81bce5e38bda5d08b00e63c8ec0f182d6 During the war, Batab was the commander of the detachment of his village.
898d4804455d29d41d7a4611a11b79c406f76ab9 In the Mayan religion, by the beginning of the XVI century, ancient beliefs receded into the background.
91459aa858126b80ec8ff074c929ab81cf72401e By this time, the priests had already created a complex theological system with cosmogonic myths, compiled their own pantheon and established a magnificent cult.
532183ea0ead1521f698eb83f867f13d7e7657cc The personification of the sky the god Itsamna was placed at the head of the host of the celestials together with the goddess of fertility.
5830589cee0c39de7fb4aa6f4cfb6de049088b37 Itsamna was considered the patron of the Maya civilization, he was credited with the invention of writing.
f5de5e6128aefcc16e0b3e2c29d6ec7837b443c4 According to the teachings of the Maya priests, the gods ruled the world alternately, replacing each other in power" This myth fantastically reflected the real institution of the change of power by birth.
a25d12ae99a66fcbc2c7c79132ab4c6f42a9b143 Mayan religious beliefs also included primitive figurative ideas about nature (for example, it rains because the gods pour water from four giant jugs placed in the four corners of the sky).
4c529e4b9d8c138140c4bfe078b966371054a355 The priests also created a teaching about the afterlife that corresponds to the social division of Maya society; the priests assigned themselves a special, third heaven.
823d3bbc9fd544397a53aa925090065f96a3948f Divination, prophecies, oracles played the main role in the cult.
f7d9d057531c803fb929ee69099b5e8d04ca6828 Drawing of a bas relief depicting a leader and slaves.
d71f0b65cf7838a01533b5b434a28c549bf11b66 Palenque
715bdafe1927899eb5c9e561ebbb21d8b25c0cb6 The Maya developed a number system; they had a twenty digit account, which arose on the basis of counting on the fingers (20 fingers).
121300310258c32f7ff971ab53c5eef26c6bebd2 The Maya made significant progress in astronomy.
dfb7c3fc92b499c608c9b95bcc98ac751480572b The solar year was calculated by them with an accuracy of one minute.
60c555a03430921791cc3cda723824f98ec15c4c Maya astronomers calculated the time of solar eclipses, they knew the periods of rotation of the Moon and planets.
9cd11935faf94cfab9de83a348317c549cfae858 In addition to astronomy, the priests were familiar with the rudiments of meteorology, botany and some other sciences.
00ee106c29e251c229b45d1a38ed4981b049314b The Mayan calendar was in the hands of the priests, but it was based on the practical division of the year into seasons of agricultural work.
9d4c0a82767e51eb79f578925079ab351d375198 The main units of time counting were the 13 day week, the 20 day month and the 365 day year.
9319590d8f654c8e8e182df70ffaa1cba07e7a66 The largest unit of chronology was the 52 year cycle— the "calendar circle".
7c92fc5cf65f2ba5a464fb79ff7952d9cecdda49 Summer
fe8e9de1125834eb645bc8331e8db66acd1853ff To navigate the terrain, it means to find directions to the cardinal directions (north, south, east and west) and determine your location.
2bc249dd5abc47c82855c3bf1fb561cfe96af789 To find the direction of the cardinal directions, first determine the direction north-south; after that, becoming a face to the north, the determinant will have to the right-east, to the left-west.
b693eada8ba1c1eb469874285ba34066662073e6 The cardinal directions are usually found by a compass, and in the absence of it - by the Sun, Moon, stars and by some signs of local objects.
ce7c666684c1e2d414d9f2b8f51a3d4c03bfc4bd Knowledge of topographic orientation is important, especially when passing through unfamiliar terrain and with poor visibility.
21fe21dc6aa5a96e35a12681a293bdf7badc6d3c Topographic orientation should be understood as orientation on the terrain, i.e. determining the location of its location relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding local objects and the terrain.
8bc6d3f1477262dd1cee99de41149a9602c366b3 Of the numerous compass systems, the liquid compass "Sport 3"has found the widest application in tourist practice.
b6bf946ef78ec8790773b11de79d12fb2d9ecde5 When using any compass, it should be remembered that in a freely suspended state, the magnetic arrow will point its ends to the north and to the south.
100e9b960a3f2599655da176c9490edc65b38d36 The arrow is located not in the direction of the true (geographical) meridian, but in the direction of the magnetic meridian.
2fe6aec0d606ba6d9bc767314791f2fcc22f944e The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic one is called the declination of the magnetic arrow (magnetic declination).
7b10f61ec5ba2feadb9ff7de0de7c08edf5a8f4c It is different for each locality and can be eastern (with a + sign) or western (with a - sign ).
9a647f823b36839c594c7a5764211c06e9d2f124 The magnetic declination can be determined on the ground by sunrise and sunset or on the map.
ccb12735947cef6eff6c25c3f851fa1db2812d7f With the help of a compass, it is most convenient and fast to determine the north, east, south, west.
abcc10dafea81ecf0df8c48f1e4318673b919c57 To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, let it calm down.
32a6b8e12d0180dea7055861feb6637461eb726d Then the dark end of it will be directed to the north.
8f04b0de8427696715470937d4c782b6065e9a33 To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and their reference, divisions are plotted on the compass, of which the lower ones are indicated in degree measures (the smallest division is 3°), and the upper divisions of the goniometer are in tens of "thousandths".
52f5e40a706adc69428a3e3e4e6f528209074428 Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and the divisions of the goniometer are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°.
ef22431df04e1d868d9b1293eba96a138ff88007 The zero division is located at the letter " C " (north), there is also a glowing triangle in the dark, which replaces the letter "C"in some compasses.
a377e76fe2c7849712dcff3c7f2f9be076f23536 Under the letters "B" (east), "Y" (south), "3" (west) there are luminous dots.
2197e14433119cf71762d2528474fbf7eab96e66 On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous pointers are fixed, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night.
c2caa8696a0113e0ebe7d49d77c61f1d9cb07cc8 In the army, the most common compass is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.
1d4bcd1f649928846738c2716d1c00c1a6bb1686 The Andrianov compass allows you to make readings in degrees and in thousandths.
20d52bedb549c610169306525b5c07de5dfbd1db The inscriptions on the fixed scale of degree divisions (the price of division is 3°) are given clockwise through 15°, and thousandths-in the opposite direction through 500 thousandths (5-00).
18064a54d1767e438a68ce91461e58bdf79c50c1 The sighting device is movable.
73b678debfb148dfc5e795b5d2f73233d6fd4c57 The artillery compass is graded only in thousandths with the price of dividing 100 thousandths (1-00) clockwise.
5eff5ce2f235c5b3862e77816338fe76829f0a5e The sighting device is stationary, and the scale (limb) rotates, which allows you to quickly combine the zero division of the limb with the northern end of the magnetic arrow without changing the position of the compass.
c7fe188e4b2029b4543d9f00def7ff0295dcfc97 The mirror on the hinged lid allows you to control the orientation of the compass and count along the limb when sighting an object.
b090c1137ca8a9557d60ab36fcc5c734a9e3f9f2 A sports compass is very convenient for scouts to use, the arrow of which is placed in a special liquid, so it quickly calms down and almost does not fluctuate when moving.
e226db4158574ef57b69df5d44f1bba735dd051a Selection and use of landmarks.
79f82f6481e7ef1c1ec3d0de5f28b7d4c149dd4d Landmarks are divided into areal, linear and point-based ones.
0005a4b5ecbfe61f121dda6f54f61107f38d949b Local objects and landforms, relative to which they determine their location, the position of goals (objects) and indicate the direction of movement, are called landmarks.
9c1ad51d6179b706dd089fe2aaf1af4d939d5ced They are usually distinguished by their size, shape, color and are easily identified when viewing the surrounding area.
cfc406b0810df5e2ba9f1cd726f7a6d46561f175 Areal landmarks include localities, individual woodlands, groves, lakes, swamps and other objects that occupy large areas.
f4bd2caca9a050cfb893eb755b376b86c2c2f553 Such landmarks are easily recognized and remembered when studying the terrain.
5b619d4c0529df248d3fb2464cdc1b142caccacb Linear landmarks are local objects and landforms that have a large length with a relatively small width, for example, roads, rivers, canals, power lines, narrow valleys, etc.
afbeeed15ef19afe2941fc28c0103c09a2ee0ff7 Point landmarks include pipes of factories and factories, tower-type buildings, repeaters, road intersections, overpasses, peaks of mountain peaks, pits and other local objects that occupy a small area.
2d444446aa8b949bf2f93af3f02ef54bc9e3e1b7 These landmarks are usually used to accurately determine their location, the position of targets, indicate fire sectors, and observation lanes.
09aea78023454f479e5b621e64446118e9352b3a A topographic map (aerial view) allows you to quickly understand the situation on a relatively large area of the terrain, which makes it easier to navigate.
85795cb9f3e59d0623dbfe53052e938fa41d0a75 Ground navigation devices allow you to accurately determine your location on the ground in any conditions and confidently maintain the desired direction of movement.
12af1d5ac707dc7ddf152f280bee8a936589e8ee In topographic orientation, first indicate the direction to one of the sides of the horizon, usually to the north, then the location of the subdivision and the position of the surrounding local objects, the shape of the terrain and the distance to them.
65f9953c722465654747c0126a23e800e9e021e8 Orientation on the terrain can be general and detailed.
1788a4f0d637e48009f206250251a21139433162 General orientation consists in approximate determination of your location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final point of movement.
64287c779c017689afc8ff596b9a51d876a2bbad Such orientation is most often used on the march, when the crew of the car does not have a map, but uses only a pre-compiled scheme or a list of settlements and other landmarks along the route.
98f0dfe9cd537771ab00f0c3bf19ba330ab281b6 To maintain the direction of movement in this case, it is necessary to constantly monitor the driving time, the distance traveled, determined by the speedometer of the car, and monitor the passage of settlements and other landmarks according to the scheme (list).
c6899d8ff8738dc61296baf414419eeee31da38b Detailed orientation consists in accurately determining your location and direction of movement.
8660d5357b168bdaa034317c85b7d4581deacf6c It is used when navigating on a map, aerial photographs, ground navigation devices, when moving along the azimuth, drawing on a map or diagram of explored objects and targets, when determining the boundaries reached, and in other cases.
47465ae4a36a0a0f07907ef82fc4f21fb86bd2ae The determination of the sides of the horizon by the heavenly bodies is approximate; it is resorted to when there is no compass and map.
bc62f8472d062800f4f84fd0f33e82494e7a017a The sun is in the east around 7 o'clock in the morning, while the direction of the shadow points to the west, at noon, i.e. at 13 o'clock, the sun is in the south.
88b7e25ecb642c811849cdb8643921951a8d7103 At noon, the shadows from vertically standing objects, such as trees, are the shortest, and the direction of the shadows always points to the north.
e02fda8f14b1e3dc3e8f7a86ebc00a085a733481 By 19 o'clock, the sun will move to the west, the shadows at this time will be directed to the east.
85de3921ae97a8e8134117fdcc50ac8b1f150e84 On sunny days, you can determine the countries of the world by the sun and the clock.
70ebcdbae267623fc66974d3e8ba75c7dec32d57 If there is a clock, you can determine the sides of the horizon by the sun at any time of the day.
2968c791f8d378f9a5993a05539a91ee25c7d15c To do this, you need to hold the watch horizontally on the palm of your hand, turn it so that the hour hand is directed at the sun.
d13167a3f79da6706a432baee4bf462720d712e6 The angle in the center of the dial, formed by the hour hand and the direction to the number "1" (on the dial), must be divided in half.
00a830b0377043ed10e3feec05d6232f8b3fabf3 The line dividing this angle in half corresponds to the directions to the north and to the south and will show the direction to the south.
16d2b281be25c8246ed587e996e09fc6c8916b18 At the same time, before noon, it is necessary to divide the arc (angle) on the dial, which the hour hand should pass before 13 o'clock, and after noon — which it passed after 13 o'clock.
d645b543301d5db37d0d154a605444d2d5f31067 The minute hand is not taken into account when determining the countries of the world.
760eebda6ba220ed4ac10b3a232bb2b29a0f81f0 Knowing the direction to the south, it is easy to determine the direction to all other sides of the horizon.
e4596024bf77934e5d777b6fd79e0b305a7d8046 At night, in the absence of a compass, the countries of the world can be determined by the Polar Star, which is always located in the north direction.
6e2378766266257057b1e8f9c4fb909d04c36366 To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major; it has the form of a bucket made up of seven well-visible bright stars.
94f6b2433fb61c20ad3f868e97025674521f7bfe To do this, they mentally postpone five segments equal to the distance between the two extreme stars of the Big Dipper, in the direction of another constellation — the Little Dipper.
3c9d12c1cb9d3c9831ddb948ba2016450fe39f2c At the end of this line is a bright star — this will be the North Star.
0321a908b004fc58c71962903eea4a536563b7d2 For night traffic, even after dark, they choose such landmarks that could be noticeable even in the dark.
9bd5886a5fe6133e1d754f1c8470e82292054146 The best of these landmarks will be those that are located on elevated places and are visible against the sky when approaching them.
34be95d940150cb09377abc5bc777a1f346c9b37 Landmarks become even more noticeable if you look at them from below.
293eb207073417f62cb430dc253d9043ae36e423 At night, it is most reliable to maintain the direction along linear landmarks — rivers, roads, edges, forests, ravines, ravines, etc.
bf1734f82620c468495d86ea588ba22b3e333f46 Although the most reliable rules in the forest are to have a map of the area and a compass with you, except for the case with one compass and without it at all, when you are guided by the Sun, there are other ways.
460d49cbc08af5ef8a292d31e3a8a2c5b8c019e4 The following method may seem wrong at first glance, since the expression “free as the wind” immediately comes to mind, but in fact, you can navigate quite successfully by the wind.
7e6d3086a604c87076bb57c28c45e3c209eef3ff Despite the fact that the wind is really a very windy landmark, it changes direction much less often than many people think.
1408469c81588d2bfd9e95f22a16aff1c40df099 Only in the surface layer of air, because of the many obstacles, wind gusts of different directions often appear.
99f2a322be83195257e8c05df0785b31dc91a54e But at the level of higher layers of air, the movement is much more stable.
faf776f880592dd286e9a7b6e9e271b6537d7643 If you watch heavy clouds driven by the wind on a rainy day, they crawl and crawl in the same direction, almost clinging to the tops of trees, sometimes for several days in a row.
ce7183478a4b3236b8d17dfbdef2e77550a62737 Moreover, if the wind changes its direction, it is extremely slow.
fefb15c6f6b0f8c41f67c2c84225ad7c3beb2d2a And for him to take and turn at once, this happens very rarely, and then only after a complete calm.
bc05f02748ad3d13ec0be5f84f29af77c7f4e4a3 To navigate by the wind, you need to remember in which direction the clouds are moving before entering the forest.
3aaf53ce66faef3b29a976f57b9bd997177fd682 The constancy of the direction of movement of clouds is the same as the constancy of the position of the compass needle.
fbd8f8a2637c2cb4daac6a4ad8e1f71d7ffde1c3 That's just the direction itself can be in any direction of the world, and not north-south, as on the compass.
9bf1d27d768091db1885ebb9e05dc2aec07b4ba8 It is worth knowing that even with a small speed of clouds, you can determine their direction by carefully watching the clouds in the lumen of the tree crown.
9ba55b0dd8a366db64696b4dec3057542c0491e5 Being on a large body of water with no compass, when you can't see the outlines of the shores or the Sun in the sky through a dense layer of fog, even a light breeze will help you get to the shore.
95a10115db7c94d8e816718e82d0e290d1e2b787 In this case, you need to constantly keep the direction of the boat parallel to the direction of the wave, even if it is insignificant, this will allow you to move forward and reach the shore.
dbcf0f2bf3cad38125364b06b6068c4f76249b55 The methods of orientation are very different.
bd6285ab2533e556ea58f3d3f36a0ed7a2b92ac0 For example, where the north is located in the forest can be determined by the anthills.
f677b4ac3c5acc249f6d009a9b59cbba1e8080bc Almost always ants put their abode next to a tree, and there is nowhere to go, namely from the southern side of the tree.
fa981a9421a4c252154ca46ff0748c7fe8da7843 This can be explained by the fact that ants need direct sunlight for normal life in their anthill.
70b0e230f3f28e086f96a2a0e59749dbeb6959cc This is a very reliable sign that you can safely trust.
09b24300cc90be978a6597f48f8eac284b2da2e0 You can make a mistake only in a situation when the tree to which the ants have settled has been cut down, and there is another tree nearby, which naturally may not stand on the north side of the anthill.
b4c5eb928c7c665fe8059547f37c0408f078af76 For example, if you look closely at a stone that has been lying in the same position for a long time, you will notice that it is often covered with moss on one side.
75e61528f96b9d3ee0d68803aa01e770e9b7cad0 And this is a sign of the northern side.
5346db14118f092cbebf86c20b196c1c94fcba00 You can also navigate through the trees.
5b596cebb4ca3f355e9c45b5f7981d4e516373e0 On the northern side of the tree, lichens and mosses are better developed, because they find more favorable conditions for their development there.
de7e8f2cb72f674cd221be53bf44a3fa676db04e There is also a way of orientation by the crowns of trees, by which you can determine where the south and where the north are.
2ba977e520d96ef176356dffc4b3390bf646b8e7 The crown is more developed, as a rule, on the southern side.
9e1b7a0c9e005a66f137178808d9442c2d945738 Only you need to remember that this” one-sidedness " of the crown is noticeably expressed only in trees that have grown in an empty place.
8ec8be37ee234a4bb0992f74da25965586554c7d And in a dense forest, because of a powerful tree standing next to it, the crown is not able to form normally, it develops intensively in the direction where there is free space and light.
4e54d1818164f8b901992301997e369f2e8fb8c0 If a powerful tree that was standing nearby was cut down or simply fell over time, then orientation along the crown of the preserved tree that grew in oppression will only lead to an error.
f7012d1665bd67c40442bc3fd4738e3e7405b703 Such mistakes are easy to make in areas where mass logging was carried out.
00309647bb51253013154fb469181afeecb6a49d Thus, there are various rules in the forest, both natural and non-natural, which allow you to navigate in it.
bf220ab2a82db666e868d14e1255aea3d3710d48 Almost everyone has met at least several times in the forest clearings that are cut in the form of corridors and go straight into the thicket of the forest like an arrow.
ebea75aeddb52657e1e45da63e128cb386db4d64 And usually at the intersection of two glades, in the center of this intersection there are small poles with some numbers, which are painted in black on specially made stes.
f65e2bc86da524a0d7e09ba2f07d61132f43740b These poles and clearings are very helpful in orientation in the forest.
eeb7e50bbd9e7fbafb767918748d9936c44ad8ce In our country, for convenience, they are divided into sections using glades, such forest areas are called quarters.
53537836a8dda17aabf79b9743d4219f6a9330b5 This division of the forest into blocks is very similar to the division into blocks of a large city, but instead of streets in the forest, glades serve as block boundaries.
11852d0f89ba060d659daa99c0a180d0bb7ae143 City streets can be oriented as you like relative to the north, and clearings in forests, with rare exceptions, are cut strictly from west to east, and from south to north.
e648ec86e0cd33a4a9cfdc3738fd3f7bc4fe3b94 The sizes of forest blocks are different-depending on the value of the forest.
bdef92d4ca83af6f54a6f2bd66ce56ad024b5b79 The more valuable the forest is, the smaller the blocks into which it is divided.
9bb6d3a0e5e6cd4acca11bb3cd62daf36af770e3 At the intersections of the glades, poles are specially placed, which are called quarterly.
2e4a012cd9508a33b60a599c80dfead7ae39028a The height of these pillars is 1 meter, and the diameter is about 24 centimeters.
7068df5f554a0dfa4c3d9c4710ae72cddd3b2ab8 In the upper part of the column, steses are made, which are also called cheeks.
4936973080aa2f68fe2b403674ce719d0ae99ec7 They record the numbers of the blocks that intersect at these pillars.
a19818f8162016330e0ba6ebf391dcc71312f43e It must be remembered that such a pole is always placed so that the cheeks diagonally look deep into the blocks whose numbers are indicated on them, and the faces that are formed are directed along the glades with two cheeks.
3f248db0bb9df99a5c2c024524673825d4d4b18e Thanks to this, when you meet a quarter pole, you can easily determine where the north is located.
9514caf16a392e41eea9fda1bb466f56f4ca52bc Its direction is indicated by the face, on the cheeks of which the numbers of the quarters have the smallest number.
99fd0d72927a851fff5786a99d571d70ba288de6 When navigating in the forest with the help of local signs, especially by the crowns of the tree, the eccentricity of the annual rings on the stump sections, the covering of tree trunks and stones with lichens and moss, try to use several of the above signs at once, in order to avoid accidental mistakes.
8201354c608a5549247863b19a7772a53cf78116 The considered methods of orientation are far from the only ones, nature has many other signs that an observant person can use.
09334ed077d5f2640911e90409f2815e3c22cc0e Take a good look, and you will notice that in the spring the first thaw appears on the slopes, and these slopes are facing south.
2c4df8693670c60c031e3e4d3fc1291697d857ae Berries and fruits ripen faster from the southern side of a tree or bush.
6bc5de92c841c54139b7de2870ed94edbe8d0695 Very often, the scout is required to determine the distances to various objects on the ground, as well as to assess their size.
2a7675b2d6265b80526804b9df26b18e8215a8aa The distances are determined most accurately and quickly by means of special devices (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo tubes, sights.
0564cce105737c29e677237135eef70bd87edf9a But due to the lack of devices, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.
4b0835723a7fdeb56c7b98aae62de2291d3cf7c8 By eye-this is the easiest and fastest way.
c2209a52fd75a60a0a15db77aefd602a497f8ae9 The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally postpone a well-represented constant measure (50, 100, 200, 500 meters) on the ground.
e9d3df410dfba381557dcfa3ee8a98e475256022 Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.
3a0170e51aa22e7c7af582cbf03f93fd0aa3f84e When measuring the distance by successive mental postponement of a well-studied constant measure, it must be remembered that the terrain and local objects seem to be reduced in accordance with their removal, that is, when removed twice, the object will appear twice as small.
5178944c718ab86fe5c57fe05203c3eca5754b3d Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally postponed segments (measures of the terrain) will decrease accordingly to the distance (Fig. 200).
c3cdaaf823b5befcd9f4c49107e70eb0eb93a7aa At the same time, it is necessary to consider the following: the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us; the closer the object, the larger it seems; larger objects seem closer to small objects at the same distance; an object of brighter color seems closer than an object of dark color; brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit objects at the same distance; during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, the observed objects seem farther away than on clear and sunny days; the sharper the difference in the color of the object and the background on which it is located for example, in winter, a snow field seems to bring darker objects closer to it; objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, especially the distances determined through vast water spaces seem to be reduced; folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not completely visible to the observer, hide the distance; when observing lying down, objects seem closer than when observing standing; when observing from the bottom up – from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom – further.
c4afef0ee5d445e1619c0ed5c553766848de1fd1 when the sun is behind the scout, the distance is hidden; it shines in the eyes-it seems larger than in reality; the fewer objects in the area under consideration (when observed through a water space, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the distances seem smaller.
76c53edf862ecab5b032d65d7f31d040e835cd0c To determine the distance in this way, you need to: hold a ruler in front of you at arm's length (50-60 cm from the eye) and measure the visible width or height of the object to which you want to determine the distance from it in millimeters; - the actual height (width) of the object, expressed in centimeters, divided by the apparent height (width) in millimeters, and the result multiplied by b (a constant number), we get the distance.
5c2663c3b5b4ceb6a8b3805b208942a5ae456662 For example, if a pole with a height of 4 m (400 cm) is closed using a ruler of 8 mm, then the distance to it will be 400 x 6 = 2400; 2400: 8 = 300 m (the actual distance).
26db36e306edf360d5f5f9a357c1c9d03bca7850 To determine distances in this way, you need to know well the linear dimensions of various objects, or have this data at hand (on a tablet, in a notebook).
72e1f1822dfcf398658871c9c00609f1e1237c21 By the visibility (distinctness) of objects.
eb74055c47f78e8a61d595126f41fd60a104dd74 With the naked eye, you can approximately determine the distance to the targets (objects) by the degree of their visibility.
75d816a94ff0f05b6a2ceca7721eab94eecefb75 A scout with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in the table.
f88b0ea27707d45285cb05d7a7227c8dc9877b81 By the angular value. To use this method, you need to know the linear magnitude of the observed object (its height, length or width) and the angle (in thousandths) at which this object is visible.
47d14aca033e5964a010f7a1756f5ece1f61d129 Then the distance to the observed object is determined by the formula: P=(Bx100)/Y where P is the distance to the object; B is one of the linear quantities; Y is the angle at which the linear magnitude of the object (object) known to the observer is visible; 1000 is a constant coefficient.
797cebd5873455038ea2770a971acdb9b3ae6610 For example, the height of a railway booth is 4 meters, the scout sees it at an angle of 25 thousandths (the thickness of the little finger).
de1b2e05aa01ea21f69493242437844633528e67 Then the distance to the booth will be 4 x 1000 = 4000, divided by 25, that is, 160 meters.
b3a1aadc3f49138ce5cc205ed0c9a100428d2861 To determine the angular value, you need to know that a segment of 1 mm, 50 cm away from the eye, corresponds to an angle of two thousandths (written: 0 - 02).
471954cce7d765b8d8b6b218f86da745929372bf From here, it is easy to determine the angular value for any segments (Fig. 201).
4627fd6295890eaae765189efd169e6ebe8d9127 For example, for a segment of 0.5 cm,the angular value will be 10 thousandths (0-10), for a segment of 1 cm – 20 thousandths (0-20) , etc.
75d961b22ee7461b44509c7a5386ed20b110741d The easiest way is to memorize the standard values of thousandths.
46a4bd28245f6af34feb5ce53572e1f88fe2a227 Orientation by sounds At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and on very rough terrain and in the forest both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision.
eda4b3e280fe0187391da39c00948a48d1de2f2e Scouts must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come.
d0f31813482af54ab6f3ab5cc40689de6474dd6e If different sounds are heard, the scout must be able to distinguish them from one another.
1a469a089696812aa86820b87b709e8a19496b64 on a quiet summer night, even an ordinary human voice in an open space can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer away.
bc1186e27a7309af7a5d75a35f32db68f8a2776f On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away .
dc6dc4eba69a091d2a21918a3b5313e9a9b5f932 In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine.
6359ed04985273dc73e62b4c102fed678f9e3433 On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, the sounds are carried for a very long distance.
da62abe60fe1613dd67ae20ffb77b11d115aca91 But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing in the direction of the scout brings sounds closer, and removes them from it.
2d8c7dadded063b23a1f2d09cd7281821b4c5a95 Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo.
72cdfa1d59921a2a92655651651c0dbff5e8ff53 They also generate echoes in water spaces, contributing to its spread over long distances.
2f3788ca89ab546d5228ec808d36b8cb1822a56a The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, on a street, on a country or field road, on a pavement or leafy soil.
ca34171b80acbf3fa09f80ef06b771f70d22ee24 It should be borne in mind that dry land transmits sounds better than air. Therefore, they listen with their ear to the ground or to the trunks of trees.
175563ca44e0e23fd8a878d434057468223a50f4 The owners of Khoroshevka.
ce3030cc94131650915ecf43577e8e4d856e432b Who and how led the military intelligence of Russia
8137c8d1f2b90a71ac9a1cc32f15028a4a1e14f7 On sale
599db43198ca907e20cbf644489ab12c4ba0bf13 Order of printing industry
260b846a7710ca767684d4b039fe5b10f9cd6766 We invite authors
9d36dd43d5653565ddad43c6b1a21ea345d7a0eb
e2b0ced4c913333d1813b57a56ec0ad9ae588246 August 2011
08d436023fe7511295f2a305508eacec6fca9131 Note to the Special forces: ORIENTATION ON THE TERRAIN
1a19139dea14b4ee005b7277acd9be6ef29c1b98 In a combat situation, it is necessary to act on the most diverse terrain — in the forest, in the mountains, on swampy, flat terrain, etc .When performing various combat tasks, a soldier often needs to determine the distance for shooting, the direction of movement, accurately indicate the position of the target or his location.
514370442862d1f29427f68943be4bbe6c0b1775 To successfully complete these tasks, all warriors must know the basics of topography.
d5d3221e6491a262261d20c8b271eccadfb1fbd4 Military topography considers such issues as methods of studying the terrain, orientation on the terrain, drawing up combat graphic documents, including the simplest drawings, as well as other issues related to the assessment and use of the terrain in solving various combat tasks.
11b5f0639cb1f48f8b5b083717dff6b7e7020bbf Orientation on the terrain is the ability to determine the location relative to the sides of the horizon (north, south, east, west), surrounding local objects and landforms, the location of your troops and enemy troops, the ability to find the right direction of movement and maintain this direction on the way.
a2d6966ae1a4af94ffacb4a21451361c03039379 You can navigate the terrain in various ways: by map, by compass, by celestial bodies, by clock, by local objects, by azimuth.
0ad965d7572e7a056c5a63d19bf54d33204410e8 Landmarks are clearly visible objects (a factory chimney, a church bell tower, a separate tree, a road intersection) and irregularities of the earth's surface (mountains, hills, etc.) that facilitate orientation and memorization of the terrain.
6ae73b1a0a0dea99ff347c925d875f5e8ea4f80e Landmarks are used not only to determine your location (where you are), find the way, but also for targeting.
efb4758bd891681bfd0fda34ea4a160f5b52f580 The study and memorization of the terrain should always begin with the choice of three or four most noticeable landmarks around you from a distance.
5876d8b330a481829dd500234d837eafa13ecbe2 It is necessary to remember their appearance and mutual location well.
b926abeba865bfa235affbce395f990f5e3f76d3 In the future, landmarks should be used as beacons, by which, when necessary, they determine and check their location or find a way to move in the right direction
eade42f7558693bea805f210b01d061f50135d5e To indicate your position relative to known landmarks, you need to name this place and tell the commander in which direction and at what distance from them you are.
ead0f452f3dc3e59e8fd76beaa9437f21ca1a334 For example: "I am on the edge of the Ivanovo forest: right in front of me, 600 meters away, the church of the village of Ivanovka, to my right, 150 meters away, the stone bridge over the Bystryanka River."
f159845eabbb6181215ed31a91cd1abfd0d3434d Often, when making a movement in a given direction, they use landmarks.
7ac7d6041ec2076cd31915c32df14c09fb26c33e To do this, on the way of movement, pre select on the map or map out such landmarks directly on the ground, with the help of which it would be possible to reach a given point (place).
0aeb26f9ae0fcb9ae8dfae48a4c7a042931c2507 For target designation, the landmarks that are given to the commanders in the observation lane are used.
b1cf159036ac6f19f9da88065e885f2b512dc3b1 At the same time, landmarks are always numbered from right to left and along the boundaries from themselves towards the enemy.
a2504c34dba002793364ca037b5f3f17573a25ed To indicate the position of the target, you need to call the number of the nearest landmark to it and report where the target is relative to it.
940593208436486c3176ea396f4848522abeccef For example, "Landmark 2 is a barn, two fingers to the right, a machine gun is closer than 100 meters".
480b48f79af0742d450250c42eb3a911b5933e95 Determining the sides of the horizon
5ee2ac79bbb35755458cccd7b89a55398814fefb Orientation to the cardinal directions is usually performed using a compass.
04b1918c1adf5c76550ecf00bed785df8482cb77 The compass consists of a round box, inside which a magnetic needle rotates freely on a steel needle, the blue end of which always shows the direction to the north.
4ca022b1e18646083648f02e76bc44b8b1e53e14 There are divisions on the inner ring of the box, with the help of which the angles between the direction of the northern (blue) end of the compass needle and the directions to the observed objects are measured.
cbb258cee996dcde427423076b027781b23a2b5a These angles are measured in degrees.
2ad40df8e6a1d913447d085b39bd2abcc4ddd675 The full circle is 360 degrees.
9d3c2d9457dfbb8d3a1b31ba6c7eb1c897a6dcff One division of the compass is equal to 3 degrees.
61483f71b83fc3eb9830723bcb5cb0b2d4b11d6f The compass box has a rotating glass lid equipped with a device for sighting (pointing), a slot and a front sight.
e9f8f00dcebdcf517a3b0957b684a19e3260966d The compass needle is fixed by a brake in the form of a lever, which keeps it from wearing out at a time when the compass is not working.
9d46804f2561aea0e4c50b9e44bb38fe47ff2263 The compass is adapted for night work.
7b50e058c2e1ffb69beafce4cc297551658a771c The northern end of its arrows, the main divisions, as well as special pointers at the slot and the front sight are covered with a special luminous paint so that they are visible in the dark.
b04b07985b7d046c16978bbb197dd155ea4b6672 To determine the sides of the horizon by the compass, you need to hold it in your hand horizontally in front of you, releasing the arrow brake.
a66a8ca7b729d95b4e7fb49e78871c25d230ef66 When the arrow stops oscillating, its blue end will show the direction to the north, and the light end will show the direction to the south.
02d832f35209afe314b05425e1649e8dd48bd6e3 Then you need to rotate the compass body so that the northern end of the arrow coincides with the zero division of the scale.
beba33c1ec9a9f51fc57e27252c14e5fdee9fc1b To the right of the north — south line will be east, and to the left west.
37410bd5a277e20f79c515dba4416bf0f0bcb3de In order not to repeat this action at the same point of standing, it is necessary to notice sharply distinguished local objects in the directions to the sides of the horizon, which should be used in the future when determining the sides of the horizon at this point of standing.
f2093c5088ed8a8af6848095cb936100720b684c The magnetic needle of the compass is very sensitive to iron, iron ore and steel.
b6fa5da867fb44c8c0d093a8ad912f371714b7f1 Therefore, in order for the compass readings to be correct, when orienting, it should be located as far as possible from metal objects, railways and industrial enterprises, and personal metal and steel things should be postponed while working with the compass.
830ccde8d2d6bdce9bf1afe1cb284903cf3e2286 According to the countries of the world, it is easy to determine and indicate the directions, as well as the relative location of any objects on the ground.
71b35960b83a9c836f27c5b44253cc3226e30e66 For example: "I am at a road intersection 1 kilometer north of the village of Ivanovka.
833c95a5b6f03f4fbda4d6183de1ec604a4d8ead North east of me in 1.5 kilometers the height is Long.
ea321f02cfe198e61532b5f1e3a8d5974d48d4cf To the northwest, 800 meters away, there is a withered tree."
d264409f197bce8fdb74e9bd0a1ed86a7c135c06 During the day, in the absence of a compass, you can approximately determine the sides of the horizon by the sun.
0ae7cad8b727ee3045049feef2ab9cc4acd37e44 Orientation by the heavenly bodies.
0dcef5495ba4905c74238af9acf3d91324cc43ab To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major; it has the form of a bucket made up of seven well visible bright stars.
b3dbae370fd40c9c1165dab33aec378b7920a730 If there are no or lack of landmarks along the route, artificial landmarks are created in advance for movement day and night: piles of stones, holes on tree trunks, creases of branches, etc .
ad8171bfbe91f6cae1004d22d7fbe1ec4ec7a677 In summer, you can mark the path of movement with slaked lime and chalk, and in winter — with earth, sand and ash.
0f7d15e5ce0c192b42f0f56126c360826a788d72 These artificial landmarks are used both for the return journey and for driving to a designated point in an unfamiliar or unfamiliar area.
a1fdd6420b7e7721064950c9e94184ed5bda2d5f In local subjects.
3f614ab0b4912a43b6ab194eadef0ceab9c7994c Determining the sides of the horizon by the signs of local objects gives only approximate results.
99f6fdbe87f24e2959b0120e6aff75995c204041 Therefore, it is recommended to use this method only in cases when it is impossible to use another method.
e6dc42eb284b3a74f2b2ebfb72151d031cb40d31 You can roughly judge the directions to the sides of the horizon by the following signs.
7e342e6e00d9d887578b67fd639d8bda75fc6ade The bark on free standing trees on the north side is usually rougher and more rough, sometimes covered with moss.
f3cf2af0b2bca219d53621f34f710751df35f7b9 The branches of the trees are thicker and longer on the south side.
d6d793d36457359bfbb4edfc79e177dc77eb7395 In addition, large stones, rocks, stone walls, old wooden roofs on the north side are usually overgrown with moss.
41dc9c223480264d3d05ce92db296f78ee2ea735 On the stumps of cut trees, the rings of annual growth are more densely located on the northern side and less often on the southern side.
2468a03fc8e06caf653771dd925a6f358f7df955 In winter, the snow near the trunks of trees and other objects begins to melt faster from the south side.
8af3815209d0726301e4c1bf2397ed51bcba17c7 In spring, the snow melts faster on the slopes of ravines and deep ravines facing south.
7225324ac8e3d1790c02f7232527cd2baa3a3b17 In the forest, the grass is usually thicker on the northern edges of glades and clearings than on the southern ones.
1215b706a4ea4c0326ddc8a12ea63bcc9d92540d On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly from the southern side.
0c0a192f1b06f49d6949739dcc0b6b17b61dc87e In Orthodox churches, the altars are facing east, and the crosses with the ends of the crossbeams are facing north and south.
dcafe7afb68a3a901ac65f13bdf16875caef4339 The entrances of the mosques face south.
a4b133e0da2ce50d0b2a338d4ab0d834702c56da The altars of the churches face west.
19b4b393919956b347b336ac3f5fc830415df38a Orientation on the map
80e55d9da11475d39218e5ecd5020891ddc9095a The map, as you know, serves as a guide when driving through unfamiliar terrain.
14a8ce7833f58bea59cf5d56e5bea0b6b63e26be A preliminary study of the area is carried out on the map.
e23cea30d44737c965e4dcb78b4186f149eb1434 The area on the map is represented by established conventional signs.
e94640a7b3e3fc3ab25731bcead882855debf030 The most common local objects and their conventional signs on the maps are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
76b3aa5d96ee160a4efc44388b7f8c87a6378c15 Maps are multicolored, on which it is customary to designate: water blue, forests green, highways red, improved dirt roads orange, terrain, i.e. terrain irregularities brown, other local objects black.
0e2808c41c9f413198c8be233e2d54e9554e46b1 The map shows the area in a reduced form.
5a62615fc60c3a97d0b7924a7f0951f69f9e0f95 The degree of reduction of all lines on the map compared to their actual size on the ground is called the map scale.
b07e82fdfdf3e82ad567492e3bee2e69f8cab50e The distances on the map are measured using a linear scale, which is located at the bottom of the map, near its southern border.
3bb1aa00716b93d1aefc9b506d9fa7f8e96b112f The linear scale is represented as a line divided by dashes into equal parts centimeters, which are signed with numbers.
51be4314d91cb8da01e0b18de253f17db8ec2f25 The numbers show how many meters (kilometers) of the area corresponds to the specified number of centimeters of the map.
f2bdee4fbfdcb26184a09a8061ceebf65140f45c To determine the distance between two points on the map, measure the distance between them on the map with a compass or a piece of paper, then apply this segment to a linear scale and determine the distance.
3ed3e96b188a2855a01b029d10839f9ecb96a3c7 Orientation on the terrain on the map is the most difficult, but also the most accurate way.
0e64d6343b86c6aadcb462347fee0d793967f65b To navigate in this way, using a map on the ground, you must first orient the map, i.e., placing it in a horizontal plane, give it such a position that the directions to local objects depicted on the map coincide with the directions to the same objects on the ground.
ce659370056556bdd56f880a0d7e788e175ef902 The map is guided by a compass or by lines on the terrain.
949b6ef7839761f960f8338af91f06f7538ce293 In this position, the upper line of the map frame will always face north.
5377d896d55f94a1afe23100316002f8835a0e5b This is called map orientation.
b2f3a539c01c3c9e6e220c0f0b3f250337f6393b The orientation of the map can be performed: with the help of a compass; by a linear reference point; by celestial bodies.
e38b84fd0b42d36c9047401bfe6d90d6f8dd58f5 When orienting the map by compass, first use a magnetic arrow to determine the direction to the north, then put the compass on the map and turn the upper side of the map frame in this direction so that the north south line coincides with the side frame of the map.
34c9b810587df9bf8e2829b2219857a8b66efdf6 Then, holding the map in a horizontal position, turn it until the northern end of the magnetic arrow coincides with the letter "C" or with a division of 0° along the compass limb (more precisely, with a division corresponding to the magnitude of the magnetic declination; the magnitude of the magnetic declination is always indicated on the diagram placed under the southern frame of the map).
49878725b2e22bb4c8185d56b2f5d14ab05f7e7b In this position, the map will be oriented to the cardinal directions.
4a21bc9b437022b49b3676619764a77ab711c040 To orient the map according to a linear landmark (road, power line, etc.), it is convenient to use straight local objects, such as roads.
421e74df9fd7d182ec7952212573980e1e6449cf Standing on the road, they find it on the map and then turn the map so that the directions of the road on the map and the roads on the terrain coincide, and the objects located on the right and left sides of the road are on the same sides and on the map.
25feb63a922e1dfb1ccec1f04d6085e4388c0d09 To do this, apply a ruler or pencil to the conditional landmark sign and combine the direction of the landmark on the map and on the ground.
61a0af397ed06286f5feb3efce043d0bdefddf71 In this case, the map will be oriented, i.e. its upper edge will face north.
5c08d8896421bcb012b9043cd75588a65662c253 Then they check whether all local objects and landforms located on the terrain to the right and left of the landmark have the same location on the map.
9fc8ce79de88e8b480791a1c46830f7700836644 If this condition is met, it means that the map is oriented correctly.
d62fa471f08ab1cbc566c4447ef879713a0a1411 When orienting the map by the celestial bodies, the direction to the north (where the upper side of the map frame should be directed) at night is determined by the Polar star Alpha.
5bf209c968cb43f9bc852ec768ece7b001725994 The Alpha star is found in the sky with the help of the two extreme stars of the "bucket" of the constellation Ursa Major.
b6bfa41af33f2380aad914289a5d90150fe36156 To do this, you need to mentally connect these stars with a straight line and continue it for about five times the distance, to the same bright star.
953303dacd5ea784f900fd6bbcb0845240a521ae This will be the Alpha star of the constellation Ursa Minor, which also has the shape of a bucket.
8e1eaad8f74ad7072fa60ba43e4c23e6bba9d014 During the daytime, the direction to the south can be determined by the sun (where the lower side of the map frame should be directed).
112f8304eb287fcf6716f828977313b064d82e82 A wristwatch is used for this purpose.
69ac356314fe95fa74e9130d3e0ede40e09baf73 In a horizontal position, they are installed so that the hour hand is directed at the sun.
597638ff9b4571a1da346c929a9b28fe1d86c1a6 The angle between the hour hand and the direction of the digit " 1 "in winter time and the digit" 2 " in summer time on the watch face is divided in half by a straight line that indicates the direction to the south.
e11e0bc1eb262f35a7df7e4eceb3cecacecf244f After the map is oriented, you need to find your point of location on the map and on the terrain.
5be69dbea4ff3f5c9b0f4de15d3a9d8adcdc0538 The position of the point of its location on the map can be determined in the following main ways: by the nearest landmarks to the eye; by measuring the distance; by the alignment and linear landmark; by the direction to the landmark and the distance to it.
bfb2720d7ca74230eb67191e6f1c8112d7266842 To do this, you need to find out which of the nearby local items is available on the map.
9341c6185c611910956391be2ef011faba05d2b1 The easiest way to determine your location on the map is when you are on the ground next to a landmark depicted on the map (a road intersection, a bridge, a mill, a separate building, etc.) or a characteristic feature of a linear landmark.
0e1ed2a8d231a4eead4d882b81ce0270aa391d45 For example, when you are on the highway at a railway crossing.
54c980d2c9628fac3a45acad27f25613a23dbd4b You need to find an image of a railway and a highway on the map.
33bc15ce401b060b158a2eb0996115c0750e390d The intersection of the axes of conventional highway and railway signs will indicate the location.
e565b7a8a11d1737d8beca41059b1c2e57ea3f7f In this case, the location of the conditional landmark sign on the map will coincide with the location point.
3fd04736684db9d04b0795dbbdfcc7643ef4436b Then, having determined by measuring or measuring your distance and position relative to the selected object on the ground, put the point of your location on the map.
51b70c21c38346927a9401d80a219aa53f1a28c4 If there are no such objects nearby, the location point is determined by the alignment of objects or by serifing.
46f2060eb54cc41f79f2542d4c0e9bb2cc7b0e85 By measuring the distance, their location is determined when moving along a linear landmark or along it (along a road, a clearing, along a communication line, etc.), as well as when moving along an azimuth.
bcd02f62d9d169744fc1d8288e9ba693be30ee42 At the same time, the speedometer reading is recorded at the starting point or the steps (pairs of steps) are counted.
67dd46c9d043a2e6c9aecc0125869419752fb5d2 To determine your location, you need to set aside the distance traveled from the starting point to the stop point on the map along a linear landmark.
502f55b010597343ed666a36e002206a4b03207b A target is a straight line passing through a standing point and two other characteristic points of the terrain (landmarks).
ca38c4b22f00dd43f01b3715e400c39e819edf58 When you are on a linear landmark, for example, on a road and in a alignment with two local objects, it is enough to draw a straight line on the map through the conventional signs of local objects forming the alignment to the intersection with the road.
9d36ff75b03ae490a164cc65f162a283825e6200 The point of intersection of the target line with the road is the location point.
720d734f3ed09806b89b3520aa0bead9f2f7421f If the location can be easily determined on the map (for example, a road intersection) and if another point (for example, a mill) is visible on the terrain, which is also depicted on the map, then the map is oriented in the direction from the first point to the second.
cc86aac67a42bb9881521fa770e67537f64991a9 This is how it is done.
f32c350505b14813513830633a30c74ab817b6fd You need to put a ruler (or pencil) on the map along the line connecting the standing point and the selected landmark.
8d9bf44986ac8314d816acdec36a452962708f70 Then, without moving the ruler, look along it, and turn yourself with the map until the selected landmark is on the line of continuation of the edge of the ruler.
c137dfbe960975d56e5f797b294c0c5fcf2aa5d0 If there is no landmark at the point of standing, then it can be determined by the nearest local objects.
80d8467a73d67618b0c27d873ae20445c7884315 To do this, you need to orient the map and find an image of two or three nearby local objects on it.
633162a83b6ea88052619a8838cbe2242bac6928 Then determine your location on the ground relative to these objects by eye and mark the point of location on the map by eye.
6b22a3fa7a608148b902c3201afd9349c0214fc3 Movement on the map
efc3b0d1b54af04f6bca1f6420e70392272fbcad When driving on roads with the help of a map, it is necessary to first study the route of movement, the existing landmarks on the way and on the sides, determine and remember the general direction of the path relative to the sides of the horizon, the location of your troops and enemy troops, paying special attention to and landmarks such as towns, crossroads, forest, bridges, etc. Then choose the main landmarks along the route (towns, crossroads and the fork in the road, bridges, a characteristic of the terrain), necessary to control the correctness of the movement, raise them on the map (make it more visible: draw a bigger, round sign with a red circle or highlight it in any other way), measure and remember (write down) the distance between them, to know in advance where and when each of the benchmarks to meet.
76eb2df26d998fc21474728259c7c6fe3f389b77 On the way, if it is necessary to check the correctness of the movement, they compare the map with the terrain, determining their location on it.
3ec2a1364e416a82c46c6ebac24d0403efdafaa6 Especially carefully check on the map the correctness of movement along the surrounding landmarks when leaving settlements, at intersections and forks of roads.
a50bb581dd726b5a2c9132f8503976bbeed8d022 Entering a forest or a piece of terrain that is poor in landmarks, they notice the time by the clock and then, knowing the speed of their movement, check their location on the map, determining the distance traveled from the landmarks by the time of movement.
42db1456b2ce1654c55bbdf1b1bf88dd9380e7f8 When driving off road, the planned route is previously studied on the map, it is clarified so that each turn of the path is clearly marked on the map by some kind of landmark.
6873e546966245864fed63f8e3c8bcb1d55378ee At the same time, it is useful to draw the entire route on the map.
40222d29110fcd12607155d2052df93e11ff731f In the future, moving in a given direction from one landmark to another, use the map in the same way as when driving on roads, comparing it with the terrain, for this, the necessary part of it should always be kept open and more often compared with the terrain.
50eb58ea0a252e7e31efb3270da308bac8b337b6 Movement by azimuth
533994d460bae371e2565e0b38dd62df7c7a7716 When driving on unfamiliar terrain off the roads, in the forest, at night, in fog, when there are no landmarks or they are not visible, the desired direction of movement is maintained by magnetic azimuths determined using a compass.
eeabe4e9cf8e9468e1ab2366cf0882c153345310 To do this, it is necessary to determine in advance the magnetic azimuths of the directions of movement from one turn of the path to another, as well as the distances that you need to go in each of these directions to reach the intended point.
baeff95d83cae02dc092c411c0b1ec3ac6d1302e These data are usually prepared in advance on the map and are drawn up in the form of a route diagram.
78c3f6bf7a87a6ea718cc93cab3c0f7b3ff7e504 All landmarks and the route of movement are applied to the scheme, the magnetic azimuth and distance are signed along each section of it.
21c17aaf2618896e6cf59ed2c8e633eba38b39a9 The magnetic azimuth is the angle formed by the direction of the northern end of the magnetic needle of the compass and the direction to the local object from the point of its standing.
f88a2b044e1d12fc858b30a712b3cdab11899cd9 Magnetic azimuths are measured clockwise in degrees; they can have a value from 0 to 360°.
04a28e39789b89e48b1781c86a7965e383b62a03 The measurement is carried out from the northern end of the magnetic arrow through the points "B", "Y", " Z " to the specified direction to the local object.
23ae18f9514ada0c4355a1376515c28f508dc902 To move along the azimuth using the compass in the desired direction, you must:
ca989d975b27fec9ef10a5269feb8b580135d879 — at the starting point from which the azimuth of the direction is set, it is necessary to stand facing the object (landmark) on which the azimuth is determined, while you need to hold the compass horizontally in your hand;
b2f91abd80b1815fdb447ba36a662aabcb26d000 - turn the compass cover until the front sight pointer is against the reference point equal to the specified magnetic azimuth, then lower the brake of the magnetic arrow;
df35a73b8a8950f64dbdcede447c681cf6a24e12 - release the brake of the magnetic needle and turn together with the compass, holding it with the slot to yourself, until the arrow is set with its northern end against the division " 0°" on the compass limb;
3c98ba3ab38288562ce4cc9f648f279f0bc4a1d3 - after letting the arrow calm down, turn the compass cover so that the slot — front sight line is directed at the object (landmark) and notice some landmark (bush, tree, hillock, etc.) on the continuation of this line on the terrain; the direction to it will be the one you need to move;
cfcca8feea1324172758c798d5fdf7287dbf4865 - read the countdown on the compass ring against the front sight pointer.
2c2a0092045ad79cf0a9ba9cb917251bfc555ac2 This count will be the magnetic azimuth of the direction to the selected landmark.
1dd584e522d1a9838e4a3c24efd2a52a3d7c31dd To move along a given azimuth, you need to know the azimuth of the direction of the path and the distance that you need to travel in order to reach the specified point or landmark.
afde67894898d2bfef2ed5224a87ce872ac1a5b6 This data is usually prepared in advance by the commander.
9ee5681916ff9bdd839e9c372e0cb3f3754dced7 The distances are specified in pairs of steps.
cb9f48c9fc72abe7927ec09e9335741fd668cbaf To maintain the chosen direction on the way, at the beginning of the movement at the starting point on the ground, the compass determines the direction according to the specified azimuth.
2f932996023d25b498fdbc27953679c23eee8d91 At the same time, it is necessary, strictly observing the intermediate landmarks planned on the ground (a bush, a stone, a hillock, etc.), to start moving towards them, keeping track of pairs of steps.
7ca65cb5f184f34bc69fffc5cd4fbac297e0f058 Having reached the planned intermediate landmark, determine the direction again (according to the same azimuth), mark the next intermediate landmark on it, go to it.
6af09766a14673235cb49a6244ff961f8b5e7ffe This is how they move from one landmark to another.
2947ff75b36801668e1e64c7005c53ad521d2b44 Having found the next landmark, it is necessary to move in the same order towards the next one.
44839ad9f74118f3bc85df5ddd39d5a51266fd14 Thus, from one landmark to another, the entire path is made until the intended destination is reached.
1eeb60b7b0b020875183652791d4bfd06b45fddb If the movement is supposed to be made along a polyline, then the commander indicates in the task the distances and magnetic azimuths for each of the straight sections of the path.
47197bf94fdc14476e42321244cbdf9bc454b9ad It also indicates the landmarks at the beginning and end of each section.
742ebc6abb307746345656e9f6b474557fa4ccaa All these data are schematically recorded on paper and guided by them on the way.
1590d86dad907de799f6c80e90422eaac77cd1ad For each of the straight sections, move as indicated above.
dc78bad92dc80c3baf0f31cf22c1caf6f7f16e41 In this case, if the specified distance along the azimuth is passed, and the landmark specified in the task does not appear at the turning point, you need to look for it near this point and, having found the landmark, continue moving further from it.
33694d713bfdd9962be2af4192d603fd669c49f4 If there is an obstacle on the way that needs to be bypassed, especially often this happens when bypassing impassable places (swamp, quagmire), then they do this: they notice some landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle in the direction of movement and determine the distance to it by eye.
9e1fada9e64a625b9432961d61e4cef8a5c7922d Having bypassed the obstacle, they approach this landmark, add the width of the obstacle to the distance traveled earlier and, having determined the direction of movement by the compass, continue the path.
bb45b30596df326277ac077285ec928175389f95 Preparation of combat graphic documents
7e6aad4b802e2f80749c8acc71b05e5409b68bbc The simplest graphic documents compiled by the commanders of guns and intelligence departments are cards and diagrams (for example, a map of topogeodetic binding, a diagram of landmarks, a diagram of the battery's battle order, a diagram of targets, a diagram of a report).
7198aa0dcb0d0fd3a9ffb7bb40b41cd8ab29e6fb These documents are compiled directly on the ground by eye.
b491aa126b8dc9d7c25bbe7d757ded8be733110c The following requirements are imposed on combat graphic documents: reliability of information and timely preparation of the document, simplicity and clarity of the image.
7f930ac9ef16a9dd95e73a148bfa2919ff075e8c Only verified data should be shown on them; everything that raises doubts should be specified.
48278a79c81372c0925c45bf9d29181512ba035e Each document must be submitted exactly by the specified deadline; submitted late, it loses its significance.
fd41c3884e339f42fba87fbdb3dc6715e67ce894 Only the information that is necessary for solving this problem should be applied to the diagrams and cards.
0cca2596156fe84401f56182aad9a0005b1f4e9f Documents should be drawn up with generally accepted topographic and tactical conventional signs.
b1830df8779ab37b53c191998a925b57694706c4 The general rules for drawing up cards and diagrams are as follows:
c56666ee3baf1ff4b7244dd6c27d467e4f5d19e2 - they are compiled on separate sheets of paper or in a notebook;
e86f42bc9ddb1b217a646854e9603e02fb271a5e — all the work is done with a simple pencil by hand;
7c10d069ea2f3ee76b34728a567a39e8f1e31379 — in cases where this is possible, information about the enemy is shown in blue, about their troops — in red, and about artillery in black;
a6b8da57f227fbb767a1a6ffd5dbbf670527917a — the top of the document (form) must always be facing the enemy; in addition, to orient the drawing relative to the sides of the horizon, a north — south arrow is drawn on it;
1ba39658eb7387494168010f24fabfb07536d152 - the measured distances necessary for drawing landmarks, local objects and goals are laid on the drawing by eye, while maintaining, if possible, their actual ratio to each other in length;
b73334572fd54b6e1b2608b0526b732f4fb40862 - the necessary conventional signs are drawn on diagrams and cards about one and a half to two times larger than on the map, and in a simplified form;
e9307c78531606ba4a100d4af6257d8cda13f99c - landmarks on the map of landmarks are drawn in perspective, i.e. as they are visible on the ground;
9154efd4dd40625ad069e78adf5fa8394364ad50 - the necessary additional information (about the enemy, terrain, etc.), which cannot be depicted graphically, is written in the margins of the drawing; such brief explanations are called a legend.
a82d7bc8339506a0282cca199a25ec14f6c1aba4 Photo by the author and Konstantin Khrichenko
bfac9631531c69a88ca6992c8c33eeff7cfe7e59 Thought
d55eebbd5395103a4a6d6094d43558fd0c2bf612 We are Russians, and therefore we will win.
e875013aa657e988d587b432dc64c039f9fca123 Alexander Suvorov
c5ec4786494c0ab40558af56ac123921264433f5 mail@bratishka.ru
5192b6f57ca402a5b6ce4cce3c42438b664717e1 Orientation techniques
5d709efebb6f36835583a637568709bcf09716b9 Measuring distances on the ground
4464b51f1d3bb46e522b1d86c8795c5801891ce7 To find the direction of the cardinal directions, first determine the direction north south; after that, becoming a face to the north, the determinant will have to the right east, to the left west.
5b477e2f96314dbefc73c9cfbd3f3b269cbf9f3f It is different for each locality and can be eastern (with a + sign) or western
3296dc100d20043699e4c7438afd246bb23dd328 (with a - sign ). The magnetic declination can be determined on the ground by sunrise and sunset or on the map.
e647f025ab21133bdc38ffa1a2f3a0ad6dbfab69 The inscriptions on the fixed scale of degree divisions (the price of division is 3°) are given clockwise through 15°, and thousandths in the opposite direction through 500 thousandths (5-00).
f3a1f1cf3feaca220fa3cf07b50091af9c87d249 Orientation on the map.
66a9614e50f9590c0c25304945b139da621e61a8 To do this, orient a large scale map along the lines of the terrain (along straight sections of roads, channels, glades, etc.), apply a compass with a zero diameter to the line of the true meridian and judge the magnitude and direction of the magnetic declination by the deviation of the magnetic arrow.
66833eb18575db5c17386138f5bdded3d97fb6c0 It should be remembered that in this case it is impossible to use power lines, railway lines, communication lines, etc.for orienting maps, since metal and electric currents will affect the readings of the magnetic needle.
27b8cea8cd800e0cd0e8f8f164c1b6e1bc92190d The magnetic declination is not a constant value.
e13bb1f1414703f18b3baaa05f89e84585a6431d It is a manifestation of the magnetic properties of the Earth.
0322975a441fb83b74f71984c3228f12b0e8bf44 On the territory of Russia, it varies quite widely.
3dfa5ea0905578e67b1c6f8eb21468317e62e7f8 Moreover, the magnetic declination even for the same point can be different, changing from year to year.
31c88fdfc69bb4dd18a8809b1e1f94c31bfa9a75 When the group moves along the azimuth, it is necessary to carefully maintain the direction and check the compass more often.
f6aca71eb9865316385b02cd2d9c1cade12f459b For a more accurate exit to the landmark, you should not assign very large distances between the turning points.
a94b33366fa3cfd1297f87cfbd5f7e451aaecbc3 In the case of avoiding obstacles on the opposite side of the obstacle, you should notice a landmark and, having bypassed the obstacle, continue moving along the azimuth from this landmark.
d205880549edd824ebede6f53b45be13bcaa3c06 By the Sun.
572bdc9a3db22be62423a2692bec34f84c6a0e0e The places of sunrise and sunset are different according to the seasons: in winter, the Sun rises in the southeast, and sets in the southwest; in summer, the Sun rises in the northeast, and sets in the northwest; in spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east, and sets in the west.
7e0a6c727b9813bc3673005a8a48be88ff0d01e3 At noon, the sun is always in the direction of the south.
5fe37b53a258d43a733dc8bc5ec731f430e07011 The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north.
8356c075933785b386dded8ebe46b559ea2056be By the sun and the clock.
ad618fb9f05e3484e82002a91940c9455a03ecf0 It is necessary to point the hour hand at the Sun, and the angle formed between the direction of the hour hand and the number 1 (13 o'clock) of the dial is divided by an imaginary line in half.
02009e9aecb16ebea52f894acbde3e279f6e6310 The line dividing this corner will indicate the direction: ahead - south, behind north.
20946314575a0cea957e8eca80269e5ee386da36 At the same time, it should be remembered that until 13 o'clock you need to divide the left corner, and in the afternoon - the right corner.
df5765286e01b3f0f198684fdb2107dce019d95b By the Polar Star.
d5d2ddedb7fb712939394f1a79004a118c1cf9fe The North star is always located in the north.
970ffbf7b9d84fb61c8e66fdf98ccb44ac4beeb8 To find the Polar Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a bucket made up of seven fairly bright stars, then mentally draw a line through the two rightmost stars of Ursa Major, on which to postpone the distance between these extreme stars five times, and then at the end of this line we will find the Polar Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation, called Ursa Minor.
c571353ebe76b2b23e8afe8f1cc2ddd3f6716c5e If we face the North Star, we will get a direction to the north.
01381624d551089a9df364a41011f948b48ca5fa By the moon.
9e2440f6ebbaa5c8ca69b279b902400f525d08e3 For approximate orientation, you need to know that in summer, in the first quarter, the Moon is in the south at 20 o'clock, in the west at 2 o'clock in the morning, in the last quarter at 2 o'clock in the morning - in the east, at 8 o'clock in the morning - in the south.
65b87a0ca3b10eb60704983d75521ab09c7545b4 When the moon is full at night, the sides of the horizon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock, and the Moon is taken for the Sun.
9e6ad5d625f6a748155551dea6f0bf1823b578d6 By the melting of the snow.
a0eb6a9d60c527a5a424555874928d08b38df03b It is known that the southern side of objects heats up more than the northern side, respectively, and snow melting from this side occurs faster.
8b6ad7c13846f315c1003956a242234f3401cc06 This is clearly visible in early spring and during thaws in winter on the slopes of ravines, holes near trees, snow stuck to stones.
cd8d118f269cf8b71016a50a5e8ea380d6931e65 By the shadow.
764c3d2fb57ae24727e87821206c6bc50aed7eed At noon, the direction of the shadow (it will be the shortest) points to the north.
b0938b6c148c4275699e231a860f4ba8daaded0b Without waiting for the shortest shadow, you can navigate in the following way.
2f4b36482bd5eb2f0daebab6f3f31f466d0c8fc7 Stick a stick about 1 meter long into the ground.
3ad2f8f840b873be260c805f712aa91c7e2b7ad8 Mark the end of the shadow.
2638fdc7633923a103de573b823715324d89211f Wait for 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure.
e8bff611586696344874c6b3a1abbaf958522849 Draw a line from the first position of the shadow to the second and extend it a step beyond the second mark.
b39ba94c4ea1e8d997ac95c24b8e27f037c97452 Stand with the toe of your left foot opposite the first mark, and with your right foot at the end of the line that you have drawn.
b814ea644e0370836b0a6e864552fc277d0194ed Now you are facing north.
756a91566aeb555924d4a6213a91c0f63331b3b0 It is known that the resin protrudes more on the southern half of the trunk of a coniferous tree, ants arrange their homes on the southern side of a tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill more gentle than the northern one.
bf3e1b3ef7c9e48feaf1051ef133e23bc512075c The bark of birch and pine trees on the northern side is darker than on the southern side, and tree trunks, rocks, and rock ledges are more densely covered with moss and lichens.
ec398b6fe51ec82d22f53c950f22c6ed7d6b8d06 By buildings.
36ab886520d6ac1199f071a2c956a8dc98923c40 The buildings that are quite strictly oriented on the sides of the horizon include churches, mosques, synagogues.
99bc0fb7b58f1c0964616dc3657eec0b351ef92f Altars and chapels of Christian and Lutheran churches face east, bell towers face west.
f292aa1518649a9be6b3d0b0c86dc5025858d48d The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the Orthodox church is facing south, the raised one is facing north.
0767dcf41a695f508092553f1cc1fca3dc844bac The altars of Catholic churches are located on the western side.
ab79d4aa368b6d43150ad1db472cd37cb7888122 The doors of synagogues and Muslim mosques face approximately to the north, their opposite sides are directed: mosques - to Mecca in Arabia, lying on the meridian of Voronezh, and synagogues - to Jerusalem in Palestine, lying on the meridian of Dnepropetrovsk.
91e18cec54cf8a9a7ff29cf5f500f2190472e338 Idols, pagodas, Buddhist monasteries are facing south with their facades.
59e5fc7283c6f89ee08610ef854606c5eeda6255 The exit from the yurts is usually made to the south.
d94338cb718f08df46866960e874bfa6bcef3665 In rural houses, more windows are cut in residential premises from the south side, and the paint on the walls of buildings from the south side fades more and has a withered color.
0c47129b7e74ab2a77753bb14005714ae89e494a Determining the local time without a clock: if the clock is broken or lost, the local time can be found with relative accuracy by measuring the azimuth from the Sun. Having determined the azimuth, its value must be divided by 15 (the value of the rotation of the Sun in 1 hour), the resulting number will indicate the local time at the time of reference.
edacc5a89fc45ef40a27faa3fd714822e33a7c65 For example, the azimuth of the Sun is 180°, so the time will be 12 hours.
fb9449930a0931f289d8988d01c55b770f740cea Orientation in the forest.
a1711bf90666af3af2134ea3737fab7d46074f9f There are recommendations in the literature for determining the sides of the horizon by the crown of trees.
c6f2aa53a3316f4cd35f518b8897f264a9b9ba20 But the indication that the crown of trees on the southern side is more luxurious, and the annual growth rings of wood on the stump of a cut tree are wider from the south than from the north, is not always confirmed.
c8cd09d94d70a1c68949b3994eff144e0b8af04f The fact is that in a remote forest, trees cover the neighboring trees located to the north of them with their shadow.
49fb8b3cb43e9a741ec75677c856202ca254eed8 Therefore, longer and thicker branches in the middle of the forest can be directed not only to the south, but also to the north, east, west, i.e. to where there is more free space.
d880687dab551a63c67d78767042359231fe8fa6 In this regard, the annual growth of the next layer of wood is formed from the side from which the tree develops better.
e95e323dba4fdcd042987a48a03e27572b965d2b So, not necessarily from the south side.
700e417b3a4496a9cff930460d1e9812d8304a29 And if we also take into account the fact that the development of the crown of trees, as well as the width of the growth of wood, is constantly affected by the direction of winds, moisture, then the conclusion is clear.
6e8ef1df43fa6255c387058d658a10df430d8821 But it cannot be true for all regions of the country.
ca9cb75e20cf700bc534c005a4ee2d4f9ebf5b10 An exception may be the North, where there is much less heat and light from the sun than moisture, and where trees develop better towards the south.
253b7d07a247e4d5d4d274e9f70c1988fba257d6 In the middle latitudes of a temperate climate, in particular on the territory of Ukraine, only trees standing in the open can determine the north south direction.
9dad1da980eb14bd52ec6170a5e6e417d4d253ee The sides of the horizon in the forest can be determined by the bark of trees.
831b267c75ce3197196efada62fae7ac9434fa7e It should be remembered that the southern side of the trees, receiving more heat and light than the northern side, has a drier and lighter bark.
826385c46deb8f1b9c9749858a479bd998159d2a This is especially noticeable in coniferous forests.
fb78c29a1b771a6451508262f1a0c68c49144c2f In addition, on the more illuminated side of the trees there are characteristic inflows and clots of resin that retain a light amber color for a long time.
cc97bd041b5c29b51eea464c3fda4c86ce1fcc78 It should be borne in mind that pine trunks are covered with a secondary crust.
0264cd07d3d33215cacadb567692fbc3a5284c12 On the northern side, this crust is formed much less often than on the southern side.
c6c9bd1dcabe6f57bb10a36dff4c1e5e8d032ceb And after the rain, the pine trunk turns black from the north.
f1cc90cec15913ca3d66374b8b9f109f0b7977c3 This is due to the fact that the secondary crust, which forms on the shady side of the trunk and goes higher along it than on the southern side, swells and dries slowly during rain.
46bf3979aa8a41c91a15719f6f3a0a00cee922ee This creates the impression of the black color of the northern side of the pine trunk.
94b98734ef6c1aae41a09a0af9fff9385a8b55ad The sides of the horizon can also be determined by deciduous trees.
6fc73d792da0f8f413d91a3a25a42d77e1f45adc So, the trunks of aspens, and especially poplars, are covered with moss and lichens from the north.
f8729d21e047aa08005969a9d5393a69d51845d4 And even if the lichen has grown all over the tree, there is more of it on the northern side, where it is more moist and dense.
54aaaf774fefdb0be2b60abfbf421ac1730b29b2 This is especially noticeable on the lower part of the trunk.
4b83bb858c5670cee526af092cd2d2834c72f110 And the bark of the white birch on the south side is always whiter compared to the north side.
b69e4ade20d75333c365aa1379394b5547a5d7c0 Cracks and irregularities, growths cover the birch on the north side.
f7ed485394bced18f000c43f75abdb8060a5c67b And given that the birch is very sensitive to winds, the slope of its trunk will also help to navigate in the forest.
3bed7be828d1d4a566ffcbadf433e8af361c050d To determine the sides of the horizon, you can use large stones and boulders.
54a84ac8a43b5e6b2aa3ca195b931b947a44495f Their northern side is covered with lichens and moss, which do not like heat and light.
86262568c9814ff06ca743329e5b3f15f57a008c And the soil near such a stone will help if there are no lichens and moss: the soil on the north side of such a stone is more moist than on the south.
01af8ed829e8788e7b7378bf817f55444473635f Its inhabitants will also help you navigate in the forest.
498fc47cf3a3f9683c8e50171077f6c1ee9fa349 So, the squirrel arranges its home only in hollows located on the opposite side of the prevailing winds.
1111f9c65ee99c7e49914c8e10cc0fb5a55066fb And the anthills are located on the south side of a tree or stump.
5ee967bc3e37e71e70f209366cfd60b8d58c33a7 Moreover, its southern side is sloping, the northern side is steeper.
71a0c01b770dffce7699f1cd411c839ea78e0768 In spring, the snow melts faster on the slopes of ravines, hollows, recesses facing south.
46ced4e4ea1ace10954b8b10d92c5af5b6628a85 The grass in spring is higher and thicker on the southern side of individual stones, buildings, forest edges, and in summer, with prolonged heat, it remains greener on the northern side.
92922bc0d666b05c14052c1a46d07a535c6e7299 In the cultural forest, clearings are cut along the lines: north south, east west.
895c056513e7c40195f4cde3dd8dca01fcf70565 On the column at the intersections of the squares in the upper part of the number the numbering of the opposite square.
cb577cfaf1d82218bab3875eec85e65aad77b9ce The edge of the column between the two faces with the smallest digits shows the direction to the north.
92ccf3881043834a5e94fcf6c3147853b8ba139e The numbering of blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south.
2d2fa3ecfb2a2fd9501a62da17aac7bc36fb5905 In large tracts of cultural forest, it is possible to determine the sides of the horizon by glades, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the lines of north south and east west, as well as by the inscriptions of the block numbers on the pillars installed at the intersections of the glades.
ca8357b77fb082e4e5d3d3639ba4d929e6a3128e On each such column in its upper part and on each of the four gr anya puts down the numbers the numbering of the opposite blocks of the forest; the edge between the two faces with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north.
467d199d04876a2957f8b9a7d8e00ba049459163 In the conditions
979958c72634fa91cfb0bdae9744da8eb358bfcb it is very important for travelers to be able to determine the distances and sizes of objects without the help of devices.
64c59603b902948fe560eee689abe397246ec177 The ability of a person to assess by eye without the help of devices, the distance to the objects around him and the size of objects is called an eye.
10576d77e3ff5045244e40fa8ac233a20ac37a6d This is an individual feature of a person, but it can be developed through constant and patient exercises.
ca791e3516976cd2b0e8e9934680b20f4d40851b The ocular determination of distances is performed in various ways.
67e1a946d1aa510daec9f944c7cc0ba41934fe2f You can determine the distance by the visible details.
8ce524ae37e21178fb55da37481858fe96474526 For a more accurate determination of the distance by visible details, it is necessary to follow the data given in the table.
335fbaa747cb632d2ef0347edbe2647015329074 Table of visibility of some objects during the day.
783b258d1d6a136f43898f8d31535b0f1461bf8d Name of the item
423208095dd7fc394399b8c356f8f00cd260869b Distance
f3ef6aae80fbdeda149ad02a619e95ecd2ced640 Large towers, churches, grain elevators
45621082ae479fb1e5dcfbf3effca2bb33d89c42 16-21 km
842fedb530cf29169ff174573b2f8a579366cd9f Windmills
336124eb347b777311ace57b1c35d2c19a29a008 11 km
e761cb8510670925f0f6ca38a3b8fc204ce14ab0 Villages and large buildings
40d811c785aa08f0d49c586fc7ce31e12aa7ac76 9 km
a382362d8133b025b043ea856b933ec0389d5569 Factory Pipes
669c7efaade26bce42532bfe1de45092d46fedfd 6 km
5dd079489a13d4fc51122aee7e4a61b62da76714 Individual houses
7bda6edd162a360fd79532f4b14f1927b7dc20bf 5 km
36653a497d24ef455d55551b4f6961d5400b8e69 Windows in houses without bindings
32ace1fc1e478e25f743cd4a540e0364f7fbbff5 4 km
0f1e51a47c4bb3a8894947614a290e1a53c1a833 Pipes on roofs
7a72e563bb1d963884375acb57cf2171875f1344 3 km
7e1f2103ce8fe2b23e2558e00ff201d0d467a20b Individual trees, people
8067ebaab2f3379d2b6d33b6c5a67020a6b67d35 2 km
8b1d32d640d5dba58e04d66558af98f148e11994 Kilometer poles and other poles
3c8777df9588b6601102e76627a2b72b52d5006b Horses (legs differ)
d36151aaefc526e040f6cacc6c8d6e48d86b95d1 700 m
07d186b3e5c601b60fbfcf38741a5c8b8b20fa24 Bindings on the windows
668ed186d87cb0702f93305c1835961f113869d8 530 m
1b065d98900573a83c0a69cb6ef16f7ce4d0038b The human head
83633cf1662cb227baa66de5edab759312c797ca 400 m
10619341110435c27092b53fd6e6c140fda51709 Clothing colors
fb5370844953b2f87c91d7a7a751b6d9eaf83469 270 m
78e6d49cc8338bd75d86e80e834a3afee51248fd Tiles and boards on roofs
d0c5c7766f36abdbed66df40a2dae53ec9d6dfc2 210 m
503d46db37b0db45db898aabed77244252918ca2 Buttons
7db88cba66c5864a6aeffe73756815cb511d72c2 160 m
9fbca6929fc9f34ac9beda688a3de9da17392ccd People's faces
6f08885196ce84124ded38f236d635fc05db6119 Facial expression
2955a142e7de802243048df5e792aa849b81b330 110 m
62be7f51429e4e104e01fe3131805c3195ede1d0 Eyes
1f91cb209f2f6f44742569600054b1af778e608e 60 m
fb262fe254882652f467ac872e25164703bf4da3 Whites of the eyes
9493c22f9ccfcb63792118c45a52f78448c86504 20 m
f88d5ba1e56f1ba43b4cca2b65e4c7ecd6725bbe Table of visibility of some objects at night
0214188ec9608d630209556866027dd080744c72 The phenomenon of Distance
3646c5d6b2ebd49267ea066eac77e8995cedc2c1 The glow of the fire for 6-8 km
562737d21b73fe41286070be77d80cb2982c37d7 Flashes of rifle shots for 1.5-2 km
53965305552fcf5bc0a9261d8933970c1613b0cb The light of a normal flashlight for 1.5 km
6819402a3171a2b7e6599e8abf03bd8778d89ec6 The light of a lit match for 0.5 km
0d6c3e02b75e8cdd1d14daf9f531a168b50ec512 The light of a cigarette for 0.5 km
d1c0c09bc28a683b1db8ffb0f6f65d73188ffb06 In the conditions of travel, there is a need to measure the distance to inaccessible objects.
2c2e645634d844ddf61794e8d765f24ba20202d2 For example, it is necessary to measure the distance to a person walking along the river on the opposite bank.
d50f61865198fd9c5a0516fce86f7c783ae20aae To do this, you should extend your hand in the direction of the pedestrian's movement and look with one right eye at the end of the finger, waiting for the person to block it.
e718f780119abc70ab7ddb18e8da3913418bea78 And at the same time, it is necessary to close the right eye and open the left.
3a741583c870985e68ac499bff2c6f0bd907b3ed The person will jump back as if.
2d386497682a432fee608ee52fae3f927c379a17 It is necessary to immediately count how many steps the pedestrian will take before he again comes level with the finger of the researcher's outstretched hand.
9391ae5d50e7896daac501c7c9738fce175ee6ab The distance from the researcher to the person on the other side of the river is determined from the proportion: D:I =L:G, from where D=PX(L:P).
56d6064c36ddcd49d42831662fb1743e460152c0 Example: The distance between the pupils of the eyes G=6 cm, from the end of the outstretched arm to the eye L=60 cm.
afee168497d7c0566977cf3d1b40399049eb9c3b A pedestrian has walked a distance N equal to 18 steps; the average step is 75 cm.
2dcfed2d5d415146d00ab831ef49923553b126c1 Substituting these values into the formula, we get: D= 18X(60:6) = 180 steps or 180X0.
fd8c7d15af68d22823af7b3ba011b703324fd0a0 75=135 m.
a3e65d599011d4cb5f7d3e562b14d0e2ecf77e40 When crossing a river or stream on the route, it becomes necessary to determine the width of the river.
1250ce44a0d04721569373dbd8dadd5091e5e04d This can be done with a blade of grass.
eb59d43adcd95e32953f952ad9eceb213223fbf2 To do this, it is necessary to choose two noticeable objects on the opposite bank of the river in the immediate vicinity of it, and, standing on the other side of the river with outstretched hands, in which a blade of grass is clamped, you should close the gap between the selected objects.
e46e780325066b7ef543ecf9ecefeeae9034c2db One eye should be closed.
f4bf3216a29b298e0b1e5fdc54163798dae1c400 After that, you should fold the blade of grass in half, move away from the shore until the distance between the selected objects is closed with a folded blade of grass.
70e803a359993fac2d0469ffae49df6997bdb7cb Having measured the gap between two standing points, we get the distance to the opposite bank, i.e. the width of the river.
382ab8e7929b0024e806a1cd2a449473219c99d3 Determining the size of the shadow and its height.
4ee75cc0093522125e9aa65c54083a625ae14b31 The height of objects can be determined by the shadow of the desired object, by its height.
d197d88b62ba1b8520491a44fada98638cee9061 To determine the height of an object by its shadow, it is necessary to put a stick in the shadow of this object (for example, a tree) near its top and measure the length of the part of the stick covered with shadow.
9b73d026fb47878ae5dc9d37a1da177a22426f0a Then WB: AB=DG :AG, from where DG=AG(WB : AB), i.e., dividing the length of the shadow covered part of the stick by the distance from it to the top of the tree shadow and multiplying this number by the length of the shadow, we get the height of the object (tree).
d392bd9535b0c72fd2416152c8d5379590af544a The height of the object according to its height is determined as follows.
1a7129227201ddae00f7d119f5bbba122400ecd1 It is necessary to move away from the tree at a certain distance AD, lie down with your head to point A and your feet, between which the stick is clamped, to the tree at point B so that our ray of vision passes through the top of the stick to the top of the tree.
90a5a2844f6908806306f110804ecf047dc71b5a Then 5D=LDX X( SV AB).
456a624cd3ef931ba4435063f3c96c674067c322 Determination of the distance by standards.
4155c38fc16eb574ce1171268ccfe566d7190b51 The distance can be determined using standards - accurate measures.
d1302330471aa15c7b3d6d69fd7bd167c1bcc017 The standards can be different parts of the human body, measurement data of different objects with standard dimensions:
d73885f1ed428c31d36738fccc2053d6826916fa 1. 10 cm is the length of an adult's index finger.
eaa7e65d025c05d02f2b5ad8ace081ed32e90c6f To measure it, it must be bent at a right angle to the palm.
025bca8433e76f5ece6d14635c64ed9e977838ec If the finger is shorter than 10 cm, then its length must be recorded and remembered.
b04e458adf895a6199b173a8953f95d8e593afb4 You will need it during the campaign;
a93c7db180c3213526d35d6db0b8dae2bf7fd8e6 2. 10 cm - the distance between the freely separated ends of the little finger and thumb, when the hand is lying on the tablet without tension;
7c992b4e8881aef43542cad77e85c36b44d9252c 3. the height of a person with a raised arm, if the hand is bent back;
1247bfd986862ae75d677ee1a264c887ea5a0ad7 4. height from the floor to the waist of a person;
d8f92dd09a51b4e6c3027758d0b16b431fb1fc63 5. the distance between the fingertips in the "hands to the sides" position is equal to the height of most people;
81c7e9e0a5bffeab4524cb9da39da8e49a4acfc0 6. The average stride length of an adult is approximately half of his height when measured to eye level.
d49d755b7d3e5a4d92b31293c90d04ce5baafdc6 It is practically established that the length of one's step can be determined by the formula: P/4 +37, where P is the height of a person in centimeters;
36ecab1468591bba34d63685aab1c7132b6d2ba5 4 and 37 are constant numbers.
1c735a9595114a0e60be71aff360d2b14b75ee93 For example: with a height of 120 cm, the step length will be equal to - 120/4 +37=30+37=67 see
7c89c18089c9f81227364cfdadcb3dec2e6855dd 7. The distance from the eye to the base of the index finger of the outstretched hand is 57 - 60 cm.
0faaa6d7576d605d0a648cf42d78a544ee92d96e This value can be used to find the value of any angle.
12c324af754e0f7e996423dda69ed2386d73b6ce It is known that at the specified distance, each centimeter has an angular value of 1°.
7411a7dc060376988f89bd9f85ae6ad500837fff Since the length of the index finger is 10 cm, it is enough to bend it at the base at a right angle to the line of the entire hand and the meter is ready: an angle of 10°is formed between the end of the index finger and its base, i.e. the bend.
91b92183b58f9f4ae12b23fe1924b9dc1d452679 The determination of the value of any angle in degrees is done as follows: the index finger bent at a right angle at the base on the outstretched hand is set at eye level.
44814f9dd6f12cae1cf132d867e66cd949008625 It is necessary to look with one eye, preferably with the right, and keep your head straight, all the time in one position.
e85d62a3f121bcab1ad14a755beda52787b07f6a After that, they begin to lay their measure in a straight line connecting two objects, between which the angle is determined.
2b81238d3734b4a0ef209bc45c0973c52ae267d1 By aligning the end of the finger with one of the objects, it should be noted what the other end of the finger is against.
548c4ee7f121e014123de3219d4a120823d0b10e This will be 10°.
b3d91cbff900f6d41caf58d60f64d3592681c26a Then, moving the finger in a straight line and combining its end with the marked place opposite which the finger bend was before, we find a new place of bending - here the next 10°ends.
d3740241b81fa1d9cb85323b582256a6124dae22 This is already 20° from the beginning.
1cc9663739ef14b218e459175489856622d99c4b And so you need to reach the second object, which limits the angle.
8fdf8d0b347970115884edd1fa6bd36626e85d97 It is quite possible that it will lie somewhere in the middle of the finger.
f1e0e0de6272c8ce58e1acd1bc37e0886e507f1f In this case, it is important to determine by eye how many tenths of the finger will be between its end and the sighted object.
12b0022466c8a1fa6ad63cac2699ec5c68841e9e This number of whole degrees will need to be added to the tens of degrees measured before this.
40892450e9adb6034bc09e850aaf478e4167ccd9 For example, the finger is laid completely 3 times, after which there is still 4/10 of its length.
a80e3afba8cea5a47b530406cf925624cf833da1 This means that two objects lie at an angle of 2G".
95dcd7a199dc80e6494f01e1a43ea2ae314d6420 While performing this work, you can not change the position of the hand relative to the body body and the eye.
843a9ede57fa4084de0dbeaa92fbe8d4cb956f9f It is necessary to slowly turn the body after the finger.
53b6bd3c498eb44fc65a7be9e4c0d8f5ab777084 8. From the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger, if you hold your outstretched hand directly at eye level and perpendicular to the direction of vision, - 22.5°.
0f93d340f54572ac59c93b6ee83c6bc01120f4c1 This measure can be used to measure large angles (from 45°).
ceb4471962886854f5aebc8cf067e59a65a8eb08 The above ratios between the parts of the human body are approximate and are given as constant values for a person of average height.
9fdc9fef722b6a3ad70b17411a1963175f86ae30 In children and adolescents, even of the same age, these values are not the same, since this is due to growth and individual characteristics.
d308d01ca21205421b1290ae6b81bbcc88712afa Therefore, it is desirable that every tourist, preparing for a hike, determines and records his measurements.
4f305275ac81c1ac7e4dd836f34e344c4f867a1a Such items that have constant standard sizes (a sapper's shovel, a tourist hatchet, a matchbox, a pencil, a coin) can also serve as standards.
cf6590403887222b33e71d4c112782dd35f22578 Tourists always have these items with them, and they can always be used.
f14d05d381a95b0b79dce30b4b7394a8a7624365 Depending on the area of travel of southern tourists, you can make a table of distances yourself according to the degree of visibility of local objects characteristic of this area.
d5041b2faca4dc5788ea467f74c67734e4dbff68 Measuring the distance in steps.
01f69926e540e039d48031dffea5cc33bf5398b7 To get the most accurate results, you need to know the step length.
c9ccb3c29ca828533e5a000b2ef9c18e07f3d513 Both when checking the length of the step, and in field conditions when determining the distance, it is best to consider the steps as triples, since under this condition the distance traveled will be obtained directly in meters.
cb7de4b2a3c24284780b056518992280e3072a2b The accuracy of this method of measuring distances depends on the nature of the terrain, on the experience of the observer, on weather conditions.
767c96370a310ebab7a32451d44672b48c8c2bb3 You can measure the distance and the time spent on walking.
b7e017304c76d213ba47712ffaa212cd000c37ee To do this, you need to notice the number of hours and minutes spent to travel a known distance.
06f334b222f40926f0668135ea5eec523dbf344b A person walks as many kilometers in 1 hour as he takes steps in 3 seconds (with a step length of 0.83 m).
b524d43300358418c4e950b7e508f4f8d9b014d5 In 1 hour, a person passes 5-6 km.
5c14c6d7e1e672fa988ee1d2ded7245a72fcda4f It should be borne in mind that in hiking conditions, many natural obstacles affect the walking speed.
c783b52ca511e87d79c832d5e4e522c43b2696d0 So, at an altitude of 2500 - 3500 m above sea level, the speed of movement decreases by 25%, above 3500 by 50%.
e6e3abfa081bf0341c4bc0bf02054abbe5d060fa When driving in the thaw, on clay and saline soil, the speed slows down by 50%, on a hummocky meadow and on virgin land with a dense grass cover - by 25%.
ff816dfa48e156fed63ae210bc76ed1f96e99778 A strong headwind with thick dust can reduce a person's walking speed by 50%, a downpour, a blizzard - by 10-15%.
57ac72105e64083baffc2c4462394902a35f4e40 A table of the average sizes of some objects for estimating distances
f1b9fdba8d6bdf7f58e7032d2d9ebabcd858ad5b Distance (in meters)
0e9e99c62b15466d0030eb1dd829bfcf5f606c15 Pedestrian height 1.75
91007266b780c7e84f141d8286401f4aff567776 The height of the rider is 2.50
ae80ca713019d66b92ff374b6deeea1dbcae10cc Horse length 2.13
0a7c235e5375e130883225f46eaf39dacc259b3d The height of the cyclist is 1.75
ea81387bb3d0c47fc2863ed36499a377164ace40 Height to uzova passenger car 1,90
bf183b0df561bc5dfdb53b02816fdac0b3b0d1b5 The width of the car body is 1.50
5976fcaa69309ff5e0bf947561d6899f4e99cee3 Width of the truck body
2cc27a22c7464854193c68a1c8d884796b57ff24 2,00
18b7fd3f3509b0b58af9de0d0243461f790587cb The height of the railway car is 4.25
14043b55af67cd7fc4c3d6de07d71e7ff328e7d2 The height of the railway booth is 4.00
00e7f909d996504adfa79e0cd667ce2738f0359f The width of the railway track is 1.52
18e3bc2611a49375d4d726c974d54344f89214cf The length of the sapper shovel is 1.10
83d2990909bbe578a0576c65f9cb64d22fb082ad The length of the outstretched arm is 0.60
a4e78c2f8e47f81e359244faa32d3e2069bb1753 The solution of the hand between the ends of the thumb and index finger is 0.18
3fb42050e8cc22c15009beca145619f32500738e Table of the audibility of some sounds
b4e3efeba10e84f7148da9f7efe85e07057d7c7a Sound
96f874ac7005f6b647be4811b59a6c51a3a4d754 Driving a car on the highway for 2 km
e7cd597550d649bc8aefacea82ea09b48a99c7a3 Driving a car on a dirt road
782983a072f0c5f8dcc2666e9b7c03908a0ff7d8 for 1 km
2ca0dd46d0e0cf2112d6371d2a4a0d0293465a4b The hum of an airplane in the silence of the night for 40 km
7bc489f85c34d7361fd8db99dca8560cdb46f8b8 A rifle shot from 1 km away
10f71d5d3ab77224586bca565ddf75cc3a5ae8a0 The sound of horse hooves in the silence of the night for 0.5-1 km
395feff4927839678dcc1aaf30d48e6bfd358eed The crash of falling trees for 800 m
e56837df852a131bfac97d26b183636f69d9a5e4 Driving stakes manually for 300 m
ec628a9bd4c92519070b3dec42707e91eeb615a2 Logging, axe blows for 300 m
e4ebf8948a9c2459324418da738a2887232af264 Conversation (indistinctly audible) for 200 m
a91231b1085af0e9dce82645bc4851ae4e52f44e Conversation (you can make out the words) for 75 m
c4289ca7cbdfacfd3f93dee2d527b42850035a10 Cough for 50 m
ead07a12d411f96311f68505aca1a9ca27094d58 Steps over 30 m
282f2a55ec58ebc5d43e78c22e979676b6f3c899 THE WORLDWEAPON CATALOG OF WORLD WEAPONS.RU
d2a2ea034f0c878929274ba5d1bee54065cdbbd2 By Type Helicopters Ships Planes Tanks Infantry Weapons Mines
bd9ddecaf0555796f0aef9bc1ad4de2a23bd3c5a By country Russia USSR USA Ukraine
566539ce297bda7d071e3fed2f64ca708c8cb6de News Articles Articles Topography Tactics Other
7751d915a4327d0ecf931d933a5ca414df7691b2 Articles Topography Tactics Other
ede181a40935f2a95df67642a3ce5ef1da7e5de9 Sniper (3)
336dc4ff10fadb67c732c022990be50cad178c48 Soldier (5)
98c308d364be4dbc44697b81c83906ed9ad400b7 Engineer (4)
0f3b66b0d41ec3931103a3fd7d4c264984182375 Knife (5)
ea5c75fdbcebe06108b829feba5676273e808cd3 Motorized rifle squads (1) Scout (15) Civil Defense (10)
272971716c6a24d71585fb49efdd092345d41086 ORIENTATION ON THE TERRAIN WITHOUT A MAP
402d041c88091a5a27fe7f8b616d3e219d81a376 Weapons and Armament > Tactics > Civil Defense > Orientation on the terrain without a map
a43736b4d2e2e38cd5011b39259ce12d3e95bbc8 The essence and methods of orientation on the terrain
bd04df73b0763e10921a3c94de471fceb67a67b2 When performing many combat tasks, the actions of squad commanders (crews, calculations) and soldiers are inevitably associated with orientation on the terrain.
78766b4f83f627c5a816175243c8a472261c9c32 The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on the march, in combat, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on the map (terrain scheme), controlling the unit and fire.
ec791ea8400d43f6995834a1ea7358416a2e7f42 The knowledge and skills in orienteering secured by experience help to perform combat tasks more confidently and successfully in various combat conditions and on unfamiliar terrain.
70e7e7dc3fcbf1d32d58e38e1e05375d8c74f86d To navigate the terrain means to determine your location and directions to the sides of the horizon relative to the surrounding local objects and landforms, to find the specified direction of movement and accurately maintain it on the way.
58b8e8470db98474aee03bd77b23533be6b91caf When orienting in a combat situation, they also determine the location of the unit relative to their troops and enemy troops, the location of landmarks, the direction and depth of actions.
dd1459e8044108a4f1bc0396bab612a04afa1beb Landmarks are divided into areal, linear and point based ones.
6f9a7286db42c711a3c67e51ddbc33f08c0fd092 Linear landmarks are local objects and landforms that have a large length with a relatively small width, for example, roads, rivers, canals, power lines, narrow valleys, etc. They are used, as a rule, to maintain the direction of movement.
f3b692e3a7842bd82352173b40f780b673f5c9ae Point landmarks include pipes of factories and factories, tower type buildings, repeaters, road intersections, overpasses, peaks of mountain peaks, pits and other local objects that occupy a small area.
0362632f68cb4f40749715b9840117d40944ed31 Confident orientation on the terrain largely depends on the correct choice of landmarks.
3fa8b21a951d19e8784cf6e4738b823f59c79683 So, to maintain the direction of movement during the day, they choose landmarks that can be easily identified even when approaching them, for example, tower type buildings, individual trees, i.e. point landmarks.
768f60b88622a913eb548f3ed6b3674839ff19ab However, at night, such landmarks differ slightly from a distance, so with limited visibility, mainly linear and areal landmarks are used.
257f4846b43fc505fe31eb63ffc5d326705820fb Thus, when choosing landmarks, it is always necessary to take into account the conditions in which the unit will operate on the ground.
03964148ac18c7aaf11dedf65949f2d68c4f9dd5 In a combat situation, along with determining their location and direction of movement, landmarks are used for target designation, unit control and fire in combat.
a59ff68ed5c542809eb821f07d72e4403e0b480b They are appointed by the senior supervisor.
7c944679d43e91bd4ce0df656d0cb34b4517a7d4 If necessary, the unit commanders choose additional reference points.
e5f9d987c0e5d943864701402d03276284054f5f As landmarks, you should choose the most stable local objects and landforms, such as heights, embankments, road forks, etc., which can be preserved on the battlefield.
5b55b22fb50fefcec1bf7bce1c6c4cdaaea1fd8d Landmarks are selected as evenly as possible along the front and depth to ensure a quick and accurate indication of the target's location.
7aab02c0b46424ba7649b2951519f18caed72d96 The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left and along the boundaries from themselves towards the enemy.
800c56313f45d063d51d480ee72b723a1abe8dc5 For the convenience of memorization, each landmark is given a conditional name corresponding to its external distinctive features, for example, in addition to the number: the height is flat, a yellow cliff, a house with a red roof.
dc3efbe3f77c8e62f1e6bde17a8acc78ff457958 The numbers and names of the landmarks assigned by the senior supervisor do not change.
e0471f9f921263982defe386e970289b8924e16e According to the landmarks, the unit commander sets tasks for subordinates, for example: "Observe in the sector: on the right, landmark two is a yellow cliff, on the left, landmark three is a flat height" or "Fire sector on the right, landmark four is a broken tree, on the left, landmark one is a house with a red roof".
ce7a2629dd3326e2111d45632577cc92108cdbb6 Methods of orientation on the terrain.
0bfbf5e01840d057710386c39b63fba6834bbc44 You can navigate the terrain using a topographic map, aerial photographs and ground navigation devices.
7d6e419e2b3dd44b9a02b5a9bf38dcab99d4200c At the same time, the simplest methods of orientation on the terrain are also widely used: by compass, by celestial bodies and by signs of local objects.
ba7471dc41ada70319c44368cf038e28a191d356 Topographic orientation consists in orienting subordinates on the ground.
a6edf2116f30587bc3d98744f9db4cdf942ea2ce It helps subordinates quickly understand the location of landmarks, boundaries, goals and their combat tasks.
379755898f751ee2c51560cc3167b355b2d773a9 Topographic orientation precedes tactical orientation and is an important primary stage of the work of the unit commander when setting combat tasks to subordinates.
17da1fc9943e9279077194b3da164ceac90b905b For example (Fig. 9): "North railway bridge, we are at the height of "Round"; on the right, 3 km Ivanovka; straight, 3 km Bezhitsa River, then, 6 km the city of Kamensk; on the left, 3 km - Lake "Shirokoe".
fe9e8870c45a18d16a0f1b3a3f676c78bdbe805f After that, the commander indicates landmarks and conducts tactical orientation of subordinates.
0199475a2cc7434f5e2dbf162c5dd8a9f2ac69d4 Topographic orientation can be used when reporting on your location by means of communication in cases where there is no map or orientation on the terrain is lost.
691bc20693acc5a42152dfe4c5cfde4ede9c1092 For example: "I am on the mound.
9bcfaaf5b10dd84d4192ff79de69c3703c097ad9 2 km to the north railway bridge; 900 m to the southwest forest;
0cae2a42df0e76c7b89ac8907884cbf890de99df 5 km to the south is a ruined village of a rural type."
12fa9d8f2887c64f0690b40725b64141b726c60a According to the specified landmarks (local subjects), the senior chief determines the location of the unit on the topographic map.
60c33289b82c21c5b5b5ba0b895c7b31fd37cb31 Therefore, when topographic orientation is selected, the most characteristic areal and linear landmarks are selected, which can be easily and quickly found on the map.
4bab90910bb0c06737f4d905acc5efd8868ff6c5 Such orientation is most often used on the march, when the crew of the car does not have a map, but uses only a pre compiled scheme or a list of settlements and other landmarks along the route.
1a920a07778fa295ce54cb97d4ab8e78c35c2531 Target designation on the ground
338a0ef08fd4aacc56ce0dc085c1a8e4d2bc321a General rules and methods of targeting.
336e70dd63b4c68cdb3b3172ba19ace9970a124c The ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground is important for controlling the unit and fire in battle.
c41210db8d69d049f543d29055f7be2c75ca8bdc Target designation can be performed both directly on the ground, and on a map or an aerial photograph.
e9b32ead0971caa1950f68eacbcd0dc9a4c34182 When targeting, the following basic requirements are met: indicate the location of the targets quickly, briefly, clearly and accurately; indicate the targets in a strictly prescribed manner, using the accepted units of measurement; the transmitter and receiver must have common landmarks and firmly know their location, have a single area coding.
a02b5be5f4a635caeea0781b0e44011f43c7a611 Target designation on the ground is carried out from a landmark or by azimuth and distance to the target.
692e5b46be826f7874b50f001a53766eedefdbe1 Targeting from a landmark is the most common method.
1448eaa4abac8d9a9b9b8b04b44403176e363466 First, the landmark closest to the target is called, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in thousandths and the distance of the target from the landmark in meters.
9b845486df6500cd7a96b9acd4c5fd7cf3b82ad9 For example: "Landmark two, forty five to the right, then a hundred, there is an observer at a separate tree."
019ba137188e84ccf9b1deb787c64d69406e1c25 If the transmitting and receiving target have observation devices, then instead of removing the target from the landmark, the vertical angle between the landmark and the target in thousandths can be indicated.
1f248623da810a462b2dd5428ab3a35e3c6a2e89 For example: "Landmark four, thirty to the left, below ten is a combat vehicle in a trench."
e33d78826a08ef0d4a1d2a994b8587f43c04bee2 In some cases, especially when issuing targets for inconspicuous targets, local objects located near the target are used.
83afa27152148eccf89288a31bf0614ba56493af For example: "Landmark two, thirty separate trees to the right, two hundred ruins further on, twenty to the left, a machine gun under a bush."
b4256167bbd7b8dac8f4993170e4ff817161c0ca Target designation by azimuth and range to the target.
5420fa3f0c449fd8de683b569b4e3a30908d8e49 The azimuth of the direction to the appeared target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it in meters using binoculars (an observation device) or by eye.
2b1bdc4d0ddfe67d7f90b1a49f9e07aa55c01f3b After receiving this data, they transmit it, for example: "Thirty two, seven hundred combat vehicle."
19eb4237c72566cef0b441b6c9896ae7f8c52144 Determining the directions to the sides of the horizon
43eb1ccc986f47f3b14b7a650ef1ef2ddfe5af77 Directions to the sides of the horizon are determined by a magnetic compass, celestial bodies and by some signs of local objects.
aecf9d4acedf6209be99b31fd6ad07d746929c6e A magnetic compass device.
35ad6b75f14128966f016b97ef677b28acc28302 When navigating the terrain, the Adrianov compass and the artillery compass (AK) are most widely used.
30b9a657d70463a5496fbcacd5d12db997c435bd The Adrianov compass (Fig.10) consists of a case 1, in the center of which a magnetic arrow 3 is placed on the tip of the needle.
33cf858c5790779fe6782e5ecff316f452e8cad9 When the arrow is not slowed down, its northern end is set in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole, and the southern end is set in the direction of the South Magnetic Pole.
975c3294e10d0bdfa72cd8faffdc1108445203b1 In the non working state, the arrow is fixed by the brake 6.
44836d9124482818fc72d03af1cfd7171281cabb Inside the compass case there is a circular scale (limb) 2, divided into 120 divisions.
386a49a0780ec8d9af2020a3fe9d3bf2e9f8c99a The price of one division is 3°, or 50 small divisions of the goniometer (0-50).
9121fc096884515e6f94b804a112e54cd00a35b6 The scale has a double digitization.
9307da8833b21dc25076112a6e847fdddf1085a2 The internal digitization is applied clockwise from 0 to 360° through 15° (5 scale divisions).
d3b5783c633ff1ff10024b2094645a05ff93030a The external digitization of the scale is applied counterclockwise through 5 large divisions of the goniometer (10 divisions of the scale).
727bbdd77f370bd557f29bd5f8f1622ee0ee1b24 For sighting on local objects (landmarks) and taking readings on the compass scale, a sighting device (front sight and rear sight) 4 and a reference pointer 5 are fixed on the rotating compass ring.
dde6388d6bf9b9427bd711be7410378c4427ad53 The northern end of the magnetic needle, the indicators of counts and divisions on the scale after 90° are covered with glow in the dark paint, which makes it easier to use the compass at night.
833096f3c308dfc52b38758ca9059739946738b9 The AK artillery compass (Fig.11) consists of a body and an angle scale 3, placed in the body 2 of the limb.
616cc0b9fa0fb75caad7f71dcec09fb64a7ba2f8 The goniometer scale is divided into 60 divisions.
f7b7ae2bb024951023282823d7fe14f474f8f195 The price of one division is equal to 100 small divisions of the goniometer.
9d74083d477d4d43dfa188b51120a85fbddc6eb9 The number of divisions increases clockwise.
64796b99afcb9a936486648ba8e731ad48b2c309 A sighting device (a slot and a front sight) is fixed motionlessly on the compass body.
68a4c4d87380d98ce4fd9f4d84b03297b1982961 The rotation of the limb body allows, without changing the position of the compass, to quickly combine the zero division of the scale with the northern end of the magnetic arrow.
73e0ffe0a6351c83bb29e4b64c13b755828c16a0 A metal mirror a is placed on the inner side of the folding cover 4 of the compass, which makes it possible to simultaneously control the position of the magnetic arrow and count on the scale when sighting an object.
b1022f508eee4e2fe4ccf23b4fb5a5cd8fe4b228 On the lid there is a cutout b for sighting and a latch.
302663c5598531819a86922a21dd11d3f966cd67 The compass "Tourist 2"is arranged in a similar way.
31239179ac7d53ebb2a1564a47447c30b4d8d16b The inscriptions of the limbo scale in this compass are given in degrees.
c270c23a4bd56268ec4dca27a7bf0c797aa8d0fa The price of one division is 5°.
64b1674d667e3073fd9718219e45f3e9bd5d93dd When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or closely located metal objects deflect the arrow from its correct position.
c9802045122875ba6f83bdf3aebb4ab36f758f2f Therefore, when determining directions by compass, it is necessary to move away 40-50 m from power lines, railway tracks, combat vehicles and other large metal objects.
f5e0ed4aac7ebb98cd432956f593d80a79cafc13 Determining the directions to the sides of the horizon by the compass is performed as follows.
14b4e9dee615362cab0108e797296234c8fd89f5 The front sight of the sighting device is placed on the zero division of the scale, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position.
9938b743ee11f8d0920bcbf60ba2aa59be277564 Then release the brake of the magnetic needle and turn the compass so that its northern end coincides with the zero count.
fca69197faac6455cb1446c944f86a8d647b37af After that, without changing the position of the compass, a remote landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and the front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.
b214246f00fbf8f69f75b7e63bb56e783c8ec8ee The directions to the sides of the horizon are interconnected (Fig. 12), and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined.
952914d7605398ef03a0e11b40866206877054b9 In the opposite direction with respect to the north, there will be south, east on the right, and west on the left.
4c67efc1c9e6f873633797e00d9a1ceeb0fc6628 Determination of the direction to the sides of the horizon by the celestial bodies.
b0a8da53b197e5ea4f78acbced9fcef566a87848 In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (readings), the sides of the horizon can be determined by celestial bodies: during the day by the Sun, and at night by the Polar Star or the Moon.
ffe0a0e4868d28acbdcf3ca0b119b59b89adc4db In the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is approximately at 7.00 in the east, at 13.00 in the south, at 19.00 in the west.
f72695646bf6356cee8f77a9bc59c76a4a1730f2 The position of the Sun at these hours will indicate the directions to the east, south and west, respectively.
9c989fd8960e7127d60e121df0495b9760a1314e For a more accurate determination of the sides of the horizon by the Sun, a wristwatch is used.
cc168bada2ea13710a130a05ec732ee103c32aab In a horizontal position, they are installed so that the hour hand is directed at the Sun.
2391b506b8b684be42294d1441e684c4a7aa287c The angle between the hour hand and the direction to the number 1 on the watch face is divided in half by a straight line that indicates the direction to the south.
0587e97fa14f240211b71e4b6663c834458306dc Before noon, it is necessary to divide in half the arc (angle) that the arrow must pass before 13.00 (Fig. 13, a), and after noon, the arc that it passed after 13.00 (Fig. 13,6).
646f10e116283a82acbf79ac10b057a2465b74b3 At night, in a cloudless sky, it is easy to find it by the constellation Ursa Major.
f34afafab3dc2d59232b4a82e3d21cb6b3eea55a Through the two extreme stars of the Big Dipper, you need to mentally draw a straight line (Fig. 14) and put on it five times a segment equal to the distance between the extreme stars.
6d2eab02135725b32d8747214abcafea4d252f8e The end of the fifth segment will indicate the position of the Polar Star, which is located in the constellation Ursa Minor (the final star of the small bucket).
204cad27521fd222ab7e6b4ff5e6ce7305a7d17a The Polar star can serve as a reliable reference point for maintaining the direction of movement, since its position in the sky practically does not change over time.
68a85c292e573f848a8b97e147ea07c728cc8e60 The accuracy of determining the position of the Polar Star is 2-3°.
83fd71fe16f65f341cb988f9d76b29e396ef1470 According to the moon, the sides of the horizon are determined more accurately when its entire disk is visible (full moon).
374617c8e5769aa7f82b9cf5f8d329bac685fa86 Table 1 shows the sides of the horizon on which the Moon is located in various phases.
c7848ffb60ad59d536475cc55cdaae15bf70ef9e Table 1
29b696ef47085bc978384bd6a32b36a0d5a38b75 Moon Phase Time
1f49108c45e489696ba73c18f826f619264b629c The first quarter (visible, the right half of the moon's disk)Full moon (the entire disk of the moon is visible)The last quarter (the left half of the moon's disk is visible) 19.00 Southeast 1.00 west Southeast 7.00 West
b3cffa5a6779e64a4217403fddaab3050e7e941a Determination of the sides of the horizon by the signs of local objects (Fig. 15).
b97a70096791ea36dd5b08b1fadeb559f7474075 If there is no compass and the heavenly bodies are not visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by the signs of local objects:
0619968ddb40571bfb25568f186bf4fd25f4f29b - moss or lichen covers tree trunks, rocks and stumps on the north side; if moss grows all over the trunk of the tree, then on the north side, especially at the root, it is more;
4b1bd7a34fd3eaf9597086e340d8bce26c93937e - the bark of trees on the northern side is usually rougher and darker than on the southern side;
ef512d5a6226af590dc1af718d2d578588605088 - in spring, the grass grows thicker on the northern edges of forest clearings and clearings, as well as on the southern side of individual trees, stumps, large stones;
9a6bfe99eac7883c3c8440bd384c44ffed34977a - anthills, as a rule, are located to the south of the nearest trees and stumps; the southern side of the anthill is more gentle than the northern one;
9a23dc208331d1264f11d06dd933acdb6c4d2d3a - snow melts faster on the southern slopes in spring than on the northern ones.
9b0deba39d50049a1728404e9569a35248072a47 There are other signs by which you can determine the sides of the horizon.
f9670209b6bc96a0aaa955d90abd6247bacd3814 For example, clearings in woodlands are usually cut in the north south and east west directions, and blocks are numbered from west to east.
dd1991b1a41c5861fe01d8ed990fd943781e2f96 Measuring angles on the ground
2fb327a490658ab0fcc9c0a337de279597c381b5 When orienting and targeting on the ground, horizontal (vertical) angles between directions to local objects and targets are measured using observation devices or by eye.
8d5dee513c0c3cdbab9728eeb024d996c6a8f732 Many devices used in the military have scales digitized in the divisions of the goniometer.
2d3a3b5718216a5b56eb0e1990b84ac397d5e406 The circle is divided into 60 large or 6000 small divisions of the goniometer.
7d1b3522f3e6c23bfa31261dc0ede9bceabc3c4e One small division of the goniometer is called a thousandth.
182585ad92fe117fff014434c8dbbdac54a47662 This name is explained by the fact that the length of the segment of the arc of a circle corresponding to one small division is equal to a thousandth of the radius of this circle.
a3dad561a2f4b35d9e6c21a105484ad8d9a3006b The unit of measurement of the angle here is a linear segment equal to a thousandth of the distance.
a1fbf2d0ffd81ecd51652dd69ff356ba5fce10fe This allows you to quickly and easily switch from angular measurements to linear measurements and back using the simplest arithmetic operations.
73dc055196e9f5992e9ed94336a86d63a2f9d250 When measuring angles in thousandths, it is customary to name and write first the number of hundreds, and then tens and units of thousandths.
15d2333466ebad8c6c64ad174f59ec3f32d694ea If there are no hundreds or tens at the same time, zeros are called and written instead (Table 2).
0998b553d76c78dd52d2631a11c07457ed902fc6 Table 2
50e9f361321571fbeecd1bf2184d0c50a8d62a0d The angle in thousandths is Written Read 1250155351 12-501-550-350-01 Twelve fifty fifty five thirty five zero one
90e519d7ffc3b2e0343d267ee2918b58a740508f For the transition from the divisions of the goniometer to the degree measure of the angle, the following relations are used and so: one small division (0-01) is equal to 3.6', and one large division (1-00)is -6°.
d8baecb011adfbc0bcf9d02b2821645e47132a2b Let's look at some ways to measure angles.
6cce06ed5c6eb7ede1c2f8c46f3682d3fbca31ba Measurement of angles using a tower goniometer.
19244bc6d1621994a14ea1e138465d084e9f1537 On tanks and combat vehicles, there is an angle measuring device for measuring the angle of rotation of the turret (Fig. 16, a).
e1563347fd0301b23d015a35b9462d257512b9d4 The main scale 1 of the device is divided into 600 divisions, the division price is 0-10.
551e0a858cc77e08397f0034de908a220667e6f4 The reference scale 2 has 10 divisions of 0-01.
5d86aa1894b3718c6b8158929b7223bedd54e540 The device allows you to take readings of the angle of rotation of the turret with an accuracy of 0-01.
6e6bd86f9beae007c0879d7a11dea6c5661cc2aa The optical sight 3 is installed in such a way that when counting 0-00 or 30-00, its optical axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the machine.
89c7ebfdc1a7355059f90cf7993c987a89e476c7 In Fig. 16, b, the reading of the goniometer device is 8-33.
ed2e6411985da7d7ba261a728db8db6e97c0e9f3 This means that the optical axis of the sight is deflected from the longitudinal axis of the machine by an angle equal to this reading.
97328f6f9cb3a37dfb5c0567f193683f917343b4 When measuring the horizontal angle between the directions of two local objects (objects), first point the square or crosshair in the field of view of the visor at one object and remove the count, then sight at the second object and remove the count.
969c8cfe32d53f0b3cf41da16c9fdd906f2df491 The value of the angle between the directions of objects (objects) is equal to the difference of two counts.
c314f1b45ead6528641c51a2ae087a72d36a0384 Measurement of angles using observation and aiming devices.
029d3f5f9a97c9f17bede3b3615778380a7feff4 In the binocular telescope there are two mutually perpendicular scales (grids) for measuring horizontal and vertical angles with the price of the large division 0-10, and the small one 0-05.
3c823ffdd2a5d63fff38003b15915feeae395c11 To measure the angle between two objects, it is necessary to combine any stroke of the scale with one of them and count the number of divisions against the image of the second.
54f26b20362358080fa19ed503afb32a296df29b Multiplying the number of divisions by the price of one division, we get the value of the measured angle in thousandths.
3536d138ef85d70081b4bb75739536356fcc856f In Fig. 17 the horizontal angle
5c64ea9066adaa0662a87787bf6a7b16282975f3 (between two separate trees is 0-45, and the vertical angle between the base and the top of an individual tree is 0-15.
8a615a47dd44f4655d4cf10bbb4cbb5edfbfc1c3 Observation and aiming devices have scales similar to those of binoculars, so the angles are measured using these devices in the same way as with binoculars.
04c090528866a6825e2bc5bb042ac392051ba42e Measuring angles with a compass.
b53d9a302c8b1bb2b8fb52fac8904060d51ef389 First, the front sight of the compass sighting device is set to the zero reading of the scale.
3dd185d3a63c7ff5aa0c86941bfcbd3b97d6a1f4 Then, by turning the compass in the horizontal plane, the line of sight is combined through the rear sight and the front sight with the direction to the left object (landmark).
4ddae1e57ba4945a22a28e5b04156d112ff45dca After that, without changing the position of the compass, the sighting device is transferred to the direction of the right object and a countdown is taken on the scale, which will correspond to the value of the measured angle in degrees.
7b9d4816b7709b10ab62f53cb53099df80629715 When measuring the angle in thousandths, the line of sight is first combined with the direction to the right object (landmark), since the count of thousandths increases counterclockwise.
29fbf6f29c6ec03f601d2c32ded0e68e270cea7d Measuring angles with a ruler.
2be0e7a91901ee31a74cb41e02095e6f3c4190fc Using a ruler with millimeter divisions, you can measure angles in the divisions of the goniometer and degrees.
5a6e54a088d3ed885a37410d2120e2a86e2f529f If the ruler is held in front of you at a distance of 59 cm from the eye (Fig. 18), then one millimeter on the ruler will correspond to two thousandths (0-02).
23d685e46c760669ca3ecf48cb5067080e942961 When measuring the angle, it is necessary to count the number of millimeters between objects (landmarks) on the ruler and multiply by 0-02.
ffe260df2f3ed4817b9df7e0c6e34c8e74be6cdb The resulting result will correspond to the value of the measured angle in thousandths.
6100af458da8fc27d86e596dbeff723a39353752 In Fig. 18 the angle between the pillars is 0-32, and the height of the tree is 0-21.
fe213f1ba5fc247f5522942a6d9d63f03a6f9da8 To measure the angle in degrees, the ruler is placed in front of itself at a distance of 60 cm.
973aa5e5bb483b50489c23b5be6a3cfbf449986c In this case, 1 cm on the ruler will correspond to 1°.
a4d7c0e96d4b3002f25142b3c7b45be12372aa28 The accuracy of measuring angles with a ruler depends on the accuracy of its removal at a distance of 50 cm in front of you.
cdffd863ebee2045609292cae396aacf5927832f Measuring angles with the help of improvised objects.
4147c764a528409439fd340e80a0efc4cc3f78bd To measure angles, you can use small improvised objects (a matchbox, a pencil, a cartridge, etc.), the dimensions of which are known in millimeters, and therefore in thousandths at a distance of 50 cm from the eye.
f142cace36b9afeeb270839e890aeede057a3e24 For approximate measurement of angles on the ground, the fingers of a hand extended at a distance of 50 cm from the eye can serve.
9ede9b786385137fdd935fa9f65396e37422ccb5 The angle between the lines of sight for the closed index, middle and ring fingers is 1-00 (Fig. 19), and for the thumb and index fingers that are separated to the point of failure is 2-50.
3c969637120b146a752754d9b4ad3ca143cd3293 Determining directions on the ground
56df7f794b0e062e44b1c4885e0897c698c08a45 The direction to the object (target) is determined and indicated by the value of the horizontal angle between the initial direction and the direction to the object (target) or the magnetic azimuth.
f176ab0d5a63994a92c05e04d00636dde9d9f3c4 In this case, the initial direction can be taken to one of the sides of the horizon or to a clearly visible remote local object (landmark).
11c9d9e8780a80d126498435782dfe21f1121a44 Magnetic azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction of the object.
e47592217f923fbc09e9d7302277c166329e773b Its values can be from 0 to 360°.
526829eb5fed7dd4082b91c23c544fa1bcc1bbf8 The magnetic azimuth of the direction is determined using a compass.
3cfbe3113355cb885c33a68d81582c3f85666686 At the same time, release the brake of the magnetic arrow and turn the compass in the horizontal plane until the northern end of the arrow is set against the zero division of the scale.
b79efd7158407cc927fe36c7fcaf8d40b5de000e Then, without changing the position of the compass, set the sighting device so that the line of sight through the rear sight and the front sight coincides with the direction of the object.
66d64429970d85e406427ba999adfc81031d3b3e The reading of the scale against the front sight corresponds to the value of the determined magnetic azimuth of the direction to the local object.
f213d9b930f26b3ef95cd53fdbf5cd711761189f In Fig. 20 the magnetic azimuth for a single tree is 330°.
667f526c31f9ff3b85fbb255b96a0d7c902be398 The azimuth of the direction from the point of standing to the local object is called the direct magnetic azimuth.
b4c96e2112bfabfa52c3b3119403d34ded5739d0 In some cases, for example, to find the return path, the reverse magnetic azimuth is used, which differs from the direct one by 180°.
1da10dd9a760601e3eb0f445bd925a23342a37b3 To determine the reverse azimuth, you need to add 180° to the direct azimuth if it is less than 180°, or subtract 180° if it is more than 180°.
f090d47260d5c870619d6d3061238903e767f51c In Fig. 20 the reverse azimuth is 150°.
fd07119b9cec20759aaec06ab2ac57e351bc4ddb To determine the direction on the ground according to a given magnetic azimuth, it is necessary to set a reading on the compass scale against the front sight that is different from the value of the given magnetic azimuth.
503fa0f72652a4abfca4dca3c51e2dc46139f48e Then, releasing the brake of the magnetic arrow, turn the compass in the horizontal plane so that the northern end of the arrow is set against the zero division of the scale.
c5546d0fb98009c0e0de67fb7a1ffa5037b6ab11 After that, without changing the position of the compass, notice some remote landmark on the ground along the line of sight through the rear sight and the front sight.
8965f7606c5e5b9070d249538139fa013107ceb8 The direction to the landmark will be the determined direction corresponding to the specified azimuth.
a1bede79835752ee58a0f1157a172beff6ff6cd7 Distance measurement
4bc4ed276c6bb7579407d1085b6aa36c204dac63 Distances on the ground, depending on the situation and the nature of the problem being solved, are measured by eye, by the speedometer of the car, by the angular and linear dimensions of objects, by measuring steps, by the ratio of the speeds of light and sound, by ear, by time and speed of movement, by geometric constructions on the ground.
f19654cfd8bc6ce2d351f728782ae48648d03c70 The distance is determined visually by comparing it with a segment known on the ground.
7c4a26c62fa50454f92cdb13061071958d4e12b9 The accuracy of the ocular distance determination is influenced by the illumination, the size of the object, its contrast with the surrounding background, the transparency of the atmosphere and other factors.
9547990977b5b4090cb13b291d142636cb9f1997 The distances seem smaller than in reality when observed through water spaces, hollows and valleys, when observing large and separately located objects.
2de00b9ecf8a745693b338c15132ccb2de7c4adf Conversely, the distances seem larger than in reality when observed at dusk, against the light, in fog, in cloudy and rainy weather.
cb42482ae813d479b6e8aafa6660997396fdbb64 All these features should be taken into account when determining distances by eye.
23884a85a26025af804e5f4276a92b803ad9a217 The accuracy of the ocular determination of distances also depends on the training of the observer.
184f00abbc1db1bae267142b0f546711899ad671 By an experienced observer, distances up to 1000 m can be determined by eye with an error of 10-15%.
18363862905f62d8f023c423c6f35dabbb5055d9 When determining a distance of more than 1000 m, errors can reach 30%, and with insufficient experience of the observer, 50%.
d5af8d11b340fd7209df87df5fa99f37d907df2f Determination of distances by the speedometer.
09e7156721b0345d2c08aca4401a05a9dfa46450 The distance traveled by the car is defined as the difference between the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the journey.
d8be45610b44ee8791bb0e8808c58114e1936a23 When driving on paved roads, it will be by 3-5%, and on viscous soil by 8-12% more than the actual distance.
e3b33ac09977f3dc72a2fcfa5ce4700c320e8373 Such errors in determining the distances on the speedometer arise from wheel slippage (slipping of tracks), wear of tire treads and changes in tire pressure.
9ab76d60f6a71e4d53ec56fa8a608f6d544c26b8 If it is necessary to determine the distance traveled by the car as accurately as possible, it is necessary to make an amendment to the speedometer readings.
6562ad80b2a79df9974dd3f4778469d0fcb8494d Such a need arises, for example, when driving in azimuth or when orienting using navigation devices.
401f26f62e7f2da57873743e211dab1fe19b5747 The value of the correction is determined before the march.
a5af494122719e482e7e2ed0a0829928cd566290 To do this, select a road section that is similar to the upcoming route by the nature of the terrain and soil cover.
8a3f50ba3200a82c8498760c860a475bd281de32 This section is driven at a marching speed in the forward and reverse directions, taking the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the section.
d155389395c3537d8afd30c2dfb81872b2da9c1e According to the obtained data, the average value of the length of the control section is determined and the value of the same section is subtracted from it, determined on the map or on the ground with a tape (tape measure).
d5d1a46a815a453e90fe406b516c062ad3b18325 Dividing the result by the length of the section measured on the map (on the ground), and multiplying by 100, we get the correction factor.
68ed747ad7b848d61ab358005652bcb0a8fda594 For example, if the average value of the control section is 4.2 km, and the measured value on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor for=((4,2-3,8)/3,8)*100 = 10%
07d7ef04ee7e948bd2035174abec606de6517a84 Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then the speedometer will count 55 km, i.e. 10% more.
246f43ce38701c0a560143220aad9f97b0063fa6 The difference of 5 km is the value of the correction.
acea4231f4108b704c699d265a0cb2eb28b7f470 In some cases, it can be negative.
a9c7b52a01e672eba2706ead3fd29bcee6c49c17 The determination of distances by the angular dimensions of objects is based on the dependence between angular and linear values.
bd93655badccef96f6f5908f5ea9a578a7d30000 The angular dimensions of objects are measured in thousandths using binoculars, observation devices and aiming.
dd0e3569f46acd142428187ca914eb4f47e3f6dd The distance to objects in meters is determined by the formula
989150ce0787c5eae32b7b3f0286913872a8e81a D=(B/Y)*1000,
ebd5f76de5fc99e7b3c6df1b2cef851d1408b3c3 where In the height (width) of the object in meters;
7797ed6f1c4f5d208f2e914cdf0aef75227fe61f the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths.
f4fd73931a07daa637c443abdfbee29a8ac90c6a For example (see Fig. 17), the angular size of a landmark observed in binoculars (a separate tree), whose height is 12 m, is equal to three small divisions of the binocular grid (0-15).
19e5cc749da3b26e2a91022742046793da8fc200 Therefore, the distance to the landmark
42e429c93181acab0f504f24e9c1a75c5a536a1d D=(12/15)*1000=800 m.
57f083b901ba6680025c99ebd2dbe8fc2fce9119 The definition of distances based on the linear dimensions of objects is as follows.
7ef3a3b1ffb76bcac43cf72690738c4ae3c8f3ed Using a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, the height (width) of the observed object is measured in millimeters.
110d4b73295a84b1f93d818aae85a0cd5b7f0a35 Then the actual height (width) of the object in centimeters is divided by the measured ruler in millimeters, the result is multiplied by a constant number 5 and the desired height of the object in meters is obtained.
905c2496f084628731346995bc8a1d102fa97d7a For example, a telegraph pole with a height of 6 m (fig. 21) closes a segment of 10 mm on the ruler.
55b1ebf8f4165ec1274a6a18ba630a453d455133 Hence, the distance to it
072397014055666fc13962ca889f3b40438bca87 d=(600/10)*5=300 m.
d81dbe1448c7f27b7b02f870d05f81b4e52fc9e1 The accuracy of determining distances by angular and linear values is 5-10% of the length of the measured distance.
3b4f7c4e11b8fa5ca9543da41b78a75587682e9b To determine the distances by the angular and linear dimensions of objects, it is recommended to remember the values (width, height, length) of some of them, given in Table.
8d183dbdcea3b29906090bd83fa6fa37923cc8ec Subject
68b20134346b3b95e7c0424ee530121d50ecfc51 Dimensions, m
3bade34ecbc5d996b2f301ebd4ba689e81c7c9ea Length
a58ddf50c5ea5c03802da919dd5953bbf82ebd74 Width
b43dcd4ae35269ab4e97bcdcac2999becf099034 Medium tank
25e59c6a3f1c950c03c59250c695c3b16f3b60b5 2-2,5
f128c37930e939c03240c8f2cffcaa8317db3bc1 6-7
c33cbf4541742bf26820b447aa7342cde9547ee2 3-3 5
6eb16a5c26565e521fba79272e490cc45e53f404 Armored personnel carrier
5ea949b329c4990e98d3f68e920d6cafcb87a8f7 5-6
a87a8517515834f31df89f566067743061cf5460 2-2,4
ab3278e9cade3faa8a30064e99694d5b4770bfc8 Motorcycle with sidecar
2219fecb861ae82ba2706e49a065c8d155e9f2a6 1,2
93bdd78a25ef82e1b21b3e25ce4fc92450a6bc1d Cargo truck
ff252249040356fa8ac7bd1c4f1372259bbf9167 2-3,5
f197f49b1108db97c9279f28287a2d01fa0271cf Passenger car
b600dfd21a2a6bc77e3d7629ca967c6ce8b3ea38 1,6
2fab71430bf4cf76c9937ce09c599b1aa18a5fac 1,5
c596bb646c1588e435a44eb1aa9802a0e99a9e34 Four axle passenger car
577e96c7d4adb6017de10757f84d3264efaac617 Four axle railway tank
cbf4c25f7f3b3338f786cdf2421c61e965aa5960 2,8
ce9f0809829937d8658280980e9a564fb102f4bd Wooden communication Line post
f217c15d5d0b62361c4330f440dd05a790eebe1f 5-7
c9bd2dc94da5544ca879698f69dd21538ac19df5 A man of average height
5ad2275237ef657b67f981e7a0f03d12ba5d387a 1,7
dbbf7baa3b3d8fd78758b5beefff6dd9facf974c Measuring distances in steps.
16aa1a31d8589754a98447588de389d5b664dfb7 This method is usually used when moving along the azimuth, drawing up terrain maps, drawing individual objects and landmarks on the map (scheme), and in other cases.
c54dc61b1cfdf3ade734d8a5fd4083a194813d8c The steps are counted, as a rule, in pairs.
317ce09f32f7df35fbacdc8c7b5bb7071b951266 When measuring a long distance, it is more convenient to count steps in threes alternately under the left and right foot.
bd3f94146ee96395b37a79d7dba428bf4c6f864d After every hundred pairs or triples of steps, a mark is made in some way and the countdown begins again.
e7b3eab38932ec630358bfd8489afa0208297e1a When translating the measured distance in steps into meters, the number of pairs or triples of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or three steps.
98de71cda426fab37903bf775320edb7cb1b3fbb For example, there are 254 pairs of steps between the turning points on the route.
7997cab6b569751284b7e5fd39df566fb696fed8 The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m.
34d414a20da043e0a91a2ad528dd5535044e0470 Then D =254X1, 6=406.4 m.
3332ddf8c514bce930c3ba1c96af5fdf7d95bbc8 Usually, the step of a person of average height is 0.7 - 0.8 m.
903a77c00adbade76c0c7495f9f3b5ce10edb220 The length of your step can be determined quite accurately by the formula
dea444c818a8c00458062f104d26f7f0ff6da9d2 D=(P/4)+0.37,
caf0ee3df63395a608074a4e8d094fa4f378a988 where D is the length of one step in meters
be41c15d5d1f36f0bf68738573e0063e4ab33609 P is the height of a person in meters.
3071f65b591e57968f8a8f8141124acd02189d08 For example, if a person's height is 1.72 m, then the length of his step
b93f9f04d0bee781911618bf33935dcfe141dd68 D=(1,72/4)+0,37=0,8 m.
7e565e6a2ba345873c7d95aeb5d043ad92b4fba7 More precisely, the step length is determined by measuring some flat linear area of the terrain, for example, a road, with a length of 200-300 m, which is measured in advance with a measuring tape (tape measure, rangefinder, etc.).
bf1ae263b0609251c6a0bb5a553b4f4c35bd8f5a With an approximate measurement of distances, the length of a pair of steps is assumed to be equal to 1.5 m.
e9a4939d4ab88021d6f979554ada10a5f5776172 The average error of measuring distances in steps, depending on traffic conditions, is about 2-5% of the distance traveled.
9968708253f0d1443ffc931068df56865c047e7a The step count can be performed using a pedometer (Fig. 22).
4058dd5c7190ea901bc0f7d0d7c0e29843d4c1cf It has the appearance and dimensions of a pocket watch.
a0590cdabbd5cbff45bec3ba7b78b430915f4c14 A heavy hammer is placed inside the device, which is lowered when shaken, and under the influence of a spring returns to its original position.
6291d2d3994911d2aa2385168a92eb36dda6d801 In this case, the spring jumps over the teeth of the wheel, the rotation of which is transmitted to the arrows.
c99e877b11e13eecf6b3b8742061f050aceaa7e4 On the large scale of the dial, the arrow shows the number of units and tens of steps, on the right small hundreds, and on the left small thousands.
4f9974af5fe40b4d4ce6a2ab83b607b2c7bb79cd The pedometer is suspended vertically to the clothes.
4bd3d8f7ac04e60734128c1dd36425bd1b9e79eb When walking, due to oscillation, its mechanism comes into action and counts each step.
8f0e2183aeb9d69795e5c21ed6b42595b54bf363 Determination of the distance by time and speed of movement.
dc1449fd8cc08c7029452d63f32a63d03d7376b8 This method is used to approximate the value of the distance traveled, for which the average speed is multiplied by the driving time.
718826707ee0606670bbca392b3801e6d911c091 The average pedestrian speed is about 5, and when skiing 8-10 km/h.
f35685aff1bbb91f5873b20e34fc932260b3ed05 For example, if the scout
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e7efdd363bdf5fd2b98a72bb5ef6c8c09b945a2b DETERMINING DISTANCES ON THE GROUND
621649931855d982f3e335a4f078f5837795d437 Weapons and Weapons > Topography > Determining distances on the ground
c57b5288c7a052d79a9560fa25454d33a170d0b3 Among the simplest ways to determine the distance (distances) to objects on the ground are the following:
4dc76037efcd2d726ee2432303db7b40b2fee32a visually; by the linear dimensions of objects; by the visibility (distinctness) of objects; by the angular magnitude of known objects: by sound.
ea09c07767cbb6494338a5fd6d9feef67f9098a9 By eye this is the easiest and fastest way.
acb73422044630e19dcf4725a1d377e94a6a63b8 The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally postpone a well represented constant measure (50, 100, 200, 500 meters) on the ground.
466b97513e6089298d9fca63a6652c9e5a3e4716 When measuring the distance by successive mental postponement of a well studied constant measure, it must be remembered that the terrain and local objects seem to be reduced in accordance with their removal, that is, when removed twice, the object will appear twice as small.
0916920fc84d32268c1fa4b764507dfe3b57785e At the same time, it is necessary to consider the following: the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us; the closer the object, the larger it seems; larger objects seem closer to small objects at the same distance; an object of brighter color seems closer than an object of dark color; brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit objects at the same distance; during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, the observed objects seem farther away than on clear and sunny days; the sharper the difference in the color of the object and the background on which it is located for example, in winter, a snow field seems to bring darker objects closer to it; objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, especially the distances determined through vast water spaces seem to be reduced; folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not completely visible to the observer, hide the distance; when observing lying down, objects seem closer than when observing standing; when observing from the bottom up – from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom – further. when the sun is behind the scout, the distance is hidden; it shines in the eyes it seems larger than in reality; the fewer objects in the area under consideration (when observed through a water space, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the distances seem smaller.
fe54d0bb90189079aa4dd25fcada0447da7ef0ce The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the scout.
d229b9407717afc3c4395bdc283794f6bb20ce0b For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.
c4e30e2b0fce3d418b35f63956af39a29433744d By linear dimensions.
d2f9ca5691e24886d6c59cfe41a48931fc8274b1 To determine the distance in this way, you need to: hold a ruler in front of you at arm's length (50-60 cm from the eye) and measure the visible width or height of the object to which you want to determine the distance from it in millimeters;
5fcae6b8c41cdf374f4649782206df9f832edd3b - the actual height (width) of the object, expressed in centimeters, divided by the apparent height (width) in millimeters, and the result multiplied by b (a constant number), we get the distance.
0e4c497d71bddd9544af7cb8824a73836610ebfd The sizes of the most frequently encountered objects should be remembered by the scout, since they are also required for the method of measuring by angular magnitude, which is the main one for scouts (see Table).
18cc000508866d335fd46e4c9f999daf653af0ff Linear dimensions of some items
dd1ac15fdb3e47aa4863153c9828d8d3eff7b2cf Name of items
91f01af1d237394a21525e7832920b3ebae35dc3 The height of the average person (in shoes)
a68d84c7043917f20b3a8d2f930defb18b6bfa32 1,65-1,75
98cd1565c9069c55545b5bda4ad22f8006ad9722 The shooter from the knee
ce9f91064f03c4bf679df183f5222da903918e7f 1,05-1,20
0a262ee79d6b957de3a98226c6c0f6af71ca5366 Telegraph pole
dfcdbb2aecb83432801d8339056c46a910b48d54 6,00
735e29df9e4f6dba00b76f612701debff8ae3313 Ordinary mixed forest
c69f6bb4c4d28d1c613dc82d14b04bec5f2af8cb 6,50-8,40
c7f2fd5dd8f6883d84d443f59b24e2d18741ba8b Railway booth
c6c6c7f83883a0c3e9d9bc3e214ffc5b68b00e90 4,00
da7a3409b6334edd0f6c826fc40b9c5e5b772b38 One storey house with a roof
55db3f4d5c02cdcb88cb6fed452452d7dd7d6006 6-8
0aa82f2a9b1808931f0d7dbd7d3f75cbb20868a5 meters
1366090a7928d1a4a53c9ce936cae5ee24b2b86f The rider on horseback
17f2af423bac6380eb1b33452af721c1ad4046ff 2,20-2,30
ffdb1d2f5cedf6ba3f9a140334f300e494098eef Tanks
cc5d47976e7e4c3d3e9a8f473a96e65a59c900b4 2,30-2,70
9ff636ebb4b0bb73da52d11bd05206775ff740e7 6,8-7,7
8901c15fa87cbc8595b3f1f1332a6dd2f6ee3ea2 3,1-3,7
13bea1abca1b55821a20dd2f5f95cc53e5d580db BTR and BMP
714f4e802379b8c617787b85bbd66bb6f8575b5b 1,8-2,0
fc84ccb6a41e561a39751039fed50acf719ea84e 4,6-6,5
75a310fc9353ba164bfeb46e366bd7596b307f88 2,5-2,7
c0dd891a028a493b98c920414d59bc04d331c9d1 One floor of a residential capital
775c9eb98b1754fffd977d8e93bce416a4c772bc at home
77975f30b602199b5e111f58876e62cc0bdf8ecd 4-4
901d2e59c3437b95f0ac87af09927e7210f526c8 One floor of industrial
27ee5e4db1c53745abfd0e52bae4a65eaf03547f buildings
f59f3670dca4c5a514f3f43a4064444c3e51eb03 The distance between the poles of the communication line
3eb3330161c3481246ceac48cc0c268d155d3f15 50-60
fbc91d40255ae1176ea4c9ad1db0f9f1cecf40d3 Distance between supports
8c9899d167da97280a97492db455c6543c71c699 high voltage power supply networks
310b86e0b62b828562fc91c7be5380a992b2786a 100
cb9ceab76962f70400dc18ae5b6f53b9d7bab0b4 voltage levels
a263b046c8b0e2404e59fca04c51691944c7e314 Factory pipe
22d200f8670dbdb3e253a90eee5098477c95c23d 30
1f95344297745cc1d9afa6b79bb581afb1de48a1 All metal passenger car
74a1fa7681aeecce0b49ccd0831c753c14d4d42b 4,25
18970e8f36c3080f33384f8fec1692533a7d4547 24-25
0ab210540e99f31b095cdfa17b92bcacac6f5385 2,75
26eb03f2d3301f4d0207d23a84ee26ca7dbc8f5e Freight cars’
8f3f53d520762fad5211e76bf687ebc21e3c37b4 biaxial
23242515c342bf67ac4db9e865506a5997b3772d 3,8
4280d849a3690e0f52873074944f4eec3c0f5e47 7,2
227fa12d7d7953d004cb4de81d00e00fc9db0421 multi axis
db9d06f96128fcfb92e97104d82520c8b23eba2e 13,6
c4a09383923376410de9a34b6b3c20235bb30501 Railway tank cars:
9fad045a6537bf8727d032aa573e146bad65ec40 6,75
4fe6afdd9da7f3b0aa8b08633010b097052f47ce four axis
5f5ae503f12207f237418fa327c3b6054a11881e Railway platforms:
7bd35205d096bb5614ecfd92f8fa2c37257eeafb 9,2
e2a443d54714ae24a618ca747a79be97e8b063cb Cars:
3760dcbf9fb6ea2bc238f6e7bd51bbba22d40ecf two axle cargo trucks
a485cf692c825ad2487ed2fc5d7d8962103bdaad passenger cars
54f0b9ff7ed6205c43e9293037e3599b06172142 1,5-1,8
20d6fad3553351dd3bb27c5c6335bf3de9d41add 4-5
218a20ac3f2aa39c9f15eb39597005ca49af064d Heavy heavy machine gun
f51d146d54e2a49876780106aae0de9eee43ac7d 0,75
6e81d04012468316250291ef0f4b12d5f034df0d 1,65
c3444cc1053c5900bbdc9b741077ebe85297ba49 Heavy machine gun
dcafc4b03e38e872cf270681cb77628cb8bd26e2 0,5
d5024d1f231a2b6c97204bf456551cff703873e6 Motorcyclist on a motorcycle with a sidecar
fd9b329c71cef4ae5176f9a513faf961f126df3c It should be borne in mind that the table shows the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible.
6b39c89b1ed04f7fba5b78cbfd6a2cad39425884 For example, if a scout saw a pipe on the roof of a house, it means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km.
d752adf0333a7670ec2c6ee66b7496360ad4245d It is not recommended to use this table as a reference.
390224f54400172bd7e2a9cd90e31ff8c048eb62 Each scout must individually clarify this data for himself.
7e6bbd801ed2f010c32085aff70e1a7786bfa77d Determination of distances by visibility (distinctness) of some objects
8424d7353d3f2ad96d7ac0ae2676a371f1453c64 Objects and features
d18c0d48d3bb2322eeb82869d0e054d4833d217a Maximum visibility (in km)
3a29d3a3561a4ab05c0cb41ede0a9af055f46216 Bell towers, towers, large houses against the sky
001dd85a4f2d7253ff8dd85369ac0853e786c1f2 15-18
da679e54932fa7b5b4305faf073b2214926c53de Localities
c47b3172a32e6927e47871c4b109c2f1d265a3e0 10-12
403abb66d75a38a2f5b333624440290786b8183d Windmills and their wings
de6559460015326aa0b8733b1ae8e3141f6336cc Villages and individual large houses
a0ea66dad5851f5891af1f2c875b2fba08dd8f18 Factory pipes
9db63a80ee30ce8e7df52149e63aaad8ebdc88ed Separate small houses
031d88efd05b7b400730fd588ff79e2827bc3060 Windows in houses (without details)
50eea1b5186a3e5998a29bf702d2d3ad26a1696b Planes on the ground, tanks on the spot
0f468030b189d8510676311d19f00a8ff6533cf3 1,2-1,5
f234076ed63642502123f4b954aa526e3d2b37dd Tree trunks, communication line poles, people
351b26c1fd3124b206776d99d419150105328365 (in the form of
22e7c19c70978e8038f42a06582d3a2e1f966e99 points), carts on the road
1b8f54638cdb29e58248ee5325214b13091bea93 The movement of the legs of a walking person (horse)
ebc4174c1f747ab7df572977a14503253be60ecd 0,7
8b09b11e0ff39da672d81754a3c7a529ad93c578 Heavy machine gun, mortar, portable PU,
960c11cf3bb8355eab2186d5108975a549facd35 ATGM, stakes of wire barriers,
45b22bbfe0f3c1d6c40e7537e32a5dda76e132c6 bindings in the windows
e5dba3726d1ced96cdb60d6fd1133c91c028e1c7 The movement of the hands, the head of a person stands out
fb4452b449de23bc7e48202ac3d1f11b95a2d8b5 0,4
0fcab413e79af1b2ba74010c428859d62df71345 Hand held machine gun, color and parts of clothing, face oval
e976afb2e749d9979351ec08efecfee02caceb77 0,25-0,3
bc7814389787e579bd2c1070377283292e795f62 Roof tiles, tree leaves, wire
84320eb8dbbe583f67055c15155ab6794f11654d 0,2
bd086d06e83ec3b26bcd512df5f0a427575b4702 on stakes
dac817d93b9478df720666e75b8c2ccda4b2536b Buttons and buckles, details of weapons
e6dc8770ac06f45bf20546032552fc933ae11282 0,15-0,17
e685c49ce4bf6744f7e6649b3de4d0d7894e8a03 a soldier
84bd71ce2a22e0c084cca03a2b4f765c2e650e2a Facial features, hands, details of small arms
fa5836450376bf4bf59242bb012665dd3149decb 0,1
301ec33e4c68ae0c7425cfc0f5749827993a3485 Human eyes in the form of a dot
cb6e4be4bf94f71755a50d0fd9e2829a2aa87e9e 0,07
08899ffec44b9f82998064feaf53a631189f7ed5 0,02
9d1407bc409d3d395a1b2438a96c41980ecb805d When determining distances by eye, it is desirable to use landmarks, the distances to which are already precisely known.
16fa19c7f7f758b01749ed5a7bf96a826b46d209 By the angular value.
12d47eb68258584eadcd130ca4c12e26b3efcd91 To use this method, you need to know the linear magnitude of the observed object (its height, length or width) and the angle (in thousandths) at which this object is visible.
aca1f099242a7fd908974a9d2848a8ac7d088263 Then the distance to the observed object is determined by the formula: P=(Bx100)/Y where P is the distance to the object;
847ae53fd9811bfd5d6bca149aa1e42a7cdf5b74 B is one of the linear quantities;
d5e67cd09c9762206f7c98b0732c4c78e54414d6 Y is the angle at which the linear magnitude of the object (object) known to the observer is visible; 1000 is a constant coefficient.
a1914edcf34ab1c4886101e4b7a1f9b397b6dbd7 Or the scout sees the Leopard 2 / tank at a right angle from the side.
72b12b299ba0b8249db9d36c7f8288e5805e4d79 The length of this tank is 7 meters 66 centimeters.
254e361902417409008bb88afc366089a0d30441 Let's assume that the viewing angle is 40 thousandths (the thickness of the thumb).
afcb2d77f41812a94a8c617170965f7df851aad7 Therefore, the distance to the tank is 191.5 meters.
94316c95cca3edb2f817bd93a97cb4c0029bcdcd Angular values (in thousandths of the distance)
315d118814d507327d91e7584fe41212f73297d6 Item Name Size in thousandths:
3e7caaef6fdb4222f5bdbe35547bbd046a0ee469 The thickness of the thumb 40 The thickness of the index finger 33 The thickness of the middle finger 35 The thickness of the little finger 25 The cartridge along the width of the muzzle of the sleeve (7.62 mm) 12 The sleeve along the width of the case 18 A simple pencil 10-11 A matchbox along the length 60 A matchbox along the width 50 A matchbox along the height 30 The thickness of the match 2
c25257b7dc0ea1105fec2f185fdecb8dab86b4a4 The development of this ability is achieved by long term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).
bb861a03850c50c8b64d7dc47d5fd16d1bd3a2d3 Almost all sounds that mean danger are produced by humans.
9580f99850ce4cd7a70cccbb9658847067e46569 Therefore, if a scout hears even the faintest suspicious noise, he should freeze in place and listen.
27adb3d34d3dd580f4e814c1670ac65e17e783f0 It is possible that an enemy is hiding not far from him.
251f9afb40ba48971aa10a71c3430702e05025ec If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving away his location, then he will be the first to die.
b2ae3175b8fda3ef64a76ad16cdef01787fc5023 If a scout does this, such a fate will befall him.
86f5debfd83bcdee15d67de8fac451a461630298 In the same way, an inexperienced or impatient hunter betrays his presence to the animal he is hunting.
834ecceb952f112a9d61097abf3ddcd3935ec763 A skilled hunter surpasses animals with his endurance.
ff2cb26471552a950e1134492baad4db9c32e016 This applies to speech, and steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons.
70d656a1eae99c8fba018704c265e6aecda95bb0 But the rain greatly muffles the sounds.
5d41920b76ba3a945e5aaf5b5c85a4a15a3ab5e8 The wind blowing in the direction of the scout brings sounds closer, and removes them from it.
7c4eb35b6ad044acbdd1e54fec49edb23f92dbce It also takes the sound to the side, creating a distorted idea of the location of its source.
62d04720d5802f83e0a7eac692f59670dee7dc3a It should be borne in mind that dry land transmits sounds better than air.
b362cf2f5b6de335e76784088d95146849907b99 Therefore, they listen with their ear to the ground or to the trunks of trees.
2cd0088fbf7d818708a0c69c2ea6a1834720f8a2 At night, sounds are well transmitted through the ground.
24903494b346e91c63beac965954b5cf7305297d There are certain ways to help you listen at night, namely:
6be7c239694014c00e4efacb52dba029a8caf2b4 lying down: put your ear to the ground;
7f06d02636c9a5c39d511d4d1fb58fe0d10a328c Average range of hearing of various sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (in summer)
917a8a44c9bbeed4e4935b1e682afcd568d3daed Sound source (enemy actions)
de4e397e43b1a37d86164ec4e8e8a3873eced733 Audible sound
48bf1c3a9a4c61a21f92905276f44cc199a4292a Characteristic sound signs
693fd1222041728b519a05edd8a6b4b4034d84a4 The noise of a moving train
3fafd5924070c5a4ed751a41a72d4d17ff464947 Steam locomotive or steamship horn,
25dc53b626dff7251b6bffd65c8f7896ac789669 7-10
e466119c36d4fb6672cbd59455225fdc58ecc151 factory siren
68be0759f0f7bf3b9120d66937f07b74d83c6888 Firing bursts of rifles and
02442527f53ff4aa69c191e453b0a79868d37436 machine guns
efb75113beca8ced92d63b8e8fbf13bf3e1c0342 Shot from a hunting rifle
cc7e74b6ed349d65da1ea8925b1134d5cf475cf8 3,0
7501944a7b07cc6c9045dc1040b34ee1bac51d35 Car signal
287da0651bbe7af557b588ce0c9aeaa9a39487a6 2-3
05f9ac939c7e5e19c8a426cd54ab4c10c75e7334 The sound of horses trotting on soft ground
6f279978c1eb7df7ccda19a0befcce4ce1ba8b3e soft ground
9aee513a5c700fec6d0c7148527eec8b7663f0dd 0,6
042394a092ed393bafcdea14bcba862545db789f on the highway
86b918c65b55cccbed837a6ef55c0777c1bede63 1,0
5c4f51e492e4ed4b7fdca428686347d082d947bd The cry of a man
ad7283b3c2da9205bc59f32ba2abbac876cc6af7 1-1,5
26ef3d3039b86b2ec9c67dad8550416fc1027785 Horses neighing, dogs barking
f112094c7900d27fe353ce7f799b43c9cd0815a7 Colloquial speech
fd94ed8e04e0551b9ff804f7a7b9a20bd5fe4e33 0,1-0,2
9e47c5d2e57f1ab47bc7436c52f0be23ebf990b4 The splash of water from the oars
80ac828576fa912cad6a0e67420455f0f416834c 0,25-0,5
1d4d01f5b36b79d225da992b7cfb4e75e2903811 The clink of pots, spoons
ba51f9d98fbe9398bcded9d63d3425d2b675042e Crawling over
cdde4f20ba31a24db2cc7ae71135c8353631907b Steps
201180e510515735d9340adafe44f92a8c15706d 0,03
36ae528e6861e9ee1e80bf4e6799927ce92e3a3b Cough
e885402a1a82c23681c2dc6b3ae6751b5742606b 0,04-0,05
ec224a0063006942368eabc29668258ed629409b A sharp command with a voice
c4ef6fe94356ad925108f4a4900bc85906e5efbe 0,5-1
8694c2aa3ddc60ecd13ee5e0964367ada8ab9a5e Infantry movement in the ranks:
24c66a33638817a53ff4e0a29d57ebc6c0030ac4 on the ground
ccb85bbc7c0c5dfe071ccf2fc49ae15f8cf9b3ea 0,3
415588a8debc974920bbd4142201f4202da17d64 A steady dull noise
3ac5b76d6ff9d3d290e80699fce5aade56e68707 The clatter of oars on the side of the boat
ad007e127eb36b554b14fffbe8c772395e820a71 Excerpt of trenches manually
05be645cb5f984915a285b9abfb9d4d95a27a6d8 Shovel strikes on
4c0d2469f78bd23577506fd6ff8cd96707c44d9c stones
26d4792eeb926b17544ff7479e853415457e7302 Driving in wooden stakes:
a6ad311331465a920e96379b157477f05176d5a2 A dull sound evenly
4ccea61ac7872c218cca05414a59001a53ed07f7 manually
d6b0d3b108c96e218d1853fa4ec47afeb29915f8 0,3-0,6
2312a19b9bfd6bc48b33a4c94d5b25869802173b alternating
0efa756fb34d1a4c2b9be7275aff6d661ba8eb63 by mechanical means
277f4551c8d62ed20401cabeb8aabb64d8bc1b25 0,8
435232b3a548f57266a2be9d13350b363971cdfb strikes
818666fecc5b1452e84446a7b97ed4b034be7384 Felling and cutting of trees:
06edee3ca7c2adde1f4aa49f1ec73e0c02f7516c The sharp thud of an axe,
6a1b0f478f99ce231d9ed6c8616bdb3fac326030 by hand (with an axe)
d56ebe477f2bf5d8033c759178ec725b65d284a8 0,3-0,4
7caca455b463a0b77b231696c1e3048d012b2957 the screech of a saw, an intermittent knock
5f9fc26e1396647c0f629edb5a82f32e911f9d0e chainsaw tree fall
b8b917fd15124c18d161a94debb3206b1713417a 0,7-0,9 0,8-1,0
25cf23dbb6453449616890ef83998f84d2d695a3 a gasoline engine, a thud on the ground
36d1fd7d7a090d09618da67e295bf61141dcbdab a sawn tree
19f6600a31f5a853ca3049f1e90428ed5a76b69d Car traffic:
1e78f3f95c26e6a3d2147b6b6b31427209ac6cf8 Smooth noise
4c3d9aeac908300da6711440cb1e988f23cf6580 motors
a2d625e06a196e07a0837dffcddc2f464a2f9fb7 on a dirt road
5c5ab5594d2b02db3fb3fceb3b743c554d1203e9 Sharp noise
d3468dc024a8b341e88ecb0420a3967425923539 Movement of tanks, self propelled guns, IFVs:
c2bc0068f032f4c0301084057f80597af16a765e engines simultaneously
28a4aa67dfde939ffdb66e6975c4b676643e27dc 3-4
4963bb059132fa0c8cce273c8722240ad961b535 metal
dafc80749c140eaca4eff88d90f694fa81ab425f the clang of tracks
a33bed1274ffc3a0787ff97c859fa39344111888 Engine noise of a standing tank, BMP
fd073f72ded8d48af4ad34980c8917e56a6952e3 Movement of towed artillery:
655d051ea490b1689aba6d3e0495013a7fb68baf Sharp jerky
1a77b59758b27774f8ce1b25992e330c7259fa01 on the ground on the highway
b8a2645298053fb62ea03e27feea6c483d3fd27e 1-2
0ef7b424320b2687433bf67ee32204a310de63b7 the roar of metal and the noise of engines
bc7a7f00e13758d7769b50a9984141addf12ede1 Firing of an artillery battery
9b50a67c7760854bc19da90b03506fbdbf8bbd76 10-15
a9ee02f3edb9d9ba796f20cecc619f595be00a3e (division)
c0754bae2a1c898c7884965453dd65c0dd68222f A shot from a gun
94f7e6214e86edd2c309ad925847538ba1fd58a7 Firing from mortars
2f92f60a2bd2a3b2990e64d7288a99531d7491ee 3-5
a31aa50201b402d6f65328355df305816e16ead8 Shooting from large caliber
446063313859ced339bb74aed0ae0dfd168a0be2 Automatic rifle shooting
58e3727a22e6b65e2cb4cc42ae184b4fd8443312 A single shot from a rifle
4f8f046adba65f99be894a89f2bd8b673214a93f standing: one end of the stick should be leaned against the ear, the other end should rest on the ground; standing, slightly leaning forward, shifting the center of gravity of the body on one leg, with the mouth half open the teeth are the conductor of sound.
b788ebc7dc374f4d176c232af077ea1605fc67f6 A trained scout, when sneaking up, if only his life is dear to him, lies down on his stomach and listens lying down, trying to determine the direction of sounds.
9c0d8874cd690f525538216e1b08685edfc67734 This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming.
641589a1f227727c127e53f4572d55fa0e36dad3 To improve audibility, it is recommended to attach bent palms, a bowler hat, a piece of pipe to the auricle.
6da8f09cd434c00931050dc284f7780ede845801 For better listening to sounds, the scout can put his ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground.
6a3b2a9a6c622e4621d2d94d3c49fca1b8ce0f4b If necessary, you can make a homemade water stethoscope.
63b08f805bb35f903d25edb35cfe55a5b72b22f8 To do this, a glass bottle (or a metal flask) is used, filled with water up to the neck, which is buried in the ground to the water level in it.
0072900587c811c3087ac75dff5ba61287181511 A tube (plastic) is tightly inserted into the cork, on which a rubber tube is put on.
9786515393fcb1380a1bc668952cc74dadcf28ad The other end of the rubber tube, equipped with a tip, is inserted into the ear.
4b4e5aa7dafaf55ba1f447ebe9b651befed882db To check the sensitivity of the device, hit the ground with your finger at a distance of 4 m from it (the sound from the impact is clearly audible through the rubber tube).
92f7f9cc600e84b29667887f432e94650d0a2687 When learning to recognize sounds, it is necessary to reproduce the following for educational purposes:
289fa13c1bd001d0b6ac587bc9322ab42364239b 1. Excerpt of trenches
430f68b68ae947896e3f22d9880e55af24fef49a 2. Dropping sandbags.
307c7f2421352b78aaa0e71f4ac6b1c6bf3a6cc0 3. Walking on a boardwalk.
d77a74da44e2c5ade07c87aa046b346fdee76bbb 4. Clogging of the metal pin.
5e996e9cb15f06e0900c6709e87a01d04181dc11 5. Sound when the shutter of the machine is working (when opening and closing it).
35228cb701721ff16221fd96995678eaa5d070dc 6. Setting a sentry on duty.
2e37d4c42f5ea528915453b7b96f5a5e2047a154 7. The sentry lights a match and lights a cigarette.
03040c606c943bde748be627142bbd21425736dd 8. Normal conversation and whispering.
fe39980f7e619a88423c8361336638e527133d69 9. Blowing your nose and coughing.
786458ee8869aa3b17ec2934de4a817e6a9d0db5 The crackling of breaking branches and bushes.
657adc050c7807c07452e2ba0b1bc46cf29e8c29 The friction of the barrel of the weapon on the steel helmet.
0d28f4c1dbf65034e15236bdb7890122c590ed74 Walking on a metal surface.
ca9c6078d618b31b2b501691069f5b26d4e02428 Cutting barbed wire.
140ef0b0ac04cdce1c308d492cdbf4c875730a07 Mixing of concrete.
af67c9df86e48f9be562d83702945111c2c1a6a9 Shooting from a pistol, submachine gun, machine gun with single shots and bursts.
f2adb8bd7f7be6d90a00a15e15ea1db3d7ab7b02 The noise of the engine of the tank, BMP, APC, car on the spot
9092b9f285de997e8c8cff5cf59ec6eb3c48eedf Noise when they move on a dirt road and on a highway.
83daebb81478fba51bff9e6976848d78ab54248f Movement of small military units (squad, platoon)in formation.
88a70246b212e2f1b8458ce0a58c47dc06e25d83 Barking and yelping of dogs.
473d459d48a120982633da96d516e15ae6b1a5a2 The noise of a helicopter flying at different heights.
a14f35cbb5569abcb7b639d6a77cf71e70c93edf Sharp voice commands, etc. sounds
cedd296ccafd3af5fef85ea501af952f9a7bbcc2 Orientation on the terrain on the map
c12fa1e8a3c47a887f4519d8f55f1644e7ef48f0 The map is the main means of orientation.
8db4a80fb0c862223fc60fc54a55fc35bf4fbdbb The topographic map was and remains a reliable guide to an unfamiliar area.
206c4eff948784396c14fca8de0a5e3db951fa54 With the help of the map, you can quickly and accurately determine your location, specify the detected targets, and confidently withstand the set one ...
a76c0da22bb12c3708af0da8698e5edde5d74083 FURTHER
586fdd3402495909b6a6f91ab441c92a812411f2 Aerial photos of the area
03eb2f063c343b5db402829472c96fda76a13b88 8.1. General information about aerial photographs Currently, along with topographic maps, photographs obtained by photographing the terrain from an airplane or are widely used for studying the terrain and orienting on it ...
07a66fbca6306a13e4dd57c90963db5762ac240e Orientation on the terrain without a map
49947d36bc5b18604d95ae27a1a0b1bc10a7aca9 The essence and methods of orientation on the ground When performing many combat tasks, the actions of squad commanders (crews, calculations) and soldiers are inevitably associated with orientation on the ground.
c47f07f29f499dbd97b150a14ecbfd79e8fdc916 The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on ...
bd82b323c0101433fa58ca302b9fdc20346660cd Study of the terrain by the unit commander
991be9c85eb488eb5e4c669f8aae022f8ba2fd2b The study of the terrain includes determining its general character, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of individual elements (local objects and landforms), as well as determining the degree of influence of this area on the organization and ...
5261c8fbf51816585be6fe2592c6e2310c7c62d6 Orientation on the terrain by
0554117fba64557b5d7ef09e609e83d5d1b0ffed Orientation on the terrain without
97b305a57b8a279d473bcf00aae09caa17072377 ... back again ...
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062c771726b4e5801719096e27d879f81999760e Rules in the forest.
9a22420028ff6c9a982a4c74d011ddb70ca7c1e7 Methods of orientation
9616ea4ec2cf07737f5563c33a19dd6ccb11873a 30.04.2012 11: 29 | Source
97722af7dae5dfd90ba1c758dc031672b6042059 Shadows in the pine forest geocaching.su
d8407af93757f89970cfb02b5e664c7652baa868 We think that you know the norms of behavior when being in the forest, every second schoolchild knows them.
55961081cdf33fb16c2754039c0c5cd1471127fa But there are other rules in the forest that will help you navigate it.
5ff144139da289460f6811d791118f9e50bf43ec This is a very important question, because it is very easy for an inexperienced and ignorant person to get lost in the forest.
942bffe9ed2f6529ed75cbcc79d38b1460efd19d Therefore, in order not to find yourself in a very unpleasant situation, let's analyze the rules in the forest that will allow you to navigate well in it.
61ef795fbfb912c5a59d843d041226b29b72d177 Perhaps they will save you many hours, days, and even life – and this is not uncommon when you get lost.
69046be09fed654ca0ad0d575771bff75aac6f05 It is safe to say that a person who has a compass and a map of the area in his backpack is insured against unpleasant situations.
9f0be7a4c39a70842a075b45f5d9eb581cc63ffc The one who has both, can confidently go on a journey to unfamiliar places.
70f9e476da38c00728f5c2abc4a8de52fd908ba8 There are many pronounced landmarks on the map, for example, a small river, the intersection of a high voltage electrical line, a lake of a certain shape, etc.Having found such a landmark on the map, you can immediately find out where you are yourself, and which path you will have to overcome in order to reach the final goal.
37fb18902c074950aa49492f30accdcf827ba405 Standing in the direction of the blue end of the compass arrow, that is, facing north, and holding an expanded map in your hands, you determine the further route.
6afaa83efe33e8bbb07a96b9592cb03f4dcdee28 By determining the end point on the map, relative to the point where you are yourself.
9d5d448aeb2b215f7ee8662d279fdc91305f767a On the straight point that connects the current location and the target, you put the center of the compass and measure the angle between the direction to the target and to the north.
d7ca1bcf729c026bdf434fb6f32879aaaad5bc83 This angle is called azimuth, its report is conducted from 0 to 360 degrees clockwise.
37b5e363c133168b03945bc393a88b5c965da8f2 Of course, it is impossible to accurately measure the angle with the help of a compass alone, but in this situation we do not need it.
f9d11a50da4f9d25f7701d61ad1f554463b46168 Having determined how many degrees the azimuth is, you can proceed to the further path along the azimuth, that is, turn by the desired degree from the direction to the north.
902b7b2da182f61ec14a63e110705cd76e1a01b5 After passing a certain distance, you should make sure that the path along the azimuth is correct, making stops.
9beaa1dee1a3511494aa693ad9777110d9b24b37 Their frequency depends on the nature of the terrain and on the skill of walking in the forest in a straight line.
8439339046ac6532f6aa77c7b6ce91e1acf242f0 During stops, you need to check and, if necessary, adjust your route.
838149c723004811854a6cba8eaf6d98c46fecb5 If you have a map of the area and a compass as mandatory rules in the forest, you are lucky.
96f3617c8f4a19051cf8ffee744b3c23408012ef But most of the people who came to the forest do not have a map.
f60803bcc63c9f0164ef49c7c7bd97e2ecd74fc9 What should I do in this case and is it possible to navigate with the help of a single compass?
6bea1c9d7564cd61b87b1a7958857e76459df9c5 Yes, this is possible, but only if there are any linear long dimensional landmarks on the ground and you know their location relative to the north.
9152cf25372b2c33febcd8b40266c340a3062b77 A similar landmark can be a highway that goes from west to east (small deviations and turns do not play a role here), a high voltage power line, a railway, etc. But if there are no such landmarks, it is useless to hope for a compass.
1d2c8e525374d46f30ce5a4db1d0e825bd966a54 Therefore, it is necessary to enter the forest with only one compass from a long linear landmark.
74ab1f301c097d248747c72cbae56ac86f1a5f34 Adhering to the principle you left the landmark in one direction – and you return to the opposite, of course, with the help of a compass.
4cc8d3687b52b7c940858bf4a63eb0e80ab1d2e7 For example, if you leave the road in a south easterly direction, you return back in a north westerly direction.
ee53b83e2c6bbca5f28c0d613b5728e2266e85af This is quite simple, but only if the landmark has a large length, otherwise there is a risk of getting into an unpleasant situation again.
a99e8cf9164362ab64404c25627674930dc21d46 Despite the fact that the compass is a light and small thing, often those who have gone into the forest do not have it with them.
12cdd4b607b1223594e62d87aa64ea0a007953c9 For some reason, there is no compass, what should I do in this case?
2a4eacf65f868a442ab0193d9c881ca45bd60456 If this happened when going to the forest for 1-2 days, you can do without a compass in some cases.
5c0261d6ea3f72c9e9b75bf899ad256da12cea0a If this is a short trip to the forest for 1-2 days, then you can completely do without a compass.
42f0cbcac704d329cd5c652c1800598448d23d13 The same method is used here – access to a long linear landmark, but in this case local signs are taken into account to determine the northern direction.
ad5da61be301407625b6bb733e6eaedd702c2f36 And there are quite a lot of similar signs by which you can determine where the north is and where the south is.
beaaf4b68e49b73747b7e3099e5aecb1e24ef77f The easiest way is to orient yourself by the Sun, at 13 o'clock it is exactly on the southern side of the horizon.
49be4fefb955140966d0e5fe7fa56de83c76db31 It is also no secret that the Sun appears in the east and sets in the west, with the normal duration of the day.
1cec1342d8c1896e486d57d81b23d8d426d8c3d0 This means that if the Sun, for example, in the afternoon is approximately in the middle of its path from the point of sunrise to the point of sunset, then it is in a south westerly direction.
9124feb5093c7069619ffba8ece10dd950f53e2f This means that you can orient yourself throughout the day, while the Sun is visible.
82c94e94f2b64e607058d1392b1159539b8ec6a7 With the help of a watch, you can more accurately determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun. They are placed on the palm of your hand, so that the hour hand is directed at the Sun.
d59d7ca27ca8d1d80f12269885e2de2277160f89 The angle formed on the clock between the digit 1 and the hour hand should be divided in half.
7ff26dd52aae73806e6ea1d0ac31b29d59bc98d1 The line that divides this angle is the north south direction.
6bd6710a27225c9796718d76bcdc1b55739baaa6 Just remember that before noon, the angle should be divided on the left side of the dial, and on the right after noon.
6c6a921cd138df4e02d045f72b7338a7b47472cf This method is especially convenient in northern latitudes, where even at summer noon the Sun is low above the horizon, and accordingly the hour hand can be directed more accurately at the Sun.
48b7eb042ac7f32ac3c2b8d3da4ea2f9e8c81ce8 The ability to navigate by the Sun exists even in cloudy weather.
f8807f17b7ae4411bd7594405b5bc29f475852be It is impossible to navigate by it only when it is covered by clouds of considerable density and thickness, but this happens quite rarely.
0c97aba819acaab6b35903e4d9f6547d3f184d2d At a superficial glance during cloudy weather, the luminary may not be seen, but if you look closely, it can be detected by a characteristic bright spot.
4a9fac9ff30ef4e2a63799b63c23d1bc6b5009fe Even if you still could not see the luminary, you need to continue watching.
64b21f842ce76b9dcb7a4eb0dc791ce5ab5bfa6c Clouds come in different thicknesses, it is quite possible that after 10 minutes the Sun will appear in a break in the clouds or behind a less thin layer.
8deb802fd0080e95ff86bf693baca1e534711ada The clock, as mentioned above, helps to determine the sides of the horizon.
85dbef6d27532a8a856fe23d10b63353df57af60 But everyone can navigate by the Sun, because in it, like any living organisms, there is a “biological clock”.
a5fbe6e30c854ece0ea3a15632900ab922939744 To put it another way, it is an innate ability to sense time.
4e15afccd21f2c9ab95c9dcfc243c22328165d5a Only these watches start to mess up great, with a sharp change in lifestyle.
57996f0d6db181533383b6aa0c5d5554152aa3c6 For example, when a person sleeps during the day and is awake at night, or moves to another area where the time zone is different.
84de0eeba0db13a7cea71971f405c765cc32111e Also, these hours are blunted by the use of drugs (tobacco, alcohol, etc.).
23b852914ef7a3a7c84808febdcf07c0e43714e1 And other harmful factors.
a441e515be96db81054ee30f898da9a27bb53bae Thanks to this, it will be possible to determine in which direction you need to move.
5a5e190d6b95eead43c48dd4bb71b923e06a356c That's just the direction itself can be in any direction of the world, and not north south, as on the compass.
62295ade09081cf478efa3fe1c8d2da35342f34b Being on a large body of water with no compass, when you canot see the outlines of the shores or the Sun in the sky through a dense layer of fog, even a light breeze will help you get to the shore.
c1581d104ef5aaa67f5d838c1981f1ca31e50a9a A similar situation can sometimes occur in winter.
856e1d8b3c3487e50df439cebdcf1af389518c54 If a strong fog is caught on a large reservoir, the wind will help to go in a straight line, and not circle.
f28cfa21255a195791cb634ab0b01648a27f4f98 Although fog and real wind do not happen at the same time, but with careful observation, you can detect at least a small movement of air, even with an apparent calm.
fe60074ca5895cba6a6601704df72e06236ba283 And a simple way will help in such a situation – to wet your finger (you can use saliva) and lift it up.
396d5a8c888c3a894b78cf7e61c2aca16acce79f From the side where an imperceptible breeze blows, it will cool down faster, because the wind accelerates evaporation, which is accompanied by heat loss.
cdc031f5be8dc33c90459e80c0fc9bd9b68022bf Having determined in which direction the wind is moving, it is not difficult to move in a straight line yourself, periodically checking the direction in the above way.
668b034ade8af67cc928422eb0dc6c7994b29b47 These are not all the ways that can be applied, because nature has its own rules in the forest and there are many of them.
d6ff7cf43581ba5f84da3d3b7ac7ed2c47c81ae2 And if the anthill stood on the north side of the tree, the shadow from the trunk of the tree at noon would fall just on the anthill.
b57f8b5cb5b45c6c7294b7469bc4752ad142d1ab Of course, there are other natural rules in the forest that you can navigate by.
8021cbe07f73bbf06483189d8d66db9acf0b35bc Mosses like moisture and lichens also need it, and on the northern side of a stone or tree, moisture persists for a long time, after rain or dew.
2138a74abb0b21fe3cbe646f0e5b0815c4d5ba2c And on the southern side, evaporation is much more intense, and the surface dries much faster.
6dd146c3b10a704b97026476b46f93df7f6d7c89 On summer days, at noon, the Sun completely dries up the surface facing it, thus killing any vegetation that does not contact the soil with its roots.
a0c8cc7a8fc6f6e17fa89691dcfe57d31f3daa7a The only exceptions are plants, including parasites fungi that feed on the juices of the tree on which they “settle”.
93ab269d79780f6b3884d8175cfcfef84956f1d2 It is as if it is being served towards the midday Sun.
17033d495be3f49f0d1c2853f623191092e9744f Only you need to remember that this” one sidedness " of the crown is noticeably expressed only in trees that have grown in an empty place.
d161c8bedd76b046a1db09af449d6b4674b18bac There is a lonely tree standing among the felling, and I want to study it for orientation along the crown.
7b157e8ce644f145b1b32925bed52cdcf41bb006 But you can not be tempted, you can not determine where the south is and where the north is by such a tree.
9037fdd48f69cd896e0ea890c36dad54e6f0e430 The annual rings on the stump can also indicate where the south is and where the north is.
50361f61fe023e8567a541fbde98f78554ae6c92 They are almost always eccentric and have thickenings on the southern side.
a1539476c491146e75f55b804820a38aaaad46bd But even in this situation, you need to know that nothing interfered with the development of the tree during its lifetime.
f434809799ed7a20757a47fa5356b538185d4693 Otherwise “ "reading" such a stump, you can be misinformed.
9fd5496dd351867a354c19afe9948c02e9b6f7aa Also, when navigating the forest by local signs, you need to remember that the trunk of the tree remains wet longer from the north side after the rain.
ab98d2d1028cdc9b4dcbb7e353ecd4981855d3c2 And the snow in the spring begins to melt at the coml from the south side, I form a kind of hole.
97e9fcbc5ad4fbb9edb2a04a92d24b691eeddf05 Thus, there are various rules in the forest, both natural and non natural, which allow you to navigate in it.
737354c1c835e57b99821f7747c4be96e27c5755 But sometimes you have to move around the forest at night.
dea08e5df4610d03bd3df0438d4ba4ec05ef5f47 And if you do not have a compass with you, it is extremely difficult to navigate, and only the starry sky will help here.
53d23113855c14032875860471faa1aaf83bb914 The North star, which always points to the north, can be easily found due to the fact that its close neighbors are the constellations of the Big Dipper.
d1e7067916057aa13798f2a5af68f67da030689d This constellation, which consists of seven stars, resembles a bucket in its shape.
e70d14912560ab94b8ae9550659a547bcd4c9bf1 If you draw a straight line in your mind through the 2 extreme stars of the "bucket", at a distance exceeding 5 times the distance between these stars, you can notice a fairly bright star (of the second magnitude).
087f4438ca9731bf592d8dc78fd91eea08f5e498 This star is the North Star.
fb3833a3f88851b0f294872ba992995e862f21e7 A person with good eyesight can check the correctness of its location in the following way.
4e2d5837728fbf063167eb5e81c0529ca9c18032 The polar Star is part of the constellation Ursa Minor, and this constellation also consists of 7 stars and also resembles a bucket in shape, but smaller.
141b4c07d2e8cf8a87d7e4bea1c482daca8093fd The handle in this “bucket” ends with a Polar star.
83eee570ea83338dea5461cc0031349cf7f95de0 The most reliable and probably the only landmark that is available in the dark is the Polar Star.
581bc1c7ee68feb6cdf568587d53182d7dda4bb2 But if the Moon is visible in the sky, then you can also use it to set the sides of the horizon.
77d1d1ff9e10dc3078b129a19c42771505351c7c This is very important to know, because even the thinnest layer of clouds makes it extremely difficult to find the Polar star.
6ee1fc6734a7b78e8c57240809e9fa9645da85e5 They are guided by the moon, knowing the " schedules” of its movements in the heavens.
b6edff6a1ac6573c4601cb05c87062b58ccf6d09 At 7 pm on a full moon, the moon arrives in the east, in the south – at midnight, in the west at 7 am.
13f692cd32fac2bd3874506146e8f86ab6fe1f09 The following simple method is used to determine the phase of the moon.
02f5d853be05d58d5f3084537572d4964fced0dc The hand is extended forward, the straight index finger is brought from the left side to the crescent moon.
20197887a70d45cb9381ae4f494d433ac06f3245 Thus, if the sickle and the finger form the letter "r “ – the moon is” growing", then the observation takes place during the 1st quarter of the moon.
43b2433d4b63290783db04707820df0dfe2847af If it was not possible to form the letter "r", it means that the Moon is in the last quarter.
5197af298b60c6e2ab7a9859b465464ccd0acafb In this situation, the crescent moon resembles the letter "c", and the word “grow old”begins with this letter.
67fb8e6c1f758f4cf9a9004d44532c04f4ad2b97 The sizes of forest blocks are different depending on the value of the forest.
c3360508b955714821faa5bb18adddf6da05b99c For example, in cities, green zones have blocks extending a kilometer by kilometer, sometimes a kilometer by half a kilometer, or even half a kilometer by half a kilometer.
8333cd93c12f8e7ec73f54e74fbe427d66830619 In areas that are called “forest surplus”, where significant areas are covered with forest, blocks can be in size 2 by 2 kilometers, 2 by 4, 4 by 4, and rarely 2 by 8 kilometers.
4e9371de1abbc2256dbddf823031f8e52c2942d3 Each forestry has its own numbering of blocks, which begins with one (at the northwest corner of the forestry).
ed6d550c165a803a95b9538096330b6badfa83be Then the numbers go in order up to the eastern border of the forest area.
dfa9c41d220acd5c59d0ee5c891386065371e3d5 After that, the numbering goes to another row of blocks and increases again from left to right – from the western border of the forest quarter to the eastern one, in other words, the numbering of forest blocks occurs according to the same scheme as the letters on the pages of books are read.
0237a76a834bbe5743c13d5d36275bb66b82824d This is a good way to navigate in the forest, but it is better to study this issue in more detail, which can be done with the help of a textbook on forest management.
b3f712916145b194bff04aa606f9d762ac62a115 In spring, the grass on the southern side of a rock or hummock is higher than on the northern side, and at the end of summer, the grass on the northern side is more juicy, etc.
ac5ec3f24d391cf0efd2e30a3196f8104c8019be The traces of the Sun on the ground will always be a “compass”for an observant person.
d32b132123c8fae629dc5fa58e4cabf7fb6abf65 выживание survival, forest, survival skills, ways of orientation
b49009e39603691a2a36b13b597436ab96410d7b Day X
0eba1333bbe06710279daccba194214409def8bd Notes of a paranoid
15b076f1f65df77fceb753775cff0eef5fd373a7 The largest trees on the planet are under threat
4d7617f490a956215ad4df0b43092317b32de6ef Scientists have accused the Brazilian authorities of "planned" deforestation of the Amazon
7fd41b195e7f739d7819886d5aaa852c52ae2691 How to behave during a flood?
0841407d2fbe0fd73f5d2993e334b7fa3b0be07c The forest, which is about 298 million years old, was discovered under a Chinese mine
37e128ea6a8d7ae123b763ca3245ab4a70749a3a In the Rostov region, bomb shelters are being prepared in case of shelling from Ukraine
bd0035c82c646029fd67f6501fb9f3c698a4a656 Comments: (6)
594d42357287c1465457a400e7f9b07cdd9789a8 Ivan 22.02.2014 at 16: 36
bac8690bc558667887592b3147737d909380a74c Informative, thanks for the article!
a632ec90b0b502de7d3e9fc877de22cbadd34b43 Kotenok 26.10.2015 at 06: 13
190e45c8596cb513f116096510aeceea868c5422 no not consciously
451a7b72a8de0e201e5b5741c761d644a3932513 Mariya 28.08.2014 at 20: 50
fc896c8791cd78303413642533bd4a1b360a8aaa Very informative.
5d2b903d1a6ac64a562277109a1e2f4e7400ef4d It is necessary to learn how to work with a compass, try many of your recommendations in practice.
ce962ff0acf19fb1b0c78cfc86599327aa2f29c0 Your site is in my bookmark.
10ad145c2282e0e63d7bade7daec04b5dafca04d Andrey 12.09.2014 at 20: 29
7ecc2244146c024bebbcef6f390b12a013c59af4 Many thanks to the author, it is very informative and interesting.
56ac2f9d330f3d2c230183f0c9c02a348698c982 Tatiana 25.03.2015 at 11: 20
9b9801fdcb22c98df916300c4b9a13d100aa0b0f When you go to an unfamiliar forest and because it happens that some people start to circle, it is always better to take crayons with which to mark the direction with an arrow on the tree trunks, it is more reliable.
31c1b7c522ac34f9a7cf16963f43162598c8b197 And you can also put dry branches of a stick in the direction from where the path is laid.
1f8ccfd24df71c80eb6279b7a8e7e66c1a0df491 Even threads can be used in a dense unknown forest, and when unwinding, marking a prominent place with something, and further along the way.
bdfde9cd98d6483c81abb2d4d81f372dc5ffadad Ivan 17.06.2015 at 21: 06
ca5e2ab74f78dc91250c76ca8eacdebc7ef38c54 A very useful article.
882486633956ce183ebd3140ff505337ea560df3 Now, knowledge has been added to intuition.
086e615dd7091535ca1d47bf61708c361b4cceb1 goodbye, I went to the forest to practice))
c9ecd54a80c79f01de8a77be29fe87a2ced4ad94 Post a comment (do not write anything yet, wait for the completion of technical work!)
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514542dfc6e7c2bd2166b28d373d674eac299ed8 Author's section
798daab0a08d22c7d80e19e040185c50090d7534 Alternative energy
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ffe0ff4ae0682d157f5a34bef0a3c687bd5a1da0 All records of the Incident
d929bc643640885c3da67d01b2f7d86e344b7963 Signs of the time
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4ec78af8e3a27dbeba46b3e004f310f589e46b0c Earth and nature
641c1f2f1a0dbfdcbf1aa3ed5e92d2a4e0042671 Unusual
579d2078b5514d0ccbd1f7f96882ed902538431f Object X
b0bf7b100b8b509d6c96d4990cbbd9fbd767a72f Prophecies
33538c79398b849fb703503c0ec458c7daeb3f8f Threats and emergencies Animal aggression
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99969cf5f10660677eb4a67464c11ea1097001d8 The New World Order
a8d0717414950e5012a32a164298de693ab6de1a Ground failures
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491c1aea558b47f624fb4b96633c548785e23e8a Pythagoras was born around 580 BC on the island of Samos, near the Ionian coast of Asia Minor, and died at the beginning of the V century.
4b6ad4f4ecbbacc5ef245665926b82486a7e6aea Some say that he was the son of a wealthy citizen named Mnesarchus, while others believe that he was the son of the god Apollo.
58d45e79d25d919fad7632cb138bf60c9490d7cf About 532, hiding from the tyranny of Polycarp, he settled in Croton, where he quickly gained wide fame and founded a union of his students, which enjoyed influence in this city.
20ee118786f0b00b384bf9cba850d5092d40dd39 Tradition attributes the authorship of the term “philosophy”to Pythagoras.
10585e0b7d7cafdca2c1b8a11f858e549d3eaa42 He claimed that he was not an embodiment of wisdom-a sage (sophos), but only a lover of wisdom-a lover of wisdom (philosopher).
830cd9add1cfbbe6959bb1fde53789b41f5f92e2 It is possible that the philosopher expounded his teaching only or mainly orally (this is quite likely, because in that era spiritual truth was usually considered the lot of the initiated elect; writing meant giving it to the general court)
e95b5b9ec5c679e94c1ad320651c3425aa151cd3 In addition, soon after his death, he became a legend: miracles and magical abilities were attributed to him, every word of his was given the meaning of a prophecy.
39e9be7a9f619919241e22ffadc2d020524ed711 Historians find it difficult to separate the words of Pythagoras himself from the statements of his disciples, which is why they talk about the so-called Pythagoreans who lived in a community where no one could be singled out.
1d80a92fd46a599218ef9e691e1772a3b2c3300a The teaching of the early Pythagoreans is known to us from the testimonies of Plato and Aristotle, as well as from a few fragments from the writings of Philolaus, which are recognized as authentic.
7f5e77ac2f42998f0f911b1e0a92846e3076afee And therefore, of course, it is difficult to reliably separate the original essence of the Pythagorean teaching from the later layers.
a1313836c9fc9864afdd32eb6f83bd09480c2cfb Nevertheless, it is generally believed that the ideology of Pythagorism includes three main components: religious, mythological, magical, scientific(related to the development of mathematics), and philosophical(demonstrating the desire to find the "beginning" of everything that exists and with its help explain the world, man and his place in the cosmos).
9d89336d1616c5b7e3cf8636ed8a604df97c1893 According to tradition, the followers of Pythagoras were divided into acusmatics ("listeners") and mathematicians ("students").
5742c9e67f865af3b995e76f6ebb453591cfdced The acusmatics dealt with the religious and ritual aspects of teaching, the mathematicians dealt with the studies of arithmetic, geometry, harmonics and spheres.
fda0b479f12097b67590c6a9138944a953c12314 The religious views of the Pythagoreans were very closely connected with their political ones: Pythagoras considered religion and morality to be the main attributes of the ordering of society - social harmony, in his opinion, was based on the subordination of the demos to the aristocracy.
7aa9fb2f5cb66bb6ebc9ee00b0aa5b16b3e99fb7 But the "aristocrats of the spirit" should be in power - people who are initiated into higher knowledge.
8d2f6d3587d200ed6af717dea98fd6fc47a93a75 To some extent, the Pythagorean Union was formed for these purposes.
cfa078c0e7fddd2d74aeea7b19fb579028cb6ba4 It was not a party or a simple community, but a real religious order.
4575aac8ec13c240b8dc44e8c8b9a9dcc3dabdee The ritual of initiation into the members of the Pythagorean brotherhood was surrounded by sacraments, their disclosure was severely punished.
5300613428f5b919c76e5afc62a63062f88401db Having entered the order after a strict selection, the newcomers could only listen to the teacher's voice from behind the curtain, only after several years of purification by music and ascetic life were they allowed to see him himself.
ab02abe7cea001fb2d4ed1fe859c9a1c7fd761bc However, Pythagorean asceticism for a novice was primarily reduced to a vow of silence, unlike the Christian asceticism that mortifies the flesh, which is familiar to us.
d7d545d242de729beb1ec49e1b9808ec61501554 Pythagoras preached the idea of reincarnation-the transmigration of souls: because of original sin, the human soul is doomed to a series of transmigrations, and it settles not only in human bodies, but also in animal bodies, the body is only a temporary shell of the immortal soul.
71455979c57fc175b03327a41b26d66bca66aacf A person should remember that warring forces are fighting in his soul, and in order for the soul to be freed from the body, it must be cleansed, therefore these forces must be brought into balance.
55c47ba2828846e6ea231ca8affb5027796fa3fc Only a perfect life can bring bliss to the soul in this life and in the future.
1ef96cac108d0a512c158f48fcb9719358870052 In this regard, the Pythagoreans had a special way of life that required harmony, measure in actions, feelings and thoughts.
babf128fbb086d9644be1cfd0ce5e4d464fa856e The Pythagorean had to cultivate chastity, restraint, and peacefulness.
2f6aa449920b609163a2f8c80dafedc1f46a486c They also considered it possible to achieve purification and union with the deity with the help of science.
25f37a7b325bd0ac90e6fb0410df363bdd6cf966 According to Pythagoras, all living beings came from the same substance, so they are related to each other.
7153b2372a1653b665f83421699feecb1156b645 Pythagoras also adhered to the idea of cyclism: everything that happened in the world repeats itself after a certain period of time, but nothing new happens at all.
0e6a5df113cfaa366959dfb93bbeeffc1430bfa4 The moral principles preached by Pythagoras are still worthy of imitation today.
283577cfa9328e10f2551be227c62085e0135124 Every person should follow the rule: run away from every trick, cut off disease from the body, ignorance from the soul, luxury from the womb, turmoil from the city, quarrel from the family.
3f5516bce92b088d57ef02124a3d5e528e57d677 There are three things in the world that are worth striving for and that should be achieved: first, beautiful and glorious, secondly, useful for life, and thirdly, giving pleasure.
b84c2572c29b163460eb8b6d8a0c53f607b879f1 But pleasure is not meant to be vulgar and deceptive, not satisfying our gluttony and voluptuousness with luxuries, but another, aimed at the beautiful, righteous and necessary for life.
e10296f50a9bfb6ce96e6f6a3bfe62a6babc593e The system of moral and ethical rules, bequeathed to his students by Pythagoras, was collected in the moral code of the Pythagoreans-Golden Verses.
65eb00abfe6ef1ff2555380127c14c2a7ae4382e They were rewritten and supplemented throughout the millennial history.
879ed24fa8e3a417406ba97bb52428cef7147c09 In 1808, the rules were published in St. Petersburg, beginning with the words Zoroaster was the legislator of the Persians.
8677727c5c98dc7f1129b03919f8d8bd010d8540 Lycurgus was the legislator of the Spartans.
d26257b1945f9fd9a69cdb0e9c34bad7a598ecec Solon was the legislator of the Athenians.
7cdb02d1dda0aeef678c656c91d4569257a0936a Numa was the lawgiver of the Romans.
edae92daa7d8763ca718b9c861ada28a941e8545 Pythagoras is the lawgiver of the entire human race.
eb8825098e2d6318b692fc86e3d36b59911d7d8b Here are some extracts from the book containing 325 Pythagorean commandments Find yourself a faithful friend, having him, you can do without the gods.
1fa64a2ab30ea6eff0a49db57bdfa5005f7043bc Do not chase happiness, it is always in yourself.
35b566ea6fb9f3c65bb1862c3e5a395509778f8b Today it is absolutely impossible to say which of the hundreds of similar commandments go back to Pythagoras himself.
1e34e859e1f0727c6373d67a12e052309d0aa19e But it is quite obvious that all of them express eternal universal values that remain relevant always as long as a person is alive.
9858e4683d8e45f64aba04a73d844c77e75c2d91 The Pythagoreans led a special way of life, they had their own special daily routine.
7a53c3b9d1a8de8bcdc705cfd244cb3e70900809 The Pythagoreans had to start the day with poems Before getting up from the sweet dreams that were brought by night, Think, spread out what things the day has prepared for you.
4390a5e60a01502885ef9d822688c3b90fe9aa40 When they woke up, they did mnemonic exercises to help them remember the necessary information, and then went to the seashore to meet the sunrise, thought about the affairs of the upcoming day, after which they did gymnastics and had breakfast.
e0a457e81e873a114a9cfaf26719c9db522b37dd In the evening, there was a joint bathing, a walk, dinner, after which a libation to the gods and reading.
1417cc5e05aec3f6df895a193125407890e394f0 They developed techniques for improving mental abilities, the ability to listen and observe.
64ea0f1eb29ddfcbf9979508fd43b24335d4ff53 They developed memory, both mechanical and semantic.
5587a086ff32144f84b56ad38ea4276bd97a1bd9 The latter is possible only if the beginnings are found in the knowledge system.
b806e9cb1f145c360cb78feef1b38e9e1f74b621 As we can see, the Pythagoreans took care of both physical and spiritual development with equal zeal.
f70444c80be0894f398f5f5d6fe746a62aa57f1a The Pythagorean way of life was determined by the fact that there is no greater evil than anarchy, that a person by nature cannot remain prosperous if no one is in charge.
2972139ebb454fa1f4481810ac22098ca2cfed39 And the basis of this philosophy is that it is ridiculous to act like people who are looking for good somewhere else, and not from the Gods.
1b14f720a0394afecd3001f5517f6724823d27ff After the Gods, one should honor the rulers, parents and elders, as well as the law.
175104b5ba27164e1f6af69ac2c07f8668972824 The way of life of the Pythagoreans included the doctrine of different ways of treating people depending on their status in society.
4150e1fd8544b229f91c9831b5ea16668bd34a2e The meaning of this way of life is the subordination of a person to authority.
bf50f5509d5a2b5a6275841f91af745abb70363b In the religious and philosophical teaching of early Pythagorism, two parts are distinguished: the akusmata heard, i.e. the provisions presented orally and without proof by the teacher to the student, and the matemata knowledge, teaching, science, i.e. knowledge itself.
7c421616f23d148692b28bc5dfb9388354cf69d2 The Pythagoreans had many symbolic sayings.
8646dc24b8e1cc103dd089f7750d7581e4ca3fd4 The collection of these sayings, called akusmas, replaced the charter of the society.
f77367d14d8da8ae95205618f4e20b7131556917 There is an opinion that initially the Pythagorean acusmas were understood in the literal sense, and their interpretations were invented later.
cfcb3b2c79dbb6a4d6be9d0a8dad3fa6c52ffce6 For example, the first akusma reflected the general Pythagorean ban on animal food, especially the heart is a symbol of all living things.
f1c9b1924e1970f8d261e399f0693985647e6be4 The Pythagoreans tried with all their might to curb their passions, to suppress all impure impulses in themselves, "to guard the harmonious calm in the soul; they were friends of order and law.
329baa80f367a2dcc4ef821cf9ada0d068f8d7c5 They behaved peaceably, judiciously, tried to avoid any actions and words that disturbed the public silence; it was obvious from their manners, from the tone of their conversation that they were people who enjoyed an unruffled peace of mind.
05792db6085fff8e74089b80b640893b8fd5c668 The blissful consciousness of the inviolability of peace of mind was the happiness that the Pythagorean aspired to.
b97c0b423df585c57cb3a72cea79ae94eb67b938 At the end of the evening, when preparing to go to bed, the Pythagorean was obliged to play the kithara, so that its sounds would give the soul a harmonious mood.
2982fed719f410850581e94b17404fff0d38483c The Pythagorean Union, being a religious and moral society, was at the same time a political club (*hetaeria*); they had a systematic way of thinking on domestic policy issues; they formed a complete political party.
4ca1c673d9a45bdcfed7659fbd8c3453d12c8dbe According to the nature of Pythagoras ' teaching, this party was strictly aristocratic; they wanted an aristocracy to rule, but an aristocracy of education, not nobility.
a2fb4663aa5da6ba4dc1da566748ea774b116aa4 In an effort to transform state institutions according to their concepts, to push the old noble families away from the administration and to prevent democracy from participating in the administration, which required political principles, they incurred the enmity of both noble families and democrats.
11fbecfb2b6275c09841acb0955f5e1fa37d4b51 The Democratic Party strongly hated the Pythagoreans for their arrogance.
1566dc73e940e08589c68aba5d55951f4707dd6a Proud of their education, their new philosophy, which showed them heavenly and earthly affairs not in the light in which they were presented according to popular belief.
e737347f56f0b5ffa5c7e087d7033ee075289a7c Proud of their virtues and their rank of initiates in the mysteries, they despised the crowd, which took the "ghost" for the truth, irritated the people by shunning it and speaking a mysterious language that was incomprehensible to them.
348d2218c15711e9a6fb83a450613640c866cd2c The sayings attributed to Pythagoras have come down to us; perhaps they do not belong to him himself, but they express the spirit of the Pythagorean union: "Do what you consider good, even if it puts you in danger of exile; the crowd is not able to judge noble people correctly; despise its praise, despise its censure.
56784e2e66c9fdf6e275a8cc5e48dac15a0df897 With such a way of thinking of the Pythagoreans, their death as a political party was inevitable.
7de39ae8c6f9f1bb0eef5254033ebea9ac097120 The destruction of the city of Sybaris had the consequence of a catastrophe that destroyed the Pythagorean union.
658cf3f4b63c179842bceefa4961501b0bf79bf2 The houses of their public meetings were burned everywhere, they themselves were killed, or expelled.
a87922254fce5bf9b92a96035e721797ffe027bb However, even such measures did not put an end to the Pythagorean movement.
79b5b39cca25e6e5763d41abcf68f527a2245ddb For almost a century, Pythagorean philosophy retained a certain influence and reactionary political orientation in the Greek colonies of Southern Italy.
5b1c956ccbf09450ebf5ac55534bc8d88f25bbb0 Pythagoras was approximately a contemporary of Anaximander and Anaximenes.
f8eb143b60d3ee5f70234b93e209a909497b8817 Like Thales, he takes a trip to Egypt, where he gets acquainted with the achievements in mathematics and astronomy, with philosophical and religious ideas that greatly influenced his philosophical and religious views.
c0c378c63710eea6c5dddcd6cc110862936beafe According to Diogenes Laertius, he wrote three books: "On Education", "On the affairs of the community" and "On Nature".
5fa3d4696b26c640e4b65c286f2ac6aca91cd463 A number of other works are attributed to him, which were created by the Pythagorean school and, as was then the custom, were signed with the name of the head of the school.
09502d6eed81a4027e60d1e95b51d334fcee7b8f It is believed that Pythagoras was the first to prove that in a right triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs (Pythagoras ' theorem).
1148ee9989f71df6be9bd4be8874f07a6a01adb0 Unlike other thinkers who were engaged in mathematics at that time, he goes further than solving geometric problems that Thales or Anaximenes were engaged in.
1ac37b4810b320499f5ff4e0dd4c73e69c310dd7 It can be fairly argued that Pythagoras and the Pythagorean school lay the foundations of number theory and the principles of arithmetic.
3a93cf67d025a65c296d3a4566a69ebdf0c6119b The Pythagoreans solved many geometric problems of that time arithmetically.
2406d860b6160fbfc0b7de7068b7f7c6ccce7d6e The study of the relationship between numbers, and in particular between series of numbers, required a very developed level of abstract thinking, and this fact was reflected in the philosophical views of Pythagoras.
796bc132b850bf2cf7a825c230063a738e895186 The interest with which he and his followers studied the nature of numbers and the relations between them led to a certain absolutization of numbers, to the mysticism of numbers.
726194f8254b35e146b177c38f3aba5331b52f40 The numbers were raised to the level of the real essence of all things.
a8a2cc3485e8a4645e50d7580d8224cbeb2c0c74 Hegel, in the History of Philosophy, interprets the basic principles of the Pythagorean doctrine in the following way: "...the first simple concept is a unit... not a discrete, multiple arithmetic unit, but identity as continuity and positivity, an absolutely universal essence " 69.
e8096b928c225645ca26d52d02c7b124a1b01ed6 "The one is followed by the opposite, the two... the difference, the special" 70.
b6dbd459582b1450a943a312efe6274e80ade375 From these principles arise or, more precisely, all other numbers are reduced to these principles.
20800510aa39bce01d0fa0afd9add6108638b8a8 The Pythagoreans believe that the first four numbers of the arithmetic series are the main ones — one, two, three, four.
299ad3729ccd95626b7fec7a6809436d50b9fc44 In geometric interpretation, these numbers correspond successively to: a point, a straight line (defined by two points), a square (as a planar figure defined by three points) and a cube (as a spatial figure).
f4c6880e972c4c52f8ee9b4cefc17db61f8d8b5c The sum of these basic numbers gives the number "ten", which the Pythagoreans considered an ideal number and gave it an almost divine essence.
993c10cdabcbe1585e13cd23e8ee5a39c5503292 Ten, according to the Pythagorean teaching, is a number by which all things and phenomena of the world with its opposites can be translated.
c6389b8ef9a2d4a022eb31b57e930c85aa959701 The whole Pythagorean teaching about the essence of being has a clearly expressed speculative character.
552dd5d4b09bed68a98ec50978fe011a4d3d62b3 The Pythagorean teaching at the initial stage of its development is, in fact, historically the first attempt (with the exception of some moments in the teaching of Anaximenes) to comprehend the quantitative side of the world.
ad4a0695f4030fe33f84f2b531ac8b20751e01c2 The mathematical approach to the world consists in explaining certain quantitative relations between really existing things.
c3d292a8dc5d8f4b8c97fbd1e17ac676c6ff5508 In particular, in the field of geometry, the relationship between a quantitatively expressed relationship and objective reality is largely visual and in many cases even sensually identified.
1a5c6dc58f0db957eac5155928db42eb9ff5f560 The arithmetization of geometry means the expression of spatial relations in "pure" numbers and makes it possible for them to gradually detach from the relations in the objective reality that they actually represent.
b022bf4729a51b4f8bb645068a7d99f01c10a2e8 The possibility of mental manipulation of numbers (as abstract objects) leads to the fact that these numbers can be understood as independently existing objects.
fd2500723542723dcaeb8c4517a5de43ace6d385 From here it remains only a step to ensure that these numbers are proclaimed as the actual essence of things.
de0e1217df22439688b621ac2c14fc6beb53458a With the help of this operation, the Pythagoreans come to an idealistic explanation of reality.
edf9c7bc050720983ced879fd849a746e88b7d80 The clearly expressed idealism of Pythagoras and his followers had its roots in social, political, ethical and, in particular, religious views.
8bf1c0f482d727f6ead5cf5ab35e2f2ecdf98a94 Pythagoras considered religion and morality to be the main attributes of the ordering of society.
db5b58338f7fdf037626ef399b05f1a091c046cc The Pythagorean approach to religion differs markedly from the Greek tradition of that time.
f56a99ce3720056a93c1fbe7d602a3722a84c788 The Pythagorean approach is influenced by elements of Persian and Indian mysticism.
cb6aab8f0e4e9dcc1d3b4ebc3a20286e4d61800a To a certain extent, it is a sanctification of class exclusivity (which becomes almost caste-like).
ebbf63fd66bea24a9da84eed155a199ce64db40f His teaching about the immortality of the soul (and its reincarnation) is based on the principles of complete subordination of man to the gods:First of all, honor the immortal gods, as the law tells us, by honoring Them, also give respect to the God-like dead!
b461a79f5b40468fef8b9c354afd880fee846262 Pythagoreanism in one form or another existed until the third century AD.
13f07e68914a8cecbe54106145ac5891adc5eb8d The closest to the teachings of Pythagoras were the older Pythagoreans, among whom there were many direct disciples of Pythagoras.
0dee9b332384a8a702790789b998f00ce74ba98e The most prominent of them was Alcmaeon of Croton.
bf9ba651c9041fc81826ca82227a57f67cf401e4 The time of its activity falls somewhere in the first half of the V century " BC.
0a7ac61df65683cef16633aeeec78c75b723193b In fact, in his philosophical views, he was faithful to the Pythagorean principles.
e587b48c67d160b94ee5f0f435167c255bf47ebf Alcmaeon's main area of interest was medicine.
4e0f0b223573975cf1d1af9262bee9c13c036f8e It is known about him that he was "the first to dare an autopsy"72.
a5d8463c06176761003e9a06da60f76a8979d9d9 The most important of his medical and physiological knowledge is the awareness of the relationship between the sensory organs and the brain.
0fbcdc9fb93d979f3626728acfd47f135084bc7f The Pythagorean star (pentagram) was a secret sign by which the Pythagoreans recognized each other.
e021935e028a04b10e58aa59c417e8a4e9d693b5 Of the many numbers, the number is sacred“36” : 1 + 2 + 3 .
159ea9e79a1eb22f152a7c0bbdf80b1814902e9f It consists of one, and without one there is not a single number and it symbolizes " one." - the unity of being and the world.
3ddbbbcfb98970dfb41120d19c225fe7ba823e5b It consists of a deuce, which symbolizes the fundamental polarity in the universe: light, darkness, good, evil, etc.
bb5b905edb2199a7851ae11800aeda9573d5dea2 It consists of a triple, the most perfect of numbers, because it has a beginning, a middle and an end.
b7de0e3064ddf7967afe94248d8c3a6718c2e88c In addition, amazing transformations are possible in the number “36", for example: 36 = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8.
c56e208a18a741c656b8de73af59bbc2632867b2 It can be concluded that the numbers of the Pythagorians are the fundamental universal objects, to which it was supposed to reduce not only mathematical constructions, but also the entire diversity of reality.
cb8386ac6fb8d8e78e4b6e3d9a05be39eef9606a Physical, ethical, social and religious concepts have received a mathematical coloring.
744a89d964f6d4f8129aca57cf803073630b1991 The science of numbers is given a huge place in the system of worldview, i.e., in fact, mathematics is declared a philosophy.
20ec099a9f5213eb007740d0d7b8deb10805c88a The Pythagoreans attributed a special importance to numbers in the matter of knowledge.
64e5cde3046152be3cb41cdf79e61d26dc8e8a55 According to Philolaus, " number is the basis of the formality and cognizability of everything that exists.
595baf5ae7a2b08cb80c668382371a5c97249f94 The long and complex history of Pythagorism poses many questions to researchers.
f70321570e8c9b5412eb253d95560a86f5f4dc43 Unfortunately, for a thousand years of ancient traditions, real and causing deep respect for the personality of Pythagoras, information was mixed with a lot of legends, fairy tales and tall tales.
18f45601d1e322c9997c206e7fc3cbf3f964855f But the main miracle that made him famous was that he led humanity out of the labyrinths of myth-making and God-seeking to the shores of the ocean of accurate knowledge.
1359bb9d42b93179d664707e9e37f63d186ee8bd The morning bathing of the Pythagoreans in the waves of the Ionian Sea was also a daily prelude to swimming on the ocean of knowledge.
0dedac578fea2232b6ec4b5fd13351c3964af857 Only the purpose of the voyage was not the search for treasure, but the search for truth.
1d18d12e9328142e3427705966ecb23d3f4c4b3b Pythagoras was probably the first who revealed to mankind the power of abstract knowledge.
ebbd1c83c3f317304703ef92baa0e6e7f2e24b6c He showed that it is the mind, not the senses, that brings true knowledge to a person.
2afb9393a0e421965f421c54a16fed9af45b6c99 According to legend, Pythagoras studied in Egypt, traveled a lot.
cc83d2937a886f45e702241c4b8babfff50e7e9a He claimed that he was not an embodiment of wisdom a sage (sophos), but only a lover of wisdom a lover of wisdom (philosopher).
3fb92018fae7ac4dbf06fd2a2a374dde189051b0 Most of the biographies of Pythagoras should not be trusted too much: there is no reliable information about the activities of Pythagoras - many of the works attributed to him are falsifications.
c374b50468e22a617b96712768cf95a252c3d9a4 It is possible that the philosopher expounded his teaching only or mainly orally (this is quite likely, because in that era spiritual truth was usually considered the lot of the initiated elect; writing meant giving it to the general court) In addition, soon after his death, he became a legend: miracles and magical abilities were attributed to him, every word of his was given the meaning of a prophecy.
7d10de3b07fe252f65b8a500ca62de1769975669 Historians find it difficult to separate the words of Pythagoras himself from the statements of his disciples, which is why they talk about the so called Pythagoreans who lived in a community where no one could be singled out.
2fed0146a9279622fa5c1cf77e74dcd9d64e39ed Pythagoras preached the idea of reincarnation the transmigration of souls: because of original sin, the human soul is doomed to a series of transmigrations, and it settles not only in human bodies, but also in animal bodies, the body is only a temporary shell of the immortal soul.
18d7d560e4d1f450bd3ceff4ff79297ac61c0b46 From the religious teaching of Pythagoras, a number of "prohibitions" and "restrictions" followed, having a mystical character, the form of prejudices.
e55d25d4e200b2ecdbf26ae6c5237920ced1ea2d If the prohibition of eating animal food is easily explained by the belief in the transmigration of souls, then the situation is more complicated with other "commandments".
2d93bfe2bb47a065a2176abca3e5f089525e07bc These acusmas are interpreted symbolically, for example:
ff210c9c6faafc370154efc0a57780c92cc7348b - Do not eat the heart (i.e., do not undermine the soul with passions or grief)
ee5609fb6c625184f9410c38d6ed7158218d0b32 - Do not stir up fire with a knife (i.e. do not touch angry people)
76b9b50ccef74c2e90bc64d7237cc83e99f7caa8 - When leaving, do not look back (i.e., do not cling to life before death)
61cc92bc3f1d3bb02859e48c4917014e1659b08d - Do not sit on a bread measure (i.e., do not live idly), etc.
7871e9920edbb40c9f34d6e23d203d18ded5fd08 Or, for example, it was forbidden to touch beans and human meat.
370284b555633b14b5e9980f41aebc37fc40c110 According to one myth, beans came from drops of blood of the torn Dionysus Zagreus, so they were forbidden to eat.
94eb9f38fe7c63c82abd1ce31b0e3a90330922d9 But there is an opinion that initially the Pythagorean acusmas were understood in the literal sense, and their interpretations were invented later.
e28f7f71d237d382128d3b2aee3218cddf692584 Of course, the religious and mystical side of the Pythagoreans ' activity had no significance in the history of culture.
1ddde34d39e6d27ce79f2de371de88aaa3205056 The greatest contribution of the Pythagoreans was related to mathematics.
6e534c08767122f7f76becbd6ee153cd0c253a49 Most of the sciences were associated with a number of false beliefs: astronomy had a connection with astrology, chemistry – with alchemy.
09aa148d534b16df56cee74df6f7d21fc185a4f8 Mathematical knowledge, on the other hand, seemed definite, precise and applicable to the real world, moreover, it seemed that this knowledge was obtained without resorting to observation - based on pure reflections.
bcb1adfc2305f7c674f5d96d3c28fe5d4b3b20ad On the basis of mathematics, we concluded that thought and intuition are higher than feeling and observation, and began to look for research methods that are closest to the mathematical ideal.
7971e6a051104074fdae0f02322417b6eb5695a2 This
34db8ff3be3dc0221c76ed832af7f9f2037ea4ef the form of philosophy begins with Pythagoras, and mathematics begins with him in the sense of evidence based justification, in which a new position is derived from an old one.
652ce2d6a5e67ff1dbb0444f40f8180a87e3db2a The main philosophical orientation of Pythagoras was the doctrine of numbers.
cf8fe8b29b173ab65039a06675f0f601dbea6b02 For us, the number is an abstraction extracted by the mind, for the Pythagoreans, the number was the beginning of all things, the cause of any thing, expressed the essence of the relationship of everything that exists.
79641da67038e02c50978da2f7fcdeaae3c868ac The Pythagoreans derive the physical world from the concept of number, this was based on the geometric understanding of numbers by the Pythagoreans: one is a point, two points define a straight line, three points - a planar figure and four points - a spatial figure.
17c145b3aeddd967c07b561d1bed070da6becd4b The sum of these numbers gives ten, a perfect number.
ae74cf174979caa3136ea9d7026b3fdec28f7b37 According to the Pythagoreans, a number consists of two elements: even - indefinite, unlimited and odd - defining, limiting.
3c806f14f6607335ff5dd51dd7e8571919c037ee The unit comes from both elements: it is even and odd together.
faf5cc39a91a4559e060eec05e9c74691b722ece All numbers originate from one(the ancient mathematicians were decidedly unfamiliar with zero), and numbers form the universe.
883018724dc2543e5b360cfb72b8f41e642a91e5 The number is born as a harmony of the finite and the infinite, this harmony gives life to everything else.
cd75d78bc9ba187dd5985331b9d0e38c9af7a4ac It is curious that the Pythagoreans called odd numbers masculine, and even numbers feminine.
741d8d1ec5ea826e0da85be9a2df89e9c4ea5b59 Even numbers seemed rectangular to them, and odd numbers seemed square (odd numbers arranged in the form of a set give a square, even numbers give a rectangle).
038b87d7ad22f0d3ab727f368baf6e0ed743c9ca Suddenly it turns out that everything can be represented by a numerical ratio.
452dfbee54b05ae91e046cc8889c2975be05c067 The Pythagoreans saw numerical patterns even in music: they deduced that the sound of musical instruments depends on the ratio of string lengths and the weight of hammers hitting the strings.
0e973d21369585a25a07280bd6e8af5ff1bb9ab3 It was the Pythagoreans who established the harmonic ratios of octaves, fifths and quarts, thereby laying the foundation for musical literacy.
cfd02d26198ec79a172ddb9ab059e9792c8abefe The Pythagoreans also described numerical patterns of the year, season, days and months, incubation periods of embryo maturation, cycles of biological development.
aed0fc03385a7f504f7397a21757176798a50f3a Sometimes they were too fond of numerical games and lost their sense of proportion (some of the Pythagoreans identified justice with the number 4 or 9, the square of two and the square of three, even and odd, science and reason were designated by one, and changeable opinion - by two).
cae3aa6b41f6aa5263b43e677314db32d22f7d92 Pythagoras is also credited with geometric discoveries, such as the well known theorem on the ratio of the hypotenuse and the legs of a right triangle, the doctrine of five regular bodies, in arithmetic the doctrine of even and odd numbers, the beginning of the geometric interpretation of a number, etc.
12c06b27fa29d47fc59afb7bf87bc7b24f300a45 Mathematics becomes an instrument of Pythagoras ' knowledge of the world.
53c2d52991db551d4830ffa5e4cdc0a8f022f064 And mathematics is followed by philosophy, because philosophy is the dissemination of accumulated special (in this case, mathematical) knowledge to the field of worldview.
48aa5216bb34ef8a34f9ded4944df444acfb84c8 This is how the famous Pythagorean thesis is born: "Everything is a number”, and mathematics and philosophy are born in the depths of the Pythagorean union.
681ba39765069cc6cbe93d1576676239d0594a65 In the cosmology of the Pythagoreans, we meet with the same two basic principles of limit and infinity, which were mentioned earlier.
3aa4fb2c5d0b725c0390a39eb7e1500f7699f0a1 According to the Pythagoreans, the infinite is simply a circle within which the world is born.
9233f5ba8de2f2602891d2440857027bd329aba8 The number is the basis of everything: points, lines, figures arise from numbers, sensually perceived bodies arise from figures, in which there are four bases(fire, water, earth and air).
7c7edf32ebea0bc70ca5df95b315f423a04af836 Moving and transforming entirely, they generate an animated, intelligent, spherical world divided into ten spheres.
2b4f44e0a4f3f5c448b60a8f6ff1b039b38bffde At the center of the world is fire.
e7a322da3b9ef20ac281c28eb72926d154d39979 The extreme sphere that encompasses the Universe consists of the same fire, the center and the periphery are separated from each other by a number of empty intervals and intermediate spheres.
3857b7e94d99c213125b3945cb3b2fe37dc973ca Ten divine bodies revolve around the central fire: the sky of fixed stars, five planets, followed by the Sun, Moon, Earth and anti earth (antiterra) - a special tenth planet that the Pythagoreans accepted for round counting (since they collected and systematized everything related to numerical harmony, if there was a lack of any element, the gap was filled in to make the teaching coherent).
0e0f9fe720c743454861255d8fadeb5483abd56b The planets rotating from west to east are always facing the fire with the same side, so the inhabitants of the Earth do not see the central fire.
e7597e05a38464ee896f4ccbb10bc8eeca96dce8 Our hemisphere perceives the light and heat of the central fire through the solar disk (the Sun rotates from east to west), which only reflects its rays, and itself is not a source of heat and light.
df1a959cb544671a939439ab1e3ca2a33f60f6ff Thus, the Pythagoreans turned the earth into one of the stars, ceasing to be the center of the world.
f916e7daa219f1c21e8cdb34d88b917abf9df2ee The world is a multitude consisting of opposites, and God is a unity.
b63796010115495120be2873203af375e2f1c66b Harmony, consisting in numerical relations, leads opposites to unity and connects everything into the cosmos (Pythagoras was the first to call the Universe by this term: heaven, earth, gods and people are adjacent to each other according to a certain law, for this reason the integrity of existence is called the cosmos, that is, order).
19dad627cdef314a9fb9fbd5c8b844a2a8eb3b87 The Pythagorean cosmology represents a significant step forward.
bb73b0b5f1bf95182935c7b721ea7b2f6d99ecd9 They recognized the spherical shape of the Earth, rejecting geocentrism and explained solar eclipses by the passage of the Moon between the Sun and the Earth, and the seasons by the inclination of the Earth's orbit relative to the solar one, which was a significant approximation to the truth.
bda56df2a5ffe8dffe70a5dda58d3c061a51b1db The significance of the Pythagorean worldview for antiquity is great, it retained its influence in the Middle Ages.
390fd993a002579ed403fc5b3c0fe5e9fd9053be In particular, this was manifested in the educational concept of the quadrivium of disciplines.
524077aec50b34c139a48607c20d0567e00b2ffd Also, on the material of Pythagoreanism, the formation of philosophy from mythology under the influence of scientific knowledge (especially mathematics) is clearly visible.
7011e7dbfd60611acccaab27c24793e9c3a6b6b3 And their scientific research led to many astronomical discoveries and, as a result, to a new picture of the world.
e815852599bd93be0df732d1b0455f15959ef4e1 List of literature:
388a05bd08df9a7c61c08c0e487912e75ada6b9f The Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
54a6d73e91a2b95c38b3aab8b1792240ad5778de 3rd ed.
a009e2252b8af97761a0447d45156d8d53e6d44f - Moscow, 1969-1978.
684b194748fe5af9a021cfe0025c655241a5208a Men A. History of religion. vol. 4.
20d52c2aaa6c816f89b670b3d55443787160dda9 Part II. God and Nature.
e6fb83aeb4b4694b3c02fd8c5f359d2215bd9df3 - M., 1992 .
b1d8cd37abc0aa8e6c63b720128c7f1643daed7f Russell B.
0f505d52700843ffd107800dbd6afd73033e8363 The Wisdom of the West.
509ef1af1eaf4f1141d4e1557bf45caf7dbd366e - M., 1998.
8a7d0de07055df70a8f365e006b4968e7e881d10 Reale D., Antiseri D. Western Philosophy from the origins to the present day. vol. 1.
0ae18be48524dda91cb29160805dabbac06f8c22 Antiquity.
c6a67a66107161267eea19cf03f20bfe266e1ee5 - St. Petersburg, 1994.
3e385e6343d4a8797324cfb8842967352e1121db Asmus V. Ancient Philosophy*.
0801d7e49e945a9550bea32485daa8130be6c6b9 - *M., 2003.
06f62ec5f0f37d7ee3f9d9c640aab06e8ddc49a5 Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans
3270924ddf97ee241eb7ea40611d58094e3c0ae3 Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans religious, scientific and philosophical teaching.
ba7a0f491e64c3c5e1202c0fe7df2c56462121b1 Introduction There is a concept that philosophy is the science of the unknown.
2ef9012659d47967ca6617ba787c5a31c28872ee It illuminates the darkness of the obscure, reveals the content of the possible and points out the ways and boundaries of the unattainable.
59ec9271407f0e4ede74a14196792eee4c3df914 Tradition attributes the invention of the term itself to Pythagoras of Samos.
bc6cc95a49e5457f93d11faccae3b8c793f5d1c4 Pythagoras saw himself not as the owner of truth, but only as a person striving for it as an unattainable ideal.
3da5a86e0580d4e3935a4da430ccf6011c027827 Therefore, Pythagoras claimed that he is not the embodiment of wisdom, the sage Sophos, but only a lover of wisdom, a wise philosopher.
67fb8cd0347fd6561fbb549f1c752cce02339f9a But philosophy for Pythagoras was not just a mental wisdom, but also a special system of life rules.
8912d4c17237af43d219b3a494b185e66990c0d4 The love of wisdom was to embrace not only the mind, but also the whole being of the philosopher, subjugating him to himself and making him an aristocrat of spirit and virtue.
5fea48bdc37c05d2a2e62cd48aad37e7714e18ff So, the history of Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans can be described only approximately.
30cb03e9395d7678774f8cacfc913fbdc82cef94 Apparently, at the end of the 6th century. under Pythagoras, the general theoretical content of Pythagorism, its religious, scientific and philosophical teachings were formed.
f42d1ace3ce2f43791c1b6b19512dae1e8322646 Pythagorism reaches its heyday at this time.
e12c9f2275080fd7aa6f426555fffbda95276a1d In the second half of the 5th century, the philosophical teaching of the Pythagoreans, freed from religious prohibitions, came to the fore.
1534a4a49937279f22545dc1e21521699273d829 At the end of the 5th - the first half of the 6th century, Pythagorism develops into Platonism and merges with it in the activities of the ancient Academy.
7e7fa5010cdbc04eaba11b6de5c4994e7d597b44 II. MAIN PART.
64714b3d3048195becd17fbec01e81450e52a3a2 1. * Creation of the organization Pythagorean Union Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchos, a Samoan, was born in * 576 BC.
0785801a82aa9a0bdd158472ee29c88bbc80944e According to legend, he studied in Egypt, traveled a lot.
410430ede87d1f62d27d7331f1a3a1d00d5534d7 Around 532, hiding from the tyranny of Polycarp, he settled in Croton, where he quickly gained wide fame and created a religious, philosophical and political organization - the Pythagorean Union.
2519ce913bdc95a6c22b3d5fd98c5d661c7967ed This union was aimed at the domination of the best in a religious, scientific, philosophical - in short, moral sense.
979bc7838a45b6342ed4a9054b13dd35182e0b0d Pythagoras tried to create an aristocracy of the spirit in the person of his disciples, who conducted state affairs so perfectly that it was truly an aristocracy, which means the rule of the best.
aaffd16abdad457eba09c27a0fd091a5222e2f31 The popularity of Pythagoras in Croton is explained by the outstanding personal qualities of the philosopher, his ability to attract people.
36824e949912f2113f90a91d92ec65900267f56b But not only the strength of the personality and wisdom of Pythagoras, but also the high morality of the ideas and life principles preached by him, attracted like minded people to him.
88046041f70a3c834936c8925efe0820a116f5bf It was the talent of a political orator and a religious preacher that brought Pythagoras success.
a51ce51e54d328fc03bab4e950706179d9ebc321 No wonder the word Pythagoras means convincing with speech.
75c57d5b67dcff556d3aac8b934a40fd9d101650 The ritual of initiation into the members of the Pythagorean brotherhood was surrounded by many mysteries, the disclosure of which was severely punished.
bf1723b482dff2aedf368fe2ae306606180df741 When the younger ones came to him and wanted to live together, Iamblichus says, he did not immediately give consent, but waited until he checked them and made his judgment about them.
78a2b516782000c411b5273c1dec1a7dcca79fa4 But even after entering the order after a strict selection and a probationary period, newcomers could only listen to the teacher's voice from behind the curtain, and they were allowed to see him only after several years of purification by music and ascetic life.
18df3a05178c72269a3b9283133b4e55109c72bd However, this was not a severe Christian asceticism, mortifying the flesh.
560a1f6706638f9f246e01c1a54b635a7048afa2 Pythagorean asceticism for a novice was reduced, first of all, to a vow of silence.
c41d0de2a4e52d7977c2d18e17975190d0bf7cc3 The first exercise of the sage, Apuleius, was for Pythagoras to completely humble his tongue and words, the very words that poets call volatile, to enclose, plucking feathers, behind a white wall of teeth.
09a57138af2f9d4ffba55a2d796f6ade3103c06f In other words, this is what the rudiments of wisdom were reduced to: to learn to reflect, to forget how to chat.
5d3d501ee7c9e1713e0d9076c7c38e03ebb163a4 The moral principles and commandments of Pythagoras.
70e0d3373126d6fab2497b9acb716f5310240304 The system of moral and ethical rules, bequeathed to his students by Pythagoras, was collected in the moral code of the Pythagoreans Golden Verses.
ba47a51dcd3cdbeebd2d28e64868412f1de88b6d Young man, if you want a long lasting life for yourself, then refrain from satiety and any excess.
bf7115815266ac0c3000bd296bcfab5029318c5c Young girls, remember that a face is only beautiful when it depicts an elegant soul.
740e773e2e147331e3cd6468db2d151711c28b3c Do not worry about gaining great knowledge of all knowledge, moral science may be the most necessary, but it is not taught.
e8735759b9ff707e7332f33bb274164dcf2249ff Before going to bed, everyone gave himself an account of the past day, ending with his poems Do not allow lazy sleep on tired eyes, Before you can not answer three questions about the day's business What I did What I did not do What I had to do, the Pythagoreans paid great attention to medicine, psychotherapy .
88e7962da9e2fcd1f93e38a7a4a4af2dfe12741f It was they who gave birth to the term kalokagatia, which denoted the Greek ideal of a person who combines aesthetic beauty and ethical goodness of the beginning, harmony of physical and spiritual qualities.
650f20946c05238bb018ffa49e82eee87daa7620 Throughout the history of Ancient Greece, kalokagatia remained a kind of cult for the ancient Greeks and passed from them to the ancient Romans.
ae7095721532e89d6c21839a06b219f398bdb718 The supreme power belongs to God.
83a01f8d5bd4ac32e1700007d09ec4d1a20928bf This is their principle and the whole way of life is arranged in such a way as to follow God.
7716e9824bc15277740f22a86c6b255efef663e1 In the Pythagorean ideal, it is not difficult to see a flexible socio political concept adapted to the execution of the ruling groups of society.
906038368b0a3fc4f0e67056512c431445f03771 Built on the authority of society and the law, it requires to adhere to the father's customs and laws, even if they are worse than others.
8af5bd22c8a99167ce3a35facec9f8a6111dd120 Religious and philosophical teaching.
9b877b261988f1bf9d5532883ffc970678fdf09c The provisions of the first type included indications of the meaning of things, the preference of certain things and actions.
7484ed1202100867903fd522ee4fafa1edff2220 Usually they were taught in the form of questions and answers What are the islands of the blessed the Sun and the Moon.
3ee2245ac49ace5c869e9f9882dd8c8d46b89cb6 What is most fair is making Sacrifices.
476b30f3caebff906604f41387380709b88aa595 What is the most beautiful thing - Harmony, etc.
227326c616f705b3fe611b4edebf08477796f006 Here are some of the Pythagorean acusmas and their interpretations - Do not eat the heart, i.e. do not undermine the soul with passions or grief - Do not stir up fire with a knife, i.e. do not touch angry people - Do not look back when leaving, i.e. do not cling to life before death - Do not sit on a bread measure, i.e. do not live idly, etc.
6e5e1c32ff2198c5ae9caa1739e9cb3ada762b9a But in its initial form, this is pure magic defense against witchcraft, as for example, it is necessary to smooth and roll up the bed so that there are no body prints left on it, which could be affected by a sorcerer and, thereby, harm a person.
8979f6ecd2bc5cc011baa5dd943a6010ea98b9a6 Or, for example, it was forbidden to touch beans, just like human meat.
5352863497e187faac8e31323a4e0a879675f38c In general, all these stories only remind us once again that the Pythagoreans lived a very long time ago, two and a half millennia ago, that a clear mind and high morality were shrouded in the consciousness of an ancient person with a beautiful fairy tale veil.
7ce048bd6a67f8aa4e329e5d780765ed6d76b397 The scientific worldview of the Pythagoreans.
8eafa9610d95a40522043410a931d54a268efd8c Cosmogony and cosmology.
89b99d8e47a11dc9be2b918e934e46a90de18919 As for his own knowledge, Pythagoras is credited with geometric discoveries, such as the well known Pythagorean theorem on the ratio of the hypotenuse and the legs of a right triangle, the doctrine of five regular bodies, in arithmetic the doctrine of even and odd numbers, the beginning of the geometric interpretation of a number, etc. Pythagoras first used the word cosmos in its current sense to define the entire universe and its most important aspect orderliness, symmetry, and therefore beauty.
51f5299c8699fac8d6b02c6ea10b59426e787ec8 The Pythagoreans proceeded from their main thesis that order and symmetry are beautiful and useful, and disorder and asymmetry are ugly and harmful.
d9853689dbe085ed6e97d1fc86b97d2a02269353 But the beauty of the macrocosm - the Universe, the Pythagoreans believed, is revealed only to those who lead a correct, perfectly arranged way of life, i.e. who maintain order and beauty in their microcosm.
93072bfed21861b30f4e3afa668fb3c11aa13d38 Consequently, the Pythagorean way of life had an excellent cosmic goal to transfer the harmony of the universe into the life of man himself.
8999969d6ea65ac44d1d9a912f976525c3e76d3d The cosmogony of the Pythagoreans can be described as follows: the world, composed of the limit and the infinite, is a sphere that arises in the boundless void and inhales it into itself, thereby expanding and dismembering.
a70a232bc8be6a7634b333e23d3a3bffdc9ea09f This is how the world space, celestial bodies, motion and time arise.
4bf9fee615c605378a5ba159ba8de8ec93ad4c33 In the middle of the world is fire, the house of Zeus, the connection and measure of nature.
f3f0007e50bb08cc73b547f02e3fab8d559f04c0 Next are the Counter Earth, the Earth, the Moon, the Sun, the five planets and the world of fixed stars.
37639565973a2045166693e637663692c72d891c The counter earth was introduced for round counting, as the tenth celestial body, with its help lunar eclipses were explained.
343f58a10a30f2fca360952bdf2244426720df2c The cosmic bodies originated from the central fire and revolve around it, attached to crystal spheres.
e949cb052097b7ae845c6227debab6c33781b5de The planets, including the Earth, rotate from west to east, always facing the central fire with one side, so we do not see it.
fdc19f170abaf620d219147a87100444e13bc5f8 Our hemisphere is warmed by the rays of the central fire reflected by the Sun.
66d9d781466fc6f79c65cb503fa7d04d3d39f118 The rejection of geocentrism, the recognition of the spherical shape of the Earth, its daily rotation around the central fire, the explanation of solar eclipses by the passage of the Moon between the Sun and the Earth, and the seasons by the inclination of the Earth's orbit relative to the solar one, represented a significant approximation to the truth.
8cd33eb8752a45a2f6f99abd7075bb97efbafe6f But the matter is not limited to this physical picture.
8e51ef75feba8b90f29e02db59cc45b5b63e6c52 Pythagorism creates a certain logical scheme of the universe, correlated with a moral assessment.
b42ff5ec115a4349afa729b17672bfa6e417b468 This aspect of the matter is represented in the doctrine of opposites, which is represented as the limit and the infinite, odd and even, one and many, male and female, resting and moving, light and dark, good and bad, quadrangular and versatile.
24650c2bf45bc435ffc7057d1c98794fab55c778 It's not just a matter of opposition - opposites are connected.
7729914b05ed8cb4ef0911a42307d3af15a4f5ae Speaking of Pythagoras as the founder of civic education, Iamblichus attributed to him the idea that none of the existing things is pure, everything is mixed, and fire with earth, and fire with water, and air with them, and they with air, and even the beautiful with the ugly, and the just with the unjust.
af6807f1745a8e34498d207d1db3a16e535ec871 The next idea of the Pythagoreans is the idea of harmony.
5c9b253185a8d47afc9e9f28e54f80811e67fab8 Its origins can be sought, if not from Pythagoras himself, then from Alcmaeon of Croton, a representative of Pythagorean medicine.
58b9bcf257a43e9a4cd8837a4e383f08d7466bb2 This doctor considered everything that exists as a product of the union, mixing, harmonious fusion of opposites.
f891156ac503086c31e9a5223fbebdc512fc236f He believed that the balance of forces of wet, dry, cold, warm, bitter, sweet, etc. preserves health, and the dominance of one of them is the cause of the disease.
1063a60bfa590fda2e90254904707061282f8fa8 Health is a proportionate mixture of such forces.
a35d0b6f13c68fbcb24ef6c433a9368e57b05186 This proportionate mixing was called harmony by the Pythagoreans, becoming one of the main concepts of their teaching that everything in the world is necessarily harmonious.
8e0467a6676e75d80c1cdec867c7b2c064c6893a The gods are harmonious, the cosmos is harmonious, because all its constituent moments are absolutely coordinated into a single and indivisible whole.
b9fb6393b4f7adb4c1acb441a4d00b953956df9e The state and the tsar are harmonious, because the strength of binding all people into a single whole depends on it.
23fa8f8b8ee604bfb1fe8f39395af281c29e171f Alcmaeon's physiological guesses and discoveries are striking: he established that the organ of mental and mental processes is not the heart, as was believed before him, but the brain, established the difference between the ability to perceive and the ability to think, belonging only to man, and also proved that sensations are brought to the brain through special ways connecting the sense organs with the brain.
a16b3a03010caab0dcf24382c94b2bcf9a562c29 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls.
dbbb6ef6b1c87f283bf7829f83ae2cbb93c49f9a There was also a lot of mystical, vague and simply ridiculous in the teachings of Pythagoras, not only for our contemporaries, but also for the contemporaries of Pythagoras.
e7b0955ab28ba2ef785f61e5e26983fb59d0a088 Among such doctrines was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, of the posthumous transmigration of the human soul into animals, that everything born again is born at intervals of time, that there is nothing new in the world and that all living things should be considered related to each other.
3375d6de46536e4d5dd0b6eaa1b8b4a8f8936d06 The Pythagoreans had specific ideas about the nature and fate of the soul.
5dd3fc7548dd24b17e23654dd95e2a52ae4d2332 The soul is a divine being, it is enclosed in the body as a punishment for sins.
b235352fea54d55443660307d88ba367d117d626 The highest goal of life is to free the soul from the darkness of the body and prevent it from moving to another body.
334cd4579018f1a3a371b5d14c4409e46f676828 To achieve this goal, it is necessary to fulfill the moral code of the Pythagorean way of life.
fb4348994e2a69d62b7eeb42c4e2bf28a5ae48d2 From the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, there were also prescriptions prohibiting killing animals and eating their meat, since the soul of a deceased person could live in an animal.
d1b376653da54623666011ed44db3710a22e7280 Many very coolly accepted this part of the Pythagorean teaching and often ridiculed it and attributed it to foreign influence.
7ce2a732345e3a2d1cf878300cea2a561fa91463 The philosophy of number.
d5ba155438ff478989a26a8d8f0656b01a389e1e The main philosophical orientation of Pythagoras was in the philosophy of number.
001fd1729217ddcceda428c9481d7ea362a87738 The numbers of the Pythagoreans at first did not differ at all from the things themselves and, therefore, were simply a numerical image.
e084478f1f74bac332a3b7fc947653b12834ea8a At the same time, not only physical things were understood numerically, but also everything that exists in general, such as good or virtue.
b39c933925c19afd6305d8729ae075b05ee60ce4 Then they began to be interpreted as the essences, principles and causes of things.
c1afed8dce11352a3b3bf57a370da43ce3b6a774 The Pythagoreans, having devoted themselves to mathematical studies, considered numbers to be the beginnings of everything, since they found many similarities in numbers with what exists and happens, and in numbers the primary elements of all mathematical principles.
6bd96f912b8ebd053ec566984b887111a3917c81 At first, the Pythagoreans form a purely concrete physical understanding of the number of numbers, special extended things from which the objects of the sensory world are composed.
31b328f236a27cd99694c891865aca36499d33d8 They are the beginning and element of everything that exists.
d959faa0b7886455371fff681dd75b5dc4b25a1e The logical basis of this representation is the geometric understanding of numbers: one is a point, two points define a straight line, three points define a plane.
9f5ea834958053447404942c6b0a5c1da878d3dc Hence the ideas of triangles, squares, rectangles.
641d905a3e15e4d786446869b1bb2f728b0568a4 The triangle is the primary source of the birth and creation of various types of things.
b3f25acaa7ba594d6606b1124debfdb46fc9fd3d The square carries the image of the divine nature, this figure symbolizes high dignity, because right angles betray integrity, and the number of sides is able to resist force.
0e5ec3b37d434031fe1fc8a14af3186ea04cc88d Here we need to mention the main Pythagorean symbol - the Pythagorean star, which is formed by the diagonals of a regular pentagon.
af8b4cbd04129da44f6a18fceb7cc6b0e057210f Another circumstance is also striking.
ad803498db03a48e252bad45745cc9170c5d8cde It is the star shaped pentagon that is most common in living nature, remember the flowers of forget me nots, carnations, bluebells, cherries, apple trees, etc.and is fundamentally not possible in the crystal lattices of inanimate nature.
5a1f68f5c8a81e4d27fda2083096b85635689c02 Fifth order symmetry is called the symmetry of life.
ef9f9416a513a9984266c46cd2f8181fbe560b7c This is a kind of protective mechanism of living nature against crystallization, against petrification, for the preservation of a living individuality.
6bb6d5622c634589a2f7f06436ac88c69b054cde And it is this geometric figure that the Pythagoreans choose as a symbol of health and life.
4b156db6c8b55bef7cec968fecc5d9b4aa4ec8ec The Pythagorean star pentagram was a secret sign by which the Pythagoreans recognized each other.
e87eea56885f4ce119e9737f5eeef6232dc27cb1 Of the many numbers, the number 36 1 2 3 is sacred .
aed419249743012dfe69bfa93909dba462735c80 It consists of one, and without one there is not a single number and it symbolizes the unity of being and the world.
65d33d4f16c94e09e05f2d9b461fa8f060e1b272 It consists of a deuce, which symbolizes the fundamental polarity in the universe of light, darkness, good, evil, etc.
89894a78dcd5be6f147675aba715cc49fa0007a8 In addition, amazing transformations are possible in the number 36, for example, 36 12345678.
02d791922cb0d0e9f03265456d1e327f85455abc According to Philolaus, the number is the basis of the formality and cognizability of everything that exists.
f3a17ab07530e975636c0af2b28342c20f03f003 Everything that is known has a number.
bcc22ab06f0cd7082bc6cebb025ebf419aed623d For without it, it is impossible to understand or know anything.
e0fd1355e3c681ff888d825a52bc92410a528e67 CONCLUSION.
5a53d40dbc88f9d9b5621f6669a54e4318310ed9 The significance of the religious, scientific and philosophical teachings of the Pythagoreans.
eba5ddd28b8e4dcb7573c5bdb39d68ece7b1e577 However, it is possible to formulate the following fairly reasonable assessments of the meaning and theoretical content of the Pythagorean teachings.
e003f0faa28da28e4647a8e3968d0e96fa1bc35f The ideology of Pythagorism includes there are three main components: religious, mythological, magical, scientific, related to the development of mathematics and philosophical.
2b87b987f3dd575f55dca4b1135f6407fe1162f4 The latter aspect demonstrates the desire to find the beginning of everything that exists and with its help explain the world, man and his place in the cosmos.
0d0a3315b7faf99496bd2a4f9471d09d19046184 However, the leading material trend is being replaced by an idealistic one, which was based on the most important discovery associated with the development of mathematical knowledge, the discovery of the possibility of identifying ordered and numerically expressible quantitative relations of everything that exists.
8ecd2c7f9c97a71485dc84bcc9bd83d3de5c469d The numerical regularity of existence revealed by the Pythagoreans is the extended world of bodies, the mathematical regularities of the movement of celestial bodies, the laws of musical harmony, the law of the beautiful structure of the human body, etc. the discoveries appeared as a triumph of the human mind, which man owes to the deity.
1241a86a9bfc007b6b3901a3ba14e4b9f464558e Many miracles could be told about Pythagoras.
166c8d9ca58b3c305b44da1c4339526fe805bd17 But the main miracle that made him famous was that he led humanity out of the labyrinths of myth making and God seeking to the shores of the ocean of accurate knowledge.
f2b07dc17a3d48e81d4d33702b4a6a3d19c6ba9e That is why he advised his students to move from the study of physical objects to the study of abstract mathematical objects.
4e5edc028aa8b655e7da72ea2099732e44aec01a Thus, mathematics becomes an instrument of knowledge of the world for Pythagoras.
49ffbd6ccc698349a9d95b0ff8b5a9ae479dc5fd And mathematics is followed by philosophy, because philosophy is nothing more than the dissemination of accumulated special mathematical knowledge in this case to the field of worldview.
3ffe627f6ca0036f7660816a72076b3a9752219d This is how the famous Pythagorean thesis is born: Everything is a number.
69dcd406851ab0ba3bea8fac8cd368bfcb1dee3c Thus, mathematics and philosophy are born in the depths of the Pythagorean union.
4ad20d2693d9d0a19b9f1b3d4bbfbf85453becc6 They considered it possible to achieve purification and union with the deity with the help of mathematics.
21c76c886d04a76470aba818562d919018ca9bfc Mathematics was one of the components of their religion.
b1e36b0ec759d4a1ee60c66625ad72986652ae4b God is a unity, and the world is a multitude and consists of opposites.
0563c4997dd0b267402af507603c43410dd72da9 What brings opposites to unity and connects everything into the cosmos is harmony.
dbd85437c1b55ddaefd1257bff9f7975b4ea4bfd Harmony is divine and consists in numerical relations.
1fd9d38d7991f6f1691e50307ebe0211dc9d84f2 Whoever studies this divine numerical harmony to the end will become divine and immortal himself.
7dc10140e24177e67d48bd857914080db04b24fe Such was the Pythagorean union - the favorite brainchild of the great Hellenic sage.
eebff2969294e081d9c132a03c3f01287042f946 Truly, it was a union of truth, goodness and beauty.
b7a9d580b959ca610cfcb42e8761c668e50fd939 Pythagoras, born about 580-570 BC on the island of Samos, the son of a gem cutter or merchant Mnesarchus, was a man gifted with remarkable physical beauty and great mental strength.
adf267ee081e02013f9162bab924538dffdc322d In the news that has come down to us, his life is clothed with a mythical and mystical fog.
6f6b308fe85119a87633a3e340066b92bf21b737 In his youth, Pythagoras diligently studied mathematics, geometry and music; according to Heraclitus, there was no person who worked so much and with such success for the study of truth and acquired such extensive knowledge.
65a8c12cdcf494c3e2f172076959a19511e53303 There is news that he studied philosophy with Ferekid.
9d4dc887b5b40025fbe76de3cdd82aff9dc61176 To expand his knowledge, Pythagoras traveled for a long time: he lived in European Greece, Crete, and Egypt; legend says that the priests of the Egyptian religious center, Heliopolis, initiated him into the mysteries of their wisdom.
48327d513fc4a22268175e89fde4e989805a5501 When Pythagoras was about 50 years old, he moved from Samos to the southern Italian city of Croton to engage in practical activities there, for which there was no scope on Samos, which fell under the rule of the tyrant Polycrates.
1d5a5ab3b9e90a5bb2e871adf1e8e0f158a03f02 The citizens of Croton were courageous people who did not succumb to the temptations of luxury and voluptuous effeminacy, who loved to do gymnastics, strong in body, active, who sought to glorify themselves with brave feats.
437f0d50c80ff1969dab959305296cd5f25b80a7 Their way of life was simple, their morals were strict.
d26b85f59c22d9b1f2020f52cdff1c9c7b5090ce Pythagoras soon gained among them many listeners, friends, adherents by his teaching, which preached self control, aimed at the harmonious development of human mental and physical strength, by his majestic appearance, impressive manners, the purity of his life, his abstinence: he ate only honey, vegetables, fruits, bread.
925388a5b9c6b217723e92e739c0012d239c7953 Like the Ionian philosophers
63114b74da01348fb805f2e753119aa3ac83e7e3 (Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes ), Pythagoras was engaged in research about nature, about the structure of the universe, but went in his research in a different way, studied the quantitative relations between objects, tried to formulate them in numbers.
5ad2b7aa978c23ce05d33869891c78ad95fb3dc4 Having settled in the Dorian city, Pythagoras gave his activity a Dorian, practical direction.
3667439f1dc5449152da17df95a1099897edeaee That system of philosophy, which is called Pythagorean, was developed, in all probability, not by himself, but by his Pythagorean students.
da44dc8a0120648c8a83b9d74b0b40e99e5226ee But her main thoughts belong to him.
5a44bd2bf4b84d8c0e389441b11809db67f029b5 Pythagoras himself already found a mysterious meaning in numbers and figures, said that "number is the essence of things; the essence of an object is its number", put harmony as the supreme law of the physical world and the moral order.
897eb621f658f4ebbe719d012bb437659c5d1e96 There is a legend that he brought the hecatomb to the gods when he discovered a geometric theorem that is called after him: "in a rectangular triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs."
666a3c4a1a017931ff1ca23a20552449735575ba Pythagoras and the school of Pythagoreans made bold, although in many ways fantastic attempts to explain the structure of the universe.
f1fa0e1dfbbc8f8e1e5ed41df0c98dd1e6e87619 They believed that all the celestial bodies, including the earth itself, which has a spherical shape, and another planet, which they called the opposite of the earth, move in circular orbits near the central fire, from which they receive life, light and heat.
e87e5685f43bebb62ebf89985def59bc16960925 The Pythagoreans believed that the orbits of the planets are located among themselves in proportions corresponding to the intervals of the tones of the seven stringed kithara and that from this proportionality of the distances and times of the planets ' rotation, the harmony of the universe arises; they set the goal of human life so that the soul acquires a harmonious mood, through which it becomes worthy to return to the region of eternal order, to the god of light and harmony.
72232b01b2818416c053fc810dedd74a90caf76f The philosophy of Pythagoras soon received a practical direction in Croton.
fd914f12de4123e040189b0de9396123335eadb3 The fame of his wisdom attracted many disciples to him, and he formed from them a Phagorean union, whose members were raised to the purity of life and to the observance of all moral laws" by religious rites of initiation, moral commandments and the adoption of special customs.
b6051b7715c9653136d850469ad7998e58d1d45c According to the traditions that have come down to us about the Pythagorean union, it was a religious and political society consisting of two classes.
a8e93058286250c063ed5abd121f720c4682ffaa The highest class of the Pythagorean union were Esotericists, whose number could not exceed 300; they were initiated into the secret teachings of the union and knew the final goals of its aspirations; the lowest class of the union were Exotericists, uninitiated in the sacraments.
7983fbd143390b381e976dedc7ebe82f9f67a499 Acceptance into the category of the Pythagorean Esotericists was preceded by a strict test of the student's life and character; during this test, he had to remain silent, examine his heart, work, obey; he had to accustom himself to renounce the vanity of life, to asceticism.
6297dd167548c38af4e0b32b0d44b8d7c96a323e All members of the Pythagorean union led a moderate, morally strict lifestyle according to established rules.
6c4dc6da89e2f27a834282bb7807304fa5cc28f7 They were going to engage in gymnastic exercises and mental work; they dined together, did not eat meat, did not drink wine, performed special liturgical rites; had symbolic sayings and signs, but by which they recognized each other; wore linen clothes of a special cut.
9d0faf2c33142765786a3dbe437cec79dc5b84b8 There is a legend that the common property was introduced in the Pythagorean school, but it seems that this is a fiction of later times.
07edd425fad7c0fed3f93f261d40fd738a14bc51 The fabulous embellishments that obscure the news about the life of Pythagoras extend to the union founded by him.
4885620f29f0cfa0f62d7e04bb22e4dc81183f92 Unworthy members were shamefully excluded from the union.
ea6b7648d3e4c60e3d977282167263b94321eb0c The moral precepts of the union and the rules of life for its members were set out in the" Golden Sayings " of Pythagoras, which probably had a symbolic and mysterious character.
cde6375236725c26621f707656869c9be582119d The members of the Pythagorean union were devoted to their teacher with such reverence that the words "he himself said" were considered an undoubted proof of the truth.
5ebb8b6c5912c560fb52b07a9c1c87e86e8e64cc Animated by the love of virtue, the Pythagoreans formed a brotherhood in which the personality of a person was completely subordinated to the goals of society.
76720fed9d004da575d091021b34b1066937da55 The foundations of Pythagorean philosophy were /number and harmony/, the concepts of which coincided for the Pythagoreans with the ideas of law and order.
4d12e14cc81c34daae7794027771eb235be58730 The moral precepts of their union had as their goal to establish law and harmony in life, therefore they strenuously engaged in mathematics and music, as the best means for delivering a calm, harmonious mood to the soul, which was for them the highest goal of education and development; they diligently engaged in gymnastics and medicine in order to deliver strength and health to the body.
ab60bc6d9016d0c07f757eb725fe89d0883dd60e These rules of Pythagoras and the solemn service to Apollo, the god of purity and harmony, corresponded to the general concepts of the Greek people, whose ideal was "a beautiful and kind person", and in particular they corresponded to the prevailing trend of the citizens of Croton, who have long been famous as athletes and doctors.
d9616ba468031a24d391f299979d374fcbcfec4f The Pythagorean moral and religious teachings contained many details that strangely contradicted the claims of the Pythagorean system to mathematical thoroughness; but the energetic, deep desire of the Pythagoreans to find a "unifying connection", "the law of the universe", to bring human life into harmony with the life of the universe, had beneficial results in practical terms.
d982c978201a6857c7f299d4a93ad216a73d2dc5 The members of the Pythagorean school strictly performed the duties prescribed to them by the" golden sayings " of the teacher; they not only preached, but also in practice observed piety, reverence and gratitude to parents and benefactors, obedience to the law and superiors, loyalty to friendship and marriage, fidelity to the given word, abstinence in pleasures, moderation in everything, meekness, justice and other virtues.
975d50d4d16de3599f68889d19c4440e7660e6e6 The Pythagorean School
1b42b4050a3652706c17ae2cf8228702309de12e It goes without saying that the union to which the noblest and most influential people of Croton and other Greek cities of southern Italy belonged could not but have an impact on public life, on state affairs; according to the Greek concepts, the dignity of a person consisted in his civic activity.
611890ab70f59ab91e003c78c9f124985efc30ef Indeed, we find that not only in Croton, but also in Locri, Metapontum, Tarentum and other cities, the members of the Pythagorean school gained influence over the management of state affairs, that they usually prevailed in the meetings of the government council because they acted unanimously.
397610c695542ffd9e27e7201d092b4b0d1d27fd It seems, however, that the resistance on the part of the aristocrats was not very persistent, partly because the teaching of the Pythagoreans itself had an aristocratic direction, partly because almost all the Pythagoreans belonged to aristocratic families; however, Kilon, who became the leader of their opponents, was an aristocrat.
b80aba359be166c34d7e5880b4baa842f6b7cc58 Respect your brothers as gods, and consider other people as despicable rabble.
96d0b928ddf167acd358babb2265838688a64292 Fight the Democrats implacably."
f61cf854d590dc63fd4eae48a22bb5adcd58db3b But the teaching of Pythagoras has been preserved.
5b7c795da69361a9f0a9f942980980157f7dd356 Partly because of its inner dignity, partly because of people's inclination to the mysterious and wonderful, it had adherents in later times.
1bcec7c142aab361b91b831419cd238725bc4b15 The most famous of the Pythagoreans of the following centuries were *Philolaus* and * Archytas*, contemporaries of Socrates, and Lysis, the teacher of the great Theban commander *Epaminondas*.
000c29d8825cded576ed3b22b9b0f4770fb6010b Pythagoras died around the year 500; tradition says that he lived to the age of 84.
9cb31698252663313894e85c76647625720cd5a3 Adherents of his teachings considered him a holy man, a miracle worker.
7ca38bc7a68c899f324fd378ae72269a1dce9c6b The fantastic thoughts of the Pythagoreans, their symbolic language and strange expressions gave reason to the Attic * comedians* to laugh at them; in general, they carried to the extreme the panache of learning, for which Heraclitus condemned Pythagoras.
74093cdc28a86d1961c603ba64bc77537b5862b7 Their wonderful stories about Pythagoras have clothed his life with a mythical fog; all the news about his personality and activities are distorted by fabulous exaggerations.
e01e9006026518f60e53f39380124e9a39e9f6fb The next outstanding philosophical school that operated in the western part of "Magna Graecia", i.e. in Southern Italy, are the Pythagoreans.
a6365d5ba72457f33a60d8ad4edeee3da41c56ed The reconstruction of their philosophical views is very difficult, since few materials have been preserved from this school.
e6ba548dd70efe4acca7b347d5237a64fca94857 Just as little (and often controversial) information has been preserved about the life and work of the founder of this school — Pythagoras.
d95738bca279cd71edfc9a9e7ad1ea0281aec181 Hegel characterizes the situation related to the reliability of information about the life of Pythagoras as follows: "The later neo Pythagoreans compiled numerous voluminous biographies of Pythagoras and wrote at length about the Pythagorean union in particular, but we must beware and not take these often distorted testimonies as historical facts.
8b22618d84b4c0a8f5b94e772ae4904f3c6c3992 The biography of Pythagoras has come to us through the prism of the ideas of the first centuries of our era — it is written more or less in the style in which we are told about the life of Christ..."
4361be7a4421b971e2eac1104d3a68d83eecc208 The situation is similar with the works of Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans.
dcd9a4cd3ab48971548e9713e3830afd64892764 The thoughts of the founder of the school have reached us in most cases in the presentation of other authors.
664e39a465df8368c801301957f98c6c8e4cf2c6 "His philosophical teaching was subjected to the same distortion as the history of life.
b395c4422ab7969598c034fb7e77de0fa8c789c2 Everything that Christian melancholy and a penchant for allegorism have come up with has been connected with it."
9a2e5b39cdef35e3ffb077a643a456ec677fbece According to most information, Pythagoras came from the island of Samos.
3f71edc4b6ed4adb2d6caa4d8effda877bd01205 His life falls on the period approximately between 584 (582) — 500 BC.
fa2f74abfef49566c4ca178423ce6d0d131d9e30 He spent a significant part of his life on the island of Samos.
159dbbffeb1796aa0721a4629b4bb59d817ef35f Only with a noticeable restriction of the power of the ancestral aristocracy and the establishment of tyranny, he goes to Southern Italy.
c7ba39f91321aa4f70c919fa2c6b1ff61172ac56 His departure is closely related to his political orientation and aversion to tyranny.
8b246f239db40b5f709f8be3ce6aa646b011992d Pythagoras remains faithful to his anti democratic orientation in Croton, where he organizes the Pythagorean union from supporters of the local aristocracy, which plays a significant role in the struggle against the democratic party in other areas of Southern Italy.
7aecdea047c08b38ecbc6bf86e646d9f6d910318 The influence of this essentially reactionary alliance is spreading very quickly to Sicily.
2d574edb87fc0c3a52348adc407199b6f010afd8 Pythagoras and the Pythagorean union have considerable merit in the fact that Aristo cratia held political power in Croton for a relatively long time.
808471cec16c22c38966697192e2be4e533b20a2 On their initiative, the aristocratic Croton took military actions against the city of Sybaris, in which the slave owning democracy won.
113ee05eae2a8b90728b328181ecfa4cbef3a550 Social and class conflicts in Croton itself eventually led to the restriction and then to the overthrow of the power of the aristocracy.
fbf1b79d4482a246beb82f872a3e0b06102d48b1 The slave owning democracy took decisive measures against the Pythagorean union, which was quite rightly considered the center of an aristocratic reactionary ideology.
61d9842766e0cde460f213fc6d3ee93cea1c1fc2 Just as in other cities of Greece, in which the slave owning democracy won, the Pythagorean union was dissolved in Croton, and its supporters were expelled from the city.
ce629ff590717447dcc85cc9e693f323c3a31146 Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans paid considerable attention to the development of mathematics.
74b887a8c4b9671d5b2482d5c86804afa314424d Pythagoras also explores the relationship of numbers.
1b356cd0711045e575c8d2ed5ceb55db09a45834 Of the ancient authors, we find the most complete exposition of the views of Pythagoras in Diogenes Laertius: "The beginning of everything is one; an indefinite binary is subject to unity as a cause as a substance; numbers come from one and an indefinite binary; from numbers — points; from points — lines; from them — flat figures; from flat — three — dimensional figures; from them — sensually perceived bodies in which the four bases are fire, water, earth and air; moving and transforming entirely, they generate the world — animate, intelligent, spherical, in the middle which is the earth; and the earth is also spherical and inhabited on all sides."
ff00d988ca4ae6b640104791752a3b36e2d6de04 To a certain extent, it is a sanctification of class exclusivity (which becomes almost caste like).
b2b446f1e178267819cea53cd96c3276aa94ed65 His teaching about the immortality of the soul (and its reincarnation) is based on the principles of complete subordination of man to the gods:First of all, honor the immortal gods, as the law tells us, by honoring Them, also give respect to the God like dead!
1ec8b42f3cab24455539a55e100e40408b8fb4fc The religious views of the Pythagoreans are very closely related to their political orientation.
fb9dd1f5c9c38291429d818d533188106e204f4c The same can be said about their understanding of morality.
69b39ea4703379ba0fc03f0f10b5f258330c4eb9 It was the justification of a certain "social harmony "based" on the absolute subordination of the demos to the aristocracy.
802294f540e04da0d7fb5c531c06e52c08739994 Therefore, its most important part was unconditional submission.
e0504e353055bfb99cda5688865ec207b3b74d53 The religious and moral views of Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans often coincide.
a655676e61f8855591131b7f8f27fddc567d21a4 The religious and moral principles of the Pythagorean teaching have left a certain imprint on the organization of the structure and activity of the Pythagorean union, in which the classism and reactionary partisanship of Pythagorean religious, social and ethical views are manifested more clearly than in other moments.
dae1fde04309067550643e0e36ffdccbb5cd3658 Most of the principles of the union were secret and were available only to members of the union.
a2e69ef5c8b63e8f22bddaeba10aed78ded8f930 The personality of Pythagoras had unlimited authority, his philosophy was taught exclusively to the members of the union for a very long time.
d39a2d503565cd3c1cc89bebc3bea1585b886373 Only some moral principles were allowed to be spread "among the people", The picture was completely opposite with regard to the propaganda of religious views.
fc4863171d7a9ff080d2407805275ba58e29654b In the Pythagorean understanding, the dissemination of" religion " was the main responsibility of each member of the union.
723337a5de2d4e6fa780e8e09f04fd88a2c45735 From the religious and ethical teachings of Pythagoras, a number of "prohibitions" and "restrictions" also follow, which to a greater or lesser extent had a mystical character, a form of prejudice, and also acted as a way of explaining some natural phenomena, which sometimes contrasted with the principles of the Pythagoreans ' own philosophy.
75b7ad18bb20f00a5874639972c4a29981162d3c The disciples of Pythagoras.
d711fd4d6f8ae8e63deeb470d61f6372a6257b29 To the older generation of Pythagoreans belong, according to Diogenes Laertius, even Epicarp (550— 460 BC), and Architect (CA. fifth century BC).
8d383b1bf903f4413006cf4f7a5eecefd76339ed To the younger generation — Hippias (the middle of the V—IV century BC), Filoli (C. 440 BC) and Audox (approx. 407-357 BC).
7540c5f322b12b397966b4e9c3b872306764e0e1 After the expulsion from Croton Pythagoreans went to the Greek cities and colonies.
5be240860275c659203729bf0ef819a73895ff2b Some of them took refuge in the Plato Academy in Athens.
dbf62f4f912254f9a6cd23050b6b0484a33abccb Pythagoreanism is the first idealistic philosophical trend in ancient Greece.
ebc7326cc57aad1fefe9b3f3742e7951e217c9f9 The Pythagoreans in ideological and political relations played a reactionary role in principle, the same applies to Pythagorean philosophy.
0de2cc266ed805177ca6f77af35677d97b420a8f And although the Pythagoreans have indisputable merits in the development of some parts of geometry and, in particular, the basics of arithmetic, their mathematical problems result in mysticism and the deification of numbers, which they consider to be the only true thing.
c1405b54a895b95203f8850a78afc81102e6eac4 The Pythagorean way of philosophizing is the opposite of the spontaneous dialectic of the Milesian school and Heraclitus.
19ca3dbba2923f602f893d20d293b31120d0bb6d It also differs markedly from the strict rationalism of the Elean school.
c56e49ad5b967eb506322180d84b478d5d5243b9 The doctrine of opposites constructed by the Pythagoreans "is only a rough beginning of a more precise definition of opposites, a beginning in which, as in the Hindu enumerations of originals and substances, there is neither order nor meaning"73.
d66dffe1ed3fc49cd5d48bbe21b9fae095e20ed8 This is how Hegel characterizes that part of Pythagorean philosophy that has, although verbally, the greatest similarity with dialectical thinking.
edc6b82ac259beaca30385f18939040afc70a1b5 The existing opposites are subordinated here to the universal universal harmony of the cosmos, therefore they lose the slightest remnants of the dialectical charge, do not collide, do not fight, but are subordinated to the harmony of the spheres.
be89d07b51fbd1dd64c45ea1d7a71fdc8a71b275 The Pythagorean teaching is in its germ form a combination of idealism with a metaphysical way of thinking.
0aabb236aa551d9c787d4a2224c3a2c9280777a3 This, together with the mystical elements, forms the prerequisites for its acceptance by Christian philosophy.
2b610fd43a945fca7bd56d300a977d64bb738326 In the history of philosophy, idealism turned to Pythagoreanism, as a rule, only when it played an openly reactionary historical role (one of the largest representatives of idealistic dialectical philosophy, Hegel, in the History of Philosophy, evaluates Pythagoreanism very critically).
dfc8be4ab8f4a4410cf176ae0814c19266cec4a9 The metaphysical approach to the question of being, characteristic of Pythagorean philosophy, was the source of the emergence of a number of reactionary philosophical trends.
2b86b3cc2fa1f60fa3ff4526f819f99e081ae7bd There is a concept that philosophy is the science of the unknown.
7d2562f7b9a11a6d59dfbd225e8628b779f79114 Therefore, Pythagoras claimed that he is not the embodiment of wisdom a sage (sophos), but only a lover of wisdom a lover of wisdom (philosopher).
978d8497015a218f44d18878d12415aea25b131a At the end of the 5th - the first half of the 6th century, Pythagorism developed into Platonism and merged with it in the activities of the ancient Academy.
41b30440505145c7e06bce191ffad3191aa19eb1 *II. Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: religious, scientific and philosophical teaching.*
d8755f12bfd4942d8d83722c41dd1f917e083636 Creation of the organization "Pythagorean Union".*
137524476f2a1521dd9de4f9b4c273115c25a317 Pythagoras, the son of Mnesarchus, a Samoan, was born in 576 BC.
d3b1dd793b40d57bb70be705c44d49a80c7ecd94 This union was aimed at the domination of the best in the religious, scientific, philosophical in short, “moral” sense.
9738891006ac9d9809a89a588f69bd83ed0b0574 Pythagoras tried to create an "aristocracy of the spirit" in the person of his students, who conducted state affairs so perfectly that it was truly an aristocracy, which means “the rule of the best”.
e8499f3dfdcd3cd25b01e71232434e9ab26e4e87 No wonder the word “Pythagoras "means" convincing with speech".
69731569a35a509676b2f59ddba25f8a3f57b682 "When the younger ones came to him and wanted to live together," says Iamblichus, " he did not immediately give consent, but waited until he checked them and made his own judgment about them.”
66cf0fb4cd8890b187ff57f5697083fababd60a5 "The first exercise of the sage," Apuleius testifies, " was for Pythagoras to completely humble his tongue and words, the very words that poets call volatile, to enclose, plucking feathers, behind a white wall of teeth.
ca3a64d6d3c61086e2ae2aec9f9fd7d2cd56e764 In other words, this is what the rudiments of wisdom were reduced to: to learn to reflect, to forget how to chatter”"
eaa0ebd3d5d2ab77b0e28efe29e4235fc8748ecc The moral principles and commandments of Pythagoras.*
7bbd689ebfe039b7bfd1a96080f3e961756b87bb There are three things in the world that are worth striving for and should be achieved: first, beautiful and glorious, secondly, useful for life, and thirdly, giving pleasure.
823403b2c2d470e21ff9af41cd68c96451466d3c The system of moral and ethical rules, bequeathed to his students by Pythagoras, was collected in the moral code of the Pythagoreans - "Golden Verses".
5801a383258275d6c463d5d558c2c1bd39d949de In 1808, the rules were published in St. Petersburg, beginning with the words: Zoroaster was the legislator of the Persians.
41b980f255c1e669348ce7b415ad9f4b948f1cb6 Here are some extracts from the book containing 325 Pythagorean commandments:
b7310a5b2acd71d5bbe9bd8a3ad77c8493a6a9aa - Find yourself a faithful friend, having him, you can do without the gods.
678baae9758c03bbf181de09179ec744274d3c50 - Young man!
68d7df9e694846e496e3ff84893b262d23cba16a If you want a long lasting life for yourself, then refrain from satiety and any excess.
99f241d38500de0d4c74e95f3130667eb774bbed - Young girls!
637359d9b8192868a4c386341312d2dc70df3aa7 Remember that a face is only beautiful when it depicts an elegant soul.
d52afd672f71ba883058b15c92ede6b218521a0b - Do not chase happiness: it is always in yourself.
da14d7d4f9454cff0ee8ad86eff31d49e756b046 - Do not worry about gaining great knowledge: of all knowledge, moral science may be the most necessary, but it is not taught.
dc1b2f1ae5cf990b0ba4173bd23e1f0c0b182f20 * 3.
8dd73be7e7044089e4b96509dced9701affeedbb The way of life of the Pythagoreans.*
6980e081a46ed8ad493b00d4578a2ceba644e53b The Pythagoreans were supposed to start the day with verses:
48618b50d5113c7e5b522fb3e39bbb64b5b61ab0 Before you get up from the sweet dreams that are evoked at night,
2d39aa337585ba37a3ea3d216ea6d63b8fbcbf16 Think, raskin, what things the day has prepared for you.
206df47d8337ac46f0844e85e9a312d5c5ffe2ce Before going to bed, everyone gave himself an account of the past day, ending with his poems:
92effd7bbf57fdbcd36dde7871a7cafa8efbf8cb Do not allow lazy sleep on tired eyes,
1aec066d400f48f2a26fd6c17358a7b71344bb03 Before you canot answer three questions about the day's business:
db086ebf4f5d46f866f9324af65771148688f8a5 What did I do?
3a141091ccc89052f0cf0c12bcf149de5cc15d3d What didnot you do?
b6c592b43be5e70e5a0f08f92a3176f2dc4fb9f3 What's left for me to do?
79e3e9ec93e9b4eaec3a0eca4b6c41d04393dd77 The Pythagoreans paid great attention to medicine and psychotherapy .
fa932f8bbbc9baba88a87b05c914690396a1f64a It was they who gave birth to the term "kalokagatia", which denoted the Greek ideal of a person who combines aesthetic (beautiful) and ethical (good) principles, harmony of physical and spiritual qualities.
6f70aec8845cf24c7d07e276a67b30673c4b5c00 Throughout the history of Ancient Hellas (Greece), kalokagatia remained a kind of cult for the ancient Greeks and passed from them to the ancient Romans.
0256d4c91fc7378e5b7c8a6e182f2f563e0166e0 The Pythagorean way of life was determined by the fact that there is no greater evil than anarchy (anarchy), that a person by nature cannot remain prosperous if no one is in charge.
3a685c6bdb0b6f01df709e29dbaec44ba89bf80e Religious and philosophical teaching.*
c6bcc8fdba9ce02a934fbb16e708194f541f9f91 In the religious and philosophical teaching of early Pythagorism, two parts are distinguished: "akusmata “(heard), i.e. the provisions presented orally and without proof by the teacher to the student, and” matemata" (knowledge, teaching, science), i.e. knowledge itself.
1f4bfcdff938923b3525d7f790356e117912b1f1 They were usually taught in the form of questions and answers: What are the Islands of the blessed?
36468064c489ff031b9d9ce07c0022c5b68871f0 - The Sun and the Moon.
f95dcd37682f6221a7826c6c7e10680a5b0498a6 What is the fairest thing?
53591009de334ff79eacc83072f4c33a2d3ae291 - Making Sacrifices.
52752651a469581115e2064be328d1436bbe7943 What is the most beautiful thing?
3d65e98efa7f2a2965340be029a0cf46a5904980 - Harmony, etc.
0c855128d4a116c937e0ce6add8da5aa737b1fbe Here are some of the Pythagorean acusmas and their interpretations:
e61af642d4b4edc94ddfc3d72bc0502237b5ecb6 For example, the first akusma reflected the general Pythagorean ban on animal food, especially since the heart is a symbol of all living things.
1c99566f7bd1a2d82b048aa2b8fb5c5690c37108 But in its initial form, this is pure magic: defense against witchcraft, such as smoothing and folding a bed, is necessary so that there are no body prints left on it, which could be affected by a sorcerer and, thereby, harm a person.
4f5feb92c53b9b55b59e7b1c5909ce6d52fa718d According to one myth, the beans came from drops of blood torn apart by Dionysus and Zagreya, so they were forbidden to eat.
b331d4519f744420a356f56d6c1b39674036c56e In general, all these stories only remind us once again that the Pythagoreans lived a very long time ago two and a half millennia ago, that a clear mind and high morality were shrouded in the consciousness of an ancient person with a beautiful fairy tale veil.
f660d6764f630138f3e5e410a9d614fb67b09cf0 Cosmogony and cosmology.*
275f7b4d24c4c85c4d51bb9575e647fc4bfcfbba As for his own knowledge, Pythagoras is credited with geometric discoveries, such as the well known Pythagorean theorem on the ratio of the hypotenuse and the legs of a right triangle, the doctrine of five regular bodies, in arithmetic the doctrine of even and odd numbers, the beginning of the geometric interpretation of a number, etc.
7f2619db091297ba10f3b3542357331285959306 Pythagoras first used the word cosmos in its current sense to define the entire universe and its most important side orderliness, symmetry, and therefore beauty.
c2579a29b80ea1a67f6fd0747dc18d1bfff4c3c6 The Pythagoreans proceeded from their main thesis that " order and symmetry are beautiful and useful, and disorder and asymmetry are ugly and harmful."
156547c7b82204a95679efb4407d917fa6303b87 Consequently, the Pythagorean way of life had an excellent " cosmic goal – to transfer the harmony of the universe into the life of man himself.”
dbd7b50973f5ffd34244128ce092c10b0bf8d6df The cosmogony of the Pythagoreans can be described as follows: the world consisting of the limit and the infinite is a sphere that arises in the boundless void and “inhales” it into itself, thereby expanding and dismembering.
e15f59bce00fa4583926561ffb22dd19f8a5263e This aspect of the matter is represented in the doctrine of opposites, which is represented as follows: limit and infinite, odd and even, one and many, male and female, resting and moving, light and dark, good and bad, quadrangular and versatile.
c26da21ec0a767e6ee144ff40fbc352e5abaa537 He believed that the balance of forces of wet, dry, cold, warm, bitter, sweet, etc., preserves health, and the dominance of one of them is the cause of the disease.
aab3e13d255f5c10f60f65d9ecd69e2a5b53648f This proportionate mixing was called “harmony” by the Pythagoreans, becoming one of the main concepts of their teaching: everything in the world is necessarily harmonious.
c4b194c80a85d3bb11698525e517dc582c52c441 Alcmaeon's physiological guesses and discoveries are striking: he established that the organ of mental and mental processes is not the heart, as it was believed before him, but the brain, established the difference between the ability to perceive and the ability to think, which belongs only to man, and also proved that sensations are brought to the brain through special ways connecting the sense organs with the brain.
6b4fc05c5470dc202b8cbc45054efc50e111dde2 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls.*
f45aea25e9dc01aa24e5c70d35956a6efe778889 Among such doctrines was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, of the posthumous transmigration of the human soul into animals, that “everything that is born again is born at intervals of time, that there is nothing new in the world and that all living things should be considered related to each other."
7eab916fc7326cf12779843016fb79c058783d15 To achieve this goal, it is necessary to fulfill the moral code of the”Pythagorean way of life".
cafb158c0c04ac8448acb66b043a3e2af90f2081 The philosophy of number.*
114af3418cfb5d9093c745aa67a17ba7bfe66f36 At first, the Pythagoreans form a purely concrete physical understanding of number: numbers are special extended things, from which objects of the sensory world are composed.
365df560f1cb08f31896293cc39a13dba27eea42 Hence the ideas about triangles, squares, rectangles.
3fe46394f0472e48eea375a46d650b9bb582bff0 It is the star shaped pentagon that is most common in living nature (remember the flowers of forget me nots, carnations, bluebells, cherries, apple trees, etc.) and is fundamentally not possible in the crystal lattices of inanimate nature.
e6171aa443cab6e8ae1dd229e5fee7be7d531798 It consists of one, and without one there is not a single number and it symbolizes " one."
7b57e920559213ed5cd33edf8014df44fb733f19 - the unity of being and the world.
1e04bb6ec305124763d11b7f8d5dabcfd9965028 For without it it is impossible to understand or know anything."
3d0039ed508e966f9b795895158bef45b393576f *III. CONCLUSION.
33c859bda297665cbf2f0b0dd6e00b9021baf7f4 The ideology of Pythagorism includes three main components: religious, mythological, magical; scientific, related to the development of mathematics; and philosophical.
4d8526803cecc1fd062535e2b3f6b42ec88385a7 The latter aspect demonstrates the desire to find the " beginning” of everything that exists and use it to explain the world, man and his place in the cosmos.
afe4f9b83c418fa1c688c9d78afaff2a034b9fbf However, the leading material tendency is being replaced by an idealistic one, which was based on the most important discovery associated with the development of mathematical knowledge - the discovery of the possibility of identifying ordered and numerically expressible quantitative relations of everything that exists.
46f66a14c72a47d20b0da251f1bcefcdd02489aa Many miracles could be told about the philosopher Pythagoras.
c57266f248000a4a47c11df0e9c7b27577fc3cf9 And mathematics is followed by philosophy, because philosophy is nothing more than the dissemination of accumulated special (in this case, mathematical) knowledge to the field of worldview.
0fceda563fa32c9fcd2259652a676706daafc6ae This is how the famous Pythagorean thesis is born: "Everything is a number".
1810b8605ae4d088602257da964b11de60dd1ccc "God is a unity, and the world is a multitude and consists of opposites.
99a8ac6b5110e1fa08891c49b4e992da86eac282 Whoever studies this divine numerical harmony to the end will become divine and immortal himself."
a05db4a049a880291432904335836dbce01ba83d * IV. LIST OF USED LITERATURE.*
5ee4a4f8b3f4d4954de913ca3919018fe6ba007a 1. Asmus V. F. Ancient philosophy.
ff5ddaca5d251d554479f2226c08044a6e0e5328 M. 1976.
66eb2b0b202d169458818f47b661ce87c07c0c48 2. Bogomolov A. S. Ancient Philosophy , Moscow, 1985.
a4f9ff2a7c51e05de2f3b628fd1ff1fdf3f372ae 3. Diogenes Laertius.
3bc3bb4c9edef4518ad2838cb8ff077856bda986 About the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers.
0404cede2f8b2d4d735bbca0705b500d9ca43c74 M. 1979.
06e5290e515ea3c7bf927e572c09eff7a93105d1 4. Taranov P. S. 120 philosophers.
5a6fdf323fa6c761a2e4fdc1bf9deec87108aced Simferopol, 1996.
3c093db5fb5b447e2a717b44deb492d6fb8f6289 5. Sokolov V. V. Ancient philosophy.
0e8359953dedb49909960558c52c2a6dd1bcea3a M. 1958.
7fda440fc947e4e2c740ae6edfa6980047772caf 6. Losev A. P.
c0dbe7835c08a7b124bd52a19d8ec7e1191d1a08 The history of ancient aesthetics.
9add83e2e4f08d6aabc4c7344544b6bb0e484a10 M. 1994.
fa20d97445e5ee8a9f54ee238839db8bdfc5f4e4 7. Windelband V.
32ba05ed4a1cb44e01e2f8fbfec214784f95b71b The history of ancient philosophy.
382268b2e5038defa5d2bc576a9181d4df1c6cde Kiev, 1995.
765e4582ff0805765fb98f6ad8cb8a32e9cfaf5c The great French mathematician, physicist and philosopher Rene Descartes was born on March 21, 1596 in the small town of La Gaie in the province of Touraine.
04239ac17f7de1d2b240b1bfe6ac2d78868fd263 Descartes came from an old, but impoverished noble family of de Carte — hence his Latinized name Cartesius and the direction in philosophy — Cartesianism; and was the youngest (third) son in the family.
31e58c371ca182784eefb6c43665792f7db0f934 The Descartes family belonged to the low-ranking official nobility.
16358d64dae0626d822eefc0a4f284c549980eca His mother died when he was 1 year old.
b6fe4820081d476125ad9795ef2ecf0456ae1a6c Rene remained alive, but until the age of twenty, a short, dry cough and a pale complexion inspired fears for his life.
20867d389d202611f2c2ebab55f5086677023383 Descartes ' father was a judge in the city of Rennes and rarely appeared in Lae; the boy's upbringing was handled by his maternal grandmother.
3b93f9e4441543ee9f70bd9942cc34758114fc61 As a child, Rene was distinguished by fragile health and incredible curiosity[1].
16f01174f8db7a40ecb1b1c0a2830f837dcc1d0e Rene spent his childhood in Touraine, famous for its gardens, fertility and mild climate.
c62b703e4fbd0af4943fb3ac2f2b57a830d3e808 Descartes received his primary education at the Jesuit college of La Fleche, where his teacher was Jean Francois.
92e887906bfcb768ad0e05ab37058ff47fb0a8a4 The effect of studying at school turned out to be unpredictable: a young man with an exceptionally inquisitive mind and a passion for knowledge had an aversion to science, to mastering knowledge.
bfae1b57cf1772aa2c9dd4a22995a85a2ebd671f Rene abandoned books and scientific studies and spent all his time practicing horse riding and fencing.
587aebbaac0caab25627cc08b97e45c4b869230f At the college, Descartes met Maren Mersenne (then a student, later a priest), the future coordinator of the scientific life of France.
4ea285ec1c18bd7573af00d741dcda49babf9d68 Religious education only strengthened in the young Descartes a skeptical attitude towards the then philosophical authorities.
bbbfda57fa2d962c60d93ecdced3279c35c0d939 Later, he formulated his method of cognition: deductive (mathematical) reasoning over the results of reproducible experiments.
dcac6f043546f6dc4f647d8696a94ef6cd94d5b0 In 1612, Descartes graduated from college, studied law for a while in Poitiers, then went to Paris, where for several years he alternated a scattered life with mathematical research.
fcbd07207050e054cd059d38fdf87e7f540f4db5 Since childhood, Descartes loved to solve problems and devoted all his free time to studying mathematics.
e4374727141fe277793ced0ded3e33e189b1b2a3 Descartes himself considered mathematics classes at the college to be "trinkets" and therefore independently engaged in a deeper study of it.
a0be5fb286a8c85197b5ebe730e52e412b18491a Disappointed in the wisdom of the school, Descartes decided "not to look for another science, except for the one that he could find, in himself or in the great book of the universe."
30bb2ba05f45638a1bc00c958b078bba8f81617a And so, due to the noble traditions, he prepares himself for a military career, devoting a lot of time to strengthening poor health through physical exercises and learning to own weapons.
f990bb1366c3ec36a129d25014ee445eb70f4fa1 Then he entered the military service (1617) - first in revolutionary Holland (in those years — an ally of France), then in Germany, where he participated in the short battle for Prague (the Thirty Years ' War).
1815bcab39ef61f48a778c1fb2fddc62c3c036bd Idle parking in winter quarters in Bavaria became for Descartes a time of intense work of thought, which led to the discovery of the main method, the first fruit of which was analytical geometry.
acf065581b3e34e24963107870f28558ec7ee701 In Holland in 1618 Descartes met the outstanding physicist and natural philosopher Isaac Beckman, who had a significant influence on his formation as a scientist.
b2ef0ef3636e84c82cd54db8a0acf3ce1419fbc1 Descartes spent several years in Paris, indulging in scientific work, where, among other things, he discovered the principle of virtual speeds, which at that time no one was ready to appreciate.
43985048f9d0ff9d1347a7794d1916eeefc48218 The year 1619 turned out to be a key one for Descartes from a scientific point of view.
11bc0065c96c0dd5396691aa1ee93deb1b9b5e66 It was at this time, as Rene himself wrote in his diary, that the foundations of a new "most amazing science"were revealed to him.
e8f207cb9fc27fb5f9409334183da34b9c8a093b Most likely, Descartes had in mind the discovery of a universal scientific method, which he later fruitfully applied in a variety of disciplines.
4f3c18467589d2edab09430b7328528ecd8ec54c In 1637, the work of Rene Descartes "Reasoning about the Method" was published in French, with which, as many believe, the new European philosophy began.
70bb12436f37313d1b49f2805095d497028ed60b In 1641 Descartes ' main philosophical work "Reflections on the First Philosophy" (in Latin) appeared, and in 1644 "The Origin of Philosophy", a work conceived by Descartes as a compendium summarizing the most important metaphysical and natural philosophical theories of the author.
b502d8baae76eb6ba369f7591f1b7362fb03293e Descartes ' philosophy was dualistic: the dualism of the soul and the body — that is, the duality of the ideal and the material, recognizing both as independent independent principles, as Immanuel Kant later wrote about.
a7dd1699fcb584a5ac643631aed89fd1dd3debce He recognized the existence of two kinds of entities in the world: extended (res extensa) and thinking (res cogitans), while the problem of their interaction was solved by introducing a common source (God), who, acting as the creator, forms both substances according to the same laws.
04851d5d9fba73a9d36baac588b813b95fb2a3cc God, who created matter together with motion and rest and preserves them.
8bfecf17d9cacce590d1dc0283c1480bed39ad0d Descartes ' main contribution to philosophy was the classical construction of the philosophy of rationalism as a universal method of cognition.
473888dedf9c88bd5b637b4d6edc626d1b3eda23 The ultimate goal was determined by the domination of man over the forces of nature.
c72bea434573c10c918e4c1beac366e39af6a403 According to Descartes, the mind critically evaluates experimental data and deduces from them the true laws hidden in nature, formulated in mathematical language.
37280a664a5a6df53c5807fbab2366958b9f7f0c The power of reason is limited only by the imperfection of man in comparison with God, who just carries all the perfect characteristics.
eb9e28e3e2dc0e72e9d08c5eedb188a1ee8ce719 Descartes ' teaching about knowledge was the first brick in the foundation of rationalism.
a4e0d74678be7bb4fda34dd063c11902863da182 Another important feature of Descartes ' approach was mechanicism.
3aac01de781b2b80b03ff835dc80b56751c39b25 Matter (including thin matter) consists of elementary particles, the local mechanical interaction of which produces all natural phenomena.
c2cf9bb9d5ee705518fe17d88bbd18b704cb0dc0 Descartes ' philosophical worldview is also characterized by skepticism, criticism of the previous scholastic philosophical tradition.
327809e1fca037acdee7605bdb8f5f65c251d9e0 Self-sufficiency of consciousness, cogito (Cartesian "I think, therefore, I exist" - Lat. Cogito, ergo sum), as well as the theory of innate ideas, is the starting point of Cartesian epistemology.
3fb48fe1f53f25768709c0bd4e952e5c0671efa8 Cartesian physics, in contrast to Newtonian physics, considered everything extended to be solid, denying empty space, and described motion using the concept of "vortex"; the physics of Cartesianism later found its expression in the theory of short-range action.
9fc972ff1d7cb3ad3b9a3e5cfb6f4882a789714a Descartes ' philosophy vividly illustrates the desire of European culture to free itself from old dogmas and build a new science and life itself "from scratch".
24c57807cc4a5f70678a6999a7124cc91242ace8 The criterion of truth, Descartes believes, can only be the "natural light" of our mind.
80128eaf05e05bf8fbf1707d19306180c7da9306 Rene Descartes "tries" for self-evidence theses about the existence of the world, God and our "I".
d8438c3ca52933155583fff28dae1425a4347cd9 "I doubt, therefore I exist" — this is how Descartes formulates this most important truth, which denotes the subjectivist turn of the European philosophy of the New Time.
81c57827914e37f4824ccf066c91feab4e04a9a8 Rene Descartes studied the structure of various organs in animals, studied the structure of embryos at various stages of development.
63808cf9f41715e6e031b45a780e51a2b1d99b79 His teaching about "voluntary" and "involuntary" movements laid the foundations of the modern teaching about reflexes.
8c6a1915cfe189e83860a779cbd712e722200dcd Descartes ' works present schemes of reflex reactions with the centripetal and centrifugal parts of the reflex arc.
8d61db5ce764bd6742fffd7ac1179aa78a015c42 The starting point of Descartes ' reasoning is the search for the undoubted foundations of all knowledge.
b0374adc5d8cf71f61e53714f2e538a839162e17 In the Renaissance, Montaigne and Charron transplanted the skepticism of the Greek school of Pyrrhon into French literature.
db233bbab78599c737d13ede1c7f72c5aff88e4c Skepticism and the search for perfect mathematical accuracy are two different expressions of the same feature of the human mind: the intense desire to achieve an absolutely reliable and logically unshakable truth.
6ab8ab82e1ccc2ba70073484fda994ac4b4ebbf4 Descartes had nothing in common with either empiricism or mysticism.
f57713688387b5d6a3cac082f33c420f00bc4b31 If he was looking for the highest absolute principle of knowledge in the immediate self-consciousness of man, then it was not about any mystical revelation of the unknown basis of things, but about a clear, analytical disclosure of the most general, logically irrefutable truth.
afb0e6e02bbb99800c15ea688559e74ec5917631 Its discovery was for Descartes a condition for overcoming the doubts that his mind was struggling with.
5ecf77df8b0c44e4bf37f9b1016b1f87e4291c4f Thus, Descartes found the first solid point for building his worldview — the basic truth of our mind that does not require any further proof.
59b2bd2a666fdfde2ea9fd0067f4082db48a25a7 According to Descartes, it is already possible to go further from this truth to the construction of new truths.
65c1e861cff56112f830bb410c110209ff0ea33e First of all, analyzing the meaning of the statement "cogito, ergo sum", Descartes establishes a criterion of reliability.
4a83815aff29a133fe12243739e34db6545277de We have no other criterion than the psychological, internal criterion of clarity and separateness of representation.
2ff0d16d8d9ce88c12497bc872eb50c3f5443e31 It is not experience that convinces us of our being as a thinking being, but only the distinct decomposition of the immediate fact of self — consciousness into two equally inevitable and clear representations or ideas-thinking and being.
9bb808b075d2c8cfdc74b3cf45d8e1c700d00aef Descartes is armed against the syllogism as a source of new knowledge almost as vigorously as Bacon earlier, considering it not an instrument for discovering new facts, but only a means of presenting truths already known, obtained by other ways.
054cbc10573fe29a8ac681f297432a05bdead39b The combination of the mentioned ideas in consciousness is, therefore, not a conclusion, but a synthesis, an act of creativity, just as the discretion of the magnitude of the sum of the angles of a triangle in geometry.
9614602d53998f9627e08213fed874161d3513de Descartes was the first to hint at the significance of the question that then played a major role in Kant — namely, the question of the meaning of a priori synthetic judgments.
e038166326e03ba58ba050c7fb73a56e5eefad3b As for Descartes 'ethical views, Fullier aptly reconstructs the principles of Descartes' morality from his writings and letters.
415b09dd6bd2ac4762e90ef5f8f3531d77df1e25 Strictly separating outspoken theology from rational philosophy in this area, Descartes also refers to the "natural light" of reason (la lumière naturelle) in substantiating moral truths.
a0f245079087b9b72f32799fd3050a6dde30ddc7 In June 1637, Descartes published a book called " Reasoning about the Method”, in which the author included the harmless sections “On Light” (dioptrics), “On meteors” and the newly written “Geometry” from the “World”.
26304b28907edc2dbd835566af169db853a6e236 This was a major event in the history of science: elements of a new worldview appeared, the path along which the development of human thought will go further was once again outlined.
a7caf2d7695b1fd72c3fce7c3753bfe60acf8a12 In "Discours de la méthode" ("Discours de la méthode") Descartes is still dominated by the utilitarian tendency to open the paths of sound worldly wisdom, and the influence of Mysticism is noticeably affected.
e0c3b00c837e28c3ff4ebf70d8901f3dc6ea3f7f Descartes ' mathematical studies are closely related to his works on philosophy and physics.
4bea60b5c4c16f9ff65f3846fcb04b0fbbc5a6f3 All the major works of Descartes on philosophy, mathematics, physics, cosmology and physiology were written by him in Holland.
9bed8272377f01bce9b0042a7cd92980236f418d Descartes 'mathematical works are collected in his book "Geometry" (1637).
09847a336bd5c29ec9dc25e03b9d936e7575f380 In" Geometry " Descartes gave the basics of analytic geometry and algebra.
afd246f128e7453a66f58d0697a682c85ca637e7 Descartes was the first to introduce the concept of a variable function into mathematics.
f0bb11d21aaa6d1b741f8d0f04a90fd55f502340 Descartes ' variable appeared in a double form: as a segment of variable length and constant direction – the current coordinate of a point describing a curve with its movement, and as a continuous numeric variable running through a set of numbers expressing this segment.
09ed6560a78fc951406751e511bc6d011fcc6c0e The double image of the variable caused the interpenetration of geometry and algebra.
557411789a6c5b017d9f2d095b82e0105ecc552d Descartes algebra in contrast to the algebra of F. Vieta, always has one main element - a linear segment, operations on which lead again to a certain segment.
fe372d125c812a827bc6d89849b196ec93129d13 These segments are equivalent in properties to real numbers.
de2b49d6f8a1ed9782f659ec75ab67f26e6e942d Descartes interpreted a real number as the ratio of any segment to a single one, although only I. Newton formulated such a definition.
a96968e1340afaa1ffc8233f548a7e345933487f Negative numbers received a real interpretation from Descartes in the form of negative ordinates.
aae67723ee65d03bcab0d317954ed1d8077c2f18 Descartes has the merit of creating modern notation systems: he introduced the signs of variables (x, y, z...), coefficients (a, b, c...), the designation of degrees (a2, x 1...).
96223b418c810b0007c4c39675ef1214c860216f Descartes ' writing of formulas is almost no different from the modern one.
ca2692d58e070cfb371c6914912dba53c5363d11 Descartes initiated a number of studies of the properties of equations, formulated the sign rule for determining the number of positive and negative roots (Descartes ' rule), raised the question of the boundaries of real roots.
8d78d45801804c1e57f90857e88d77f9b0cbee0a All non-negative real numbers, not excluding irrational ones, are considered by Descartes as equal; they are defined as the ratio of the length of a certain segment to the standard length.
e17d2045c2a89d01b792d280fa9153a2f8652065 Later, Newton and Euler adopted a similar definition of the number.
b440a61309dfd293fadb2eed6032798275c05f31 Descartes does not yet separate algebra from geometry, although he changes their priorities; he understands the solution of the equation as the construction of a segment with a length equal to the root of the equation.
90d382bcc9bcc4e7d456fe47856e922f3cea35d7 This anachronism was soon discarded by his students, primarily English ones, for whom geometric constructions are a purely auxiliary technique.
de36cfa3a0ade2917dad0e3b319f34042e9b8838 The book" Method " immediately made Descartes a recognized authority in mathematics and optics.
5398c1e2e7a061d1687258335d301c0889472d8e It is noteworthy that it was published in French, and not in Latin.
f3fe866db15175c068d7025553211c952e9f669a The appendix "Geometry" was, however, immediately translated into Latin and was repeatedly published separately, growing from comments and becoming a reference book of European scientists.
8d0e85af70e00e100508f341b796fab7ae082db1 The works of mathematicians of the second half of the XVII century reflect the strongest influence of Descartes.
9d63a79325fe1badc102e7082f39cd355da5bad2 In analytical geometry, the main achievement of Descartes is the method of coordinates created by him.
ca218130529c653ac65992d7d5deb849665ff6cc In Geometry, Descartes outlined a method for constructing normals and tangents to plane curves (in connection with the study of lenses) and applied it, in particular, to some fourth-order curves (the so-called Descartes ovals).
8fa0ee21bcc120439abecd13512e197f6abfac7d Descartes proved that the equation of the 3rd degree is solvable in square radicals and is solved using a compass and a ruler when the left part of it is reducible.
3942e711e8f6ab9af51b6046ee75432af1d5c5a2 Having laid the foundations of analytical geometry, Descartes himself did not make much progress in this area – negative abscissas were not considered, the issues of analytical geometry of three-dimensional space were not touched upon.
7ff48fce87398d912aba373ca7a36cbb73ef68e5 Later, on the basis of Descartes ' mathematical achievements, thanks to Leibniz and Newton, the principles of differential calculus were developed.
64e3380949c70acf8af2f96c413471677d3920cb In physics, Descartes discovered the laws of reflection and deformation of waves and explained the reasons for the appearance of the rainbow.
48609d79d2e685c6424c96a14f8fb8df8ddbef47 Despite the fact that Descartes did not advance very far in the field of analytical geometry, his works had a decisive influence on the further development of mathematics.
c82727903f0a630cffc0d71fa25cf4c2b7780d1f For 150 years, mathematics has been developing in the ways prescribed by Descartes.
5b14e0555beb69aacbece371436dc2d90c908794 It is known from Descartes ' correspondence that he made other discoveries, in particular in the field of infinitesimal calculus: calculating the area of a cycloid using the indivisible method; drawing a tangent to a cycloid and its varieties based on the idea of an instantaneous center of rotation; determining the properties of a logarithmic spiral; an approximate solution to the problem of determining a curve by this tangent property.
2cf78ae3b4575744883a68d759b7222bbb742da3 The following coordinates, product, parabola, leaf, oval are named after Descartes.
38019f0b5ab46695818c33dd92c9bfca7b592bde Descartes clarified Galileo's law of inertia.
7eca8c4906916c24b82ae40ecf23320d948ae85b A body that is not affected by any forces will move evenly and rectilinearly, and not in a circle.
68a5a2e86d782c823e406caa197694d98ae0bf6e Descartes has already seen that the movement of the planet is an accelerated movement.
5cc1f0c096884dcba65324a025c2aafff78ed0dd Following Kepler, Descartes believed that the planets behave as if there is an attraction of the sun.
742d243964aec514825bbf49df1b672047b1c3e6 In order to explain attraction, he constructed a mechanism of the Universe in which all bodies are set in motion by shocks.
34ae65bb593959ff0c7cd41a10b1c76ef2807eef Descartes ' world is completely filled with the thinnest invisible matter.
c5f117075482cd6c71cce970369968c488b4a50b Descartes ' system was the first attempt to mechanically describe the origin of a planetary system.
dc47e320406f826f6a8af461dad71f92ddc9620f Descartes ' physical studies relate mainly to mechanics, optics and the general structure of the universe.
54da79be4e7a5f2b46532b68fb690f6fe70a6296 Descartes ' physics, unlike his metaphysics, was materialistic: The universe is completely filled with moving matter and is self-sufficient in its manifestations.
cf1902960e5cec63d19dfa73282565da93ed8ffa Descartes did not recognize indivisible atoms and emptiness, and in his writings he sharply criticized the atomists, both ancient and modern to him.
525cb702960bace142f9ab921db950830c79e773 In addition to ordinary matter, Descartes identified an extensive class of invisible subtle matters, with the help of which he tried to explain the action of heat, gravity, electricity and magnetism.
a0ac128dd113fba2b8d3add05719bcc46ddb1504 Descartes considered inertia motion to be the main types of motion, which he formulated (1644) in the same way as Newton later did, and material vortices arising from the interaction of one matter with another[6].
d3313c8f00a9e481aabaf330554797f631f9046e He considered the interaction purely mechanically, as a collision.
98e87cb609a257803d381fe4fa393016403cb510 Descartes introduced the concept of the amount of motion, formulated (in a loose formulation) the law of conservation of motion( the amount of motion), but interpreted it inaccurately, not taking into account that the amount of motion is a vector quantity (1664).
6688acea4e076153abf2bfa26722adb4734c2965 In 1637, "Dioptrica" was published, which contained the laws of light propagation, reflection and refraction, the idea of the ether as a light carrier, an explanation of the rainbow.
43b47b0d14664460b267f81ac19ff533027730e6 Descartes was the first to mathematically derive the law of refraction of light (regardless of V. Snellius) on the border of two different environments.
8560f69ab106be7829d821531c99e29c26711730 The precise formulation of this law made it possible to improve optical instruments, which then began to play a huge role in astronomy and navigation (and soon in microscopy).
1cca980364e3bf527645838d2c543d54caffaa0f I studied the laws of impact.
1f70b2237a646f2850c49ad653b68fab7e8a69c9 He suggested that the atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
bc7d19154e04b5645cbfda504338fa00a633f087 Descartes correctly considered heat and heat transfer as originating from the movement of small particles of matter[6].
1939440b7116479544c32c3b24aea6ad98c14b63 The greatest discovery of Descartes, which became fundamental for subsequent psychology, can be considered the concept of reflex and the principle of reflex activity.
660bb426cc25c833e8dd53f1c14006f7d0f68766 The scheme of the reflex was reduced to the following.
4d3f600d9c8ec74b0bb01527a7fb108c1a3235a7 Descartes presented the model of the organism as a working mechanism.
c9427bb63409242b4faf3db396d2a935e7ea8b6c With this understanding, the living body no longer requires the intervention of the soul; the functions of the" body machine", which include"perception, imprinting ideas, holding ideas in memory, internal aspirations... are performed in this machine like the movements of a clock".
b94a505ff262e0019339e221cf134704cdefa60a Along with the teachings on the mechanisms of the body, the problem of affects (passions)was developed as physical states that are regulators of mental life.
0dce65b216702d0c1c0956349da0c39e29f0d015 The term "passion", or "affect", in modern psychology indicates certain emotional states.
cc68e8351286da91147c5f81f69a00972082da58 Descartes was simple and dry.
8741e19d5449ddc9d4933f169d373c14b3e87f92 In communication, those who wanted to see him as an oracle, the personification of wisdom, were, according to Ballier, disappointed by the simplicity of his answers.
7a0df2ca1954f7604762ffccc9c9869280240951 In a large society, Rene Descartes is silent and uninspiring, as is often the case with people accustomed to a secluded lifestyle.
ebcf6f2acd39a77478a2fdf8255c61cd6f823918 But in the circle of close people, he became a lively and cheerful conversationalist.
a5d016a11ba84c2ce7850459754773fbcc85846e Descartes ' attitude to these close people makes, in general, a heavy impression.
0af2695afbda2dbaf5ab08b4c6365eaac48e3c42 Descartes had a rare happiness - a circle of enthusiastic fans and devoted friends gathered around him, but apparently he did not know such happiness as loving others.
46048df1d7e46ea0ed57d1e5db18cdd6aa9be53c Haughty and arrogant with equals, who treated the greatest scientists of his time like boys, the scientist, approaching high persons, turned into a flattering and obsequious courtier.
2ca361f5a16d2e73a4366a75cc7d3fb4ee3e0e3f Descartes utters this aphorism: "Persons of high birth do not need to reach adulthood in order to surpass other people in scholarship and virtue."
c44517b09d9696e4e0deed181dbad16e7d0789be Perhaps this attitude to the crowned heads was the reason that Descartes, a rich and independent man who valued his health and was already elderly, went at the invitation of his admirer, Queen Christina of Sweden, to "the land of bears between rocks and ice," as he wrote himself.
b6202dd618ce4e128df909da28a10e317d1e33e6 In October 1649, the scientist arrived in Stockholm.
55a3726f9a32ac7355fb9df728ad0982a37b2caf Soon after Descartes ' arrival, Christina began to tell him about the mercies awaiting him.
88c8cc1d9e746fd08a39ec4c35e8e329568d5308 It was supposed to raise him to the rank of a nobleman of the Swedish kingdom; in addition, the queen promised to give him a vast estate in Pomerania.
7dc84bef96a73c517556e7601834b564bf7cf1c8 At the same time, Christina forced the elderly and sickly philosopher to break his entire habitual way of life.
8e01c38f620c19f93e407ea1b1868724653d91fa She found that it was necessary to start studying philosophy with a fresh head, and she chose five o'clock in the morning as the most suitable time for this.
69456647ccea512cc0a4769b1ad6a2d33e075e91 Descartes, who even his Jesuit teachers allowed, due to his poor health, to stay in bed until late, was forced to go to the palace long before dawn in the harsh northern winter, and he had to pass through a long bridge open to the wind on all sides.
7526a7a187091b083e22c405e1acb5a70964efd7 The winter was unusually severe.
bf60b14435d78f58fbc7fa5237c89c094386b7f7 On one of his trips, Rene Descartes caught a cold and fell ill on his return from the palace: he was diagnosed with pneumonia.
0b900d633eff72a4bfa4f920fc74654007fe1f78 Rene Descartes died on February 11, 1650, on the ninth day of his illness.
340ec5e63f43f42d8642b568d84d41b4a83a4254 The presumed cause of death was pneumonia.
66ce1850593099444740f8b45efb91f701d4d100 There is also a hypothesis about his poisoning, since the symptoms of Descartes ' disease were similar to those that occur with acute arsenic poisoning.
9bf690bde91e6a76c94e35842b1c1f955ffce01c This hypothesis was put forward by Aiki Pease, a German scientist[3], and then supported by Theodor Ebert[4][5].
215b24ba21cfeefad228230933a1b90e2af93f01 The reason for the poisoning, according to this version, was the fear of Catholic agents that Descartes ' freethinking could interfere with their efforts to convert Queen Christina to Catholicism (this conversion really happened in 1654).
2fe763632aa1ce9b91fdff9e2b6bc31ac6b0d171 Towards the end of Descartes ' life, the attitude of the church towards his teaching became sharply hostile.
4262294beeb8e9854aa53c36fefbf21812a6dd37 17 years after the death of the scientist, his remains were transported from Stockholm to Paris and buried in the chapel of the Abbey of Saint Germain des Pres.
4bb4a8cee46082b59cd743fd14f73bd2de42529d Although the National Convention planned to transfer Descartes ' ashes to the Pantheon back in 1792, now, more than two centuries later, he still continues to rest in the abbey chapel.
bb0a993d9451b45ad1170d49ccd3763e7870f74e "Francois Viet
f75a8c2bb53055a78b43c3678e73ba1e779eb7d9 Pierre Fermat "
62d08dbff49ebf8cd1d47e639d94719652f86772 RENE DESCARTES
6cf1881f2b27d33065a47ffec6e16e43d1131ac0 Rene Descartes is better known as a great philosopher than a mathematician.
d6493561fba01445d383d43ff4b4776db3f24848 But it was he who was the pioneer of modern mathematics, and his merits in this field are so important
20521b270316d53795ba4c1221c4a671ba816286 it is great that he is justly among the great mathematicians of our time.
104321b03d28a91e224bfb6dbfec1f16e6b9dd30 We donot know much about the life of Descartes, also known by the Latinized name Cartesia (hence Cartesianism).
504d501e0039336356d851d2611cc37b42440080 Descartes was born in France, in the small town of Lae, in the department of Touraine.
ac2bcb6e9f269de0ca4b314cb71d411eaa5f1670 After graduating from the Jesuit college for the sons of aristocratic families, he followed the example of his brother and began to study law.
165dd1972360930553da9558db3c4cc9bf3f8a67 At the age of 22, he left France and served as a volunteer officer in the troops of various military leaders who participated in the Thirteen Years ' War.
39accd6f8f799bba15c8668de271c49f81253ff7 During the war, he had to visit Austria, Hungary and the territory of present day Czechoslovakia.
bc8217b4119e44006bb9554d758a2cdf4c9ec09f Descartes in his philosophical teaching developed the idea of the omnipotence of the human mind, and therefore was persecuted by the Catholic Church.
ea41a22a9b0837f635a03e2b77190cd554685123 Desiring to find a refuge for quiet work on philosophy and mathematics, in which he had been interested since childhood, Descartes settled in Holland in 1629, where he lived almost until the end of his life.
b08befc5bc606fdda58288123aa3015d662f646a In one of his letters, Descartes described his stay in Holland as follows: "Everyone here, except me, is so busy with their own affairs and income that you can live all your life and no one will be interested in you… In what other country can you enjoy more freedom, where you can sleep with more peace than here, where poison, betrayal, slander are much less common than in other countries…"
2c3bc7bfc3d2bed0e384e35f302f5dbb1bbf3e30 He turned
d2db5eab919d52bcfa0846f3ba1afe2ef9b52ca1 note that a curve on a plane is characterized by an equation that has the property that the coordinates of any point lying on this line satisfy this equation.
74c399e5f6e9c00538fb8fd89bcc451230a12eb3 He divided the curves given by an algebraic equation into classes depending on the greatest degree of an unknown quantity in the equation.
e07f53720473c5a55b7014d8f476211205a6e696 Descartes introduced into mathematics the signs plus and minus to denote positive and negative quantities, the designation of the power sign oo to denote an infinitely large quantity.
ef93417bf439ee2523db34a3f9ccb138e5e5f760 For variables and unknown quantities, Descartes adopted the notation a for known and constant quantities —as is known, these notations are used in mathematics to this day.
33e1f9da0ec77a74821c46d41bfe1f67f000570d Descartes initiated the study of algebraic equations.
2111b5458380063b9130e229b128f81b6abf6a72 In particular, he established that the number of real and imaginary roots of an algebraic equation is equal to the degree of the unknown.
dc5f38e8fef828b459a2516f1e6af42c87645dac This is the most important theorem of algebra, proved much later by Gauss.
aaa7136cf8b6b2f8c2d72ffc442e84392c34e537 It is also known that Descartes ' rule regarding the number of positive roots of an equation with real coefficients, according to which this number is equal to (or less than an even number) the number of changes in the signs in the sequence of coefficients, the equations
10ac2211cdb452ed21180af9c46edfff9db2aca9 More TV series Online
70fcbd46dcbd7d2cfceff17980fba4406e806537 Great mathematicians
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b26224f8c71df2c7e7f580beb500fbb6c89f8019 ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE ADRIEN MARIE LEGENDRE Apollonius of Perga Archimedes BLAISE PASCAL GASPARD MONGE GEORG FRIEDRICH BERNHARD RIEMANN GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ GERON OF Alexandria GEROLAMO CARDANO GEORGE GREEN DIOPHANTUS Euclid JEAN LERON D'ALEMBERT JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE Jean Baptiste Joseph FOURIER JOHANN BERNOULLI ISAAC NEWTON KARL THEODOR WILHELM WEIERSTRASS KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS Karl Gustav Jacob JACOBI LEONARD EULER MIKHAIL VASILYEVICH OSTROGRADSKY NIKOLAI IVANOVICH LOBACHEVSKY Nils Heinrich Abel OGUSGEN LOUIS CAUCHY PAPP OF ALEXANDRIA PAPHNUTIUS LVOVICH CHEBYSHEV PETER GUSTAV LEJEUNE DIRICHLET PIERRE SIMON LAPLACE PYTHAGORAS Pierre FERMAT RENE DESCARTES SIMEON DENIS POISSON STEFAN BANACH Thales of Milet Francois Viet KHOREZMI MOHAMMED BEN MUSA HUGO STEINGAUS EVARISTE GALOIS Erasmus Vitelo JOZEF GENET VRONSKY JACOB BERNOULLI JACOB STEINER JANOS BOLYAI
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df866a075810417240a9f5db3f7f5fc596612cae © 2016.Great mathematicians.
1e9d2ff3107547a05f54c6e92dc60a470ab40c68 "I especially liked mathematics with the accuracy and evidence of my reasoning"
737a9d176ee15ffcdcbd18afded9bf42f210c10f DESCARTES Rene (Descartes)
a83040eedcf9efc0a32ff7f53788f041215d7a88 BIOGRAPHY of Descartes Rene (1596-1650) Rene Descartes was born on the last day of March 1596 in the small town of Lae in the province of Touraine, in a not very noble, but wealthy noble family.
6f64395b58e039da856f9291da02af6923a42f10 He was born a frail, weak child.
5cca4fea787d782ffc862b327a4412502883195d A few days later, the mother died of consumption.
6b2ae216e516fb82867550daeb1bb70aa3b44a03 It seemed that the boy's fate was sealed.
8bd8718e8988e1cc9326d260f08d297772d3bdd1 Fortunately, the attached nurse came out to Rene, saved his life and improved his health.
6e77d07322d231967e0139d9bc8319f80711eaab At the age of eight, Rene was placed under the full care of one of the best Jesuit colleges, which had just been founded under the special patronage of King Henry IV. Taking care of strengthening its influence in the state, the Jesuit order paid great attention to secular schools, the correct preparation of curricula and programs, the reasonable division of students into classes depending on their academic success.
ed6b2599cf68a658a428706a0738a8fa74f98dc9 In schools, the Jesuits sought to create favorable conditions for the development of students ' abilities, instilling at the same time obedience, love and respect for the order.
6096b30c208c8a314c27f2369ac77ec635556600 Subsequently, Descartes gratefully recalled the concerns of the teachers of the college.
19ed893f9de568edb29d5529fcbac6b5cd63974d Paradoxically, it is the Jesuits, Descartes ' teachers, who will become his sworn enemies: they will persecute his philosophical teaching, will not allow him to work not only in his homeland, but also in the neighboring Protestant Holland.
ced473a5cc7695b570b9c7247d94b21ba37a682e The main subjects in the college were considered Latin, theology and philosophy.
71e40d96e0b60b012e943ae159c099715ce283f8 Fortunately, Descartes was taught this subject at school.
a522be3df4899f81a002a722fd572bdc1f19a4f8 "I have abandoned the special study of arithmetic and geometry," Descartes wrote, " in order to devote myself to research in the field of universal mathematics."
5486aefbe9634df0e0a16d69e1b1fccc21b3d9fb But the sciences of that time could not satisfy the inquisitive mind of Descartes and led him to skepticism.
f7ff59bd4f21099557ae31054b29d5292723dd94 Only in mathematics did he find some satisfaction, but even here he was surprised "how nothing sublime was built on such a basis of the hardness of granite."
341cb066f8ba0a581ce315385e064d98e8d5f956 And so, due to the noble traditions, he prepares himself for a military career, devoting a lot of time to strengthening poor health through physical exercises and learning to own weapons. sometimes he is seen among the gay cavaliers of Paris leading an idle lifestyle; then, after meeting his schoolmate, the mathematician and philosopher monk Mersenne, he suddenly, secretly from relatives and drinking companions, renting a quiet house in the Saint Germain suburb of Paris, is engaged in science; then he is dissatisfied with the existing political situation in France, puts on the uniform of a Dutch volunteer and begins to wander around Europe, participating in the bloody vicissitudes of the Thirty Years ' War that has just begun.
32c7218bba941492d7e22903e3bac0d954c4efda Military fate throws him to Bavaria, to Bohemia, near Prague.
94733836dc751c07292b8be1bc87ed6ec9085f2a Finally, tired of the hustle and bustle of military life, twenty five year old Descartes leaves the army.
8bc7234dad0e096e1bc71aa61b3d48564e00a930 But he is in no hurry to return to his homeland, which is agitated by the latest outbreaks of religious strife.
d6698a662020b0a4a84543e2193137f3044fa5ed As a traveling nobleman, he appears at the palaces of The Hague and Brussels, goes to Italy.
728edccb7dcd71f785a0d3e49c6ace71038d742c It was only in 1625 that Descartes returned to Paris for a short time.
66b19ba282179958170e48c92ea2c6c5df3831d5 Here he again converges with Mersenne, the circle of his learned friends expands, and at the same time the reputation of the philosopher grows.
6bc842dea735d64dcd2fdc2ef611b54cc5e05ced Friends insist on the publication of Descartes ' views, expecting from them a revolution in the philosophical system.
870183faf63459062d771c6ab84bc22f444867b6 But the Jesuits oppose Descartes ' philosophy, threaten him with violence and force him to leave France.
50c8c9103b90fd487830f90ab71f69202541bc4d Descartes is forced to seek solitude in Holland, where, according to him, in the crowd of the active Dutch people, "more caring about their own affairs and less curious about others," he could work quietly.
bf6d547412b9f1bd422da72a875032bbc375ae24 Descartes lived in Holland for a total of about twenty years, moving from place to place, opening up only to especially close friends.
0945fc30e8aa7e922a139f586b298d7c811d5257 In Holland, Descartes devoted himself entirely to scientific studies in philosophy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, physiology, published his famous works: "Rules for the guidance of the mind", "A Treatise on light", "Metaphysical reflections on the first Philosophy", "The Beginnings of Philosophy", "Description of the human body" and others.
bc43e37ef03846670ab6c1185a9c46183c27586c The most famous work was Descartes '"Reasoning about the Method", which was published in 1637.
48216ce7479036d893522faa78b41130a988ec67 But four years before its publication, Descartes wrote to his friend Mersenne that his work was finished and he postponed it for a while to make some corrections later and then publish it.
9fbec17d8562cc29ff7ad39b801ec2d2548ffe77 Fearing the persecution of the Inquisition, Descartes excludes from his work, where possible, everything that can cause dissatisfaction with the church.
b70608d6ff0c5099bfa332e174682ac344cf0b3f The very name of his work has also changed.
845b9d4f18dbb03f6e1688f95b6b5c4850f2f1cd Now it sounds like this: "A discussion about a method to guide your mind well and find the truth in the sciences.
a85105f74739e87b554f4e602cd37d5182763c44 In addition, Dioptrics, Meteors and Geometry, which are an application of this method."
60acdbd4cbc08eb8d44a64543dbfaf0df9c3e7dc The book was written not in Latin,but in French.
219fe416cd8f87ce4c7c1675f954007cb8540fa7 The author sought to ensure that a wider audience could get acquainted with his work, who, as Descartes writes, "will judge my opinions better than those who believe only ancient books."
1569a0f150c2a33d7e75feadfc02ef14c73be3c4 Fierce disputes arise around the philosophical teachings of Descartes.
e44c1bddb13c1b3a7ae13c8eae9b9f13065a4c28 The disputants do not skimp on colorful epithets.
1f9684cb5006f5a631f73985db97eac04c859e10 For some, he is the Archimedes of our century, the Atlas of the universe, the mighty Hercules, for others Cain, a tramp, an atheist, the disputes themselves did not touch the scientist much.
e408bed0eb44785b248b2f602cf474d530c3ac6b The only thing he feared was the disapproval of the powerful Jesuit order.
13d161817e0ce016b197a01210519dbb40ae5180 The terrible crimes of the Inquisition are still fresh in my memory.
8e498259f0831576250e191115dcc873898fedce At the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Giordano Bruno was burned alive in the Flora Square.
3ad7da2162753aaee66e59ab89114347a9806d4a Twenty years later, in Toulouse, the philosopher Lucilio Vanini, before burning him at the stake, had his tongue torn out by ticks.
3f46dc7c85ad77937df28e4cd3053e4101ef564e The great Galileo was condemned by the" holy " Inquisition.
a1d32e0a4e8525267b1ba4c41ee6935a1b768aac Descartes knew all this and painfully experienced it.
49d3889862456a295f43b72b46d51cda520132f6 And, of course, he was afraid of the persecution of the Jesuits.
c631686a3b8d257ac79723cfc69a1f0ff66c18c6 Even in Holland, where the Jesuit Order had not yet penetrated, opponents, mainly Protestant theologians, began to speak out against Descartes, accusing him of materialism and atheism.
58fd53692965ce674d1459937e15e40cd39b79d7 Although Descartes was not an atheist, moreover, in his "Arguments" he even proved the existence of God and the immortality of the human soul, nevertheless he recognized matter and motion.
d38722a7da45509f548f820c52d87b1ecb267dd9 This is exactly what the theologians opposed, because they saw the danger of Cartesian philosophy for Christian teaching.
2e07b73089493cd09d77a8c94aa1c06e8ab6424d Descartes became a target for the furious attacks of the churchmen.
8df2243ff79541e886c286d0dc6a31746131caaa And later the works of Descartes were awarded to be burned as heretical.
6b97a034bcea3fa4ac613d4223287877e281a97e All these troubled years Descartes continued to live in Holland, occasionally visiting France, but each time not staying in it for a long time.
3dc836eb0a9e14efdab511054d990960ce2a9621 The last time he was in his homeland was in 1648.
c3baef9f48f71ca302d7685a35cd303d1a68734b And two years later he died.
8aca74f0d8f654f168ce95d2c42ec7008774dd49 Although, perhaps, he could have lived even longer if a flighty representative of the august family had not interfered in his fate.
a4a2503d668f0253bc52446780e96daea0a55f05 Just at that time, Sweden was ruled by the twenty year old Queen Christina.
7d1666a959f3ee03e9c8c7ea5fe8c512df66a85c The young ruler had extraordinary abilities.
a4c2a854354d1bd0d1d4a4c390032d94999d1434 She spoke six languages.
ee9ce64af50cdedd1b67f6a7d6784a06846b925e She was an excellent shot, could tirelessly chase the beast.
8b88e9f90eeaca6ed3d2f13b8a56d5385ed6e773 She was used to cold and heat.
785c9d81b7c12cfd5f492b217ac949a569745894 I slept for five hours a day and got up very early.
817038dd526be92cf8b4a0ba6b6b7f1311d328c1 In addition, this new Amazon was interested in philosophy.
5c952d3baa4cc3e6b93f696f58f8c6e97ef9bc28 She was particularly interested in Descartes ' philosophy.
a77cb468ba6dbe91d121feb623f37dc69d43e535 And the energetic queen decided to invite the scientist to Sweden.
c995a19f51f689160b1b06a291b8477fc879d1c5 Without waiting for Descartes ' consent, she sent an admiral's ship for him, which brought Descartes to Stockholm in 1649.
5460cb4501413a4502bf812ad9ff8df5483a26d7 Descartes hoped to study science calmly after his arrival in Sweden, without fear of persecution of the churchmen.
402367a3eecd6fea5f0a7bc03c3549d936b18557 But the arrival in this northern country was fatal for the scientist.
dcd479497eaf53876334edc0abc2da628d03243f Accepted with honor, Descartes had to study philosophy with the queen every day.
aa6c5f16591ebb7f37f4d14ded81946491c729bf Despite the winter cold, classes began every time at five o'clock in the morning.
07fdfaf9b9b8f5d334dec3827357b45b8f4942fd This was difficult for Descartes, who was used to a warm climate.
70efa4bc673ed6d07bf90ffaf7828fcd26b2c6f9 Besides, he was so fond of lying in bed almost until noon.
6cd46e0620ab12b40c6fdd353371439f139f016f At the same time, Descartes was obliged to work hard on the statute of the Academy of Sciences organized by the Queen.
ecacad67ba160943ad8e0dc53aa491c1179bc379 One day, on his way to the palace, Descartes caught a cold, pneumonia began.
bdc7d8d7240dc8f659d0325c8cf041ccbd35ca99 Bloodletting, which was used at that time, did not help, and on February 11, 1650, Descartes died.
53058656eb61b0e62631408e591af611334f3166 "It's time to go, my soul," were his last words.
032b5ec66031860632343a0193cef3472c3d9b56 Descartes ' philosophical studies are closely connected with his mathematical and physical works.
b084e580c9705c7ff32c86902bb4f9e8e3b7ed8a Descartes showed for the first time how mathematics can be applied to the visual representation and mathematical analysis of the most diverse phenomena of nature and society.
dcdefc1828f81b7aee4ef7682ebe000073481fa4 He proposed to depict the connections between natural phenomena with curved lines, and to write down the latter with algebraic equations.
91f85b4f0c032f56ac63ebe192fbbb49600e703d Having based his philosophy on the concept of moving matter, Descartes introduced motion into mathematics.
c6445b49607275ad36955385f523a120c4225a07 If before Descartes mathematics had a metaphysical character, operating with constant quantities, then with Descartes ' works, dialectics entered mathematics, and at the same time into all natural science.
4d610e1a0bac8177753bd4907324e37b33848c72 In Descartes ' works on mathematics, variables appear for the first time and it is indicated how strict laws of geometry can be translated into algebraic language and used in solving various problems that at first glance are far from mathematics.
5aef03843148bd9737c470f98ae37721a9a5a486 Thus, Descartes is the discoverer of analytical geometry, which is based on the method of coordinates invented by him.
cfc2b0b7f1f15fa54ecf9cc833a905c90a74d66c This method, as is known, was used before Descartes.
ddd222a728c0ad68f02ee59e47f6cb35867ae507 It received significant development from Fermat.
eeea0d6c1a9039d4391667801592997ae493c607 Nevertheless, it became much more important for Descartes, since with the help of this method, Descartes was able to indicate new directions in the further development of mathematics.
598d2319c7be72579ac95abda5b68be7835e6780 To the mathematical genius of the thinker we owe the introduction into use of the now familiar designations with the help of Latin letters of constant and variable magnitudes, as well as the designation of degrees.
ac32e4a34d4f0331e0b0f178e871afc534b412a9 Thanks to Descartes, algebra, both in its basic methods and in symbolism, has assumed the character that is inherent in it at the present time.
d362ddfb8c1edb0bb144e7db1879f98073a1f456 Descartes attached special importance to mathematics.
d5d6eea936d15d69346c38bdf91500f5170b0fee He proceeded from the conviction that mathematics should be a model for any other science.
2fe5aba64eefe732f771cf371b76609c65c40cd2 In his opinion, only that science can be considered true, which follows mathematics in its construction, since all the conclusions of mathematics are logically necessary, giving full reliability.
19ccf153d662875cf3965ba8913460dedb627901 ACHIEVEMENTS IN MATHEMATICS Descartes ' mathematical studies are closely related to his works on philosophy and physics.
5126a1ef9f74eeaa6865e520862d823220894149 In" Geometry " (1637), Descartes first introduced the concept of a variable and a function.
2c103d48c0d85b406262298846a57e4b20c0ca87 A variable appeared in Descartes as a segment of variable length and constant direction (the current coordinate of a point describing a curve with its movements) and as a continuous numerical variable running through the set of numbers that make up the coordinate segment.
36c14f3e5a256349fbfda9a5eb275b280ed7075c The dual image of the variable caused the interpenetration of geometry and algebra, which Descartes sought.
ce6dad17499cba31e218a2fbfc865db57c0cd1d1 In Descartes, the real number acted as the ratio of the length of the segment to the unit, although only I. Newton formulated such a definition of the number.
a854a6dd43fcfc2cb2aa429156f3b6e33e4d2199 Negative numbers received a real interpretation from Descartes in the form of directed coordinates.
69de14d393ee89fcfb80653b48b168b8381c40a4 Descartes introduced the now generally accepted signs for variables and desired quantities, for letter coefficients, as well as degrees.
9a7bcfcd2cbb912bd95ae0307c25d2129cdc4a00 Descartes ' records of algebra formulas almost do not differ from modern ones.
5b56db4f02dfaedc6bd41e6f8407699af0c8fe28 Of great importance for the formulations of general algebra theorems was the recording of equations in which one of the parts is zero.
1b1d6dde0a3af200a36a25b227fef97ddade2aa2 Descartes initiated scientific studies of the properties of equations; formulated the position that the number of real and complex roots of an equation is equal to its degree (this is the main theorem of algebra, which was strictly proved by K. Gauss at the end of the XVIII century, and expressed by A. Girard).
1b1b3152f33e2b867a11e4778293f7419abaa5b8 Descartes formulated the rules of signs for determining the number of positive and negative roots of an equation; he raised the question of the boundaries of the real roots and the reducibility of the polynomial.
8b485ddab03321357c591921f050029a9542bb76 In analytical geometry, which was developed simultaneously with Descartes by P. Fermat, the main achievement of Descartes was the method of rectilinear coordinates created by him.
42ec2a03548d0b92b62bae94f8f6de39b7ec35f4 Descartes included "geometric" lines in the field of study, which can be described by one or more continuous movements of articulated mechanisms.
9b470a0727ff48a3c9175dafb286dd3c8b4cb78f He found that the degree of the curve equation does not depend on the choice of a rectangular coordinate system.
5c7bce80648afe133abca7a7b928590c11d585dc In Geometry, Descartes outlined an algebraic method for constructing normals and tangents to plane curves and applied it to curves of the 4th order, Descartes ' ovals.
27721dc4f42404573f8f7d791c8327439bfefb1a Having laid the foundations of analytical geometry, Descartes himself did not advance far in this field.
be250088dd01abc89db56fc41b668b4c381f485d His coordinate system was imperfect: negative abscissas were not considered in it.
76d0f420dac7840995ca70a7830d0a1180083f5d The questions of the analytical geometry of three dimensional space remained almost untouched.
8b2fb9da76dc77254f5ab5a934bed5549ac4044c Nevertheless, Descartes '"Geometry" had a huge impact on the development of mathematics, and for almost 150 years algebra and analytical geometry developed mainly in the directions indicated by Descartes.
7631478022aeacb788304f24dc46fcb8e76243f4 It can be seen from Descartes ' manuscripts that he knew the relation between the numbers of faces, vertices and edges of polyhedra discovered later by L. Euler - an important result in the topology of surfaces.
af1634ae7f34571d86c914349cf5262c50e605b2 Deprived of moving in a straight line, the transparent flows of this medium formed systems of large and small vortices in space.
e5de57118157ebb1a4811260cadaa518a308e3a2 Vortices, picking up larger, visible particles of ordinary matter, form the cycles of celestial bodies.
105c5fa0cc1ac39e40d2fc0b964fa08b3e695885 They mold them, rotate them and carry them in orbits.
7e17eebfa15b2c8c22b9a940ca30d10e73e8381f The Earth is also located inside the small vortex.
415308d40b812281ea6d74c69571d213c3869f6e The circulation tends to pull the transparent vortex outwards.
49934daeff8b9a52d3c33d0b46146328bdf154da At the same time, the particles of the vortex drive the visible bodies to the Earth.
5fc0f215e5db7d45ecc1d9c8e3830e60f3da5541 According to Descartes, this is gravity.
b7bd41834c404ee780e3d0e8d5d1fd75ecda0080 REFERENCES 1.
62be71f82042f8ac98eb3be1dc8a2d8942ef3637 Bell E. T.
51076b3a5e40aaaded0ff393bc4e5fe98c26ed10 The Creators of Mathematics.
812ff01e9c7cd74029282dd137ce13d357a09ce7 - Moscow: Nauka, 1979.
3ac79add6d9f4ce0822c954e61cff898bf48f6f0 2. Smyshlyaev V. K. About mathematics and mathematicians.
183b74a8ba913ca351ec1d2c45663f06ac6cb583 - Yoshkar Ola: Nauka, 1977.
6d4c2f13dbf4b678d2e52a1d6ce2832b4e38a93f 3. Matviyevskaya G. P. Rene Descartes , Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1987.
463d1c42b29bb5a6f3e68437d627212866992142 January 4: holidays, traditions, events, were born and died on this day Subscribe - >
6da418519b381b5da0bb6d4181bff9f6911ddcfa Home / Table of Contents / Your famous Namesakes / Rene Descartes / Names / Patronymic names / First name and patronymic / Horoscopes / Tests/ / Signs
56a6ce49836a5b1da44ea207d98e545f4dfcf2c6 Rene Descartes biography
b2146660e6ddbe8a22ac6b37725561a8f78a06bd Correctly define the words, and you will free the world from half of the misunderstandings
1752439fa284710dd66e86e27e1faffd3cf7f6d1 Rene Descartes — (Latinized Cartesius; Cartesius) (1596-1650)
284ea42b0a226416ae92177648f252ebbd419c1e French philosopher, mathematician, physicist and physiologist, the founder of New European rationalism and one of the most influential metaphysicians of Modern times.
1e456ff577849c6e9c86aa17b39c9921167972f2 Descartes laid the foundations of analytical geometry, gave the concepts of a variable and a function, and introduced many algebraic notations.
eb618e98814dded76d19fa0d6c4e0ba0485cf508 He expressed the law of conservation of the amount of motion, gave the concept of the momentum of force.
a994b84ded34f727dc650d40927a97034343cf7b The author of the theory explaining the formation and movement of celestial bodies by the vortex motion of matter particles (Descartes vortices).
053367b4633f6e29da40678dd886f59f9fcb53ff R. Descartes introduced the idea of the reflex (Descartes arc).
77bfa67a49fef6dcaad2ca14b2f3a394829e089b Based on
664b32d9e0c800a3b1db40c65f06e0887a41449c Descartes 'philosophy is the dualism of soul and body, "thinking" and "extended" substance.
a034dbae06578c4d452295dbdb1def21d1c7cf36 He identified matter with extension (or space), reduced movement to the movement of bodies.
2315cd1db7d98b7b3e72eaf5bbf5d84b1d0b34fc The common cause of motion, according to Rene Descartes — is God, who created matter, motion and rest.
ebdf8f8b2192f3d9d081ea9ca6df43e1f0c1f36f Man is the connection of a lifeless bodily mechanism with a soul that has thinking and will.
0666ff0b07ab829d7a6ab159fd20285586d926d1 The absolute foundation of all knowledge, according to Descartes, is the immediate certainty of consciousness ("I think, therefore, I exist").
ab493af790001501c5636ef15c162e8848f0a280 He considered the existence of God as a source of the objective significance of human thinking.
313dd8f071d80a5e1d65ed51e5bd18f9d6b68eaf In the doctrine of cognition, Rene Descartes is the ancestor of rationalism and a supporter of the doctrine of innate ideas.
074f27d6d16cdd8682a10ba46883deea18433ed7 The main works: "Geometry" (1637), "Reasoning about the method..." (1637), "The Beginnings of Philosophy" (1644).
2fb4f089be28ba09a962a5c6dd204f107139f5f8 Rene Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, Lae, Touraine, France.
5d6edc068fa687d059a8308f7515049a3bb7d8b1 He died on February 11, 1650, in Stockholm.
6c4082bb6058bdbf0755dcc1d2be7aadd1d3c4dc ), a French philosopher, mathematician, physicist and physiologist, the founder of New European rationalism and one of the most influential metaphysicians of Modern times.
d3a85586b4451b6f7b944993d842d9e1a500aaf1 Life and writings
3f7b86d7ddb0aaf800a21d42c089ee262d34a8e1 Born into a noble family, Rene received a good education.
3a0d8d340e648dde1d513fce688474ecb8ad619b In 1606, his father sent him to the Jesuit college of La Fleche.
6094d9bbd3ef5c67d88d1a5c694ce02d73465435 Given Descartes ' not very good health, he was given some indulgences in the strict regime of this educational institution, for example, he was allowed to get up later than others.
25c42b20783d29d0df1bfa4d4656e2e9a7d4b10a Having acquired a lot of knowledge in the college, Rene Descartes at the same time became imbued with an antipathy to scholastic philosophy, which he retained for the rest of his life.
281f06c76053c7315683249cb3f645aff0e5b1a6 After graduating from the college, Descartes continued his education.
5823232d99c9a5c7effd8e240d6f073b7011de81 In 1616, at the University of Poitiers, he received a Bachelor of Law degree.
350e56aadbb408e1815839ee9fd48a70925b7f3f In 1617, Descartes joined the army and traveled a lot in Europe.
b6c28c3918f8f5c02589d57bffc0d3640af06af8 In the 1620s, Descartes met the mathematician M. Mersenne, through whom he "kept in touch" with the entire European scientific community for many years.
7b6f32ec862fe959572c9b088430aeb11c070e00 In 1628, Rene Descartes settled in the Netherlands for more than 15 years, but did not settle in any one place, but changed his place of residence about two dozen times.
112be1f2a4d0c702e68281b761a867fd137d8fff In 1633, after learning about the condemnation of Galileo by the church, Descartes refused to publish the natural philosophical work "The World", which set out the ideas of the natural origin of the universe according to the mechanical laws of matter.
47d2233a60859646e91ea845788d136142e21550 Rene Descartes 'last philosophical work" The Passions of the Soul", published in 1649, also had a great influence on European thought.
84ef132623f6cb3ae05dba67d1eda36920e66395 In the same year, at the invitation of Queen Christina of Sweden, Descartes went to Sweden.
25e8f575d0bd00530fce57b1540fb274e66d69d6 The harsh climate and unusual regime (the queen forced Descartes to get up at 5 in the morning to give her lessons and perform other tasks) undermined Descartes ' health, and, catching a cold, he died of pneumonia.
88306943fea7e76f9cd57cae0ea6d8b32d2e8434 Method
a36b608686ec4d674a7183ea98f6f6a349a3b952 R. Descartes does not deny the cognitive value of experience, but he sees its function solely in the fact that it comes to the aid of reason where the latter's own forces are insufficient for cognition.
399de826d0669b25e5fb7c43d5141ea81b236cff Reflecting on the conditions for achieving reliable knowledge, Descartes formulates the "rules of the method" by which one can come to the truth.
347e1a25f5ebcc8a7534e45bed76c95d9164ff2e Originally thought by Descartes to be very numerous, in the "Reasoning about the Method", they are reduced by him to four main propositions that make up the" quintessence " of European rationalism:
5815a0cc2c00e65d78b5efc726f518570b3199c8 1) to begin with the indubitable and self evident, i.e., with the opposite of which it is impossible to think;
10ab5ad41a906b1451378e2b6f662fc106847c28 2) divide any problem into as many parts as necessary for its effective solution;
0f59bd4df959bb8e0133373162f498ccb9a455d0 3) start with the simple and gradually move towards the complex;
54c01615e43afa091094e25e0ed66a2ce9cedb27 4) constantly double check the correctness of conclusions.
63d49195de9fa14bdd8a9b9e7543330ed92eb2cc The self evident is grasped by reason in intellectual intuition, which cannot be confused with sensory observation and which gives us a "clear and distinct" comprehension of the truth.
3596f81b14355cd581c80dea6b1e8bf4b9d39fb8 The division of the problem into parts allows us to identify "absolute", i.e. self evident elements in it, from which we can start in subsequent deductions.
eb712b324549aa96d7bf765394c72f52b89dcf3f Rene Descartes calls deduction "the movement of thought", in which there is a concatenation of intuitive truths.
6a06539fac9420b0d930c62612a82f86260eb09a The weakness of human intelligence requires checking the correctness of the steps taken for the absence of gaps in the reasoning.
5bf2a581c637c8faa886cfca0bdbef89e97ed8f7 Descartes calls such a test " enumeration "or"induction".
dfd3de8b7340eefb6d6c21aa4f97f6bd5f979fa4 The result of a consistent and extensive deduction should be the construction of a system of universal knowledge, a "universal science".
945e89c531877eb6114cce8fe12b2e7a999cb631 Descartes compares this science to a tree.
6382cd8050a97c7d0dec035ba589c0b9412a263d Its root is metaphysics, the trunk is physics, and the fruitful branches are formed by concrete sciences, ethics, medicine and mechanics, which bring direct benefits.
4a58d8c1e8bacc0c3a4cb7140985009533c8d952 From this scheme it can be seen that the key to the effectiveness of all these sciences is correct metaphysics.
0aeb589e9e3d717b83bff395eaa42b42815aac25 What distinguishes Rene Descartes from the method of discovering truths is the method of presenting already developed material.
d62c5aef22b2985a9e9cd426e7e5ceb793e50f29 It can be stated "analytically" and "synthetically".
f66327776631cd3a18c58857be4382ef9be28730 The analytical method is problematic, it is less systematic, but it contributes more to understanding.
b085c74fa0915a3976b77103c27ff02392552695 Synthetic, as if "geometrizing" material, is more strict.
019952817deb1c5b9a580ab764e85b235cb31801 Descartes still prefers the analytical method.
86ca843d8f6243e19f9b1d5779bd850c257b6ba0 Doubt and the indubitable
749f654ada9373094d96b7731aad861f85f4e313 The initial problem of metaphysics as a science of the most general kinds of existence is, as in any other disciplines, the question of self evident grounds.
58d5470cae19bfc01842ee7c31f81bfa57d631f4 Metaphysics should begin with an indubitable statement of any existence.
8c39b46d0488a040de8c227c1ce63f55e186def8 Rene Descartes "tries" for self evidence theses about the existence of the world, God and our "I".
52f7865137d22ac082a076336d375503dcec3cd3 The world can be imagined as non existent if we imagine that our life is a long dream.
038e56e7e1f567f823155245964c5d3b45a3820a The existence of God can also be doubted.
cb705a151fb97a3291916641c70c582760a49e20 But our" I", Descartes believes, cannot be questioned, since doubt itself in its being proves the existence of doubt, and therefore of a doubting Self.
cb5933835c25f4a54171675decf979217f35a083 In a more general form, this thesis sounds like this: "I think, therefore I exist" - cogito, ergo sum.
37948a9565006f2f34257437aba71e2af42d0df3 Doubt is only one of the "modes of thinking", along with desire, rational comprehension, imagination, memory, and even sensation.
38d5c98ecea99e1a9be1f29e2e46947b666962e0 The basis of thinking is consciousness.
013612121fffa05d05672de63934d2d9de1d7edc Therefore, Descartes denies the existence of unconscious ideas.
b95c3880b127fa66a02b9ab0180a24d888fe815f Thinking is an inherent property of the soul.
3e08b2fb4e75138fb1daa875941edb4aedce3a53 The soul cannot help thinking, it is a" thinking thing", res cogitans.
4a6e5b2117aaaf08518d319181966586488a806b The recognition of the thesis of one's own existence as unquestionable does not mean, however, that Descartes considers the non existence of the soul to be impossible at all: it cannot but exist, only while it thinks.
714a0663892cab2d6b32e10a82e49266b37ccb85 Otherwise, the soul is an accidental thing, i.e. it can either be or not be, because it is imperfect.
20ad2fe24dbe465e9bc3fbade328d90b6e6f8f07 All random things draw their being from outside.
82013b0dcacc6364116ac98124bbe22dc6e7ba6c R. Descartes asserts that the soul is supported in its existence by God every second.
fdf02d258c6cfdcfe2734651b595b46bc4c105a8 Nevertheless, it can be called a substance, since it can exist separately from the body.
4576fe35721a1a01e70163961067add4fa55041b However, in fact, the soul and the body interact closely.
da6123b9a4d1ac5fbd4bd05e9180a5958a8b8b0f However, the fundamental independence of the soul from the body is for Descartes the key to the probable immortality of the soul.
c2c0335c4d39011a93effc64010c4da18f914f71 The Doctrine of God
561167a756a13a1ac8a495b9a2026e1a04bea06c Rene Descartes moves from philosophical psychology to the doctrine of God.
1309dd03173c760f105e2e7eb437e9862c4f77ad He gives several proofs of the existence of a higher being.
17344123a5a58fc989054899ab6f47c89558de45 The most well known is the so called "ontological argument": God is an all perfect being, therefore, the predicate of external existence cannot be absent in the concept of him, which means that it is impossible to deny the existence of God without falling into contradiction.
fd7ee95d651f2fba2386370f6d88ab88c75d0626 Another proof offered by Descartes is more original (the first was well known in medieval philosophy): there is an idea of God in our mind, this idea must have a reason, but only God himself can be the cause, because otherwise the idea of a higher reality would be generated by the fact that it does not possess this reality, i.e. there would be more reality in the action than in the cause, which is absurd.
e932d97c4f3a2b8cb7280dd674414a91ba7a828c The third argument is based on the necessity of the existence of God in order to maintain human existence.
6701ef0fb372fde74218d564349b64443b322881 Descartes believed that God, not being bound by the laws of human truth in itself, is nevertheless the source of man's "innate knowledge", which includes the very idea of God, as well as logical and mathematical axioms.
d37590bf52ec00c4b15f6551e3eca3bf84870ffc According to Rene Descartes, our belief in the existence of an external material world also comes from God.
9872da936bb32cc419b222aff919ffe6d286f50c God cannot be a deceiver, and therefore this belief is true, and the material world really exists.
8d4d5ed8df1fdb05365dafa387aebc36fd3dc6bd Philosophy of Nature
0c4e26c5d81c8afec0079aea6729ce9c27e3acc5 Convinced of the existence of the material world, Descartes begins to study its properties.
b986ca3231c011ef1d6fca3ed791f129eeea0d36 The main property of material things is extension, which can appear in various modifications.
10cf8173706e5acc5f1a2650016493702fbc9481 Descartes denies the existence of empty space on the grounds that wherever there is an extension, there is also an "extended thing", res extensa.
3ecbe989ba2c7d5cba4e248e0cd9596ca1162678 Other qualities of matter are thought vaguely and, perhaps, Descartes believes, exist only in perception, and are absent in the objects themselves.
afef288048ee9091f674b604855565c6a3a6c860 Matter consists of the elements of fire, air and earth, all the difference of which consists only in magnitude.
c0bebd512760d87eda7ba03a228dec7147852d03 The elements are not indivisible and can turn into each other.
c4ea2a5c75df065493eea220217fb99f87246426 Trying to reconcile the concept of the discreteness of matter with the thesis about the absence of emptiness, Rene Descartes puts forward a very interesting thesis about the instability and the absence of a certain form in the smallest particles of matter.
45fb0b73a4c9f1241a3df6f53a3379d830c2e5c5 Descartes recognizes collision as the only way to convey the interactions between elements and things consisting of their mixing.
d56b9d32033e49196181569d5faa4268cbcec5ea It happens according to the laws of constancy, which follow from the unchangeable essence of God.
adfb6d9edf00e60120410dbcbf81e65ca66c45c5 In the absence of external influences, things do not change their state and move in a straight line, which is a symbol of constancy.
fb8bef986c1c5bc771835c4f71f3cc1036c7e0ec In addition, Descartes talks about preserving the initial amount of movement in the world.
19c7db3bb17c7adcb7cf60f8107f58dd18be544d The movement itself, however, is not originally inherent in matter, but is introduced into it by God.
2d86c433d9b95fd166fc3368c71596f5a8b1098b But one first step is enough to gradually assemble a correct and harmonious cosmos out of the chaos of matter on its own.
6263a3ee90c294bf39645008f1c9a5b1d6d4ecdc Body and soul
3386d35fa97f4ac5b31639d8019b0c8a21a1b0be Rene Descartes spent a lot of time studying the laws of functioning of animal organisms.
b4a1db51acc3683bf78a0caa344ec9354a466f1c He considered them to be thin machines capable of adapting independently to the environment and responding adequately to external influences.
3cf327d971f39863c21037fb4ad70e9f057ded14 The experienced effect is transmitted to the brain, which is a reservoir of "animal spirits", the smallest particles, the ingress of which into the muscles through the pores that open due to deviations of the cerebral" pineal gland " (which is the seat of the soul), leads to contractions of these muscles.
98bc1a01cdd8db64bc6923a8806a4dc74df0732d The movement of the body is made up by a sequence of such contractions.
b7dae843f01a75c32954fa56f13c453123467027 Animals are devoid of souls and do not need them.
bf0d25e2f38c0b4fcaeb331cd873b6904914511f Descartes said that he was more surprised by the presence of a soul in man than by its absence in animals.
3b1146ffdc71e4965d3a54f8a6151ec54f6aca41 The presence of a soul in a person, however, is not useless, since the soul can correct the natural reactions of the body.
2a352c6acbf5fa8b32c6caf68f4c870e426c25c2 Descartes is a physiologist
4d9f60c4b94fa7ee72077bff2aaab0110a2c9b56 The significance of Descartes ' works in mathematics and physics
3540d8092bb8e3d2870f348d89560cef6c58e0d4 The natural scientific achievements of Descartes were born as a "by product" of the unified method of unified science developed by him.
ed2db50c934b275e64f19ce3d93b36f82c34e082 Descartes is one of the authors of the theory of equations: he formulated the rule of signs for determining the number of positive and negative roots, raised the question of the boundaries of real roots and put forward the problem of reducibility, i.e. the representation of an entire rational function with rational coefficients as a product of two functions of this kind.
5412161a100e24c2dca1d52e92879b691f48879f He pointed out that the equation of the 3rd degree is solvable in square radicals (and also indicated the solution using a compass and ruler, if this equation is reducible).
3efcc5ff005d8eb758913401532ce29e12299b08 Rene Descartes is one of the creators of analytic geometry (which he developed simultaneously with Pierre Fermat), which allowed us to algebraize this science using the coordinate method.
c4561faf30262696d71c85cbf9f86189b07c1892 The coordinate system proposed by him received his name.
100a9a99db3ad751c6df6114086c91866b53a4d8 In the work "Geometry" (1637), which opened the interpenetration of algebra and geometry, Descartes introduced for the first time the concepts of a variable and a function.
76135ee20c006d9e3cebe713506d8745f990bf4b The variable is interpreted by him in two ways: as a segment of variable length and constant direction (the current coordinate of a point describing a curve with its movement) and as a continuous numeric variable running through a set of numbers expressing this segment.
40d2b4ffa6cd6d12eb5d4514ef3d5239ba3770b1 In the field of studying geometry, Descartes included "geometric" lines
7c8c75509c27a281a2b95429c37f63f8c6329fa7 (later called
8c0e4f7037df1b1efc6fb23de09593e7c8bc65fa Leibniz algebraic) — lines described when moving by articulated mechanisms.
f42784e007b5d29c3eced164de07d7d160d36a31 He excluded transcendental curves (Rene Descartes himself calls them "mechanical") from his geometry.
eff765228f82ecabed00a1527efb056a06ec6ca8 In connection with the research of lenses (see below), the "Geometry" describes methods for constructing normals and tangents to plane curves.
d9167bffcd65bf3f9cebc7a435535c4f022f7a3c "Geometry" had a huge impact on the development of mathematics.
5a43d6c6ed9362e33a623666a3d0f87c369a043b In the Cartesian coordinate system, negative numbers have received a real interpretation.
4087126983a066028a6940f9ec8f3702bd244a0e Descartes actually interpreted the real numbers as the ratio of any segment to a single one
9596bf9a5ed521a97b32969abc58e9f906fccc76 (although he gave the very formulation later
6e109d006b6d82e6b16b13f9c35d9ac8aa8846e6 I. Newton).
9b2d534889eb2864e73bd5102a38a94ccc8cb8fb Descartes ' correspondence contains other discoveries of his.
a617f5468571e182c49a18583d8d5da4a9de3ccf In optics, he discovered the law of refraction of light rays at the boundary of two different media (set out in "Dioptrics", 1637).
c14c66088e63c1266c30bd9952564a77a97d2ead R. Descartes made a serious contribution to physics, giving a clear formulation of the law of inertia.
96248f1f2fb88b88bbb4b7e65adcd1536a470a92 The influence of Descartes
48e85738f5ab50a857b2abc690cd9f7cd67d2396 Descartes had a huge influence on subsequent science and philosophy.
558160ce78731956711b6d6cab90ae946a6fff65 European thinkers took from him calls for the creation of philosophy as an exact science (B. Spinoza), to the construction of metaphysics on the basis of the doctrine of the soul (J. Locke, D. Hume).
71972f27e014f82e3ff73935fc24c661f2c1726f Descartes also intensified theological disputes on the question of the possibility of proof of the existence of God.
59cc50f252fe13b850c84770dc265e54383665bc Descartes ' discussion of the question of the interaction of the soul and the body had a huge resonance, to which N. Malebranche, G. Leibniz, and others responded, as well as his cosmogonic constructions.
7e13fece6539ec97482f5b1300c36a9c0e0686dd Many thinkers have made attempts to formalize Descartes ' methodology
808459502e2180f00b00389ef3e46bbf633d1ad5 (A. Arnault, N. Nicole,
9a2dba973f1a2f5ff799f083689e14df331545a4 Blaise Pascal).
6f1690b732ec98017683fe94c6a40de5ee2c8d99 In the 20th century, the philosophy of Descartes is often addressed by participants in numerous discussions on the problems of the philosophy of consciousness and cognitive psychology.
bd5bdecca3bbb624a73f8a763d98d5e9bb18caa1 (V. V. Vasiliev)
c0a2ab4c45667f7c6743db1e7a203c99f9180101 More about Rene Descartes:
78dc86aa7e9ce4f263ae9590043c8105ca57f124 The Descartes family belonged to the low ranking official nobility.
af7cf5b43bb0528388044b1833d536aa9bf2b2a7 His mother, having given birth to a child, died a few days later.
f22f3373d5023135fdb32e17a82da9f5e398f7fc In 1612, Descartes graduated from school.
23fb756dc75c3b407bce59d04e6710ed77b051e6 He spent eight and a half years in it.
3b5e0890dfef280e42a079077e77dd408b845357 The school achieved an almost miraculous effect: in a young man who was highly inquisitive, in a mind whose distinctive feature, the dominant passion was the passion for knowledge, it managed to cause an aversion to knowledge and to science.
eb74a16c5e9d1c593ba5c6753c60da419f41a837 Rene was in his seventeenth year when he returned to his family in Rennes.
9a1e739882975b21656bd5103025f3987e89d1ed He abandoned books and scientific studies and spent all his time in horse riding and fencing.
b7f84e7c9a0db4ac55c9fc8f0bef758f48d7af5b But it would be a mistake to think that his thought was asleep at that time.
c28383547cf027a421ad667812b914819a5f782e In this creative mind, all sorts of impressions were immediately processed into laws and generalizations: the result of his fencing amusements was a "Treatise on Fencing".
51c0eedab39c5ad280f71f65b53f52bb3b31db26 In the spring of 1613, Rene Descartes went to Paris: a young nobleman had to take care of acquiring a secular gloss and tie up the necessary connections for everyday success in the capital.
5c3b742f19dbb60c3ccf95d4c4bd672bcf563bad In Paris, Rene met the scientist Franciscan monk Mersenne, the author of a very ambiguous commentary on the book of Genesis, when reading which pious people shook their heads, and the mathematician Midorge.
997313195c8294c3342102c9ed0cbd4117678c10 He got into the company of the "golden youth", led a distracted life and became interested in a card game.
16e41b28e13289ebc61e4dfc9d289349aaef8550 Rene Descartes ' social friends, however, were sorely mistaken if they considered him one of them.
2848cd4eae2ac40a89d42c3444ea2470268520bf After a year and a half of scattered life, a turning point suddenly occurred in the young man.
fa39c1738b3f567d6932f582d5765735db1fef16 Secretly from his friends and Parisian relatives, he moved to a secluded house in the Faubourg Saint — Germain, locked himself here with his servants and immersed himself in the study of mathematics mainly geometry and the analysis of the ancients.
29ee56681882b69830a57ef6400cb2901abdc463 Descartes spent about two years in this voluntary imprisonment.
cbcb944dd2846ea77e9134c623bfc0a97f7eac46 When he was twenty one years old, Rene decided to leave France and see the light.
756cfac6ffb464585ba2ac32d30d7444ada73065 Descartes wanted to read "in the great book of the world, to see courts and armies, to come into contact with people of different mores and positions, to collect different experiences, to test himself in meetings that fate will present, and to reflect everywhere on the objects encountered."
6612c43d102601ff77c1dc96249d14070f21d667 The years of wandering began.
d825239d6d3748131798f13ab6c389cc00f600a8 In 1617, Rene Descartes puts on the uniform of a volunteer of the Dutch army.
0d656f02476d83520f524056185b68f1b69add25 And now he lives in Delirium.
4e19b8da15e27667e6fdc9adea513dc4d944e46e He refuses his salary in order to be free from any duties, does not even go to parades, stays at home and does mathematics.
ebfb7053ca7b6bc2d695912f2b947ba6426b0339 Two years of reclusive life in the Faubourg Saint - Germain were not in vain Descartes became one of the greatest mathematicians of the era.
17e08591fbe44c153805ecb8331320f98ee86d37 There is a note in the diary of Rene Descartes: "On November 10, 1619, I began to understand the grounds for a wonderful discovery."
e9721cc98ac7120d67399461420bb9b40ad0dbb2 There is no doubt that the wonderful discovery that Descartes is talking about here was the discovery of the foundations of analytic geometry.
9110d41f0a5e800bc2206bb1894ec5fbb1d12f14 The essence of analytic geometry consists in the application of algebra to geometry and vice versa geometry to algebra.
cc6edceb31a4fde369f27cf3d2251416ad1d0f4c Any curve can be expressed by an equation between two variables, and vice versa any equation with two variables can be expressed by a curve.
836c45b8f0b05ad730b85620a11a68a348af6626 This discovery was of great importance not only for mathematics, in the history of which it formed an epoch, but also for the natural sciences, and in general for the ever — expanding range of knowledge dealing with exact quantities number, measure and weight.
4d7b617932415381d556e9d42b4e907e08d9b1f0 The inventor of the new method was clearly aware of all its enormous significance and generality, but soon Descartes apparently came to the conclusion that it was impossible to reform science with one idea, even if it was great and brilliant.
03970dce8812baae0a72a17b3e83a7035ff2eb83 The wanderings continued — together with the army, Descartes visited first Prague, then Hungary and Brussels.
50185fabf4b55aca8bf0ad9caacd984c96ad0ab7 In 1623, Rene Descartes appears in Paris.
a74460b52b0d3999860b62e8ed6085da4ffbff10 Then new trips to Europe.
f0fb18901cb24384b649efc2b0959f9411348717 In 1625, Descartes returned to France, but soon left it again and went to Holland.
eaaf0d9c31b61aa48de529c34531fdf578c55015 Moving to Holland was caused not only by a desire to get away from numerous Parisian acquaintances and a love of solitude - there were other motives.
7e85dd800b327a101bb8c3b02abcf44b3295f1ba In Holland, free institutions successfully existed, the principle of religious tolerance was recognized in it.
2598986538899a43dcd583d1cca76f2ed6f523d7 In Holland, Descartes liked the very structure of life of an active people, "more caring about their own affairs than curious about others."
82ba8dedc00bfd6ca0a004ca0b9951a80068f9b4 At first, Rene Descartes continues to work on the treatise "On the Deity", which he started in Paris, but, despite the change in climate, his work does not go well.
30ec4014b08a43f020b31992dead7dd3705e1952 He abandons it and goes on to natural science classes.
55c0bab77c5dde1a98a037c40c6f28ee91cd4a8c A curious phenomenon observed in Rome in 1629, which consisted in the appearance of five false suns (pargelievs) around the Sun, as reported to Descartes by Mersenne, again revives his interest in optics and directs him to the study of the rainbow, since the scientist is quite correctly looking for the cause of pargelievs in the phenomena of refraction and reflection of light.
1436a8363db9a0b727b57b1c329c71a205d245ee From optics, he moves on to astronomy and medicine — more precisely, to anatomy.
e5208d15c8ede82641ceeb936c52dc2462f48500 The highest goal of philosophy, in his opinion, is to bring benefits to humanity, he values medicine and chemistry in this regard especially and expects brilliant results from the application of the mathematical method to these sciences.
bab0df8e68b2bc7a4574889fd99861c1683f5c8e Descartes does not study anatomy from atlases and books, but he anatomizes animals himself.
5b822e112428dda756d20cba7757cfe087c1a2ff In the middle of 1633, Rene Descartes informed Mersenne that he had a treatise "On the world" ready and that he had put it aside for a few months, then to finally revise and correct it.
4b04d08b1798a52bc07c079d16fd3768261cf087 In the autumn, Descartes began to revise and considered it necessary to first familiarize himself with Galileo's" Dialogues on the Systems of the World".
1f281695a15cb90c6518f8c9a19f6365962c093f He turned to friends in Amsterdam with a request to send him this book, and, to his extreme amazement, received in response the news that in June of the same year the "Dialogues" were burned by the Inquisition, and their elderly author, despite the intercession of influential people, was first sentenced to imprisonment in an inquisition prison, and then arrested in a village house, where he was ordered to read penitential psalms once a week for three years.
3729a31d1bfd557501ff308ee6fa1e23f7fb3aa3 Descartes was seriously frightened.
63c3ffe80489979df2a4e73f4c111a0d4eb33cc9 The scientist decided to burn his manuscripts even at the first minute.
ec9f93fb290c067d8b127636acdfa04eaa189f8c This page from the life of Descartes will add nothing to his fame and is unlikely to increase the reader's respect for the French thinker.
eaf22d67077f256f9b408768d02e8d5440b78ee8 In 1634, Rene Descartes made a sketch of his study "On man and the formation of the embryo".
a58d90a6305f0b6bb40417e398eb092e9049f292 By a somewhat strange coincidence, Descartes, as Mageffi notes, had at that time the opportunity to make "observations" on the question that interested him.
1ab8176e04973155bc872b0aebcf821b78358f95 In 1635, his daughter, Francine, was born.
9218a398b65fbdea993ad998b43e1f79b9216c50 Information about the life of this little creature is characterized by extraordinary thoroughness on a point that in other cases even the most detailed biographies are silent about, and extreme scarcity in other respects.
e5e7482700c38eb87b4f6d1ea7fe36e8038f3384 On a blank page of one of Descartes 'books we find an entry:" Conceived on October 15, 1634."
33d7d41c6f0b26ea940453c21e63bd1e7f048cf1 But nothing is known about the child's mother, the connection, in any case, was fleeting.
42ef810ba78f26877b1281ee085d741f56745a89 Romantically, there were hardly any elements in Descartes ' nature, and Mageffi makes the assumption, perhaps too harsh towards Descartes, that the birth of Francine was the fruit of his curiosity.
8618db4619cb123a34b41a85b0a03cfdda24a899 In any case, Descartes was warmly attached to his little daughter.
8094a93e502cad709661a78125262d01d73b764c Francine did not live long, and her death in 1640 from scarlet fever was a heavy blow for her father.
8662ed0639acfba15f1899e1b4796c5787b4b860 In June 1637, Rene Descartes published a book, highlighting the harmless sections from the "World" : "On light" (dioptrics) and "On meteors", having re written "Geometry" and prefixed to them the title "Reasoning about the method".
6e55162f5dfb89c30ed4db7a65a212e490dbeaef This was, if not the beginning of a new era, then, in any case, a major event in the history of human thought.
87ac7ab35757d4bbc828f5e7aefd9aae15f27ede A new center has appeared for the crystallization of the already formed, but still scattered and unorganized elements of the new worldview.
6c11f9cd736e6bef19e5c1322f0745db54d35589 The new worldview has resulted in one of its more or less stable forms; once again, the path along which the development of human thought will go has become clear.
94979ed1396f8ee33ed724a087fa634071fc8972 Descartes deliberately wrote geometry in a confusing way, "in order to deprive envious people of the opportunity to say that they have known all this for a long time."
a748b9552273a7961c8a02f828a15923e917b62d To do this, he released an analysis for the most difficult tasks, leaving only the construction.
5b89bd54ddd1a7ab8c0f7e463b2f394b82107de8 Dioptrics and Meteors were incomparably more popular.
2f14d06bd5abf945a537cabb47010adf35e32191 Descartes himself was very pleased with his Experiments.
7c434aaa73f9ba0175b4e91a8556ad141c3e1e15 He said that he did not think that he would ever have to release or change at least three lines in them.
573a2077fb061a9b353095d5a136c22480efdd30 In modern science, along with the inductive method, the method of deduction is also widely used.
1467cccd69238df873cecd0529ec5d6909bfdf91 Its essence consists in the fact that various particular consequences are derived from a small number of general principles.
f98c2b7106a03272410ee9701dae7cea7a087314 Although this method originated in ancient Greece, it was in this book that Rene Descartes first thoroughly justified it in relation to natural science.
72cb01820246168351196ccd85e637d171f5e2bc Descartes did not deny induction either, he perfectly understood the great importance of experience as a means of cognition and a criterion of truth: "From now on, I will advance in the knowledge of nature faster or slower, depending on how much I will be able to make experiments.
83539b3fbf20f45032a5c075ade24e46022b2d1b Experience gives me the necessary material for the initial assumptions, it also gives a check of the correctness of the conclusions drawn."
e4112c44d215b63a33be6656fb236589e927e0f7 It was only in 1644 that Rene Descartes published a more extensive work entitled "The Beginnings of Philosophy".
6144c53d8a50ef559adfb953bc9c7e8b2b7e2f39 It finally includes Descartes ' works on the world (cosmos), which he intended to publish back in 1633.
9f1e5cbc1fdf6ef80c533e7189b688c8a578d468 In this essay, he outlined a grandiose program for creating a theory of nature, guided by his methodological rule to take the simplest clear statements as a basis.
6b980556b37c0bb430227bc2df0807f48032d6f1 Even in the" Reasoning about the Method "Descartes analyzed all sorts of initial positions, doubting the validity of any of them, including the position "I exist".
1488f40d2c87cabf7bda84dc139c78ac2bd46e75 However, in the act of thinking, doubt is impossible, because our doubt is already a thought.
de4c3ad06346a64f9115214c0c2a1130529696ec Hence Descartes 'famous statement:" I think therefore I exist."
bc0746162271eab779c0242fd9d5aca7c19b8fc0 In order to protect his teaching from the attacks of the churchmen, R. Descartes speaks about the existence of God and the external world, Published by God.
66aed322b1b4c311402522a748f4f09f70455287 But it is not possible to deceive the churchmen, they are they knew the materialistic essence of Descartes ' system.
dfd183529e8e5e8c35d6f0b7232187069782a42a True to his method, Descartes looks for the most basic and simple in the material substrate and finds it in extension.
9add2e0ef48c28d88311a43c55c10f76f06673f3 Descartes ' matter is pure extension, a material space that fills the entire immeasurable length, width and depth of the universe.
12ee3ec47de5fbc60db47ca5f334a45ab40e9650 The parts of matter are in continuous motion, interacting with each other upon contact.
009fcdc9b5a75523183d9a8fb471440752b9d449 The interaction of material particles obeys the basic laws or rules.
027178ee1dff1079901b27572a39c5a193caa0c6 "The first rule is that each part of matter individually always continues to remain in the same state until an encounter with other particles causes a change in this state."
53dfb2e84b11a635fdaf397a79d7b1fbf73bcf46 "The second rule, suggested by me, is as follows: when one body collides with another, it can give it only as much movement as it will simultaneously lose, and take away from it only as much as it will increase its own movement."
2ff2c0075bbec06655a330cff833375a0f695ff8 "As a third rule, I will add that although when a body moves, its path is most often represented as a curved line and that it is impossible to produce... not a single movement that was not circular in any form, nevertheless, each of the particles of the body separately tends to continue the body in a straight line."
29aa94e8dd8416442b90804d05ec33d5b55094cc These "rules" are usually seen as the formulation of the law of inertia and the law of conservation of the amount of motion.
c4f2a0b675fcb09fbc13fa3a59fbf831273cc566 Unlike Galileo, Descartes distracts from the action of gravity, which, by the way, he also reduces to the movement and interaction of particles, and mentions the direction of inertial motion in a straight line.
131501d3471f6dcf456eabba1fd3b15e77387d22 However, his formulation still differs from Newtonian, he does not speak about the state of uniform and rectilinear motion, but in general about the state, without explaining in detail the content of this term.
02c2da3cd75586429dcda888bdd5e1d3c3581727 From the entire content of the "Principles" it is clear that the state of the parts of the mother is characterized by their size ("amount of matter"), shape, speed of movement and the ability to change this speed under the influence of external particles.
9ffe430bda8686e18b5f7a08ca82f240267e73f4 One can identify this ability with inertia, and then in one of the letters of Rene Descartes we find a very interesting statement: "It can be stated with certainty that a stone is not equally disposed to accept a new movement or to increase speed when it moves very quickly and when it moves very slowly."
b72e7d7f0da42f99a3f294edfa36defe4c295c6b In other words, Descartes states that the inertia of a body depends on its speed.
760b9933994e679a6798300b8b1674e62e010577 In Descartes ' letters, there is a formulation of the law of inertia that almost textually coincides with Newtonian: "I believe that the nature of motion is such that if a body has started moving, this is already enough for it to continue at the same speed and in the direction of the same straight line, until it is stopped or rejected by some other reason."
2f0d692f2622822c119ada5101fc5f885abf4bff This principle of preserving velocity in magnitude and direction is all the more interesting for Descartes, because, according to him, there is no emptiness in the world and every movement is cyclical: one part of matter takes the place of another, this one takes the place of the previous one, etc.
0c437df11f1c49cb1bc6cb175a4a1023a2d024b2 As a result, the entire universe is permeated with vortex movements of matter.
658dfe9e90c6d338305d3b2d5d35e66d9a4ea1f3 The movement in the universe is eternal, just like matter itself, and all phenomena in the world are reduced to the movements of matter particles.
83371bd39e5538b115c50f7adec4b63c370f60a6 At first, these movements were chaotic and disorderly, as a result of these movements, the particles were crushed and sorted.
ca94403f36065dc2ae117376d9ea9f068c70897b In the physics of Rene Descartes, there is no place for forces, especially forces acting at a distance through the void.
1e1c1abb18f6c07173970f0225a584a813ea0ab8 All the phenomena of the world are reduced to the movements and interaction of touching particles.
b47da62e931308b6a1f71dbe4ce6d7e3513056bb This physical view was called Cartesian in the history of science, from the Latin pronunciation of Descartes ' name — Cartesius.
96e57561914b05f5da0e4bec66ac0aa39c3e4459 The Cartesian view played a huge role in the evolution of physics and, although in a highly modified form, has survived to our time.
5d99c73c99e423f1e18430cab32932dec20f60d2 Descartes ' work during this period is characterized by special features.
a0df3811b1b9b229bef296e27aadfd5b3571c0a9 Now he is the head of the school, and Descartes is particularly concerned about the issue of official recognition of his philosophy.
c91bede33c08131e22464defcbb4981605cea3cf Rene believes that it would be beneficial for the Jesuits to introduce his philosophy into teaching in their schools, and tries to convince them that there is nothing contrary to religion in it.
5c1c5e84e969e9654d13b4eb18727d82d7c87a92 In 1645, Descartes returned to the studies of anatomy and medicine, to which he promised in the "Discourse on Method" to devote his entire future life, and from which he was distracted by concerns about gaining the sympathy of theologians.
c0178325e6debf9129def9a8bd461c2b8e0fc5b6 He settles in Egmond and works hard.
56c96cd4629ea10531e1763cb4f63871c4b4fd55 In 1648, Rene Descartes was summoned to Paris.
d7910806e3814cf3ce60a783bc88f3c59df41004 This is his third trip to France during his stay in Holland.
129cf8e597e8f0df1e55193b0de93161bda0b1a6 The first two, in 1644 and 1647, were associated with the troubles of inheritance.
fa91494c77a6990ff0103652178dcff9db783669 On his second visit, influential friends procured Descartes a pension of three thousand livres from Cardinal Mazarin.
8ae8054b9226fa482ec4071acdc3f6faebf085a0 In May 1648, Descartes received a second royal rescript assigning him a new pension and an invitation to come to Paris, where he was waiting for an appointment to some important position.
fd1ace8a3134dcbad655bc487a9fb1f884fc9278 However, on August 27, barricades appeared on the streets, and Descartes hurried back to Holland.
571a8e823f8f329d2d84dfecfc7c94d598d36f3e (Samin D. K. 100 great scientists.
68857ac7b9c42361ee4c05153cc00329fb1f8ffd - Moscow: Veche, 2000)
a9b395692487bfe5e5ba62b8684ecac28d4e5e02 Descartes, Rene
22384574638f3053bac3d03310c35ffbecca59f1 René Descartes fr. René Descartes
67f8db1e0fb431a3ddf1155bc1bf8bbe3c7eb6fb Latin Renatus Cartesius
9bce06b3b985eda38cca872565a6c2176e7fa53c Date of birth: March 31, 1596(1596-03-31)
5f5c7f04cab8b307674bb21bbcd6f5ad79af12e5 Place of birth: Lae, Touraine, Kingdom of France
96aaedad6887cce68e0b5eb7be9d15bfa178cec6 Date of death: February 11, 1650 (1650-02-11) (53 years old)
8eaaed24aa85baef748a3822ff80393497020ee7 Place of death: Stockholm, Kingdom of Sweden
36e6c63df4357c1f98db4e0ef63b94e8d7cc8d4a School/Tradition: Cartesianism, Continental Rationalism
26beba8d35678745d0ddb359e3b8112affecf78c Direction: European Philosophy
bf18ee74e21fec6818f2536fda14e4f760daa7e8 Period: Philosophy of the XVII century
43fe41228c3ec7126f9103898ea633979da38564 (Philosophy of the New Age)
1bfff18a459d55ed57b8b357af6b919062a89e1d Main interests: metaphysics, epistemology, mathematics, mechanics, physics
a9f191a062eba852dd3b7051dc7f8b58799fc3c0 Significant ideas: Cogito ergo sum, the method of radical doubt, Cartesian coordinate system, Cartesian dualism, Ontological proof of the existence of God; recognized as the founder of New European philosophy
54dcc9666c3eece9a9cf1d3995eb4772ec90e3e0 Influences: Plato, Aristotle, Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Occam, Suarez, Mersenne
565b1037ce96de761314951bbc6afd09d309cce6 Influenced by: Spinoza, Arnaud, Malebranche, Locke, Leibniz, Kant, Husserl
b3463034211369432ac6ea96be6cc544be2ec724 Quotes in Wikicitatnik Works in Wikitek
e170bf414d2c64638904cd915cb25711370fa70f The request "Descartes" is redirected here; see also other values.
8ea6bb4caaedd851ced617ad9dd99b6d33c37ef4 René Descartes (French: René Descartes [əəˈne dekakaʁt], Lat. Renatus Cartesius Cartesius; March 31, 1596, Lae (Touraine province), now Descartes (Endre et Loire department) — February 11, 1650, Stockholm) was a French philosopher, mathematician, mechanic, physicist and physiologist, the creator of analytical geometry and modern algebraic symbolism, the author of the method of radical doubt in philosophy, mechanics in physics, the forerunner of reflexology.
98bc8b9adc59f1c67a7ef03fce61bfd887ef32d1 1 Biography 2 Scientific activity 2.1 Mathematics 2.2 Mechanics and physics 2.3 Other scientific achievements
2f85784e1bf1ecfd758a37548c214321ca60786a 3 Philosophy 3.1 The Method of Radical Doubt 3.2 Proof of the existence of God 3.3 Ethical views 3.4 Existential paradigm
1b317e2bf9df7f57c091e95712f83ba5e096d09e Russian Russian translation 4 Main works 4.1 Descartes ' Translators into Russian
e7cf5deca7b0090cf2c108e28f658a6d5c9c2a8c 5 Grades and memory 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 References
9a4cb03a2b946e8ad2672237a3da0e72151e00b1 He was born on March 31, 1596 in La Haye en Touraine, now Descartes, department of Endre et Loire, France.
951e8f7860060a488b81cd221aa2cc0ec10dd6e9 Then a few more years of participation in the war (the siege of La Rochelle).
eff4878278af1d26d72ea7b4a0b97ca11b3d7321 Upon his return to France, it turned out that Descartes ' free thinking became known to the Jesuits, and they accused him of heresy.
874a871e1ed64fd049cc1bba88f8dbc673562dd1 Therefore, Descartes moved to Holland (1628), where he spent 20 years[2] in solitary scientific studies.
d73f71bb9f3c1c69240afa89cb820f147a9db2d7 He conducts extensive correspondence with the best scientists in Europe (through the faithful Mersenne), studies a variety of sciences from medicine to meteorology.
a65cec25fece7bde15a7ae51237f56f16a98431f Finally, in 1634, he finished his first, program book called "The World" (Le Monde), consisting of two parts: "A treatise on light" and "A Treatise on Man".
5b1d689b7578d61c051faf85e28da40321e5bb59 But the moment for the publication was unsuccessful — a year earlier, the Inquisition almost tortured Galileo.
ddcfd83da0c14517b596dcd42dbabde414ec03e3 Therefore, Descartes decided not to publish this work during his lifetime.
fc4c6ec7b3a23020a6a4205559c9a73a520c74d4 He wrote to Mersenne about the condemnation of Galileo:
021e174495d5081132e123302be78092fd42587a This struck me so much that I decided to burn all my papers, at least not to show them to anyone; for I could not imagine that he, an Italian who enjoyed the favor of even the Pope, could be convicted, no doubt, because he wanted to prove the movement of the Earth… I confess that if the movement of the Earth is a lie, then all the foundations of my philosophy are false, since they clearly lead to the same conclusion.
9fe1ba2f5035665e4e3dc11ac853458c25ec3730 Soon, however, one after another, other books of Descartes appear:
ef330df204678f6107c18a09fb65d4575dc51a60 "Reasoning about the method...
dce3a0711267af2e667cda3e42a108d3092a10aa "(1637) "Reflections on the first philosophy..."
2d5215a69eb44aee6ac363d0f25e5c2c72783cfa (1641) "The Origin of philosophy" (1644)
4a8ef3643f484b34255df2e9f4087f99316914e5 The main theses of Descartes are formulated in the "Principles of Philosophy" :
f54e01ae11c7a96c5b824ef5e45593fb7fd3f437 God created the world and the laws of nature, and then the Universe acts as an independent mechanism.
20a7abc8b643032ee86897b8c77a84bdeb36293d There is nothing in the world but moving matter of various kinds.
c51c0e28f4b49f8664adcfa2225107904ff143f3 Matter consists of elementary particles, the local interaction of which produces all natural phenomena.
a103a95e5b6f8f141372d249d0f72113dd9ea0f6 Mathematics is a powerful and universal method of cognition of nature, a model for other sciences.
6710fe506659c67c65c8f8e54ac8385d9340c17b Cardinal Richelieu reacted favorably to the works of Descartes and allowed their publication in France, but the Protestant theologians of Holland put a curse on them (1642); without the support of the Prince of Orange, the scientist would have had a hard time.
98c60296243416610ffc514329d1862081d8886f In 1635, Descartes had an illegitimate daughter, Francine (from a servant).
b12d2e8fc5a14f5ea857c2ffc23a3ca812ef9b5e She lived only 5 years (died of scarlet fever);
6011d100382e8b5772aa29b780f791fd2c6dc16f Descartes regarded the death of his daughter as the greatest grief in his life.
e6346bfb995261f64e17c04a9bb994dd45314cfd In 1649, Descartes, exhausted by many years of harassment for freethinking, succumbed to the persuasions of Queen Christina of Sweden (with whom he actively corresponded for many years) and moved to Stockholm.
1702cf649036c3f2e930d09661d8e02dc82aa3b2 Almost immediately after moving, he caught a serious cold and died soon after.
d5b1f57ef27255577d189c032e09ef841a63e955 This hypothesis was put forward by Aiki Pease, a German scientist[3], and then supported by Theodor Ebert[4][5]. The reason for the poisoning, according to this version, was the fear of Catholic agents that Descartes ' freethinking could interfere with their efforts to convert Queen Christina to Catholicism (this conversion really happened in 1654).
d4e5e33242fbd11ba02d9c074752440507861ca4 Descartes ' tomb (epitaph on the right), in the church of Saint Germain des Pres
e100220f409b8b093eeb0f35ddb4c56182edc12a Shortly after his death, the main works of Descartes were included in the notorious "Index", and Louis XIV by a special decree banned the teaching of Descartes ' philosophy ("Cartesianism") in all educational institutions in France.
6afee69f71117b8162aeae8fd175248cbd3bd4de Scientific activity[edit / edit wiki text]
dc1121f3418a86cc7cb5da867d6e77506d4bd8c8 Mathematics[edit / edit wiki text]
c48739e32947f9c8554064fa4309e2e1eac201e4 Descartes '"Reasoning on the Method"
dc650ff58a19492ffe22a64f48b4c7a9a6f3c1a3 In 1637, Descartes ' main philosophical and mathematical work, "Reasoning about the Method" (full title), was published: "A discussion about a method that allows you to direct your mind and find the truth in the sciences").
166c473ec2b52c644ca8189af5197ee050d8a363 In this book, analytical geometry was described, and in the appendices — numerous results in algebra, geometry, optics (including the correct formulation of the law of refraction of light) and much more.
a91192cff7de9e03a7b294e02c309b9e2cf0bbf5 Of particular note is the mathematical symbolism of Vieta that he reworked, which from that moment is close to the modern one.
f5e561b4d0c81592a8d2bb668df9e0bcf9ff26a2 He denoted the coefficients a, b, c..., and the unknowns x, y, z.
b3d008a6b71c89852f4b01a39245098687fcdbd2 The natural exponent of the degree has taken on a modern form (fractional and negative ones were established thanks to Newton).
54d913a617b2bdb1dc5dad03bca1ce4afff284d9 A line appeared above the root expression.
9ee037b7ab8d99bfe6f8e091394f45cc07b3906d The equations are reduced to the canonical form (in the right part — zero).
33bd557c57453c88315b9035c2d9ffbfe88310c5 Descartes called symbolic algebra "Universal mathematics", and wrote that it should explain "everything related to order and measure".
e7d33dd49d675879f4496daf15a8e104fcf97644 The creation of analytical geometry made it possible to translate the study of the geometric properties of curves and bodies into an algebraic language, that is, to analyze the equation of a curve in a certain coordinate system.
e607282b01c5ead11df88b5095acca54a4e55c43 This translation had the disadvantage that now it was necessary to carefully determine the true geometric properties that do not depend on the coordinate system (invariants).
94cb407ae904d6881ac5ebeb712e25d0a97e9724 However, the advantages of the new method were exceptionally great, and Descartes demonstrated them in the same book, revealing many positions unknown to ancient and modern mathematicians.
75924871354d0f88b6500f6e9352c8710346dce0 In the appendix "Geometry", methods for solving algebraic equations (including geometric and mechanical ones), classification of algebraic curves were given.
f41a3ea03a25ce66e5f46208057c448214ca9fed The new way of defining a curve — using an equation was a crucial step towards the concept of a function.
bc242df7ddd4249826972c37b77d94b7ac46596a Descartes formulates an exact "sign rule" for determining the number of positive roots of an equation, although he does not prove it.
ae7eaa3644dd60486096fcdff6a3b19945beead4 Descartes studied algebraic functions (polynomials), as well as a number of "mechanical" ones (spirals, cycloids).
fce6400ff25bbb23946f9122f99d30b7af0495fe According to Descartes, there is no general method of investigation for transcendental functions.
d612e277fdfa1f02e43b8549f69c45cad4437f32 The complex numbers were not yet considered by Descartes on equal rights with the real ones, but he formulated (although he did not prove) the main theorem of algebra: the total number of real and complex roots of a polynomial is equal to its degree.
4564ee64d00fd71782c5fa30f4b2fbfe36b78ea7 Descartes traditionally called negative roots false, but combined them with positive ones with the term real numbers, separating them from imaginary (complex) ones.
dcde3d8f7d10ae594224bb179e294ed0f9396581 This term has entered mathematics.
ff471ccc85b41d23fed76629b03f463f2773dede However, Descartes showed some inconsistency: the coefficients a, b, c... were considered positive for him, and the case of an unknown sign was specially marked with an ellipsis on the left.
bad79bb4c8fc4da1dbc82d855bc20ebb428751b5 All non negative real numbers, not excluding irrational ones, are considered by Descartes as equal; they are defined as the ratio of the length of a certain segment to the standard length.
5499b2a59499c8544b5d009f8241eea706603797 Mechanics and physics[edit / edit wiki text]
45fcd71108c9b3afe77dbddbe33ba2aef1f72fdd Descartes ' physics, unlike his metaphysics, was materialistic: The universe is completely filled with moving matter and is self sufficient in its manifestations.
a0bb45bfefdae13b63427e05a9ee0a52cace2b2b Other scientific achievements[edit / edit wiki text]
6c437549fad44e4a7ae5972adbdb2e1feef97738 Philosophy[edit / edit wiki text]
bce5615dc52d44c77d93ae8145ec81c963c9d723 Self sufficiency of consciousness, cogito (Cartesian "I think, therefore, I exist" - Lat. Cogito, ergo sum), as well as the theory of innate ideas, is the starting point of Cartesian epistemology.
f7e67f771fd0748857505bde107c6b0832a36465 Cartesian physics, in contrast to Newtonian physics, considered everything extended to be solid, denying empty space, and described motion using the concept of "vortex"; the physics of Cartesianism later found its expression in the theory of short range action.
1122c62569ba195b09474bf373d4b1f381b3a97b Two opposite trends have emerged in the development of Cartesianism:
1acfc3419d7cbe52cb8b1f411cc105e576563dc6 towards materialistic monism (x. De Roi, B. Spinoza) and to idealistic occasionalism (A. Geylinks, N. Malebranche).
f7fa8d7532c784bcba6e7b14147924c19686b8b7 Descartes ' worldview marked the beginning of the so called Cartesianism, represented by
6a61aa1c6b3e27d48c1f26986fa139e7183405a3 Dutch (Baruch de Spinoza), German (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) and French (Nicole Malebranche)
6f9c3b87ad4a65855594ab621fc60fcc5ce358f2 schools.
6fcd71d887313163c49f38c93f8c784f394ef294 The method of radical doubt[edit / edit wiki text]
ffa26c2fdfb1a3734aacb89f491cd9965ca9f8fe They are completely opposite:
b80bbec3b03bf5fc8773db4c0269d8b812159b12 on the one hand — empiricism, which is content with approximate and relative truth, on the other — mysticism, which finds special delight in direct supersensible, supra rational knowledge.
502e9d87f31dd98e8a3b7a1ec1defc5db119e6c3 If he was looking for the highest absolute principle of knowledge in the immediate self consciousness of man, then it was not about any mystical revelation of the unknown basis of things, but about a clear, analytical disclosure of the most general, logically irrefutable truth.
40cb76c9f94434e24880e54e73aa51f7ca01da11 He finally formulates these doubts and the way out of them in the "Principles of Philosophy" as follows:
ec53218b4d4b88c825b118a5243eaee580b70584 Since we are born children and make different judgments about things before we reach the full use of our reason, many prejudices divert us from the knowledge of the truth; it seems that we can get rid of them only by trying once in our life to doubt everything in which we find at least the slightest suspicion of unreliability....
bcbafcf27a0cadfb978f771ba8b4822864a4e78c If we reject everything that we can doubt in any way, and even consider it all false, then although we can easily assume that there is no God, no heaven, no bodies, and that we ourselves have no hands, no legs, no body at all, we will also not assume that we ourselves, who think about this, do not exist: for it is absurd to recognize that what thinks, at the very time when it thinks, does not exist.
94d101a4c09433ff931d1e9770ecf8a8a729f3db As a result, this cognition: I think, therefore I exist, is the first and surest of all cognitions that occurs to everyone who philosophizes in order.
947527048d7b6478d7b27585c2e53120aa04a3d8 And this is the best way to know the nature of the soul and its difference from the body; for if we examine what we are, who assume everything that is different from us to be false, we will see quite clearly that neither extension, nor form, nor displacement, nor anything like that belongs to our nature, but only thinking, which is therefore known first and truer than all material objects, because we already know it, and we still doubt everything else.
be83f9db8029390a8174042162dbdf90abd9bb9f Why is a certain state of mind absolutely reliable?
a8107311f7ea7f81c95710ee7c706391805cb6cf It is not experience that convinces us of our being as a thinking being, but only the distinct decomposition of the immediate fact of self — consciousness into two equally inevitable and clear representations or ideas thinking and being.
24e0f8221774b7282012db01a15e1f9c72e04bbc Proof of the existence of God[edit / edit wiki text]
e69e4c50515534ee3ff1d69ba87c84b6dc892cea Having found the criterion of certainty in distinct, clear ideas (ideae clarae et distinctae), Descartes then undertakes to prove the existence of God and to find out the basic nature of the material world.
ce5b6abb389f96a4734b5f65355530d61a36539d Since the belief in the existence of the physical world is based on the data of our sensory perception, and we do not yet know about the latter whether it does not deceive us unconditionally, we must first find a guarantee of at least the relative reliability of sensory perceptions.
3734f5f612a79f3dee8170836712f2523fea94fc Such a guarantee can only be a perfect being who created us, with our feelings, the idea of which would be incompatible with the idea of deception.
12eb9ffde74c4c0f29296303182aa12956084546 We have a clear and distinct idea of such a being, and yet, where did it come from?
611c07cc9e07b6c6cee404b9e0375cd791f128e9 We are aware of ourselves as imperfect only because we measure our being by the idea of an all perfect being.
697d90f0b246f4cb35195071038d773f10dfb80f So, this latter is not our invention, nor is it a conclusion from experience.
9c8557a2380739e3184cbc8eab3e2db07801cf6f It could have been instilled into us, put into us only by the all perfect being himself.
8e7031b0ad9c7cb5edfd4b43762a53dc58ab3af8 On the other hand, this idea is so real that we can divide it into logically clear elements: complete perfection is conceivable only under the condition of possessing all the properties to the highest degree, and therefore a complete reality infinitely superior to our own reality.
5c6472e816559e5b183d5adc62aab675ec2603b6 Thus, from the clear idea of an all perfect being, the reality of God's existence is deduced in two ways:
dd351d892909ec5e658f13fb2f0af1ef751c374b firstly, as the source of the idea of it itself, it is a psychological proof, so to speak; secondly, as an object whose properties necessarily include reality, it is a so called ontological proof, that is, passing from the idea of being to the assertion of the very existence of the being of the thought being.
d595fb9b3daa870311cb6c9144f308b6de0f416e Nevertheless, together, the Cartesian proof of the existence of God should be recognized, in the words of Windelband, as "a combination of anthropological (psychological) and ontological points of view."
f13b7eb62ceb4fadc6fe500437479914306a6704 Having established the existence of the all perfect Creator, Descartes already easily comes to the recognition of the relative reliability of our sensations of the corporeal world, and builds the idea of matter as a substance or essence opposite to spirit.
a1c2d1991f68b2bfb962b2485d31a6b8c6bec4e7 Our sensations of material phenomena are far from being fully suitable for determining the nature of matter.
5a00c083da3f19ebc14f5419ca7e126c72b3964a Feelings of colors, sounds, etc. - subjective; the true, objective attribute of bodily substances consists only in their extension, since only the consciousness of the extension of bodies accompanies all our various sensory perceptions, and only this one property can be the subject of clear, distinct thought.
c2108a7b4ce5701000ff494cab61ea643447a800 Thus, in the understanding of the properties of materiality, Descartes has the same mathematical or geometric structure of representations: bodies are extended quantities.
91e586866c70888377f0270dc0440df9e3f7f5d6 The geometrical one sidedness of Cartesian definition of matter is obvious by itself and has been sufficiently clarified by recent criticism; but it cannot be denied that Descartes correctly pointed out the most essential and basic feature of the idea of "materiality".
dae15b9c67d2a24ba48c418974fca570c9a91c10 By clarifying the opposite properties of the reality that we find in our self consciousness, in the consciousness of our thinking subject, Descartes, as we see, recognizes thinking as the main attribute of spiritual substance.
46e7af90f8b69086c26b49cee25dff6633838cf1 Both these substances — spirit and matter for Descartes with his teaching about the all perfect being are finite substances, created; only the substance of God is infinite and basic.
2aadb667df8103ce69c9b9b292fd27246e5cd4a0 Ethical views[edit / edit wiki text]
2afea5287ad6444abb918240db522af1b09b8dae But in his letters to Princess Elizabeth, he tries to establish the basic ideas of his own morality.
b056cc5f487123530dc637016a4d1c22c28e035c These are:
3b50516c7c1f55682339aad863c34f170bda8695 the idea of "a perfect being as a true object of love"; the idea of "the opposite of the spirit of matter", which prescribes us to move away from everything corporeal; the idea of "the infinity of the universe", which prescribes "exaltation above all earthly things and humility before Divine wisdom"; finally, the idea of "our solidarity with other beings and the whole world, dependence on them and the need to sacrifice to the common good".
fbe1beac22c8f58afd71807527c10bc2f94ed135 In letters to Shan, at the request of Queen Christina, Descartes answers the questions in detail:
cf2c402c1bf8bc3a3811d87e09977880ecad5d19 "What is love?"
b9bc997ce4773370f95436820884e81f7322e9d1 "Is the love of God justified by the only natural light of reason?
2f8f20a6367f9439443f8d455cc1b73c4969eabe "" Which extreme is worse promiscuous love or promiscuous hatred?"
f43372332e1421caf59bf7ab975962d3b44d6796 Distinguishing intellectual love from passionate love, he sees the first " in the voluntary spiritual unity of the being with the object, as part of one whole with it."
02dd92b66349768580405876712ab7e8039c447c Such love is in antagonism with passion and desire.
7cd92b8f5f4395b689f4da92491fc32d378e4397 The highest form of such love is love for God as an infinitely great whole, of which we are an insignificant part.
2af0203b6a3ac0775c75e2fab43ca8d5dedd1c3b It follows from this that, as a pure thought, our soul can love God according to the properties of its own nature.: this gives her the highest joys and destroys all desires in her.
443bacb4cfc3590c09eb90091b8fe47aff83be3f Love, no matter how messy it may be, is still better than hatred, which makes even good people bad.
1f26f54556b360103c2b7b9f5a8a36181daf02ad Hatred is a sign of weakness and cowardice.
97f024e39aa8b4e45aa913a91fcfa2c033d13bc9 The meaning of morality is to teach to love what is worthy of love.
bfe9e43a8b9e9de1604c6be35d608acd6a872ea8 This gives us true joy and happiness, which is reduced to the inner evidence of any achieved perfection, while Descartes attacks those who drown their conscience through wine and tobacco.
ac8f87752224491c86629d2787655c62999734ef Fullier rightly says that these ideas of Descartes already contain all the main provisions of Spinoza's ethics and, in particular, his teachings on the intellectual love of God.
dba512e2cd3c868963edc5e5676d0e8b01bb4b10 The existential paradigm[edit / edit wiki text]
421321413985ca96faa9cd031b269164e35380ec From Mamardashvili's point of view, Descartes can be attributed to the founders of the early existential tradition.
1a4e98614bad2a48c273ecda5bd2b992b77ab0a4 Descartes in his system, like Heidegger later, distinguished two modes of existence straight and curved.
bfb5b0afa0de995c348d8aeab96a2b6b8f662d76 The latter is determined by the absence of any basic orientation, since the vector of its spread changes depending on the collisions of identities with the society that gave rise to them.
9315d8e709680fc56a62b671ee677a532d0a7c4b The direct mode of being utilizes the mechanism of a continuing volitional act in the conditions of universal indifference of the spirit, which gives a person the opportunity to act in the context of free necessity.
c47395c945aa07205e0e4b97be40f0b48a523d09 Despite the apparent paradox, this is the most environmentally friendly form of life activity, since through necessity it determines the optimal authentic state here and now.
0fded045a978fec2d4be777916f01c3fb37b558f Just as God did not have any laws over himself in the process of creation, Descartes explains, so man transcends what cannot be different at this moment, at this step.
a8d7beefb9bc9c4dad0847f0f1002e9fe854eff5 The transition from one state to another occurs through being at fixed points of redundancy — putting concepts into one's life, such as virtue, love, etc., that have no reasons for their existence other than that which is extracted from the human soul.
b126ff2490dc467fad7c0c79ee9f0b5c36171fac The inevitability of existence in society presupposes the presence of a" mask " that prevents the leveling of the meditative experience in the process of ongoing socialization.
c7309dc6dc63d3e314a2d85eb513d5fdcb322025 In addition to describing the model of human existence, Descartes also makes it possible to interiorize it, answering the question "could God have created a world that is inaccessible to our understanding" in the context of a posteriori experience now (when a person realizes himself as a thinking being) no.
37f82045f10c205239d549a57f5d7d1b081000d1 The main works in Russian translation[edit / edit wiki text]
8ba3ec41760b851207013e903e4228bd9c6ad633 Descartes R. Works in two volumes.
bc59c06d2b6c97ef3f47c12e630629f9258a4841 - Moscow: Mysl, 1989.
bbb02ac916a3922bb9901e07150453eb6e274647 Series: Philosophical Heritage, volume 106.
d918efa93d07ca0661f92e04f9825348ee61e6f1 Sokolov V. V. Philosophy of Spirit and Matter by Rene Descartes (3).
a2599ed4e5b9c306780746f1d14e0fcee234b169 Rules for guiding the mind (77).
6127e9f299fc96cc8a90eef9a972e2a7d95c28f8 Finding the truth through natural light (154).
4cf899c8a092548c4ab63959dee0596f46540136 The World, or a Treatise on Light (179).
97ed64ebefed7f7f6d18efd25b4fd001910e256a Reasoning about the method to correctly guide your mind and find the truth in the sciences (250).
d16752bfe3c293895926c389306872bdf882b5e3 The Origin of Philosophy (297).
0c599921fa725392b11c7e47af1f4c962327fcd2 Description of the human body. about the formation of the animal (423).
473ce6b5907cdd052c796e132a020e1f68cb5dd5 Comments on a certain program, published in Belgium in late 1647 under the title: explanation of the human mind or rational soul, where is explained what it is and what might be (461).
e60da6671faf68aa406a90c2c0233347f553d494 Passions of the soul (481).
69feb440a398170213d5b7bcedc411e87af2e508 Short essays on the years 1619-1621 (573).
66d101b6d831db28d504c4f2d661402647c9d89b From the correspondence 1619-1643 years (581).
a74b5a9d69a5819e698747ecb4bf2957eca9f847 Volume 2.
4843481a7da3b260f8860f7af576691a94c80e75 Series: Philosophical Heritage, volume 119.
ecb55a0f09c1af77efb366ebc89c9b33eb16e064 Reflections on the first philosophy, in which the existence of God and the difference between the human soul and body are proved (3).
3328b88a1cbe35f7aa42aab6001b5026f7747c57 Objections of some learned men to the above mentioned "Reflections" with the author's answers (73).
5106c9f06fda8c128418ba55fdad0dc014e3712f To the Venerable Father Dinet, provincial abbot of France (418).
697b9f3a47f2710cadd6c1749666817102e9a6bf Conversation with Burman (447).
2663d7b949e3ccaa1e5d315fb82d9c868c7f3e23 From the correspondence of 1643-1649 (489).
8a2b4e0f9e807db0aec26c78afe4c6f4a9bc1cd6 Descartes R. Geometry.
9523332ac7443d8dd5c6e0a1c04b19a489e21e19 With an appendix of selected works by P. Fermat and Descartes ' correspondence.
48633df7d8efea386414cd1d1cc73449c65ec68d M.-L.: Gostekhizdat, 1938.
65ad98bbd9f3cb6564c5f424f70a00d4c5619cc7 Series: Classics of Natural Science.
0377c405c8c2d7491087d6977b6152363f058a93 Descartes R. Cosmogony: Two treatises.
862a04b2b091326cff3b0337c750b7f8d55ed22e M.-L.: Gostekhizdat, 1934.
c3fffa50a9434a23182e038b1eea4d89b05223b5 Descartes R.
ecbd56cad14ab9c136e451695675b41f5bd69dc8 The Origin of philosophy (1644) Descartes R. Reflections on the first Philosophy... (1641) text by Rene Descartes.
39b5f0c998f75b343cbcbeaf48059ef13c2c1ea9 Reasoning about the method...
04ae885dc4be69e40978953daa35d9a9cf8e618d "(1637) Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1953.
49e4b4d876dad85edb7b3b893efee985259ce31f Series: Classics of Science, 655 s..
67a73093daf0b33776f93b22ffbc12fb1addcdad Reasoning about the method to correctly guide your mind and find the truth in the sciences.
fd54431c73e22bd6ea4e0b1f825e9cc12c38175d The text of the treatise in Russian and French.
162cfdf2b087765bd71d79bab499df38874b8698 Descartes R. Reasoning about the method to correctly guide your mind and find the truth in the sciences and other philosophical works / Trans. from Latin, Moscow: Academic project, 2011. 335 p., Series "Philosophical Technologies", 1500 copies, ISBN 978-5-8291-1327-8.
66023287c07d4469d4023756a75e2216bac0fd91 Rene Descartes.
d98a97ef1d258654627338ca5c4ed1af83138e37 Essays in the library of Ya.
7a27e874bd84eb21200bcdeef3a9b739309c95d1 Krotova.
89d55d6a48e6786f289cfeb8d12c63ffc5b4603a Descartes ' Translators into Russian[edit / edit wiki text]
5a47a85ff19f2b0b1d8c33d813a62ebdf9d1505a Garntsev, Mikhail Anatolyevich Lyatker, Yakov Abramovich Sheinman, Cecil Yakovlevna Pozdnev, Mikhail Mikhailovich
ad430703196e2c24cb6892bd755a68283946f066 Grades and memory[edit / edit wiki text]
ee28e906aa233e632eef3b2bbee2816e1793c6bb The great physiologist I. P. Pavlov erected a monument to the bust[7] of Descartes near his laboratory (Koltushi), because he considered him the forerunner of his research.
0a044b24a42651968c81bad2d08bef0b78992116 His hometown, a crater on the Moon, as well as a number of scientific terms are named after the scientist.
130fc0135f220682d1e19d33e5a217f62fab5ad7 Cartesian coordinate system Cartesian leaf Cartesian oval Cartesian tree Cartesian product
b606db38bcebf289da2b92935cd2277237bd8d7a The main character of the novel by the famous science fiction writer Philip K. Dick Do androids dream of eletroovtsy? (Blade Runner), Rick Deckard is named after Rene Descartes.
4456f98819ecb26f8e4508d9c0ae78d3d49b478d The author of the novel made such an allusion because of the similarity of the philosophical questions that the main character of Dick's novel is trying to answer, with the ideas of Descartes himself.
b03dcb9007f9d0dd24dfd312a1d320a3d20882cc In 1982, director Ridley Scott adapted the novel.
9f359cbadfd5c833f823be6c496a09c6ca02b25b The main role was played by Harrison Ford.
6b24c83ecf628bc0dde7447eea76c0cac79aee64 His character also bears the surname Deckard.
b9cafd80ab025194233be628414a757dba973df7 Cogito Geometry Cartesianism Natural Philosophy The Existence of God Universal Grammar Euler, Leonard Descartes Oval Rectangular coordinate system
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6680e27009c3633f41517c462ce61a8b6ad688b1 — (From the heritage of world philosophical thought: philosophy of science). — ISBN 978-5-397-01479-3.
a00703e3b441c1e93d62e1e2ac7d7ba73c41fb9e Ledeneva E. V.
a3c33987d48a0e30974954bf1b466420df1ff1b9 The human machine (between Lametri and Descartes).
b78e9d9b8b0dfceaa1ed3a9c6e8087f8f19b3ab9 — Credo new. 2010, № 3.
796f631b2b32c2202f2d01b9be32f8787f71ec6a Lyatker Ya.
5b54f68ff00f2a3ad1319cb58c8b6e6410921584 A. Descartes.
4c02bdf6019986ba9367c66b8e32c4a959cac63e - Moscow: Mysl, 1975.
e7d3d3c47cbe9d844094111cf8716b59b7356333 Mamardashvili M. Cartesian Reflections.
b50683eee05c24515c0fdf0c8ad77ff938ffcef9 Matviyevskaya G. P. Rene Descartes, 1596-1650.
acecf64fc67a4e77ad2cedff85aa4326082fdba9 - Moscow: Nauka, 1976.
ce89e4dd2fa8ab463b9bbd2efce85d4157ffb309 Nikiforovsky V.
4df2b79d5cb80891a9a915f83cb9e1b73aee340c A. From the history of algebra of the XVI XVII centuries -Moscow: Nauka, 1979.
9ed86228e3b27a46fffbb1b9fa8ae29553d75ec3 119-160 — - 208 p.
08b858b51ba77e0f4d7b3d76ba91cef5b0441849 — (History of Science and Technology). Yanovskaya S.
e2299f5e7f5f9d2dece719272feb1ed94e6ef0bf A. On the role of mathematical rigor in the creative development of mathematics and especially on Descartes '"Geometry".
9a51ebd3868669e9298864c362ac2c0535de0002 - Historical and mathematical research edovaniya, 17, 1966.
e04cc60dff8c4997a1fcd637e03caa59fa89950f 151-184.
b0d201287d987047516b41dc3a8c8b305ca73163 Le Gaufey, Guy.
5c9523b37a9a32ab09b3771438bfec0b307d2ae8 L’incompletude du symbolique: De Rene Descartes a Jacques Lacan.
1f3470323aa7285d83deb0df233582814848b7f2 - Paris: Distique, 1991.
6487578b7ceb97f2042b46739af3635fb984fd1e Frolova E.
c7516861fdc928a92c8c696888e3eb6c9abb0e69 A. Descartes and some aspects of human concepts in medieval Arabic philosophy / / Comparative Philosophy.
3e019f32cd73a37d5aa529a2de66e501940c63d2 - M., 2000.
3804d939addac6d3cf18fe183e49cf3c65e8efee 229-244.
67958f81549780487b2d6d7b6b634636f6c89397 A. The problem of Descartes in modern Arabic philosophy.
f065b53962247f3835527999916835f49f4ac025 // Questions of philosophy. 1969.
d6e65f355a6ccb9869f2945494b9f54ddffcc7ea 5. Khramov Yu.
c88ff07961c4c32bba865109f581bc043abe0c4b A. Descartes Rene / / Physics: Biographical directory / Edited by A. I. Akhiezer.
ec8da271a5da7364be484ab3baa2bb85b293ddaa - Ed.
82cb5172f24f55ca23ff6478a66f906aad16ddc5 2nd, ispr. and supplement M.: Nauka, 1983.
58554672d41105817a6bb9cde4e56a20d2eefeca - p. 100.
4f1eff0f2d918752011a70973c1993bc1fd19978 - 200,000 copies.
b7fbe99fabf8df2db280ec10e4ba316b448e9186 (in the lane)
d4fb9b61e55dff79d196c7c327382d843ebd6123 Rene Descartes in Wikicitatnik?
afde82c8098473a0cadaaca7646c8e3c5d6af345 Rene Descartes in Wikitek?
98c327fcc38ff365c68a8b28fddbc826d4570257 Rene Descartes on Wikimedia Commons?
49308f9674814d42891ee7e06ce20d78bb538e59 Discussion On the Method in Project Gutenberg Selections from the Principles of Philosophy in Project Gutenberg
d6651ede922688694d157b48294c1a0cf7418fc2 Mathematical Genealogy · Notable Names Database · AlloCiné · Internet Movie Database · MusicBrainz · Project Gutenberg · Find a Grave
9ad01e826980ca5eba0888ded9af5147f7844fa9 Dictionaries and encyclopedias of the Great Catalan · Brockhaus and Efron · Circumnavigation · Larousse · Larousse · Maly Brockhaus and Efron · Orthodox · Britannica (9 th) · Britannica (11 th) · Britannica (online) · Catholic (1907—13)
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468bb394f5fdbad5d8a0380e77a3d46208784beb Mechanics of the XV XVII centuries Leonardo da Vinci * Nicolaus Copernicus • Domingo de Soto • Giambatista Benedetti • Guidobaldo del Monte •
68bb820a51b0ba8ebf0610b2b10abedd89a3caab S. Stevin • G. Galilei • I. Kepler • I. Beckman • R. Descartes • J. Roberval • B. Pascal • H. Huygens • R. Hooke • I. Newton • G. V. Leibniz • P. Varignon
b019a0012dbb681312ae136fc35e9d0d880a18af Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Descartes, _Rene&oldid=75081091"
eaf05334d1a5637ca8117974fd741e3887b960c2 Categories: Born on March 31, Born in 1596, Persons alphabetically Born in the department of Endre et Loire Died on February 11, Died in 1650, Died in Stockholm, Philosophers alphabetically Mathematicians alphabetically Mathematicians of France Mathematicians of the XVII century Scientists alphabetically Mechanics alphabetically Mechanics of France Mechanics of the XVII century Physicists alphabetically Physicists of France Physicists of the XVII century Rene Descartes Philosophers of the XVII century Philosophers of France Members of the French Academy of Sciences Died of pneumonia Natural Philosophers Buried in Paris
79b228c68e73a3598cd94e73ea83a18ba3e99710 Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata ESBE Materials
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a15f97bce2dded38a86f6c04ca4c65656c073750 For navigation, enable Java scripts
4ed76fb2bc4e489d439d38f36b9b3ad0c35ef316 Briefly:
08c820065b93897694fd895fb4d8f8ae159cd59b Descartes said:
65b509750748c9b99e451f4068420e2bd1f0499c .. Philosophy (since it extends to everything accessible to human knowledge) alone distinguishes us from savages and barbarians, and every people is the more civil and educated the better they philosophize in it; therefore, there is no greater good for the state than to have true philosophers.
2896c2bdfb8d532a62dfe2e21b56135aa941c312 ...First of all, I would like to find out what philosophy is... the word "philosophy" means the occupation of wisdom, and that by wisdom is meant not only prudence in business, but also a perfect knowledge of everything that a person can know; this same knowledge, which guides life itself, serves to preserve health, as well as discoveries in all sciences.
7d7e5f51de51d94cdaa87a22bda5ac86c4955d0f .. There is no vice that is so harmful to the well being of people as envy, because those who are infected with it not only grieve themselves, but also darken the joy of others.
ad1439e89c73cfb96ed64a42b975e9d711bb709d ...The majority of votes is not an irrefutable evidence in favor of truths that are not easy to discover, for the reason that such truths will be encountered by an individual rather than a whole nation.
7e64b464a18f6008277af6c86a096e6d0b557919 ...In order to improve the mind, you need to think more than memorize.
06e4c0dfbb020ef52c03a24eef00bb9bb9f4f930 ...The goal of scientific knowledge should be to direct the mind in such a way that it makes solid and true judgments about all the objects encountered.
87c2a56312d6d7aaa4f96ad3415a333f10d7655c ..Reading good books is a conversation with the best people of the past times, and moreover, such a conversation when they tell us only their best thoughts.
fda1435a0e746f0458fd950f056cb7ebf6430768 ...In most disputes, one can notice one mistake: while the truth lies between the two views being defended, each of the latter departs from it the further the more fervently it argues.
3719b62c695b210bdebc33bdde56baa21004e474 ...Cowardice is very harmful because it keeps the will from useful actions.
2c3b52687f16e1d75f96af33e709cc582a0baaa5 ...The mind is an incendiary glass, which, igniting, itself remains cold.
309bb0c82023a876744ddc546418fdb9e2f22832 ABOUT THE RAINBOW: >>>
7f20e9795017fb57af5344ddae0d73b2ede1326e The rainbow is such a wonderful miracle of nature, and its causes, hitherto so little known, have been so persistently thought about by inquisitive minds at all times, that it is difficult for me to find a question on which I could better show how, with the help of the method I used, it is possible to come to knowledge that those whose writings we have did not possess.
e45e1a108ffee0256d1c5942055b48288819622e First, when I took into account that a rainbow can appear not only in the sky, but also in the air near us every time there are drops of water illuminated by the sun, as can sometimes be seen from experience in fountains, it was easy for me to conclude that it depends on how the rays of light act on these drops, and from them reach our eyes.
83367e96cd37265e5048959b8fcb8e71058ff7b9 Knowing that these drops are spherical, and seeing that the rainbow always appears in the same way with both large and small drops, I set myself the goal of creating a very large drop in order to be able to better examine it.
f38cbed40ebddda8736ae6a070e191407b6f5f03 Read on:>>> About the rainbow
2362fd07295c0b098b2b7c62127e6eb2853a79fa Rene DESCARTES (1596-1650).
b2ab0778786c845ea146fce243e4cc36ba41ef20 © Vladimir Kalanov "Knowledge is Power".
57dae778842670f1aaa8ad092851ef9213d1f2be Descartes ' life was relatively short and was accompanied by many dramatic events.
d57da698446c307ceaede74b15bfbeb9b37b105f And these events began immediately after the birth of little Rene.
4d51bc7cfd216aa0497209614128f9aa19e97b74 His mother, having delivered from the burden, died a few days later.
7556556ccbb57aeb65212709388b4a2df4f16ce1 The boy remained alive, but signs of poor health appeared for a long time in the form of a dry, short cough and a pale complexion.
58de0e6e68349701ab4e6e951002ca8a59cc8520 Rene Descartes came from a poor noble family.
0c7c777e87b49a65ff7a2d75305a04a527e33cba At the age of 16, Descartes graduated from the Jesuit school in Anjou.
cb9b96f72dcb1dcde5388053a0378c6aafc18900 And what is it?
9ecdf91c80239e68a37f7aa3c03f3899f6395b4b He was then in his seventeenth year.
4a42a19d1eb9cd286848a16ccc0ee96fb5e47372 But his thought did not sleep.
a68683f2f4b0b1618e11b886b12c363e54670d88 His creative mind quickly processed all sorts of impressions into generalizations and laws.
3fd734f26a933932449bbce850d52a880d043480 And as a result of his fencing amusements, a “Treatise on Fencing " appeared.
b8a80c54aeea0aee9eec178f0bcb030b82e3f5a7 In the spring of 1613, Rene went to Paris: it was time for the young nobleman to take care of acquiring a secular gloss and useful connections for future everyday success.
1564df963554a4d76ca0f3755972e522582309b6 In Paris, Rene met, no, not with a beautiful Parisian woman, but with the scientist Franciscan monk Mersenne and the mathematician Midorge.
2ff4d8339671abb80f4ac7ca112198bcad65e6f9 The learned monk Mersenne was the author of a very ambiguous commentary on the book of Genesis (for atheists, we will explain that this is part of the Bible), when reading which pious Catholics shook their heads.
7f9c28842838b30c1df52ef5731967d18400f68f Descartes for some time gets into the company of "golden youth", leads a distracted life, is fond of a card game.
1253ba6b09a2010c1a292feea28db44b61a67138 But in vain Descartes ' secular friends thought that Rene would always remain in their company.
ad53c89ccf27c88649c1c851294578253f24a9b2 After a year and a half of scattered life, an unexpected change occurs in Rene's behavior.
e0ecccdea6413c0f39124eec3e294f75b9d57b15 Secretly from his friends and Parisian relatives, Rene moves to a secluded house in the faubourg Saint – Germain, locks himself here with his servants and plunges into the study of mathematics mainly geometry and the analysis of the ancients.
8eca058e7f9410b8ef6b8a3ef6d4685c1d5fc2bf When he turned twenty one, he decided to leave France to see the light.
ed1d8c34572ee5fd647455ff9b009dd722aac541 Descartes wrote that he wanted to read “in the great book of the world, to see courts and armies, to come into contact with people of different mores and positions, to collect different experiences, to test himself in meetings that fate will present, and to reflect everywhere on the objects encountered.”
dbd4a969e8f6fab90ae808e1f0211e987d40e01e Descartes began " reading the great book of the world” with the fact that in 1617 he put on the uniform of a volunteer of the Dutch army and now lives in the town of Breda.
3a2385fbb22bdc19b122944f5d9b3d522ed5dd9e He refuses the army salary in order to be free from all official duties, does not even go to parades.
075fda386d21930e47c589643866a4d62387ce72 The conditions of service, frankly speaking, are fantastic, from the point of view of every ordinary soldier.
dcf1e87cb78e8596390d034f0a2d70da8a898da4 Descartes sits at home and studies mathematics.
ea408dbd10b77bfc684b8cf84b27f9d039199f5b The habit of a reclusive life, acquired in the Parisian Faubourg Saint Germain, has borne fruit: as a result, Descartes becomes one of the greatest mathematicians of his era.
8f476d5354879ace1d51765df26952c71e290d5c An entry in his diary has been preserved: "On November 10, 1619, I began to understand the grounds for a wonderful discovery.”
78cbe2a676aade1bbb499d7ddd39faf976417b12 Researchers of Descartes ' work have no doubt that the wonderful discovery that Descartes is talking about here was the discovery of the foundations of analytical geometry.
cf8022521ff8b094cf6016dedcc760701a5c751c Any curve can be expressed by an equation with two variables, and vice versa any equation with two variables can be expressed by a curve.
61afee37da9979e3220c9e4f783b0597c2df7f0b This discovery was of great importance not only for mathematics, in the history of which it formed an epoch, but also in general for all natural sciences dealing with exact quantities and methods of calculating them.
b392ec89ea152c60bd55a549c6a9bede0e1ed596 The wanderings in Europe continued.
1878108536e88b04e5c300f27e7fc058f58b9542 Together with the army, Descartes visited first Prague, then Hungary and Brussels.
a20071fd9702ac71f82644ef7efe6eee1d86b569 In 1623, Rene appears in Paris, then travels around Europe again.
4487e67000987b042086d14266505edf64ea0864 In 1625, Descartes returned to France, but soon left it again and went to Holland to get away from numerous Parisian acquaintances and study science in solitude.
e774502f798fef74c2d7f0850e5f2a48645892f4 In Holland, Descartes liked the very structure of the life of an active people, as well as the religious tolerance of society.
7d386efbaabbcf722e553b54cdee48e90f201189 For the first time in Holland, Descartes continues to work on the treatise “On the Deity", which he started in Paris, but soon abandons this work and goes on to study natural sciences.
5351feb63c94c156913b7a236567c82f5094b937 In 1629, a rare natural phenomenon was observed in Rome: five false suns (pargeliev) appeared around the Sun.
c500425df40eb6226d9f941e7173d0d802cfddd8 This natural phenomenon arouses Descartes ' interest in optics and in the study of the rainbow, since the scientist is quite correctly looking for the cause of pargeliae in the phenomena of refraction and reflection of light.
06c7f153d4345cf49d5fbf14a6f661ae3aa53257 In addition to optics, he is engaged at this time in astronomy and medicine, more precisely, anatomy.
ee101394bc0894b9ca90a762c5f330a8d78e6229 Descartes studies anatomy not only from atlases and books, but also anatomizes animals himself.
c6040686a8d1b2ada7e00126e1667aa3d87e64e4 He wants to apply his mathematical method to these sciences and expects brilliant results from this.
883673bf6f12cfcbe45cc55bfa7604a2ed211a44 In the middle of 1633, Descartes informed Mersenne that he had almost finished the treatise " On the World”, but postponed it until the autumn to finalize it later.
bc18d07e610d2ec3e625daf402470cc5afab6dda Having begun to finalize his treatise, Descartes decided to first familiarize himself with Galileo's” Dialogues on the Systems of the World".
4f6505004c673a871f1e3f07c7e9489dc1fc47dc However, the work of Galileo requested from friends in Leiden and Amsterdam could not be obtained.
fab58b05c55fdff8bf00fab0bb0c9af1266eb144 Descartes received the news that struck him that in July of the same year (1633), the “Dialogues” of Galileo were burned by the Inquisition, and their elderly author, despite the intercession of influential people, was first sentenced to imprisonment in an inquisition prison, and then arrested in a village house, where he was ordered to read penitential psalms once a week for three years.
aed417dd7f94c8d5c283f45d5989a0de0bf9e97a Descartes was seriously frightened and even wanted to burn his manuscripts out of fear.
9c08e2fa2390a5994613fd285dbe7007fcc66c27 What can you do, and great thinkers are sometimes subject to fear…
5c8a42debbbf11373499b1f50733c7093aa38bee In 1634, Descartes drew up a sketch of his study " On man and the formation of the embryo”.
c7424870cdd5a45816ab101a89c3b3f323182599 It is interesting that Descartes at this time had the opportunity to make direct "observations" on the issue that interested him, since in 1635 his daughter Francine was born.
ceb606cfa155d2c544521c1d28da002c5255d576 Information about the life of this child is extremely scarce, except for the point about which in other cases it is customary to keep silent even in the most detailed biographies.
002d631381fa04461f736146d42345a599b1615a On a blank page of one book, Descartes left an entry: "Conceived on October 15, 1634”" But nothing is known about the child's mother, the connection was obviously fleeting.
22003485641502e31c0984e1f3bfab24e9c5e0cf It is unlikely that romantic impulses were inherent in Descartes ' nature, and therefore his biographer Mageffi suggests, not without reason, that Francine's birth was the fruit of the scientist's curiosity.
5790df5ce5a0afa859585f17e423f24413649f69 Nevertheless, Descartes was warmly attached to his little daughter.
e4c38e2402426a717de247cb3ea229d210b284f5 For him, the death of Francine, which occurred in 1640 from scarlet fever, was a heavy blow.
c3841229e31266c1872be37ff571dc9de1b14e48 What is the future fate of Descartes 'treatise" On the World"?
095bd8687acaa3efa154e0d6b031a7ffa0f6caf2 Descartes, of course, understood the great importance and generality of the method of analysis he discovered, but he was in no hurry to share this method with other scientists.
8a9ed68c1af9a064983b877f7c9ebdf96742a48b He deliberately wrote geometry in a confusing way, in order, as he said, “to deprive envious people of the opportunity to say that they have known all this for a long time.”
33634baa4888dc05915ba46937fe9563aaac1d18 For example, when describing solutions to the most difficult problems, Descartes released an analysis, leaving only the construction.
440c36a4b3cbe97b5325ad2a2596bdde6464e82b We see now that great thinkers are not always generous...
7c1e423712c184561aec17c687e361e35da8032c The sections of Dioptric and Meteors were written much more popularly and accessible for reading.
9cd2dd12c36e302eee106404d243f5ddd197ee36 In” Geometry " (1637), Descartes first introduced the concepts of a variable and a function.
fbb4609e00e27ee02fca14a4952901c65a4de247 Descartes improved the notation system by introducing the later generally accepted signs for variables (x, y, z) and coefficients
b30b77ec91f4bec6bcbe30b5a7f368e08cd0c4e0 (a, b, c, ...), as well as the notation of degrees.
8db5615d8a08f65a2ee54927e442fe70a2d32387 In Geometry, Descartes outlined a method for constructing normals and tangents to plane curves (in connection with the study of lenses) and applied it, in particular, to some fourth order curves (the so called Descartes ovals).
fe192cc3ab13497db36e0fa4b770973e5776b486 Having laid the foundations of analytical geometry, Descartes himself did not make much progress in this area – negative abscissas were not considered, the issues of analytical geometry of three dimensional space were not touched upon.
9c731980f29ca5b1a315a79d9696dc2075159f4f Nevertheless, his " Geometry” had a huge impact on the development of mathematics.
b90e18954d3f7b181760c71cf6ba547da9dfe601 >>>Read more: Rene Descartes (part 2).
a9cf28f8d5722f504e451e4382e9b208e4c4ef15 * Rene Descartes [1 2] Rene Descartes.
7a7df45d761fefcf8d942bb585fc43ab476c02b0 About the rainbow [1 2] •
fc1d439f9b3b2e5a401809770e84b4b58c261e38 >>> Read in German:
8d5226f67a5bbebaf1963adfea6eef549249f5f4 Home To Favorites Contacts News About the Project Site Plans
f0755383fd8c03117a20cddcd5be46e21b5435f7 © KV
e8006042dcfc34d925ce876a823681a443adffa1 Many wonderful books have been written about the life of Marie Sklodowska Curie
edfc72c3d187ef7a5d2d8aefd81e0edcbbef87f4 During her lifetime, she was elected an honorary member of 106 academies and scientific societies, and recent polls have shown that she still remains the most revered woman in the world.
e43505dfaa7553e1ccd37faf51c00464b9e16f86 This life was not rich in bright external events — it is simple and strict, like a pure harmonic tone, and all of it, without a trace, is devoted to the service of science.
85b36cee6b07a01036b37a9328dc7729c6aaf75d For Marie Curie, science is not a means or even an end, but a natural way of existence.
6ccc9fd527977efcde12f5089d0f478b8a2a1724 Maria Sklodowska was born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw.
8558428f5bd40c347e5df2d572fdfb399c5f178a She was the youngest of five children in the family of Vladislav and Bronislava Sklodovsky.
965b946c3c5c27fd1295f6df6994cd6674d22b82 Maria was brought up in a family where science was respected.
9faedfd88be44b739663d7fff980d05178d7c3b1 Her father taught physics at the gymnasium, and her mother, until she fell ill with tuberculosis, was the director of the gymnasium.
8e87496f79813a8185e9a482988b23336c5c39ce Maria's mother died when the girl was eleven years old.
47972eadbe23d2076bd0ce61998e563f16958084 Maria studied brilliantly in both primary and secondary schools.
5740d7c22bef3d6d26b82dc6d6c89d870a418e41 Even at a young age, she felt the attractive power of science and worked as a laboratory assistant in the chemical laboratory of her cousin.
8b97df68d5064e9fada7b22d7ce504cff3708fe0 The great Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, the creator of the periodic table of chemical elements, was a friend of her father.
0e071fb06f4644730b928844cf7008e6b201f644 When he saw the girl working in the laboratory, he predicted a great future for her if she continued her studies in chemistry.
5b8894f289ebbe4dd8e1b1663a74b47a06af1051 Having grown up under Russian rule, Maria took an active part in the movement of young intellectuals and anti-clerical Polish nationalists.
bcd1ba1341a40946663a313393978cbe02cb720d Although Maria spent most of her life in France, she always retained her dedication to the cause of the struggle for Polish independence.
3d307af370152acc40469f9bf65294dce75f1db1 Having received her primary education at the school of Ya. Sikorskaya, Maria enters the women's gymnasium, which she graduated from in 1883 with a gold medal.
dad1542578a89c6562a08db17b63e1231e152274 There were two obstacles on the way to the realization of Maria Sadowska's dream of higher education: the poverty of the family and the ban on the admission of women to the University of Warsaw.
e2dadee38e5f03b9104bd888e999811d26a054cd She was ordered to enter the Warsaw University for Men, and therefore she can only agree to the position of a teacher at a Flying university.
4b6c80636901309c0d6b28d10c1aeceacdc08793 However, Maria is in no hurry to part with the dream of getting the coveted academic degree, and concludes a deal with her older sister Bronislava that she will initially support her sister, for which her sister will help her in the future.
bc2b6c45ca5fc89d5c98a54f71f5401b2ae556c5 Maria takes on all sorts of work, becomes a private tutor and governess to earn money for her sister's education.
f13eb45d209d48e65ebb9cb5a499fa78250baa40 And at the same time, she is engaged in self-education, enthusiastically reading books and scientific works.
90ffad670fe89a25bd6c92f401808707bce036fa She also starts her own scientific practice in a chemical laboratory.
baada77d26e21ea4b923823eb4e4ff201d11be0b Bronya received a medical education in Paris and, becoming a doctor, invited her sister to visit her.
7abf53a451a08194dafb5472d413fdef31a4f06b In 1891, Maria moved to France, where she entered the Sorbonne University in Paris.
8226263e638d86a83a8ff50a52de1f1e6b07ce3a There, her name is transformed into the French name Marie.
13618ba59de6a801bb164e053083fe11567f414c Due to the fact that she had nowhere to wait for financial support, the girl, trying to earn a living, gives private lessons in the evenings.
cf5af5e2a438586c354c38cc1433607177770564 In 1893, after completing the first course, Curie received a licentiate degree in physics from the Sorbonne (equivalent to a master's degree).
927ad0e8dfb0f3d96d9c7c9bb08237415d484965 But this time Maria was second in her class.
125104df3b6657c5ef6bb243ef1114879266c6d3 Maria begins her scientific works with studies of various types of steel and their magnetic properties.
7678dea4f21c55754c033a7b8ba33da167053c94 The search for a larger laboratory leads her to meet Pierre Curie, at that time a teacher at the School of Physics and Chemistry.
9601c68693c3682b1d4e9606a21aac6f274be620 He will help the girl find a suitable place for research.
827ae588a2fc0d9d82cb27155f0abfe751354176 Having become close at first on the basis of a passion for physics, Maria and Pierre married a year later.
dd5c717c574fc149bcce6203e6661ed96ef746a3 This happened shortly after Pierre defended his doctoral dissertation — on July 25, 1895.
cfa037184f4d11baf90d839cc5d7212d11448981 "Our first home," recalls Maria herself, " a small, extremely modest apartment of three rooms was on the Rue Glasier, not far from the School of Physics.
1b39c59e11922bdb66c0058a4cea1ac84c805fa5 Its main advantage was the view of the huge garden.
b221b89866c035568fb8605f27fda19ce8d0d4c1 The furniture — the most necessary — consisted of things that belonged to our parents.
6d7df8d2f9ffc2be7b5f2f1fa5f397c92c17c229 I was almost entirely taken care of the household, but I was already used to it during my student life.
9c0d6d438a8beb829a7017dad49bcfa912e3841f Professor Pierre Curie's salary was six thousand francs a year, and we did not want him, at least for the first time, to take additional work.
8c928a2c4d1a6bd100ee5db8bb625d86cb1b7979 As for me, I began to prepare for the competitive exam necessary to take a place in a girls ' school, and I achieved this in 1896.
a5fcd5c0dd97efb8f82e91dbc249b768eed87aa0 Our life was completely devoted to scientific work, and our days were spent in the laboratory, where Schutzenberger allowed me to work together with my husband...
b57e797524ca4b89ba8cc8efddb57b1cf6c5b2ff We lived very amicably, our interests coincided in everything: theoretical work, research in the laboratory, preparation for lectures or for exams.
2fd0ec266aab02257f094ba16726656ef3d1739d and for eleven years of our life together, we have almost never been separated, and therefore our correspondence over these years takes only a few lines.
0ef901ee7cadb73103935b795aa13e980b9d6b16 Rest days and vacations were devoted to walking or cycling either in a village near Paris, or on the seashore or in the mountains."
e6f47eed6e1e4623384f4879ebd9fc4b3908e940 The first daughter, Irene, was born in September 1897.
b5d1237fb267945f98cb2958814fa19d4d832db1 In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium compounds emit deeply penetrating radiation.
bedd0769d048768784639e5c9ba34699b0aee8ae Unlike the X-ray, discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen, the Becquerel radiation was not the result of excitation from an external energy source, such as light, but an internal property of uranium itself.
ee13a1d986a68be8e90fa62bf7a40c4b61c863a4 Fascinated by this mysterious phenomenon and the prospect of starting a new field of research.
8bdfed0baec5b09d33c5ae355806aec7a3e28ee1 Curie decided to study this radiation.
73427eb0df201273e1d7ae9d8a71f6733b0b9ad6 Starting work in early 1898, she first tried to establish whether there are other substances besides uranium compounds that emit rays discovered by Becquerel.
b6ee2c57df614272aaa4e5f0c0ce88dd35f69db2 Since Becquerel noticed that the air becomes electrically conductive in the presence of uranium compounds, Marie Curie measured the electrical conductivity near samples of other substances using several precision instruments designed and built by Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques.
fcc28e43f50c658ce98d1686793e06824d1c85f6 "My experiments have shown," Curie later wrote — " that the radiation of uranium compounds can be accurately measured under certain conditions and that this radiation is an atomic property of the element uranium; its intensity is proportional to the amount of uranium contained in a particular compound, and does not depend either on the characteristics of the chemical compound or on external conditions, for example, on lighting or temperature.
af624972e0cee73a2446afabf926fdd833b3966e After that, I started looking for whether there are other elements that have the same properties.
072e2b1509753718c9ea025f71f27e1f78ceb38f To do this, I checked all the elements known at that time, in pure form or in the form of compounds.
b55634660c1cb9f8aea574f23b1d4477b3a7ccdb I found that among these substances, only thorium compounds emitted rays similar to those of uranium.
e5ae3132664d5ef9151dfab702a82b0df4dc5ba6 The radiation of thorium has an intensity of the same order as the radiation of uranium, and also represents an atomic property of this element.
68ad3f901f6674a5ccb501d9cc465cac8fd7fe92 I had to look for a new term to call this new property of matter inherent in the elements uranium and thorium.
28dd1a868ad8e6905d11f147a104bd1725bd8ed0 I suggested the name radioactivity, and since then it has become generally accepted; radioactive elements have been called radio elements."
2f220820c91fee3701856129ceb602ba0965c979 Soon Marie Curie made a much more important discovery: uranium ore, known as uranium tarblende, emits a stronger Becquerel radiation than uranium and thorium compounds, and at least four times stronger than pure uranium.
19ea9cc6e6db68b5b9f410f395c4bd995958fa72 Curie suggested that the uranium resin blende contains an undiscovered and highly radioactive element.
b2db7162259bf5a19f0b36c4b9b6acfe9e09c958 In the spring of 1898, she reported her hypothesis and the results of experiments to the French Academy of Sciences.
18e44a9517f9b8e8dc6037beadcbc9c5cd8290c6 Then the Curies tried to isolate a new element.
85a440e181bd62f1798ebfef2e280ce35ff67e25 Pierre put aside his own research on crystal physics to help Maria.
7b99ac43cf7e577ef3fd98219bbab090d20f4767 Later, polonium was discovered, an element named after the birthplace of Marie Curie.
b26c0e84e42f12cb21b5d8a8f023accb40e957fa Since the Curies had not isolated any of these elements, they could not provide chemists with decisive proof of their existence.
e44185b48335db997baeb0e04c06de6cc8a0830f And the Curies started a very difficult task — extracting two new elements from a uranium resin blende.
98f41e80bdb9d7ea5d4ffb2cd3648f450802f930 To extract them in measurable quantities, the researchers had to process huge amounts of ore.
780b26d45f473048f73585baed2c8502655c5a40 Having no laboratory and working in a shed on the Rue Lomon in Paris, from 1898 to 1902, they processed eight tons of uranium ore and isolated one hundredth of a gram of a new substance — radium.
d36b2243877a892165b7b85abafadac7d64ac538 For the next four years, the Curies worked in primitive and unhealthy conditions.
b564a6cc3a124bdb99df5da9ff1c366d4dfcd199 During this difficult but exciting period, Pierre's salary was not enough to support his family.
ef722b77dbddcb65a3faa7ee8ce22a24892abf05 Despite the fact that intensive research and a small child occupied almost all of her time, Marie Curie in 1900 began teaching physics at Sevres, an educational institution that trained secondary school teachers.
0072eac533ce24aa959d71ee6de4eba6c1ba1a3c Pierre's widowed father moved in with Curie and helped look after Irene.
206b8da562c8fd9ea988cc07b069527913a42073 In September 1902, the Curies announced that they had managed to isolate one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride from several tons of uranium tarblende.
bf718e12803e8fe1f777e2553f9692a42180c7d2 They failed to isolate polonium, since it turned out to be a product of the decay of radium.
17a9fada9cc4e916d006db4f3efec9287f3fffc5 Analyzing the compound, Maria found that the atomic mass of radium is 225.
31ddefcc38e05a7e36c15bb20b1270f0b2a89084 The radium salt emitted a bluish glow and heat.
ae5c43a78956a294e50a8a34958444cb63ea1cc9 This fantastic substance has attracted the attention of the whole world.
9060137a5913040c9b07fbbb8ed18099c5b48627 Recognition and awards for its discovery came to the Curies almost immediately.
8944b7871b1b150bb2af0b02e24c2a00de131c6f After completing her research, Marie Curie wrote her doctoral dissertation.
ffaeedd59969373715849e5776889de09f46e0b0 The work was called "Studies of radioactive substances" and was presented at the Sorbonne in June 1903.
0ff086c9b28ba66a82446167f1e4abc5c2a6e622 In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for outstanding achievements in joint research of radiation phenomena".
fa77d8184072d021a9e7bbb55481ed4c2b9e3645 According to the committee that awarded Curie a scientific degree, her work was the greatest contribution ever made to science by a doctoral dissertation
552a12eaec4390460239a30964a4028b392fca24 Being at the award ceremony, the couple are thinking of creating their own laboratory and even an institute of radioactivity.
d5853f528ea4d02b55d76da0e6c6ab18e4d73612 Marie and Pierre Curie received half of the award "in recognition... their joint research of radiation phenomena, discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel".
de935565218f31e60c1e2b61b8ef6c8921cedc12 Curie became the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize.
f7e2171ff7126bf2806eda3bf4662be6255a6e1c Both Marie and Pierre Curie were ill and could not go to Stockholm for the award ceremony.
6cce38edc45fb3b10da1011a9b1f1aca1bae40e8 They received it in the summer of the following year.
862769cb0d2260dc673272e37ff73ca998d045b9 "The award of the Nobel Prize," wrote Curie, " was an important event for us because of the prestige associated with these prizes, established at that time quite recently (1901).
936812f5cb8dd0eb3fdd0b8a84ce04fb8afc23f5 From a material point of view, half of this premium was a serious amount.
3f63496f677f9874b902296e8dca953e98638f5a From now on, Pierre Curie could transfer the teaching at the School of Physics to Paul Langevin, his former student, a physicist with great erudition.
62f097b60a7253e92597c78ab43fc6cc1700e118 In addition, he invited the preparator personally for his work.
fb2c4345fe40e4a6c665f5ca24fb24cb66d245fe At the same time, the fame that this happy event brought turned out to be a heavy burden for a person who was not prepared and unaccustomed to it.
c97e9ed82d40630e9ffa881100fbc30f3b7b0c12 It was an avalanche of visits, letters, requests for lectures and articles-constant causes of loss of time, excitement and fatigue."
5b0876729d30f33368c0fa06fd1c9e8bae977d2e The Curies noted the effect of radium on the human body (like Henri Becquerel, they received burns before they realized the danger of handling radioactive substances) and suggested that radium could be used to treat tumors.
94049e5cfd2ac09985a4176af898dd357f2d0f0d The therapeutic value of radium was recognized almost immediately, and the prices of radium sources rose sharply.
9ade42e66cc032257de253cc4d047582716a3ea0 However, the Curies refused to patent the extraction process and use the results of their research for any commercial purposes.
0610bd835bb81f0c9aaa04d3aaddd4b4829dcb23 In their opinion, the extraction of commercial benefits did not correspond to the spirit of science, the idea of free access to knowledge.
d755f7944c6927170499364ac9a0fee031aeb04a Despite this, the financial situation of the Curies improved, as the Nobel Prize and other awards brought them a certain prosperity.
3c4f4a83bd98bdf608c5109c616419ac66714ee7 In October 1904, Pierre was appointed professor of physics at the Sorbonne, and a month later Maria became officially called the head of his laboratory.
63b9df5c243342f48bcdb87775f650376345b27b In December, their second daughter, Eva, was born, who later became a concert pianist and biographer of her mother.
58b3f89b08e9f2346b6c991fb1dc03af970c8603 Marie Curie drew strength from the recognition of her scientific achievements, her favorite work, the love and support of Pierre.
904a8d0c072a1f90db20a49510bdb53161f5597c As she herself admitted: "I have found everything in marriage that I could have dreamed of at the time of our union, and even more than that."
eb566edbc2bd8428b28136c1986a0523eedea454 But in April 1906, Pierre died in a street accident.
cf77b95cb2cd02b1d047c4da7574b73774290b09 Having lost her closest friend and workmate, Maria withdrew into herself.
3777ce0a3d815901936788e009d59bbcd3ac1513 After the tragic death of her husband Pierre Curie in 1906, Marie Sklodowska Curie inherited his chair at the University of Paris.
4f66ce07f57e87d303fffafd3c581c518fc0f14f When Curie gave her first lecture six months later, she became the first female teacher at the Sorbonne.
fccbaa3f647da26fb2796da568810c5faecbb910 In 1910, in collaboration with Andre Debierne, she managed to isolate pure metallic radium, and not its compounds, as had happened before.
e56afb262550b9d35f09cca75709ce36f2c47006 Thus, a 12-year research cycle was completed, as a result of which it was proved that radium is an independent chemical element.
d40a0a7d66b7809804e10cf321a977d62ab1e6e5 Curie developed a method for measuring radioactive emanations and prepared for the International Bureau of Weights and Measures the first international standard of radium — a pure sample of radium chloride, with which all other sources were to be compared.
b9ceaf550335351585ce6d5b9fa806dd3c8bcd20 At the end of 1910, the candidacy of Sklodovskaya Curie, at the insistence of a number of French scientists, was nominated for election to the French Academy of Sciences.
7bd3b7a9346d84b54a44d436da63b85b0e63f6f5 Before that, no woman had been elected to the French Academy of Sciences, because the nomination immediately led to a fierce controversy between supporters and opponents of her membership in this conservative organization.
3f432b54f6b5aac38c6b51c80876e4ea0f567bcd As a result of several months of insulting controversy, the candidacy of Sklodovskaya Curie was rejected in the elections by a margin of only one vote.
73a7cf5daf0a144b5844f98a11e4bee61ccc248e In 1911, after the death of Pierre Curie, the Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Marie Curie the second Nobel Prize (in chemistry) — only three researchers have been awarded this honor in the entire history of the Nobel Prizes.
3b5f59fd083f2bc95b0a4d6a6011e0349e0a36e7 Introducing the new laureate, E. V. Dahlgren noted that " radium research has led in recent years to the birth of a new field of science — radiology, there are already their own institutes and journals."
afa62926537491b70d876eb4370d10bebccb5561 Marie Curie made a lot of efforts to achieve a decent laboratory for the development of a new science of radioactivity.
013d3f4559ad6f0a21b44744eee9e5d653acecaa Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute founded the Radium Institute for Radioactivity research.
b6b92a4f07f4b6078a7d92832f745a191ed1d4f9 Curie was appointed director of the Department of Basic Research and Medical Applications of Radioactivity.
957aace17cd4d26f144e71fe38b35858bb5ba141 During the war, she trained military doctors in the use of radiology, for example, detecting shrapnel in the body of a wounded person with the help of X-rays.
8ef640c20ed1e6fc675ef7eaccfe64617c66d905 In the frontline zone, Curie helped to create radiological installations, supply first aid stations with portable X-ray machines.
18ae315830d1ea57e8b8444477d357ccb0894c92 She summarized the accumulated experience in the monograph "Radiology and War" in 1920.
c08185b4da5aaa6dd591c8a1c4f39b4fd4b7c030 After the war, Curie returned to the Radium Institute.
683733bd351e035029b662563c5599eaf2c9dab1 In the last years of her life, she supervised the work of students and actively promoted the use of radiology in medicine.
de22bd1239c19130a0260a9e99af9fddcfd919f3 She wrote a biography of Pierre Curie, which was published in 1923.
97e354cdec6c1f3b09f0f9c28b8c4b7741c0ba2e Periodically, Curie made trips to Poland, which gained independence at the end of the war.
3dd6319320b57b9c734e21d22e8c276499627939 There she consulted Polish researchers.
1c29230d16a09a3629647caf5ddba74f83355612 In 1921, together with her daughters, Curie visited the United States to accept a gift of one gram of radium to continue the experiments.
1f9d9b04c47bbc70153c27c21323c5c0acffb88f During her second visit to the United States (1929), she received a donation, with which she purchased another gram of radium for therapeutic use in one of the Warsaw hospitals.
85f48e48d1d090a1a75234b9578fcf717791dcbe In 1922, she became a member of the French Academy of Medicine.
811864414d1a0e61e4f62d9145e1c7909af9f046 Maria is also elected a member of the International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations.
6efc3549028d7bf562ed14633802027f6a34c6ce In 1930, Marie Curie Sklodovskaya became an honorary member of the International Committee of Atomic Weights.
410ae5c20e5f6e0cd0edb10f9f0cc216536bc40b But as a result of many years of work with radium, her health began to deteriorate noticeably.
d925c9c34783730e75b62fff392ab1f069443dd1 Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934 from leukemia in a small hospital in the town of Sansellemose in the French Alps.
f559ddd0beefbda1029af216c42e6fced1ed5f5e Maria Sklodovskaya Curie was awarded 10 scientific prizes and 16 medals.
0d7647dcddcd1e1053cffa48d0703107d26dd534 She was an honorary member of 106 academies, scientific institutions and societies[4].
bd2f327d999ef2974b44198a6a5a66634463240b Madame Curie was awarded the French Legion of Honor.
b52502bd460464b3cad6c3305ac9ac7554172520 Her eldest daughter, Irene Joliot Curie, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935.
8d43f5841b13b1ed5b8d2ddd06964d1a83fb3425 In Poland, she received the title of honorary doctor of the Lviv Polytechnic-1912, the University of Poznan-1922, the Krakow Jagiellonian University-1924 and the Warsaw Polytechnic-1926.
c7afadd0cc28e84fd466b07ec5028afae0648223 In 1967, the Marie Sklodowska Curie Museum was established in Warsaw.
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258b3b839e18993a999f66255bb8cc8febea8ecc Marie Curie Sklodowska.
3b8bbaba9d31789be03c2851e58c5a23e50266dd Google, Biography
8ff6a3af158001eb82fcd7b660f0d42416f2e93f Hieromonk Photius.
383a480f7545ecfae11d1c8309f029ca5a75119c Biography of the winner of the show "Voice 4"
06c8a98789b2b19284482befd9b5f12effd0463a Google celebrated the 81st anniversary of the creator of the cartoon about the Cossacks
5b42cb28ffbe005e952e41b91cb438c16ef4e600 Carl Faberge.
cb94e6d1a288be0e38c524132c9929567cb49b81 Biography of an outstanding jeweler
15887bbfd80235c63584d2761928686d9ae560c2 Maria Sklodowska Curie is a Polish French experimental scientist (physicist, chemist), teacher, public figure.
cc430016ac71485f00d883f595a5db9d1502ab3a Twice winner of the Nobel Prize: in physics (1903) and chemistry (1911).
81ac9fc7129cc622c885ed1ca503728512017973 She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.
1f50b38c7dff5d4a981f45ec8da4eb9116c358b0 The wife of Pierre Curie, together with him, was engaged in the study of radioactivity.
5c506c25302864f40f5b3deb732146bdf491b5fb Together with her husband, she discovered the elements radium and polonium.
115342f9bc2b760568b2c17ba63227a7b90afe8b Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw.
153f29440ab1f4645f18435c3642235889796f04 Her childhood years were overshadowed by the early loss of one of her sisters and soon — her mother.
a84ed848ae3616e558601a985ab65abf4f31a81d Even as a schoolgirl, she was distinguished by extraordinary diligence and hard work.
f2d9a8598fcf36277e6523c23bfe4b9d87792600 Maria tried to do the work in the most thorough way, avoiding inaccuracies, often at the expense of sleep and regular nutrition.
2d1a47866eda0a83c1bd196f2302640edf91ece1 She studied so intensively that, after graduating from school, she was forced to take a break for health improvement.
83a0690128a6d34e7482cee424b4994c32a90769 Maria aspired to continue her education, but in the Russian Empire, which at that time included Poland, the opportunities for women to receive higher scientific education were limited.
7228ffe7056c94a59520f1073cbd8a4a6d95e42e The Sklodovsky sisters, Maria and Bronislava, agreed to take turns working as governesses for several years in order to get an education in turn.
a712f332a5d3f33a69a702bfe3faf46317139a17 Maria worked for several years as a tutor and governess while Bronislava was studying at the medical institute in Paris.
112e7e0440f8a1d74a808f50fcb46a9cfc8d500b Then, at the age of 24, Maria was able to go to the Sorbonne, to Paris, where she studied chemistry and physics while Bronislava earned money for her sister's education.
c6aabf37fcf6b9d0bd2d854865c4ec2abd76638d Maria Sklodovskaya became the first female teacher in the history of the Sorbonne.
fb7b9d640b1cf2e72507d1a419006e08c17231b8 In 1894, in the house of a Polish emigrant physicist, Maria Sklodowska met Pierre Curie.
785f079d01098e8c1ac7532605c380aef99fe20f Pierre was the head of the laboratory at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry.
53d1876ba988810ac11ce479d196d42015b9fec3 By that time, he had conducted important research on the physics of crystals and the dependence of the magnetic properties of substances on temperature.
b5097b057e72cf54cc289de73a7143e3a5f4bc49 Maria was studying the magnetization of steel, and her Polish friend hoped that Pierre would be able to give Maria the opportunity to work in his laboratory.
6ae91819f11db6e3f492d95df0f41178f7984be9 Together, they began to study the anomalous rays (X rays) that emitted uranium salts.
e39d628323040df4c6318b87b1ce36e44543684a Their idea was implemented, but much later.
7dfd3ef38861cebce0fabd9b35da0057d17eaa6e Thus, a 12 year research cycle was completed, as a result of which it was proved that radium is an independent chemical element.
a8a9fde5125ad850ab46b64653d3f004cb3bea70 In 1911, Sklodovskaya Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for outstanding achievements in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element".
085132da010a62c040df57b4a948c2ee1e193f35 Sklodovskaya Curie became the first (and to date the only woman in the world) twice winner of the Nobel Prize.
de691742e64b74b0207970ae7b77794ecbd86d65 Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute established the Radium Institute for radioactivity research.
ab6d5b15008b992e0e407ddc24099c9bd7d1f037 Sklodovskaya Curie was appointed director of the Department of Basic Research and Medical Applications of Radioactivity.
6be3e3fa0473d02339a779a3826f5a017e0afbf1 Immediately after the start of active hostilities on the fronts of the First World War, Marie Curie Sklodovskaya began to purchase X ray portable devices for screening the wounded with personal funds left over from the Nobel Prize.
252dfe8ca0c6c803482904b31ad95907d65f6259 Mobile X ray stations, powered by a dynamo attached to a car motor, traveled around hospitals, helping surgeons perform operations.
7e98c79e7256b9afa4cb8d0be9356f8738d38fba At the front, these points were called "little Curies".
ffd637f740346e45b2ab25e020dd3d4ddc317b5d During the war, she trained military doctors in the use of radiology, for example, the detection of shrapnel in the body of a wounded person using X rays.
a761c0a87b509cac3fff8fe8c11c26a4d5c9c578 In the frontline zone, Curie helped to create radiological installations, supply first aid stations with portable X ray machines.
63a2c98d208cdf62bb68e023288594047a982c27 She summarized the accumulated experience in the monograph “Radiology and War” in 1920.
f786212c25504ebc3a3839fc8f3f1e38ed30e2d3 In the last years of her life, she continued to teach at the Radium Institute, where she supervised the work of students and actively promoted the application of radiology in medicine.
dab316a1f7bb5779973859d361b664b4d002b6ca She wrote a biography of Pierre Curie, published in 1923.
99bf7a257ab7e3ce95308db861ec2a723bdae24b Periodically, Sklodovskaya Curie made trips to Poland, which gained independence at the end of the war.
c1fac6dd242977d6d67fd1ec700234fa8c1e0cac In 1921, together with her daughters, Curie Sklodovskaya visited the United States to accept a gift of 1 g of radium to continue the experiments.
11ecf50b1132ddf7a38340eea46238d3f33e39a0 Marie Curie Sklodowska died in 1934 from aplastic anemia.
9d2805a3d291c2cf0b803735614373e73be9dac0 Her death is a tragic lesson — working with radioactive substances, she did not take any precautions and even wore an ampoule with radium on her chest as a talisman.
c4a33a7dfee5e6c140f54f00e68192d6417c5a5f She was buried next to Pierre Curie in the Paris Pante.
4b69b1f3cd28b9f7e2c6bba6f7720eab41fb56c6 Other news for today
385982cc4a244dfee6c6282b2852cd10f4e7c024 published by: Special Correspondent
becf2b41271d7f1a10f1aebc3e33571378e05fa4 date: 07 November 2011
aa89b6d07115edbd490d99dedf134119123c685d views: 10878
7e240de74fb1ed08fa08d38063f6a6a91462a815 aaa
f2fc6660fd4bdc6f93d37513f94f6e34f0b650f3 did she make polonium cookies?
404486c940ac952290abdf46ee244a3416ac716f date: 19 February 2015 08: 42
32608e1e841534c29281d287939bd4a4818a7f71 Acid
1be9d890d4852c1b308888a5c08725a3ef07ce5b A powerful woman, worthy of respect and love.
98aea6ce6266e161612dcf10415c14cd270d89eb No one then believed about the harmful effects of radiation
d558d2c112f341b1f0bd883c261c381603208aea date: 03 December 2013 03: 18
2ba9fcae44512a766028e2eaa74ac1d4e56a170e The power of the
ac5f0dc6986d9a429f48c96224d91ac1566bbbea date: 03 December 2013 03: 16
5150d2104c8cd974b27fad3f25ec4e8098bb7bbe kkk
0c3e80fba870e2d288b91d9753d5627752d9245d I mean, how could she not take care of her health like that??
b472b2cff2a5dcafef42cd6fabae233302e2d445 She is a person of science! and I lived by it! maybe she didnot think that all this could have such a detrimental effect on her...(
0e4ede35c5b81b5a7e5d89e0e59fed3526643f58 date: 25 March 2012 18: 07
4a6ef5483a473d244b50c437863c38c8a1508656 marinka
132cc3038a339a328e4c542ccf0cc93c2e841e6d How can you not monitor your health like this
ab7503bb97bfb1cc672e51482018e235db213e89 date: 18 March 2012 20: 19
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681c5d4a0a1329bca6d8801bd92bad3ef875042d
08691e791fc9f078d34ffebcac8366d8e8043859 Many wonderful books have been written about the life of Marie Sklodowska Curie During her lifetime, she was elected an honorary member of 106 academies and scientific societies, and recent polls have shown that she still remains the most revered woman in the world.
27158a57d741c99bba2e0f7271884bb4cfc6e207 No wonder she compared the decision to devote her life to science to going to a monastery.
b6ed0d57276c51b04daa38b9727fb15d5f288532 Maria Sklodowska was 24 years old when she came from Poland to Paris and crossed the threshold of the Sorbonne — one
6619903a334ce1754e45105f25cc11294294756e one of the few places in the world at that time where a woman could get a higher education.
32cd3ef7d718c57267bbabf6ee80091e26db9c61 Here she met Pierre
be39c46517f5249b4aff5cb86fbff15f500a3095 Curie is a man of rare talent and nobility, with whom
a9f10b4e226fe58df6f5e33d421affec6f1ba449 she connected her life and made her main scientific discoveries.
b5e6a76826e84032725d1631a23b666fe76bda6d She gave birth to and raised two daughters, one of whom,
a8fdd58da8b53bd16836e220471a55f7ada578fc Irene, will later continue and multiply the life work of her parents.
12c788c95d7ef9816d70593a2aeb92d07c59cfbb In the spring of 1896, Marie Curie was finishing her studies at the Sorbonne and carefully chose the topic of her master's thesis.
5f7e2ee7e69c0812c5b887a088a6dbd21bd34793 ("Choosing the topic of the first scientific research is like first love for life," she said half jokingly.)
5be0bd4573e6d968a11ea7b1abdd5d3293cded19 Just at this time, the first results of Becquerel's research became known, among which she was particularly interested in one: the ability of" uranium rays " to ionize air.
76fc02a0bf477f406e37ef1cb2950652cd5adae9 This interest was not accidental: shortly before that, her husband Pierre Curie, together with his brother Jacques, invented a very convenient and sensitive electrometer based on the phenomenon of piezoelectricity (discovered by them).
70d31beeaaeb7bc39a3e1453f287feae38458564 It was much easier to work with an electrometer than with photographic plates, and besides, it allowed not only to state the presence of new radiation, but also to measure its intensity quite accurately.
c34c792ed657c20a9972d536b4a216a35acfa9af It was this quantitative approach to the phenomenon of radioactivity that allowed Marie Curie to go further than others.
ad1dc2bab95164a9e7fe4fdc2075bd725f24ef12 At first, Marie Curie wanted to find an answer to simple questions: "Is it only uranus that emits new rays?
9ae87d9b3467dd4dd9b58d50b1da728a82908747 And if so, what is its exclusivity?"
71b5e145c476143264771d6acf638269ecc079ea By that time, uranium had been known for more than a hundred years and did not stand out in any special way among other elements: metal as a metal, heavy, steel gray in color, it was rarely used at that time, mainly for painting glasses and ceramics in yellow green
afa818d3628124b7a7d220fec0013f7157a97d14 colour.
efa9c28f82c576c9d3087ed46132d09d65853931 With the help of an electrometer, Marie Curie patiently checked the radioactivity of almost all the elements known at that time (more than 80) and soon discovered that only thorium also has this property — and even to a greater extent than uranium (at the same time and independently, this fact was also established by the German scientist Erhard Karl Schmidt (1865-1949)).
cabee8c234d20677e981e39c9867b89551e66622 This was an important result, because it immediately eliminated the question of the exclusivity of uranium: if there are two radioactive elements, then why canot there be more of them?
f2d96c17df07493a7268322ba1f9924de673908b After a short break in research (she is expecting a child), two months after Irene's birth, in December 1897, Marie Curie returns to work with new energy.
00a16e371676e4ba104dc439a89f748bd1a4d4fe Among the numerous chemicals and minerals, her special attention was attracted by a pitchblende from a mine near Joachimstal in the Czech Republic, from which uranium was extracted at that time.
5bdc8edd2e39eb2da1ef64b3bf9bce0a13b719ae The radioactivity of the pitchblende was four times higher than the uranium contained in it.
a76dea9fd5dc8e3db2ad139d5c0dd071351fe169 This was unexpected, since chemical analyses showed that there was no thorium in the resin blende.
b9ae1fe8852d6449bd7c4b725a9ad24113ca3b51 Then Marie Curie suggested (it was a bold, although strictly logical hypothesis) that a previously unknown radioactive element is present in the resin blende in quantities inaccessible to conventional chemical analysis.
dd9e1bae2dd3a0f4f4474409cea6251a314fb5ca If this is true, then its activity should be thousands of times greater than the activity of uranium, which accounted for about 30 % of the total weight of the ore.
23e4e44b06844a40681474c8af1099e08c20a565 On December 16, 1897, the first entry of Marie Curie appeared in the laboratory journal.
2a4875a8cb47855a3f8deb9b2cd15fa0ee9d7941 In March 1898, Pierre Curie left his work and joined it.
62304ad17b117b30937dee2e59152828625e9be3 By May 12, 1898, they were sure that they had discovered a new element, which would later be called "radium", which means"ray".
a377b116fda8229824817c13aaaa387af919eaf2 In July, they discovered another radioactive element in the ore waste, which they called polonium — in memory of Maria's homeland.
9ce22dc2998d14680d324cb4c90180ca788f0fed Finally, on December 26, 1898, they reported their results to the French Academy of Sciences.
caa6dcd0c29a4b8861e12cee5bf0b9f6cf111f9b At that time, Maria and Pierre were already able to demonstrate to the audience a preparation of radium, which was 900 times more active than an equal amount of uranium by mass.
0226608223c1e8af5b52f199498669f7bac994b3 From now on, all Marie Curie's thoughts focused on one desire: to isolate radium in its pure form, But how to do it?
5503c2bd2363ef6a84c223c2c6b84e0471657e91 Without a laboratory, without assistants, without ore, which is also expensive?
8077bd8b285d5e1698b9c91129370f7161fd5371 However, a clearly realized desire is usually feasible if it is based on a strong will and a willingness to hardships.
73f9e3f0099b9824a781c661a7e103d59776199a With the assistance of geophysicist Eduard Suess, then president of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the Austrian government agreed to give the Curies a ton of uranium tarblende.
6427e476ddbd511f0da74259b8bc69e63affed9f We managed to find a suitable shed where this ore was dumped, as well as the other ten tons, which were paid for by the millionaire Baron Edmond Rothschild.
06ca90d8e8084986d505065bb0f3be56c3e68ec7 For Marie Curie, years of strenuous, monotonous and tedious work began: from day to day, for many years, to dissolve, evaporate and dissolve again.
19fdd7f1d6a2a42d036b06f93df56c67525a6294 She had to almost manually process 11 tons of ore and carry out several thousand crystallization alone.
5565e73392e6e3f22f212247b111d2c137719554 Subsequently, Marie Curie recalled: "... the discovery of radium was made in miserable conditions: the shed in which this event took place is already covered with a legend.
4fcb7fa10c8ae414062b0197cb49077363431358 But this romantic detail was not an advantage: it absorbed our strength and slowed down the implementation of the discovery..."
198deece5a19494db926bd52f50e1a68bf8b7853 It was black and hard work, in hot and cold, in an old barn, without any precautions: the radiation meter still continues to click threateningly when a page from the laboratory journal of Marie and Pierre Curie of those years is brought to it.
4b2472fe7e32cc12ca0d21a30f05d1261c73f269 "We were aware that our health was not up to par, that we were subjecting it to severe tests.
eb3b3ebb6e7d040b66a37178e32063d212505a55 As happens to everyone who knows the value of living together, we were sometimes seized with fear of the irreparable.
ea18e0cf1a7de0ff7e3b72475d0979ee87f0d091 Then some feeling, perhaps just courage, led Pierre invariably to the same conclusion: even if we seem to be soulless creatures, we still need to work, " wrote Marie Curie many years later.
2752c57d8f114c8c47812adeae9d9fd73ce62462 Both of them died prematurely: Pierre in 1906 was hit on the streets of Paris by a dray driver, Maria died in 1934 from the effects of radiation exposure.
5b5d997395f67403d3bbc19fc130d26fbe25baf8 By 1902, Marie Curie isolated several tenths of a gram of concentrated radium preparation from a ton of ore, three years later she had 0.4 g of pure radium chloride, and only in 1910, 12 years after the start of work, her dream came true: she finally saw a silvery white drop of pure radium metal weighing 0.0085 g.
8da8319c37581698169d476bc53d7ad7a1f7b7b1 But this droplet radiated 3 million times more actively than the same drop of uranium.
877c9fa4e7c3b7570720adb107e51433e875561d The scientific feat of Pierre and Marie Curie was recognized throughout the world during their lifetime: in 1903, together with Henri Becquerel, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
9c1026c0f2896cda28d6c94324a8a96ca7d0797b February 11 were born [en]: D. W. Gibbs, Thomas Edison, V. I. Kachalov, Lyubov Orlova, Giuseppe De Santis Died [en]: Rene Descartes, Alexander Sergeyevich Griboyedov, Sergey Mikhailovich Eisenstein Subscribe
773532f3badd4841c7b42cf3463f67eb266569aa Marie Curie Famous Namesakes / Names / Patronymic names / First name and patronymic / Horoscopes / Tests/ Signs / Table of Contents / Names home Marie Curie Sklodowska biography
d3b8b100bca815fba3c6caeb138f076f87be9d06 Marie Curie Sklodowska (1867-1934) was a French physicist and chemist, one of the founders of the doctrine of radioactivity, a foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1907) and an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).
cbeb096901c24c6f57219c9b3ed9b621f3f727e9 The zodiac sign is Scorpio.
87491bd34761fa4297a1827e9c3605b39262771a Polish by origin, since 1891 in France.
fa8e3a9ed69b4f89162b74993b00fdf3b064f6e9 Discovered the radioactivity of thorium (1898).
85b3312467c072aef7d83663364908d684d075e2 Together with her husband, Pierre Curie, she discovered (1898) polonium and radium.
8ffd31de4104e4890b860e66f23954319c3c2fbb She introduced the term "radioactivity".
c58a1d42cd97b4ed65ca7df4ac00b115d54960fb Nobel Prize in Physics for research on radioactivity (1903, together with Pierre Curie and Antoine Henri Becquerel).
d0bf2237b1f997d10d103b8f20705372d198f1a7 She received (1910, together with A. Deburn) metallic radium, studied its properties (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1911).
e656e740fc27c3e4456362c6350b85b4999a7bde She developed methods of radioactive measurements, for the first time applied radioactive radiation
f6e2f166fc3368c2f3a795d60188efcfa0fee2a2 for medical purposes.
cac809aec573fdc331377622b79a47f6ee1949c5 Having grown up under Russian rule, Maria took an active part in the movement of young intellectuals and anti clerical Polish nationalists.
a84464d2e4142ca72ded08bbf135e292cb2cb4e6 Together with her sister, Bronya, they developed a plan: Maria will work as a governess for five years to enable her sister to graduate from medical school, after which Bronya should bear the costs of her sister's higher education.
b9f52e13ab108948668b8c8ba5ba7bb73cd48c68 After leaving Poland in 1891, Maria entered the Faculty of Natural Sciences of the University of Paris (Sorbonne).
8b746ab0dcbbff93e992b6d0eb3e36984516e970 It was then that she began to call herself Maria Sklodovskaya.
03d812d581d8c12498d1891e79875ca8bb4ff729 A year later, she became a licentiate in mathematics.
8157f0c9cc7d8a5c17eea95e70433971c27fa455 In the same year, 1894, Maria Sklodowska met Pierre Curie in the house of a Polish emigrant physicist.
b1bca30e2c61a5edd536994fb769bda2c5284859 Maria was studying the magnetization of steel, and her Polish friend hoped that Pierre would be able to give Maria the opportunity to work in his laboratory Having become close at first on the basis of a passion for physics, Maria and Pierre married a year later.
228f4cdadc4d704f7f6bdbd1a83efbeb435aff2d We lived very amicably, our interests coincided in everything: theoretical work, research in the laboratory, preparation for lectures or for exams. and for eleven years of our life together, we have almost never been separated, and therefore our correspondence over these years takes only a few lines.
530666015ce1cacaacb066db47e12fa306b3bed7 Three months later, Curie completed her research on magnetism and began looking for a topic for her dissertation.
73cc5a59235536d86690d43e1bf5e1e022786192 Unlike the X ray, discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen, the Becquerel radiation was not the result of excitation from an external energy source, such as light, but an internal property of uranium itself.
39032f143478bf6e8c1cc831a8778be99754e622 In July and December 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie announced the discovery of two new elements, which they named polonium, in honor of Poland the birthplace of Mary, and radium.
44103170ca7ea52f26ec12be5e6b6de7b19f2307 In September 1902, the Curies announced that they had managed to isolate one tenth of a gram of radium chloride from several tons of uranium tarblende.
755e277c12585ac5d9edca9dbe93a9db580cfd32 According to the committee that awarded Curie a scientific degree, her work was the greatest contribution ever made to science by a doctoral dissertation In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to Becquerel and the Curies.
caed854fa4f8d9a67e1f277be78a6b28a79b6e7b It was an avalanche of visits, letters, requests for lectures and articles constant causes of loss of time, excitement and fatigue."
4184c6f02c30a347e8eb369570d17419e3ff1fd7 Even before the Curies completed their research, their work prompted other physicists to also study radioactivity.
d16f07af344b06d2a27a8693809d9aad3d473260 In 1903, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy put forward the theory that radioactive radiation occurs during the decay of atomic nuclei.
b3b5375e362fc25aa38799ba262a47de848e24ec During the decay (the emission of some particles forming the nucleus), radioactive nuclei undergo transmutation — transformation into the nuclei of other elements.
4a3a6a01c2314669205892aa382f1bb7e64d53cb Curie did not accept this theory without hesitation, since the decay of uranium, thorium and radium occurs so slowly that she did not have to observe it in her experiments.
3edebf1038293d27a605fc6f75ecdcf0e6b7fcd8 True, there were data on the decay of polonium, but Curie considered the behavior of this element atypical.
c1c56c7be438b75169b231169a789be0f07f067c Yet in 1906, she agreed to accept Rutherford Soddy's theory as the most plausible explanation for radioactivity.
1cffbff6bc02987e166292de6ad201b60edbb609 It was Maria who introduced the terms decay and transmutation.
b69d9d0f2139589d1511aad729a7298315b10dcb However, she found the strength to continue working.
bf4b9dbb98bcbfd17a4d8f1cbbfafcae80f97daf In May, after Maria refused a pension appointed by the Ministry of Public Education, the Faculty council of the Sorbonne appointed her to the Department of Physics, which was previously headed by her husband.
cb6556389d6765e22288757c5d6d18d421ef41dc After the death of her husband, Maria remained a gentle and devoted mother to her two daughters.
11b3d4f44655a284b76e86788fc9882009ad5e73 One of the daughters, Irene, who became a famous physicist, recalls: "My mother loved to spend her free time in country walks or working in the garden, and during her holidays she preferred the mountains or the sea.
d86007c99de8f82b160b3037f3d7814138857fb3 Marie Curie was fond of physical exercises and always found an excuse to do them and make my sister and me do them.
f65afcd37a74d19141ff1d393ad479c1cae1acec She loved nature and knew how to enjoy it, but not contemplatively.
61fe6d2b9a44fd3fac5ab4548eae6c34d1f6a067 In the garden she was busy with flowers; in the mountains she liked to walk, stopping, of course, sometimes to relax and admire the landscape...
bc33327cb8aa2d8a8210433996e8018f2d31a52a Marie Curie did not lead a social life.
837f1cb6b28dcdc664c666c452f4b6a9e14eacdf She only visited the homes of a few friends, and even then quite rarely.
def6bdba7a7c6154b065df04a2e182ad7ac6af3f When she had to attend any receptions or official celebrations, it was always tiresome and boring for her.
a6799745201a17310eac4fa97e6aec917067449a But she found a way to make the best use of this time by starting conversations with her neighbors at the table about their specialty.
8a81e28775d4b2276eff880f8c03b6b94a5a09a9 Developing this topic, any of them could almost always tell something interesting The fact that the mother did not seek either secular connections or connections with influential people is sometimes considered evidence of her modesty.
e7871f2c7784d304d851693a66df1069312d5f46 I believe that this is rather the opposite: she was very correct in her assessment of her importance and she was not at all flattered by meetings with titled persons or with ministers.
e9b9545b672c5df420b321463b2fe809d45389fc I think she was very pleased when she had the chance to meet the writer Joseph Rudyard Kipling, and the fact that she was introduced to the Queen of Romania did not make any impression on her."
887dd67f5b1d02c6eb3d7f50e1a2b76f33e0218a In the laboratory, Marie Curie focused her efforts on the isolation of pure metallic radium, and not its compounds.
7120fb41f4d82a181735fc319f228b83fae6c9c8 In 1910, in collaboration with Andre Debirn, she managed to obtain this substance and thereby complete the research cycle that had begun 12 years ago. She convincingly proved that radium is a chemical element.
d69f2aa796d3138b2a9b99ade9035446b71360e9 At the end of 1910, at the insistence of many scientists, M. Curie was nominated for election to one of the most prestigious scientific societies — the French Academy of Sciences.
d433e43c7b4c50f46dccca85369c1d8361cc5886 Pierre Curie was elected to it only a year before his death.
06b6556f8f7a3dd54e8da8a882e76c42a2aab43b In the entire history of the French Academy of Sciences, no woman has ever been a member of it, so the nomination of Curie led to a fierce battle between supporters and opponents of this step.
8d37749fb2b4251fa986b660638b81cb33b7c97d After several months of insulting controversy, in January 1911, Curie's candidacy was rejected in the elections by a majority of one vote.
ca340a8bca7da114cfb0e988a886dbae80ae7683 Pierre and Marie Curie
332e62cb2bd05f3a5c05ab068c109b252cc5f4a1 A few months later, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Marie Curie the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for outstanding achievements in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."
baddf12b8d072bb36e2e08ec113e2acb6783e261 Curie became the first two time winner of the Nobel Prize.
b8b0e8964219ec42f8a756c88bd19057e1f07bae Introducing the new laureate, E. V. Dahlgren noted that " radium research has led in recent years to the birth of a new field of science — radiology, which has already taken possession of its own institutes and journals."
a1e4bd580fe426e5f2452a66c37b79e2ff833b3a Marie Curie spent a lot of work to achieve a decent laboratory for the development of a new science of radioactivity.
29a536b01569cc5d32c3add3f04c203463ac556b Shortly before the start
6559af8add6177b39e18520cfd4ac956a6140d32 the First World War (First World War) The University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute have established a Radium Institute for radioactivity research.
42482ddd191ce8065f9d6d64b658936c9990ada5 - Moscow: Veche, 2000) See other famous women named Maria.
37c6279d55ecc6575ee461cb4dd8098c67b23e07 As well as the meaning and origin of the name Maria.
3d7f4006d9e242748077afcf0dbe56b74fdd1908 [edit] 3
eee6acac6660244c08b789ecadc4891df63d4a84 Marie Sklodowska Curie
44903c0fab4bcc2a74109f5d59572da2914af37d Material from the Cyclopedia
fa7fe2377d0cdf70f00c5a3c9e82a2968fe67468 Marie Skłodowska Curie
546330aaa8cc1240a08ea8d5a2f8323f7fb54a7e Date of birth November 7, 1867
a1a43947376f0485ed1173fdb8725a8de44f33bf Place of birth Warsaw
8089686b20e0d994227f4f7ee9dfd54dd0c9db76 Date of death July 4, 1934
d2e989528ac7300f9eb255f286492355931c3bf2 Place of death Sansellmose
4bbda67c0fa4f1d0648a544ac3be1e4a3960d9a7 Citizenship of the Russian Empire, France, Poland
863eebb8f6c941377cb902b97d59af740c66e0fb Type of activity science
aa5abcf2a5fc662c68fdf7ce146ffc3a55f17836 Father Vladislav Sklodovsky
2c6b1e3baf0ec5527ea7bd15c223b5a2ebf7db7f Husband Pierre
1612feb2cdfc836e30c2442c995234ecd367e1d2 Children Irene and Eva
661820417ecdbf6c604bdced10c88875e3324b0b Maria Sklodowska Curie .
477a807192d04441662c9a1a949e8432d389a450 Geniuses and villains [25: 58]
7745473568e4b7b17135efa28b4d8f32203ff9cf Marie Curie Sklodowska (born Maria Sklodowska) is a French physicist, chemist, teacher, and public figure of Polish origin.
638b1ba43693d5a6c6d9ecb4c88d2a17294b9056 In 1898, she announced the possibility of the existence of a new, highly radioactive element in the ore of uranium resin.
2f1d3364de0b557550685d702a2cbc25c8c57c95 Her husband Pierre Curie gave up his own research to help Maria, and in the same year they announced the existence of two radioactive elements: polonium and radium.
592404c41d5b9f92bcaf8685813bf95b506524d6 In 1902, they obtained one of these elements — radium.
5616ead3dc6d358a119c46d55ec01984c9b63aac Both scientists refused to take a patent for their discovery; together they were awarded the Davy Medal (1903) and awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) together with Antoine Becquerel.
2d99b5ffb3c7c8e09a9efad2c937894e717e4d56 Marie Curie wrote A Treatise on Radioactivity (1910) and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911.
a99cdc88278fee9d045379469c698d67a947f3fe 1 Biography 1.1 Moving to France 1.2 Marriage
cace061eebe1fb314b3ff22f556bca2082c3263e 2 Research of radioactivity 2.1 The first victim of radioactivity 2.2 The Nobel Prize in Physics.
84cedd48ecd7704a52b35aa0ec7b8244b4642c60 Recognition 2.3 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
57b42a5538e5c26de9065fc325fbc8656b9048c4 3 Maria Sklodowska Curie and Poland 4 Maria Sklodowska Curie at Lviv Polytechnic 5 Awards and scientific recognitions 6 Sources 7 Literature 8 References
5c2db8ee44991a4e625b59455fbbd7cb18b7d240 [edit] Biography
1081948a284cf751cfacd57a9fa404ae233b48c7 Place of birth of Marie Curie
53cc8b35e234dcd8a9dc615a1f43c8f7f61dea18 Maria Sklodowska was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw.
c6c5fa6c8cf47e6b2d23a26b9a3c43b9a9c36718 Maria was brought up in a family where scientific work was held in high esteem.
dd37f7f6e96aed34e33df2a949fb78b610dfda7b Already at a young age, she worked as a laboratory assistant in the chemical laboratory of her cousin.
bcc754c3508366720e2ee796b5cc7da2612640ff The Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleev was a friend of her father.
43bf807f979fc88519277b77457eed67c4389c8a Maria grew up at a time when the Kingdom of Poland was part of the Russian Empire, and actively participated in the movement of young intellectuals and anti clerical Polish nationalists.
2a5dcb09afb4ecd3277ac9fd6b71c120d4b7a847 [edit] Moving to France
4c8afa777446290b5bfc587ea6d625a1a4037f48 Due to the poverty of the family and the ban on women entering the University of Warsaw, Maria Sklodowska could not get an education in the Russian Empire/Poland.
5398922b4a781f638ea861068c6dbf353c7dd46f Together with her sister Bronya, they decided that Maria would work as a governess for five years to enable her sister to graduate from medical school, after which Bronya would take over the costs of her sister's higher education.
a724849d45597a4e9982c41f733d123ee2b7a30d Bronya received a medical education in Paris and, becoming a doctor, invited her sister to her home.
0ccbbc0cf40d3d5846c7ec88be06da6291db7571 At the age of 24, after leaving Poland (1891), Maria Sklodowska joined the Faculty of Natural Sciences of the University of Paris.
afda16dd34fabde5f71708534d867bfb220ad673 In 1893, Maria received a licentiate degree in physics from the Sorbonne (equivalent to a master's degree).
567879e8f1c6abd806a7e8b0b77c22e3ff43edfe [edit] Marriage
e6480131e0ac818dbdaa54e60c1e76376057c973 Pierre Curie
1871dc1a3d30fbc1d6cb576d823c82ee04e11901 By that time, he had done research on the physics of crystals and the dependence of the magnetic properties of substances on temperature.
2e2e42c449fcfb4c25fe74314f64d852f746cfb8 Maria was investigating the magnetization of steel, and her Polish friend hoped that Pierre would give Maria the opportunity to work in his laboratory.
bec255065887b483050d54584ee32b322136da1e Having met on the basis of a passion for physics, Maria and Pierre got married a year later.
ba7d51625d8ca885652c618dfea40575de79ac8d Maria herself recalls this:
9d1688725d9ceb26d5c9681a1824663263166bdf "Our first home — a small, very modest apartment of three rooms was on Glacier Street, near the School of Physics.
53a7539df09f02d6109e4082fbdb45e0459a4494 We couldnot afford servants.
fb2fc9c43f7faa77cc31676b1749e619dfa5fc59 I was almost completely taken care of the household, but I was already used to it during my student life.
d4ff190f0e400a763cccb8ab13c483543a3eb30f Professor Pierre Curie's salary was six thousand francs a year, and we did not want him, at least at first, to accept additional work.
b696e563dd39028ff108a3acd6b4406f212066f1 Our life was completely devoted to scientific work, and our days were spent in the laboratory, where Schutzenberger allowed me to work together with my husband… We lived very amicably, our interests coincided in everything: theoretical work, research in the laboratory, preparation for lectures or for exams.
b33de328e913fc46613be33c39eedfc066bd61ff During the eleven years of our life together, we almost never parted, and therefore our correspondence over these years is only a few lines.
f78eadcd744f9d45c91526aff0c18b21ac559f12 Rest days and holidays were devoted to walking or cycling, in a village in the vicinity of Paris, or on the seashore or in the mountains."
99e2ada892ab066d3add809a2e2ce80d96190881 Their first daughter, Irene, was born in September 1897.
659ce3e9822906b115196b725174ddca9bbee86b In three months, Curie completed her research on magnetism and began looking for a topic for her dissertation.
00d564cecf90d702ee43a521349edcaa3f7de209 [edit] Radioactivity research
fb8e4e134a58c9a7008e4c714aa720785948eba2 In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium compounds emit deeply penetrating rays.
889d242bd7d127deb56319b2ac38f8eba4215301 Unlike X rays, Becquerel rays were not the result of excitation from an external energy source, such as light, but an internal property of uranium itself.
87869ec5e320614144783cc0b33bde92da9baf2b Fascinated by this mysterious phenomenon and the prospect of starting a new field of research, Maria decided to start studying this radiation.
83460002bec0172a8d051c3dcc5d37c3aa17fdd6 Starting work in early 1898, she first tried to establish whether there are other substances besides uranium compounds that emit the rays discovered by Becquerel.
7ff874fcaa6c9fcfa657d9ea32fb73b078eeb9cc Curie later wrote:
cf7a28d052db53734ebeb4469028d4a88f45ee44 "My experiments have shown that the radiation of uranium compounds can be accurately measured under certain conditions and that this radiation is a property of the atomic element uranium; its intensity is proportional to the amount of uranium contained in a particular composition, and does not depend either on the characteristics of the chemical compound or on external conditions, for example, on lighting or temperature.
9b7aaeab6b5d250995b0bd5729339456ed412bc8 I discovered that among these substances, only thorium compounds had radiation, like uranium.
831ea2cca1f0ca71eb373db2c1d86c6a4460f634 The radiation of thorium has an intensity of the same order as the radiation of uranium, and is also a property of the atoms of this element.
fba3067d9dfa1c7cbb185ea49f349dc57e211312 I had to look for a new word to denote this new property of the elements uranium and thorium.
8505e4eda8f86678b6f6a49d0760cbedb25d19b5 Soon Marie Curie made a new discovery: uranium ore, known as uranium tarblende, emits stronger Becquerel radiation than uranium and thorium compounds, and at least emits four times stronger than pure uranium.
c7b25006ee1101e54eb7710c0ce4ca9426c3411f In July and December 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie announced the discovery of two new elements, which they named polonium (in honor of Poland the birthplace of Mary) and radium.
ba075c727b60e8dd9159b728f07f9078898ddf88 Therefore, the Curies decided to extract two new elements from the uranium resin blende.
f0f13938c0cc573b7c94fb989774e4b57c00d46f To get them in measurable quantities, the researchers had to process huge amounts of ore.
1061de20fbf40fb9575efefc66914090fffd8993 During this period, Pierre's salary was not enough to support his family.
334c32318987339e13ecf9a83ffad21141a1c218 Pierre's widowed father moved to Curie and helped look after Irene.
247ccd791c0b22eecdca5fdcb402f540c863c3a9 They failed to isolate polonium, because it turned out to be a product of the decay of radium.
dd7d7015cd11efb3d1c93978778e7a3167303e56 The radium salt radiated blue light and heat.
764f874de6dbe98ce7f42ba162a0486254c36619 Recognition and awards for his discovery came to the Curies almost immediately.
4ffd9c5ad107013d57209aec26396be76cf1e2a9 In the opinion of the committee, expressed when assigning Marie Curie scientific her work was the largest contribution ever made to science by a doctoral dissertation.
fd021c3c541eb8d66fa75c0159862daa341183c7 [edit] The first victim of radioactivity
db62f91fe37abb0b97913173c87e479d60a239c9 Working with radioactive substances significantly affected the health of Marie Curie.
102af23c6570cb7b2b3b2d8a98ca205036ea1497 First, she underwent a severe kidney operation, then her vision deteriorated sharply, and hearing problems appeared.
1cbd886cc01e96c8315a2dcfd2d7b8a0e46f187c In 1920, in a letter to her sister, she wrote:
9ff4a3765cb903c256d048ad85a12cccb4a05651 "My eyesight is very weak, and there is probably little help for this.
9b649cc434a219c6d18c11f7fff3e5e3b19d0c33 As for hearing, I am haunted by a constant noise in my ears, sometimes very strong."
4cd0256f2bffa1942215f692f89b96d0c30bbd7f Between 1923 and 1930, Maria underwent four eye surgeries, which eventually restored her vision.
60fa3c5583207533cba39c66999e21ca5f73d390 Maria Sklodovskaya Curie died on July 4, 1934 from acute malignant anemia caused by bone marrow degeneration.
66656803f2454ac9aa558fe63fec5cb23d4e9f0d In the medical report, Professor Rego wrote:
cfdb4f8bac5316fbe1eefe04fc6769db99c79191 "Madame Curie can be considered one of the victims of the long term treatment of radioactive substances that her husband and herself discovered."
31b0333e5fcb294432ede854c981c1a55f0ba5fa Marie Curie was buried with extreme care.
1cb3af88b7dd9971467d72a5ebbd3817b8555df1 The wooden coffin was placed in a lead coffin, and that, in turn, in another wooden one.
fa44505ee952a69f506660820bbea3a203015c29 When the remains of the outstanding scientist were transferred to the Pantheon in 1995, measurements of the radiation level of the inner coffin showed that its level was 30 times higher than the background indicators.
ad94772503f1232b4b0f6ca6e0bc041e857f7e34 [edit] The Nobel Prize in Physics.
2e44e0cba3609e8211a0616468ab2ce5300eff0b Confession
412344d0f64c1286ce6308f45a6e38c1d73cdae8 Pierre and Marie Curie in their laboratory
e1c02d6da6350e2629bdbabe2050e03aded4bef5 In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to Henri Becquerel and the Curies.
13f9fb34af16ed11925adf12a9dd93b45fcabc53 Marie and Pierre Curie received half of the award "in recognition... of their joint research on radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"[1].
0303092766e84e9c57a653434a02557e066ed6d1 "The awarding of the Nobel Prize," wrote Curie, " was an important event for us because of the prestige associated with these prizes, established at that time quite recently (1901).
cefeb0b4b365a41b2e64810095186e9fe0de5260 From a material point of view, half of this bonus was a significant amount.
54ca1f8ff624266c49dc550ba9b2a9b6e1d1ccdc At the same time, the popularity that this happy event brought turned out to be a heavy burden for a person who was not prepared and unaccustomed to it.
d986668f27a950e33a4e3ceda1649097027a3ef5 Even before the Curies completed their research, their work prompted other physicists to study radioactivity.
cbf3377abd02aea05d6a03380ca0aa6c12df926b During the decay and radiation of the particles forming the nucleus, the nuclei of the atoms of radioactive elements undergo transmutation — they turn into the nuclei of atoms of other elements.
fe40fe645a4eee40ee1533a5c4dfc23fe8e54f08 Nevertheless, in 1906, she agreed to accept Rutherford Soddy's theory as the most plausible explanation for radioactivity.
d0cf351f5c6825119c8af41bc14afad89bd6d424 It was Maria who coined the words disintegration and transmutation.
78d475903d6daa07525ac149c10840c283464aca The Curies noted the effect of radium on the human body (like Henri Becquerel, they received radioactive burns before they realized the danger of handling radioactive substances) and suggested that radium could be used to treat tumors.
c655073f9b3e7328b271000f89a5c62eba2618ba However, the Curies refused to patent the process of extracting radium and use the results of their research for any commercial purposes.
5b4cf59e5be7990e93a316f628bfe47a2cfda17e In their opinion, obtaining commercial benefits does not correspond to the spirit of science, the idea of free access to knowledge.
73dce891365260c7e82ffa0e4d14ebf150d24036 In December, their second daughter, Ev, was born, who later became a concert pianist and biographer of her mother.
dd1612e9cc9b7aff2d62e721b60ef271564e3dbc As she herself admitted:
b38475d177d2d03d1bb814e79ac2cae0d455ebc3 "I found everything in marriage that I could have dreamed of at the time of our union, and even more than that."
ca7a7a6c7869f1f94d7776ffafd0f2f5298de6ad Having lost a close friend and workmate, Maria withdrew into herself.
75fadea98dd9af13634d97c23ef0c020d96f221f After the death of her husband, Maria remained a gentle and loving mother to her two daughters.
1744e33a1f29e2742aabd8959873badb6e537a7b One of them, Irene, who became a famous physicist, recalls:
e1a948b26696f49a4306172f24b93a9223482dd1 "My mother loved to spend her free time walking in the country or working in the garden, and during her holidays she preferred the mountains or the sea.
2539a2b862b79a6eecc044dc6e2cfbf13abe54b3 She loved nature and knew how to enjoy it, but only without looking.
67264295686d6f668ab5a16481b59b46e0b85b7f She was only in the homes of a few friends, and besides, quite rarely.
0ac3cd32b7b0fc7ece0aeeabfab0ca5f99127bd0 But she found a way to make the best use of this time by talking to her neighbors at the table about their specialty.
f46ea462643e6313842a9c9cebfb38cfa92e0da3 Developing this topic, one of them could almost always tell something interesting.
20a3e09b9469288ef6a5042b9bedec7274e02b2f The fact that the mother did not seek either secular connections or connections with influential people is sometimes considered evidence of her modesty.
4781f10f9054e7cdb6511014694fdac820a3b719 I believe that it is rather the opposite: she was very correct in her assessment of her importance and she was not at all flattered by meetings with titled persons or with ministers.
4096f5ef65b277261ee78002f7f546ff88bb1800 In 1910, in collaboration with Andre Louis Debierne, she managed to obtain this substance and thereby complete the research cycle that had begun 12 years ago. She convincingly proved that radium is a chemical element.
d3ce8efd3840fc5f433fa549b41ebb428fd1c917 Marie Curie developed a method for measuring radioactive emanation and produced for the International Bureau of Weights and Measures the first international standard of radium — a pure sample of radium chloride, with which all other sources had to be compared.
6392c7a52bbc6b3083f508ca21b4f5b940ef9198 At the end of 1910, at the insistence of a number of scientists, Marie Curie was nominated for election to one of the most prestigious scientific societies — the French Academy of Sciences.
7727137fc5befa244a60412736a94a9833fd0329 At that time, throughout the history of the French Academy of Sciences, no woman was a member of it, so the nomination of Curie led to a fierce battle between supporters and opponents of this step.
2b431d7ff43da3f944fcb3c2e0630401c5737310 After several months of controversy, in January 1911, the candidacy of Marie Curie was rejected in the elections by a majority of one vote.
fcd99e3a0966cc65ab8f43fec4c1bf083005a5f1 [edit] Nobel Prize in Chemistry
947bff5133339db7701fa4a788dbbff278fcda69 Nobel Prize Diploma
0c8ebd64705a4dcbc97a93b59ab08b5b279f6e63 A few months later, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Marie Curie the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for her outstanding achievements in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element"[2].
66783c2b5f023073330ea6aae9cac3c5919e8f7e During the war, she trained military doctors in the use of radiology, for example, detecting shrapnel in the body of a wounded person with the help of X rays.
d4449bde6b7c572fb63bdb3d7f1db2b81da6d1cd Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934 from leukemia in the sanatorium Sancellemoz in the city of Passy in the French Alps.
4581ca05df789114701c8377b977526f9282f79f [edit] Maria Sklodowska Curie and Poland
9e4302a2f1615bb7a0f2587f9fc35f1aa97634f4 Although Maria lived in France for most of her life, she always retained her dedication to the cause of the struggle for Polish independence.
753ac24233081ae621a45eaf3d185547575efcfa Despite the intense creative activity, Sklodovskaya Curie always remembered her historical homeland — Poland.
05f98ca6be039ff110bf669c21eda54b44ae3348 Thus, after the opening of the Radium Institute in Paris, a similar institute was opened in Warsaw.
e9dbb12a605f5a39162e304111be39c61f157e7c Sklodovskaya Curie presented Lviv, a city that was part of Poland between the World Wars, with 80 mg of radium.
fa2f4dbc5dd218f6e0c1606e51c9ce99bd4941a9 Thus, for the first time, a radiological department was born in Lviv, which contributed, in particular, to the treatment of cancer patients[3].
57e83502dec0cd97894585d0f5bb60d6995ccc27 [edit] Maria Sklodovskaya Curie at Lviv Polytechnic
365f87591e148f453ae4c73ec74583fbe111a7aa The activities of Marie Sklodowska Curie several times concerned the Lviv Polytechnic.
76c48287aa8e939e5ac26a70315a4dcd83ce39bb In July 1912, she visited the Lviv Polytechnic School (then the name of the National University "Lviv Polytechnic").
ea70c0c7011f0caa9703baa42f10be5aedbd984e On July 10, she gave a lecture there.
74ff83469e3d0ac580d82638b63601e1e8509fc4 On the same day, the Academic Council of the Polytechnic awarded her the title of honorary Doctor of Technical Sciences.
506b623b4ca7526386527dc1cbfd27f218a1d61a Her name is immortalized on the board of honorary doctors honoris causa of the Lviv Polytechnic.
75b8f4593a24ffc08da5d8d4ad7de4fc686f8fa6 In a letter dated 1922, Sklodovskaya Curie informs about the possibility of providing financial assistance to the Polytechnic through the League of Nations.
bb82d80bcad3120fe65ae6c9b8291b7708a05201 The world famous physicist Maryan Smolukhovsky recalled that she helped organize internships for promising scientists in Lviv in leading European scientific institutions.
d989177eb4d274a3da149a1019ee3be90c45d7ba [edit] Awards and scientific recognitions
9010e54532a9d5853b2c4768950df7cbf008861d She became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize, and the first twice winner of this award.
5d78d8d88bbf8aa5482c848924f8d5e66c36c8f8 Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) Davy Medal (1903) Matteucci Medal (1904) Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)
a63a3a3b89b23222c531a9d6611f6fc217d8bad1 The youngest daughter, Eva Curie, later wrote a biography of her mother.
92d492d11b68dcffad5b727006e98c153881b1d5 In Poland, she received the title of honorary doctor of the Lviv Polytechnic 1912, the University of Poznan 1922, the Krakow Jagiellonian University 1924 and the Warsaw Polytechnic 1926.
1f65bfd21c0ee13d16b19366164ab61bca762cdd [edit] Sources
28fe0162f0fcc26bc5b743696c84e559c0cbf3d9 ↑ The Nobel Prize In Physics 1903.
ff1973fd24caed003fe35ce6b568c36c868a56b1 The Nobel Prize In Chemistry 1910.
4e752f0dd91641d91053ad0eb120c2cfc2a2b3f8 Nobel Committee ↑ Ukrainian Scientific Internet Community / Maria Sklodovskaya Curie at the Lviv Polytechnic.
740a8a623a1add38cca5298721bc1507a6716df0 Голь Goldansky V. I., Chernenko M. B. Maria Sklodovskaya Curie (to the 100th anniversary of her birth).
7e9bbe8e1ebbccc50a762e77a0457e13abb3353d Chemistry and Life, 1967, No.
28c55a8a104fb93e4c8821e6fa6bac9b8537c828 12, p .
2e0f4e2f1e1b58328e367dfc1b3f60298d39c73a Cerrato Simone.
ef87c5f481544b6d0875ab348d23d6dae8d78f58 Radioactivity in the family: The Non Fictional Lives of Maria and Irene Curie / Trans. from Italian.
ce083627b796f4624ad1fd3880bcbd0b77ebab5b - M.: "K. I. S.", 2006.
7ef85bdb3110e31182677a20543ae8a331db4559 - 104 p.: ill.
34db9b76e36f260e73690556124d76d15430ac18 — (Women in Science). Robert Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974.
028e83917dd15c3a3a7e11f5ec6caa3a572897cf Teresa Kaczorowska, Córka mazowieckich równin, czyli Maria Skłodowska Curie z Mazowsza (Daughter of the Mazovian Plains: Maria Skłodowska Curie of Mazowsze), Ciechanów, 2007.
a8c41866673289569a2f689149994cfcc8af8fb2 Wojciech A. Wierzewski, «Mazowieckie korzenie Marii» («Maria’s Mazowsze Roots»), Gwiazda Polarna (The Pole Star), a Polish American biweekly, no.
b828b770801988c1ab32f5d8fa1769dff44ef430 13, 21 June 2008, pp.
b9166c5b59e776a82204d6f426c871f662fca9d9 16-17.
a09264c107260bbaed1d0052dbedd9a30ca0bfed L. Pearce Williams, Curie, Pierre and Marie, Encyclopedia Americana, Danbury, Connecticut, Grolier, Inc., 1986, vol. 8, pp.
df6e1539ccc0e25717cb306026dcd366cae4ab03 331-32.
f7017b52dbf56b810edec8fad7c28bab8de7e522 Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, New York, WW Norton, 2005 Naomi Pasachoff, Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996 Eve Curie, Madame Curie: A Biography, translated by Vincent Sheean, Da Capo Press, 2001 Susan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life , New York, Simon and Schuster, 1995 Françoise Giroud, Marie Curie: A Life, translated by Lydia Davis, Holmes & Meier, 1986 Ève Curie: Maria Curie.
de45feb538726256403f7b9b5948024bf89ca4f9 Warszawa: Wydaw.
6ee9cebe41b4d3e1c5bda5b8f2567807cbc7893e Naukowe PWN, 1997 Françoise Giroud: Maria Skłodowska Curie.
093ba6f2e9ef1696a9af56c1f73061467822e037 Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1987 Helena Bobińska, Maria Skłodowska Curie, Czytelnik, Warszawa 1965 Denis Brian: Rodzina Curie.
52a89443567c557351f952b787303e13e225136e Warszawa: «Amber», 2006.
6c6586e8b32d02b220d0903a76510c99e961e879 Susan Quinn: Życie Marii Curie.
248e0dc9b1735dbb89ca83eb724606a1e78f6f66 Warszawa: Prószyński i S ka, 1997.
9498c00225dd6d42c334fc81a171be734d5bf87c Barbara Goldsmith: Geniusz i obsesja: wewnętrzny świat Marii Curie.
475ea8e9d3e53a5924e8bfa587aa588864e01506 Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, 2006.
419d053a5db45561d2fe651e3db44373fa129b1c Marie Curie, Irène Joliot Curie et Gillette G. Ziegler, Correspondance Marie Curie et Irène Joliot Curie, Prace Marii Skłodowskiej Curie Françoise Giroud, Une femme honorable, 1981 Per Olov Enquist, Blanche et Marie, roman, 2004 Xavier Laurent Petit, Marie Curie, 2005 Barbara Goldsmith, Marie Curie, portrait intime d’une femme d’exception, 2006 Brigitte Labbé et Michel Puech, Marie Curie, 2006 Henry Gidel, Marie Curie, Flammarion, 2008
99aa9837d783f157c5ea7c3ad3e0851969def016 Curie's biography The discovery of Polonium and Radium Marie Curie "American Institute of Physics" Page dedicated to Curie's activities
c601e2dbb5642a05259fc7d07e4760c67015a622 Source — "http://cyclowiki.org/w/index.php?title=Maria Sklodovskaya Curie&oldid=579102"
b01b815a274420fd88632309f872e5cd3d54dede Categories: Personalities alphabetically Personalities:Russian Empire Physicists Chemists Scientists of France Scientists of the XIX century Scientists of the XX century Born in Warsaw
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9c09db69ce9928bb12ca0668bfae6db120d06c3e Home Biographies Science of Physics
e1c99d0d38ee5d99c512f36e5a0348939c19ad84 The Nobel laureate Marie Curie was a physicist and chemist known worldwide for her work with radiation.
c6cbad73c0d6746f01e3300135213df235d4b7f3 Childhood and early years Scientific activity Main works Awards and achievements Personal life and legacy Interesting facts
721dfd0f76ce6d4d72696e9cb33e5fc59533fb0a Childhood and early years
476fb95ef19338be8b102d80b0fce95a6ef18460 Maria Sklodovskaya (married Curie) was the youngest of five children of Bronislava and Vladislav Sklodovsky.
9014d1d76d5b5de2024eca65f48f6d4c38a79648 Both of her parents were teachers.
acc8a1826e9652efae5b2f84067f348ef7330b52 From an early age, the girl followed in her father's footsteps, keenly interested in mathematics and physics.
793ef86a20521a5672c9527334f3ff627169e1d8 Having received her primary education at the school of Ya.
a12d2b770609367018c5cfada7011e5920fef0c7 Sikorskaya, Maria enters the women's gymnasium, which she graduated from in 1883 with a gold medal.
c09d95dc573cbc29534583ea60264aa97066ecd6 And at the same time, she is engaged in self education, enthusiastically reading books and scientific works.
e30e018300d495e13d2f5bb9317a1a70b20c4999 In 1893, she received a master's degree in physics, and the following year – a master's degree in mathematics.
511112429610a42ebc4ebfe0596c78048e59183c Maria makes several attempts to return to Poland and continue her scientific activities in her homeland, but they refuse to conduct this activity there, simply because she is a woman.
707656c168d1d8ed3fc7f3e74ff82160e40bc83d Eventually, she returns to Paris to get her PhD.
048ce5d1f1b435910db55190e2ab8db30c18dd70 In 1896, the discovery of Henry Becquerel about the ability of uranium salts to emit inspires Marie Curie to new, deeper studies of this issue.
447b03f141af553c439bd472cf6c14ff5c4f3bab Using an electrometer, she discovers that the emitted rays remain unchanged, regardless of the state or type of uranium.
54edc4b4fa1512b4fc6398728d4a4bf0a946b6a8 After a closer study of this phenomenon, Curie discovers that the rays come from the atomic structure of the element, and are not the result of the interaction of molecules.
499cc5dcaf5e15628c64a3ea9e81865bf2f5e439 It is this revolutionary discovery that will be the beginning of atomic physics.
d040553c1d081c77141ca723eb0944462c23633e Since the family could not exist only on earnings from research activities, Marie Curie takes up teaching at a Higher normal school.
d8eed3a123cc98bb82b035445b844b56a36f2566 But, at the same time, she continues to work with two samples of uranium minerals, uraninite and torbernite.
313e5be69fcb1ea68d2abac97622a7dd019a5028 Interested in her research, Pierre Curie gave up his own work with crystals in 1898 and joined Maria.
45350411f09b93ceb3a0c61d7ab7bc755725cd2c Together, they begin to search for substances that can emit radiation.
6d7e92e65e43b069027768f67afb5b184f4697cf In 1898, working with uraninite, they discover a new radioactive element, which is called "polonium", in honor of Maria's homeland.
e4c0bfc5082fc9abe6d798201413b18ab74ec5db All in the same year, they will discover another element, which will be called "radium".
2172315539ec61aa9065a3bd4c3a92ac03cd9e84 Then they will introduce the term "radioactivity".
cb889ca6a199a784ebf2f042d8f2d9e2008d4bff To ensure that there is no shadow of doubt about the authenticity of their discovery, Pierre and Maria embark on a desperate venture – to obtain polonium and radium in pure form from uraninite.
5341653e3d1414677feb1c2f994de1beb76eac15 And, in 1902, they managed to isolate radium salts by fractional crystallization.
22f1ef047f8d78e21c6890c594dc0abc9cf2481b During the same period, from 1898 to 1902, Pierre and Maria published at least 32 articles in which they described in detail the process of their work with radioactivity.
edb43d034db370f2c124f3d79fbd35a66c847ab6 In one of these articles, they claim that cells affected by tumors are destroyed faster than healthy cells under the influence of radiation.
0dc4fd399a67900583f3ad4a8ac686635647b796 In 1903, Marie Curie received her doctorate from the University of Paris.
7b5098d67aedc2a9fb716b5cd7daaab11fa11617 In the same year, Pierre and Marie Curie were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, which they would accept only in 1905.
2ada90db51dde3bdbd40fb14e1d06622452c030c In 1906, after the death of Pierre, Maria was offered the position of head of the Department of Physics, which was previously occupied by her late husband, and a professorship at the Sorbonne, to which she willingly agrees, intending to create a world class scientific laboratory.
1b26a137974b037e2711ab034fd35c99cd71ccff In 1910, Marie Curie successfully obtained the element radium and determined the international unit of measurement of radioactive radiation, which would later be named after her Curie.
4900429b3b7ac519b44eabda84c7d56ad89a6349 In 1911, she again becomes the winner of the Nobel Prize, this time in the field of chemistry.
f46358d37720966ab914ead2b311887e1229efdd International recognition, along with the support of the French government, helps Sklodovskaya Curie to establish the Radium Institute in Paris – an institution aimed at conducting research in the field of physics, chemistry and medicine.
e42a8f805e452f0b7e98a4ee18b1bdc524f4ef6f During the First World War, Marie Curie opened a radiology center to help military doctors in caring for wounded soldiers.
23fb6973a122fe1c866f14aaec98fcfb14eb9671 Under her leadership, twenty mobile radiological laboratories are being assembled, and another 200 radiological units are being placed in field hospitals.
2a92b4a5916009114bbb34594aefbacd67b065ae According to the available evidence, more than a million wounded people were examined with the help of its X ray machines.
480a3ee2656d9a7b00ed88b2562d6531f27da990 After the war, she will publish a book "Radiology at War", in which she will describe in detail her wartime experience.
908d8bc37b94a482efd37cb3a1c4f326489b8ccf Over the following years, Marie Curie travels to different countries in search of funds necessary to continue research on the properties of radium.
b51c1cb1780de5451d95ac5ed96633cf6146acb3 Main works
184043a95f7d0d18d0d1a086fe963da699aa252f Marie Curie — in addition to the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium, as well as the isolation of radioactive isotopes belongs to the introduction of the term "radioactivity" and the formulation of the theory of radioactivity.
178d550af95e06c936040606e473067bed3f88d6 Awards and achievements
0b4b31841235decf2f9463259ac6b3920ff1945d In 1903, for outstanding achievements in joint research of the phenomenon of radioactivity, discovered by Professor Henry Becquerel, Marie Curie, together with her husband Pierre Curie, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
79acf052ce3a04dd8c6005d99fef2b707f2fda51 In 1911, Maria again won the Nobel Prize, this time in chemistry, for the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, for the isolation of radium in its pure form, as well as for studying the nature and properties of this remarkable element.
6b84f87f5005d35c2e09e717e23831bbfa8f6392 Buildings, institutions, universities, public places, streets and museums will be named in her honor, and her life and works will be described in works of art, books, biographies and films.
4882d3880451445b77b38a995af3027862c29659 Personal life and legacy
b56f700ffc41e05f8eb5b50a940bfac74be5403d Maria was introduced to her future husband, Pierre Curie, by a Polish physicist, Professor Jozef Kowalski Verusz.
816709d2f65e3c6f3826cf233ee4a76ecff5c441 Mutual sympathy arises instantly, because both were captured by a common passion for science.
178ced737696a94764d04efd14a848fe48473b73 Pierre offers Maria to marry him, but is refused.
87ef6918746a26eb68263d4d378a1722d917d3a4 Without despair, Pierre again asks for her hand, and on July 26, 1895, they are married.
5d04189fd7ac1b9db8167334875124ff6104f0ef Two years later, their union was blessed with the birth of their daughter Irene.
714a0cb58f593f6d41a43f571b89eed7706393ff In 1904, their second daughter Eva was born.
9ede2d2258f2dddb6cdf2c457aed9c1375ba564d Marie Curie Sklodovskaya, who suffered from hypoplastic anemia due to prolonged exposure to radiation, died on July 4, 1934 in the sanatorium Sansellmose in Passy, in the department of Haute Savoie.
5694a5b9d064f62bac959b71e1082ac3f51c11db She was buried next to Pierre in the French commune of Sceaux.
b05b78391dc568d0501b5f044168d1c2ce29808d However, in sixty years their remains will be transferred to the Paris Pantheon.
12097b3626f66f58673cc90b317010d8417002e1 Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize, and the only woman to receive this prestigious award in the dissimilar fields of two different sciences.
f46759cbcacf1ca7e05163ae9ef0881071a86f29 Thanks to Maria, the term "radioactivity" appeared in science.
68f9cf8cb48dd0b4e5497cb25d1b95213c7bac10 Activity Exact Sciences, Physicist
6fb15e1a70e9ef663873c64f3d215f4e491905fb Zodiac sign Scorpio
5ef53f24807c760618feee420ee32318b67bc075 Place of birth Kingdom of Poland, Warsaw
0bc05c0f41177a5316d9ce1b66e116ff5386d80f Full name (Rus) Maria Sklodovskaya Curie
65c1824be16db70d978b00f25476519654d8ffa7 Full name (English) Maria Sklodowska Curie
881fbd8854ce9f90150d609f7bdcba652a4232e9 James Prescott Joule Robert Oppenheimer Ernest Rutherford Georg Simon Om Augustin Jean Fresnel
6e0b02cff60e34b1cf4adba4be1086003ca4ed98 Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) is the third great genius of the Italian Renaissance.
b9ed0185cbdb70c2b61076380d154bb1c8eb7d38 In terms of the scale of his personality, he is approaching Leonardo.
d4180b5a1b77fbd71b1f9155baaac650c8b032df He was a sculptor, painter, architect and poet.
e191083429da527292362fbe0235d30c99b83ca4 The last thirty years of his work fall on the Late Revival.
fa699c7c62779a52a04edc907b4a43f077e91507 During this period, anxiety and anxiety appear in his works, a premonition of future troubles and upheavals.
609388cd28c4dedd12d5c1f7b2f77802fe776207 On Monday, March 6, 1475, in the small town of Caprese, a male child was born to Podesta (the mayor) Chiusi and Caprese.
5dc0a8a8f0cde8479fb8d8562dca9c342e71b094 In the family books of the ancient Buonarroti family in Florence, there is a detailed record of this event of the happy father, sealed with his signature-di Lodovico di Lionardo di Buonarroti Simoni.
148a545e3bc56cfd57334a0b5c049141c9d87cfb On the eighth day of the same month, the rite of baptism was performed, the child was named Michelangelo or – according to the Florentine spelling-Michelagnolo.
220979c63a67fc38fa0e86cc08bd343a047901fc His father called him Michelangelo for a long time without thinking, but by suggestion from above, he wanted to show by this that this being was heavenly and divine to a greater extent than it happens with mortals, as it was confirmed later.
af51b994000755559b89c59d630ba91a82267a3b His childhood was spent partly in Florence, partly in the countryside, in the ancestral estate.
707eb1ed072c949d910fd3d80d996c27d1b68316 Due to frequent pregnancies, little Mika's mother was given to a wet nurse, and he spent the first years of his life in the family of a stonemason.
0fb36086c0b73a416f2fa8cf468eea94de5ec81d Three miles from Florence lies the village of Settignano in the mountains.
31b3fd8391ac3d4ade0b975e0b4449c220a739af Here was a small estate of the house of Buonarroti and the father handed the child over to the nurse, the wife of a stonemason, when he himself returned to Florence with his family at the end of the term of office of Podesta Chiusi and Carpese.
8026efda9a66a2d7ef72ab585b35755c39712db2 Remembering the nurse, he said to his countryman Vasari:"All the good things in my talent were obtained by me from the mild climate of our native Arezzo, and from the milk of my nurse I extracted the chisel and hammer with which I create my statues."
f95676e68b5fb712fcfa8cfa48eb1f969262bc78 Settignano was rich in quarries, and the local inhabitants were famous for their art in finishing stone.
695e084c1b9b7c4f1dc17fd383b10750954abeb8 The screeching of the saw, the noise and the ringing of the hammer replaced Michelangelo's lullabies.
b672128e278d86e18dec6aa435d394fb66f9461f His hands grew strong early, playing with stones and trying the hammer, when he began to grow up in Settignano.
7cf4a9908c2ab6adaf11dec013953323e789a212 Michelangelo had four brothers — the eldest and three younger.
b6c7d37a03b16fda2b8264b0cf4faba4432b824e The boy's mother died when he was six years old.
c5025c5d1d8101e5203a96ede1ac5a196a51eadc After the end of his service in Caprese, his father and his family returned to Florence.
641175255316e9530e2c39b4ea338d2f2824a17e Michelangelo's creative path was difficult and full of truly titanic efforts.
caed9f366c54942862c7a9aaa2334f43a2cd0492 Already in his early youth, he had to overcome his father's desire to teach his son in a Latin school.
a0d5b3be7afd6136e4f3af205fc941ca015dd738 It is not known what contribution Lodovico Buonarroti made to the upbringing of his son.
8be480708ae990d21b8c24092b47fa42f1432989 In the last years of his life, Michelangelo described his father as "an old-fashioned and God-fearing man." 1
400d3ceddc703ec5973d5ea3f9a79d5769de170f Like many Italian fathers of that time, Michelangelo's father probably entrusts his son's initial education to other family members.
6f6f38acf6c4ddea0d56012610e705cc68eba60a According to a contemporary, "he preferred to study grammar visiting churches, where he copied paintings."
131fe0b350ed78f3a86bce6434f58132b319950d Michelangelo was born with an exceptional talent, the time came when the future genius began to affect the child.
9baa42591fc6372b58fd7053f61a3260d0387faf Michelangelo had to endure a difficult struggle with his father's will.
c7a8cec54b6489e28745a2dcec2dab844f8454ba The son's persistent perseverance won the victory.
2e84623beb26f918db9fd05538ba2cd3b30a508d Michelangelo's father had big plans for the future for his son.
95d012b2c0cb66791d56ca9df738b0b22026edc0 When it was time for the training, Lodovico Buonarroti took the boy from Bandinelli's workshop, where he was making great progress.
9aff48ad604625ca83ac14917a40a2b79c4d497a Despite his limited means, he sent Michelangelo to school in 1482, when the boy was only seven years old.
36fff289e4bb792d4f669ba1217697c3241692d2 Michelangelo also had to learn to play the flute, the study lasted up to 15 years.
945275a7821c420a99f2dae118d5112fdfdb44de The flute became some kind of terrible ghost in his life.
297b1c13c6ae590c85915b7a1bb76901008340fd The father wanted his son to become a lawyer, and sent the boy at the age of 10 to the Latin school of Francesco da Urbino in Florence; he had to learn to decline and conjugate Latin words from this first compiler of Latin grammar.
25bc9f75bda01f61cb2c5582f3d2afbd1c2e4ad6 Of course, both the grammar and the school were caused by the need of the new time, they talked about" rebirth", about humanism.
5378fd49c4282f1f19e575ee3733b203a8d24f7a Happy moments were brought to the boy by an accidental friendship with a beautiful and talented young man five years older than him.
381d1be67a1630fefbf66fd45fad6b4bd0de1392 This was Francesco Granacci, a student of the then famous master in Florence, Dominico Ghirlandaio, the author of many monumental murals and easel works.
1919994658f7675c5c099a008d4c3badc5f4f0a3 With this young man, the workshops of both Domenico and other famous masters of that time became available to him.
74f683ecbb62acf47e3737cd80703a676bc87caf In the first years at school, according to biographers, Michelangelo made progress.
f1dd6e0abea3ee7dc95f5fbb3c6b8bf11dcfae8c He read well, wrote in a smooth, beautiful handwriting.
53527b18e58912bbf545f0194464aab5a57fe160 In the same years, Michelangelo's artistic talent awoke.
e612515b122129e0bb92cb70c0411314017ab24c The father, noticing the boy's interest in drawing, was dissatisfied.
26e400e0546530c8dce7e0668f07b3a7ae69ece8 He made considerable efforts and all his parental authority to turn his son away from art.
8b57d46bb659379022654cb4c09b755e1adf7d2c In the future, studying at school was given to Michelangelo worse and worse.
5ca59b1a5584c441d51aee10fdfdc07199310cab The distressed father attributed this to laziness and negligence, not believing, of course, in the vocation of his son.
b2d0df091446fdd6ab6181053a91596a338eeed7 He had dreamed of a brilliant career for him, the scion of an old but impoverished noble family, when he gave him to Francesco, and he had the right to do so.
e2ad623a40f79f8aea4f2a83d8e8c3c47cf8314b To understand the meaning of the struggle and suffering of Michelangelo's father, and to excuse his perseverance, it should be noted that although some artists already enjoyed considerable fame and respect, but in general art was still considered a craft far from honorable.
50323280d4279238e8a8ed606eff3a1d37679cba Buonarroti considered his son's studies " unworthy of the ancient Buonarroti family."
e513ea907a825f919445124697370d791b9da0c8 Contrary to his father's will, Michelangelo entered the studio of the famous historical painter Domenico Ghirlandaio at the age of 13.
b50a64c9fc79d69eac8273a69a879cf57811eac6 Thus began his professional training and the path to a brilliant career.
38d31f41b00e426015a0a84350459092244291e3 Dominico Ghirlandaio, the famous Florentine painter, mentor of Francesco Granacci, a friend of the young Michele, drew attention to the boy and told him to bring something from his drawings, the artist saw in these timid samples living glimpses of talent.
4a520edba2e5ee09e23ee1b2884e5f89592fc1d4 Ghirlandaio ran an art school where he taught boys the art of painting and sculpture.
8289fd777432f15cffcb3ea8ebea2c22587f1db5 The next day, Domenico went to Michelangelo's father to ask him to give his son to him for training.
1579ba29d7b9ccfa664167ac68ea11d4d8afaabf With great reluctance, my father agreed.
9abad1240cfcbad6088a567fa6ef5ee410236729 On April 1, 1488, at the age of 13, Michelangelo became a student of the artist brothers Domenico and David Ghirlandaio.
11df14d64c81521014a22431c46ef9f50ac9c8f8 The workshop was then just a shop, and not a formal salon, as it is now.
a1e6c8416ee1314d46e98b28da461fda6ca4f1e6 At the Ghirlandaio School, the young Michelangelo got acquainted with the basic materials and techniques.
ca6c2224f7fb44da144198b63c71aa4c23dcefa1 He studied the art of wall painting on raw plaster.
5f8fab080322830220e37dc7e1ada4e98f378e1f Fresco painting was very popular during the Italian Renaissance.
64881d7ddde74443f764f04db174b2bccdd7866b Michelangelo was in his fourteenth year when, among other students, he, in the first year of his admission to the studio, began to help the artist in his work.
160c10849cd0ef5fd783f6c5c6194d8b599e8904 He had already surprised his teachers and comrades more than once with his success, especially with the correctness of the drawing and the excellent copying of the engraving.
5d4816925b9d3e3b26956e8f9b00388b891a2a9a Michelangelo's contemporaries even claimed that he was already correcting the teacher's drawings when he received them for copying, and that Ghirlandaio should have recognized his superiority in drawing knowledge.
819350cef798e364356eb4fa8a393fb3d2a20e0a Michelangelo stayed in the studio of Ghirlandaio for a little more than a year, not three, as was customary in those days.
2312f89ac6fc2643c6180711a75f0a3ccfe06af2 Many years later, Michelangelo claimed that he had learned little from Ghirlandaio.
18d7f2d45b81462d8a1763aa7ec80b650e4d291e Perhaps it was Ghirlandaio who introduced the young Michelangelo to the art of sculpting.
151920203e108130c2c6910e81bee199922f1007 The master admired early Greek and Roman sculptures and stone carvings, and infected his student with his passion.
96fbd4f08bf33c1149d467ccf3b1a131b2e3f322 Already in 1489, Michelangelo moved to the art school founded by the ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de ' Medici.
b512edf2e9a9d2261995abaa5b3eec059e37e04f Since 1489, after a one-year stay in the studio of Ghirlandaio, a turning point occurred in the life of Michelangelo.
9de395235da4ea7fcac912f88c9c0601fba6050f Here Michelangelo found his second teacher-the sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni.
29183d465673fc98bebda9a640056bc5ad27ab0e Although Bertoldo was already an old man when Michelangelo came to study with him, he studied at one time with the great Italian sculptor of the XV century. Donatello.
6c8ea6ea6aef2eeaa83f2e3bc25590564b589a38 Thus, having received a thorough training in the field of drawing and painting from the first teacher, Michelangelo inherits the skill of a sculptor — from the second.
5a178e008662c9225a3a6433094d93d54f0ffd35 From Bertoldo comes the deep interest of the young Michelangelo in antiquity.
c47b0f388c7dc0366cec9b19c3a72e95573a3fa4 However, the most important for the creative development of Michelangelo were the works of Giotto, Donatello, Masaccio, Jacopo della Quercia,as well as antique plastic.
58c592ec72a1bd16905aa4ff619a8a7d6d1e1a51 He gets acquainted with the magnificent collection of ancient monuments collected by Lorenzo.
199a475a5b08a82dc8f0d74ac2fa8ca861d2e6e9 A passionate collector, a great lover of art, Lorenzo could not help but appreciate the abilities of the young sculptor.
520d84c87ad52ddeb14d41bb036ecada848882fa His dream has begun to come true now he will become a sculptor!
d1625e486c4ffa89de0ca7990a1ac8060615d77b However, he had a long time to study as a sculptor.
4c737d4ccf4cab7824235283c11fab1a08efcb5c At first, he was taught to draw sketches.
06f7f2595c67bb84244fd01b101a8231ed32be23 The most important thing is that the artist draws, as he sees, fixes an external impression on paper.
ecf6594c8c1bce5889c1bf52d9880f0585e05bb8 The sculptor approaches the form from the inside and, taking it, passes all its flesh and materiality through his being, the principle of Bertoldo's teaching.
4e088d3039a334281fb5733dc1fc604570d0fbfa Deliberately testing perseverance and strength of character, Lorenzo the Magnificent put many obstacles in his way.
7fd08fd11d05552b2deca6e9e7058949231020de But Michelangelo overcame all obstacles and proved that he was worthy of further training in the Gardens, creating his first sculpture-a Faun.
a515461f8a0a1c1f9010490d3d7e67de5c330842 Under the guidance of Bertoldo, Michelangelo studied the art of sculpting, and made considerable progress in this field.
15c32421e7e31ebec6ebc5347cb8d460e278fb28 His talent was so clearly manifested already in these early years that his fellow students began to envy him.
8cfbb08ea86b571b55f2e86cbad7d5e23ba89954 Vasari mentions how Torigiani, another student of Bertoldo, broke his nose in a fight.
c04a7eb357bf89045f8e9b6b08e35d0b65e55d8e At the beginning of his creative career, Michelangelo acts primarily as a sculptor.
dfff13dabe827638955b25cea4223cb22ef484bc Already the first works testify to his originality and are marked by features of the new, what his teachers could not give him: the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio and the sculptor Bertoldo.
3efb640024e61a0658ff47099cc0c184e393aab6 His first relief "Madonna at the Stairs" (1489-1492, Florence, Buonarroti Museum), carved by him in marble when he was barely sixteen years old, differs from the works of his predecessors in the plastic power of images, emphasized by the seriousness of the interpretation of the theme used hundreds of times.
51c09028446f9d728838a6bb7df67b088acdde8a Michelangelo's Madonna is tragically pensive, immersed in herself, she is not a pampered Patrician and not even a young mother touching in her love for the baby, but a stern and majestic virgin who is aware of her glory and knows about the tragic test prepared for her.
ef4a673f47fdd8d6e4b38455d693de732e0c15e0 The "Mother of God", known as the "Madonna della Scala", is now in the Florence Buonarroti Museum.
5da14fde8e4ca6eae2bd8a793bae91ca13cfe4ba In the same year, 1497, Michelangelo met the Roman banker Jacopo Gallo, who fell in love with him and his art somehow immediately and considered it his duty to immediately supply the gifted young artist with work.
9a25be1aa6f62796755b9f5303bf6f15bfede649 Thanks to him, Michelangelo immediately received several orders that provided him so much that he completely rejected the idea of returning to Florence.
d372860e092e97532e791948d2423ef63985e06c The first of these orders was a statue of Bacchus, for the Gallo courtyard.
e18c311713d5131335666c66e7418e365df784a5 It was started in 1497, and finished in 1499.
d4ee82e9f380085bfedd739d47274e5f7f33af06 Jacopo's heirs then sold it to Florence, and now it is there in the National Museum.
e0acae15b9cf72415949691e2f26f63ffda058a6 The statue depicts a young man wearing a wreath of grapes, with a cup of wine in his right hand and a tiger skin on his left; the same left hand holds a huge bunch of grapes, which a small satyr who has secretly crept up to it secretly eats.
0a111f477a372b915e851c9e6ac3e9fe69112c9e Bacchus was not the only statue that Jacopo acquired from Michelangelo.
d7156da0f10561516cd39a50cceea670072da86c The second was the one that both Condivi and Vasari call Cupid.
58f85a250c397a82965203e3a28c3fe616c31e98 Michelangelo worked on his marble group for the whole of 1499 and part of 1500.
f715f428a470ebe4f13cd43edf8a9e38c4805006 Now the group stands in the new cathedral, under the dome, built later by Michelangelo himself.
9854e1f879b66165089378ea4a572c7a3936d71c Michelangelo's urgent departure from Florence was connected with the changes that had taken place in the political life of Italy.
9ff59b5672b6fd0358cf3e108c680aa22c35c9d9 Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere ascended to the papal throne under the name of Pope Julius II.
43f0872d2f3b480dbc0ded287f6a67e5d7862039 For Michelangelo, such an order opened up great opportunities.
fbe0904a74252939c05e45ec98c9122899832d53 Pope Julius II wanted Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the papal residence-in the Vatican, although he did not like this proposal, but could not refuse it.
cdca7cb2ccef5c4b89a179dd48e2d86b860d9026 To prepare for this great work, Michelangelo executed a huge number of sketches and cartons, on which he depicted the figures of sitters in various poses.
dda1d88be965e80184378de7853eb7dd8d135940 Pope Julius was extremely pleased with Michelangelo's paintings.
cdafc3852ffe003c17cd05a947bdde033b461217 The incredible strain of work greatly undermined his health.
ed50289926c4770efc20852ecf68d5cd02d484ab After that, his eyes almost stopped seeing: in order to read a book or look at something, he had to lift it high above his head.
c9faed90f6f9db618301b69057dcb01960e05e60 Julius ' successor, Leo X, entrusted Michelangelo with the construction of the facade of the Church of St. Nicholas. St. Lawrence, in Florence, where the brilliant artist moved.
9e8e3cbeeaa729599577d91d7ddb57cc33740885 He spent a lot of labor and precious time on this matter, but it did not go beyond making a model of the facade and preparing materials for its construction.
f832fef919fe35d7462db94f7d003c8889f3bdcf In the late period of creativity, when pictorial images lose their heroic beginning in Michelangelo's painting, sculpture and graphics, acquiring features of increased emotionality, pessimism, doom, when Mannerist tendencies were widely spread throughout the art of Italy, Michelangelo turned to other areas of art — poetry and architecture.
70f7d7a1f387f895e4df3e02013dd74774a16fe9 Only in the art of architecture, Michelangelo remains faithful to the precepts of his heroic years, his faith in the boundless creative power of the artist is fully manifested again.
d15b75f6b558b0b7d6258dad1fde7114995133d1 Since ancient times, Michelangelo has been revered as the "father of the Baroque", he took up architecture when he was already mature and famous, and devoted the last decades of his life almost exclusively to architecture.
f2d33db51d773db60b1892ed9ee4a21a5473017b Architecture has occupied a certain place in Michelangelo's work before.
ad37ec404e2682ec318935419bec220e31611bd6 But it was either directly connected with his paintings and sculptural works, as in the paintings of the Sistine Chapel vault or when creating the ensemble of the Medici Chapel, or it represented episodic orders that remained in the projects.
e972ea68617d3c0c4daa3f559d168294cdb19752 Such was the order of Pope Leo X for the reconstruction of the facade of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, commissioned by Michelangelo in 1516. Michelangelo glorified his name by creating the interior of the Laurentiana library, a magnificent example of sculptural thinking in architecture, with the famous staircase, which, according to V. N. Lazarev, is like a "lava flow flowing out of a narrow doorway", and whose curved steps seem to us eternally mobile in their seemingly unstoppable alternation. although Michelangelo turned to her late, he also glorified his name in this art.
68b0248754923b04a8ac2d92f70ccf003e5da026 Michelangelo violated the architectural traditions of previous generations.
bcf4b1f0fd420cbc7cb4cd180d9241c228020a5d In his buildings, the order often lost its tectonic significance, turning into a means of decorating walls, creating enlarged masses that amaze people with their scale and plasticity.
575235aefcdc5d47832244fe3a2b491b865800f0 In the architecture of Michelangelo, a brilliant sculptor and painter, the plastic principle prevails, the emphasized identification of the plasticity of forms and their intense dynamics, the intense, rich chiaroscuro relief of the wall, strongly protruding pilasters, plastically expressive platbands, the "grand order"play an important role in creating dynamic contrasts of the masses.
e3eee43a424bd6153284fe6103f8844def59bee7 Michelangelo's buildings prepare the ground for the Baroque, but their majestic tectonicity remains a purely Renaissance feature.
6dc5c1852006579da07ab17f0eeacb7d5846d6f0 In life, Michelangelo did not know gentle affection and participation, and this, in turn, affected his character.
bbd9e606dcbb72e5494878dc9a81e1bb88c7d456 "Art is jealous," he says, " and demands the whole person."
4a095cac3a6365bfce715fd28892e7190917a4c6 "I have a spouse to whom I belong entirely, and my children are my works."
aa9a0d682ae2e406d47397c1516acf29abb3d58a The woman who would understand Michelangelo had to have a great mind and innate tact.
d72d82b9c17b23cfeee5948f281f4e5806043c3a He met such a woman - Vittoria Colonna, the granddaughter of the Duke of Urbana and the widow of the famous commander the Marquis of Pescaro, but it was too late: he was already sixty years old at that time.
ff7a0452b5afe71fa897b6509942dea19f5ca1df Vittoria was interested in science, philosophy, questions of religion, was a famous poet of the Renaissance.
07ec3576512ddc3ed9f4a4afb8ba588160c6a42c They communicated for more than 10 years, exchanged poems.
9cecfea536dd0b0764e778da96e8a5c6f8b64458 Her death was a heavy loss for Michelangelo.
638d0e2a2478d6183fa2cf356ccf0026e6f24a6c The friendship of Vittoria Colonna softened for him the loss of his father, and then his brothers, of whom only Lionard remained, with whom Michelangelo kept in touch until his death.
37d6b583da3540e5c33b23a238f48f8ad4e957d8 When Michelangelo died, he left a brief will; as in life, he did not like verbosity.
38d56c7ad606f84136b1c2a65996e3db7fff4c5a "I give my soul to God, my body to the earth, my property to my relatives," he dictated to his friends.
13bedbedda3658d4f3b581c91f3035a40beca247 Michelangelo died on February 18, 1564.
57ce354cc7fa0a70b1e8283a4db23960256d340f His body is buried in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence.
596b771fc9cddf5214668df0f31ed75a5d2651fd In 2007, Michelangelo's last work was found in the Vatican archives — a sketch of one of the details of the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral.
d38e8d0b6b4e6fcd11d5000b5773e0d58cd59120 The drawing, made in red chalk, is "an image of a detail of one of the radial columns that make up the drum of the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome."
e90a6c4bc5b65892d24f05fc4c606d8da639c979 It is believed that this is the last work of the famous artist, made shortly before his death in 1564[2].
7478578275a284ef472fafc46d5a9cdd41d63c2c This is not the first time that Michelangelo's works have been found in archives and museums.
32de3715db2cff1eb695bcb23544cb5a7121818c So, in 2002, in the vaults of the National Museum of Design in New York, among the works of unknown authors of the Renaissance, another drawing was found: on a sheet of paper measuring 45×25 cm, the artist depicted a menorah-a candlestick for seven candles.
33426b052b360909af1ac9c851c89f60ac77b2e0 Michelangelo
a1fe72072f1cd7b64444d29f0f9f75ccfaf2f476 1475-1564
71088292f8080baad9d49650fbb961bd474ed01c The genius was born in Italy | Youth.
1fc4c57d2bc70cbebcf82c07a1dd3bc6acada19d Years of study.
07c0f8efdab9eef966ad93973fa47bece731a91d 1488-1495 / Rome.
311c380b25f71c81fd90a7aa39fee6f07eac2b80 "Pieta".
05cf73b1793647204f78d8be067f1840cf3a90f8 1496-1501 / Florence.
b5ec9abcf5bbf882129ae40da78a7372c4001a47 "David".
4261be90e3083383b85efcc63897df3f3248bccb 1501-1505 / Rome.
1c3885add8300916825372108929fd23e90a55c2 Tomb of Pope Julius II. 1505-1545 / Rome.
9c2dad3cb0e413987e3f25edfc3096e03e4dbc60 Frescoes of the Sistine Chapel vault.
2f5cdaee01a1be1736f8cbf0fbece05bcc99dff0 1508-1512 / Florence.
c6cc84e3854d0d2897a4054de100b3171b15edf1 The Medici tombs.
0a94c41c5e7c86ef8fa5f0e5692676f03b470c72 1516-1534 / Rome.
82b14c5772c41160d0c61081585244bd99b6a989 Late works.
784d25b6238840076ac3cc1d4a93634f615b73c8 "The Last Judgment".
0cd3c3919deabd48eef99d283ff93a459d3ddbc0 1534-1541 / Architecture.
71dc242028fcebd293cba487fac7657e3686d2b7 The Cathedral of St. Peter.
e08578ca17fee7805fe66e932e02372e2f2e9ec2 1538-1564 | site map | home page
fbebfd9dcf2350e376430d4f6cb7d06f23b482ba 1. The genius was born in Italy (1475-1488)
545093319b545ccdb43f2d4c938f994641dbffa7 The struggle with the father's will
b526ba9b48dd131532294c09fced4ba42413fd25 In the last years of his life, Michelangelo described his father as "an old fashioned and God fearing man."
132c47a77ed036f0022bae1a1cf289fcfb7ca37e 1 He had a large family in his care, but he was "too proud to earn a living, too poor to live well"2.
67324030af28cca76df57f9ae57a6dcd01d1906a He became attached to versification early.
1966e570a0b3b33ebb4f5a59e19e2b9c5f1a874f Even in adulthood, poetry played an important role in his life.
d1a5909b61476280622ad4e650e7c8f06ef66774 He made considerable efforts and all his parental authority to turn his son away from art. Neither punishments, nor repeated beatings, nor threats could change the situation, Michelangelo continued to persist in his choice of life path.
0550cae1d3fc70325714c5d52bf07982ffaed48c While the father was devising means to "correct" his son, fate and chance were doing their own thing.
991cafe06744d3a81976a6720e022e8f66707c1b The distressed Buonarroti Simoni have long lost their privileged position, but the old family pride remained, and the father tried to hammer it into the negligent son.
6c8dcab1d94ab1e702378b06868d5326792985ba 1. Gilles Neret, Michelangelo.
21b57a9c3d7c1607fbd77843165ae646864d56bf 1475-1564.
165728a219cbbc1a39850a418ffde9042c4d085d New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2001, p.
daff46ebace724dc83198e7cdd21416e91a74a88 2. Howard Hibbard, Michelangelo.
42197b655c6a3eb9d769357129befe6996eae3d9 New York: Harper & Row Publishing, 1974, p.
219c5c9b69b8c545f7643ec9f4805863fff351c2 previous / home / next page
21ce7a7f7736e097af954910b9f04abe9ca85273 © All rights reserved.
7627d68c668188407fa0f5bf4fe491aa28d49805 Мikelangelo.ru
ab51305f5bb48faa9cdd2ffc8c4177933ee9d7ad 2. Youth.
0ad7d40183304061ec405d6fa06105e99e728204 Years of study (1488-1495)
cd13ddb5d06603d3c1ffa02eb2b1b5c0dcf0b700 "Madonna on the stairs" marble bas relief (1490-1492)
a1c1cb15def87e97ce616bb15c0bb7fce0718507 "The same Lionardo kept in his house a few years ago, in memory of his uncle, a bas relief with the Virgin Mary, carved from marble by Michelangelo himself, a little more than an elbow high; in it, being at that time a young man and planning to reproduce the manner of Donatello, he did it so successfully, as if you see the hand of that master, but there is even more grace and drawing here.
552b345673d1e24c72a7178cb27756c86b9081bd This work was then presented by Lionardo to Duke Cosimo de 'Medici, who esteems it as the only thing of its kind, because there was no other bas relief, except for this sculpture, by the hand of Michelangelo," Vasari.
be5123fcae4cff75fcb6a748b530c6afc513ed26 "Madonna at the Stairs" is made in the traditional technique of low, subtly nuanced relief for Italian sculptors of the XV century, reminiscent of Donatello's reliefs, with which he is also related to the presence of babies (putti) depicted on the upper steps of the stairs.
01ffd92624587f631d4001b4fb25ffcfb50a4b14 At the bottom of the stairs, a madonna is sitting with a baby in her arms (hence the name of the relief).
bc884bfb637c3665b077c8c7ebf413415bd6c09b The subtle gradation of the sculpting of the forms of this three plan relief gives it a picturesque character, as if emphasizing the connection of this type of sculpture with painting.
8eae9652570c86ff415e5a40ba193dfd3e09c693 If we take into account the fact that Michelangelo began studying with a painter, then it becomes clearer the reason for his appeal at first to this particular type of sculpture and its corresponding interpretation.
3ef09a8ace21bca67d13ea92cebf5e5f5c820f61 But the young Michelangelo gives, however, an example of the performance of a non traditional image: the Madonna and the Infant Christ are endowed with unusual power and inner drama for the art of the Quattrocento.
91c2bb548731762d809aa7539d80f9be05cbc563 The main place in the relief belongs to the Madonna, majestic and serious.
ed6e596311824287c6ea63925772d0963a199983 Her image is associated with the tradition of ancient Roman art.
f5f25b4887f853a0232e4ed90ec5020252b71a6b However, her special concentration, a strong sounding heroic note, the contrast of powerful arms and legs with the grace and freedom of interpretation of the picturesquely melodious folds of her long robe, the amazing baby in her arms in the strength of a child — all this comes from Michelangelo himself.
b4567c0ad835552ab6afa6dc7a590928388d994a The special compactness, density, balance of the composition found here, the skillful comparison of volumes and shapes of various sizes and interpretations, the accuracy of the drawing, the correctness of the construction of figures, the fineness of the processing of details anticipate his subsequent works.
78b35ce50a60a0f3a1ed6e09ea177bee6046fa81 There is another feature in the "Madonna by the Stairs" that will characterize many of the artist's works in the future — a huge inner fullness, concentration, the beating of life with external calm.
5da275c94274fca5b0bb1aeb5be764bb67a18a69 The madonnas of the XV century are pretty and somewhat sentimental.
adb221b109b1e2a193dc0446b54d4b54915daaa6 Michelangelo sculpted Mary when she, holding a child at her breast, had to decide the future - the future for herself, for the baby, for the world.
ab18f9ddbc9df6dfe3687cd8a09041c1a9593adc The entire left part of the bas relief is occupied by heavy stairs.
aa50f40b4f76efa25d5a713b344c4dcbfa64e65a Maria is sitting in profile on a bench, to the right of the stairs: a wide stone balustrade seems to end somewhere behind Maria's right hip, at the feet of her child.
508e1eee513404f180f1b907ee0321f07f9c8f6f The viewer, looking at the thoughtful and tense face of the Mother of God, can not help but feel what decisive moments she is experiencing, holding Jesus to her chest and, as if weighing in the palm of her hand the whole weight of the cross on which her son was destined to be crucified.
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f2bf9e1fdc6cded96a3b4a58422dda7c4a70bb15 BACK BY Michelangelo Buonarroti
13e12c6ddc6d4831c5727a24ece4297cf4342917 Michelangelo Buonarroti
7176bd77be5523226495898a3145318cc6f3790f March 6, 1475 – February 18, 1564
0c6e9d31b2024a5f23448d612dc8e441404d3e2d Biography When they say that Michelangelo is a genius, they not only express a judgment about his art, but also give him a historical assessment.
1024ff13f34a4a661c79e1ab512f3dbaf11362f1 Divine inspiration requires solitude and reflection.
008dfa6321eb583c160528bc503f1dee97eef950 In the history of art, Michelangelo is the first lone artist who leads an almost continuous struggle with the surrounding world, in which he feels alien and unsettled.
81f1c209d6ac9140fadfd48304e2708c481df15d In the family books of the ancient Buonarroti family in Florence, there is a detailed record of this event of the happy father, sealed with his signature di Lodovico di Lionardo di Buonarroti Simoni.
91ed05452923804befc605ed9d8fdb060fe1b30f His father sent his son to the Francesca da Urbino school in Florence.
b05363309dc8d0dabf5fe0fe83f6e07fb5c03fc6 The boy had to learn to incline and conjugate Latin words from this first compiler of Latin grammar.
3a0994354afa3d69a14d8eb55593b243caaf3a48 The boy was extremely inquisitive by nature, but Latin depressed him.
d982c044ba08bd904f4497be55ff7d4232294cbe The teaching was getting worse and worse.
bcd9f549031d01c85ce40297a561866302600c56 He dreamed of a brilliant career for him, dreamed of seeing his son someday in the highest civil positions.
14203f284869fad5b0675a7134d7bf9c1dfa2d27 But, in the end, the father resigned himself to his son's artistic inclinations and one day, taking up a pen, wrote: "One thousand four hundred and eighty eighth year, April 1, I, Lodovico, son of Lionardo di Buonarroti, place my son Michelangelo with Domenico and David Ghirlandaio for three years from this day on the following conditions: the said Michelangelo remains with his teachers these three years, as a student, for the exercise of painting, and must, moreover, do everything that his masters order him to do; in reward for his services, Domenico and David pay him the sum of 24 florins: six in the first year, eight in the second and ten in the third; in total, 86 livres."
ba28b4100389100f1ebcae133cdd7ac838c592c5 He did not stay in the studio of Ghirlandaio for long, because he wanted to become a sculptor, and went as an apprentice to Bertoldo, a follower of Donatello, who ran an art school in the Medici gardens on Piazza San Marco.
c604af617abcf61d7d928eb7ebf85f9356193508 Biographers say that he was engaged there in drawing from old engravings, as well as copying, having achieved great success in this.
6601edad57e0da27d77cb090e9dcee323e93c3ef The young artist was immediately noticed by Lorenzo the Magnificent, who patronized him and introduced him to his neoplatonic circle of philosophers and writers.
34ecdb98621ac4468f71296109a70f4effd2e212 Already in 1490, they began to talk about the exceptional talent of the very young Michelangelo Buonarroti.
8e5a69a425d83068d8721758ae944af9e94fcdd3 In 1494, with the approach of the troops of Charles VI II, he left Florence, returned to it in 1495.
ade23e8f2d69711b02aba83775a510c51bf2586e At the age of twenty one, Michelangelo went to Rome, and then in 1501 he returned to his native city again.
357634569d68089faa87bdc47a8c8e9df7539e6c Unfortunately, there is little information about Michelangelo's early paintings.
b2db6124a9741c8299d8885017b2015d57e33810 The only completed and preserved painting by him is tondo "The Holy Family".
8239d2d2562c4207b5b1ad79374ad267598e09dd There are no exact documentary data about the time of the creation of this tondo.
fd36a014137859bf3b4d40a51b26055e74de9e0a The composition of the painting is dominated by the figure of the Madonna.
e8157b28a1874102f00fd8b1baf9d581c5d089b6 She is young and beautiful, calm and majestic.
910fd8adc386daab7feda081e35a0409f6778b3f Michelangelo did not consider it necessary to tell in more detail what caused her complex movement.
86e850703c372ce5f9a196a21702dd2cb1e6c6d2 But it is precisely this movement that connects the Madonna, Joseph and the baby into one whole.
1b63048a1e1f9be9efb7b6595f1b832e4d088426 This is not an ordinary happy family.
1c82a815b9e6fb2c078cc4d0c022eca1e74acfd7 There are no traces of intimacy here.
a56a06efc65e355a014e6bd6305d3e37c7e3fb04 This is the majestic "holy family".
ad1ccb69f551847c2114007a24816df76bd78296 In 1504, the Florentine Signoria commissioned two frescoes by famous artists Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to decorate the walls of the Grand Council Hall in the Palazzo Vecchio.
e9cbb76c5407423403f7bd5060ee8d5b27e64198 Leonardo made a cardboard with the image of the "Battle of Anghiari", and Michelangelo - "The Battle of Cascina".
00c27fc9d24c45e77a54114d8624dae2eaa6afcc Unlike Leonardo, Michelangelo wanted to depict in the picture not a battle, but bathing soldiers who, having heard the alarm, hurry to get out of the water.
52dd13a27f4e3b9f5ed389894456cbc9dd01836f The artist painted eighteen figures, and they are all in motion.
c30537dde983d3eccdb0a235d891f5c9dfbd8d33 In 1506, both cartons were put on display.
389dd2986a65ccfb659b079015fb0fbc9d36c7e5 However, the frescoes were never painted.
6f73d3b4a643e9f782436cd267d2a39c2bee3072 The cardboard "The Battle of Kashin", which was valued by contemporaries more than all other works of Michelangelo, was lost: it was cut into pieces and dispersed to different hands, until the last pieces of it disappeared without a trace.
84df9df8e8dc9bd8af4ca0a6cdb1b912e97ff6f9 Vasari, who saw some of its parts, says that "it was more a divine creation than a human one," and the sculptor Benvenuto Cellini, who had the opportunity to study both cartons - both Michelangelo and Leonardo - testifies that they were "a school for the whole world."
21b64cb3665b14ddeafabf230d1e8eecd0f92fe8 Vasari notes that Michelangelo used different techniques in his cardboard, trying to show off his perfect mastery of drawing: "There were many more figures combined in groups and sketched in different ways: the contours of some were outlined with charcoal, others were drawn with strokes, others were filled with shading, and the colors were put on them with chalk, because he (that is, Michelangelo) wanted to show all his skill in this matter."
2ff4e5334f946bbf1c4e1cd2fd790031fd1fda90 In 1505, Pope Julius II calls Michelangelo to him.
c4777872ebffb73ac9a907a5363c4ae9ff408908 He decided to create a worthy tomb for himself during his lifetime.
8cee99368c58ebeb10fbbdba224256242566756c For more than thirty years, the countless complications associated with this tomb formed the tragedy of Michelangelo's life.
dfc0263b94fe8e8708d89b94e3ff4d7b41cc390b The project was repeatedly changed and completely reworked, until the completely exhausted artist, busy in his declining years with other orders, agreed to a smaller version of the tomb installed in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli.
b6e25d19ba63b6fff33599b4c752a68b16ba4a21 In 1508, Michelangelo, on behalf of Pope Julius II, began to paint the vault of the Sistine Chapel.
c99b0f5a7018d0cba39453bcdc9dd4586de74358 Initially, Michelangelo wanted to paint the vault with small compositions, almost decorative, but then he abandoned this idea.
529a8c8408587251ea513d47ab9e0b7a94525972 He creates his own painted architecture on the vault: powerful pillars seem to support the cornice and arches "thrown" across the space of the chapel.
a59a33e287beb1fdd67961bb526aca9f45d4dab6 All the spaces between these pillars and arches are occupied by images of human figures.
f0ce27f40c91798cff32e692c76b65cdaf7884b8 This "architecture" depicted by Michelangelo organizes the painting, separates one composition from another.
2d83e842dd10e8b96d15a824bbc647c7bbd1f037 "The whole history of the world appears before us in the paintings of the Sistine Chapel.
d7225c823eceab1ec5a88e24ec6423b2f0f9ef60 In these grandiose frescoes, Michelangelo seems to create a world similar to his great soul - a gigantic, complex world full of deep feelings and experiences," writes I. Tuchkov.
1220e58ac84efb5e0792bd9522b7f4abca7b07d9 The creation of this painting was painful and difficult for the artist.
dce5af95e500f75d0b160b419e76189d96cfa18d Michelangelo has to build the scaffolding himself, work lying on his back.
244e8208f6336e0e5e9d78f176bedf64ef885d3f Condivi says that when painting the Sistine Chapel, " Michelangelo so accustomed his eyes to look up at the vault that later, when the work was finished and he began to hold his head straight, he could hardly see anything; when he had to read letters and papers, he had to hold them high above his head."
4419327c6f215016ea9d18c82699bc39abaf7d75 Michelangelo himself thus conveys his fortune on the forests:
a582f9e4b8c68161abc78b5bf76a49993ba38b8e "The chest is like a harpy's; the skull is for my malice
3796b8cfaeaa2c25e7efb2a60cef345939b98ae5 He climbed to the hump; and his beard stood on end;
a3572bfe243c853134cfd78e2d4825ab98172c69 And from the brush on the face flows a mess,
62888f9d7d11ae22c387124c403efeeb9930f9e5 Dressing me in brocade, like a coffin..."
e0ee4460ea68263521cc4480c93ac1602363cffa The election of Leo X from the Medici family as pope in 1513 contributed to the renewal of the artist's connection with his native city.
162345198dfef4c9d1d9285664dd8d0cadcd8f28 In 1516, by order of the new pope, he developed a project for the facade of the church of San Lorenzo, built by Brunelleschi.
acab59e0a56fb36ad667528207f406beb3a75d86 This was the first architectural order.
87d80971dcae63ba077ed4c27ffd8b5f2c7904ff Michelangelo spends a long time in the quarries, picking up marble for upcoming works.
417402e676dd076f0c4d08d1a082812b62ae0fd7 He begins work on the chapel, but in 1520 Pope Leo X cancels the contract.
45d3c8952017bdbdcd136647c074f53df63a8fb6 The artist's four year works were destroyed with the stroke of a pen.
32dcf135f4f872a92faf359cc8e0456e55eba918 In 1524, Michelangelo began the construction of the Laurentiana Library.
6f2d792a3f93ba8b5e975648f04458fdc7caead6 The fall of the Florentine Republic marked the most disturbing period in Michelangelo's life.
e3ebb1f999fe3ec262327b6d6bca7427a13a8c4b Despite his firm Republican beliefs, Michelangelo could not stand the anxiety before the upcoming events: he fled to Ferrara and Venice (1529), wanted to take refuge in France.
1dc74a12b9c73557edd745ef58cfe784daada910 Florence declared him a rebel and a deserter, but then forgave him and invited him to return.
e264035bb54137b3b2e26b1525da2f5fde3ca3aa Hiding and experiencing great torment, he witnessed the fall of his native city and only later timidly turned to the pope, who in 1534 commissioned him to finish the painting of the Sistine Chapel.
21a4aca0bb21d93a9fe82e6b57d7a88cee511053 The artist leaves Florence forever, which has become the capital of the Duchy of Tuscany, and moves to Rome.
5f5b5da91fd5fde15e4ef0fc131ca225890c9d92 A year later, Pope Paul III appointed him "painter, sculptor and architect of the Vatican", and in 1536 Michelangelo began painting the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.
aa60a0d52695d22a4ff1d739b36acf9fe8bec21c He creates his most famous work, the picture "The Last Judgment", on which he worked for six years all alone.
fdb33e0f9b8e065a46da6a5491876a4e70d20f87 In the center of the composition are the saints surrounding the young and formidable Christ.
51935b9ad9d7b5098df65c6d34fa6c1ffe60a4e0 They crowd around his throne, presenting evidence of the torment they have experienced.
75b641c5c4479ed28495be45107d118afb12ec6c They demand, they demand, not ask, a fair trial.
95c23584a0875383aefd40285b8cc7b03f41eb41 Mary clings to her son in fright, and Christ, rising from the throne, seems to push away people who are advancing on him.
4bcb9ff644f194543ab1b82713cbae2517da37b9 No, this is not a kind and forgiving god, this is, in the words of Michelangelo himself, " the blade of judgment and the weight of anger."
d3849d8b3a1d4cd23f6fccb8aac1edd425a1a249 Obeying his gesture, the dead rise from the bowels of the earth to stand before the court.
0050ff580e7d796b17bf7862f6025a7d8b59c5fa With iron inevitability, they rise up, some of them enter heaven, and some fall into hell.
9cf84d245e6a881eec88a907c7b7a2051e6659ac Maddened with terror, sinners fall.
62d97597d25701ab7914666cfac19b0054d34ff2 And Charon is waiting for them below to transport them to the arms of Minos.
f40352de8a3e08a8af820ddfab97d878630c0fab Starting at the bottom left, the dance of human bodies, having made a circle, closes at the bottom right in the threshold of hell.
ea4beda0c77716a94d01114a19729418eea11561 "The Last Judgment is conceived as grandiosely as possible, as the last moment before the disappearance of the universe in chaos, like a dream of the gods before its sunset," writes Bernson.
535807dbf51d38051998bf7f4a5546b1432a57c3 After graduating from The Last Judgment, Michelangelo reached the peak of fame among his contemporaries.
01a1927fc42966bc66ca2a25c185c03c745ed64d He forgot to bare his head in front of the pope, and the pope, according to his own words, did not notice this.
342abefecaabbe96701cd3041b92421350f6b768 Popes and kings put him next to them.
2f850eef6d38fb52d5988b968dfe3cd4360e4db4 From 1542 to 1550, Michelangelo created his last paintings - two frescoes of the Paolina Chapel in the Vatican.
d5932a25f95ea6ce059c4f8009dfe4e8a82655f4 As E. writes: Rotenberg, both frescoes are multi figure compositions with the central character depicted at a crucial moment in his life, surrounded by witnesses of this event.
3944f9cdce2ab0ce6be2143dca68eb0aa1bd3577 Many things here look unusual for Michelangelo.
3b342b1bf491121be7bb23fc12dbd6cd4935781b Although the frescoes themselves are quite large (the dimensions of each are 6, 2S6, 61 meters), they are no longer endowed with the scale that was previously an integral part of Michelangelo's images.
c921eb29949a875421c73eeaeed0e270757409ec The concentration of the action is very peculiarly combined with the dispersion of the actors, who form separate episodes and separate motives within the compositions.
817db902877faabde170c4c5b8cc69dbfb224690 But this dispersion is contrasted with a single emotional tone, an expression of it is very noticeable and, in fact, forms the basis of the impact of these works on the viewer - the tone of oppressive, fettering tragedy, inextricably linked with their ideological concept.
6d6aa204c9bf0ecacd8d6ef0aa625eaf9ed113a5 In recent years, Michelangelo has been engaged in the project of the central plan of the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, sketches the plan of the Sforza Chapel in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, builds the Porta Pia, gives a promising monumental view of the Capitol Square.
82e1c099c58088db8b6ef3cba996dde1761dedd7 Reprinting of information is possible only with the indication of an active link to the source tonnel.ru
9cfd156ea8b2c639262b2119ca5bf8895c463aad In online people.
74fb3e1b5e2825c5482b88ff86220bcd5501c7ac creating websites in SMITH
986fd8e3f1071a0d9ed91370ac91351d714a6f46 Study in the Medici Gardens (1489)
c00b7a334f4ad5a89c7d8f0d1981bd38eb81a9c9 Three years of complete submission to the will of the owner, as the contract says, would be a hard time for a young man with the character and talent of Michelangelo.
9c1d4fd9fcd7a94b2ecf4170a990df39f28780f0 But chance opened another way for him.
f8824ba7abab120db1f6cefee49b2e8953d2921a Together with Granacci, he went to the gardens of the famous Villa Careggi to study and copy the monuments of ancient sculpture.
284cc228d378dc5af018d88b2552605d0efeddd9 The owner of the villa was Lorenzo de ' Medici, nicknamed the Magnificent, who liked to give folk festivals.
7b51ec499cfe9da0f5fca86a5cd0534f0d3ea4c7 Since 1489, after a one year stay in the studio of Ghirlandaio, a turning point occurred in the life of Michelangelo.
d74e5354f13369b43e481bae8a4439cada9b5a9e "At that time, Lorenzo dei Medici the Magnificent kept the sculptor Bertoldo in his garden in the Piazza San Marco, not so much as the keeper and keeper of the numerous beautiful antiquities collected there and acquired by him for a lot of money, but because, wanting at all costs to create a school of excellent painters and sculptors, he wanted them to have the named Bertoldo, who was a pupil of Donato, as their leader and supervisor; and although he was already so old that he could no longer work, he was nevertheless a very experienced and very famous, not only because he thoroughly cleaned the casting of the pulpits of his teacher Donato, but also for his numerous bronze cast works depicting battles and other small things, in the masterful execution of which it was impossible to find an equal in all of Florence at that time.
9d46183ecd89aedcf88c7cff6153348d7dd036db Lorenzo, who had the greatest love for both painting and sculpture, was saddened that there were no famous and noble sculptors in his time, while there were many painters who had the greatest merits and fame, and, as I have already said, he decided to establish the Vasari school.
3ce6406f08898945f1724349e825a47248f2ab28 At the initiative of Lorenzo de ' Medici, an art school was opened in the Medici Gardens at the Florentine monastery of San Marco.
de0dbc15b67b72db9dc2c9d7e5014288fcbac421 The advantage of this school was that its students, free from the shop environment and the need to help the teacher in the execution of orders, had the opportunity to develop their individuality by mastering their skills.
77e696d219e3b532f2936ee9fc33c5c78634c3ec In addition, this school was created on the basis of a beautiful collection of ancient and modern works of art collected by the Medici family.
c67f54b8eeb2fa7c0a8e5ffe272434f3dbbb6550 Lorenzo the Magnificent asked Ghirlandaio to send two of his best students to this school.
2a02c7a578562b0387dffa6340d40d9e21a161ed Here Michelangelo's talent develops in many directions, he began his career as a sculptor.
368d7d02108c4259c83dc86e2991d4c547b78623 Here Michelangelo found his second teacher the sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni.
17c3c3a0d56ebac13cdb85e4a057cac3af5080ae Although Bertoldo was already an old man when Michelangelo came to study with him, he studied at one time with the great Italian sculptor of the XV century.
92594a2d35b61a77dc583d754fd14ecfe1a1d537 Donatello.
f86025412720c48b403a9a9b7d3dc9d606d17d80 A drawing is a candle that is lit so that the sculptor does not stumble in the dark; a scheme that makes it easier to understand what is visible.
ee32aa8232687033e922509b9e871d43c64a64d8 Michelangelo understood some of these instructions with his mind, but the hard experience made him appreciate the teacher's advice much more.
b5ba6a477207955fca42556a264f54c64da60725 But Michelangelo overcame all obstacles and proved that he was worthy of further training in the Gardens, creating his first sculpture a Faun.
ab36876b0d53c72eb0a67a4a0eb4329223e4e70f Mreadz.com The largest library.
9558c418adf17279c3b0c03ceef90ded65828133 Reading room online.
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8649b3c91e9b4cc7bef6e26a8838184d2a885ae1 Michelangelo Alexey Dzhivelegov.
bc9ad2e9d566fc94478af372af7aa3d51a68aa74 Read Online
4c10c7e09959d7a3d2ed3c38a501cd265308c6af The most popular books by the author Alexey Dzhivelegov
8663943a16d2fbffc2b5e4748b8206e70fb985de Leonardo da Vinci Alexey Dzhivelegov
cd9d4910833c558090897bbad858d956e7bfae62 Dante Alexey Dzhivelegov
63143070f0318652ca34a8fe463e3dfcda76950f Michelangelo Alexey Dzhivelegov
991dc60393b12b2d25b569856c277c959d8b1f06 Go to the beginning
ccad4a72d0ee5d5dca6d9781d01ee5904a7b69f4 13 14 15 16
f36b64ed79d622a443d745366b78b2e17edffc24 Table of contents: Librs.net Alexey Dzhivelegov Michelangelo At the sunset of the Medicean Signoria Childhood In the workshop of Ghirlandaio In the Medici gardens The first works Ideological growth The first masterpieces in Rome and Florence Michelangelo in Bologna Minor works in Florence and Rome (1495-1497) Bacchus.
e58a805e6416fcf1f5d504a2d7d7ef0e7cdab33a Cupid.
0e1950d1076bf72e6efdbd8d10d19cb77f219b2e Apollo Roman Pietà Michelangelo's family.
cbf5f52c7107b9d694627c5f77a5a68db6dc96f1 Return to Florence Marble David Further works in Florence by Michelangelo and Leonardo.
0ce97390fd006603f68a0199bd11150163c2df34 Madonna of the Doni Battle of Kashin.
5228addc008f9f7ef765b52173e3a13bcdba4b73 Moving to Rome In the service of the terrible Pope Julius II and the project of his tombstone The end of the Battle of Cascina The Statue of Julius II in Bologna The work on the Sistine plafond The end of the painting How the plafond was written The description of the plafond The political situation of Italy Civil and humanistic motives of the plafond The art of the plafond The Tragedy of the tombstone The artist and the pope Under the yoke of the Medicean popes Leo X and his orders.
1eedd83935a791dbd6c172192a4ba1caaa6b3420 The facade of San Lorenzo Works in Florence by Adrian VI and the accession to the throne of Clement VII.
7234c5a43c4be63c98c8d9ff9b5e596c3d15cabc The Medici Chapel in San Lorenzo and Laurentiana Smuta in Italy.
a832801241c9b09024e76454a9ba0c89ef3ff89b The expulsion of the Medici and the Siege of Florence.
f6a5aeab5dc315ffd5e2ce588d7d55a2151d9b2a Michelangelo's political sentiments Michelangelo's role in defending Florence's work in Florence.
af6a51932822e3f59c99c367d09fc03134ad03f4 Moving to Rome, the Medici Chapel In the kingdom of the Catholic reaction of Paul III and the beginning of the Catholic reaction.
350c0ad7714c49b85ea850072a162d0a7ce8b532 Work on the Last Judgment The art of Michelangelo in the Last Judgment Vittoria Colonna and Michelangelo The completion of work on the monument to Julius II Paolinskaya Chapel.
6fe36f72f5c6f03bb6ade28753abd7c8b66327e7 Friends and relatives of Michelangelo Michelangelo and the Medici.
afd1aaff0718de53aa54774bc66077ab0e0b042f Brutus Architectural works under Paul III Cathedral of St. Petra is the poetry of Michelangelo in Recent years.
965b6a1d29ce7cd77b93b296b29f9728675cf7c3 Recent works.
985348c5ad96502ef098f2b7f3654e1a625c57f7 Death Conclusion Librs.net
1e63383f1c6e70e5d67ada95284dc93a1c8de4f8 it represents a connecting link between the relief of Apollo and Marsyas and the great Florentine David, and in its manner and texture belongs, most likely, to these years.
f887094d6251eaa7338527bf755a6cdba033870b It appeared from the spare funds of the Villa Borghese in Rome, where for a long time, apparently, it lay in complete neglect.
291724374b2ba3956e8cfa5f86374607b604ee21 Her head is broken off and poorly adjusted, her nose and chin have fallen off, which, with insufficient careful finishing and especially with small sizes (about eighty centimeters), greatly spoils her even now.
256d9710c29b358de44e1a0f8fbb176a4c1b5578 However, even if we assume that the statuette was made at this time, yet with the creative ecstasy that Michelangelo was seized with in Rome, in the atmosphere of classical antiquity that seemed to have resurrected for him, it, together with the London Cupid, could hardly fill a whole year before the work on Bacchus began.
01815695281f8d21384dda909f4fc7aac67d90bf Michelangelo was undoubtedly doing something else.
ac1cdab88d26dac81c737e64f3a9e98145944ee5 He was engaged in painting.
062a3950a063a5d55f2450a4b02cab98d413c7eb Vasari says that for the cardinal barber, who wrote well with tempera, but had a poor command of drawing, he made a drawing of Francis of Assisi receiving stigmata, the Cardinal barber painted it as he could, and Vasari later saw it in one of the Roman churches.
0a12bf239d08ef2ab880d817ae6201f003a883fe The item has disappeared.
3f080d38e4cbbed353589179e5be8983be6855a1 But it is difficult to admit that this was the only return to painting during his entire stay in Rome.
2d9b4fd9398a0843c8d0e267672e5e5f885d3a22 Michelangelo could not abandon this art, although he was well aware that his further path would be the path of a sculptor, not a painter.
f825315a52a8fb761ec5e4c9091417064e45d663 And the fact that painting techniques still proved difficult to overcome, at least in these years, was revealed very soon in the thing that not only became the most mature work of the first Roman period, but was to become one of Michelangelo's masterpieces in general, in the Pietà, i.e. in the Mourning for Christ of St. Peter's Cathedral.
02612c1bd208ed850d6646b9bb1b8b0b87e12a56 Roman Pietà
688f970a58f1f408aa345cda29dfae496345724e While Michelangelo was working in Rome for Jacopo Gallo, the fate of the prophet was being fulfilled in Florence.
ac3d4b416f5df4b8541701f281cb66233ce1d5b1 Savonarola was an ardent lover of the people and sincerely wanted the broad masses to live better.
defef30b498317e9f947b297b6165355c84f78ff And he was beginning to understand why their lives were bad.
da0e4a66c4bd0b736b855a67522d94067bf8a0be But he was a bad politician, and he was also convinced that it was possible to rule a state with the largest textile industry in the world, with all the social consequences of this fact and, above all, with the most severe class struggle, by means of persuasion, supported by references to the Bible. and his own prophetic visions.
b4a8fd6c0129e9e96f005294e6434857d84f0411 It is not surprising that he soon became entangled in the complex web of political events.
3edf246a2a0e3eaedc50c6e735ef88ed1ab094df His supporters gave up on him.
816ff99510a769e17f8b98bd92ed5710f10fbb65 He was captured, brought to the spiritual court and burned together with his two apostles.
3104164d15acddf43ae9263acb44db2a4833734c We know that Michelangelo was greatly impressed by Savonarola's sermons.
91bad7189efe1ff96f4f6cecf4410fb11b87c2ff Both the pathos of the monk and his stormy temperament were close to his spirit.
7472a3bc0e455b15a6ee8166295e25df1ec27bb0 The artist was captivated by the purity of his thoughts and his naive belief that it is possible to penetrate the words of the gospel to the experienced Florentine merchants, or the hardened Roman prelates, or this wolf's lair in the Vatican of the Borgia family.
68a09d3883be08f00b635ed53e6405e435c4bcd8 The news of Savonarola's tragic death, which was probably described to him in Rome in every detail, when a grandiose bonfire broke out, dried blood and entrails fell from above like rain, could not but shake him.
0647682d7c670a3d94dbc5cd94004b41dac6a0b0 And he wanted to commemorate the martyr with a work that would be in tune with his ideas.
24003f14cbe2f1cc2a9d41460102da278eae3453 The opportunity soon presented itself.
00d32c63a7555cffcdce68a4a3304ea969e7dfdb The same Jacopo Gallo, for whom Michelangelo made Bacchus and Cupid, delivered him another order.
33a9d8c0dd2e4d3e8965248177c90d1b04e3c09d At that time, the Abbot of Saint Denis (in Italian, San Dionigi), an envoy of Charles VIII of France, was in Rome Jean Villiers della Grole, who has just received the cardinal's hat from Pope Alexander.
8da78774a29dd593e9bf4118f59fa90496cf71fb In his joy, he decided to leave the memory of himself to the city of Rome in the form of some outstanding work of art. Gallo, who was in business relations with him as a banker, betrothed Michelangelo to him and, accordingly, during the contract, vouched for the exact fulfillment of the contract by both parties.
a583bde157494e4dad53191f3cf775b1a8a4669f The artist undertook, for 450 papal ducats, to carve within a year a marble group depicting the Pietà, that is, the Virgin Mary in clothes with a dead Christ in her arms, as tall as a man, and Gallo added to this: I guarantee that the named Michelangelo will finish the named thing within a year and that this will be the best marble statue that Rome will be able to show at the present time, and that no artist today will be able to make a more perfect one.
b5983f6751bccf54ee63a5e29fc161c3911eb748 This was not a banker's enthusiasm and showed that Gallo provided credit more easily in matters of art than when it came to ducats.
198049c7ad08676198387d13fe60054f8fc13bc2 But Michelangelo fully justified the trust of his fan.
dae8f1fd7b41a6ca8784eccb3c07689f3b89c67c Savonarola was burned in May 1498, the contract was signed in August, and, of course, the choice of the plot of the mourning of the tortured son by the inconsolable mother belongs mainly to the artist.
5948ec1c8e5f654f46a70cabcddcaf13822c4ec0 Michelangelo had a premonition that Florence would still remember its prophet.
2b85a852113a4a1910eedb0cf31550155f0a4a78 However, he did not suspect that he himself would have to take part in the struggle of his native city when the memory of Savonarola would resurrect: in the tragic days of the siege of 1529-1530.
196b1988c2e5b0206ff8f001359061cb707c1506 Nor could he have suspected that in ten years the memory of the heretic would be perpetuated a second time in the papal residence by the portrait of Savonarola, which Raphael would place in his Debate among the heroes of the faith.
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d589aa8bc606904336bedf224788df97520bec90 it was moved to the place, to the chapel of the old St. Peter's Cathedral, some Lombards who looked at it said that it was made by the Milanese sculptor Gobbo.
14bd23fab4d01e8e778b3580a0fc95e4c7386627 Michelangelo heard these conversations and at night, by the light of a lantern, he carved his name on the madonna's sling.
5175c6958a755ffa58a8596e26943719751e41c4 The artist depicted the Madonna sitting on a stone at the foot of the cross with the naked body of her son on her knees.
552053793beca0c5d60fd4ada819aab98778a6d4 Madonna has a small, beautiful head and a powerful body.
c33dca8576bc21fe4111f2f2d3181728ac03db88 With her right hand she supports the upper part of the body of Christ; the right leg, slightly raised, is set aside so that the stretched covers of the dress form a kind of bed on which the entire middle part of the body of Christ rests; his shins lie on the left leg of the madonna, and below the knees his legs hang down; one of them touches the ledges of the stone.
16d4a8896d8bbb2be57f9c1c331ea70e80950cfc The left hand of the madonna is perplexedly stretched out sideways, palm up; the head of Christ is thrown back, and the hands lie lifeless on the folds of the mother's clothes.
4cba658c804f7979741ae83dc0f6cd7e48f74887 The artistic task was to depict, without disturbing the aesthetic impression of the whole, the body of an adult man on a woman's lap.
ed88127769847df04cfff7f35d93490e2590bf52 Michelangelo solved it brilliantly.
c537b1e533627815e3eae8b04450078c57f6f83d The group is constructed as a three dimensional triangle, in which horizontal, inclined and vertical planes are combined in an unusually harmonious way.
b75c76e019371f26ca36431d8e12b4e37fd5a44e The lines of the lifeless body of Christ surprisingly gently, naturally and convincingly follow the movements of the Madonna's body wrapped in folds of clothing.
7193a641cdfd8a8895ed5e37ae5ef4f98e1f72bb No wonder this thing was called the first perfect group in the new art.
44da8289147f89ae9acce9837b44e51af1b1810a The viewer does not even notice what a huge number of difficulties the artist had to overcome in order to achieve such an impression.
0ee05de9cb6dacac390d0ae47beb9510b43e737d The new compositional formulas shown by Leonardo da Vinci in painting could not but be known to Michelangelo, and he used them for the first time for a sculptural work.
486e312b6c29c0d213fcd8d2de3e4b1be616c8a1 The influence of Leonardo Michelangelo, he never recognized, but it was not easy for him to get rid of him at first, and for this he, who was painfully searching for his own, Michelangelo's, in art, so hated his great contemporary already in these years.
98a58ff545680ca21730a44c90eeeb613cf9ac31 In Pietà, he borrowed not only the compositional drawing, but also the type of the madonna's head, which he also repeated in one of the sculptural works closest to Pietà in the Bruges Madonna.
a1d1bcb801fc6c58ffb7d484554d5ffb433ec7aa This is not enough: the group as a sculptural work still gives out the inexperienced techniques of the painter, a long term master of sculptural bas relief.
0f1ad30d7f4c8cd77cca226e7c2858bcec077161 The group can only be viewed from the front.
28533fac6418f39a14df336069b754c1fff65b9d If you look at it from the side, you get the impression of almost unrelated fragments.
1f1edf1a1433ab19ce5ecd392a190ae04999a160 This is essentially a masked high relief.
b2ae9ff53811e0530a4b16f3b144a6c1155f444a Undoubtedly, the classical influence is also noticeable on Pietà.
bedb6d20ef379123e7beeff23f10745d99ab088a The group is completely imbued with ancient ideas about beauty; the impression of the Apollo Belvedere is clearly reflected in the treatment of the figure of Christ.
5346aaa5cc9130f3d8bcff37630c8ce67200cbfd Savonarola's reminiscences in their pure form could only bring to life such deliberately naturalistic things as numerous Pietà Giovanni della Robbia from painted terracotta, the purpose of which is to warm up penitent, hysterical moods.
9d611967f4fd85de0cda9f8755aa6f456d06d623 Michelangelo created a work of art in the full sense of the word.
312d83ec83e266c512322eef4593688d77b7275d He did not seek naturalistic effects, although he did not deviate from the requirements of realism.
c4a2f9f274301171bc5d7e79293f003c5d2360c3 He tried to create an impression with strict lines, proportionality of parts, internal harmony.
beb822241d3e735ded29f95fcdc575eeee9d01b2 The connection of the ancient ideal of beauty with the Christian idea embodied in Christ was not easy for the artist.
3943c608161779dab9dc765c7c607401cf67dfb4 Michelangelo, of course, understood what moments of Christian dogmatics he sacrificed in order not to sacrifice the ancient aesthetic moments.
72e9268f5839ace908b2d8422586a77fe2d0cc13 Condivi has saved for us a conversation with the teacher, in which he explains to him why he made the mother of a man in his thirties so young.
4e63b8d711ac1af5ff5964b21daf0cfad377e112 He told Condivi at length that chaste women generally remain young for a very long time, and the Mother of God's youth was still maintained by a special grace.
e0260a5a2c42cf392f6a776ccf4e26d48d9ebce6 These unintelligible theological and physiological arguments delighted the simple minded Condivi, but in essence they represented a poor defense against the accusations that the artist sacrificed a Christian subject to the paganism of ancient Rome.
719dc4b9f00600bb066ce40eb7bf0617e5626538 It would be more correct, but it is impossible, according to the conditions of that time, to say that it was the pagan spirit that raised this Christian plot to an artistic height that had never been reached before.
2c49b6f13153268b893eb2b94692c659bb4ee0fa Jacopo Gallo's prediction, although it was stated in the broadcloth language of notarial acts and had nothing apocalyptic in it, came true exactly.
080d9ce2ae7400794971fedf660657917495bf87 Rome was enriched with a realistic masterpiece that has no equal in all of Italy.
0596f7117f141be167a50e791cd6088f19f276f8 The Michelangelo family.
005f39d83c686ee3f06c033bf9794a7d715215bd Return to Florence
0ce56665cb448ed429da85032ed09fdbf3600fa6 As Michelangelo's fame grew and his financial situation improved, the relationship between him and his native family gradually began to change.
d7825b1490f5f555d8b783ce38bb62db3646dd0e They were never particularly good.
62da27ababa67dc5278e92d8e7a9a1eff77e5a13 The father, we know, was heavy on the hand.
b739a80b85c3556dbfc066e7a4336ca246a274e8 The brothers who remained in the world (Lionardo became a monk) were one more dissolute than the other.
b551a598e0d17ae1ed5c2db24cc0562682240216 As soon as they realized that Michelangelo began to earn well, they immediately began to fit in with him as freeloaders and, apparently, adjust their father accordingly.
d4edfd396996ac16d2c2722e4df05602f69488af Buonarroto, the most dashing of the brothers, while Michelangelo was working in Rome, managed to visit there twice.
c66700e6ae969283709fc000104278080b919c87 In 1497, he came as if to investigate; he had already begged for something, but for
99ddbc8d851f6c7c1730ce0c46a26c61e4b90a72 www.Grandars.ru "Sociology" Cultural Studies " by Michelangelo
beaac8d91fbc3776bcb984a489d8ddc042d21ccc The evolution of culture
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5d5a47fe25398e1a98649911e02773c3d4397942 The culture of Ancient Egypt
3e4a150a7784a75da64e9783fb028abf93f1c844 Culture of the Two Rivers
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40dbaedbf7f7db019f48cd602ab321de7a2d4932 The culture of Ancient China
2fbcd1f24c194d7a2e88142647fbe9e86139466a The culture of Ancient Japan
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f682a258e9c24245853176b56f84186363669699 Biography and work of Michelangelo
e31c32defb7c540683b1b89e2f9468c5f4e89036 Among his first creations, the statue "The Swinging Boy" attracts attention, which echoes the "Discobolus" of the ancient sculptor Myron.
f5ba5db36a834ce3564493c5024f03ac6ff54bea In it, the master manages to vividly express the movement and passion of a young being.
3c44eff80d26691f55b7f577ecdd9c5174713b2c Two works — the statue "Bacchus" and the group "Pieta" - created at the end of the XV century, brought Michelangelo wide fame and fame.
02d30e463792feefe8fc7c681da2412ad8d5fa1e In the first one, he was able to convey a state of light intoxication, unstable balance in an amazingly subtle way.
fcae8cae635a45fefc2930b5037ec9d217f462e6 The group "Pieta" depicts the dead body of Christ lying on the knees of the Madonna, mournfully bending over him.
27378504628ebe1613aca7e04072183c2e365fff Both figures are merged into a single whole.
bc868ce8aae42afce1e531d38581c41adba23ed0 The impeccable composition makes them surprisingly truthful and reliable.
f6473b3fa3e818811602725f020a8a609d427225 Moving away from tradition.
81e9ea8b17eb3fc7d3e916e6f729a8255ca61ae4 Michelangelo depicts the Madonna as young and beautiful.
52cfbe758d148c40ef15da53df48938a057cbec8 The contrast of her youth with the lifeless body of Christ further enhances the tragedy of the situation.
406e00d06d16f62d2273c4917ba659160b0ca9d4 One of the highest achievements of Michelangelo was the statue "David", which he ventured to sculpt from a block of marble that was lying unused and already spoiled.
e8c5829964cbb3f098a81f0757dbb08503e65cf0 The sculpture is very high — 5.5 m.
6642c4799f02e107192943e4fed95c5d6e1f2046 However, this feature remains almost invisible.
651efa748af6e5b867a5387664e28c7e36034a2e Perfect proportions, perfect plastic, rare harmony of forms make it surprisingly natural, light and beautiful.
aeaf0ec97771287050b5bc6dfd954ffd256aff76 The statue is filled with inner life, energy and strength.
3ab956b8c2d1fea7e1cc4574be793b4f21052f3e It is a hymn to human masculinity, beauty, grace and grace.
b2d627babd9f3e594e58f79c6454c8129d003605 Among the highest achievements of Michelangelo are also works. created for the tomb of Pope Julius II — "Moses", "Chained slave", "Dying slave", "Waking slave", "Crouching boy".
aa34a90398b465ea47cf529c13c2a37f9f313288 The sculptor worked on this tomb with a break for about 40 years, but never brought it to completion.
adad2b10825922f49cddd6db36e42af904ad69fe However, that. what the sculptor managed to create is considered to be the greatest masterpieces of world art. According to experts, in these works Michelangelo managed to achieve the highest perfection, the ideal unity and correspondence of the inner meaning and external form.
bb02e5fd55edb89dc7ed85ad9755fbc464d827cc One of the most significant works of Michelangelo is the Medici Chapel, which he added to the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence and decorated with sculptural tombstones.
7ee02d37cf22631e81529b1a57cedd5636e61f43 The two tombs of Dukes Lorenzo and Giuliano de 'Medici are sarcophagi with sloping lids, on which there are two figures - "Morning" and "Evening"," Day "and"Night".
fedfdbca5c72bde370561974cfbd45a51a6ec565 All the figures look joyless, they express anxiety and a gloomy mood.
02143976f5e2bab2fadc70c6a3956f03c86e3a3e Such were the feelings experienced by Michelangelo himself, since his Florence was captured by the Spaniards.
5848a5d070d1fcbedc517b6219687d7655367ae3 As for the figures of the dukes themselves, Michelangelo did not strive for portrait similarity when depicting them.
9fcdeb1c70c42d8b84e617d15dd4d54689dc3a9c He presented them as generalized images of two types of people: the courageous and energetic Giuliano and the melancholic and thoughtful Lorenzo.
899e6ba8c4a7533a250df601c3f110b8599dbde4 Of the last sculptural works of Michelangelo, the group "Position in the Coffin", which the artist intended for his tomb, deserves attention.
1b19dfacf2827db28d1c9067d663fc04c44ec7c5 Her fate turned out to be tragic: Michelangelo broke her.
64b484045cdaffc5750436c00b9c5c7d9afb0221 However, it was restored by one of his students.
f6065c355222dc24c697f5920aea011da5a04c85 In addition to sculptures, Michelangelo created beautiful works of painting.
b466b9074597c4230f7dd665bca0d5652be7ac63 The most significant of them are the paintings of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
6c621c9722f0bce34c216016f9614b8eeb9b3413 He started on them twice.
86f061ffc67bff503e96ebdbe0aea2a0a96f7b20 First, by order of Pope Julius II, he painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, spending four years (1508-1512) and doing a fantastically difficult and huge job.
44ce6b24d7d5d0067b29ab45fda4634e6fedb486 He had to cover more than 600 square meters with frescoes.
b5802bc0f3c954392f73a351f73fe91e0cc80ba0 On the huge surfaces of the ceiling, Michelangelo depicted Old Testament subjects from the Creation of the world to the Flood, as well as scenes from everyday life — a mother playing with children, an old man immersed in deep thought, a young man reading, etc.
af6ca4714f3cf8b3481943238a95f9f034417f89 For the second time (1535-1541), Michelangelo created the fresco "The Last Judgment", placing it on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.
9bb7be9884a2da2547e923642aa4ec7f428c1973 In the center of the composition, in a light halo, there is a figure of Christ, who raised his right hand in a threatening gesture.
e2cff1f63f22caf286ec75f097141a4925720e12 There are many naked human figures around it.
760a7a90bb188316298c477e4a17609c9f51dfb4 Everything depicted on the canvas is brought into a circular motion, which begins at the bottom.
72582fda6f4df2b569c6da33cbf373ba368333f8 the spruce side, where the dead are depicted rising from the graves.
f74fffcb50e6597164bdc134355d3f4db46bcffb Above them are the upward looking souls, and above them are the righteous.
fbc1a0841f41059fa92c53aa1ca37781ad69f690 The topmost part of the fresco is occupied by angels.
35b75a793734cc4773138a6120b0cc2581a7cd84 In the lower part of the right side there is a rook with Charon, which drives sinners to hell.
51f9c0e1e26fe3b603f7a484429f0759f1a521a4 The biblical meaning of the Last Judgment is expressed vividly and impressively.
96b4bed23183a1b988b1b7fb62b7a67659e6e723 In the last years of his life, Michelangelo was engaged in architecture.
94eb6a03dd0a73ff0b02805b221b0f53fa8e9d1a He completes the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, making changes to the original project of Bramante.
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5ffc8290f8c46a985a88a3cc9390730dffd7f899 The works and sculptures of Buonarroti Michelangelo's Early Renaissance High Renaissance Late Renaissance
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8812cd249abebe6a9a9eaf46bb2e46055764ac88 0.037 sec.
0039b5546bb52bd6a95731e0a3eff6ed15c5d07f Study in the workshop of Ghirlandaio (1488-1489)
8d8a05463048a98d45ef92d803571ce745bcd8a9 The step is done.
2ea95c6ab7b6a6b2e84194f9dcd12876115762a7 A happy Michelangelo is in the workshop of his teacher.
065a36e4c64b15cabbbecbf995e6eab59c32b28a Most often, boys began to learn a craft at the age of 10 in craft workshops - from painters, jewelers, architects, sculptors.
21bc31e57d127fe07d071b0901bcfc795f8827eb Often the master master was all this in one person, and the young man studied under his guidance not only one kind of art, but the whole art as a whole.
cf7acb9a11ee27f39d5f24c8c94b46daa4bbae62 Early pencil copies of the works of the great Florentine artists Giotto and Masaccio, made by Michelangelo's hand, demonstrate his characteristic sculptural interpretation of forms.
fcc4b16502b2a814a7a09d2cd02d12799b52db75 "Over time, many children were born to Lodovico, and since his life was bad and he had little income, he attached his sons to the wool and silk workshop, and Michelangelo, when he grew up, gave them to the teacher Francesco from Urbino to learn to read and write.
49dec545739af64eafc014d45b16206f82e76313 But since he was attracted by his genius to drawing, he secretly spent all his free time drawing, for which his father and his elders scolded him, and sometimes beat him, probably considering that the occupation of this art, unknown to them, was a low and unworthy of their ancient family.
b3b12dd67aeaba7f834f96db9467175af5c579fe Michelangelo then became friends with Francesco Granacci, who was at the same young age, and settled under Domenico del Ghirlandaio to study the art of painting: therefore, Granacci, who fell in love with Michelangelo and seeing how capable he was of drawing, every day supplied him with drawings by Ghirlandaio, who at that time was considered one of the best masters not only in Florence, but throughout Italy.
36cfc97f4ff03b206ff330c3f90ab64ca1431f49 And so, since Michelangelo's desire for creativity was growing every day, and Lodovico could no longer prevent the young man from drawing, and since there was no other way out, in order to extract at least some benefit from this and so that he could learn this art, Lodovico, on the advice of friends, decided to arrange him with Domenico Ghirlandaio.
89b1edb9499b7906fbf47293921a98edbc65d15f Michelangelo's skill and personality grew so much that Domenico was amazed to see how he did some things not as a young man should, because it seemed to him that Michelangelo not only overcomes other students, and there were many of them at Ghirlandaio, but also often does not yield to him in things created by him as a master.
28a8217b9237584aa56c49c2124b714e24b8f002 So, when one of the young men who studied with Domenico drew several figures of dressed women with a pen from Ghirlandaio, Michelangelo snatched this sheet from him and with a thicker pen re circled the figure of one of the women with lines in a manner that he considered more perfect, so that not only the difference in both manners is striking, but also the skill and taste of such a bold and daring young man who had the spirit to correct the work of his teacher" Vasari.
3f1778b54e654aa75f879e0a40233d6097f95292 He aroused the greatest surprise in the teacher himself with his copy of the famous engraving by Schongauer depicting the "atonement of St. Anthony".
fe0f0c01d6abbafc8cd710d08d990a672221df40 From this copy on an enlarged scale, Michelangelo made a picture, painting it with paints.
d4626556b8675917eaedb04953592def65c70747 "And so it happened that when Domenico was working in the great chapel in Santa Maria Novella and somehow came out of there, Michelangelo began to draw from nature a plank stage with several tables filled with all the accessories of art, as well as several young men who worked there.
52ba6ae3b2001c765dea9fd4bcdde39b7e09ca83 It was not for nothing that when Domenico returned and saw Michelangelo's drawing, he declared: "Well, this one knows more than mine" - so he was struck by the new manner and new way of reproducing nature, which, by the verdict of heaven, this young man was gifted at such a tender age, and indeed the drawing was such that one could not have wished for more from the skill of an artist who had been working for many years.
d9381bac2c5b3a3ce51f95d42cfd05ec91104602 The fact is that in his nature, brought up by teaching and art, everything was contained that is known and accessible to creative gratitude, which in Michelangelo daily brought more and more divine fruits, which clearly began to be revealed in a copy made by him from one engraved sheet of the German Martin and brought him the widest fame, namely: when one of the stories of the named Martin, engraved on copper, on which the devils torture St. Michelangelo drew it with a pen, in a manner hitherto unknown, and painted it with paints, and in order to reproduce the bizarre appearance of some devils, he bought fish with scales of unusual colors and thus discovered such skill in this work that he gained both respect and fame" Vasari.
aef1a1389df03ba60ff6fad270d854c46173b437 However, it was at this school that he acquired the skills of fresco painting, which he later successfully applied to painting the vault of the Sistine Chapel.
1ed10dee97bc8ea00c37aa32d79fb5fae07c6ecd The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on January 17, 2016; checks require 7 edits.
a92358098ffdfd9dcd492d658cbeb95c71a5db9b There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the name Michelangelo.
ce61a1831e1a8c1063a0875304dc67fe010221bf There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname Buonarroti.
da64311752c041e30780ae2fbd46924c3d416be9 Birth name: Michelangelo Buonarroti
fb8c92b12dc0530bc66e492f4a55a8569b0ffad7 Date of birth: March 6, 1475(1475-03-06)
33aa8d0b4f80882ce06442db0d57b7a460f786cc Place of birth: Caprese Michelangelo, near Arezzo
5e99595bb7e73738567e21f5a9447a3dfef7dcfa Date of death: February 18, 1564(1564-02-18) (88 years old)
2072abf6ec6cfd0fb9bb15e8d229c57503714add Place of death: Rome, Lazio, Italy[1]
9f12079e1cc79769d295bb43df1569838a73be8b Country: Italy Italy
fe58f34f64f7ea2eddbaf821e51922c71121390b Genre: sculpture
36f2a10c9a7955ca1442fc06eac1b5ac0603b0b8 painting
f380cbcd9a79a4eadf3e8b625bfe9df4ee115aec architecture
0e23246b5c43f521f267ce0e4e1f12bf6e47d647 poetry
6d570360990c763ed2d1187896bd2a6cf1b060ec Style: Renaissance
1a02241094583c1ea89abbe39c0f44512405daa6 baroque
db0ff5825782b404860206d37b33e70068da7086 Patrons: Lorenzo the Magnificent
5cb76e0c79020388bf56ef1ceecf06b76d581dfb Julius II
0057c32c20f32bcc97ee3f02936388200c2008bd Paul III
4c3eb47baabc45ff444d8c273ab3935ef58b7449 Michelangelo Buonarroti, full name Michelangelo di Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti Simoni
da2cddfe330994b6f693c92262f0703be078dce1 (ital.
c9427d0cf59a8d6b066701ee4b3f655ffee25c7b Michelangelo di Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti Simoni( 6 March 1475, Caprese — 18 February 1564, Rome) was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, thinker.
6f792bd083b768e1958e8a2b14562848ccbab181 One of the greatest masters of the Renaissance and early Baroque.
2f0479525804ddd708127c0ef1cc23714f3c5e07 1 Biography 2 Works 2.1 Famous works 2.2 Poetic creativity
b4bbc085e1e0392ff0a9e01f6b2ae22d0505ec54 3 Spiritual quest and personal life 4 Assessment 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Literature 8 In cinema 9 References
9c7c3869956b387d9b92e0c1397e6b9fc4152f69 Michelangelo was born on March 6, 1475 in the Tuscan town of Caprese, north of Arezzo, in the family of an impoverished Florentine nobleman Lodovico Buonarroti (1444-1534), a city councilor.
e13b41cf46925d2b3afa5cfb2df7aab5ab8e0cc9 Some biographical books say that Michelangelo's ancestor was a certain Messer Simone, who came from the family of the Counts di Canossa.
c959af1ebd2c808515a75e61c151f7eda28f0c3e In the XIII century, he allegedly arrived in Florence and even ruled the city as a podesta.
692f1696489434dab9684f86821f52171bdcfaad The documents, however, do not confirm this origin.
443a8d5730df4a3fa42bc722f0787d7820038da5 They do not even confirm the existence of a podesta with this name, but Michelangelo's father apparently believed this, and even later, when Michelangelo had already become famous, the count's family willingly recognized the kinship with him.
db411a6224430980c6a042d7858b2b257e587415 Alessandro di Canossa in 1520 in a letter called him a respected relative, invited him to visit him and asked him to consider his house as his own.
9f5b38f7f0a93801c6472e5ae3b40a7053e85e59 Charles Clement, the author of several books about Michelangelo, is sure that the origin of Buonarroti from the Counts di Canossa, generally accepted in the time of Michelangelo, seems more than doubtful today.
1c76e066ec8eaaa6cd293601a577614d858069f8 In his opinion, the Buonarroti settled in Florence a very long time ago and at different times were in the service of the government of the republic in quite important positions.
7977d4da7011bc6bd919c14eea69fc67bc87f304 About his mother, Francesca di Neri di Miniato del Sera, who married early and died of exhaustion from frequent pregnancies in the year of Michelangelo's sixth birthday, the latter never mentions in his voluminous correspondence with his father and brothers.
e11314f2f41d8c4b6512f69a09b4096ef8e0ff26 Lodovico Buonarroti was not rich, and the income from his small estate in the village was barely enough to support many children.
e5de3de2b741258317fa8d3688cd905bc829fccf In this regard, he was forced to give Michelangelo to the nurse, the wife of "scarpelino" from the same village, called Settignano.
e37a5741623638e92c3adea0e1cb8908abbeeab0 There, raised by a married couple Topolino, the boy learned to knead clay and use a chisel before reading and writing.
1b05637216e17710154802b8520f5bd1030fb70a In any case, Michelangelo himself later told his friend and biographer Giorgio Vasari:
e6e2ae77736101eec961402f8eb5c997d13f1ca2 "If there is anything good in my talent, it is from the fact that I was born in the rarefied air of your Aretian land, and I extracted both the chisels and the hammer with which I make my statues from the milk of my nurse."
9cb8da914b1a9f8fd6e75d0bacafd4018b06a4a1 In 1488, Michelangelo's father accepted his son's inclinations and placed him as an apprentice in the studio of the artist Domenico Ghirlandaio.
1eee5647790207c31566b87202b96a5b7a0af688 He studied there for one year.
08732eb1fde9a26f49e0e62ee31a27c30edcc195 A year later, Michelangelo goes to the school of the sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni, which existed under the patronage of Lorenzo de ' Medici, the actual owner of Florence.
cc4e846851f3b114d5e22920d96172094291bc73 The Medici recognizes Michelangelo's talent and patronizes him.
c967c4b1cdd1dea4c5e3dda50838bd8c941c5fd4 From about 1490 to 1492, Michelangelo was at the Medici court.
ef6c1a7181602e47b74bc9efd6271e1cfb1f4344 Perhaps at this time "The Madonna near the Stairs" and "The Battle of the Centaurs"were created.
48034401d30e794522b478e3baf60212fbec8694 After the death of the Medici in 1492, Michelangelo returns home.
aee642f7d3d7d121f446a88177a23d403eb7a27f In 1494-1495, Michelangelo lived in Bologna, creating sculptures for the Arch of St. Dominic.
25dd7c336731019864cbcb492f3b60e02946cd61 In 1495, he returned to Florence, where the Dominican preacher Girolamo Savonarola ruled, and created sculptures "Saint Johannes" and "Sleeping Cupid".
1220b0cc427272a1e053abd1d4d1a7a7ffda120e In 1496, Cardinal Raphael Riario buys Michelangelo's marble Cupid and invites the artist to work in Rome, where Michelangelo arrives on June 25.
24ac1022749ebbe2967a102d427cb0f71d0c1c78 In the years 1496-1501, he created "Bacchus" and "Roman Pieta".
65707dd6044a766b9d9e5fac151e518e85d2129f In 1501, Michelangelo returned to Florence.
72c51c2efd5e99044b0fd6f4fdbf0f2ba056e31d Commissioned works: sculptures for the "Piccolomini altar" and "David".
da63500f112d05145a0fa30b55ea6a6a6ed433b9 In 1503, works were commissioned: "The Twelve Apostles", the beginning of work on "St. Matthew" for the Florentine Cathedral.
07897495ad583630c4c19d64542cd3ada30401be Approximately in 1503-1505, the creation of the "Madonna of Doni", "Madonna of Taddea", "Madonna of Pitti" and "Madonna of Bruges" takes place.
8b66c7028173b9d06fb6187b7a71129c64de6956 In 1504, the work on "David"ends;
8efe1fd2cfce9dfa8e96718f52eee80143d3f47c Michelangelo receives an order to create the "Battle of Kashin".
0e24665d274487c615306de244ade17188f604cc In 1505, the sculptor was summoned by Pope Julius II to Rome; he ordered a tomb for him.
51c7641bcc2b0ddc1c25645ebed17f5eb8955993 An eight month stay in Carrara follows, the selection of the necessary marble for the work.
ccc085ae50df71cf25ad70d7ce5e21b92009d9e2 In 1505-1545, work was carried out (with interruptions) on the tomb, for which the sculptures "Moses", "Bound Slave", "Dying Slave", "Leah"were created.
f7f50be70feac5d04c434ce1cf9acc351a261776 In April 1506, he returned to Florence again, and in November he reconciled with Julius II in Bologna.
c589d504186d904c9a5a6c64ee8ca8296a832474 Michelangelo receives an order for a bronze statue of Julius II, which he was working on in 1507 (it was later destroyed).
017eb2826fcdb162e3e751bf9bfcd468ca4163b4 In February 1508, Michelangelo returned to Florence again.
ea29f61c8eab6a3f87141ce8f779b8f728ff6e4e In May, at the request of Julius II, he goes to Rome to paint the ceiling frescoes in the Sistine Chapel; he works on them until October 1512.
2b09b0942473c0753d5e641bf98af80f969516ea In 1513, Julius II dies.
a0e9e9a37a6f7a388e8882f7c193b3b4617d660a Giovanni de ' Medici becomes Pope Leo X. Michelangelo signs a new contract to work on the tomb of Julius II.
0523323f8004dbea221e03a353dea41fe15adf61 In 1514, the sculptor received an order for "Christ with the Cross" and the chapels of Pope Leo X in Engelsburg.
3dadeffa17de5b112ef6c59e4a5b3ae1965b265b The Tomb of Michelangelo Buonarroti in Santa Croce
08af0f48b1ed00d6bc7b9a2c0fb7b203576e5f78 In July 1514, Michelangelo returned to Florence again.
61a66d40e1754515a50a87bff368420710b2b876 He receives an order to create the facade of the Medici Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, and he signs the third contract for the creation of the tomb of Julius II.
2850a851974498c9c2dac1f76e55d0d6947453e5 In 1516-1519, numerous trips were made to Carrara and Pietrazanta to get marble for the facade of San Lorenzo.
33d276448190507ae7f7f10f59775c86a45fc3f9 In 1520-1534, the sculptor worked on the architectural and sculptural complex of the Medici Chapel in Florence, and also designed and built the Laurenzina Library.
3c04840455ef053815c0be973a8ce47f1c90fe59 In 1546, the artist was entrusted with the most significant architectural orders in his life.
f74c162aea9a7f9adadd8f74145578cd075a9ef4 For Pope Paul III, he completed the Palazzo Farnese (the third floor of the courtyard facade and cornice) and designed for him a new decoration of the Capitol, the material embodiment of which lasted, however, for a long time.
a7595c2ecd44e8049bf77cd5f708ac72e6d91c37 But, by far, the most important order that prevented him from returning to his native Florence until his death was for Michelangelo his appointment as the chief architect of St. Peter's Cathedral.
c5f1bd7b3e2131fe23ea8c42ce3450479bb4519a Having been convinced of such trust in him and faith in him on the part of the pope, Michelangelo, in order to show his good will, wished that the decree should declare that he serves in the construction out of love for God and without any remuneration.
2bb6f97bfe901bd1fe7c6260671a9a695a1443cf Michelangelo died on February 18, 1564 in Rome.
0d73effc12f01030058b779a548b1053b0710083 He was buried in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence.
a851ec7faf1856fccab27f730a086d966b2bf099 Before his death, he dictated the will with all his characteristic laconicism: "I give my soul to God, my body to the earth, my property to my relatives."
6a17c01e31d72122a7a4bced35c4e433a55ea77e According to Bernini, the great Michelangelo said before his death that he regretted that he was dying just when he had just learned to read syllables in his profession.
e62cb3adffbde441191fcde0303baf5d10580f14 The genius of Michelangelo left an imprint not only on the art of the Renaissance, but also on the entire subsequent world culture.
8cb8767750b6214f9f7a24df363ad05adac33897 Its activities are mainly connected with two Italian cities Florence and Rome.
cba4c840799cd476307ea59b285ffd8d12c0277c By the nature of his talent, he was primarily a sculptor.
a196e0c29d3f93eecb230aef49a85e2fa14de150 This is also felt in the master's paintings, which are extremely rich in the plasticity of movements, complex poses, distinct and powerful modeling of volumes.
09a0ef95ed0386a922152449a120010c0650cd95 In Florence, Michelangelo created an immortal example of the High Renaissance the statue " David "(1501-1504), which became the standard image of the human body for many centuries, in Rome — the sculptural composition" Pieta " (1498-1499), one of the first incarnations of the figure of a dead man in plastic.
13edebda3cfc59c5b69a9c7966947255777ccdb4 However, the artist was able to realize his most ambitious plans in painting, where he acted as a true innovator of color and form.
2249ade53718a111c651534ff53ab5cf314e1d82 Commissioned by Pope Julius II, he painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512), representing the biblical story from the creation of the world to the flood and including more than 300 figures.
395461926beeca6f9897ccd87058addfa3aed165 In 1534-1541, in the same Sistine Chapel, he performed a grandiose, dramatic fresco "The Last Judgment"for Pope Paul III.
cbda9be9cdb6cd790890fc44fe7066cebd83c083 The architectural works of Michelangelo are striking in their beauty and grandeur — the ensemble of the Capitol Square and the dome of the Vatican Cathedral in Rome.
abc5ec670d729dc95c8f1d2db01caf7fb45e88f0 The arts have reached such perfection in him, which you will not find either among the ancients or among the new people for many, many years.
96af4afc33fd84ff6bd3fa77cbb9f2d502b64636 He had such a perfect imagination, and the things presented to him in the idea were such that he could carry out the idea with his hands it was impossible to achieve such great and amazing things, and he often abandoned his creations, moreover, destroyed many; for example, it is known that shortly before his death he burned a large number of drawings, sketches and cartons created with his own hands, so that no one could see the labors he overcame, and the ways in which he tested his genius, in order to show it no other than perfect.
7ec808fdf072944e58baa4d5fb00a0e04b786c6c - Giorgio Vasari.
417e304b0d999be9891f74e7131f7a7a5f300cf8 "Biographies of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects."
5021016703c65e7f04e88d18828da825e515fb9e T. V. M., 1971.
44337f9c2c5ad6586228fcc3a7084da8d1d861cc Famous works[edit / edit wiki text]
6b718cfd3c81838822de9598a2b7f2786f6be6a6 Main article: List of Michelangelo's works
7791f6366b0509e63dc92860a7eaf9f546b73321 The Madonna is at the stairs.
7548d2a33592f8e4e84eeef6c37cc495ddb163c7 Marble.
99989e8925eb9f5fdee46ecd13e4a09bb68533b0 Ca. 1491.
94f243eb48c9b7c74908fbf9e6be2a8cbb7db71b Florence, Buonarroti Museum.
ec03857b0e44f940c267ec404b6b9a081290d711 The battle of the Centaurs.
a15694be91e566287a65aecf8b81898e672a8008 Ca. 1492.
32b2c4e6c607acff93eb06fda65bb50ad3f8304d Pieta.
7436fafc247cf61d14b27d1be51ffb8f43bf75e0 1498-1499.
704681310c729572e6cb2ba226fedad9e7bc869b Vatican City, St. Peter's Cathedral.
d4a544601aa23406e1a4f68aceeace70edc88b6e Madonna and child.
82ac95947d88e803f8ca0fe59b6d129003e55ffe Ca. 1501.
60c4463f1ba9e8748194bd8803e6551aef8a2efc Bruges, the Church of Notre Dame.
1eea5016a8373793f32f496423c3b86da2b0793d David.
61c80aa950bde627183c86fcce99cdcfef447e4a 1501—1504.
7edfd9279273bb97b92b16460bd3d36c85b9c275 Florence, Academy of Fine Arts.
2269501dfeb327a368e5abae6c34ed2e73772aeb Madonna of Taddei.
5c9e9e3ee3970b44203ffdd912b4905cfba4a5aa Ca.
451985364df573df6ece838634195f2b2c4ca064 1502-1504.
15cb5710b4b4d86b14b1325d26c8dfeac8a3428a London, Royal Academy of Arts.
1daafc6ab7bdee1228246080d15070d188c32154 Madonna Doni.
c9c20ea947cd31e012fe7a6794a3c427949b6ca1 1503—1504.
e15319df6d7dc1c5d92d38f6f11c0f765ba3e145 Florence, Uffizi Gallery.
9d1295ec6bc88f0e0dccae6594470f9a1c365982 Madonna Pitti.
e31c31ceafb65842b8d122c39c47f816a7d05c68 1504-1505.
eed05649faf8203be6498871cf4881ac5030a067 Florence, Bargello National Museum.
90df647008c27494c860fc8e71831644deb8dc9f The Apostle Matthew.
495d0b4d098ed4ae81892ab1ee81c6ebb11d1854 Marble. 1506.
11213404a289bb2d6071dd2d012f544899b44286 Painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel.
107ec133dec7a3817d4c347cfa0a2bd8cf1a93a0 1508—1512.
cf7af3f7dceeb4389a3da75892d3abb0ee1e1864 Vatican City.
3c8010ea9d1043e5263d812ef894e8fc5415a7f6 The Creation of Adam
59920ae47e4e2004636b0024a4959df58fbea464 A dying slave.
5a82832eceeac9b8ab5edb0f71a3baba6302d647 Ca. 1513.
f98fb4f1ea28567065fa1132093b7659468ae500 Paris, the Louvre.
eef0ae242ab4e46fec1864d27897c46b22f28947 Moses.
565408af34c54d65da991424a19624cfc2c8f0d5 Ca. 1515.
b2adab381b1fae2a27b927fbe48344b922c6adb1 Rome, Church of San Pietro in Vincoli.
98412e43eaae3d5747def996a8332b03b0b36d30 Atlant.
f84e6c0e160f50c24291ac8dad16b88412ded380 Between 1519, ca . 1530-1534.
a15d8782c0b57f21bfa09b3473476f07a5b0faa7 The Medici Chapel 1520-1534.
5d26ae5f73e057066e4b28cfd05cda8c46b7ea43 Madonna.
f1eeaceca92a0f209e46d487dd2016963fe95d2b Florence, the Medici Chapel.
2c010fe3fe1e5d9e385141afb151aaad7da936ac 1521-1534.
9c1659ef60d2ae6b86d76eef3dfc8675f133cb20 The Laurentian Library.
ce0d47a0299a6bb361c44c49e90f97a5ae3dc2f1 1524—1534, 1549—1559.
62de41e669374a799e3a996e9830e4c6a95ced14 Florence.
d0673d7f75d682266a4b08371b7c57c82a343a7d The tomb of Duke Lorenzo.
4681317b099644c6a468314e6b299c4a7a4127b7 The Medici Chapel.
b621f84c09a160339682c53da0186e66d566d4a5 1524-1531.
1bf87648d411cb54267585add84fb3390f1ba6c0 Florence, San Lorenzo Cathedral.
22f0a88a2140bc48d8adb23017c861e8db00fafa The tomb of Duke Giuliano.
51c031cb304bd16229666320957821cf81366ac8 1526-1533.
af257d3d53540a4933fbb72617919c13eeb39e67 A crouching boy.
5da32c9d200af28d469b3dd23c7126162b87f6b1 1530-1534.
8ef4eddf33831ddec3ab6076e18f0f38fa3f3dd7 Russia, St. Petersburg, the State Hermitage Museum.
8ef243832ac8c77e88e367a02d618e8f9b047a92 Brutus.
a98924ded4289b2100c1a376540cd72ef2634d25 After 1539.
f3c79c1152d46718ce88cfa2827f1f170accd1c3 The Last Judgment.
973bc68adaa61483a8594eedfbdea9a23bdfb8a0 The Sistine Chapel.
fc7c51c647287dee2b37fbcca3f86cf949587742 1535—1541.
cc152658c478895b5d6584b36ad390a464cb4b9e Tomb of Julius II. 1542-1545.
0a1362771c8ce220765307688199fce9f1ff2ccf The Pieta (Position in the coffin) of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.
aa6bd6d8a9f60590eb200b227049d7e11fc5943f 1547-1555.
3f62bf3e40058ccbb9b365be51eca3cc9790a274 Florence, Opera del Duomo Museum.
56914fbc60e7a861ebda094c1b7ca226e56cb103 So, in 2002, in the vaults of the National Museum of Design in New York, among the works of unknown authors of the Renaissance, another drawing was found: on a sheet of paper measuring 45×25 cm, the artist depicted a menorah a candlestick for seven candles.
76307edfbc996b5fd51cb1a9474e1524f8d0415f In early 2015, it became known about the discovery of the first and probably the only surviving bronze sculpture by Michelangelo — a composition of two riders on panthers[3].
99a412ce87872cf4695d8664c2561c2219d1f04b Poetic creativity[edit / edit wiki text]
58582925e6fa8a2fa3f5a1f6faeb67cc195dee03 Vittoria and Michelangelo at "Moses", a painting of the XIX century
1535230125a95886cd784b75eb0d39893f3a2611 Michelangelo is better known today as the author of beautiful statues and expressive frescoes; however, few people know that the famous artist wrote no less wonderful poems.
43edb7cecf8d37354fe8dea36f21e0c33aa5f043 Michelangelo's poetic talent was fully manifested only at the end of his life.
ed13c547ab9818614409f2af5375dc353ddbba92 Some of the poems of the great master were set to music and already during his lifetime won considerable popularity, but for the first time his sonnets and madrigals were published only in 1623.
dfd62065d77837cd11c501754f20cf3738946359 About 300 poems by Michelangelo have survived to this day.
cd40e7aa84f5c40ca7318006ca439d9d74bdb543 The study of Michelangelo's poetic creativity was carried out, in particular, by the German writer Wilhelm Lang, who defended his dissertation on this topic, published in 1861[4].
0faa46c46679071240eff8873e51e0657914ab98 Spiritual quest and personal life[edit / edit wiki text]
4397b94fc1a7cd3a8b8eaa88492a45c55d819ea3 In 1536, Vittoria Colonna, Marchioness of Pescara, came to Rome, where this 47 year old widowed poet earned the deep friendship of 61 year old Michelangelo.
85034546f142156c5b2515ce22814d21e7ab4b0e Vittoria is the only woman whose name is firmly associated with Michelangelo.
cf466cf017f183767adbcae69897845e835dcd34 His poems to her... sometimes difficult to distinguish from the sonnets to the young man Tommaso Cavalieri, it is also known that Michelangelo himself sometimes replaced the circulation of "señor" to "lady" before to put his poetry to the people"[5].
a5a81715a78acde1a7987d798adcd48b692ae825 (In the future censorship of his poems were subjected to his great nephew before publication).
514871da43cf3b92d6b36fba8764ac80b1dc6d88 Her departure to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541 due to the rebellion of her brother Ascanio Colonna against Paul III did not cause a change in her relationship with the artist, and they continued to visit each other and correspond as before.
0d6d5994cfd6fe3c2aa2284949a7c45dcc8de69b She returned to Rome in 1544.
45beeb6816392b5400a01811a54703e2936eefb0 Sonnet No.
e6c3dd630428fd54834172b8fd2735fed9416da4 60
35fc02acd4a6b83bd1be6fbb7c946bc6b7305dc5 And the highest genius will not add
4763c0cdb86e7efc0c7a47e4b3a475e298c97614 A single thought to the fact that the marble itself
71f41e71ed92ae50d6c8ca1bdfbf1bda836533eb It hides in abundance, and only this is for us
801be366509d187a914d739d0bec95af8ccf95d2 The hand, obedient to reason, will reveal.
05df9fd078ee34ffee982050bee98259ce4568cb I'm waiting for joy, anxiety is pressing my heart,
7ca4e3fa02736417158c41c8938c2fb425c7bb8a The wisest, good Donna — - to you
07ca45fe47226966d643f519b344d9f0394083b4 I am obliged to everything, and the shame is heavy for me,
faee24109f892bc7dcaeb3f92337f5c5fb69f22b That my gift does not glorify you as it should.
a2da81bae6be63adfe8337b520df83e6d9b08648 Not the power of Love, not your beauty,
a795a4154083222b76ea660a72c98c3b7aea7d84 Or coldness, or anger, or the oppression of contempt
41e0bacbb8d5923d2ba3d958eafc1aff1649ec41 They bear the blame for my misfortune, —
6f9c1a53c4c56153e23840c94b1879ff14dfb343 Because death is merged with mercy
379b6cc3f01495b381c5fa155a52b7d470e93f57 It's on your heart — but my pathetic genius
84f72f7dfba37464638fa84381565ca6a2f0e005 To extract, loving, is capable of death alone.
6097ec00dd5eb71248acea16d96c1a95166d84df Biographers of the famous artist note: "The correspondence of these two remarkable people is not only of high biographical interest, but is a wonderful monument of the historical era and a rare example of a lively exchange of thoughts full of intelligence, subtle observation and irony"[6].
69d9f4c9283d676ce323560a9801ed119488baf6 Researchers write about sonnets dedicated to Michelangelo Vittoria: "The deliberate, forced platonism of their relationship aggravated and brought to crystallization the love philosophical warehouse of Michelangelo's poetry, which largely reflected the views and poetry of the Marquise herself, who played the role of Michelangelo's spiritual guide during the 1530s.
0b088e0a00ffc8a9bb5791d602f60d319ce0e739 Their poetic "correspondence" aroused the attention of contemporaries; perhaps the most famous was sonnet 60, which became the subject of a special interpretation"[7].
dac792da948212032c56553ec052674b59b2e30b Recordings of conversations between Vittoria and Michelangelo, heavily processed, are preserved in the posthumously published recordings of the Portuguese artist Francesco d'olland[8].
c3e70bd024cb566c8d10b6e7acc03339b2044815 Rating[edit / edit wiki text]
338abf8d0e846345f4e5affae68698915943982f Michelangelo was considered the most outstanding master during his lifetime.
e147f70ea7f383d94b3732861a828c20693ee5b7 Now he is considered one of the greatest masters in the history of mankind.
bce87bcfaf65dbde5c2c4f60bf313ee591a371ec A significant number of his sculptures, paintings and works of architecture are the most famous in the world.
49e2e24e6bf6aa341d61d8807ab4b8a3033abceb Perhaps his most famous work is the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel[9].
04157922988d7edd1b8ab7502627f30c14810418 (3001) Michelangelo
c4b95912fcb84bf87e5ef29f394f01b59a89aed4 ↑ Record #118582143 // Gemeinsame Normdatei — 2012—2016.
445c7c6b6e2989a83d8287d275f8c415bd4e6f58 Мик Michelangelo's "last sketch" has been found ↑ Kolpakov, G. Michelangelo sent greetings after 500 years.
f2629d5f73d5f1d28b338bf1a0960ceb8e31d761 The only non marble sculptural composition of Michelangelo was found.
c9ea259410059ef3493ea1c249acb7b76d7d1282 Newspaper.
d4cf78f2cd9db6cfa240cfc383d132c1090132ab
(2.02.2015).
e8dce97415833d7c758023d67f924ed7f7585a57 - "Scientists have even managed to establish an approximate date of the creation of the bronze pair between 1506 and 1508 years" Checked on February 2, 2015.
03aa236a7b5f2d706962b9abd9c784b351dd2273 ↑ Lang, Wilhelm.
3663717b6eb601b862e5bf5563ad4cc11d0e0096 Michel Angelo Buonarroti als Dichter.
1917f04cbab6bdbf28a0b100caa314b785d64d21 (German).
b531d88357759b2cd729b2d12c72fb2c5fc1781f Mäcken in Stuttgart .
b576f864511ac1ea8731f956fbf998ad3b248131 (1861).
34bab8631ff9d17288d3570f3c426136f7384ea9 Checked on November 2, 2012.
23b5848398cc4a2319a71dc05434a951fadf7f16 Archived from the original source on November 4, 2012.
b4de9b0590fe5a9864703407782699ff152b2799 ↑ Richard Norton.
fe2a48aa1c91da9e6e9eb189ebb24065c79c6137 The Passions of Michelangelo ↑ The diamond of S. M. Michelangelo (unavailable link from 14-05-2013 (1031 days) - history) series of ZhZL ↑ Poems of Michelangelo translated by Efros ↑ Francisco De Holanda, Dialogues with Michelangelo, Pallas Athene, 2006, ISBN 1-84368-015-7 ↑ Michelangelo biography // Encyclopædia Britannica.
737662f0f9699d60988fd8fc05796914a3987a20 Somov A. I. Michelangelo Buonarroti // Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 vols.
187e69a2782123b64db2cfc4f97ca66d73c65293 Karel Schultz, "Stone and pain" (the text of the novel in the library of Alexander Belousenko) Dazhina V. D. Michelangelo.
1806146aa6e70da2446fad7887a21a676fea7e2e Drawing in his work.
5c9703a1d644c6d189f95e52a4488a7d6e96ff43 Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1987.
40863548e58e6626918e171a0f150e195b5dd74a - 215 S. P. D. Barenboim, Secrets of the Medici Chapel, St. Petersburg, Publishing House of SPbGUP, 2006, ISBN 5-7621-0291-2 Barenboim Peter, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo.
aafb658db6104303c4107b7c8cc0521d86502dc7 Riddles of the Medici Chapel, Slovo, M., 2006.
66a17a67aec549546a5cdcbc3c721e551b84a429 ISBN 5-85050-825-2 Michelangelo.
e573ba34786326ad9ba69d5348c4fe6ae3c82f05 Poetry.
d4226db6117e33d2a8e805d410e8d95017f81122 Letters.
c41d76df80110cd3606bcb3b78e88ef61b7c8a16 Judgments of contemporaries / comp.
ac51dda04153e5cdf27f89ad38ec070d0e4cc226 V. N. Grashchenkov.
cfc2f56b028a5b2ad327f9a03a769cd52e61a17b - M., 1983 — - 176 p.
64227c75eb1bba2988cad96324bb49bfa4285813 Michelangelo.
7b9488201ed7cf180cd9f77194e94e42412e2774 Life.
a3a5f88ace2dbfcb509e266a740ad209f236868f Creation / Comp.
2f305c6b82d9b8f3d44f8287737b63949157e4a5 V. N. Grashchenkov; introductory article by V. N. Lazarev.
4c68c7f394a497ddd9dd575566b08a6e033a222a Rotenberg E. I. Michelangelo.
84478deb8f9d68d34b1998581146c3f064db7d62 - 180 p.
a28bbfad919adb48fc0c748cc3e09539bda9294d Michelangelo and his time / Edited by E. I. Rotenberg, N. M. Gershenzon Chegodaeva.
c035f09e47651b70cfe55a7c219e4c7238b98884 - M.: Iskusstvo, 1978 — - 272 p — - 25,000 copies.
b615b461ad8ba62946552458450882117f10a0d9 Irving Stone, "Torments and Joys", big library.info/?act=read&book=26322 Wallace, William E. Michelangelo: Skulptur, Malerei, Archtektur.
68f802e2fb160d39e6e94e602b0c0e2385cc5384 — Köln: DuMont, 1999.
862a5e6a881d24e6debdc3683223f5459fbe3797 (Monte von DuMont) Tolnay K. Michelangelo.
e8c938fc0a9798647526a767ab6ee471f4ae59d2 — Princeton, 1943—1960.
dcbcd91b23f7c40f95a9909cf55eff4bb4521ad6 Gilles Néret.
e3d213e62114450ded76331e88ddbddc96c7070b - Köln: Taschen, 1999.
0fa3eb79068f9eb471135ff2cb5abe555a7f7e5d - 96 p — - (Basic Art).
65d304735076c71808d56888cd1b1464f3e7ec34 Romain Rolland, "The Life of Michelangelo" Peter Barenboim, "Michelangelo Drawings — Key to the Medici Chapel Interpretation", Moscow, Letny Sad, 2006, ISBN 5-98856-016-4 Edith Balas, "Michelangelo's Medici Chapel: a new Interpretation", Philadelphia, 1995 James Beck, Antonio Paolucci, Bruno Santi, "Michelangelo.
f76fc49d723a6bed0cd746ebe7d7d374c2ee5efd The Medici Chapel», London, New York, 2000 Władysław Kozicki, Michał Anioł, 1908.
cff038d0ec60ff48c2ffdd0b3e5b761044a7d784 Wydawnictwo Gutenberg — Print, Warszawa
982a82259845d9ef33c7ac8fe3569decfb47bd9e "Agony and Ecstasy" / The Agony and the Ecstasy dir.
394adb31c2e70d7ddb98a8e0e71062e2d9026467 Carol Reed, (USA, Great Britain, 1965) Performance of G. Mackevicius "Overcoming" Documentary "Michelangelo Superstar" (Michelangelo superstar)
16618dcea1d3628492bcc477851a307936b38fa0 Michelangelo in Wikicitatnik?
56c586ed7ac61d86b0c4be499885f5dd70da7e85 Michelangelo in Wikitek?
e311db165bb4a2a05144d1ebe616283b795de0d1 Michelangelo on Wikimedia Commons?
a7836ec8bd5b1cc02f838414c012012a446a0968 Michelangelo Buonarroti.
f15d25d251a9cd5de4719acc7326090d19573d46 He could do anything.
fc84920df027399dc20e59bc1ebfea49397139c9 The program "Echo of Moscow" from the cycle "Everything is like this", Part 1 and Part 2 on artcyclopedia.com on wga.hu The poetry of Michelangelo translated by A.M. Efros Florentine Society Alexander Burganov "Michelangelo, Drawing, the Renaissance".
a5fff2c3bbff5a37fdc151a9d375660dfc3f970d Tretyakov Gallery Magazine, #4 2013 (41)
38959dcfe184e60cdd9dbf389ef7b6ac79fbbd28 Michelangelo Designations: 1 Probable authorship • 2 Lost Sculptures Florence (1488-1492)
52202619556b47f54af397aa683507aca8e1cd63 The Faun's Head2 • Madonna at the stairs • Young Archer1 • Battle of the Centaurs • Crucifixion • Hercules 2
fd27386a2175ce13e0d5fe80fb6e9a49a17ab99d Tomb of Saint Dominic (1494-1495)
bae5d053e22ad1e68d6ee7dd5dda13dbe37b59ab Saint Petronius • Saint Proclus • Angel
cdf693c11f89eab0adc2e6a5b95e717791092f64 Florence (1495-1496)
22d6e0e1dc83c634ca047c3406d87cd62dbeb33b John the Baptist 2 • The Sleeping Cupid • Standing Cupid • Gallino's Crucifixion1 •
9ec003b0c136025442b3197af2856aa85fa75808 Rome (1496-1500)
8fb01491a611cd3daf882a0205436db5265d6a5b Bacchus
219bad4f296b2c9c13848bade0fe51cd40bbe6e7 (1496-1497 • * Pieta (1499-1500) • The Crucifixion of Montserrat
60acbda66ec0dd6ae628a87ea4c3bc573b424564 Florence (1501-1504)
936dc2608dd24dba6948390fa05506d171a71204 David • Madonna of Bruges • Tondo Taddei • Tondo Pitti • Saint Matthew
a5ac9a29a15e5fb08ecaf03872c69fd0d22ae775 Siena (1503-1504)
42cc805d6096b74b64b89891a96d2bd022adf580 Piccolomini Altar: Saint Gregory I • Saint Paul • Saint Peter • Pius •
033d2c3642b4d935f13ceecfbb9d2e06d4695a4c Bologna (1507-1508)
582c60b11caf30c62bf09d34a46f73bbf76352f3 Julius II 2
08de5590ea5e1d6b10d357a464d3f87f22f6e58a Tomb of Julius II (1513-1545)
8d504c91a9bf6c4efcef84af2b282854733c5ae1 Moses • Michelangelo's Slaves: (Rebellious Slave • Dying Slave • Young Slave • Bearded Slave • Atlantean Slave • Awakening Slave) * The Spirit of Victory • Rachel • Leah
24ab816ef1cd0a79c507a1a300fca7b8eb4ea56c Florence (1519-1534)
0cf10c76d3aad0d9878d73493f09787acc2acaed Christ the Savior • Apollo (David) (1530)
6523c88a978533763da67bdf6ced0ffadd7f77a8 * The Crouching Boy (1530-1534) •
7e37d5dea459afd3cdc634f89d2bc04992c62208 The Medici Chapel
53ad66e9f4886fc11c78432752a5d4a9879406ad Giuliano de ' Medici • Morning • Day • Evening • Night • Lorenzo de ' Medici • The Medici Madonna
a546d23870fa223f966f00fed8da103e4d602153 Rome (1535-1564)
28cae7e63ed9d214eaad7e1f0c19f6eac9f84105 Brutus • Palestrina Pieta 1 • Florentine Pieta • Pieta Rondanini (1552-1564)
9eb958db0794dd7b2ad5099f51576025be1c1b9f The Torment of St. Anthony 1 (1487-1488) • The Manchester Madonna (1497) • The Stigmata of St. Francisc2 (1500) • The Madonna of Doni (1503-1506) • The Battle of Kashin2 (1504) • The Burial of Christ (1505) • Leda and the Swan 2 (1530)
a0ddd8145d3a06b9afcb692f4d7564d2e25d664f Frescoes Sistine Chapel
95a2aca12b7aa1a5c694a573a484e2c381b0b93a Ceiling (1508-1512; including: Separation of Light from darkness • The Creation of Adam • The Prophet Jonah • The Prophet Jeremiah • The Prophet Daniel • The Prophet Isaiah • The Prophet Joel • The Prophet Ezekiel • The Prophet Zechariah)
f1e2478810d128847e8412446c89e9bcc5968325 * The Last Judgment (1534-1541)
ff55d4865c9d7a8ba291e37c7219583af0a601db Paolina Chapel (1542-1550)
be8b77830551bd9644caed5c0782a4050abd5e2b The Torments of St. Peter • The Conversion of Saul
d80a665c4b08efd48f9102a9356585061f711397 Drawings
9a07d146ce04b0131f7016dd3cac546d4df3b84e Sketch of a kneeling girl for a tombstone (1500-1501) • Epiphany (1550-1553)
97d2f78e514814391c1eccde09946e97de1682eb Architecture of Florence
d604e70ac0a731887f74864353ea4246f81f3e89 New Sacristy
749f5d87de0276b45b32b6e73cd2f3d32cf08485 (1520-1534 • * Biblioteca Laurentiana (1523-1559)
5fa1d7d0b0906224f0802d3c49f0768e417a34d0 Campidoglio Square
12521c46b884277cdf4d77cf5cab34d95dbd420f (1538 • * Palazzo Farnese (1546) • St. Peter's Basilica (1546-1564) • San Giovanni dei Fiorentini (1559-1560) • Pius Gate (1561-1565) • Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri (1561—?)
d443a1185575c125d61e0af393b044d7b06ef572 Environment
b868ccaba92268ffaadf554e28fd71183e935006 Cecchino del Bracci * Tom azzo del Cavalieri • Vittoria Colonna • Ascanio Condivi • Sebastiano del Piombo • Febo di Poggio • Luigi del Rizzio • Gerardo Perini
2cfceadda8f850ad205fc8fb3fe1432e37569fdb list of works by * Casa Buonarroti
bcb3a281b57f0a0e1fab8833f7cb5b8553842c98 Notable Names Database · Structurae · MusicBrainz · Project Gutenberg · RKDartists · Open Directory Project · Find a Grave
1b10eeecfd9d136866d79aa9e12af0ba727eae40 Dictionaries and encyclopedias of the Great Catalan · Brockhaus and Efron · Cyril and Methodius · Brief literary · Circumnavigation · Larousse · Small Brockhaus and Efron · Britannica (online)
0d96410e717b8fc4eddcf845b4cf3c591f03ad2c Regulatory Control BAV: ADV10205075 · BNC: a10309603 · BNE: XX1161659 · BNF: 11885845q · CiNii: DA08122726 · GND: 118582143 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\017291 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2124 3640 · LCCN: n80152368 · NDL: 00449952 · NKC: jn19992000718 · NLA: 36432281 · NTA: 069228957 · NUKAT: n94208535 · PTBNP: 23554 · LIBRIS: 292503 · SUDOC: 026650800 · VIAF: 24585191 · ULAN: 500010654
eb2021f322a93b4926048582bb99821417dfacc4 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michelangelo&oldid=76859581"
5c9b5d9b924ed8e473b49b186762e058eb14aa9c Categories: Born on March 6, Born in 1475 Persons alphabetically Born in Caprese Michelangelo Died on February 18, Died in 1564 Died in Rome Artists alphabetically Sculptors alphabetically Sculptors of Italy Sculptors of the Renaissance Sculptors of the XV century Sculptors of the XVI century Artists of the XV century Artists of Italy Renaissance Artists Artists of the XVI century Architects alphabetically Architects of Italy Architects of the XV century Architects of the XVI century Poets alphabetically Poets of Italy Poets of the XV century Poets of the XVI century Italian artists of the XVI century Italian artists the 16th century muralist artists Michelangelo Buried in the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence
6b4e4ebe1f6cf7b7f5f7b85befa9e47cc1041276 Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with non working links from May 2013 Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with sources from Wikidata Articles with links to Wikicitatnik
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b1211d5aaeb33a7050c4d6ebcd965521c1624c95 Basa Jawa ქააიი Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Adyghebze Kazaksha Kalaallisut ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Ripoarisch Kurdî Kernowek Kyrgyzch Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Lezgi Limburgs Lumbaart لرری شومالی Lietuviū Latviešu Malagasy Olyk mari Māori Baso Minangkabau Macedonian മലയാളം Mongol मराठी Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Dorerin Naoero Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan iron ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangasinan Kapampangan Picard Piemontèis پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Rosinsky Armãneashti Tarandíne Sakha Sardu Sicilianu Scots Sámegiella Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenscina Soomaaliga Shqip Srpski / Seeltersk srpski Basa Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Tatarcha/tatarça Ukrainian اردو O'zbekcha/Becca Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West Vlams Winaray Volapük Vahcuengh IsiXhosa ייִדיש Yorùbá 中文 Bân lâm gú 粵語 IsiZulu
f1f118dfe942c96215e55e04684ffe5b0a60df87 Last modified on this page: 19: 21, March 2, 2016.
690b50347f6ad267607aee3470a5df4bc1d3482d 6. Rome.
5f236daed3fb23cd6c8e682d1f2f2e0b832c83f6 Frescoes of the Sistine Chapel vault (1508-1512)
74bae2978419592085777cce3a0ff418e344a48a Opening of the chapel murals
4e7a78375ec20b30327e2da2465ecb00b3786a57 "Pope Julius was very fond of looking at his enterprises, the more he wanted to look at the one that was hidden from him.
9546078ea8d03104e3d167816e39ee99c3c6ae1b And one day he went to look at it, but they didnot open it for him, saying that Michelangelo didnot want to show it.
3330753ee41979814d519fffe10ef9657aa0c558 Because of this, as already mentioned, the misunderstanding allegedly arose, for the sake of which he, who did not want to show his work to the pope, had to leave Rome: according to what I learned from him, in order to clarify this doubt, when he finished a third of the work, it began to become covered with mold when the north wind blew and winter weather came.
ed9913d57f4fb0f7b471c8a2ef934348ee87bc3c This happened because Roman lime, which is made from travertine for whiteness, dries slowly and is mixed with brown pozzolana, so that the mixture turns out dark, and when it is liquid and watery and the wall is strongly impregnated with it, it often blooms, that is, in many places the blooming liquid secretes salt, which, however, evaporates in the air over time.
9422cf9de68e201ea58113323d33376ba0d0d709 This circumstance made Michelangelo desperate, and he did not want to continue; and when he apologized to the pope for the fact that his work was not successful, His Holiness sent Giuliano da Sangallo there, who, after explaining to him why the trouble was happening, persuaded him to continue working and taught him how to remove mold.
60ba1899ef9d7d33999c02037ada2cb33d0b21ba When the work was half finished, the pope, who had climbed ladders with Michelangelo's help more than once before to look at it, demanded that it be opened, since he was naturally hurried and impatient and could not wait for it to be completed, that is, as they say, the last stroke of the brush.
ae83a348d83ccf65270a003d6714ca063e1093b6 And as soon as it was opened, the whole of Rome gathered to look at it, and first of all the pope, who could not wait for the dust to settle after the removal of the scaffolding.
7de6366c2c16db1d6e69d5ea6aeeccb727614b30 When Raphael of Urbino, who imitated it very admirably, immediately changed his manner and immediately wrote, in order to show what he was capable of, the prophets and sibyls in Santa Maria della Pace; then Bramante tried to get the pope to hand over the second half of the chapel to Raphael.
1c27f0b57541b9ae9dc4d125641a682a39c00461 When Michelangelo heard about this, he complained to the pope about Bramante, telling without any hesitation about his numerous vices both in life and in architecture, the latter, as it turns out later, had to be corrected by Michelangelo himself during the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral.
1e9a5b8cc17465027fad11fff755961367531ade But the pope, who was becoming more and more convinced of Michelangelo's abilities every day, wished him to continue working; for when he saw the work revealed, he reasoned that the second half could have turned out even better for Michelangelo: and indeed, he completed the work perfectly within twenty months alone, even without the help of those who would rub his paints.
67fe06f25bf59f1bd9747644653de656f4e8b98c Nevertheless, Michelangelo sometimes had to complain about how his father hurried him with annoying requests, when he would finish, not allowing him to finish in his own way, as he wanted.
4008ff55f215a73878b70af001be7a880c27df5c And to one of the many requests, he once replied that the end would be when he himself would be satisfied with his art. "And we wish," the pope objected, " that our desire, which is to do it quickly, is satisfied."
3ac1d4cc6d23f8b6a9d9b16e1f8b057602f56bcd And in conclusion, he added that if he did not do it quickly, he would order him to be pushed down from the scaffolding.
5477c0e61dd79837cc48eb71b6fefb267526eb1e Then Michelangelo, who was afraid of the pope's anger, and there was something to be afraid of, immediately, without delay, completed what was missing and, removing the remaining scaffolding, revealed everything on the morning of All Saints ' Day so that the pope went to the chapel to celebrate mass on the spot, to the satisfaction of the whole city.
f856237bae29c0149660131a91712192f28d6b84 Michelangelo wanted to go dry in some places, as the old masters did, in the stories written below, to touch here and there the backgrounds, clothes and faces with azure ultramarine, and the ornament with gold, so that the overall appearance would become even better and richer; the pope also agreed to this, having learned that this was not enough, because he heard how those who saw them praised such improvements; however, since it seemed too difficult to restore the forests, everything remained as it was.
b163be2c93855d45c2184b42e067dfa370010f39 When meeting Michelangelo, the pope often reminded him: "Why not make the chapel richer with paints and gold, because it is a little poor."
626404bf9037568ff827e8fbb568fcf4221e56dd To which Michelangelo replied simply:
9a0e1372cbfcc9e1ef4d8df25d5bab6fa865cbac "Holy Father, in those days people did not wear gold on themselves, and those who are depicted there were never too rich, but they were holy people, because they despised wealth."
e05040be8c04576e57fc669061d294998d010918 For this work, the pope paid Michelangelo three thousand scudos in several terms, of which he had to spend twenty five on paints.
aebc14fb2300d4b7338a84f26e2deaa468ed180d It was executed with the greatest inconvenience for him, since he had to write with his head thrown up, and he so spoiled his eyesight that for several months he could not read what was written and look at the drawings except from the bottom up " by Vasari.
38ee185116151e7aa903cca3a511e3ffd1e6faf0 Pope Julius was looking forward to the end of the work.
5542fc5cc3e2879431399c452c0f7a3dfd360d5b He was hurrying the artist.
834687f7807556c488b0c066f1bf98bf51573d0f I climbed the scaffolding myself.
6186170d3c48a816cc6b558b6bd800e46cb4af12 According to Condivi, " Michelangelo did not have time to paint even half of the vault ...how the pope demanded that he show his work to the public, despite the fact that it was not quite finished.
28fe04000c9a0441f67af638940d26406666328d The opinion formed about Michelangelo and the hopes placed on him led the whole of Rome to the Sistine Chapel, where the pope came before the dust that rose from the dismantling of the forests could settle" (Correspondence of Michelangelo Buonarroti and the life of the master, written by his pupil Ascanio Condivi)
cf962222c7960a4ac9df53b3eb0f951e36130941 Such interference in the work could not but slow it down, not to unnerve the artist.
d1fd48df4283b7cf61c20f8b829bc1eb0541b1a2 However, the removal of forests had its positive results.
61f25fdb35ec311f210044e49dfa4a5f664d324f Seeing what was written from below, Michelangelo drew attention to the lack of scale and the overload of details of the first compositions — "The Flood" and "The Story of Noah".
d50d95eb2e10cc741a287a77e82a303b834ac9c0 When the scaffolding was erected again and the work continued, he enlarged the scale of the figures, reducing their number in each composition.
8a2f72f96780b5a79d258a4f9b0bc504ce0d5937 By monumentalizing and generalizing, he achieved greater expressiveness of the general, clarity of silhouettes, special rhythmicity.
133270bfa2efeacc2d6b491f03b754fbec076535 As for the author of this colossal work, for a long time after its completion, he could not look straight ahead, and when he had to read letters and papers, he had to hold them high above his head.
304a5926c8ccc4a08049a25861cbbdfaee3ec156 Michelangelo spent four years high on the scaffolding, overcoming the pain in his muscles, constantly wiping the paint that flooded his face.
813f1080b3fb11da8dbdbca376bc5c40cb055d72 Gradually, this ailment passed.
07f4959d6b1bc7a9bcf7254594b101931d5c7fc4 When painting the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo, according to Condivi, " so accustomed his eyes to look up at the vault that later, when the work was finished and he began to hold his head straight again, he could hardly see anything; when he had to read letters and papers, he had to hold them high above his head.
0c7eb7cd77eeddbd06bfc01d90fed3676fc1f1a0 And only gradually he got used to reading again, looking down in front of him."
9f2f0fde789fcdf5c23a6e1ec384a6ce225efcab Julius II did not even give him an order to come to the divine service in the Sistine.
95003ed160f6c7fad148885a3d7dc5399c9de954 Michelangelo found out about the ceremony by accident.
f0f6cbd8618447b5065e9eb2d40baa96b31d47e0 Only Raphael came to congratulate him.
a5db0b9e238b6a26adb1bff298d80c312ac380f1 "Messer Buanarotti, your chapel has literally struck me," Raphael said.
59bee3f8b3dd19acb29d3c93113c356fb16d8080 No one else came to congratulate him, no one ever approached him on the street.
0abf045841e7b2c66e518057e504e7911f10623d The painting of the ceiling of the Sextina did not almost excite the Roman audience, everything seemed to come down to a duel between Michelangelo, the Lord God and Julius.
020872e12d098def3ced23c4c685e6b134871af9 Only a year later, in 1511, Michelangelo was able to continue painting.
037662adb83c684094ecc117b907e1b90fa14f82 He worked hard, not stopping on Sundays or holidays.
bd74fbb8a419789211c0526af965c735396794ee "Until I finished working on the ceiling, I even hate to think about any amenities and pleasures.
564f7c508121801e332c7211a441bf229e3dccac You can live well only when you are happy, " Michelangelo said.
7da2393dddf0d5641f0c0c24c4b0a357cfc3b29e He believed that he would be happy only when he took up marbles.
2116c8e9a1b5ddf30f007fbfea98d4108d0c0f20 The master himself painted every figure and garment, every movement and gesture, in which he showed his own feeling, his own thought.
c177680723d338e2a7727ac627d3a3ea53b38c35 Every stroke of the brush was made by him.
9fc154021a0f3d2ef54dbde707e5f572aacccb90 This gigantic work was completed in 3 terrifying years, although it would have been enough for a lifetime.
a69a542f8cdcb6be747ffdf9f081aca9f5504343 On All Saints ' Day, November 1, 1512, the ceiling was opened.
9246189f4549d271dcfa6131c65ae70289bad0b0 Michelangelo did not go to the opening, he went down to the terrace of his house and froze in thought in front of the marbles, which he had been so eager to chop and cut for 7 years.
56d1dc4d02f0829171eeca75f5a9bfcbba03983d He went back to his desk, picked up a pen, and wrote:
422ce954230f87b1bc5b9e8590193171411f7b67 A single thought to those who marble themselves
2d75aff2325b9348dcc7be40ced32737d481dab3 It hides in abundance and only this is for us
4ea9ba54dca1ade90fd7969b3dd19ae252cdd6df But it was this "heroic symphony", exceptional in scope and greatness, that allowed Rodin to write: "I will say that Michelangelo... he rises above the whole of Italy as an inspired prophet, crowning it with his genius.
457410af43830dc9f1b8df82f5254c11ca250b82 The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel extends over it."
35eedc40fbdfad8e3b8575b919281f6d69fb6516 In the future, Michelangelo will be forced to once again take up a huge painting order — to paint the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, entering into competition with himself.
5ba2ab31f7e1284637cf76d90c4534f1425587d3 But between these two works lies a long period of time and many events that occurred in the life of the country and in the life of Michelangelo himself.
b93650cb147a76f52d4457e37d716cf4adbb8561 Four months after the completion of the painting of the Sistine Chapel vault, Pope Julius II died,
eb3ecdf3951f92604268979b45bac68780bbf277 Julius ' successor, Leo X, entrusted Michelangelo with the construction of the facade of the Church of St. Nicholas.
29f7e247f7e96030c6c29264655efa624c4ddb46 St. Lawrence, in Florence, where the brilliant artist moved.
9038d93391aa77eae3d5581e16b0ea4a253649d3 The beginning of work on the ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel (1508)
e076e1da76d1a7a2df49176266dd9724a7567e3d "When the pope returned to Rome, and Michelangelo was finishing this statue, in his absence, Bramante, who was a friend and relative of Raphael of Urbino and, due to this circumstance, was not very friendly with Michelangelo, seeing that the pope prefers and magnifies his sculptural works, decided to cool him down to them, so that upon Michelangelo's return, His Holiness would not insist on completing his tomb, saying that building a tomb during his lifetime is a bad omen and means inviting death, and on his return, Michelangelo persuaded him to commission him to paint the ceiling of the chapel built in the palace by Sixtus in memory of Sixtus, the uncle of His Holiness.
e699f52ced3c0fbe2e227697a99d3114b06e7c41 Bramante and other rivals of Michelangelo thought that in this way they would distract him from sculpture, in which the pope saw his perfection, and drive him to despair, believing that, forced to paint, but having no experience in fresco work, he would create a work less commendable, which would turn out worse than Raphael's; and even if he accidentally did something, they would in any way force him to quarrel with the pope, which would somehow lead to the realization of their intention to get rid of him.
3b56c645ef41b7536a2c388395c20b761047200e And when Michelangelo returned to Rome, the pope had already decided not to finish his tomb yet and invited him to paint the ceiling of the chapel.
b6e2e8c8b9938338901819d55b56c391473c5aa7 And Michelangelo wanted to finish the tomb, and the work on the ceiling of the chapel seemed to him big and difficult: bearing in mind his little experience in painting with paints, he tried in every way to relieve himself of this burden, putting forward Raphael for this instead of himself.
b8fced4da09afb332b53da79105ba388b4ca383f But the more he refused, the more inflamed the whim of the pope, who went ahead in his schemes, and besides, he was again incited by Michelangelo's rivals, and especially Bramante, so that the pope, who was hot tempered, was already ready to quarrel with Michelangelo.
02f30156592401d6abd5c2e66dd55a0bc79e260e Then, seeing that His Holiness persisted, Michelangelo finally decided to take it up;
0212e176f1097a0cd512e114be7c4e8ec4c2bd6b Bramante, having received an order from the pope to arrange a stage for the painting, completely hung them on ropes, having pierced the entire vault.
46212421832843433798b54bea5c91b901a3a814 When Michelangelo saw this, he asked Bramante how to fix the holes after the painting was finished.
07689f63ea830134a3a01d8fff77fb2df6c272b9 The same person replied that he would think about it later, but there was no other way to do it.
b6c7ba1da6ee04e5b241251d7f6b2fa54bbec8b8 Michelangelo realized that Bramante was either a small master of his craft, or a small friend of his, and went to the pope, telling him that such scaffolding was not suitable, and Bramante could not build them, to which the pope, in the presence of Bramante, told him to do them in his own way.
bbed8ed93b1516f1b7413bd8ce15f0969b5df645 So Michelangelo ordered them to be placed on trestles so that they did not touch the walls, and this was the method that he later taught both Bramante and others to strengthen the arches and to create many good works, and he gave so many ropes to the poor carpenter who was remodeling them that he sold them, provided one of his daughters with a dowry, which Michelangelo thus gave her.
33462a4e8b280fc21e4d83741ed698111882663e After that, he began to make cardboard for the said ceiling, and the pope allowed the walls to be painted by various masters before him under Sixtus, and appointed a reward for all this work in the amount of fifteen thousand ducats, the price set by Giuliano de Sangallo.
d83f2f5636175a5c0030888c57ee51f8fefeb8dd And so, in view of the enormity of the work, Michelangelo was forced to decide to seek someone else's help and, having called people from Florence, he decided to prove with this work that those who had written before him would have to be captured by him willy nilly, and show, moreover, contemporary artists how to draw and paint with paints.
3e5c32855a90735b1178d8b469e94775ee3e7713 And, since the very greatness of this task pushed him to rise so high in his fame for the benefit of art, he began and finished the cartons; and when he was about to start frescoing, which he had never done before, his painter friends came from Florence to Rome to help him and show him how they were working with frescoes, for some of them were already doing this.
52eeab76ebabd9a7e942a7c9b51902a2b4abfd7e Among them were Granaccio, Giuliano Bugiardini, Jacopo di Sandro, Indaco the elder, Agnolo di Donnino and Aristotle.
78a377f1ed627d7918abf24d352328257476146c At the beginning of the work, he suggested that they write something as a sample.
e87814cd7ac18264575526b0c81abafcdb8582d4 When he saw how far their efforts were from his wishes and received no satisfaction, one morning he decided to knock down everything they had written and, locking himself in the chapel, stopped letting them in there and receiving them at home.
528b04a6fe0c77ff262bc7eb5fc7764fe9e91871 And since these jokes, in their opinion, lasted too long, they resigned themselves and returned to Florence in disgrace.
acfb57b940a5b3e26cd7e0f529618caf8022df32 So Michelangelo decided to do all the work alone and finished it in the shortest possible time, putting all his efforts and all his skill and not showing himself to anyone, so that there would be no reason forcing him to show it to someone else: especially since the desire to see it grew every day in the hearts of people" Vasari.
6196cd749fb4a862680a1ceef65152b0e6981498 Pope Julius II wanted Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the papal residence in the Vatican, although he did not like this proposal, but could not refuse it.
55dfd10cfb4524d723fcd04e17b78e723751703c In 1508, Michelangelo began work.
26662337238f3b42d781fa21e6a4dac7a4ed57c2 On May 10, 1508, he wrote: "I started working today."
3fccd441330591f4c7be60ec62907134520ab89d October 31, 1512 The Sistine Chapel was open for viewing.
cf2219ae8661b8c9cf1aee92b85b01fc74b9bb4d Between these dates — four years, five months and twenty one days, filled with the most intense, titanic work.
2a9b492b7cabe323924c03a348a2a0dea87b9942 "Dark years.
db063ae09162a1725a17559a338410f12d2431ab The darkest and most majestic in the life of Michelangelo.
4dc97f19ceb77d8e45a5bb4c586506f1ce83ad98 He becomes the legendary Michelangelo, the very hero of the Sistine, whose titanic image will forever remain imprinted in the memory of mankind, " Romain Rolland wrote about this period of Michelangelo's life and work.
a3b4ae8cf1ca0c188061e5f1932d7b8d0266f033 The work absorbed all the spiritual and physical forces of the creator.
5e6b7bc3bc6aeaf5c39dfe32b4cf9ac89a74b00c And although Michelangelo said that "painting is not his business," he created a monumental ensemble that became a masterpiece of Italian monumental painting.
98eaa136c116dad9661fd762c0f69f2a3b650acb The whole architecture of the chapel did not really correspond to his new vision and the picturesque decoration that he had conceived.
f0a3429c5b51ef99f9597057e141d05e5407d388 Having shown the greatest ingenuity, he must change the appearance of the ceiling and take advantage of its flaws.
12eaabc88dbf90cf26acb7a76e86ea16695cbce6 He had to change the decoration of the room and at the same time this room itself.
a15f63888baa8d99ff85d8ba0c0abf25f1eba853 Being a natural sculptor, Michelangelo decided that he would paint the figures as if they were carved out of stone.
d0c0ff61ddb2436e9d10e48eed43aa315970a695 There will be an impression that any figure is about to move and descend from the ceiling to the ground.
edaa3ade82ba404fbd47c1c19d35173d1f5fe898 He painted the ceiling twice: the first time he was dissatisfied with the result and he had to start all over again.
113a29e45333c10197335dd422ae10146f92d8a9 These regal, powerful images prove the artist's masterful understanding of human anatomy and movement, which gave rise to a new direction in Western European art.
8e63cba8a5b72d6a34a89bac7c5f2799b29e24e7 Having made the cartons for the ceiling painting, he intended to entrust its production to others, and for this purpose he called several of his former comrades and friends from Florence, but soon, finding their cooperation useless, he sent them back and set to work alone, without any outside help.
9aff3393de7a43054c01c25f8f6f36e678944713 He had to apply paint to the prepared parts of the ceiling before the plaster dried.
e2c16626abd1555e0ee2b89830019603df18840c He couldnot even check the angles of what he typed from below and calculated them while on the scaffolding.
1a428989bd13dceabd89b698d9fa38eb8a0d175c Table of contents
c8f45ef02e17262ffd80ca0e9637493366f460a7 Alexey Dzhivelegov Michelangelo At the sunset of the Medicean Signoria Childhood In the workshop of Ghirlandaio In the Medici gardens The first works Ideological growth The first masterpieces in Rome and Florence Michelangelo in Bologna Minor works in Florence and Rome (1495-1497) Bacchus.
64746c6b5b048647d27f6413886e3b4334b4e3e2 Death Conclusion
9cb05df800fafd8e653bc71b6ba4e7d88f2bc8e0 12 13 14 15
40a8af92b62f66f3286a75a3663b92f822cab8a4 in Rome, Michelangelo began at least two statues for which marble was purchased, one for the cardinal, the other for Piero de ' Medici.
5f8221878c77eecf2fa92abb1cea9f4d95c51cc2 What were these statues?
984ad9b8f7e3a0682d14ad729e554ee3bb857e20 It has been suggested that the first of them could be the Dying Adonis of the Florentine National Museum.
b5d2d51febc426d53d92cfc4999cee1ea7e4f195 But this thing is so weak that it can be recognized as the work of Michelangelo only with a very low opinion of his skill.
765ac158d40648713bddb84527a187327bc78758 Nevertheless, both things were undoubtedly in the works and, judging by the creative fire that possessed Michelangelo in those years, they were most likely finished.
15c77e700caffe7a4ed6c6181d4fd0e54c4c84d4 Where did they go?
3acb97d4f579f8aad404668f81669cd7a82dfca7 Bacchus.
cfa9d0024820de99a2b7ace396362488b9194750 Bacchus stands uncertainly, not leaning properly on either leg; his stomach has leaned forward a little, and his chest has leaned back; it seems that he is about to sway.
681e18bafdd78fc150fbaa21caadfc6059014318 The dull, slightly dazed look of the beautiful face is fixed with lust on the bowl.
3b34573821fcd85ac5ccbfbb51191df9ada28312 It is not known why this wonderful and not at all divine young man in his drunkenness should depict Bacchus, that is, Dionysus, the mystery god.
ae387b92219d8d696955c87535564bc0b6821b4f The statue, no matter what Condivi says about it, who claims that it corresponds to the ideas of ancient writers in everything, is very far from these ideas.
5236d47339095a00a7fefb7c2851c759d16309ce Because of this, many people do not want to recognize its absolutely exceptional artistic merits.
1daf2ba8537ac7f6b685d6f3ba3be8fb5796a88d Shelley, for example, said: As a work of art, a statue lacks unity and simplicity; as an image of the Greek god Dionysus, it lacks everything.
7f5ffaff2105f48d5a4c5784b0252e92fd8bec94 The great poet did not notice that the lack of simplicity was in the plan, and the lack of unity is very conditional.
768e41710d61f8119463f6ce81120d154811b203 In any case, neither real shortcomings nor imaginary ones can obscure the enormous advantages of this first large free statue of Michelangelo.
387ff80e64cb87f12559bdd621ef5a93ef6d1979 First of all, it is very realistic.
4baa964e7d940238a6192cb74cad24b99a87cbf7 The realistic elements defeated the formally antique ones in it.
29a48e5b628a7a8b44de6d031f0706bbfe13d287 The whole head, face, eyes, arms, legs, body lives in the statue.
42bfa9524e4a927f314557759b443439105cb269 The artist boldly depicted a person in a state in which the ancient sculptors would never have dared.
9f9625bd74b41cf125646536e777105b5a3b5582 And it is decorated in such a way that the most severe critic will not be able to find fault with anything.
9f5f3a7613d33581bf89c4cdf953b133cdfabdfc No wonder, while she was in Rome, she was the subject of a constant pilgrimage to the house of Gallo, where she stood.
f5a3f8dfcb1b8e1d0bb56470894ad222cd5af4f7 We do not have exact information about this statue, but most identify it with Cupid, stored in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
8c51349f6873b275f4c9730398a7e6f13ab92e46 It was found in the last century in the cellars of the Florentine gardens of Rucellai, in a very bad condition: the left arm was broken, the right one was damaged.
328825f1cec742c92f81976e6536cac65d039ad0 There were traces of pistol bullets on the surface, some art lovers made a target out of Cupid.
13dbab54dac38cdb461de7e46f3c0cd9fbd5bec5 But the first examination without reservations recognized the statue as the work of Michelangelo.
76d0f6439012365c24b15bbadf6a1880eb227dcd It was restored by an experienced hand and then sold to England.
d421d647adf4e09b81eaf69a38f18e0badfab02b Cupid is depicted as a beautiful strong young man in a very peculiar pose, not borrowed from anyone.
6098caeda8ea30a579f1d4dafa3fb77155538587 He has dropped to his right knee and is picking up an arrow from the ground with his right hand.
3202d87f2e67ba559c31b20bc21d0c99a70a437f The left arm is raised high and holds the bow, and the left leg, steeply bent, rests elastically against a stone lying on the ground; it will now push off, the body will quickly straighten up, the arrow will fall on the string and fly to its destination.
5be1ea0fb65ff265d2f47dee1d16406e0754f00b The statue has not received the latest finish that Bacchus shines with: the polishing is not so thorough, the curls of hair on the head are only roughly outlined with a chisel.
70a33e7498f046ab7535486c3f3530b0c24532d0 And yet it is beautiful.
15dc1a7297f45ffc30a87b047ed3a66f90d5ee67 The pose is full of movement, both visible and even more hidden.
dc425438bbccc3f7f5d32e7d9a9b395331423b5b The face is tense, it is illuminated by thought, and it seems that a sly smile is playing on the full lips.
5b82eb44f739243dc84fd6b8c2d856c9cdadf007 As in Bacchus, the ancient plot is processed very realistically.
1a5f7ec1f2551dd4dbaec412d1700eeee49b7182 There is an assumption that the London Cupid could be the statue that Piero de ' Medici ordered, who did not want to accept it later, and which Michelangelo finished for his own pleasure.
a6508ab4e4b731e8a1b1cf2a8267f28948511741 There are no indisputable considerations that speak against this hypothesis.
91cf8fda87360043ff6b6ce6448f0634b3355222 However, since Bacchus was undoubtedly made for Jacopo Gallo and even, according to Condivi, in his house, one of the things made during these years is still missing: the one that Michelangelo started for Cardinal Riario, because marble was bought, and the artist had to start working on the first Monday after July 2, 1496.
557089750e8e9a2499a91fd451ae85c0ad6e1223 It was a human sized statue.
8e9f8fb76a7f674783ba4f4bbba744f3e6e0e7f0 It is unknown to us.
353986a3e3c99ad58584be011a51eabb563396a4 It probably wasnot finished.
87cf2d4ee3f4a80c8feccbc174d1d9373a5a5812 But another thing may belong to this time, not mentioned by contemporaries, but recently recognized without great hesitation as a work of Michelangelo's chisel.
83e63b6cec0730e0efb2266b427e67de53c492a3 This is a marble statuette of the Berlin Museum depicting Apollo with a violin.
2a46c571baa3219ae02761235040cfb1db764587 By the setting of the body and by the counterpoint, she
51030a416eb71d747fc46526c52c6a7cec5e8fa3 Rublev Vladimir Pribytkov
5856d2757c82814bfe73465db294c2587e3a7397 Catherine the Great Nikolai Pavlenko
e56daa0473d854239afccea3050513d1afdc3799 Gorky Ilya Gruzdev
e18a2c41e5b28cd1cf19b03f07e01e82078777e1 Admiral Makarov K. Osipov
1afa4d916a706dada706125c957751ec40b1ab9b John Reed Theodore Gladkov
a7938011a8a4b46e8ebd677097c8cc6ce507d291 Baudelaire Henri Troyer
3aea91a90b329246aa6a336a3b8b01ae856b1758 Wrangel Boris Sokolov
fd6716d40b9e89ebcf92c7e513118f43f27d1e58 Bolivar Joseph Lavretsky
7a258244061a1dcb7a93439ad86548740b728858 Beethoven Arnold Alschwang
0ec07f84d55fa4d7e938a452cb54714b23566a78 Oscar Wilde, or The Truth of Masks by Jacques de Langlade
be82f11ddcadb5a1b1f3b3ea946b23d4b24583e6 The Life of M. de Moliere Mikhail Bulgakov
631915fbbbd46c4ca05de6c8b79dc6bcb46dd03b Pavlov Alexander Popovsky
e3660af548eb8430e12724db286da70fd9475d77 Nicholas II Sergey Firsov
f430bb512cac47168f2ae8abd2103b3f3a7fec8a Pasteur Mignon Yanovskaya
6abfdad0dc830d29c81a322d4fdb003879503639 Diponegoro Mikhail Kolesnikov
6df68fe373a114a40ed7a1dfebfe84402466bb13 On Monday, March 6, 1475, in Italy, in the small town of Carpese in the Casentino district, the second son (out of six) was born to Podesta (the mayor) Chiusi and Carpese.
31509060211128bab012ea233ec4611dc342bf6b Now this mountain town is called Caprese Michelangelo.
9cf3c5932d1ac0cb96ec98ceb08e82628b6c5402 Podesta's father's name was di Lodovico di Lionardo di Buonarroti Simoni, he was a scion of an ancient Florentine noble family.
77e2193196ff22affd312dfc80f4fc18d5e0ca97 On the eighth day of the same month, the rite of baptism was performed, the child was named Michelangelo or – according to the Florentine spelling Michelagnolo.
986f614331e502c34077ea4bc08504246edf2fcf It's not for nothing that you sucked with the milk of the nurse
efad32bf6810524deca6c6bc72a4a90ec7237770 Chisel and hammer; from the father,
ebf7ce30c33d8c28c16bfbd3e1dca5f29886e5d1 From the honors promised to you, you fled,
5a9dfac6248f5e8548200bb304dc885bbb57c0cb Manimy by the ghost of the magic chisel.
35734a8936497d6eaf0c2c853b7d5a9f6c7b79ae 5. Rome.
3fcba44b0be830bf478a546a22a8301b6b7b61ee Tomb of Pope Julius II (1505-1545)
5d8ad13133a6f995b8c8bba7f1c21d6d824e775c Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere ascended to the papal throne under the name of Pope Julius II. He succeeded Pope Pius III, whose pontificate lasted only a month.
a1f475d18a3737c181e3ee00ad3dbe599036849e The new Pope, Julius II, was the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, by whose order a chapel was erected more than 30 years ago, named in his honor - the Sistine Chapel.
055a855ba3b8281dd03faa07be509681f561be70 Like other pontiffs of the 1400s and 1500s, Pope Julius was not only a religious leader, but also a commander.
b5d5605139af3e1b0fd06d8d40f023ace28be974 He spent many years fighting for the liberation of Italy from the French army.
9d75daf49a16ada887bcb8d9fa8c0f282928ffdd He once made a vow not to shave his beard while at least one French soldier tramples on the land of his native country.
04d9bef5232a3a9c34c5c02faa50e53b09e2fc20 When he died in 1513, his beard was long and gray.
632ae1d2ef015db319ca221bfb48f0b76a3ba3e7 A power hungry, cunning and energetic politician in an effort to give an aura of power and power to his court attracts Raphael, Bramante, Giuliano da Sangallo — outstanding artists and architects of that time.
46177140799f0179455d911900d8c4c87f755ea6 Regardless of the possibilities of his depleted treasury, Julius II entrusts artists with grandiose orders, the execution of which was stretched for many years or was not carried out at all.
96271e31996f747e4135485d90c4b1cf9ff81f9d The fame of Michelangelo, the greatest Italian sculptor, did not escape the attention of Julius II.
470946a7cb1e85f9c16cab91d31a3ad5d2978bcf The post of chief architect of the Vatican in 1505 was held by the Florentine Giuliano da Sangallo, a friend of Michelangelo.
6c5f4e593615f3b5585445e01b6b4e6d49634d98 Sangallo actively attracted his fellow countrymen to the service of the pope so that they would create beautiful masterpieces for the pontiff.
dd9bd516f83ff17fed3e8af6d1d75dc96b50af7c Michelangelo take received an invitation from the Pope's ieni to come to Rome.
e690aea9216b0939f118a7c0be4a985627ee75eb The first order of Pope Julius Michelangelo was the construction of a tomb.
af21c3875713f7f89afa159192970fe9da8081ac The Pope wanted to secure immortality with the help of the genius of Michelangelo.
904ee3aeb5a8042053013f5d1147e4c5797183a0 He provided the sculptor with unlimited funds and materials, without restricting his creative imagination.
e9b932bc1d5f5e2b4a8ed9b145471bd24a38e3a4 The idea captured him, and he set to work energetically.
bf0fbe1b821b8911dbf7da0eb7ff835bbba8cb63 The Second Roman period.
cfea1dd16de6817205c2a6780279b0ec24e5b8a9 The project of the tomb of Pope Julius II (1505-1516)
9ea3e62a13ec9f8a3e4736489ae6c44eeaf9f4ea - The beginning of work on the tomb of Julius II. Marble preparation (1505-1506)
66d23fc2b14358522b7e683c0c833c60f5ee1bee - Quarrel with Pope Julius II. Third Return to Florence (1506)
85f9e38113d9ff587276f9e453df9637b3504e6a - Reconciliation in Bologna.
261c4cc8aee8bf5ea071f906efcb937e0b2746ed Bronze statue of Julius II (1507)
32c428b1f4260e1abf5c33aa7a5bf3324d153ee1 By a strange whim of fate, the sculptor Michelangelo managed to complete only paintings that he never had a heart for.
516ff89fef95b2ec8143dc5c3111e9876fd4747f And on the contrary, of the grandiose works that were associated with so many proud hopes and so many sorrows, some were destroyed during the artist's lifetime, others - including the tomb of Pope Julius II were a pathetic semblance of the original plan.
b448e9f6b9e99d7821d0df33a8d8a44d8374c8f5 For many years, Michelangelo worked with great interruptions on the mausoleum of Julius II, so much effort was given, so many hardships were experienced, and all in vain.
35cc2151b7b652d4670be4e59fb904ab1859b151 The heirs of Pope Julius persecuted him, accusing him almost of fraud, only the patronage of Pope Clement VII saved the master from litigation.
df10b243df9d7460f56b7eb143dae6dfbc222051 Return to work on the tomb of Pope Julius II
4f6be34243a124059d09b819ebaae675fdb58711 Statues of the Tomb of Pope Julius II
12c48facc2dc345add90c7a701d7c132eb72379d - "Moses", marble statue (1515-1516)
ed50afbc0f42fdbad00ac8b48f5df489ddcb171f - "The Dying Slave" and "The Risen Slave", marble statues (1513-1516)
b7188daf5f99827b59f43199d583fb7f6caef400 "The Winner", marble sculpture group (1530-1534)
0b380565bbc744177ebff226652558b981b9fabe Four unfinished Statues of slaves (1532-1534)
612eaae3448799a7cae75da1a57b203438c94d8b Completion of the Tomb of Pope Julius II
a3081c454196f3274092850205043b05e3faa47a Opening of the mausoleum in the church of San Pietro In Vincoli.
ac4a746d9e703e169d5d6f3a6ae2a4d046a9e558 "Rachel" and "Leah", marble statues (1545)
448d82063644c910a2be3b837c8e82e0a7091467 "Michelangelo's main work in Rome was the tomb of Julius, which, according to the artist, was conceived not so much for the glory of Julius, but for the ideal hero of the era, his valor and enlightened greatness.
a25e3119eccd8afe9ad85e3c9d412c2c3eac1734 It was assumed that the huge structure would be decorated with forty figures, each of them larger than a human height.
c6368fa41b1c634017aa78096e9e413cd91f9dd1 The artist himself, without the help of students and stonemasons, was going to perform this construction.
76a183d14b529d8cc0b69406631063fb315043fd The Master of the Renaissance competed with the Middle Ages, which built its cathedrals only by the forces of generations and for centuries" M. Alpatov.
143695f68374458fd17095bc93cf95e8255a2425 Architectural projects (1538-1564)
d48e487ac5c9e725b137db5c1580aa67488c867c It is not necessary to depict the visible world; the great impulse that stubbornly fills his soul, let it find its expression not in sensory reality — it is too deceptive!
010019ef8b91b6ab36ec7f9294e99ce72ebcab95 — and in the coupling, struggle and victory of slender and stable forces, whose names are a column, a cornice, a dome, a pediment.
3b642b751a67d9c5f9cc9252e327dfcca958db88 And here there is no betrayal of the ideal of human beauty, which he believed and worshipped, because, as we know, Michelangelo asserted the dependence of architectural parts on the human body.
3d88bb402e28d168963683658f37ffa9a7421e35 Such was the order of Pope Leo X for the reconstruction of the facade of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, commissioned by Michelangelo in 1516.
fce3125123c3ab252369829c73fd508dd5b49661 Michelangelo glorified his name by creating the interior of the Laurentiana library, a magnificent example of sculptural thinking in architecture, with the famous staircase, which, according to V. N. Lazarev, is like a "lava flow flowing out of a narrow doorway", and whose curved steps seem to us eternally mobile in their seemingly unstoppable alternation. although Michelangelo turned to her late, he also glorified his name in this art.
63a5b4c121138fc0e8dc0c66f4c9908931d39861 Michelangelo approached the problems of architecture primarily as a sculptor.
2f0a99dc31f4ba4d95b4d6acd5c57c384860bc41 He did not receive any special education in this field, but contact with the works of outstanding architects of that time — Bramante, Giuliano da San Galo and others contributed to his mastering this specific profession.
91e419e7dabd58d3dde3930da69adb3d82418cd7 He proved himself as an outstanding urban planner in the design of the Capitoline Hill during the grandiose reconstruction of the ancient Roman square and the installation of an ancient equestrian statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (1537-1539) in the middle.
fd9ff64e5d1229aa9121a0b0769f6b32924816a5 Michelangelo showed his architectural talent in the construction of the Cathedral of St. Nicholas.
3cd51153557e8d8759eb3e5873421922b30a44ae Peter (he owns the western facade and the drum with the dome)
59d1e838eebad0d95f0dfd9946d1d166a7fe809d (1546-1564).
d46eaec0812898a5b697b5ae6f5fef7943cc02f2 Remaining until the end of his life the architect of the greatest cathedral of the Christian world, and until the end of his life fighting with envious and ill wishers, he also composed:
325cb35ff6c3762fa091afeea4aa83639a1182a5 - the project of the fortifications of the Borgo,
70ae04cd470adda93a2405c62e7d98819a30a0ae - crowned with a huge cornice, a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture, the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (1546-1547),
e784d566f49ebf9fab0e328227db6a4d3e1e11c4 - the reconstruction project of the old Santa Trinita Bridge (1560), according to which Ammanati built the bridge 10 years later,
823dc5efc8e1d324ee50706e905be7c5ec186e27 - project of the Roman city gate of Porta Pia, named after Pope Pius IV (1561),
710c407537f7e027df1ef7bf02cec6661043d8c6 - the project of rebuilding the ancient baths of Diocletian into the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli (1563)(nothing remains of Michelangelo's project, it was completely rebuilt in the XVIII century), and
43721af41e164c3808803355e67beeed923c3c07 - project of the Church of Santa Giovanni de Fiorentina (1559-1560),
3497a4cb66c1c9bad27e3ea3b7550d052e1cc12d - plan of the tomb of the relatives of Pope Julius III Uncle Antonio, Cardinal de Monti, and Messer Fabiano, the pope's grandfather, in the church of San Pietro a Montorio, (1549) and the tomb of the Marquis of Marignano, brother of Pius IV in the Milan Cathedral (in 1560, Michelangelo was then about 85 years old).
b646344d9dc05812c3d66558af27be75e2e26aab Michelangelo perceived architecture as a reflection of human beauty, he said: "There is absolutely no doubt that architectural parts are similar to parts of the human body.
957311d5395639fe96a70ea0622aa65db5cae799 Anyone who has never been able or does not know how to reproduce the human figure well, especially as far as anatomy is concerned, will never understand this."
0e3b723816e19e3e6dd90ebab86e4274415907da The mysteries and mysteries of ancient Egypt have long haunted mankind.
598755c1ebd6c7b7213295b44484991fed4c2a63 Trying to know them, people risked everything.
f9e06aec7acb925e7ed2b632e9372269c9a42ba0 Now, after much work and research by great scientists, we can learn about some interesting facts.
9ee2df8e0e2df12cda63904e901d2c38dda191b2 There are more than seventy Egyptian pyramids, but only three of them have become the most famous.
2b04c54d4393c2c4a5d8efa1687e0a0962cce756 These are the tombs of the pharaohs located in Giza - the pyramids of Khafren( Khafra), Cheops (Khufu) and Mekerin (Menkaur).
761c3ebe08055053fde4248c0f1cee4b7f46a5de Most of the ancient legends, mysterious legends and inexplicable incidents are connected with them.
74bdd27013c601fce1eff66ef3b10d8ad539fc61 It is impossible to say with certainty that today all the secrets of the Egyptian pyramids have been solved, because their priests were very resourceful and inventive.
8c74a388fac8a8f0598d533752eab72876d99bb2 Perhaps our researchers have yet to unravel the mysteries of the Sphinx, and penetrate into the very essence of Egyptian architecture, science and magic…
b497817ea4bb41dbd3fca1ed758126ac8315d182 Secrets of the pyramid of Khafren The height of this structure is 136.5 meters.
40d59557b63c2e6675c044c9dcb4649133627577 Its structure is relatively simple - two entrances located on the north side, and two chambers.
a523755fa19a7cc9b2a87e061c8f0eac481c877b The pyramid of Khafren was built of stone blocks of different sizes, and lined with slabs of white limestone.
9428fa7fbdf4e2935ce7d9de82b34bcb9e1024e6 The top of the Pharaoh's tomb is made of beautiful yellow limestone.
aa4e99639657475bff756330a033d55093cd7bd7 It is not safe to try to penetrate the secrets of the Egyptian pyramids!
90735608f8b6e4dfe697422689fcca764a6cdbad The proof of this is the event that happened to tourists in 1984.
f59dff9f12bcbe7642e95d09aa927d186cc9702b An impressive queue stood in front of the entrance to the tunnel leading deep into the pyramid of Khafren.
a8316eb16338d0128e5124c905c5db99e403275e Everyone was waiting for the arrival of the group, which went to a compact room with a sarcophagus - the tomb of Pharaoh Khafren, in which the mummy of the lord was once sealed.
bfef78ec9a9676df3dc60b7d26239d3042cbc6cc It is believed that this pharaoh, in addition to his pyramid, built a mysterious man-lion-a Large Sphinx.
0696b0915117e1065dd3be03c0267bfc0d3d0c26 Finally, the tourists returned, but what happened to them!
a03d32c6d56bc3d00fb86c016c4ed2ea4543f997 People were choking with coughing, staggering from weakness and nausea, their eyes were red.
5823dfc37db7976d49591f29012fff38557b5763 Later, the tourists said that all at the same time felt irritation in the respiratory tract, pain in the eyes, experienced severe lacrimation.
b13f9d7e100f5f315f88487b965ffe587940bd83 The victims received medical assistance, they were examined, but no abnormalities were detected.
9d98cc462fbcaf0a8d98dcd7288dc3354b54d819 The tomb was closed, and a commission was urgently convened to solve this mystery of the Egyptian pyramid.
3fd2d7312bd615a1e45e615310ab45f227399122 The mystery of Tutankhamun's tomb In the autumn of 1922 left its mark forever in the history of the development of archaeological science - the English archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun.
e2b23588cf47ddfb0151d3c9e3b394f261075708 In the room of the sarcophagus there was a tablet containing an inscription in the ancient Egyptian language, which was deciphered later.
7d797401a81c062068e84054fad54566d479fdc2 The inscription read: "Anyone who disturbs the peace of the Pharaoh will be overtaken by death with quick steps."
4144b6928b70bb347b5262c6b7b6d693ab670df6 When the archaeologist deciphered the tablet, he hid it so as not to confuse his companions, as well as the workers, with this warning.
7a1bf7eab66561cce70b8a9d09f22a56ca378c89 Even before the Pharaoh's tomb was opened, Lord Carnarvon received a letter from Count Haimon, an English clairvoyant. In this letter, the count warned Carnarvon that if he penetrated the secret of the Egyptian tomb of Tutankhamun, he would be waiting for an illness that would lead to death.
ad98cff85ab7e8c803108d2b2cd75f29aea05183 This message greatly alarmed the lord, and he decided to seek advice from a famous fortune-teller named Velma
a1b52189a19bc12b2fac1e2781c298001cb63cec The clairvoyant repeated Count Haimon's warning almost word for word. Lord Carnarvon decided to stop the excavations, but the preparations for them had already gone too far.
bd1e166ac2b283396c9968d0b2b8ffdf34b85302 Involuntarily, he had to challenge the mystical forces guarding the Pharaoh's tomb…
31e2763ee7d34c9625ce954c05383eba648fd3f0 57-year-old Lord Carnarvon suddenly fell ill just six weeks later. At first, doctors believed that this disease was the result of a mosquito bite. Then it turned out that the lord cut himself while shaving. But anyway, the lord died soon after, and the cause of his death remained unclear.
8f5d8f6f2053eeae1e71bac3841a620c1511ef8e The ancient civilization of the gods of Egypt and its traces
8140657af5322023ff7cea2a16304c8184bef0ac A stele was found in Egypt, the transcript of the records on which told scientists that the King of the fourth dynasty Cheops is engaged in the reconstruction of the great Sphinx, which protects the Great Pyramid belonging to the goddess Isis, but since according to the official version of Cheops the pyramid was built, and did not repair the existing one, this stele was recognized as a fake by historians.
6d30d00b918b5216727f66d22f3a8c2a32b389f6 But if you try to add up all these clues lying in plain sight, then one conclusion suggests itself: the Great Pyramids were not built by the pharaohs of any of the dynasties, their construction must be attributed several thousand years before the emergence of the state of Egypt.
224101bfe857262675bb2191c27ee3631456af5e Egyptologists are sure that the ancient Egyptian civilization of the pharaohs arose on the ruins of a much older and highly developed civilization, which for some reason disappeared from the face of the earth.
1ccd3923424a2478082da789a06d67a439ae3751 The number of facts and traces of such a civilization that can be found today throughout Egypt is amazing in its number.
8575f05ee610da7aa66bbf60a613106ff5ce734a So the huge statues and colossi that archaeologists find from time to time, and which date back to the reign of a particular dynasty, speak for themselves, the technologies used in their processing and moving in space are not available to humanity even now, and what can we say about ancient Egypt and the level of knowledge that that society possessed.
28f76fb4b70dcb4f7a7b1804c99a8a41ff5caa34 Moreover, many of these statues are made of quartzite, one of the hardest materials on the planet and with the help of primitive tools, such processing and grinding is hardly possible.
6d4b1b84504e0c655a55e4183497162d4c1c1af1 Also, more than one question is inspired by the fact that many statues do not have a face, it was repulsed by someone, and the one who did it put a lot of effort and time for this.
410568f2d6db5a008fc28cd4515352b39002d6eb Another mystery is the huge sarcophagi, which are also made of very hard materials – granite, quartzite, basalt.
6eafa443d6a70ed434891a3d6cb7543a5f6757d1 It is quite difficult to make such monolithic boxes with clear lines, perfect angles, and even special chamfers designed to ensure that the corners are not damaged during transportation, even at a modern factory with the latest technological developments in this area.
a5e464fa0b7e6fb55e4e053a34e37bfb32706513 In addition, these sarcophagi are much larger than the human body, and if the lid is closed, it is possible to open it only with the help of superhuman efforts, so for whom they were intended, it is unlikely for an ordinary body or even a pharaoh.
406eddf20e8ebdd25bb129ea287f0e998de84985 In addition to the inexplicable mysteries associated with advanced technologies in construction and material processing by the ancient Egyptians or a civilization that lived long before them, we have also received other inexplicable and incredible knowledge from them, which humanity was able to confirm only recently with the technological progress that has occurred.
d79637f8b604616c542c8717ff461ad3c82e4088 For example, the Zodiac of Osiris or the Dendera Zodiac, which was discovered on the ceiling of one of the Egyptian chapels in Dendera.
8de6f944934a99a211c9b9e75fa78e2198046304 This kind of zodiac calendar reflects all the cyclical processes of our planet. In addition to the 12 zodiac constellations known to everyone, you can see our entire solar system there, along with the earth, which moves around the sun.
31d9b0ffa8e5424c288a526fec1199b2087a7771 Researchers and archaeologists continue to find truly amazing finds and make discoveries that amaze the imagination of modern man, so only 70 years ago, systems of tunnels and catacombs were discovered under the Giza plateau, which are still being studied.
586b0472f3f4467660339d62d215499a64d8c06d During archaeological excavations in Egypt, many ancient objects were found, indicating that the people who inhabited it were familiar with various cosmetics.
45ff8081e20b7adb251cf99d0d523f2c23855fdd For example, caskets, marble containers with paints, mirrors, brushes and spoons, all kinds of pipes made of reeds or bones were found.
303acf5dfdf75faec97558b96840accf67c080ae According to research by scientists, the Egyptians used makeup very actively. At the same time, it was not the prerogative of women — eyeliner was done for both men and children.
b34361fd3639efb31388223daba663f6ff6310c0 It is established that in the 2600s BC, green tones were used for makeup.
ed30b91a61f15cc9da6458608f32e089d800dacc Powder, blush and eyeliner composition were made on the basis of malachite crumbled into dust.
e36e281857277b9ad274a996cb308f572df62b4b However, later the black color came into fashion, which was obtained using lead.
fe7497195d36e08870daa2d6b68d00af37368723 It is known that cerusite, a white lead ore, was added to cosmetics. It had healing properties for eye diseases, for example, it relieved inflammation in conjunctivitis.
6a994e92dfbba46cf59990c8ae5b595293f0e717 Therefore, the widespread use of eyeliner in all segments of the population remains a mystery — perhaps this was done partly for medicinal purposes.
c76f93de8b93d2f91c76e93e3327b180d32b56fa Many texts have been found dating back to the 1500s BC and were original instructions for the use of a particular cosmetic product.
8e7ef64afe87d1da345b15102d9ede9aad26e646 At the same time, only more than a hundred methods of treating eye diseases with the help of a "mixture for the eyelids" were described.
af775b6f31db282eb3c8eef3099b99c373d40263 It was believed that multi-colored paints could even resurrect from the dead.
9d1e007460aaa32f6bd893bc1052294f22c0b228 Therefore, they were actively used in the funeral cult, during the mummification of the deceased.
91a4a65227e7615fec8cc70ebb163189c85312bf The deceased was given makeup so that he could be reborn in the afterlife.
cca4d02835c3fcc280ce698fe680db3678ac8602 It was a kind of symbol of youth, beauty and continuation of life.
7fdc23c88fd172b16c5e740b0ee2174ecb168ae0 Scientists with the help of laboratory studies have also established that not only natural ingredients were present in Egyptian cosmetics, but also substances created artificially.
40bb1c427730403875131212721d3bc44077e4de Such a component was phosgenium lorionite, perfectly preserved in jars with cosmetics.
b7b7a61185d18ce13d70329ae41febee95af5753 This substance can be obtained from lead oxide only by combining various chemical solutions.
64d061313e89e2febdf8b5b6a9fd244e92a2a98d Therefore, the presence of this component in ancient Egyptian remedies also indicates a high level of development of scientific knowledge in the ancient civilization.
8ee37b149ba6f034ed8e2ae472e6bfc1356c36e0 Another confirmation of the Egyptians ' deep knowledge of chemistry is the fat content of cosmetics
6d3fd5c8f8b1d4da0e43b1776f74a8f0e94f6de6 All ointments and paints had a percentage of fat content similar to modern cosmetics.
ecf437e4c65e42c6ec180a9bb7e09e779d213a33 It was found that animal fats were added to cosmetics, but special knowledge was needed for their qualitative inclusion in the composition of the mixture.
b9f2b357267084d7eb401943d066912d860b0fdc Exactly how the Egyptians achieved the right proportions and mixed substances that could not interact under normal conditions remains a mystery to scientists.
f0b17367cc8a84cc90960298a4873da0e7112f3c At the same time, archaeologists have not found a single ancient cosmetic laboratory.
9a7fb97d834ddb1041725963aae728b092aa908a One of the assumptions includes the version that cosmetics were made at temples and played the role of money in ancient Egypt, freely exchanging for cereals, products and other valuables.
f5f990e9f9c5e540710f2ebbce7b5675d8e968be Egyptologist Graham Hancock and his colleague Robert Boval, who deny the generally accepted idea of the Great Pyramid as the tomb of Cheops, because no dead bodies were found in any of the pyramids, despite the empty sarcophagi.
2ddbdb27ff8bcb81ea89fe56537d8aa8211d49b1 When in the IX century A.D. the expedition penetrated into the pyramid of Cheops and explored the royal crypt with great difficulty, the large stone sarcophagus, as it turned out, was empty, but there were no signs of the previous ruin.
861bdb0f057224db84ff35c86cb7cf9b3ca5ec23 The truth, according to Hancock and Boval, lies in the astronomical data.
b61c01e3bd1fa641de7d8706eb5b9e4d6fdf57cb At a distance of about 160 meters from the pyramid of Cheops, the pyramid of Chephren rises, whose height is 136.6 meters, and the length of the sides is 210.5 meters.
5d152ff7fc145ac539e55e0b84fd4f34b742ef10 However, the pyramid of Khafren visually seems to be higher than the pyramid of Cheops – the effect is achieved due to the fact that its base is at a higher level.
15a6889bc1bf5d7c7e3108d5f46545808e319ced The pyramid of Mykerin, which is even smaller, is located 200 meters from the pyramid of Chephren.
603927b02fa2b857b4a8e0c9aba666f51da52248 Its height is 62 meters, and the length of the sides is 108 meters.
319f5dccb47148c257d532084a754395102f3d3b The Three Pyramids are part of a complex consisting, in addition, of the sphinx, several temples, small pyramids, tombs of priests and officials.
fe03a02cd2e11c62f809d3ab1764736fd4b11021 But back to astronomy.
e91285bf35aee258dc22fff9d37c3c7bacddb508 Due to the so-called procession (the swaying of the Earth's axis under the gravitational influence of the Sun and Moon), the constellations change their position in the sky with a period of 25920 years.
d04d4c7b070ddc15b443dd1c383c746ce9562405 With the help of a computer, it was possible to reconstruct the starry sky over the Great Pyramid in 2500 BC.
67323cd780de9f668e5ab9e9177e7d46c31fe8b1 It turned out that at that time one of the southern corridors of the Pyramid was precisely directed at the star Sirius, identified by the Egyptians with the Goddess Isis.
f7c55c7f9023f67a1b65d8e0cd0a7df6a958411c Another southern corridor pointed to the lower of the three stars that make up the Belt of Orion, a constellation that was considered the abode of the God Osiris, who brought civilization to the Nile Valley.
c7bd9c87219ce85d23640737d6127ac38cdfd61f These coincidences, according to Hancock and Boval, are not accidental. Moreover, the third largest pyramid (Menkaura) is knocked out of the straight line connecting the first (Cheops) and the second (Chephren) pyramids
098029157a01cd00b78a824d7340a687b35ce3a4 Looking at the Orion Belt, Robert Boval noticed a completely similar arrangement of three stars!
0eba7dcffe850ec96d875e60876f82131400c2e0 Thus, the scientist concludes, apparently the three largest pyramids in Giza symbolize the Orion Belt on earth!
05513d04f65e11c3c40147da234b7618f44d26e0 However, the angle of inclination of the Belt now does not exactly coincide with the axis of the location of the three pyramids.
ebffd8f49d049bf2967f47af989e8aab1643a748 The use of a computer that calculated the time of the exact coincidence of the Orion Belt and the three largest Egyptian pyramids showed that this moment refers to the time of 10642-10546 BC, that is, for half of the precession period to the present day, in 25920 years, as in the ancients, or 25729 years according to modern data, the year BC.(See details here) According to Boval and Hancock, although all three pyramids were completed around 2500 BC, the plan of the Giza complex was made 8000 years earlier!
537ad5cdd782a9a7bb7fad0ae53a1cc4d2a83375 It was passed down from generation to generation until the time when it was possible to combine the internal corridors with the direction to the desired stars!
de7bbcb933e26a77d11602099956ad3d44c810f1 In their book "Guardians of Creation", Boval and Hancock emphasize that, in their opinion, the creators of the Giza pyramid complex and the famous Sphinx had in mind to build some chronological "beacons" that would encourage many future generations to search for the true meaning of their project.
7de712dfe361ced15519d84ad37389cd1dce0991 The choice of the position of the monuments using the "language of the stars" should be clear to any culture familiar with astronomy.
c9aaedfd87dea19c3ac99ee19822160fba599475 The pyramid complex in Giza probably stores rooms containing the most important messages of the ancient architects, facing the future.
133bf3535bfa0d50259bcbb599ccb625f8100777 Boval and Hancock are convinced that humanity is on the verge of Great Discoveries in the pyramids.
5ba98ec9b477e76dd0a27b62ade87993dafff24e The way to the Great Pyramid of Cheops, in 820, was found by the Arab Ale Manune
c9437973b734030a860ef6cdd3263a6b0462bc8f He began to disassemble in the center of the Northern Wall, where, according to legend, there was an entrance.
1d2903ba844ba3589352c3609fdc0a7f146b313c To do this, he poured vinegar over the stones, warmed them with bonfires, and then used battering rams.
0f188c55233007fecceee32fc74ebf6a8888c5a9 Hearing the sound of stones rolling to the left of their tunnel, the treasure hunters dug to the source of the sound, which led them to the passage leading down (at an angle of 26.30).
535d750f9dc22a0ef424cd6e9fb58bda97b75609 At the lower end of the inclined passage was what became known as the bottomless pit (P), or a large underground chamber located 180 m. below the top of the pyramid.
1dc4cbca099a80c4ba606f6d9298146a63ecffd9 The falling stones that the Arabs heard rolled down into it.
6aa2bfec2d85cb847261316d31c995230584e03d If it were not for this accident, the entrance would not have been found
6bf82191c69929c316f732f4ce7e00fdb4957169 Currently, the main entrance to the Pyramid is the entrance that was punched by the Arabs.
c823b44593338e0d5e62fc8dd59248c5d5119c05 The real entrance is located higher, seventeen meters above the ground and seven meters to the east of the main north-south axis.
c488afe325568821f3e084b3144141340f1b2f3e Having a cross-section of 1m x 1.22 m, it is clamped by floor blocks 2.6 m thick and 3.6 m wide and a floor slab 0.76 m thick and 10m long .
4b188c0b181fad4725d93cb6e164bd004d5b9bb1 From the inclined tunnel (D), at the same angle, there is an ascending tunnel(A) connected to a Large Gallery(G), whose length is 46.6 meters, ending with an entrance to a room of polished granite 5.2x10.4 meters and 5.8 meters high, known as the Royal Crypt(K).
bd553dfd33a1f571d8ba1f35b5736d5afa64d2e5 It is covered with five 70-ton slabs supporting the upper part of the pyramid, is located at a height of 42.7 meters above the ground, and inside it is an empty granite box without ornaments.
17fd28c4d13e97e93dbaca4cd09197bbbc34c4c7 The stone stopper placed at the entrance to the ascending tunnel is made of rare red granite, identical to the granite of Mount Horeb, where, according to legend, Moses received the 10 Commandments.
17ccb1fb23cf28b719f47132cb20128ce99b46af However, there was another secret passage.
474f721290a9c60c5cbfc70e6233bddd69033f5a A horizontal passage branches off from the ascending tunnel leading to an absolutely empty room called the queen's chamber (Q), and next to it there is a Rough shaft (W) connecting a Large Gallery with a descending tunnel, about 60 meters from the stone plug.
f09212e3a395f185d1170f3bf7bcac765acdfdcb Oddly enough, the descending corridor was well known in ancient times.
c5981c73ddc9914cadf93b3fa6a87341a7214e2f The Greco-Roman geographer Strabo left a clear description of the large underground chamber(P) into which this corridor enters (180 meters below the top of the pyramid).
7eb8bc7c36862c711b74626fc0c990bedbf86de0 In this chamber, underground inscriptions were found – autographs from the time of the Roman occupation, indicating regular visits in those years.
aefa8f952abc9a22d448ec2ff436225ccf518aa3 However, thanks to the secret door leading to the shaft (W) in the descending tunnel, this passage was forgotten.
76cc9f305f7f855155de35fbaca403017b7a207d Here, in Egypt, on the edge of the desert, the most grandiose sculpture ever made by man has been erected.
f64917b9a5b0afa62f9df344d2465c9d5881a1d9 Its height is more than 20 meters, and its length is 57 meters.
0d1b598f5ad1137f009184472d9781b1339fef9b But what strikes with its boundless mystery is that there is not a word about it in the ancient papyri dating back to the era of the construction of the great Pyramids.
dd50aa1f4f6ccb8c6c1ff17746e9224a42948572 Hieroglyphs brought to us not only the names of the builders of the pyramids, but also the degree of their engineering talent.
4553e825a8a28cd5f39808b987b0f9d440fb8fb5 The names of skilled architects who created the funeral temples of the pharaohs are known.
bb823f401c3d16d9c4bfc36432107cbcb102e846 But the authors of the Sphinx are unknown to science.
e878ad6eaed055f02073dcc1ed2f45c91e95f973 Only 400 years after Khafren, hieroglyphic texts suddenly appear with the name of this Egyptian monument — “shepes ankh”, which means “a living image”.
153aa01f3e9884c564a08ec6dd21318f612f0b42 Science has not found a logical explanation for this.
5e5a24348ebcc4d0ca47428b0c7d88d6da45e3aa Even later, the Egyptians suddenly began to identify the giant Sphinx with the god Harmachis.
bacbb0c86978d820ce203735c59c589a7182f68e A legend is born that tells that this huge predator is always awake, guarding the peace of the pyramids.
af7f72d56a32677b544673d3c2f233e923f1af3c He sees better at night than during the day.
56a5b3b8db5aace0d6d99480a782dcd970b134fc The guarantee of his power is the cosmos…
defe55e0b145fafebcbfae36f54a99b003199c6f In another myth, the Sphinx is entrusted to monitor the sunrise and the rotation of the planets.
80104e4ef61f5187a86dded9dfbef5991f64575e A lion with the head of a pharaoh has become the most frequently encountered image in Egyptian art.
d1aefbced65075daa582c64b91e3ce926f446447 Two small sculptures dating back to the era of Amenhotep III have been decorating the embankment of the Derzhavnaya Neva near the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg since 1832…
ab62f210eda58373eaa11600ec066072f29964b4 At the same time, the image of the mysterious Sphinx began to cross the borders of Egypt.
de18de3a0a0f0aca90176b44f0213a8d62eb843e In ancient times, the gods and demigods freely roamed from one nation to another.
a14902a39f5d04e4c9453d3882a8dcf814528bb8 So, the Romans brought the Asian Astarte to Europe from their military campaigns,
53e54d1b4ce41384bcc73a878affd8c0a7a9eca5 As for the Greeks, they really liked the Egyptian Sphinx.
cd8f1a79a1d776557654eead6e9dbc62b8341e3f He entered many legends, fairy tales and legends of Hellas, however, in transformed forms.
c824482d46dc8c55bbdf0ff3f70780912b0f6272 Originally, the Egyptian Sphinx in ancient Greek myths and fairy tales retained the features of a lion with a man's head.
94fc21be5258d28e51435a9158c19170096f2f22 He wandered along the roads near Parnassus and devoured passers-by.
2d9e9afde7a091eda40a9941c3053bacd2221931 If there were not enough of them, he would approach the city gates and demand victims with a monstrous roar.
98080263ac11ae8a6bbbc74f1c733d4cbc608910 Folk fantasy made him the brother of the Lornean hydra, Cerberus, Nemean lion and other monsters.
f51131394ecc16410385dbfa8de1ad7d671616fa However, he entered the classical code of ancient legends in a different way — he became a winged monster with the head of a woman, and was called a Sphingo.
fde7743e086b1eaa2f81da48babdcc4c7e6acff8 This winged lioness lived near Thebes and strangled passing travelers who could not answer the riddle: "Who walks in the morning on four legs, at noon on two, and in the evening on three?”
a394a1b3dd3551b86a68f42fc8498064412db4a7 The Greek Oedipus, passing by the rock where the bloodthirsty Sphinx woman sat, listened to the insidious question and calmly replied that he knew the answer from childhood.
5a9526c09d7d8c46611420e07cad111fb66bc3a4 According to one version of the legend, he learned the answer from a wandering storyteller, and according to another — from the river muses.
a6cb7b17839949df8dfd487fb57bd2fc62444f39 Anyway, Oedipus answered correctly.
48ed24fe5bf4195f229cbe80d71f399b1b7f6c5d It was about a person at different ages — in infancy, adulthood and old age, when he leans on a crutch.
76bfb4f72703f38a0697cfd4e10c4a75c950a469 Out of frustration, Sfingo threw herself off the cliff and crashed.
5aa24d08c0f383b31b0e0513bebc8c38042e7112 By the way, this outcome was predicted by the gods of Olympus.
789a9163ea2fa027ad872cd875056ede7b6475f5 For the liberation from the sinister Sphinx, the Greeks made Oedipus king of Thebes.
24eb86f1301d8d33f23a14fd609bcf987bb1d859 Now let us turn to Herodotus ' notes on Egypt.
69b1f256a92b5d1cf2eac46102a09494b10d5f6b The father of history in 445 BC told about the smallest details of the great pyramids and ranked them among the first wonders of the world.
39009fc1f3d7af3a39ecaf27a3016fba890b9b91 He wrote how long the giant pyramid mountains of the pharaohs were built and how many slaves worked on the stones.
fdd604ed0316c992fd54036838e7dcfc11074fb4 He scrupulously listed how many garlic, radishes, and dry tortillas were delivered to them.
324f3d301304f209acb97e06d76f6e0ddd0aaf2d But in his” History“, in which he wrote down” everything that he saw and heard in Egypt", the Greek did not mention a single word about the Sphinx.
cff5bb41911d6ce56382601338eb5861da980e40 But Herodotus was not blind, like Homer!
ae738e49dc58d1239adf17ecdc27e24be6a3e2a5 I couldn't help noticing a giant lion in front of the pyramids, could I?
d68a653ccecc06c32a1fb41077398cd8c2298b5e However, he didn't see it!
b3ba754a348ed04a077f0ad72b67eeecdfd3aec8 Before Herodotus, Hecateus of Miletus was gaining wisdom in Egypt, and after him — Hecateus of Abder and the famous geographer and traveler Strabo.
8e12322ffc4efbe268c7b4720f44da082f01e258 Their notes are detailed, but for some reason they do not mention the Sphinx.
a6598d5bab3977c325a45cab9fe4213d623f1f5e A conspiracy of silence? But there were already myths about the Sphinx in the Greek epic at that time! What is the matter?
9e1e0f3962f1ffbc95eddbae691ea63c9da96d5d The mystery becomes even more mystical if we remember that Egyptian officials - servants of the pharaohs meticulously recorded all the expenses associated with the construction of pyramids and religious buildings, took into account workdays, the weight of stones and the length of roads to the valley of the pyramids.
b6434d121514bed8279b6fca0f131aef3cd53bdf So-not a single economic document of the era of the construction of the great pyramids related to the Sphinx has been found by archaeologists.
1b592404d520adec9e423d12a4e6aed4edd051c9 Is it an accident?
1422d6b0e92f562e19de4327e213c7d823e58473 Or is there something else here?
f4b9402a3a68ce44331b8bcff87643da18607739 The answer, meanwhile, is found in the work of the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder “Natural History”.
d66479cf919da8eefa85e661bd84139f15f1c00f He tells in a narrative tone that in his time the Sphinx was once again cleared of the sands deposited from the West from the desert
ddb7e1f86a4068027440ea513ed982fd1760a753 EGYPT
9df3d95ac5794fb39b4a8145d4435929059a7e98 < < Headingsee also> > Egypt
353bd6df1fed661ce2beb6f6bdf406b2b270cbcd The Sphinx continues to ask riddles
bd484714e5161f1ab443caac39fa23b037013174 Oedipus solves
0f7ff40ae738dfde5739649ee22c2b18d6cf5f84 the riddle of the Sfingo.
06b92964aa39a7e7e2d15f42848ae09afa0e3cfb Drawing from an ancient Greek vase.
06d949dc3ef0d215e40ce2abec9973a098a2b77b IV century BC
1094588a53d9c2173f84d983c75d3aa770386ff4 Facing the east with a thoughtful face, a stone Sphinx — lion with a human head reclines on a high pedestal in front of the high pyramid of Chephren.
cd71d4671904225456a980249a98c97d680db006 The guarantee of his power is the cosmos… In another myth, the Sphinx is entrusted to monitor the sunrise and the rotation of the planets.
dc26c758febeb1ccab204e4d544878b85fbdb3d4 He is also obliged to keep an eye on Sirius.
bb403657a9a0c3495bed44d4f17c7ad87976795c For all this, he should make sacrifices...
8f3eeecc8e8ac75cb9e11cec171cc3af142c2443 In the era of the New Kingdom, that is, from about 1500 BC, a new cult of the Sphinx was born for no apparent reason.
365ef762e4f33cea094d7c7c8ea51555f088feb4 A lion with the head of a pharaoh has become the most frequently encountered image in Egyptian art. Two small sculptures dating back to the era of Amenhotep III have been decorating the embankment of the Derzhavnaya Neva near the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg since 1832… ..
6f707028a27b1f462069df8f40f7c612761208af The Sphinx of Naxos.
c68d9f0e3efee6f03c1f237260644e33c063f9da The sculpture was found by archaeologists on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea.
4781b44a46db1ff49538dcec683fd76ed02151a0 So, the Romans brought the Asian Astarte to Europe from their military campaigns, not to mention the rich pantheon of ancient Greek gods and goddesses.
a5b7e3a30c15c328cabd63b0cae29534556b636e He wandered along the roads near Parnassus and devoured passers by.
c5f18b1a93c3f13553c3d8f234997de59083eb07 He jumped off and went into the desert
aa924208c3c23e6c62ef93b759c7a421758d3fef The profile of the Sphinx.
65a7a195b40e3dc3189953116fb166e721ec51d9 The Sphinx is disfigured more by people than by time: in fact, its head, floating above the sands, was even used by the Mamluks as a target for their artillery.
bd7ab515e3c58fbb0bea226a5a06bc1980dcef71 The face of the Sphinx has a height of 5 meters and a maximum width of 4.2 meters, the stump of the nose is almost two meters. the false beard, attached by Thutmose IV, is now in the Cairo Museum.
dcc69b7a42ca0beb499a487d7b2d173866e7e02d I couldnot help noticing a giant lion in front of the pyramids, could I?
d603d08d82e5c12a5da8ae7828e8e503f73a0c33 However, he didnot see it!
9d7c001399b9978ceda19b8cd26adf46979e8678 A conspiracy of silence?
d59202857c03c808b26e5d6d67ebab7ef906c83f But there were already myths about the Sphinx in the Greek epic at that time!
869cdd649e8b1215d17d3eac507ede43c278228e What is the matter?
3a76b6157ac1b2fbc965caa1028e903c72d187c2 So not a single economic document of the era of the construction of the great pyramids related to the Sphinx has been found by archaeologists.
3659ac9e51aa87c6a4d1e421df02fd5d4d560566 Once again!
0d6554ee8645a97e1e27ca3a5c5cff897499a746 How many were there?
f97ffec6bb1ea88bb6f0cc165b8f3fc53530743e It turns out that Herodotus, Strabo and other Greeks simply did not see the Sphinx with their own eyes.
28a60363c03a0529d940933e2798d788d6a87c9e He was under a layer of sand.
b9ef7c94618d18e4f1aa796c2041aa7059f58b09 The mystery is partly explained in the old legends, spread first among the Egyptians, and then among the Arabs.
f592e751cbf90868dbe5112288bef9b852a2a4ed The Sphinx is a living being, a demigod, a guardian of order.
b6ef2ff00296dff89ddb2c6550be26daff0ee870 When he does not like something in the behavior of people, for example, their strife, wars, predatory raids on neighboring tribes or heretical hobbies with other people's idols, he jumps off the pedestal, goes to the Libyan desert at night and buries himself deep in the sand there...
8526fc5543bc0a314148029ff2ae56e05ff1ab09 The real essence of the mystery is that from time to time a huge sculpture is covered with sand above the head.
12720ea22a8d5362581b19277c6f554b10a4face But this happens at the place where it was erected.
004a6b21b91f2c42e545f8b224fc3100ad8d673e The sands from hot Libya are carried by a huge mass even today.
8bbea3f1186a5a2d74128e7e9b599f8c2e695c3f Previously, they did not know how to build barriers, forest strips, as now, and the Sphinx, when the Egyptians suddenly remembered about it, had to be dug out with wooden shovels.
4be029de1d5e05f2f961bcf7d5632d9499e99033 At the end of the last century, a stele was found in Egypt, the text of which was compiled in the XV century BC during the reign of Thutmose IV. Hieroglyphs say that the pharaoh had a sign in a dream: if he cleans the Sphinx of sand, then his reign will be prosperous.
caf906bef9b6f91c8594d710e3a37820f82cf52b And the sculpture was once again dug up, having spent almost a year on it...
b64254e2d37b90a7d1292bdcd4e7daa2d7661836 In the XII century BC, after the liberation of the Nile Valley from the next conquerors, the sculpture was dug up again.
a1259eb098cc3479dfaa6104927763d9b18228cc And since that time, a whole epoch in the art of Ancient Egypt has begun, associated with the production of thousands and thousands of small stone lions with a human head — from talismans for wearing on the gru to the size of a live African lion.
4d52cadfd2b8fc8b5e4522796f740cff1727c529 Guy gantov is not the case.
48aa4bb28e4071b89a418d775382180c26648809 The Egyptians built a whole alley of granite sphinxes near the temple of Queen Hatshep Sut.
e4383e66a3486bed9de6157a8128f29cb5f3efb5 And such alleys were then arranged at the funeral temples of all subsequent pharaohs.
a054bc509fdc6c465e9682bea81fac25a9a16e73 Recently, information has been discovered that the great Sphinx was dug out of the sand during the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, then under the Roman emperors and Arab rulers in the Nile Valley.
b172a7dd0b7013d164960a597973285826c4c4a1 After prolonged sandstorms, it is necessary to clean the monument today, although there is less sand now than before.
bfeba7518206b4ec571a81cbf67c00c98cfba421 By the way, it was the cleaning work that helped the employees of the Department of Antiquities of the ARE to make an amazing discovery.
26098be8802676aa218f57f934b2a69645c87330 A bulldozer between the Sphinx and the pyramid of Khafren accidentally uncovered traces of an urban settlement — one of the very first in Egypt.
4ab98ef0df354c21f7cd1fcf12f05f202bdf1d94 In the times preceding the great pharaohs, its inhabitants angered their king with something, and he ordered it to be leveled to the ground.
47a714472ee997cb9829223572786365faf9a6d7 The traces of the city are so blurred by time and people that it is still difficult to determine its origin.
e3506c5b76dee4e630206edd16da812cd5a876e4 One thing is clear: it is much older than the pyramids.
efa02cc7c2dc37c33ddbb0d3dd1ad56f279ffbe9 Already the first comparisons of all these phenomena, facts, historical records and legends made scientists doubt the well established opinion that the Sphinx was erected in the era of Djoser, Chephren and Cheops.
a110dfd467458fcb7c643c409991790df67efba7 What is the Egyptian Sphinx sick with?
dd50bca44610c65a7bb3bc04cb65335fd09418a5 The Great Sphinx of Giza.
5a7fecfdde4e5a46594f2813cf76cc16cafdd5db Increase
8b0f2c0b4b3687df9d156c79bf9e1c17c17f6f9d This giant lion with a human face, carved out of a rock, reaches a height of 21 meters, and a length of about 73 meters.
93abb5ea728e9628cc4bc5de6d38fdfdbe6d371a According to Herodotus, there is a temple under the Sphinx, also rocky, connected by a long tunnel to a lake and an island with sarcophagi hidden inside the rock on which the pyramid of Cheops stands.
6f667a5167af48ef3d98a1d27586a63b3a57d09b The monument was restored more than once, but the sand again hid it, sometimes up to the throat.
fc295926db6cf99fbbd420bfbc5d41b059cbaf02 The most famous restoration was undertaken by Thutmose IV, who, during his rest in the shade of the colossus after hunting gazelles, was visited in a dream by the god of the Sphinx Horem Akhet, or "Mountains of the Horizon", who commanded him to perform this pious deed.
c0985b98b917a6929bccf63903974e3c6afda709 After clearing the Sphinx, Thutmose, as promised in the dream, received the Egyptian throne.
9fdfabd02dfaacea5bfedc01fd8988d53809f9e1 The stele between the lion's paws reminds of this story.
a90f3fab21f40eb283ff4f9bd593c73b874618bf The restoration of the stone blocks was carried out already in the Ptolemaic period.
2470ad61c64a6f0fc25b40cafc208066640e9aa4 The Romans also took measures to free it from sand and erected an altar at the great monument.
5f9a288ece96a5bcd04b680f9b44ef83d9cd22df The last sand clearing was started in 1926; restoration work continues to this day.
ecae6c49068eebf35955fe8bd2ea7e68d089403b Napoleon Bonaparte, and before him the Arab sages, struck by the sight of the Sphinx against the backdrop of the majestic pyramids, expressed the idea that the stones processed by the hands of the ancient Egyptians are timeless.
7755db9367d2f26656503339ce1f693b87d9bdb9 Yes, thousands of years have spared these monuments.
ac375e619d97b83b1d15c25d8255310a212071ab But the people themselves damaged them.
0f392ce2eddd4cafdbf7d733300a0bca2be4b672 The cladding from the stepped pyramids was stripped off by the Arab Caliphs for their palaces.
81819a789d19123084803f135c86369096244211 One of the rulers of Egypt ordered to beat off the nose of the Sphinx.
0c3ad85b3fbc46ca763797c4a8f7d4eeb598bf00 At the beginning of the XVIII century, another tyrant fired at the face of the sculpture from cannons.
51ddc078e8ca9ff0a674fd8e138e058539991974 Napoleon's soldiers fired into the eyes of the Sphinx with rifles.
26c53e0d6d3b835c0933c326d2f17fa5e3764a8c The English lords recaptured the stone beard and took it to the British Museum...
b4f6235d7770650f0587161d9cccc7e9e1cf1503 Nowadays, the acrid smoke of Cairo lime kilns penetrates into the pores of the statue.
caaaf14cf9b9b96f6e6826c9162fdec351d2e468 They are corroded by stones and car engine exhausts.
82c1a334bb150b3262fca064d9a868f0e9711767 The Sphinx is clearly ill now.
710b084df46c316cf4ee4c058d62cceb55f4b8ba In 1990, a consultation of specialists from Egypt, the USA, France, and Germany gathered.
169e368334568a25195adba431bb665e7c3cf678 The team consisted of geologists, chemists, ecologists, restorers of antiquities.
8d634f79ac6e83aa1269373fe343a08f1db799e8 The very idea of such a comprehensive examination arose after a large stone piece broke off from the Sphinx's neck on a summer night in 1988 and fell down with a crash.
8759f005ea1eee51efa2fa67b89a20ff3080b06e Then they weighed it and were horrified — as much as 350 kg!
c31caeea560608d31d135910c453e635df18390b After that, UNESCO became concerned.
70e6afc762e1191a0eb471de4e279e062e7a4cf6 A field laboratory with various analyzers and a powerful computer was installed next to the monument.
d7c019be8cf208532fb3b618e609470882146974 The French began their work by scanning the damaged head with ultrasonic emitters.
e326cfee2b4ae5aa41285f5d69018f3d92533772 There were dangerous cracks inside.
381b0a4e686f169be88eda8ca7524ab558803f96 German Professor F. Proyser found traces of the 1966 repair — external cracks on the neck, sealed with poor cement, prone to rapid erosion.
3d6f3fdf16bb0ba5a7b90cd44029a515c26696e8 The Americans were saddened by the state of the Sphinx's paws.
3d77b4f8c6d6bf7a963d809cd1a442e7221eb8d4 What conclusions did the council draw?
7f9942a290db4743a65a57e3ce37614676e80086 The opinion of experts is as follows: hundreds of millions of dollars are needed to save the sculpture from destruction, and for the first time it is necessary to close the monument with a plastic cap and prohibit tourist buses from approaching it.
6eeff1599a772496f69ed1f622d0d662e8feeb73 During the XX century, it was damaged more than in the previous 4000 years...
c76777ca5b011477c74f5bca1d612cf7442db7e6 Having made such a conclusion, the members of the council went home.
6d94a166102c9155322eaf5b23e270a928bc8f91 They couldnot get the money.
7917f22749f08569445dfc4fd6a5a00913913a14 The Egyptians began to restore it on their own.
876ed081c223147e5909fac7b5727a2f711ebcf6 Large cracks were sealed with new synthetic compounds, the pedestal was strengthened, the fallen fragments were found and put in place.
06c6d859b115f1a57c66d2ae2b815f929517d192 The British were required to immediately return the beard and put it in place to strengthen the 900 ton head of the Sphinx.
6847ede6c1f6a3a02c041072415d99e8376cfc8d The state of disrepair and the repair of the ancient sculpture that has begun have aroused a new interest of science in the mysteries of the Sphinx.
8fc99077e4c3d2274b45baca9b4041a208e0fd5a Unexpected and sometimes precocious hypotheses appeared.
5e289dcaa55f121096640519e8a69f33085d00e1 But without them, as you know, it is impossible.
2707b288c3066e3f3ad1c6af0df00429352e65a6 According to one of them, the ritual essence of the Sphinx is to be the guardian of the necropolis, founded even before the construction of the great pyramids.
8a7c8e6148f20076c0407aabf9cdc18e65d993b5 Traces of such a necropolis have been found, but have not been investigated due to the lack of funds.
9aa400f697877b3569775cf4e021ce0bc9270424 Then the assumption was born that the pharaoh's beard was attached to the head under the Rameses in order to give the rounded non Egyptian facial features a resemblance to the pharaohs of the XIX dynasty.
24d9970a611fe173ba9ebd4941ab08ee73a6add2 And yet: it is suggested that in ancient times the stone lion was painted with ochre, which means that it was erected before the arrival of the Egyptians in the Nile Valley.
1be79a5b2439edd33fc26fa1ce0cc0dcfb8f10f3 No one disputed the presence of ochre on the statue, but a discussion broke out about the age of the sculpture...
52ad54ea6000fc3e1e34cbc2e6c1d75d73b3f55c Meanwhile, the Egyptian Ministry of Culture has drawn up a master plan for the restoration of the Sphinx, designed for ten years.
6ce7fc6b2c58b7b594d08d92cec35b57c76ff703 When some travel companies allocated funds for repairs, they decided to spend them on protecting the pedestal from brackish subsurface waters.
1a702f057dacdd6def678516a09c44b588a5e570 A group of foreign hydrologists and geologists was invited.
140a048830057d8d80390c4352fc5b8763104f0d And then a new mystery of the Sphinx began...
4918237638ec25a462aad74a30ac353893d0d27b He is a contemporary of Atlantis
1df5db2211cbe2435137a602430f3cd0f6f1bf5c About a year before the arrival of hydrologists in Egypt, a cavalcade of orange vans drove up to the foundation of the sculpture.
72ad0bfe034fcca64080c0df2ba95f36344269e4 People in sunglasses, tropical helmets and overalls with hieroglyphs on the back quickly poured out of the cars.
c0a1c0998e143dcd4abd1d9df8f41748b093c0e1 However, these were Japanese letters.
5f4ba12dd2aa8ea7ea0f7ebf894c647e1b96dee7 Tokyo archaeologists led by Professor S. Yoshimura enlightened the array of the pyramid of Cheops with echolocators, after which they decided to examine the stones of the Sphinx.
ba30b62fb594c6d09a161be8c3dda6b964055d78 And after three days, the Japanese came to a stunning conclusion: “The stones of the sculpture are older than the blocks of the pyramid.”
921beaa206b2fe8add87cb690de0f90bbfdb3fcd Let's make a reservation: the Japanese experts did not mean the geological age of the rock from which the lion with the human face is made, but the age of the sculpture, that is, the time of processing of natural stone.
9c116f9653e8ebeed3e2941dec5b8887ece4ce15 Then Tokyo scientists announced a second sensation: electronic equipment under the left paw of the stone statue discovered a narrow tunnel leading towards the pyramid of Khafren.
b3b2c19bd771487560029040208b58e309de8554 It starts at a depth of two meters and goes downhill obliquely.
9748c25fbe89440d63277cdcc90bc31496c45440 It is impossible to trace it further.
f39c652b5dd4a8e0d1e47db65103af797c5740ac Professor S. Yoshimura promised to create a new device specifically for the study of this structure.
bde65181d0fbae363efd41a42699718af308968d This confirmed the rumors that had long been circulating among the Arabs, who claimed that there was a tunnel dug by the Egyptians under the Sphinx, through which water could be let in during an attempt to rob the burial chamber in the pyramid of Chephren...
fbcd1bfec21e1bee033c5290f386dfdb0e3db831 After a while, a team of hydrologists settled down at the pedestal of the ancient lion.
95d979ff449d2430d3b542f60e39320aaa7a7072 And a new sensation: at the base of the pedestal, traces of erosion from a large flow of water were found.
1173e98a4f1794b10568f68ca50af6782020cfd4 As soon as this message was published in the Washington Bulletin on Nature Research by new methods, a statement appeared in the press that the Nile used to be wider and flowed around the rock from which the infinitely mysterious Sphinx was cut down.
d678e15e615344f3f6e035d09516a7a5a0e1f9f3 How so?
0e2481de6b6a9609061ed438b42c99441a87523c After all, there is a desert all around!
74fea885c2d7a6a43d44031d4a28dfb60aba6a29 What's the Nile here?
56938c8a1173b0b406d3383c7dc416d5492cbf0b ” Most likely, there are traces not of the Nile, but of a flood, "the hydrologists suggested," a mighty flood of water.
73fdbe4fbb01610dac15e8c7f0135befff30e6f8 And he went from north to south.
fd1ae9552dd55772fd125bd5c51fc9834ed245e6 It was not a flood of the Nile, but a biblical catastrophe!”
05b1786481451dc9e3318d29f0c3607dcf914828 After analysis and consultation with geophysicists, the probable date of the flood was named: eight thousand years BC!
6e12b029c7513d435fff2ebc9456dbcd94338594 The British, repeating the analysis, pushed this date back to twelve thousand years into the depths of the centuries, and noted that the traces of water erosion fall on the treated part of the rock on which the Sphinx is based.
8f044a73845e4271008a1f323f3415d17ea8fcd5 French archaeologists have noticed that the dating of the Egyptian flood coincides with the date of the death of the legendary Atlantis according to Plato...
dddc24d61248bc891968b27f981112e5b0ade372 No, nothing is new under the moon.
a9ebf9c6b0983de111a470267ded4eb7f96700e9 Back in the XII century, Europeans got acquainted with the Arabic legend, according to which the pyramids were built to save the Egyptians during the flood, and the Sphinx was built to warn people in advance about the possibility of a catastrophe.
286ca708b19fe28fdec1f93fe4261f8564563997 It is no accident that his eyes are not only wise, but also eternally alert...
ce27fab5a156d027b558855b29f5d0f14f43f3f6 And yet... the Sphinx has a third eye directed into Space!
772805c264e92ebbdf0c5d6f0fc27dc21fce22fa The mystical Sphinx has been looking at the sunrise of the eternal luminary for several millennia.
46d7295aacb2caca6b33602d391958d64bf7c44f But he is not silent.
48c4d91dc013e70a68f85ecf4e1122de9ea1471e He continues to ask riddles and waits for the Oedipus of the next century.
74255ac589866bdf2979bada20be6cf3bbf785b3 We will wait and hope!
e664d2cef4ee8ad08830dce2dd730062ca337e66 Source: Unknown
a8e9d216607fc6d6a97226884af64cae87baf359 < < The head of the head is further>>
5dba890c8abcdcf8c1641a69c35f1cfeed30c911 Personalities
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b69de185865a6b3ff7876676c9bbc3ebc5be9d49 Military art
102dbcf894945a5c748834e8214903c96d894d18 Excursions
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e467708567fc708694e88d110f69841fa526f74f New theories
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3578fb108500141f4d8bb0865ca75ad14064284c Riddles of ancient Egypt
853a2afed42ee5eff68b8d05e6ad28f350bbde58 Egypt is a country that is full of sounds and echoes of its rich past, which has a history of several millennia.
529f54993566b4d664f6bc07dee221aec65d885e This is a country of catchy beauty and exciting colors - a sky blue sea and a desert, desert, desert.
9a1cf9e786702a422c1ac33458d66ff56e7e1642 Egypt can rightly be considered the cradle of civilization.
e0dd7145fec4a96865d14a2d109f6881fb31ad5b Today, this country is considered a treasure trove of ruins and cultural monuments, the birthplace of many myths and legends, ancient curses of the pyramids and untold riches hidden in them, as well as countless mysteries of the pharaohs.
c90de77ebe6bb01f5a71e0f228437c96fb735e44 Everyone who came here not just to lie on the warm sand by the sea, but to join the rich cultural heritage of the country, after visiting some monuments and pyramids will have a variety of impressions someone is puzzled, someone is delighted, someone is overwhelmed with an abundance of new information, but there is no one who would remain indifferent.
0ca4c72d7b1dc5df1a8ff1d310de352d6c69b0df Egyptian Pyramids
df318a58a40a00767087d077fa7b6ea4c9ff3f7a The Egyptian Pyramids are one of the seven wonders of the world, their secrets, riddles and unusual healing power excite researchers and scientists from all over the world.
f4f68e79e0eda65b81305ecce374de6b6117f23a One of the main mysteries of Egypt is the mystery of the construction of seven of all the pyramids that have come down to us (3 pyramids on the Giza plateau, the Red and Broken Pyramid and the Medum pyramids), the construction of which is usually attributed to the rule of the fourth dynasty of the pharaohs.
32c60d11f495a927ebe4a500bea373d347a1e2af Thanks to the fact that the Rosetta Stone was found by archaeologists in 1799, Egyptologists were able to decipher the hieroglyphs of the ancient Egyptian alphabet and read everything that they left to their descendants on numerous architectural monuments, books and scrolls, vases and many other things found during excavations.
0b0ac0f5d95f268064f75abe82127088b016b894 Here are just the most mysterious Great Pyramids, the technology of creating which excites the minds of builders, researchers and Egyptologists for more than one hundred years have not left us any messages – there are no inscriptions on their walls.
a69116ee139f6b4428a9ef49d1b20aaa45ec330a But you can go another way and try to look more closely at the blocks of stone that make up the great Pyramids, and what a professional builder or architect will easily consider not to see a layman's eye - the excellent quality of processing and grinding of stone blocks and their huge weight, even today there are only a few cranes in the world that could lift such blocks weighing more than one ton to such a height, how did the Egyptians manage it then?
7d389bd2660b0dd47ccba04ca2493ff51d465ca6 At the same time, this is not the main oddity.
74f33fb9f6e4f54d6f2dcdb1b3cefc8f86d79989 So one of the first pyramids in the form in which we are used to seeing them is considered to be the one that was built by Pharaoh Djoser, and according to experts, the masonry technology, the materials used, as well as the general architectural project, in principle, everything in it corresponds to the knowledge and level of development of society at the time when it was built.
935ba4651aa5112d51f2af0cab866ee16bcc74c8 But a hundred years later, the first great pyramid was erected on the Giza plateau, according to the official version, it was built under the leadership of Pharaoh Cheops.
7a05fcd0de1c5773c3ee29461e193cb12e1e02e7 And here is the first question, how, with a difference of only a hundred years, could it be possible to build such pyramids that are so different in quality and complexity?
216483b2e5148f7421894d44b696b124c11dc23b The Pyramid of Cheops not only impresses with its size, but also the technologies that should have been used in its construction should be completely different from those that the Egyptians could have had at that time – massive blocks that have perfectly polished surfaces.
2e3c8816d6b2b9578ea9827b64b269d4de89ab55 In addition, the grinding was carried out at a perfectly adjusted angle, which is unrealistic even with modern tools in our hands, and what can we say about those that were in Ancient Egypt.
833117f854f3ef80958cfeee11240401d9ad4241 There is only one conclusion for the century that passed between the reign of Pharaoh Djoser and the reign of Pharaoh Cheops, there was a technological leap in Egypt, although it touched exclusively on the construction of pyramids, without affecting all other spheres of life.
ab175c57947acf7b06d4413655d841b599219958 Moreover, this knowledge and skills were passed on by builders and architects throughout the reign of the fourth dynasty of the pharaohs, immediately after they were replaced on the throne by the fifth dynasty of the Egyptian kings, there is a leap in technology only in the opposite direction.
3122312f6c7dd8f105a5efb36d8a25cfa4e01f92 As if all the brilliant builders had disappeared, all the knowledge had been forgotten and the skills had gone into oblivion, nothing else of the same monumental and striking construction technology was being built in Ancient Egypt by an unsuitable reigning dynasty.
621adc839a73737f1ae38fd0a4f2e511ecffac5a The pyramids, which were created later, were built from ordinary small stones or red unfired bricks, and in principle, society could build them even at the earliest stage of its development - only stones, sand, water and a large number of people were needed for their construction.
2cf535c89b3e65c62996af6104b9cc5ec1cdaf2e Historians, who, as you know, try to adhere to the official version of the development of civilizations, try their best to explain all the inaccuracies and discrepancies that arise when studying the secrets and riddles of Egypt.
e5ac8c7788898697e2365ab2e856d23ab98d3f4f So small pyramids, which are similar to all those found in Egypt and dating back to the reign of the same fourth dynasty, are usually explained by the fact that they were built for members of the royal family, i.e. in parallel with the construction of the Great Pyramids, the pharaoh builds rather frail structures for his wives and mothers, did they really not love and respect them so much.
43c9e95cdd2591cdd9413b84207f5061a3da2a27 Another mystery is that there is no information about the construction of these monuments in more than one written source.
d956369b5b14c8fc634612081bc0ab30d1e06ea5 So quite a lot of information can be found about the military exploits and failures of the pharaohs, about how ambassadors from other countries came to them to build a palace for the ruling pharaoh, but not a word about the fact that giants are being built that can glorify the rulers for centuries.
5d2e4e4a3d12e496d733dd50bfece1dea356aef8 The ancient civilization of the gods of Egypt and its traces A stele was found in Egypt, the transcript of the records on which told scientists that the King of the fourth dynasty Cheops is engaged in the reconstruction of the great Sphinx, which protects the Great Pyramid belonging to the goddess Isis, but since according to the official version of Cheops the pyramid was built, and did not repair the existing one, this stele was recognized as a fake by historians.
80a178701303b6cea845b7f1bdccf352dec38975 This kind of zodiac calendar reflects all the cyclical processes of our planet.
55a863b7a0e959b2569001836275552fab09abcc In addition to the 12 zodiac constellations known to everyone, you can see our entire solar system there, along with the earth, which moves around the sun.
e1e38f70b3f1d9696d140fd03ff881081c6a4f52 Related Sections: History of Egypt Egypt
83ac820e26ddb3bb6595b8ca13672320bee6258c Add your comment to this article
89756ac16856b530aa0718cf94ac25c94050f9de More materials from the Egypt section
599fc3443c97609c4447201f3420de9101b8669e Temples of Egypt
d9c1b56a0ffb9af3cb66f7f2054de7b9f92f14da The temples of Egypt are the dwellings of the Gods, structures erected by the ancient Egyptians to serve the cult.
0944c9ff573192380c16c797a7afdadc1535f841 The mysterious power of these historical monuments located on the territory of Egypt fascinates and suppresses with its greatness.
20ba148125c8848630fbe1920e8d66ca322e1f2b Every year, millions of tourists, attracted by the magic and secrets of a great civilization, go to the African continent to try to solve the mysteries of the ancient pharaohs themselves
ce6cbd85d64318a7f3a4673a8de070e4a1706184 Sections on the topic: Sights of Egypt Egypt
07dd09b187c716bc2d8a6e5908683a7204353878 Sights of Egypt Ras Mohammed
c1a124e140f411617d177e7b587d2751f7342915 Every tourist coming to Egypt is simply obliged to visit the pride of the country, the national reserve, which is called Ras Mohammed.
94dc640aad0551690462849b89cb7a78217c9603 Enjoyment of the beauty of nature, as well as flora and fauna, is guaranteed as well as extraordinary impressions
73ca7f3d61b666e615c4cfa2d974a9fe73bea550 Memphis in Egypt
e64837898152ea8ffeb627fcb9519bfe117f7ff2 Memphis is one of the greatest centers of antiquity.
0bbbefc03ece72e57b09e6e756a736691fb53896 For three millennia, the city has been the administrative, commercial, religious and cultural center of the world.
0447f0b9eaa835e660c0614f553a2eb6d8e7f711 However, he also could not resist the passage of time.
7db25175aeec189f48ca52e479438b556fc8529b Alexandria contributed to the outflow of people from Memphis, and its collapse came with the Mamluk conquest of Egypt.
25b751a2e8396f4824a39a8f2c71c80974368124 The conquerors did not appreciate its history, completely destroying the city and using its limestone, from which the city was built, for the construction of Cairo
aa54012e4d4a18009a8d054cd0ec2e885e511324 Per Ramses in Egypt
f45ef1088c41470938e78fc16dc367da4f0d0339 Per Ramses or "House of Ramses", translated from modern Arabic, the Kantir was built under Ramses II around 1278 BC.
ffdcce3bd07a78039f4290ac3fb3e30d0568df45 Ramses II, after the death of his father Seti I, announces the center of the new capital, the summer palace, which was built on the eastern side of the Nile delta, not further than 1 km from the ancient capital of the Hyksos Avaris.
e696c8a1167cefb30dcbd244ea96f20346ce1962 It was this new capital that Per Ramses became.
595ffff41b8bafb979d0da7b695ab790fdf70daa Ramses III, who took the throne, changes the name of the city to "The House of Ramses III – the lord of Iunu, great in victories".
6ecc8f873c2d63b765c87a670ac7035a32f47709 Literally translated, the name of this city sounds like "turquoise color".
417400416983ab52f4d8ce6b7edbbb9af3e3a4c4 Most likely, he deserved this name for the discovered turquoise tiles
3526804963748f979769ba716ed35de7cc679609 The Pyramid of Mykerin in Egypt
7941a62c636b3522ce01fc678c48bc06fbb7c54f There is no such place on the territory of Egypt that did not carry the heritage of Ancient Egypt.
b41d08bfb0adea65fd55db4ae2a8c5a59a718bd6 More than six thousand years ago, the historical events of this state began.
97a934b815559c0c677697af423723d97d92c76d Every year tourists come here, who are attracted by ancient culture and architectural monuments.
73b30ce9bcafa7451c2ba208b41482481682b30f The calling card of Egypt, of course, is the great Pyramids, of which there are more than a hundred here.
421d0d5f03fcb18a976a99295c84cdcccb748cee They have a variety of sizes and shapes.
b78745607df414ff62cc977f6e1b17fbccc03c71 During the reign of the pharaohs, they were whole ensembles of temple structures, which are decorated with obelisks, statues, sphinxes, wall paintings and bas reliefs.
22f151982531553f836c0d7609017719fd5f43e1 Even those monuments that were able to survive to our times are able to impress the imagination and they play the role of the" center of attraction " of the country
9415e17c2a9f69fd7e277a5d14b8e3887234dc3c Sights of Egypt Sunny boats
6005ee2bcef89771ee7c3e33247256593f51c9c6 The solar boats are a unique attraction of Egypt.
b31de09a13535c47eee285adc05e4876640ce8fe These are two rowing vessels that were hidden in hiding places near the foot of the pyramid of Cheops.
ee3ffdf1ac3c3447a1261bbd2f30ef84950d3308 The rooks were found in 1995.
f7e521f4a0ddfa7140e18f52b95502af8df5a9cf When the territory adjacent to the pyramid was being cleaned.
4b223ebb64757300908dab9a426193eef1bd0e70 It was then that two pits were noticed, which had a geometric shape in the form of a triangle.
d4a011f02d07a8f5465db251594e99030959def5 Pharaohs in ancient Egypt
4772f40319695f99d539c7e89f2db3b94c0e8de5 For several millennia, ancient Egypt was ruled by pharaohs.
1c2b201eb674792738d1f091fc3b619b74567fb8 These rulers were the incarnation of God on this earth.
be046c1d69d9ea2c1e4f7d13875044205c29a012 After all, according to the belief of the Egyptians, the pharaoh was born from the supreme deity, who was embodied in the reigning monarch, and the queen mother.
19f18071988e94f9185911aba1d7005bac6b33dd Indeed, the Pharaoh regulated all spheres of life and took part in religious rites.
654838ddf9129706d2525c4fb67da38d58619d6d And his death became a real tragedy.
49c1d24ea6214b410636f52100de03cec7fb819a After all, there is no Egypt without a Pharaoh
9987cc27fd5acea6c3753be9593473f3c6b4fbe1 Sights of Egypt Memphis
0b657676379584aeaaf1bf83074e3acb03538a28 The city of Memphis, which was previously the capital of a large state, is now only an object of interest for archaeologists and tourists, because only the preserved majestic monuments of the ancient era remind of its former glory.
74c46509b8b05115238bf87e3c8c6e184bcf099f You need to go to Memphis at least for the sake of a 10 meter statue of Ramses II and a small sphinx, which later became a kind of prototype of the colossus of Giza.
17e2d7899e2c869ed367fe30cb2d932d93bf81e8 Sightseeing and excursions in Hurghada
f3890ad984b06ff23b764e346e9363622a5cc97b If you decide to spend your vacation in Egypt, and it is in Hurghada, then we will help you prepare in advance for visiting this resort city and determine the places that you should definitely visit there.
2006431d3f12769d27d320eada29b8951d1b6e5c Related Sections: Resorts of Egypt Excursions in Egypt Egypt
8ec6a63b4104bd9d0ceb3eb5eb80883019bcaa52 History of Ancient Egypt
6acb873dcc17c7f2758bccd6c7c0ddd756baa403 The history of Egypt dates back to ancient times.
0ccd79c6ed0921129b6cc5ac28a85ba1b242db1d On the territory of the modern country, since the 4th millennium BC, there was an ancient civilization.
41d22e1a293d50484ed3cbc67236058afccfb90c This state is commonly called Ancient Egypt
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5d7214f80a281eb693a8fdc11fd5c140601ba3e2 Turkey vs Egypt, which is better?
836c7dcfc938832037e6fe0ccd46e96291bd7778 Who built the pyramids?
b372875b04cd00f9c3bcf306ca04a4efc2c6a44c Polyline pyramid in Egypt
cc0bc65bd4859387aba62bde0bd3815adf288a5e The largest water parks in Hurghada
c9acb14cc8fa18588777a07dac0599a182df0984 Weather in Egypt in December
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0ddfab58fc2adb5d9c17a14f869bc9bb6c87fd1a Sights of Egypt Colossi of Memnon
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9038631d9cbb3660b815a944d9dd3a05ce1f2616 Weather in Egypt in April
25b269dc1c1718e1d2db5b48a61d4743d79e6046 Local customs in Egypt
a920112cf7568458be5a2eaa560510bfe8a112af Biography of Ramses 2
7859910c9d78686433607d31aa42bfc80818e5e4 How and for what to pay a tip (baksheesh) in Egypt?
4feb5b8b5c303c4e9811c6d3d629228b773c81b5 The Alexandria Museum in Egypt
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3a129d0f058ac106377a1199652a91b65ee09c37 The Temple of Queen Hatshepsut and the history of her reign (Egypt)
e6eef6697865fc4e39b275022314584a102312a4 Mythology of Ancient Egypt
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d2a44c094f2861072ea3b2c41866aef0b266e968 Sirius 4 Hotel Review*
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d8eedb8236ece3ac23cd9367985b0ab484b537af Aisawan Resort & Spa 4* Hotel Review (Aisawan Resort & Spa 4 stars, Pattaya, Thailand).
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19ecc054269bc98acfd3bf5834d4fed80866f485 Search Home Page > Anomalous Phenomena > Riddles of Ancient Civilizations > Egyptology Map
4ee47c5fbc7ebeb380dd131cea62c0682decdf87 Secrets of Egypt
0eedb1ce9e04aaed08deb8f1ac6e0e07519d8a3b Article from the website http://ufolog.nm.ru/
578112077612420b6de552f3df95f3bfaa02f163 Sources :
d82cb0ab712bb0765759b06c2b915f3b2d6bdecf UFO, No.
632f7e24806faf9ac1e4955ccc3119e5cae03869 37, 1999
4141a3eb2258eacb29147aaeeeed8e837c4d09e9 The Curse of the Pharaohs
f3b5766a9e1542d742b9926836acf83397eb96dc Vladimir Pakhomov
a52187795a3d62fcb960b3f0389483aa793b2cd3 Riddles of Forgotten Civilizations
5a74c2ab275712588a586b10b67b078f2827281a The Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu)
3f3168bd9e631d6dd0a7f06d4aa525d5cec42486 The Great Pyramid, the last remaining miracle from the ancient list of the seven wonders of the world, is a fantastic masterpiece of engineering art not only because of its gigantic size.
3756fb6acecbaebcad84f940198bd36ca2a88f23 It weighs 6.5 million tons and contains more building material than it took to build all the cathedrals, churches and chapels in England!
5da4b4914ffb7918cf189d3b166d036ce9436f63 Its uniqueness also consists in the exceptional accuracy of the orientation of the faces according to the countries of the world.
b0826b5443c73e70aeaa7cb2d9e16b7c5a329fd1 The error is a negligible amount – 0.015 percent!
05bad9c0384f91d630431912fd5d711b00d30095 Today, achieving such accuracy would require the use of laser theodolites, topographic maps with a resolution of 10 meters and an army of engineers, astronomers and stonemasons.
e3b7bd28ec988a0ec4905de556521a7e3df7435c By the way, the word Pyramid does not define a three dimensional triangle, and at the same time its root is not even Egyptian.
7937969a81e9fabd6a35dae28bd0d0900864605f The word Pyramid is made up of the Greek word "pyra" in the meaning of fire, light(or visible) and the Greek word "midos" in the meaning of measures (another meaning is the middle(inside)).
4df1c24fd7d7cc41a093aaffc9de08af2d18b113 The fact is that until 1301, when, after a strong earthquake, the Arabs began to use the loose cladding for the construction and restoration of the palaces and mosques of destroyed Cairo, the Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops – in ancient Greek transcription/2590-2568 BC/.) , which had an initial height of 146.6 meters (now 138 meters) was lined with slabs of polished limestone.
359e4267061bbbbd2fb7e98a4529f90f5bcf35eb Part of the lining (22 upper rows) is still preserved on the pyramid of Khafren, They were so shiny that they could be seen hundreds of kilometers away.
fce9085e191252d05b9b8c15beb69b7ab458b703 The base of the Pyramid, resting on a granite surface with a deviation from the horizontal of no more than two cm, is an almost perfect square(maximum deviation of 3 minutes 33 seconds) with sides of about 230 meters (north 230.1, west and east 230.2, south 230.3).
1f31e2411b3d21ffe8a6245c3a27d2659b8bc6ff And the entire structure, which today consists of 203 rows of masonry, was erected without cranes, wheels and powerful stone saving tools.
8c10211cb8105554357533035cacccc6c13fba97 Why did the ancient architects achieve such high accuracy, if this accuracy could not even be noticed by a simple eye?
bf9318845d633fe6706b76c38f68298be3a9b2ae One of the answers to these questions may lie in the desire of the ancient architects to encode some fundamental numerical values in the size of the Great Pyramid.
41b0c11b9281e264aba172c14b7097a605bedb6d And this requires high dimensional accuracy.
cbc1dff504d239dddc3e30da881ebbe4b9245a9e As a result, for example, the ratio of the length of the base of the pyramid to its height, divided in half, gives the famous number "pi" (the ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter) with an accuracy of the sixth sign!
840609310683082982d4b0b23b605bba90ca4d4d This number is also mentioned in the ancient Egyptian papyrus of Rind (stored in the British Museum in London).
bc0a86d3922398eb94e6b834cfe70367ee043a03 Perhaps it is deliberately encrypted in the size of the Pyramid of Cheops, and with a more accurate meaning than the great Archimedes, who lived 2000 years later, knew it!
f6fd774f8a0d353400a1247ccf9b94f6ad31f78d This idea inspired enthusiasts to search for other fundamental relationships in the Pyramid of Cheops.
1ec6ac415838fad949f9d507cb13b6b025c4e770 Astronomical calendar
eb30b5069e1ee027bcc8f1d9975de175fbb511c0 (I will tell you especially about the Menkauru pyramid.
52b2193abbd0d78eebe8e8c2463198d583e44f83 When British Colonel Howard Vance entered the burial chamber of this pyramid in 1837, he found a basalt sarcophagus , a wooden coffin lid in the form of a human figure and a bone.
e6287172718a24b637c0ca25102ae186aac0a96e The sarcophagus sank along with the ship transporting it to England, and the dating of the coffin lid and bones attributed them to the era of early Christianity.)
a677e71f280859e1f70c86de441f69770e9bbaf2 Due to the so called procession (the swaying of the Earth's axis under the gravitational influence of the Sun and Moon), the constellations change their position in the sky with a period of 25920 years.
bdff426ee777a4e0b9e8d3c3cafa8dfc28df8c81 These coincidences, according to Hancock and Boval, are not accidental.
b8bc15fae180771e38b468ec9d068b8385b99ad6 Moreover, the third largest pyramid (Menkaura) is knocked out of the straight line connecting the first (Cheops) and the second (Chephren) pyramids Looking at the Orion Belt, Robert Boval noticed a completely similar arrangement of three stars!
0be61f242877a7bd72aeb8c5957fe89b3a4c366f Another opinion is expressed in his article by Yevgeny Menshov.
97cdd5235a143fc86f400384eef480911ce958c8 Claiming that the Pyramids remind us of the planets of the solar system and the catastrophe that occurred on September 22, 10532 BC.
98dbbdcf1e4010408fec900deb42eec936d526c5 Where are the Great Messages stored?
c97201b8a7b528c820af24f9845636294fe7bbbe Everyone has heard about the treasures of the pyramids and their robbers.
a9d686303f299e99546f6379f4cd04059b339712 The way to the Great Pyramid of Cheops, in 820, was found by the Arab Ale Manune He began to disassemble in the center of the Northern Wall, where, according to legend, there was an entrance.
a62fa1350e163f73a31c7aaa5553f872369de1cd If it were not for this accident, the entrance would not have been found Currently, the main entrance to the Pyramid is the entrance that was punched by the Arabs.
0ba8e1e535feac6d016e217163f3edca483cb2a1 The real entrance is located higher, seventeen meters above the ground and seven meters to the east of the main north south axis.
43602e6b4c8d5655f2117cf02e9a78aedb815092 Having a cross section of 1m x 1.22 m, it is clamped by floor blocks 2.6 m thick and 3.6 m wide and a floor slab 0.76 m thick and 10m long .
c8b2eb31576647fc0f94b03907a140ebc81bdc8d It is covered with five 70 ton slabs supporting the upper part of the pyramid, is located at a height of 42.7 meters above the ground, and inside it is an empty granite box without ornaments.
732c4527a107f469ac20d8a31a0185c72c93d713 To bypass it, the Arabs carved softer limestone around it.
e5042380d163385088f5c079beb841f672c53a7e The Greco Roman geographer Strabo left a clear description of the large underground chamber(P) into which this corridor enters (180 meters below the top of the pyramid).
e31f12c5aecabfc72b0db362e9cc3ec2cc352733 There are several hypotheses about the astrological temporal significance of the corridors, but I will not dwell on them.
6dde1675910c52fed6afa941f9e08f39abea44e1 It seems to me incorrect to link time and distance in the pyramid.
152de4c150b5d4ab9dbef3581efdcde8846c5bb1 But I will give a diagram and a link from it.
ee5867086f9b12623d167a25801433e0d405edf3 Another surprising fact is that the ventilation ducts in the main chambers maintain a constant temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit.
604c97914d1a94a35b010d7cecaecc8526d139aa For some reason, the builders left the last 13 cm of the block untouched at the entrance to the two ventilation shafts in the queen's chamber (Q) and only in 1872, Wainman Dixon, by analogy with the tsar's chamber, discovered them by tapping and made his way to a channel 20 cm high and 23 cm wide, going 2 meters into the wall , and then, at an angle further.
30f994acbcdd10851eb77d1471982f04d9844051 It was in this channel , in March 1993, that a German engineer, a specialist in the field of robotics, Rudolf Gantenbrink, hired by the Egyptian Organization of Antiquities, to improve ventilation and launched a small sized crawler robot, controlled from a distance and equipped with powerful lamps and television cameras.
3fdf8bcfd1e02fce77e9085ed0a68420552822b7 This robot is " Upuat" ( in ancient Egyptian, "Discoverer") worth 250 thousand US dollars and showed on March 22 that 60 meters from the beginning of the steep ascent of the mine (39.5 0), the walls and floor suddenly became smooth and the robot crawled into a passage made of polished limestone, usually used for facing ritual rooms, and after 5 meters rested against a blind limestone "door"!
882971fc6786ff98fd6399dff5e0843f1d285a79 Gantenbrink was surprised to see two brass handles on the "door", lowered down, which, in his opinion, testified to the "sliding" principle of opening and closing the door.
9b854d7774cd42f3f508516154a41b9b2fd5369f In addition, the stone blocks stood at the" door " vertically (instead of their usual horizontal arrangement in other places).
d5214d464e4f96181e37ce189d0d35b6c506ec5e That is, they performed an unloading function.
af19152d5d5cb479ccf6af8fde0e80c37c32ccc3 Judging by the wide gap and the chip on the corner of the "door", someone has already opened it!
63221e3a4a42b586edc0aaa5228d9f353bc12270 A faint draft blew a strange black dust out of the crack.
e60f9f3c38e31863a5e196104e070dbe5d06e0c6 In general, everything indicated the presence of an unknown room behind the "door"!
2271753d74c56f99eb83f0e747b0e2252daa21f6 Earlier, with the help of the latest microgravimeter device, French and Japanese scientists discovered THREE unknown rooms inside the Pyramid!
48a826831854f34ad13fdf0cc3044c41a1f56a8c One of them has a length of 30 meters, a width of 5 meters and a height of 3 meters.
d2db9d7fd5fd3c67b7661a2638fe1d9277a729e6 After drilling holes, scientists "looked" there with a television probe and found sand in the voids, but not the one that is abundant around the Pyramid, but found only six kilometers to the southwest!
a2128dad58e951ae2a66a0d1cf13cf2e030abdad In addition, as it turned out, before laying in the Pyramid, it was carefully sifted.
b4d0dbf286fe7a48a708d8a7bc666614a14dca5b According to some experts, the sand of this composition prevents the passage of electromagnetic waves, which at one time tried to "shine through" this structure.
4fb854d227a822e1efa8e9d1b6cd3f630551fdd0 A television probe found some foreign bodies in one of the large voids.
27a65e6af16f8f74d9b4e2654742a61cac54d326 The resolution of the TV camera was not enough to identify these "bodies".
976c594f2f7ac0a31193c9e54608ab0db4998a7a Director of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt Ahmed Qadri commented: "There is something else in the Pyramid that we donot know about yet.
a2477b5ab04310659be7b77a64293eeed236bbc7 No one has penetrated this part of the structure before.
038edab04531c76121f1edded04eefd973a8708a There is some kind of construction there!"
f1c9ad8bcff7abe17d7b9710c3e40631cadc24d4 In 1954, archaeologists discovered two walled up niches at the foot of the Pyramid.
2bf3dbe22ea006ca75bca2486f2c53a8b9d81850 When one of them was opened, the smell of cedar planks came out of the pit.
038927c58a12e6f820e777d1af5ced8b52ff5f38 There was a genuine Pharaoh's boat lying disassembled, 43.6 meters long!
649db904447e5f28f90a279ecb5d74173363d7c8 It took 16 years to extract and dock hundreds of perfectly preserved fragments of the boat.
f4cdb72be2a4098be9dc94dc0a1d7c6cc74c9bdc Now the rook stands in its original form in a glass pavilion next to the Pyramid (the Solar Barke (Solar Rook) Museum).
0359d78c0c293317a911f9814c8fef88fca6fec6 A narrow hole was drilled in the second niche and a light guide connected to a television camera was inserted into it.
167f9f17a0f7d7ef144d47f0c10b69159476176c This work began with all precautions in October 1987.
3fb6df99a7ebe08093cd75650161a637972e80a7 When the TV camera was turned on, a clear silhouette appeared on the screen: a boat!
13c70498ad3d68eb4e1a5c5a6d8fd00304a6fd2c The second rook was a huge structure made of sagging boards fastened with copper brackets.
b52f8e29ec41f652bf7c9c82c0c718e0cdf9b2fc They are in no hurry to extract it – it is too difficult to keep this amazing find in the air...
cbc214fdd6291bf71f6f578e8e0b51bf47d7a391 The physical impact of the Pyramids
e06852b1a18678c756a1b02a0ad2369121fa0b75 French scientist Jacques Bergier, who studied the influence of various spatial forms on biological substances, built a cardboard model of the Pyramid and placed bovine blood there.
7cc6b58b87275d2caf16f57d5ae9628a6be83dd9 After a while, it was divided into two substances – light and dark.
6dd1648a99d735993e7bc269c11f75862e3c2a7f Other scientists have made sure that perishable products are preserved for a long time in the Pyramid model.
d24590af4ac3016e611f4fe018fc1fb4972494c0 The pendulum suspended over the top of the model deviates to the side or slowly rotates around the top.
5b71b27fb6f72dd7a458f29bb0b280a73ed70de8 Plants also behave strangely.
f0a92df0e8037d1c2d3acf6959e77789e04c7f45 At first they gravitate to the east, then they describe a semicircle, moving from the south to the west.
7a9c38459f05225a3f9f81dab2fb1d9484ca959b The Czech inventor Karel Drbal in 1959 adapted a similar model for self sharpening razor blades, and received a patent for this unusual invention.
824a87367dc87af8bb1be704c515e4b57906ff7a According to Drbal, he shaved with the same blade, placing it in the model at night, more than two thousand times!
05b06675e266a88e124020192ab34aa200c1aa2d It is believed that the pyramidal shape focuses cosmic energy...
66886bc8fcb95448880e1b2189feed4c6efd04c1 Pyramid lens
0e8b8ce9bb8d58460e013250ead444d356a42a82 American engineer Raymond D. Manners, in an article published in the magazine "Faith" for November 1996, reports that in its original form, the Pyramid was distinguished by two features: sparkling surfaces and ... concave faces in the middle part!
58edc42a7a90776b6bd586f99cb91ee6d8130338 The ancient builders covered the Pyramid with a layer of polished limestone 2.5 meters thick!
22e1e6871bab026b8404366726b7aca603e84e4d There were 144,000 20 ton skin stones.
0a22e78bb7e9ce88d60626347eebfda001456ccc They were so brilliant that they could be seen from hundreds of kilometers away.
587a482bb5bd4f3d759ecfb5e213fbc5a09b5ac0 In the morning and at noon, the sunlight reflected by this vast mirror surface was visible from the moon.
3a222f179d763626acb09ea47ee9960ba1072033 Locals have looked at the Pyramid and its polished stones with fear for centuries.
983561fcd1f82f1e6a1cf326ef9c413dd1bf0713 But when an earthquake in the 13th century loosened some of the shell stones, the Arabs began to use the cladding for the construction and restoration of Cairo palaces and mosques, including the Sultan Hassan Mosque.
1daa9f271b662b33bd343bef98d0261e1b9924f2 Surprisingly, the facing stones were docked with an interval of 0.5 mm and have perfect right angles with a deviation of straight lines within 0.25 mm.
a8942f568de59e8bf6c101e0f62ff0d863a28ea9 Modern technology does not allow placing such blocks with greater accuracy.
6aece84a6a2bf219f334af91a57d21c9f28bf633 Even more surprising is that this gap was intended for the glue sealing and fastening the stones.
d372d12aa2aaee25b7d2f5b5997323e4fcc5e606 The white cement that anchored the facing stones and made them waterproof is still intact and stronger than the blocks with which it was attached.
afcc66883ebc454b050b36b49714da89e1c3505f As for the concavity of the faces, by the way, completely invisible from the ground and, according to some opinions, reflecting the radius of the Earth, French scientists who accompanied Napoleon's army in the Egyptian campaign were the first to suspect it.
a034173ad3aaa5c3bd1d23517e839fe8b6d92db8 Later, in the 1880s, this fact was confirmed by the famous researcher of the Great Pyramid, Flinders Petrie.
2476ecb142512ec87e09bd724f15bf512d5a9ce6 Then they forgot about it for a hundred years.
f34c94666d5ead961b35a500b789bfa54fe1a1a5 And only in our days, aerial photography by an officer of the British army, P. Groves, has undoubtedly shown that the concavity of the faces, however, is completely insignificant – only one meter, really takes place...
733e8c5a18fe556b96ce36106b35c1195dbc56f9 It is interesting to note that later pyramids were built with completely flat faces!
1a002df17db6edcb783e10665a4b09a08b6421d3 Apparently, the main builder of the Great Pyramid hid from his followers the meaning and purpose of the concavities.
bc317394f7b5d3de3863020ab00797dd3f81a554 According to Raymond Manners, peculiar concave "mirrors"on the faces with a total area of about 15 hectares served to focus the sun's rays on the summer solstice.
4701d1a6f5ec4ae31e6a266eb09558a153a09f32 On this day, when the Sun was only 6.5 degrees from the zenith, a fantastic action took place: thanks to the polished edges, the Great Pyramid sparkled like a diamond!
c46997432f69dab660846586b079a93cef60feea In the focus of the concave "mirrors", the temperature rose to a thousand degrees!
f54e51fd852df3ecc48b1e6ff99ab6331cfa9203 The gathered crowds of people began to hear the crackling coming from these points, gradually increasing to a thunderous deafening sound!
67d6cbbde8705a6f0baa91b1c4552bc1866eb35f Amid the glittering light and roar, waves of hot air were spewing up from the central vortex above the top of the Pyramid.
67da3b7ae27b55223ead2f49e84ddd18ae7dab61 The illusion of a pillar of fire rising from the Pyramid was created.
07dbbe0020982de3dbedb81103694a28a5b84c28 This was truly the road along which the God Ra himself condescended to people!
3bf4d80c14be296a7dbc63a1748010bdd11a5b09 The Sphinx
af891910dcf8ab73bd0cc50d27d8ee3921dc2af2 The riddle of the Sphinx haunts people no less than the pyramids.
1ac60ede77869e8deabf93597d9fb084f8d16f5f When I read that the sphinx was repeatedly completely filled in, it seemed amazing to me.
54d6bff92392c6097b15afa371c594237d5beb92 However, a trip to Cairo dispelled all doubts.
cd436ce8ce5374b5169583baae43741d574babc4 The Sphinx stands in a pit (the origin of which I can not judge) at the foot of a hill with pyramids and if it is filled in, only part of the head will be visible.
4128e6d721a2217ed415ae0b2a9ac3e7ef2f29bc However, it should be borne in mind that the Giza plateau is a rocky wasteland, and not a desert with sand dunes, as it may have seemed to many. (the most complete association will be given to you by a stone lime quarry or a large construction site) so, in my opinion , more than one decade, if not centuries, is needed for its drift..
ea3be3c7dea9aa64b486607873d3ed7da74ed401 But back to the object itself
49cb99e674132662adf110c698326d3a13f50868 Recently, Japanese scientists (S. Yoshimura) have shown with the help of echo sounders that the processed stone of the Sphinx sculpture is MUCH OLDER than the blocks of the pyramids.
fb4b933f18b8b269e970c16d7558ffd9287e5754 I WILL EMPHASIZE THE ANCIENT MATERIAL OF THE SCULPTURE.
0f560449ec06e3d379393cd1ed4643c9d835c3f6 Another fact: hydrological studies have revealed traces of erosion from a powerful water flow at the base of the statue's pedestal (including ON the TREATED SURFACE).
81921398aa72cd2cb2d910871dcff0b9b20286ec British geophysicists estimate the age of erosion at 10 -12 millennia (!). This confirms the hypothesis, which is very popular today: the Giza complex was built TWICE..
a5dc0d82c71b463fb66a1b4ae63af0950293f756 Currently, the entire base of the sphinx and the paws have been restored, so I could not see any traces of erosion.
dae20f8d7badaaeab59badb3c54470773cded604 However, I have an opinion that the Egyptians not only restore many archaeological monuments, but also build them anew, there are even tower cranes in Luxor.
95320dcb95950350bc36d6034ae8217cf0fa77cb Taking into account the above, we can represent the sequence of events as follows.
3c09fc17f1b7011a3984bfd6773fe93a38242c73 About 12.5 thousand years ago, unknown architects erected a complex of pyramids, encoding in its plan the connection of the three planets of the Solar system, and in the orientation of the statue leo the date. when it took place to be.
bc9f2bfba8ec00fed440b092c0f9dd753d2ec9b2 A little later, water gushed out from somewhere with a monstrous force.
8a16ecd6b83f0803d387abd6ee85a662ae18340e Its flow destroyed the pyramids, but the Sphinx. hollowed out of a monolithic rock and, possibly, covered with sand, it stood.
56c413476b875c977b712d629a6afca4a9f4ca3c After 8000 years, during the reign of the pharaohs of the fourth dynasty, the remaining structures were restored.
fab2eb772e640e94411ed32f3bbc27a20c07801c It is possible, however, that the Sphinx was also restored: we assume that initially it depicted just a lion, and a human head – specifically, the head of Pharaoh Khephren (opposite whose Pyramid it stands) – was attached to it during the reign of Pharaoh Khephren.
4c018722c61260627c2ca30a5a1078f6820e48e6 French archaeologists have noticed that the dating of the Egyptian flood coincides with the date of the death of the legendary Atlantis according to Plato.
68e1783596933791f22f20f70667fb7245b784d3 Tokyo scientists also gave out a second sensation: electronic equipment showed a narrow tunnel under the left paw of the stone statue leading towards the pyramid of Khafren.
24c7bdc39ec5dcdc396474a0d961a7b0d8a62d86 It has not yet been possible to trace it further, but Professor Yoshimura promised to create a new device specifically for the study of this underground passage.
c7673e4172243c1330f257cdebcadb03f92b05fd P.S. Measures of Ancient Egypt
cc8683cd93beb5be7b92bbf4d599633197611b8e After digging into the history of the origin of units of measurement and standards, it is not difficult to find out that the Egyptians had three units of length: the elbow (466 mm), which was equal to seven palms (66.5 mm), which, in turn, was equal to four fingers (16.6 mm).
c06eb0b294d997f2f465cf47dbc4b6e2c8a1bda4 Long distances were measured in tens and hundreds of elbows or palms.
35639be19332eee70d03abbbf8be2ebd638323c8 It is easy to see that the side of the base of the pyramid of Cheops is exactly 500 cubits.
3e51b88df59d850c1689a4310b7e01d17b5b3389 It is tempting, of course, to see a certain "astral" meaning in the height of the pyramid of Cheops.
a7fdd1b0fd34471c70c5c7e29f906f7064a5ac81 But isnot it easier to assume that the pyramids were built exactly as the customer required?
339c9ac84b65f56b01c4102e7d0adbb050744b07 The Pharaoh, or, for example, the council of priests.
9f41aa2da10f9442f1eaed9d3b1679de604e9545 He will order: "a hundred cubits in height" – and they will build it.
d34ba3360518349d627a540738750dd03a21d1ea And how could the Pharaoh order?
aa2c48f29fdf3146d5e7a5ec33d54af141f602f6 Most likely, he set the height in round numbers – of course, in Egyptian measures...
72d7166e2c01f4a02b80df14d8aebc2de9633e8f To verify this assumption, we will measure the pyramids not in meters, but in elbows (lk) and palms (ld).
3c186fa65a80c827cab6c4d3d9d1f518000ef6dc And what happens?
e2e21ec945a909e661e16d59210cc5620cf93cb8 Of the three pyramids of Giza, the smallest, Mykerin, has a height of one thousand ld (66 m).
e108a29638d675f11f52d08ccd1067333182831c The pyramid of Snefru has 200 lux.
903af99ee76a607c26a2f7aa83b34bcf6e5b2771 Finally, at the pyramid of Khufu – Cheops) - 300 lx 100 ld (146.6 m): the son surpassed his father by almost one and a half times.
17cec3a6b64795eecb2f4dbe332ac4df11b0f1b9 Other measurements of the pyramid of Cheops are also interesting: the side of the base is 500 lx (233 m), the apopheme of the side face is 400 lx (187 m), the length of the main gallery is 100 lx (46.2 m), the upper course is 500 ld (33 m) , etc.
25d93be39e7fa83937b3a82c2b4264486cf797df The famous Pyramids are aligned with the stars
d86820c9545bdf10b655c410bd86a291d35163fd The question "how old are the Egyptian pyramids?" seems to have been solved for a long time: about 4500 years.
1c6c189078430fb91381336d0e2b553ebfb5e144 However, the way to solve this issue, based on the analysis of ancient records, is not very accurate.
956255fe50256f9fbf992397fa77cb527ab621f8 As a result, estimates of the age of the pyramids may be overstated or underestimated by about 100 years.
5142d1802d30c36d2214e2563af2f11be116ca27 From one point of view, compared to their age, this is not much; from another point of view, man is an imperfect being and always strives for the ideal.
7f243fc7d361ab187d00726af657d7139fa5c45d So Egyptologists finally could not stand the uncertainty and began to develop methods for more accurate dating.
6de26c7d69c8dc337e9dccfc1e09eb92d91462bb One of them, developed by the British Egyptologist Kate Spence from Cambridge, is based on astronomy.
db365a8d050ca50c758caf988a4d327a8dc594e6 The fact is that there are many riddles and questions associated with the Egyptian pyramids.
89df63a670865fb5618916d28128da8750d6f223 One of them is this: how did the ancient Egyptians manage to align their creations so precisely?
583923e6651746fb364c9251b4331fb18b332b04 After all, two of the four sides of each pyramid are directed quite accurately from north to south!
3b62f97ed8f4ddfdf1534904c414e23f2269d386 Kate Spence believes that the stars helped the ancient builders in this.
b28b2ebc97c6e7ef1344c9d9987e4daf7b563f8e More precisely, two stars: Mizar and Kohab, in the constellations of the Great and Little Dipper.
8c75629b57fd22395880d07a152ca36b655dd10e Due to the displacement of the Earth's own axis in space (with a period of 26,000 years) these two stars point to different directions of the world in different centuries.
a5e134c27ae67bc6e6e77b2f97d9d66442c478dd By calculating when they pointed to the north, you can very accurately determine the time of construction of the pyramids.
a386831ebd46a4ead20421268bf1c0b6c9ffb9b6 Moreover, the "two stars" theory perfectly explains the errors in the alignment of the pyramids that the Egyptians still made (in fact, Spence developed her theory to explain these errors).
7fded7b3f592737c21ef0d31ce9c62e33b40e288 After all, the pyramids were not built at the same time, the stars managed to shift a little during this time and the direction "to the north" also shifted somewhat.
f2345c3b8d85aac100f1177e7a67e143ebab6099 Today's "northern" star – the Polar Star in those years did not point at all to the north and could not serve as a reference point for the Egyptians.
dacc8aea8bdfa22926109b4832253342a87e4437 Using her method, Kate Spence calculated the time of construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the World).
757c067094daf331b8314aa275c643f742209f7a She believes that this happened in 2478 BC, plus or minus five years.
1e3f1229dd836c09d00103fb7e1010436b3c1fe9 Thus, according to the" astronomical " theory, the Great Pyramid is 4478 years old – 75 years more than was previously thought.
d3db0fb24fb674c4af75f04cc26ecb649c4fea29 It is not known whether the ancient architects really determined the direction to the north by two stars, but there is no argument against the fact that they could do this.
bbff448d1b44d39f36c9227aed9395207799d014 We know only one thing for sure: the pyramids were aligned to the north because the Egyptians believed that the dead pharaoh became a star in the northern sky.
d375465cbbe66b3d458b806d7658fa03d57e22e1 Therefore, it is quite logical to assume that when building pyramids for the dead pharaohs, they looked in the direction of their new home.
ac73a4b7d5d03787cebd1c6e7c7291d50056d038 The Spence method is also important for two more reasons.
0eefcd8ce801ddd45ddd7ed6e072b6f566eb823d First, it does not contradict the established ideas about the age of the pyramids: 75 years fit well into the dating error according to written sources.
7254e9e5025d0554a1a765cc8c7baf50d5b87b3e Secondly, it serves as an additional argument against the view that the pyramids and the Sphinx were built several thousand years earlier than previously thought.
381cfb12847afa9f09e6afcc21972856c77ca18d Having obtained such well converging results using two different methods, we can firmly believe that the pyramids were built in the middle of the third millennium BC.
5c41b456db4646e08fa692e2aa5bf5ab03def507 How the pyramids were built
3a7f2ac654c8a2c3c0a9dab0980e849071372f37 Italian Egyptologist Osvaldo Falestiedi, offered a solution to the method of building the Egyptian pyramids.
5851d25ca5dc84537a387cdbe120cf63ecae3cf4 The Falestiedi hypothesis is based on the testimony of Herodotus, who mentioned in the V century BC about "wooden machines for the construction of the tombs of the Egyptian rulers".
e665f3c3465ad57342078e4489990d1504c110f3 The remains of one of these machines, Falestiedi believes, were found in the XIX century during the excavations of the temple of Queen Hatsepshut.
85eb73a9718ac0c0cb1f244ca170be3bc66112bd An enthusiastic Italian managed to restore an ancient device, and it worked!
32da6ce0eed86d6fe4ec2a8474114ce7bb156544 The Falesti designed machine resembles a cradle.
f984fbb1d9820a4a18205f4ddf889630c71bc3cd Inside the wooden frame, a stone block tied with ropes is placed, which is swung with the help of special wedges.
f08604eaaa5b38df7e7231a833fc89ce90bfff0a With the help of such rocking, the inventor is convinced, the ancient Egyptians lifted multi ton stones.
bccd1da0916d0f48a3cd9ab9f69caff8fb265f24 The discovery of Falestiedi was tested by Japanese and American engineers and archaeologists.
a19e1ff1a47c6b78f81fbebc435815ae9790706e I: an independent expert examination; confirmed the correctness of ita llants.
1ebcb7cf057f0d8dfe72858799c619924a60f034 Now Falestiedi, together with engineers from the Turin Polytechnic Institute, is going to create a working model of a device that can lift stones weighing up to forty tons.
fe71bad83fc0303432efe089c9b8afb63db47cd4 Kalifulov Nikolai Mikhailovich: other works.
f51a6045a3d1c56fe57f468e59ce95fe55b00735 Secrets and riddles of Ancient Egypt.
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f113057ad08b933ac7e899ded777e7ba830418e3 © Copyright Kalifulov Nikolay Mikhailovich (rabotanika7@rambler.ru)
18b5ebd2e05aec40e670e6de5eb1332bc40e4562 Posted: 18/08/2013, modified: 31/10/2015.
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46eefd4ec7d463f11de251c7a41da9b5f344d42e SECRETS AND RIDDLES OF ANCIENT EGYPT.
2ab990cc72afdf7beeb1b4642be5e9104ebada2e Mysterious incidents related to the tombs of the pharaohs.
04b459f5eb54d9cd485b7c4750c5cf490609c9e0 Perhaps our researchers have yet to unravel the mysteries of the Sphinx, and penetrate into the very essence of Egyptian architecture, science and magic… Secrets of the pyramid of Khafren The height of this structure is 136.5 meters.
5dbbeeefcfe1b51d22d1a9674446f07dfb4d2eeb It is believed that this pharaoh, in addition to his pyramid, built a mysterious man lion a Large Sphinx.
e20503bfc8f789fb8e8e75355f24e3d9b262a785 People were told that probably the pharaoh's tomb was filled with some mysterious gas that had leaked into the tomb in an unknown way.
9a4ce8d69876d071a318a1dc4853b1253a03256a Experts have put forward several working versions - the appearance of caustic gases from faults in the bowels of the Earth's crust, the actions of unknown intruders and even the intervention of mystical forces.
c1fbea928b19859f8d4391a91dea6807e4d3af7b But according to the most interesting version, one of the ancient traps equipped by priests against robbers could be located in the pharaoh's tomb.
8328a09ca75975514fb75d8a052ddd4d2e5c06b5 The tomb of Pharaoh Mikerin
9d441d8e7063e2d50165707b46817638716e4396 The Greeks called Khafra's son and heir Mikerin.
dcb64f76accec5c57c411e25a9377813d17707a4 This ruler owns the smallest of the famous large pyramids.
52f61f5e4984bce62d24b1a44786f92471a5c534 The original height of the structure was 66 meters, today it is 55.5 meters.
a8de9f4c6a804b4c5bdb5c05582d35e9963db498 The length of the side is 103.4 meters.
661b5328693a712f82e1fddcab14bb35f6999e8d The entrance is located on the northern wall, part of the cladding has been preserved there.
17aff604a60ddd79446405f9fddae5ade3f0436d The tomb of Mikerin also contributed to the formation of legends about the sinister secrets of the Egyptian pyramids.
61c7fe2167fec8bbd1cf41404442d1268407598a In 1837, the pyramid of Mikerin was discovered by the English Colonel Howard Vance.
95cb55eff203e1ddea243312f7351a8fcc2676de In the golden chamber of the tomb, he found a sarcophagus made of basalt, as well as a wooden coffin lid carved in the form of a human figure.
b98e251849ea2341562b98893b2dc1db48ef4fe9 This find has been dated as belonging to the era of early Christianity.
f81aace2167cef97361df2eed7ae42d38a9bd6ff The sarcophagus was never delivered to England, the ship carrying it from Egypt sank.
87729f0bdfdbff5f875c6e0fa9e128811fe240b6 There is a legend that the Egyptians adopted some secrets from the Atlanteans who arrived in their country.
84291370c52f9706ae006d8eea01cef5d14ad496 For example, it is believed that the mass and shape of the pyramid determines the effect it has on the cells of a living organism.
6a9605c2b80981217574b29ffda30d21c1bdfdf8 The pyramid can both destroy and heal from diseases.
65a829b84b26d206fa8540629d745afef61227e7 It is known that the influence of the field of the pyramid of Mykerin is so great that tourists who have been in its critical zone for a long time soon died.
9746e74268a4b66d0857267b9a04065e83012bdb Some people entering the tomb of Pharaoh Mikerin, fall into a fainting state, sharply feel a deterioration in their health.
8975f47b3623804fb7719164ff16dd5dfa9216e3 The records of the Greek historian Herodotus indicate that the tomb of the Pharaoh Cheops was built for more than 20 years.
9174ac05ab4d585f581fd6a139387555d1204cf1 During this period, approximately 100,000 people were constantly working at the construction site.
a908aab42e5dcf2d90aa343c3584b08eb618c725 The body of the legendary pyramid of Cheops consists of 128 layers of stone, the outer edges of the structure were lined with snow white limestone.
28462a50c61006eb5a2d10fabfc88041a4c1762b It should be noted that the facing plates are fitted with such precision that it is impossible to insert even a knife blade into the gap between them.
60d3f82f76a7dc45fc4edb2e9f9744497e44dd47 Many researchers have tried to penetrate the secrets of the Egyptian pyramids.
9603fd6ae5077aa8d93c8565a14abd56a5d1db19 Egyptian archaeologist Mohammed Zakaria Ghoneim discovered an ancient Egyptian pyramid with an alabaster sarcophagus located inside.
7b32a48d7005c17cbf169df2f3b70bcc148e64a6 When the excavation was coming to an end, one of the stone blocks collapsed, and took several workers with it.
26c95d1fbec4e18e0cd22f6147b293937e198cd4 There was nothing in the sarcophagus raised to the surface.
0bf1dce30b4f93fe007b233e789abdb668abec3d Englishman Paul Brighton, having heard that many tourists visiting the tomb of Pharaoh Cheops complain of a deterioration in their health, decided to experience the influence of the pyramid on himself.
0249872a21950fe0abcad21e83896fd745fc6f3e The indefatigable researcher penetrated directly into the funeral room of Cheops, which ended very badly for him.
913af6c8260db4e4811925670053e319cd0b8848 After a while, Brighton was discovered and removed from there.
0cace8949c9f41f93d9bd1b61239f674332e0632 The Englishman was unconscious, and later he admitted that he lost consciousness from indescribable horror.
dd6c7ac48b6c1ca57fac6cb57af42577ce4602e5 On February 16, 1923, Carter and Lord Carnarvon (the patron who financed this enterprise) opened the tomb in the presence of several witnesses.
3d8b365a5fcd748407b0debbb59135107a8791ee Further events developed at a rapid pace.
4f8cb69b7fd8fc3626e2cec6f9e742bf42b773af Even before the Pharaoh's tomb was opened, Lord Carnarvon received a letter from Count Haimon, an English clairvoyant.
d93f5e1a67240d98a671767b62c12d581f2410d2 In this letter, the count warned Carnarvon that if he penetrated the secret of the Egyptian tomb of Tutankhamun, he would be waiting for an illness that would lead to death.
750c4c82f785ef37163fcc3471ebe8dbd2f93c3a This message greatly alarmed the lord, and he decided to seek advice from a famous fortune teller named Velma The clairvoyant repeated Count Haimon's warning almost word for word.
2f5069989198796572599a6c1df2a5fa9c9a47d8 Lord Carnarvon decided to stop the excavations, but the preparations for them had already gone too far.
23c44af181d8d229a40838d4a97eebf208f3db80 Involuntarily, he had to challenge the mystical forces guarding the Pharaoh's tomb… 57 year old Lord Carnarvon suddenly fell ill just six weeks later.
bb759328965cbaf0efeed02f2d733230e2d1f9f2 At first, doctors believed that this disease was the result of a mosquito bite.
31252308036725f8cd27c7d7ab18df68b150ca0a Then it turned out that the lord cut himself while shaving.
4edc74b51ac7befa3e1ebf580722bc62b4cb8cbf But anyway, the lord died soon after, and the cause of his death remained unclear.
ea88bc33a4e24c3be21f0dc4f385a1d799d6f034 This incident is not limited to the death of Lord Carnarvon alone.
03d3f4017cae151729573ad493c8487cd6ad849c During the year, five more members of this expedition die, who have penetrated the secrets of the Egyptian pyramids.
387bb8990f57f5e9e03a6cef61015c4d6f17ea21 Among them were the conservation specialist Mace, the English professor of literature La Fleur, Carter's secretary Richard Befil and the radiologist Wood.
04481f60fcbcaadc18c0e5880947ccecd301130d Mace died in the same hotel where Carnarvon died, and also for an unknown reason.
0e2c22c3c583e300c547fa5b3eb960da3bb810bf Before his death, he began to complain of bouts of weakness, felt melancholy and apathy.
4f93e8fad656fdc5049ed4b9de3eadb01572319d Within a few years, 22 people who were somehow related to the excavations and research of the Pharaoh's tomb died suddenly and quickly.
035e3bc252264ae9b1f9c6cce5ea45164fe8e585 It is strange, but a fact: Lord Canterville transported on the Titanic a perfectly preserved mummy of Amenophis the Fourth - an Egyptian soothsayer who lived in the time of Amenhotep the Fourth.
64d59af02b63de3704046d6aae2727574ea16122 This mummy was removed from a small tomb, over which the temple towered.
36c0aa37d360a2d5ba7e6c31336bbef668dd2306 Her peace was protected by sacred amulets, which accompanied the mummy on this journey.
a811f958dda4ef17d59e289b6698cde2acfd9cd4 Under the mummy's head was a tablet with an inscription and an image of Osiris.
4dd8012aff19e0f775f7e21c0284b23f5063fa07 The inscription read: "Wake up from the swoon in which you are, and triumph over all the machinations against you."
be9ba6df8e2f66238e6f1bfc84caacfa346451eb Why were the pyramids of Giza built?
c26da00c29126b1dbbc940b945142040e973c3c5 Such majestic structures could be not only the pyramids with the tombs of the pharaohs.
8c5d7717fca9e63ad3c647b2d7724e6230d4b015 The secrets of the Egyptian pyramids have not been solved to this day.
34ea7409513b52deae59441c9393364b25474b79 And yet there are some assumptions about their purpose.
f9518ed02e79d74bb4f19571b1782a083cd3d92a Pyramids can be:
f2bf40c3f703993f779d092a6de317bc58090805 - encyclopedias of knowledge, a kind of treasury of Egyptian wisdom (the pyramids of Tenochtitlan);
e03746bf9df14804042e0f4139a7fc30e77c2f66 - astronomical observatories;
94e0055ebbeab0338ec4459ae0b333ab4b57d7b1 - barriers against sand coming from the desert;
ed0a64ea45cb07d540b640c3c6e17ede128e861f - architecture standards;
1575d76c12f641f94db6f304b80080b820007845 - alien information capsules;
7aa2f66e338b2a48244f9644e8e5fd2dc9e53fc6 - border fortresses and even a pier for Noah's ark.
e3e8daaea946aa605318f00da3e3f7980a4b2d47 And this is only a small part of the assumptions made about these architectural structures.
4613d72f777aae300cae2c220bdc16e26fac6474 As you can see, the secrets of the Egyptian pyramids have still not been solved.
6be507834461bab43f6e44ae9f8910448ee4b5cd One of these unsolved mysteries is the fantastic speed of construction with which each tomb of the pharaoh was built.
c0a1bc71bda54ceb3ab4350a511d7613317b4e14 Scientists have calculated it based on the life expectancy of the rulers, the time of the Nile flood, and other factors.
657396975045ca64b488f503add4b4bc77c0d703 It turned out that every minute 4 blocks were mounted, and every hour - 240!
d2c84dab8a71e8f8c4d481f4472db92910252138 And this is only with the help of primitive mechanisms - levers, ropes, etc. There is even an incredible assumption that the Egyptian priests possessed the secret of overcoming the law of attraction.
3e1c8a0341a99cc9ef55e0806b0843594e0af7c6 The secret of the Egyptian pyramids
222f5585ce210f93b9e10757b4850dd14e8fc6d6 It is commonly believed that the construction of the Egyptian pyramids was carried out by tens of thousands of people who worked in quarries, moved giant stone blocks to the construction site, dragged them up through the scaffolding, installed and fastened them.
fdcfdcfe22894e84602128fb5ac1a8ed5c9774eb But is it so?
ccf41eafa16ef81d42b175c98243c6c486ab4383 Speaking at a symposium on Archaeometry, where scientists from various branches of science gathered, in Washington last May, a specialist in polymer chemistry, Joseph Davidovich from Barry University, painted a completely different picture, supporting his arguments with the results of scientific research.
34a1ce3cc75769ca025d75249014da8e1c3426f1 He conducted a chemical analysis of samples of the stone that went to the construction of three pyramids.
59534711ede9bf30b8df14fcff759f00849ac4b6 Comparing them with the rocks found in the nearby limestone quarries of Turakh and Mohatam, from which, obviously, the material for these structures was taken, he found that the composition of the facing blocks of building stone contains substances that are absent in the quarries.
a3fb641afb32b72f950a2d072b5e66d9ee090d29 But in this layer there are thirteen different substances, which, according to J. Davidovitsa, "geopolymers" and played the role of a binding material.
82c1d5a054fb5f0bd5d2d906c394d23bf7d9a4f9 Therefore, the scientist believes that the ancient Egyptians built pyramids not from natural stone, but from artificially made materials by crushing limestone, making mortar from it and pouring it together with a special binder into a wooden formwork.
fba0a973ac90db82e7fc30d1e35c1d0ea6f25f94 Within a few hours, the material solidified, forming blocks indistinguishable from natural stone.
412e23c70f75e45423d93bd791e18bc79e6ad755 This technology, of course, took less time and required not so many workers.
3a6e0c880ba0ba3ebc2a17e6d64b65e5168dc2b3 This assumption is supported by microscopy of rock samples, which shows that limestone from quarries is almost completely formed by closely "packed" calcite crystals, which give it a uniform density.
e45dfc08904861d10a47d524c5bafc8691c194a4 The facing stone found on the spot, as part of the pyramids, has a lower density and is replete with air "bubble" voids.
75ce2a9889dee9987c10c5a50c8a99db1dedf2e5 If this stone has a natural origin, then we can assume places where it could have been developed by the ancients.
91f8c3aadb523e1c779b9427b0487e16b27cedf8 But such developments are unknown to Egyptologists.
06abc12fa0085c689cacd246538ff2bd4c1a548a The binder was obviously sodium carbonate, various phosphates (they could be obtained from bones or from guano), quartz and silt from the Nile - all this was quite accessible to the Egyptians.
7ee580420d896c747ed24de15fb9097a79810e1c In addition, the facing stone is covered with a millimeter layer of a substance that consists almost entirely of these components.
88d80d4fc29a1d628d9c2e0d45476209bb56e519 Among other things, the new hypothesis allows us to answer a long standing question: how did the ancient builders manage to fit stone blocks with such accuracy?
27c1f5e2234ea3431c9376396aabcc0a90bc8438 The proposed construction technology, in which the sidewalls of previously "cast" blocks can serve as a formwork for casting a new block between them, makes it possible to adjust them almost without creating a space between them.
1f4417efd6db2141f33d33e7912ed18693dc3e4c The Riddle of the Sphinx
1de31fa94ca639bfd01b665495601c31bd4872e1 In the myths of Ancient Greece, there is a story about a winged half lion with a female head and chest.
f24d0a5800bc5ca3ed1f67fb59a35e4af13cad71 The monster allegedly lived on a rock near the Greek city of Thebes.
3afeb7303c2803761e6864216f151466c6a2e206 It liked to ask travelers difficult questions.
d93ef39948157bb5fb3bed42b87eb94a8b69e2a7 If the person answered correctly, the Sphinx should have missed him.
c788f5f6b43e337a8c832af1bc3b91aa60e11876 And since there were no such people, the monster killed everyone in a row.
866371df3f4b9707d529504d44bbc68db3c5dd85 So it was until it met the traveler Oedipus.
4c885c568bececef11e869dcd265ec5f683ec321 Sphinx sprsil:
6fb85ce5de0087350bc82385e4b4afa172e78ccc - Who walks on 4 legs in the morning, on 2 legs at noon, and on 3 legs in the evening?
b758b73cbd1614b791070032ab827984df8d55bc - A person.
50ce27db7fe2606ba877fa6c0ae6ad565f9a46b0 Oedipus replied.
2a34990dd36d0e771029d09e3531fd097d72f664 - In childhood, which can be called the morning of life, the baby crawls on all fours, then stands firmly on his feet, and at the sunset of life walks with difficulty, leaning on the" third leg " - a stick.
bc0be5dcd9b257eda0af2fd8dd9c3b6a039f2bd3 The monster in despair threw himself off the cliff and died.
bbaf7f2b182f528e800d2ae609a0029c2ca28911 For getting rid of the Sphinx, the Thebans made Oedipus king.
037a8b4711104b739a92edd8b61f806122ab7d9d In fact, this legend came here from ancient Egypt.
c8f6808b6c38c3021b9735dc975293e415f58051 There is a statue of the Sphinx there to this day.
6de6d4bf931a6032b0b575e1b91adc884ee3ddb6 And he continues to make riddles.
f48f492e222e9505d58f096a4d9eb892e36a1ff6 The first riddle: what does the name of this monster mean?
919a2f808b7592684d225d9a6ba1ccd6994c8abb "Sphinx "is a Greek word and it is formed from the Egyptian name" Shepes ankh " - "A living image".
9b951b53317ced640063a818dda33f32db40f30d But then the Egyptians believed that the stone monument... alive?
4032e1ee878a1fabe87b645a74c336cc43d3169c Here is what Russian researchers N. Glazova and V. Landa wrote about it, who observed the statue at different times of the day:
78cd27e507cacb073533bddad465a454edf37f0b - During the day, illuminated by the sun, it does not cause the feeling of delight that is revealed when it is illuminated from below by searchlights at night.
f0d30ead6f1718d0264ec7d281dbbd56b314b980 Under the illumination from below, the meaningful and wise look of his huge eyes suddenly appeared clearly.
9d088797e0f27c052076965b01e36608e9152ed0 Apparently, the face was designed so that in the light of day, the unreasonable and greedy earthlings of past eras would not recognize a wise alien being in the Sphinx...
c43f5e7b1956a4e340680e856ba911f270b20956 The Sphinx looks even more majestic during sunrise, which it meets with its head raised up, for several thousand years in a row.
45934759060e5178406506a987efcfba18ae396b He reaches a special beauty and wisdom at nine o'clock in the morning: it is not for nothing that in ancient Egypt the number " 9 " meant wisdom.
5a91d20207f0911077dd64e3d7c19ffd53f3b502 Then, when the sun rises higher and shadows fall on the stone face, the Sphinx "dies".
3b03fe4a2fe3a159300be31dfbda3993d7969f64 If we translate its ancient Egyptian name as a "Symbol of Life", it becomes clear that the stone statue lives in the same cycles as nature, where flowering is followed by withering, then comes temporary death - winter (in the tropics this is a period of drought), followed by resurrection.
7b0c671b637673c14d979b10a71ca1ed7c014d69 And so it is from year to year.
fffc5a6e089525263e3584b8fa616820b6afd487 So is a person: the body dies, and the soul continues to exist further.
47367805abb552cda4485fb4d772721ce79bb2f0 The second riddle: how long has he been lying here?
73b397e5ee90dea823008b56bb2ecf64c54fb2c0 Scientists have found out that the statue of the Sphinx and the pyramids behind it make up one architectural complex built on the same foundation, but the ancient temples were destroyed from time to time, others were built in their place much later.
e985db31b83ac96e511c3175851ea62f96fb255c Only the Sphinx has been preserved since prehistoric times, when there was no Egypt yet.
4af5356fee990c704bd17d9711874df12eeb5e96 How do we know this?
4f89d531594dc49a4800eb6240c8d2116fe2fb7a First, over the millennia, this monument has been completely covered with sand more than once, which is brought by the wind from the Sahara desert.
301d594bd907101df5a5b71a9a23bc937f06138f In ancient chronicles it is reported that by order of the Egyptian pharaohs, the statue of the Sphinx in the Giza Valley was dug up many times.
9e14e00e8006d3f62f9c9572b4fcbb9ef8b6c44d The works were carried out in 1818, 1886, 1925, when only the head of the monument remained on the surface.
2dbd5eaaed9c3282c968cfb4bd3d44730c6e6983 So, the Sphinx was created when there was no Sahara desert yet.
d11cf4cfb9659208c797395e32e210c5f090fb9e The scientist M. Lenner concluded from this that " The Sphinx was created a long time ago, when Giza was still green."
1fc02c078c75cd7303563bb559c421b18305f890 And it was 15,000-11,000 years ago, when the desert resembled "the hilly plain of modern Kenya and Tanzania".
a173065bb288b396457785a7d65bc7bd0e08cb5e The third riddle: why is he lying here?
8d3820f5b671384e45f6c3329a74e104ea8a813b First of all, the Sphinx is a monument to a vanished civilization.
a0d96a54a71f1b48522728315642e78175bd88fb When scientists carefully studied the face of the statue, it turned out that it belongs to a non existent race of people.
c8377b2c38ed212a84fca3b1c31258921b31023e Outwardly, they were similar to Africans and Native American Indians.
f5ae3ac088a9a90851d6665b0cfcf708e14c43fd Secondly, the monument is an accurate tool for astronomical calculations.
57d806c8e155203b188edec2658e0a585df36ad6 With its paws, it rests on the eastern side of the square, in which the rest of the buildings of the Giza Valley are inscribed.
76b519c8c21ef25cb82e9ad5a904e3c2837b3920 If we multiply their parameters, the product will be equal to the duration of one cosmic year - 26,000 years.
468676ffbaad4994cf027400c22c630c3d3d15b2 The fourth riddle, not yet solved.
5362c5102c88a5f92f8038b5d8e26c206d137f17 It turns out that there are underground rooms under the statue itself.
da4350ab3dca0ec096eddb29f1d4a8729755c9bb They were detected with the help of the latest acoustic equipment.
f5b4e4840754328fe06631966c16c881b5608994 It remains only to get to the secret repositories of knowledge.
0105acb08e6711a7f919c02dee71c27c77aa093f However, there is a prediction: when the world is on the verge of destruction, the statue will come to life and speak.
c8626a3bef117e0f394e7db02e66688873f969a2 Then the Sphinx will tell you about all their secrets.
a27ede61fe98144beec1a541a3a00d73b684bda9 But then it will be too late.
ffccd764fce86d10e3d1d2889426ce84d9262e7f We'd better get to know them now.
bd8fc2cd83574f78b54aa60b25dcd9ff59107534 Defender of the Mystery of Time:
7147344837a88fb03a231adfbe044674728f2c65 In ancient Egypt, the Sphinx had a nickname - "Defender".
1566c64d9c9e9550229422b1466639424b4c98cb From whom and what did he protect?
dc38eda0c0b43322293e06482934b14e46cef9e5 Scholar Heng Kok writes: "It protects the" Glorious Place of the Beginning of Time" and was revered as the center of "great magical power extending over the entire region".
b52c52dea2d62ab4d5b9de7966ae8b409522fcd7 Alas, the Defender did not protect the state of Ancient Egypt, but he kept his main secret - the secret of Time.
a7753ad7e17bcb26d01c53ebd99750ebb3156061 The Lion Era:
00ffd977970d5a6c2cb704ed78f30994f366c924 Each person is born under his "lucky star", or zodiac sign.
de9cbe4217f0fe120a9eabb01808b94307dbd972 This constellation determines the character and fate of a person in the future.
bc0b58ab6c57e4795ca7b37e7aa8a213593dd641 All mankind has the same "lucky stars".
1f716b38d8c78bbe6fad157b05e8670dd16bf2e5 But they no longer determine the fate of individuals, but of entire nations.
2fcbb75da997c061de3d1cfe4d3bba14a0665537 The Egyptian Sphinx was created, most likely, in the era of Leo, which lasted from 10970 to 8810 BC.
06c7ffaeaf4f4bdcb7da41f037a34df67e12350b Scientists call an even more accurate date 10450 BC.
4a2018bf15c7002bf642ac93f0e97737d65ea374 At this time, the Sun was rising in the constellation Leo.
d96886a3dd9aef3cc8c0d5c0026898e13280f00e The ancient builders hoped that people in the future would also determine the time by the stars and find out when the Sphinx was built.
f48565e559ed14194165c3a97873ba8158560930 And they were not mistaken
1b1fbb5a321695cbc90106a97e0068bf761f437a The Secret Doctrine of Cheops
d52960f6b6d2e756a7647b098f8aa819d8c29fa4 The greatest and most mysterious structures of antiquity are the Egyptian pyramids.
b55933e675b26f6853b1df5d7973a94e9d19a5f0 Meeting and seeing off millennia, they have not revealed their secret.
bea36d4e8fb7aff89ea87eed41ef5aff3ec965bf Today, the pyramids are just as exciting to the imagination as in ancient times.
f638a4ab2ae9bc86c8171d67a04b5c2b1c523412 Just 12 kilometers from the center of Cairo, the famous Egyptian pyramids at Giza rest in silent majesty.
9c1377f6affdba76ae74841ca55065ce8e0108b6 You can see them even when driving along the outskirts of the city.
e6b68f074f69f4602c3bcc1ed49acb5fe21a00bb However, everyone who gets to Egypt strives to get closer to them in order to touch eternity.
3b6262189f5ab985525f0f59f3c96c4ccfa66a78 We know from school that the famous Egyptian pyramids are the tombs of the pharaohs, who built them during their lifetime to protect their bodies from robbers and their souls from death.
88fa0decebb7cbd0799aa8f46d37ba97537841be The pharaohs allegedly believed that by keeping the body intact and intact, they would ensure eternal life for themselves.
6d5b1dcdc3810ae79d5263686a434992f5b3a329 And in order for them to live in the afterlife in a royal way, the chambers of the treasury were filled with various objects and gold jewelry.
b557f9f747439deb2b10f287d9d93bf2a17a7e27 So the textbooks claimed and claim.
b76ae91cb33b212dce27e7904e35c445f9447b9b The first person who told the world about the pyramids was the "father of history" - Herodotus.
871e465af657c52518b80cd86bbc842705bbd2bb He visited Egypt 2000 years after the proposed construction of the pyramids, in the V century before the Birth of Christ.
17feb7d702c4fd4e1f03bd479a167584f8d16808 He was accompanied by a guide who, apparently, did not differ much from modern guides and therefore "lied like an eyewitness".
36136f48e9835a46eebc68ca70a8957387c504c4 According to his guide, Herodotus told the world a story about the Pharaoh Cheops, who decided to surpass all previous despots.
debf3b094d2f6363cbdd2670e7a73d1398445c57 Since Herodotus was more of a journalist than a scientist, he introduced the following piquant detail into his story.
3875dab333e1b2194664c0bd3557395bf7dcdaef The construction of a personal tomb ruined the people and emptied the treasury.
d878d176d4a92ddc0e2e1b111c1cac0b7d3f40e5 The money ran out, and I really wanted to finish building a funeral cottage.
900ce71ffc1d68ac22f34877d28e1231bfe203bd And then Papa Pharaoh handed over his daughters to a brothel and installed a tax in one stone block for the pyramid in addition to the usual payment for services.
620c3f28222f66fd98ea900c8d23b9b3d7374172 Considering the number of blocks in the pyramid (26 million pieces) and the fact that the pyramid was completed by the death of Pope Cheops, the girls had to work from dawn to dawn.
681e27e696e2ea08b784c2166f6b86c7c1066079 However, it seems that something is wrong here.
e5b77f5ed64485b84a83f8960d6ea5d2b16c775d First, not a single mummy was found in any of the three pyramids in Giza, not a single hint of the funeral rite, no treasuries and treasures.
9a74699919bd30d275c5ccbd7b809b8852713f88 Secondly, not a single inscription has been found in the pyramids, which looks quite strange for the place of the last refuge of the great kings of Upper and Lower Egypt.
c253087c52c776650bdbd3fa3fd27d6e19ae85d2 Thirdly, venerable Egyptologists are unanimous in the opinion that the Egyptians of the third millennium BC simply did not have the knowledge and technology to create such a large scale and high precision complex.
306e72ec3081968ecd85a57e4d55e3140e46a2ef And in general, none of the Egyptian papyri that have come down to us says who built or how the three pyramids at Giza - Cheops, Chephren and Mykerin were used.
d8351cb990d129de68e4c2393e928d7729f3c40e In the early 90s of this century, a Belgian lover of the secrets of Ancient Egypt, Robert Beauvel, made an interesting discovery.
541b38e31c775321858a5c626d0d1dd660c51a0e One day, while observing the constellation of Orion, he suddenly noticed an amazing coincidence of the location of three stars in the Orion belt and the three pyramids at Giza.
33cf10d1b6f9cbbd2561528994e7bf3986aca453 However, when checking, it turned out that this match is inaccurate.
e30921ff23f347db4fa9a6b4b17f9762e3c41dab Buvel suggested that it was complete in the supposed era of the construction of the pyramids, that is, in 2600-2500 BC.
377c73bee9e5d82da5bffabebe7f4e2c64e03c2e Thanks to modern computer programs, it was possible to reproduce the position of the stars in that era.
0cf914ed15c92d2a4dd18d188554b70579bae171 The stars assumed almost the exact position of the three pyramids at Giza.
cab02d2b81157c07b69c3f70c9c00f6331fdf597 However, the exact coincidence of the position of the pyramids and the stars of Orion occurred in 10500 BC.
4f1a7c80f7aada98c3cac7d19072823b22e5daee By the way, the shape of the Milky Way in that ancient sky exactly repeated the outlines of the Nile riverbed.
caa164b1fb0dc231ac29cbc6a01dbaa5faf93e7a The ancient Egyptians attributed this time to the Golden Age - the "First Time" of their country, when people were ruled by the gods.
9bd35ec40d0b143e2f87df0f2186f442c77d0176 Later, meticulous researchers suggested that in 10500 BC the complex on the Giza plateau was only marked out and partially built, and it was completed just during the reign of the pharaohs of the IV dynasty, about 2500 BC, as they teach at school.
e74516ef55a07177642272ed964b98fb1cabcb1e What happened for 8000 years?
4cd5e5dd74ea5173ee829967b88c6439150bacb4 What kind of long term construction is this?
c1b16189ba27e0af2313c4ca00dc58f682c88b57 And who could carry knowledge through such a chasm of time?
3dbd3f4c7144617926ad1775313676e622e37ca1 There are candidates for this difficult role.
67519330597eb566252a9ac143f34c96b6332657 The Egyptian chronicles tell us that before the pharaohs we know, certain sages, known by various names, ruled, and for quite a long time, - Followers of Horus, Shining, Transformed.
d95474010c32bdd62bef46cb67af7a18413e4dfd According to the chronicles, these rulers possessed divine knowledge and were almost like gods themselves.
3baffe91af4b411c5f61d6e12047c3c86420f346 With the help of "magical technologies", they achieved immortality and ascended to the sky, becoming stars.
9f0e9f1e0ece2f431e42de3d66622b1d5a9c5603 There is a hypothesis that successive generations have been looking at the sky for thousands of years, waiting for a certain sign for them alone.
c3f27261718fc8d56b4a1f7a306901db595d9604 When the sign was sent, the Egyptians began actively completing the 8000 year old plan.
5cbc44372f747e0096e2ae4e8ad38481af5b2ed7 And in just a few decades, they created the Egyptian civilization.
2535d5c4d9cec489be213e633d062909f7b1b346 It appeared immediately, as if out of nothing, but with a full set of signs of high culture.
1c9f8aa604b6709eb49b5b1af76ba9e39a8365e3 The basis of the religion of the ancient Egyptians was astronomy and astrology: the cult of the stars and their movement.
4412720828e1506c0518a7fb86babb3a051666f7 It is proved that observations of the stars were conducted in Egypt for many thousands of years, and, apparently, the Egyptians were super astrologers.
c27d9ff003f7aef1d133eb43c835c91000d4d3e0 For them, the earthly world was a cast of the heavenly, and they believed that the more coincidences with the sky, the better life on Earth.
b69ffa16ee6ab68cd709b7569e7f230cff8a5e41 According to recent studies, they conducted initiations in the pyramids, that is, the introduction of carefully selected candidates to secret knowledge.
42afb7db05d98e931d3bbbfbace04f6c86ebaf72 Presumably, they were initiated into the sacraments, with the help of which a person could become equal to the Egyptian gods.
19c524f31496b545c0e998869f19c0f9c71f7fc9 And the Big Pyramid, apparently, was the place where the gods were made.
45105b46f7a797df49f16b983aceadec4fce1e75 According to some theories, the same thing was done in Teotihuacan, Mexico.
e3039da52e2b3dea5fb80f014976c2531179720f The secrets of the pyramids did not give rest to medieval researchers either.
b47abaf99eda0c40b2021601a5804d4ccd4d9a6c In 820, the Caliph of Baghdad, Abdullah Al Mamun, whose army captured Egypt, made the first successful attempt to penetrate the pyramid.
c139dea54c354711e9e831f27a4e1c0bf9de1dd4 Al Mamun was a scientist and learned from ancient books that the pyramid of Cheops is a repository of knowledge of a certain powerful ancient civilization.
c21230a2b24cd94bf52a3c73ccb7db87d0514e4a In addition to books, maps and star atlases, mysterious objects like "glass that bends and does not break" and "weapons that do not rust and do not become dull"were allegedly stored there.
2bf9e6c160d82503441e2963f76d39e120cda829 To encourage his people to do long hard work, he started a rumor about the untold riches hidden inside the pyramid by the ancient king.
48e621d1c17aae568aed33c1735ae27800060f27 Having chosen a place, the Arabs began to hammer the northern side of the pyramid.
0480d4ca5d605e7dd222a3938a05d56833be17a2 At that time, it was lined with heavy duty stone slabs that changed shades under the rays of the sun.
5bea1b4b87751e9a0b5fcc3f97e497c2caad531a The facing stones were so strong that they withstood the onslaught of battering guns and steel tools.
71386220427487383a1150dcb7ae38a950c8794b Then the Arabs lit huge bonfires and, having heated the stones, began to pour water and vinegar on them.
3da319d4dfa4d2cd3b8827b2ce38a81446352f34 As a result of superhuman efforts, the soldiers of Al Mamun broke a 30 meter tunnel in the stone and eventually got into the chambers of the King and Queen.
695983a6e9ea9c48e7721be682a69c87b273486e But the latter was completely empty, and in the royal chamber there was only a rectangular granite box without a lid.
0a5c20441e76c4ac7970d450ec415c8c61863a62 A methodical survey of the premises one by one also did not yield anything.
b805f21d4d8a5ae987f7d34c6df13ebf2491a506 And then the cunning Abdullah, fearing a riot, threw gold, secretly brought from Baghdad, into one of the passages of the pyramid.
d35a995059fe5046f4dd5a4f94c2dbb1f306715e It was found by the deceived excavators.
6176c3d16b321944d6eae5f10866dc3de6441442 Almost 1000 years later, scientists who arrived in Egypt with Napoleon's army to describe the newly conquered country and its history also became interested in the pyramid.
845e74651d86fc92fa1a8d839ef5458603a9e8db They measured it as accurately as possible and found out amazing things.
500faec45e1c7d95df6560b753a97cee88e0f1d2 Almost all the world constants of the Earth and the Cosmos, concerning time, distances, weight and volume, were laid down in the dimensions of the pyramid and its internal premises.
9885110f3671429ed15905a446c88cc2c6de386d The Big Pyramid turned out to be a reference book about the universe.
d10aac9873a94697413e445ad9d794ad2f5fadb3 The future emperor Napoleon himself expressed a desire to spend the night in the heart of the pyramid - in the Tsar's cell all alone (according to rumors, Alexander the Great once did the same).
0f96652967f37000fefb13e4403917b5a566a406 His aide de camp said that in the morning Napoleon came out of the pyramid pale and visibly agitated.
942f4b0df77d984c60e56dede7371f685305d28d When asked how he spent the night, Bonaparte replied that they would not understand and would not believe him anyway.
41c3d8c89a14eee40eff43d7b2a1c5eed3e94c8f And already being a prisoner on the island of St. Elena answered the question: "And what did happen then in the pyramid?
e59b83582204aee582155f8795ccfabac746304f ": "It doesnot matter, everything has already happened."
0f34daf97d3b3b6c83acccbdfecc706906a97c3a Today, the Big Pyramid is "stripped" and also deprived of its top.
7cf64b9fadaae5a9c33a986ba3fcdbaaa8c83228 The facing plates were used to decorate the Cairo mosques, and no one is going to re cover the pyramid.
198b3ff6581ceec3f138438f903a42d5427c1ddc But the new - golden peak can be seen at the meeting of the third millennium.
a29b45e17f412a3aa186a83e1f3ebce8f18cea84 The intriguing effect of the pyramids
f5a1db449df8708492701ad751bed07d1ba3183b "Imagine a completely flattened bug living on the surface of the ball.
d61efd29bc6b143277b85e42a1ff438091b0a954 This bug can be endowed with an analytical mind, can study physics and even write books.
9122d17cc668f42fd58cb40d5e3411f94e2e97df His world will be two dimensional.
dd1387fb58b7a8aecd534a359562bb11a34ff9af Mentally or mathematically, he can even understand what the third dimension is.
542a0fb8dfe02e682cd68999290630aaf122076a But he will not be able to visualize this third dimension clearly.
95e53f08ebb0a10dc58f6b14213574d77b339706 A person is in the same position as this unfortunate bug, with the only difference that the person is three dimensional.
53d6b209493e65fda96fc7314aa4c88ee074b9a7 Mathematically, a person can imagine the fourth dimension, but he cannot imagine it.
696925622ded06eebab548fc6c0719c00cd1a33c For him, the fourth dimension exists only mathematically.
25470b6ea3d09ff807ed04b354e7f3b6c74dcafb His mind is not able to comprehend the four dimensionality."
423a2f68b6d117060f60e0a485622578a1e1e449 This recognition of A. Einstein is published in the collection of his scientific works.
26c7c7bcf05e427109ab84efda928ddf661106ae The Miracle of Egypt
533e8629574991921439701d0b740ec074511bd5 The greatest miracle of Egypt, which amazed people in ancient times, were the pyramids - these amazing artificial mountains, the tombs of ancient Egyptian kings.
11c0bfd68e8d752d856bcf0e35175dc3bea7b762 They stretch for tens of kilometers from the modern city of Cairo to the Fayum oasis.
679f46b326c69b6c2b8c5f4c8e1059e54f8421c4 It is believed that by creating the tomb, the pharaoh provided his immortal spirit with an eternal home.
e91d4837610e9f0ecf3719bf4d3a243404c4f498 The first of the Egyptian kings who erected a pyramid over his tomb was the Pharaoh Djoser.
db885a1287891fd40539e846ea6da92ef1d4fb10 This most ancient pyramid of Egypt consists of six huge steps placed one on top of the other and decreasing upwards.
9187b7aeb98cdcaddd3aaf087c8bd49bf784e9ac The creation of the world's first stone structure of such significant dimensions - and its height is about 60 meters is attributed to Imhotep, a remarkable medical scientist, mathematician and architect, vizier of King Djoser.
105c2b4fc4554559481b88d36936da3ceed6ddf0 Apparently, the pharaoh himself was so pleased with the unprecedented tomb built by Imhotep, . that he allowed the name of the architect to be carved on the base of his statue - an honor completely unheard of in ancient Egypt.
ba98f887dd7346b83479204d2913cfed95589598 Much was unclear about the largest pyramid, built by the Pharaoh Khufu (or Cheops), who lived in the XXVIII century BC.
a312e77ab32d262a7dfebe6f68373a8d2d0bff8b This huge pyramid has been standing for almost five thousand years.
08a2537a63a0d7c48e78d20c606917dd88e45ec5 Its height reached 147 meters (now, due to the destruction of the summit, its height is 137 meters).
21ef5ce9bed540331f05642932e49aa085404037 Its grandiose size amazed everyone who had the chance to visit Egypt.
621983b89d8704aa2a4c95d6aa34bfe333cb56e0 No wonder the first Russian travelers called the pyramids "man made mountains".
a0c6bc62ddb5c2ccb2b44a77ae99dac24e0caa27 Near the pyramid of Khafra, a hill rises from the sand of the desert.
0bf325f0f2db10ad1ab93769457908d2ac648a18 Its height is about 20 meters, its length is about 60.
e02765b80a5399e28eae80cb1a308073749e6117 This is the famous big sphinx the figure of a reclining lion with a human head.
3177c905e9df443b4e5d73fbdb2b2f345c2d09a7 "The father of horror" is the name of the big sphinx by the inhabitants of the desert.
28a840a3763590bb1006184f6d3583c343f9f5ca He inspires people with a special fear at night, illuminated by a bright moon, when deep shadows give his features a special expressiveness...
3a1b3d2a2d31011acc20c4f2edda797c73ab8e5d On the ground and under water
c859c5252f8c12adb94b37ebe3de7d96d29885bb In Central China, about 100 kilometers from Mount Xi'an in Shaanxi Province, there is a complex of giant pyramids, the height of the largest of which is estimated at almost 300 meters, twice as high as the Great Pyramid of Giza.
200a89d7c26fa9a9fe93a9978708bfcf2ce3d6c5 For the first time, the Chinese pyramids in the West became widely known back in 1947, when they were accidentally discovered by American pilots flying over this area.
a7b3f6bf733cda7a55a5d98122e9e133d229cdb6 Several pictures were taken, they were placed in newspapers, and then scientists tried to forget about the giant structures.
3f81fa5e8b641987fd80b8faeda689f39cc8bdb2 But, of course, not everyone has forgotten.
68b6c08fe80d5be6dbfc4c7617569c2eb4cbdef8 In 1994, the German researcher Hartwig Hausdorff managed to get into a closed area of the province of Shanxi and prepare a photo report about the pyramids, which have not been explored until now.
0115bda5a3b7161f50bfba38988f58d7bd570271 These structures are absolutely not peculiar to Chinese culture, and the age of the pyramids is unknown.
aa374909092220bcf916d09a3e2367c319464ee7 However, Hausdorff managed to find the diaries of two Australian traders who made their way to Shnsi in 1912.
4ae4cd3b3a9a3571ae87c49eccafbd5d8591cc0a They then happened to meet an old Buddhist monk who reported that these pyramids were mentioned in extremely ancient records stored in his monastery.
7f12c8c41f3e045949b1bc80909d0dcc66420ee7 The records are about five thousand years old... according to Hausdorff's estimates. the total number of pyramids in the region exceeds a hundred, all of them are made of clay, but over the past centuries and millennia, clay has not been inferior in hardness to stone.
3f79f4056c63b8f6764a2fd3ba22fadbb0b389fc Ancient quadrangular pyramids of various
38546c786c8a49b1c6d49541820c3ed15483ce3a The Mysteries of Ancient Egypt
24d8b4c1de681896d8778d34ba34fa5e8afb18c1 The land of the pharaohs is fraught with many mysteries, because ancient Egypt is considered one of the oldest civilizations, the level of scientific knowledge in which was very high.
77e8227f41eafd9fbab9766b0171fcf4118f5550 Interest in the heritage of the ancient Egyptians does not cool down today.
197bafa070017e58e4d9e7277a79be8fe7312357 Riddles of Ancient Egypt pyramid construction technique
676a2ba3cd73404ea7a4571c5979024254db374d Even Herodotus called the Egyptian pyramids the wonder of the world.
fb3db2123b48c888c95a4c03358bfaef9468d06e Even today, despite all the new discoveries in the field of studying Ancient Egypt, scientists cannot clearly and unambiguously answer the questions of exactly how the pyramids were built.
631f991015bbb214c2d071990443580532d1e51f The construction of the pyramids confirms the incredibly high level of knowledge of the Egyptians in the field of astronomy, mathematics and engineering.
afdebcddb90d4711d1965b2293d3c546c6470b58 For example, the pyramid of Cheops is completely unmistakably oriented to the cardinal directions and points to the north.
367bd32f877edc45d47b69856017bd870df2671a The error detected in 1925 with the help of the most complex measurements was only 3'.
2e909697ae64ac2b4b17d6b7587e1cc97d20a708 For comparison, the study cited a fact from the history of the construction of the Oranienburg Observatory in 1577, when a Danish astronomer, trying to orient the building to the cardinal directions with the help of very accurate instruments already available at that time, made a mistake by as much as 18'.
556a6fa371dcc64368a11b627ec75d7106c1d87c At the same time, the very error in the construction of the Egyptians is largely explained by the displacement of the northernmost point over the past millennia.
60df9a00d9f922b2d1ac42c364ed2b6a4c415891 There is also practically no error in the size of the base of the pyramid.
a80f4fa64feaabfea3b1f16e99c9d61c05ae5587 If we take into account that it is composed of giant limestone blocks, then the maximum difference between the sides is only 20 cm, or 0.1%.
906e797c402248a752d6995aac7c058af5119c46 In addition, the pyramid has perfectly right angles, despite the fact that the construction was carried out not on a flat surface, but on a hilly area.
82b2e4fb0c2ac98c6351fffdaa4bbb2db77bbc6a Studying the pyramids, the director of the Bourges Observatory of France, Abbe Moret, made an even more amazing discovery.
37995337b110c3510a8c7a5d83437176af85ed56 Multiplying the height of the Great Pyramid of Cheops, which was 148.21 m, by 1 million, he got a figure equal to the distance from the Earth to the Sun in kilometers.
56f8bd8d597b4af48fb098590c16344234bb77e0 Even more interesting patterns have been revealed in the course of scientific research in recent years.
d18b53f8a24d4809e81db7dc006bbe58bc2f5f16 It is established that the location and dimensions of the Sphinx and the three main pyramids in Giza correspond to the order of interaction of the Sun, Venus, Earth and Mars.
af36cd4f674e59fc7251832e825c1d933a9f7a70 It was also established that the shape of the pyramid itself contributed to the long term preservation of mummified bodies due to a special effect that leads to dehydration of organisms.
dd423c3867c08a0da0608a3bfc1409dee39bf90c The French researcher Anthony Bovi discovered this property of the pyramids in the 1930s, finding dogs and cats that accidentally got here in ancient passages.
2a65ddfe44f7d6a844d9853e717177010812e62b Not finding a way out and dying in the walls of ancient tombs, they were not subjected to decay, but mummified themselves, perfectly preserved for a long time.
64b1493ec0d17a929b864f16ea9b64365bb0abcc Another unique and inexplicable impact was discovered in the 1950s by an engineer from the Czech Republic, Karl Drbal.
1396ca365ee521ac81c6b40500533318ba77d27b According to his observations, sharp cuts of cutting metal products — knives, blades, scissors and others are sharpened in the pyramids themselves.
977853c274371c9ddc302aad85a74dbca7533190 Scientists from the medical fields of science have also noticed the healing properties of the pyramids.
f935ef8f444811f0ebf683db296535121d65f5ba Their energy accelerates wound healing, slows down the aging process, raises the overall immunity of the body and improves the condition of patients who are not curable by the standards of modern medicine.
d5f1148cf5e378cf12aebb8e662747b97e559498 It was also found that the water placed in the pyramid eventually self cleanses, and the microbes in it die.
b6ca618543b48b001dc67ffa4f7c31eec95b63e6 The processes of metal oxidation also slow down inside the pyramids.
6641c30bdac4aee12393032fcc4939d069601ffa Riddles of Ancient Egypt the invention of cosmetics
c13431934ab90664e621f1a89503a77c323e8a04 According to research by scientists, the Egyptians used makeup very actively.
478829cf4ef35baba5d65e743adf737b15a0c62a At the same time, it was not the prerogative of women — eyeliner was done for both men and children.
69beeb401c5a3cbb934ea9c864a60fc7dcac24a8 It is known that cerusite, a white lead ore, was added to cosmetics.
9a0bc3586e7a59bb2b995316f490a6d701fbd38d It had healing properties for eye diseases, for example, it relieved inflammation in conjunctivitis.
04579a44980ac7c4953dffcf32dec940a1bb8aba It was believed that multi colored paints could even resurrect from the dead.
b25318b6af2b26f029473ba32c16937315479fc6 Another confirmation of the Egyptians ' deep knowledge of chemistry is the fat content of cosmetics All ointments and paints had a percentage of fat content similar to modern cosmetics.
5233f20168ff0fb15295759b0dd3e947adfd60b6 Riddles of Ancient Egypt Tutankhamun's Tomb
ac12b145e3e9c3574ee3fc1e5bc91ce06771b83b The most famous and mysterious case in the study of the heritage of ancient Egypt is the discovery of the burial place where Pharaoh Tutankhamun rested.
3ba15f516aea4071bd7d79ff0c179acdb82fcd38 The discovery was made in 1923 by an English expedition of 11 people, led by Professor Howard Carter.
5a4d67af942490d7c5292246f4e7a8fb7a118f58 The grandiose scientific discovery was marked by a series of events that led to the spread of the myth of the "curse of the pharaohs", which inevitably overtakes everyone who disturbs the ancient tombs.
28677410a93ccbbf974436075d91201593349de4 Over the next 6 years after the opening of the tomb of Tutankhamun, all the members of this expedition died, with a very mysterious combination of circumstances.
799dcf823ca2e10e64c7df54f83a1231f458e939 A series of inexplicable misfortunes began with the death of the sponsor of the expedition, Lord Carnervon.
829338004fb85fdad4b35e4f7566b621c95d3f05 He died from a mosquito bite that infected the lord with an unknown infection.
32183564145babd3f71298a942fbb23c891dace2 Later, during the autopsy of the mummy, it turned out that the pharaoh himself, who was resting in the tomb, was also bitten by a mosquito in the same cheek as the deceased lord before his death.
0bec70835c318972793217b0a08c5295583597ab Then, quite suddenly and for no apparent reason, a member of the expedition who was making an inventory of the objects found in the tomb died in Paris.
b7cc70fd5a85d9e534504ab3ae5abbfc8af3e5ee Other victims followed, the number of which eventually exceeded 20 people.
4478d41ff172529cbe1d2a813489596ffde9e97b At the same time, it was those who were somehow connected with the excavation of the tomb who suffered.
28bfa320f1e92edafb54eb971a0ee05777e5ce7d Interested in this fact, which no longer fits into the framework of a simple coincidence, in 1993, a physician and scientist from Italy, Nicola de Paola, made a statement about the cause of the tragic events.
3d2d30db3f22eb3d4be0ea302a42859fe4c04a47 His research led him to the conclusion that a poisonous fungus of microscopic size was present on the mummy and all the objects that were in the tomb of Tutankhamun.
2a8a8cd0c8a79800482bb2ca0c5bd5f54c8f99ff After opening the tomb, the resulting humidity and fresh air caused an active reproduction of the fungus, from which all people who came into contact with it suffered.
f75345cc26c450aff1f67d080cf56771b2903c66 This statement was partly perceived as confirmation of the myth that the priests of Ancient Egypt took care of the safety of graves and used some kind of "biological weapons" to protect the souls of the pharaohs from unwanted invasions.
1e0548d2df655fa11c98a12034d6d71005d30310 Thus, despite the long history of studying Ancient Egypt by scientists and researchers from all over the world, it still harbors many inexplicable mysteries.
f5a26934ba6263f8fea27495a2da0ec51cb691b0 Scientists still cannot fully explain either some aspects of the life of the Egyptians themselves, nor the ways of creating traditional means for that period, nor the technology of building majestic and monumental structures endowed with properties that are inexplicable even from the point of view of modern science.
149114155852f27ec583def8783353259d78d7bc Nevertheless, all scientists agree that the civilization of Ancient Egypt was so highly developed and had such deep knowledge in astronomy, medicine, chemistry, physics and other sciences that even today such knowledge could be useful to humanity.
0b2857574370ea5d214ea3116d64edade3f60c8b Ancient books and scrolls of Egypt
ca61fb1cfa8b98b67ad3ab8e630c404696b77d06 The masters of Egypt created unusual wall images, paintings, statues depicting gods, as well as mastered the production of faience and glass.
d6663c6ca65009c349798fcf9e902324f88f654e Writers and poets of that time created new, and often unusual literary forms and works.
f7a55a6f89029363407e530e7bd960cfa7e66c47 But one of the main achievements of Ancient Egypt is considered to be the creation of its own alphabet and writing system, with the help of which the knowledge of medicine, mathematics, astronomical observations and the calendar compiled on their basis were left to the descendants
7bca8711d19c07b166c4a264bbae8e4bc9f76c2e Es Sallum Resort Overview
47e4fbec14f327a8f9aae221988c075e9cccc7d3 Egypt is a country in which almost every city has its own unique history: Cairo, Sharm el Sheikh, Hurghada, El Guana and many others.
eae98a97317e2fe6e85847351a9b4fb3087c9a62 These resorts are attractive for tourists, have a developed infrastructure.
72e4b440c4084470e7308b8cf6ffbb186a8067a9 However, there are places on the territory of Egypt, the main advantage of which is the primeval nature, the landscape in comparison with large resorts.
e54f721c403f198b7af9cbf7ad7c5939cec172b2 One of these places is the city of Sallum
db8f434d1eb3c3ec9e7dc3c6b98618e7674f31eb Related Sections: Resorts of Egypt Egypt
a2da0d81fa2dcfc8912e5ba381c415c7280e0ebb Nefertiti bust in Egypt
70deca7315c36156058023c1c47101824ab8ac92 Egypt is full of riddles and mysteries, pyramids, pharaohs, the great Sphinx.
70712ad7c19ca6f43a009cb7ef08c67b2e8d5b27 Along with the world famous pharaohs Tutankhamun, Cheops, Djoser, etc., women – Cleopatra, Nefertiti were able to leave their mark in the history of this ancient country with a rich history.
514ce7b7df50d9e0655e50d8c5780ac7320a54c5 To date, the bust of Nefertiti is one of the most famous works of ancient Egyptian art, made in the Amarna style.
93950d098719a7e21ebb3c1ed20007b9a8b36788 The bust is a stylized portrait of Queen Nefertiti, who was the wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten, who went down in history thanks to a number of innovative reforms, his reign fell on the period from 1351-1334 BC.
12e61499f4a922cc89e4433048926da1084cb250 Currently, the bust of Nefertiti is on display as an exhibit in the New Museum, in Berlin
49093f0b6d3d49da3e2c8de568e2b72803190833 The Egyptian God Seth
7d7ce1f43611205946aca98cfc9c59043e66cc15 It is difficult to find a person who would not be interested in mythology.
ccc521572a30741cc5310e2a55b17e38802c80f2 A beautiful fairy tale that reflects the prejudices of people who lived before our era.
746f43b707819dd6d6e748a4a9b64b178da7cfb4 Tourists visiting the lands of Egypt try not only to pay attention to the sights, architectural delights and beauty of this land, but also to learn the mythology of Egypt.
55a234a5790cd963d1b73d50ac2592c8b323ae0d Since the ancient people were quite devout, there is immediately an interest in the gods they worshipped, before whom they trembled
3809d50ed3c8dc96d9eb9a4e14b5334d6b31a060 Marriage and wedding traditions among the Egyptians
6b8d2c300a12b574766e2b642b35c2515488750b Now holidays in the Arab Emirates, Egypt, Turkey and other Eastern countries are very popular.
45272bb987214d91f680177f8430891615350917 We are constantly attracted by their exotic nature, luxurious outfits, a variety of sweets and, most importantly, the mysteries of their rituals.
1eba988e00aecad8a9d5c3633d1aabc522ce65a3 Related Sections: Features of Egypt Egypt
d5e12ffadb06e421c7a62685be9076f3efb941f9 Water Parks in Hurghada
f34f79721202ba63205b947717e36062993d392e Hurghada is a city on the Red Sea coast, one of the most popular resorts in Egypt.
297158a30776a7ae51534ebf9d7919906bdf6be0 The purpose of this article is to introduce the reader to the city's water parks, which are recommended to visit not only travel agencies, but also people who have visited Egypt once or several times.
74c0733530d59fc91830feb58045e95225176784 Related Sections: Features of Egypt Excursions in Egypt Egypt
432fbac33134a4d62220867422d17b71f2242ac2 Weather in Egypt in July
aca0305d2ef97c73c253fce593a832a6bed98fb7 If you are planning to relax in Egypt this summer, then it will certainly be useful for you to find out the main points concerning the weather conditions in this country in order to determine at what time of the year it is best to rest here
28100d683ee9dcda5fd7d9e4f0964363131bfb62 Biography of Tutankhamun (1355-1337 BC)
5f5aae160ceba962d9ef8ec603b206efe0325cf5 Tutankhamun is the pharaoh of the XVIII dynasty of Egyptian rulers.
c7c7a854c7288482c7c65176147d08cd73ac613a The most famous pharaoh of ancient Egypt, famous for his not looted tomb.
7027a14084e74aa6165f6bd84474f4b385ebde45 The theme of ancient Egypt is very attractive for its mysticism and history, researchers are learning more and more new details of the life and everyday life of this ancient civilization every year
c58f321073e997d40ec6b6f49e367ef3b9bd41ec Ancient Books of Egypt
8b760d4e3fb7c42a90de4ca0dbe80f2efc1db700 The book mastery of ancient Egypt originated in ancient times.
aba2e9b44a90c292942ec7464f966794877ee3cb The process of making papyrus paper itself was laborious, but the results were worth it.
e9c291144d997e3bcc24c4ce38f315313c86e83a Thanks to the development of literature, amazing works of antiquity have reached us, and the skill of their design allows us to assert that these were the first illustrated books in the world
b4fadf4d9b917cbf14cc175e98c8a2cb821dfd18 Excursion to Mount Moses and the Monastery of St. Catherine.
60220c38c7eccf6a63fc9e23ba6739b10f297da0 Speaking about religious excursions, it is difficult to note the disadvantages or advantages of the trip.
7bcf644f7cfec92e63ab767e11d4f683a8895ea8 Most often, tourists refer to climbing Mount Sinai (Mount Moses) not as an excursion, but as a pilgrimage or a visit to a temple.
c54c80c80ef14a75386dd49a436dc83d626eab5a Related Sections: Excursions in Egypt Egypt
3f9cffd7285781603924e1b5deea37dd96010e09 - Cities of Germany Sights - Forum Germany
3d89a2286c0812559b78259fa69b49add6cbfa10 Myths of ancient Egypt
83f9fc96e9373c4315f60a6214299327b1d4c4a8 Wadi Al Hitan in Egypt
248c3a944d54dafe18f3ae9d3c4de3812cac8119 Sights of Egypt - Ruins of ancient Alexandria
7ba28fec37925a994692cd27588d28ff9b3cce12 Dahshur in Egypt
88c7933d46ff799742f3d43e335cbfe78b63cc65 Features of Egypt
8ec9b9d3b7d8bc2235bfc5748f6e837b576fb308 The best resorts in Egypt El Gouna
8dbdaca3a5578f621716d8f6b3af5eb5212fd34e Biography of Hatshepsut
efc33149c587b3918f64a7f69321e7aaeb29f22f Sights of Egypt – Giza
27f715344bc965eba52065ed5d6a65981eeac18c Shopping and souvenirs in Egypt
ab9587872144e89a4bbda9d50dce4c1a7dc1c225 Temple of Amun Ra in Karnak
39d4487fcd03258bc2c14c9f7b07c11f56c554e3 Car rental in Egypt
21ac94a2136a77d1d6085de1e0e0c788aca76bc3 The Gods of Ancient Egypt
6cc35bcfac2025f895dffa0d516025887c488566 Sights of Egypt Abu Simb ate
797c83439825193c2f15941ced0c0eb7a7e0eef1 With a child to Egypt
552378f58840cc7ae6a6225e81f141fff9fc6958 Excursions in Turkey Ephesus Pomukkale (two days)
a6a4a58453e92841d262a3c715755ee67105abeb Excursions in Turkey Horse riding
1d2e84e793cbae67bfa3bfcbc9595cd1753f708a Resort towns in the Kemer region
194a0fc264e43b881bce411220d2c8f7c263fbe1 Vacation in Turkey in October
7976aacccae16f1584a10518055cfb7a93352f94 Antalya beaches
cf1d94a9a090c4a473139a218ab72b55104ffbf1 Dangers and problems on vacation in Egypt
c479ac884fbfa1fdac4d3313525fd8147fe87ae0 What are the entertainment options in Hurghada
7e7b09db319be0c6d2832e9d63bebe5b652e4f64 Painting of ancient Egypt
b454fcd36ad2162a89690f01fa9805414cc71ccd Greek Resorts Amnissos
6a3964679b7e3353faf8a499e48d5e1fd8b179ca Resorts in Greece Nea Roda
73b6f6ab9d8e0e7bac3c04fc3a9f53fc32294e48 Excursions in Greece Jeep safari
9caa851ca6c35cc42905663c9bfe588370cda734 The resort of Eretria (fr. Evia) (Greece)
e2f958263e4a193a604b1f810b3c7a660e78fdf7 Uranopolis Resort (Greece)
738cc4ed2728061dc61c9be837a63b44dd36fc01 Sights of Spain Montserrat (monastery)
86cde4c833eaf5d4501e3c0be55c4852de3e4dd5 Resorts in Spain Loret de Mar
2cdbb9e8e8d8474c074e0372260208300c352865 National Spanish Cuisine Part 1
fc6be4597d4b649b4fa2544f36deebc10a7ff6f0 Regions of Spain Cantabria
5e91d08790df1612c4bd267e1f9be1baffbac6dd Regions of Spain Valencia and Murcia (Levant)
20b263e9650004946fc18aa30f4334c573bb14d7 Italian Resorts Messina
ba670e80253da1c2651fdc7b537b8640f10d1ce6 Italian Ski Resorts Val Gardena
e9e56994f172ce0b1df34f041342c6425e15db1b Italian Resorts Alassio
752ec2d60ebc2be543f14411c64210815f244bfb Excursions in Italy Winter Classics (group tour)
a1b35917befdec953f6e57545428c846b8d659cb Regions of Italy Calabria
b5a502d2f3ec47bb465f633537703d64a274a6aa Sights of France - National Museum of Natural History (Paris)
01bc9ed1ce45d6d536d5b3540eabd9ebf9cf4902 Sights of France - Museum of Modern Art (Paris)
eba4a36481a487d4e4af4977115ef25aae872eee Excursions in France Chantilly Castle and Senlis
e3b72ee63ab7d50e9b2bf3ed013acebcb6ec1b96 Resorts in France - Cote d'Azur
7474dc8911442b17b49563d9e026a64734b712fb Excursions in France Visit to Disneyland Park
5357cd09f9883e946be17a6b5289cd5e4445966a Cities of Germany - Flensburg
58c5d4c96d3ccd015dac3de067f51d56410a5033 Cities in Germany Göttingen
6521dadd6e4f4c8916b4b79babf3893b628ebe8b Sights of Germany - Kelheim Liberation Hall
ab18fcc42e58558e827094262930db31f3c553c5 Cities of Germany - Stuttgart
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604664aa4f1e2e36da2ab9f8e10bac7942a6514e As you know, there is a limited number of song structures that are used in most hits.
3604dc157332b937512804a9f94bc8b35c26599c These structures can be learned and then used effectively.
efecff3c44781ceba4b8f5c5438cb6bf5ba33aab In addition, you can take an idea born from the heart and express it within one of these structures, without losing the sincerity of the idea and the meaning of the song.
f4724c347799977496c5ab2936c8c5d46eb843b0 There is a theory that songwriting is based on the art of communication and expression.
0e2f38ee603d710dbf0c4be5b050b7a04e880590 The use of the most common song structures is similar to the use of punctuation marks in a sentence and allows the listener to better understand and feel what the author is trying to express.
f92d45c0e0f779d98b1464f7a826e3e7b4b6394b Do you want to write your own music?
2e5fdc6a1246039b2e016bab03fc582ceda88a60 Do you dream of becoming a poet who creates lyrics for singers?
29f785c6158112dbabef0e6b19e219cc2d3d40e9 Follow the instructions outlined in this article to start your musical journey.
26d4a1033c883f57da8aac35a9af0c56bc7cbb85 Songs by definition are music that is sung, so it will usually include words.
b3febd02271495a94ef4211aa8a9116c1a4a42bb Despite this, the term "song" is used in a broader sense, so we will cover an equally broad approach and discuss ways that can be used when writing songs in a variety of musical genres and styles.
a4f8d7e9276a048d3c003e71f6df03e3e8ea0791 In this article, we will consider some important aspects concerning the composition of melodies and the elements of which it consists.
0fd0d78f959b84098cf03718cece67dae6a2d43e What is a melody?
27db3942a87006b1e91fc2b5c3874422e6b6843e Everyone determines the melody based on their views on the music as a whole.
631428c744057cdccf7b682fe3b23b512e6d05e7 Someone understands any one-voice line by a melody(which is theoretically true), someone means something bright,memorable by a melody,and someone only means a vocal line.
d06fd29241b2966562bd31441a62c6bcfda4f2fd Each composer should form a strategy for working on a melody based on their priorities,but undoubtedly an important quality is the ability to compose memorable or, if you can call them that, hit melodies( if we talk about non-academic music).
31bfb442e6b28a1d6ae82e6d5b450e5c3f7f0293 Any well-written melody contains a lot of interrelated elements,each of which determines the level of its emotionality and simplicity or complexity.
b773c88f3dc94f3ce5feab0eb11ed348aa811d26 There is no need to use complex elements to create light images,just as it is absurd to use simple melodies when writing a symphony(unless it contributes to the expression of the idea).
fea6aaca0a78029d599eb54101719818613fe315 The Italian composer, pianist, conductor and music teacher F.Busoni gave a very good definition of a melody - which helps to understand what elements a melody consists of.
af725a89c8d165209a03cd9fca92cbea189714a3 "A series of repeated ascending and descending intervals, which is divided and set in motion by a rhythm, which contains a hidden harmony and conveys a mood , which can be independent of the words of the text as expressiveness and independent of the accompanying voices as a form, does not change its essence from the choice of the absolute pitch of the sound and the instrument "
73e751542520e1f060484da83a04d5cbdd24572b It is not by chance that the similarity of form and melody is highlighted.
f247723ae63855fcd759c0ad19afb74d5cd8aa41 A good melody is always perfect in form.
d3977a26a755fff4e17d9de5e05d369d1ef5e848 Therefore, the first important element should be called the musical syntax.
2bf1dd69a8a05ba2d2e0ac59a45762592196c56b It is followed by the missed Busoni, but a very important component is the musical intonation.
03942e789c34e6abd41c908bc7223994095ef5c4 There are a huge number of options for creating songs.
00372fe08a1d8b1e546afb6f655d95e4d4f481c5 However, for the most part, all of them can be reduced to four.
c984674c754632354bff844a299ceffce681f04d Why four, and not five?
a685d36cd431d69f72b4df7bcb815a790e2444f6 In order to understand this, let's look at what elements a song is built from: Any song consists primarily of words that are sung to a certain melody, which are then harmonized by chords, and naturally, a melody cannot exist without a rhythm.
37fe38adde0c92083799d82c17538e162a5289b3 Thus we see that each of these four elements constitutes, as it were, the flesh and body of the song.
4f11aed07ed97fb6bc4e5ccf2cc76cfb25ab5263 And this same element can be the starting point when creating your song.
264b2241cd2a58c897a99762b790cae35218f76e Rhythm is the skeleton on which your entire composition rests.
8758ec9997c05ae1f964afd13a801a228ebdc76a The chord structure is the foundation.
7977b503f08c4234064493905279aaa8a24c7792 Without an interesting and good rhythm section, your song will sound as if it lacks something.
c7d3554af785ed00226cbcd995d8968ab1fb1130 A bad rhythm leads to a bad composition.
2d9cc122684e7cab3d67e3e08c61f1822a21f412 Solo (leading, leading) instruments.
52990ad97253f897b88a3e3b94c6818421b02116 As a rule, the rhythm section has the property of repeating itself.
229cfefd4c0431bcab4ec29fe8da71eba212b316 And in some genres, it is especially monotonous.
a381c47c2ce969145ae8740532ed7777b57edfea Without leading instruments, the effect of "movement" will not be created in your composition and it will quickly get bored.
5b2db24fde63c378e8f1908717dce05aef3d96f2 The leader instruments usually have the highest frequency among the instruments.
d718551a038a2f0d68216857d8412478325992bf As a rule, these are vocals or lead guitar.
2a09810c4c09dfb8f0410014cf147ad8b2f66f92 Just mentally remove them from the songs that you hear on the radio, and you will see that they will sound much less interesting.
2b8823bd5322460bf50a1e48b3b37d71ea661ce6 If the rhythm section is the foundation, then the leading instruments will either elevate your composition or break it (depending on the skillful use).
4fe9d89682983e05b487107fd15fe8d131538221 If the bass performs its function (with the exception of bass solos), then it will maintain the rhythm, while the leading instruments will build interesting moves and harmonies.
fd50e19d5d0ce3c2e5d0948d9cad07c43e13d4de It's like a cheeseburger here: the rhythm acts as a bun that holds all the "delicious" components of the song that create its individual taste.
7da4b36a24d430b4a4a816246bbff297b44e359f Here ,the" low " bass, as it were, acts as the opposite of the "high" leading instruments.
5a566ca7943fb19b7419811e8de754ea5e3f2521 Here it should be noted that it performs the role of exclusively seasoning, in other words, its presence is absolutely not necessary.
4fe33dfff065a08f7cfa6333286ef8cdffe3ae9b When using it, you should rather take into account the peculiarities of the genre (therefore, before writing a song in a new genre for you, take the trouble to at least read Wikipedia).
537c4413366fb5da1d1adba7388cf56e912b6c27 These are the tools that the listener discovers when listening to the composition repeatedly.
a7247435af99d92d3e7df6e8b8166bc200341fd1 Such melodic parts and riffs that you will never notice when you first listen.
c081538eee68ba2b669bfe2a45048443cf66b12d But they make you listen to the song again and again, and thanks to them, the song will not get boring when you listen to it again.
869482c627f32bd34c34600b7a4e10ef083b3941 So, we have considered the 5 main components of the composition.
75827d46250d65121078733d40e93bef979eced4 Sometimes it all starts with a "catchy" chord progression.
1a6a5265b91001f5e053eaf92a0d54359372ea30 Learning to use song structures is not the most exciting, creative or interesting part of the songwriting process, but, nevertheless, it is a very important part of it.
7e6e93d90df1146e0c470e4783bf3a924b9ae99a With rare exceptions, most of all hits written by authors who are not simultaneously performers of these songs, producers and are not otherwise involved in the project, use one of the following structures or their variations: Verse Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Verse
6fd0f4517bca6f199c3b59385ab319c939bfd3ed Commercially successful songs are built from a combination of the following elements: Verses, Choruses, Choruses, Breeches
a7daff6b52e2f1c98e979f8c3de0d815bc07591f Each of these components has its own task in the song.
42605d570ee9fa27247aad8b02a464857fb24c85 The main task of the verse is to convey information that will lead the listener to the name of the song.
851f2479f54a0f14128abee4b844d9bcca132c13 The verse tells a story and sets an emotional mood.
2ec93796f6e7f423418ef04897f3168ee9ff5ff8 The verse contains the plot, details and action.
8de6872bc93dabf04d84bd46cacf04036de9677d Each verse of the song has the same melody and new words.
43ade478219a959e3ed4fce3978f70f521c1faf0 There may also be a "pre-chorus" inside the verse - two or four lines, lasting no more than four bars, which stand immediately before the chorus.
19fdb4459d7b74b2203957e86201a35054cb30db Melodically, the chorus is the repetitive and most" catchy " part of the song, which first of all you want to sing along to.
975e0b281fff38f053153aaf9ea33646285bbb46 The bridge in the song is used as a kind of digression from the main theme, a small respite.
2ed0eb982ba4756bf81d6f1d8f1678e27491e28f The bridge is the last new part that can introduce the song to the listener.
3a664e829e9d33cac157c82684dadf3e2cfa2b97 This is the last chance to make the listener love your song, so the bridge should be strong.
68453a115a55706cca174307a353939bac87b8c4 Decide on the purpose and reason for writing a song before you start working on it directly, because the purpose and genre greatly affect the process of writing lyrics.
ce80fcfaca2f4c7305eed18326aa2af7f4542378 You should plan your work taking into account these factors.
469127ac801a9c0ed339a580b2fbacde42a70e5b If you are writing a song with lyrics, you should take this into account in the process of composing it.
6a7bfff442572c23e85d4d31a423265eb1e0a19a There are many different ways to include lyrics in a song.
00bc84fadaf13b930575823a4ca9abec5884fd93 You can start with poems or words that you want to put to music, you can come up with a text after writing the music, or create them in parallel.
34ceb5afc6b7a88d68cf4d727def224e856265e3 You should also decide on the style of music and make sure that it fits the verses and chorus that you are working on.
c3346b1b2564a90a901745f90c8145aece9c340e If you are going to write background music or musical themes, as well as other types of instrumental music, you should plan everything accordingly.
bdf242a1339c5b0c2b56809e2b3ee84abec7d2f2 Think about why you are writing it at all, and what kind of mood you want to convey.
977dd7c695933b14905e4bd463fade9f270caad6 Properly selected tools and style are necessary to create the necessary atmosphere, since words will not be used here.
b4b73123e6bddfc90f78b03b1cde945c2ae4bd43 Think about what tools you will use, if at all.
194ea0a38d224cd1851b94150ee389b00606c855 Some people compose songs in their head and only hum or sing some individual parts to have an idea of how it will sound.
bc4c06b5c97099d9df818b8081b8e7a5b7c46308 Others, especially if they are writing a part played on some special instrument, will constantly use it in the process of composing, because they will need to choose the necessary sound.
479b2173bb47ff3c916a82b98acf13d6f8feef0e Think about whether you need a tool to make a plan for working on a song.
37eee503a64406a0948b6a28b9996e1b32b2b378 Common types of instruments used in songwriting are most often guitars and pianos, although some people use special string, percussion or wind instruments.
7c775f2efd60f9cd408f020d45bf0ebb6ce8e0d5 Think about how you will record the music, both in the final and in the process of work.
cfbd56b023b39a8a091250b4a7ab78ff53a9b509 People with a musical education will write notes, self-taught people, as a rule, will record chords.
1f642b363c8e8008615ff64ff0ab86ee8ddea25b If you write all this only for yourself and you have a good memory, you can not write anything at all (although it is not recommended to do this).
6a71d688cac97e327d109ce6610d3ad80e0480d1 Come up with an initial motive.
cc836d0e3d804911df38a1e69abb9f41d3993cc3 Before you can start working on a song, you need to get a general idea of how it should sound.
8012b444a790adfef3a76c094b8b99808b7506f2 This motif should be the essence and basis of the song, from which you will start and apply everything else.
a07997fb8ea97135f8509e885b9781ecfec7023a Create a "hook" or "riff" - this is a memorable line or lines in a song.
6ceaf3d1236cf313ffa9bd7b0fc7008849048e35 This is the part of the song that is stuck in your head.
da4925fa6597192d924a971ea201ce415f577072 This is a sticky tune and text that will attract the attention of listeners and make them think about the song after they hear it.
0bc156e3556e059b779280982d910709a0a94b6d The "reef" function is simple: this is a memorable and noticeable instrumental part of the song, separated from the melody.
f0c198fa9d7eeb7857b2299447a3bffc2e0e837f 3 Study the popular structural forms of songs.
785925eefaa220f7517f86ed17ac38e303666c59 AAA: A structural form in which the verses are the same musically, but differ in the text.
bb3e8bd43c823a61c1d26972c94a4fb1400235c3 It is not very common among mainstream music, but it is found in other genres.
9f857433ca3c21f4e5f1d92365a408f6affbec7a AABA: The most common structural form in modern pop music.
652e3a5d4767b053e6635a58c1ae92ecfa1dbf22 Verse-chorus: this form is not as popular as before, but many songs of the first half of the twentieth century had exactly this structure.
01de5263925f11bcc24abe05303d46893667f241 Learn the classical structure of the song.
e9862991607e52090f21a46a8ff63851442cab7c To compose a song, it is very useful to understand the classical structure of the song.
dc7143817571ac0e571e9e0d13c95c91fb22c907 They can be used as a source of inspiration to invent new styles of music and experiment with old ones, or take as a basis for instrumental inserts.
3171910f2226898d136bfa46dc3506ff3fb5d84e The two most common genres from which to proceed are pop and rock.
2935c510b58e86bb1b3a50be8741b580bd924038 Think about which of these is closer to you.
0b5fdf2e4d2dc2388bedadec520a003a8a3381de Consider the country and folk styles.
21df10d9a801c3879d5f8ea48ee5801cff943e6d Country and folk music are related genres that are instrumentally very similar.
3b6bd2908d2525c2e6ca8dc7598576c4a8212f70 Rap and hip hop.
d6b4b1310bf7b7836ec7875185f35d4c8fb5deb4 These related genres differ from the previous ones in that they use different instruments and tempo.
12e0c2a9ba59950c44ae5261f4b6d79ba5bbb2fc Perhaps you will like jazz.
7a6c5665313d82c2faa9ec02c9433a5de4fcc298 Collaborate with poets.
65594e9281c67d2f1d7df01f77c939d35091aadc The easiest way to get the lyrics of a song is to ask the poet to write it for you.
33b27a3941c0f3e7004674b8fc8ae8ce390db4c0 You can work with your friend or hire a professional, depending on what you want to achieve.
ca26716e45e61cfb47efe40acd85372dfc29f157 Write the text yourself.
b23102b0401c649c3c311715e88cf7f0c04d9b4b Of course, you may need a little skill, as your poems may sound strange or stupid.
3893fe7e155167ad494d2032c8b35fc64479b875 Do not be afraid of difficulties and work, and everything will work out.
59d3bc6d3681fd7a25514a1983c4489c5af92f82 Connect the existing text with the music.
8ae5b6748e7e3039a72840b1072a247c92b4fcea Or put to music individual written words from a play, poem, speech or anything else that you think will make the song great.
78aef62ff72dc67b02913d1c8dde756c78b32010 Choose what makes sense to you.
62b98ad4696f3d9f8b582f6b6c400cc7b436638c Improvise if you want to put a part of your soul into a song and make it something more than the voice and sound of an instrument.
7e4902712f4f3a9923cb532352c9a7c0864a93bd If you want this, you need to add depth to the sound by processing what you have.
46fec074cc00056de6a24949246c0897c8b8517d The easiest way to do this is to improvise.
012acceb31c1602fe14a97e2aebe6db8c06d53b6 If your improvisation is not enough, ask friends or several musicians to bring a fresh sound to your work.
fd7691279d43c7f9c19b07f926321b2cca8c42ac Add loss and harmony.
16698f8088781d0feaa3c06e817cbca3689244d0 They are variations of the main melody that bring a sense of elaboration to it.
fd272f8d5a6c76393a2482fc335daadfb6bfb2bc Add more instruments to the background to make the song sound more melodic.
ab8365573545470c18f524b2794f66ee2c239902 Make notes manually.
8d5cff990eecc3192a268b9a4b5404cfc88b3932 Most likely, you will want to record the music that you compose so that it can be played later, especially if you want other people to perform it.
9184ecc49d7ef97b9e3d88ff750eabbb9573a565 Use the recording studio.
401e42ef57db8716030e01b8f4830c6491aa19b6 Record the audio recording directly.
39b8942acfc5d29e012b8215fa295de8d91d1557 Another way would be to record yourself playing and singing.
691188e0804cc68c5a7c60de2ea0262c9b017da2 There are no specific rules and principles that must be strictly followed when writing songs.
82555149c5e6e657ab647354228710044073626d The article on songwriting techniques has come to an end.
5a01c0c1702258131883d91ef78f656fc96c5f5b Of course, this is an endless ocean, on the topic of which you can write millions of pages.
60adef12800f04ab69d5bd2d132121df0b2519c7 But the purpose of this article is to give you a starting knowledge so that you can freely travel around it, and discover new unexplored parts of it.
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6a2e5a1ac050d4fc1ea5e8459c9e45f6ed225a97 Four ways to create songs!
461832d5baed668eae688010c554b0ef280152bd Choose your own!
4b09a3d911c0399cbe61a2f962804a2f40b157da Ways to create a song:
3911033b66da85a3e4e1284f2015c4138e5f1f1c Let's briefly consider each of the methods.
6fa0b53b0adf8ee2a466717eda75c233a01ce910 1. Writing a song starting with the text.
3c50c03ad222885dc72403d27062f809d3e91fb3 This method is good because it helps to initially see the image and character of the future song, because the poems already contain some idea and meaning that can affect your choice of melody.
d36db0663f4048b15ae3c4bb39bc4a17a09fd154 This method was used by Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava.
b6b60f0fd7f2e3ac36dfe08fd0e8b5a0caa4a882 However, a common mistake for beginners is composing songs in which the words dominate the music.
86496873177212d7238ba8c0b318392ebcd4b76d The result is a composition similar to a poem that is sung to a background melody.
d96cf71264a27a36f58291cd7779ff722c0b060e Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the other aspects.
6699ed7cb4da9f11f3aa0fad0174c799418417b5 2. Writing songs starting with the melody.
e062980184ef27b8bfb93558259de7deb9fe53e9 Practice shows that this method is more often used by female authors.
32e3a4653f570a209e2a1c9b782d757b551c008f As a result, their song melodies are more free and suggest interesting options for harmonization.
2a7fa5ace94c704d0dd2700904986a3e739e5f0a Of course, there are male authors.
29c83d87fbd42b0fa7e2d7352a4daa1a47c10364 In general, this method allows you to experiment with a large number of rhythms, chords, and of course words.
d938b26fb6720c5296dfa4be789840f81971dcd1 After all, when you first compose a melody, then it will be easier for you to compose words with a freer rhythm.
4b0ab95c1ba4dc38e4a1b89579b8abca18350396 3. Writing songs starting with harmony.
d6e3945afb1e9b7b7aa6694e4e3374ec0385b33a Probably the most popular method of all.
bcb2ae21ef7df5560bf6c5cf45e1b9fe144fb080 Probably because many people play the guitar and compose songs where the author simply plays a few chords in a certain key and simultaneously selects (composes) the text is in the form of a melody, of course, not without improvisation.
88c81e3a34c5b4403eedc1a1533ec515f0e4463b It is very important to make sure that the melody is not built around notes that are the reference chord tones.
f0d73d88796d866f1544839f1472e63b2ca742bf 4. Writing songs, starting with the rhythm.
de3ce254217ce85501dab4395cb8ee837986358a This can be a ready made drum rhythm, on the basis of which the author builds the melody of the future song, and then superimposes the text and harmony (chords).
c2314fd4b605fdf495c1c81d05b11301f91c190d It is important here that the rhythm itself is really catchy.
0eb860fc429ef5e3f47cca6222e8a56a6f42600b Maybe that's why most often dance compositions are composed based on the rhythm.
96f692f343d7ef56dec33ea87791232efe4c4954 And what is the result?
d919612387e489786e93250f1cb6101f4eb4f66e But!
8bd0e75547b52341a3e0f1f4919968c076fa5213 If you have reached a dead end on one of the elements described above, then I advise you to try to use all four at once in your practice.
532213e73b6b3c7ca8f3d6093b9a33afc2f22cd4 Each of them individually has both pros and cons, so I suggest using them together.
08df74c7d2a79ab95ef3f6b7d443609ab5ae486b Or at least experiment with each of the methods, thereby balancing your skills (if you are already composing songs), or test your abilities(if you are a beginner).
583deee37aa54ee9a88da20414c15522313b6f74 Good luck to you in writing hits!
e9c20b9f7caa4fac5fe8f06ca4c667427d1f2f62 HOW TO RECORD A SONG AT HOME?
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4a025c65800d8cb5b44421a44721c08997b15597 For all those who are in love with..
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05e51ddfd10520df04437f69f21fa728b67e724e Lesson 4.
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cd8173d7997bb84fc604646f6c6b27746cc9fdf1 A selection of yard songs for guitar with chords and videos.
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68ce21ae7104515661f27637676db5e7b81d905a Where and to whom did you sing with the guitar?
ea72f8a0da566fd4d45164906901329c4d4268f7 To my friends!
0e81c74953c72505fa87184cb180a1f84a9f81d4 I sang to my mother, father, brother, sister (relatives)!
743767b0a6b29312b9adb08a0e92fa30158483c2 I sang to my girlfriend (spouse)!
37394a68063a5de1c3a6d7b84806c104d5c42fb6 I sang to my boyfriend (spouse)!
ecfa2778bd1b333a842f771b6b28478326674509 At a party (on a hike, while away) to my friends!
da3f616481c3f255435a2e7f2e073a9d09bdfa0c On the street, for passers by!
cd16362864bd22aeab0b8a7690ecdd7a4fa3d359 =) In the assembly hall, for a small audience!
5d5a7ad3f44c0a000c19751a5af316ad42916692 In the concert hall (on the stage of the city square) for a large audience!
9380a1304cbc18715183f848cf90f5d2c0a0bc90 While I play and sing in proud solitude!
0d5ecee1e2fbb6f3a528e3ca6892951dea693afe =)
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377a07eccdd0e2f7bb37f831b3ffe0903caa6e64 Composing music
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c66c2ca14267462fa41f0a55b6c92fc9623502d0 Home "Composing music" Structures of successful songs
362a1a3e01449dd6160d965f6ddfa19b68e524e0 Author: Alexander Shulgin
d7596a497372e08c51c76be9920955ff3f4629cd With rare exceptions, most of all hits written by authors who are not simultaneously performers of these songs, producers and are not otherwise involved in the project, use one of the following structures or their variations: Verse Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus Verse Commercially successful songs are built from a combination of the following elements: Verses, Choruses, Choruses, Breeches Each of these components has its own task in the song.
ad0dd61626ffc621286d8a8ed6bb033c6f37c2bc Before trying to assemble them into a song, let's look at each of these components of it.
1f620fbe9e5e9573318c16c93783fa2dcb4106c8 Verse
ff2577ef90fff91c3af43d08b26c128ac999499c In the first line of the first verse, it is desirable to have the same number of syllables as in the first line of the second and third verses (if there is one).
d45ca29f42251b9fc37183b80d65d0d008283e7a The same rule applies to all other lines of verses.
5278e7c21844ed54eb22565be21fd6775bde8730 Small variations may occur, but if there is a large difference in the length of the corresponding lines in different verses, it will be impossible to sing all the verses with one melody.
601d00322bd04ea1b79ba8f5e4b713ba58151ad2 Most often, a verse consists of eight lines, which are expressed in eight or sixteen bars.
6f3b5f212890bca34abd7532a2644ba33dabc314 Some hits have verses consisting of four, six and twelve lines.
f44ba562bcfaa496948bf1a59ab31f41eada20d4 It is acceptable if the number of lines in the first verse is twice as large as the number of lines in the following verses (for example, the first "double" verse consists of sixteen lines, and the next – of eight).
8989ce59e73a7ecddb26e119b0036befbdb83cbd In songs with a chorus, the name of the song usually does not appear in the verse.
8bec78bfb41576a5880a494e26bc02bdb4e4a912 Pre chorus
48742f6b59acbcaf7a71481fb5df0963d51d7193 There may also be a "pre chorus" inside the verse - two or four lines, lasting no more than four bars, which stand immediately before the chorus.
2d996b99539a8cfdd7b5e387a3e35367d6a44acb The pre chorus is used to prepare the listener for the perception of the chorus with the help of melody and words.
8a2546f6192667fbfbb4433b31341a283e177152 The use of a pre chorus is optional.
0d715271aae6d0d8399c09fa5a2846491d1f7a20 If the first verse includes a pre chorus, then, as a rule, all other verses will also contain it.
0118df8517747c7c27d5001b7f3d484bbb8d1df3 All the pre choruses in the song have one melody.
08c6e525b3bb43c2a2c136d20c64b4a147c8595b For each pre chorus, it is permissible to have the same words, or new ones each time.
6973e1fed929e5ea44a56d93b7344ccd369d59ad Chorus
4bb284d0b9dd240679354ea4cc873cd4bd1c81a1 From the point of view of the words of the song, the task of the chorus is to express the whole idea of the whole song and express its name.
a826914da25426fb1f7c8331bd5f7ad04e9f1e00 Ideally, the words of the chorus should be written so that they sound natural when they are repeated after each verse or bridge.
82284bbf86e2cabdcf097c6b34ecf2a56cbe2b17 The chorus should be such that it can be quickly remembered.
b2913982fb47ae4f04416c446deaa0a028521b03 There is no need to introduce any new information, new details in the chorus, there are verses for this.
b6fd56b64aa8c7f0c2539f656822b6acf8fb5b9d Regarding the structure of the song, there are usually four or eight lines in the chorus, which are usually expressed in eight bars.
d5942b05a191f8bebb4b16702fa55050cbe2f67c Songwriting is not an exact science, it is, first of all, feelings, so there may be and there are hits where the chorus consists of twelve or sixteen lines.
5f7c83ac249e1e18f5b30c29ac9a0525b16a0527 Each chorus in the song has the same melody, and, as a rule, the same words.
73224f3ff643014bca954291b9cb2cd8bd9ffd2e It is desirable to voice the name of the song in the chorus.
b37a1e3b60afb500d027f66c5da23326a12da05e There are no strict rules in which place of the chorus the name of the song should sound – it can be in the first, first and second, in the first and last lines of the verse.
e386adc864e464ab8fc4c5987935b49ceb9f1921 In some cases, the verse may begin with the title, repeat several times in the chorus, and end with the title.
6ec92df5bcebdce8a6becfd8a476c0d48f2fca2e The chorus may consist entirely of the repeated title of the song, with the exception of the last line.
493352a3a34737a9769604ea7ef4d90eae61107a The title can also be heard only at the end of the chorus, then all the preceding words in the chorus should be strong enough, catchy enough to support the listener's attention throughout the chorus.
892f2cda0d341fcf177fb3b265d8865f51d9b749 And finally, there may be no other words in the chorus other than the name of the song.
34214aaa545394c0a712b4c45a62bd37830e7e6a Bridge
2815012f8c2b381cc9d7becf00781bfdc4c59552 It can consist of two or four lines, and four or eight bars.
6a6332505fbe04f6167e8701c6c75becd75d9f3c Bridge's task is to transfer the song to a new dimension, take it to the next level, and also give the listener the opportunity to hear the chorus and the name of the song in a different way.
7022b013099dfbc9b17eaaefae06d96fe8e73131 When a structure involving verses and choruses is applied, the only place for bridge in the song is between the second and third choruses (Verse Chorus Verse Chorus Bridge Chorus).
73722313904a37dbd73dc58d8a840f666e6a60fc When the structure A A B A is applied, the bridge will be between the second and third verse.
23ba72dc14d21a162978b4cabf83efb69b6d0da9 (Verse Verse Bridge Verse).
08aa20b82df5b5fcfd8883ec1ff61ba2872268fb In terms of words, the bridge is needed to add a new perspective to the story being told in the songs.
e35843f5dec4517bbf74213c6d81cff98e670053 Here are the tools that will help you make the bridge different from the rest of the song in terms of lyrics:
aa0367d7004d5434d2c55df170d22043d7d14325 Adding a new element to the history that will act as a link.
0faaf933af3694ed9970b3549878434e8f5d70fc Changing the narrative from the first person to the narrative from the third person, or something else.
19a2f87dd5835d7ebd105dc95f4a5b840e2dcc42 The transition from a detailed description to general, philosophical statements (or vice versa).
c94443e58ba06b11ecbc4c058ebe67a5c9739cb2 Changing the time frame (looking back at the past if the rest of the song takes place in the present).
776f90c007a3dd4ba050830074a3ab5f5c83448b From the point of view of music, an effective bridge can add an element of contrast by:
06f81d5bbec7ec98e596a5853562cafd8f5d6684 Adding a chord or chords that were not used in the song before.
167a47819d6c6e7d2f1f51116df9a7697f08711a Changes in the rhythm.
e6e1c5c2128be4a0258a0e23f432fc818bc60381 The use of notes that are higher or lower than the notes used in the rest of the song.
6e23932bbb62a13b805cac9d42bcd9745cde0873 Additional tips:
ba6d75412972319fac38589acaf765da2bdc14bc Do not include the name of the song in the bridge.
8ebf21a6db978a2538f74fc1f8d7f053786fea1a Limit yourself to two or four lines (four or eight bars).
9f14c0c87a9979ddcc9a9da07da048e8b95c50d8 Sometimes bridge can be instrumental.
6f0917c433d2f76ce1f9804cef1f7b2fd6cb642e Continued "
d3e5c8ddcfe1a56b3b1578b74c6dacfe0991b377 About the author.
4dea753f8a642be34baefddbdb266d79d980edfd Alexander Shulgin is a composer, artist and traveler.
619500f82408b6d38b9cf608dbfa6333ac80406f During his career in show business, Alexander composed many songs, and some of these works became immortal hits, taking their strong positions on the air of Russian music radio stations.
9999777262b1896c3a22fb44d0e10f331065835a Today, Alexander Shulgin travels to exotic countries and maintains his blogs, where he tells his readers about the world's sights and cultural features of different peoples of the world.
5bfae54eb0724c54962e3a9ddddfc788c64fff4f More about composing music
586b009e4a53e1a1c61256c63db5a271d65e1eaf Lyrics Melody of the song Tips for composers Vocal lessons Emotional singing 21 tips for songwriters 18 tips for songwriters Tips for pianists How to compose songs for the piano
cc13e557f3d511764e07272e70c3e12ef1fd0e26 © Show Business Lexa Music 2007-2014.
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ac25e42f2f3b3ef2ad8b6478df6d57acca9a9d8c How to compose a song
b09656e557aea61c9855dc5af8bf362d4e6caad8 6 methodology:The beginning of the creation of the basis of the song The selection of the genre the application of the text The addition of depth and spirituality of the sound Recording and fixing
c6394980c5d9add0584e323ec35310fdc381a70a People with a musical education will write notes, self taught people, as a rule, will record chords.
bc663d28e34ad35a6ac3e0ffbbec19b5a860935c Method 2 of 6: Creating the basis of a song
cb6f77a0e2a7b75ed0a0d48846e63489db7378e7 The starting point will be the melody.
fdeda4c8d16b3fa2ed4ac8f726d7d3ad4d6dcf83 This is the main part in the song that you can hum.
2d45b16be68a08136490629b488f661c32aacc8f As a rule, the text is superimposed on it.
c5f6f9658896d55f41d50704ef9cea86eedc58e8 The second approach is that everything starts with a chain of chords that allow you to feel the overall mood of the song.
3d1b3c48c10420cc0c24938336632e33b726ef92 This can be a good starting point if you do not have a very good idea of the melody, or it does not come to mind at all at first.
21444bfce4bd16ba1e2433486cd0528bd61c1aef If you want to write a song, it is very important for you to understand the structural foundations or forms that prevail in popular music.
7c0a681de808ab2330521f626de3327db1b146ca Using them, you will get an acceptable framework on the basis of which you will be able to build the backbone of the song, and which will provide you with a connection with the audience of listeners.
4c443b4cdf5252f12eb55e26689b1da88f4a0c4b A song that is too different from traditional forms and canons can alienate most of the listeners, even if it is made qualitatively.
883e49af1156f2c759bca9427aa9cec62c5a033a A striking example is the traditional American song "Amazing Grace".
fe7324daa4be4174a90ccd612ae76e0a6f4282fa It is characterized by variability and is found in almost all genres.
28e9a4cfbe7356920545c757344b638a430dad73 In the most primitive form, the AABA structure begins with two musically identical verses, then there is a break to the "bridge"("B" in the formula), after which it returns to the initial verse in the music.
71324087d3dbc1efb28eb63a54382e85cb872eff There are many examples of this, but the most revealing, perhaps, is the song " Something” by The Beatles.
17632752f008a5256982be8fd74b383df5bbbf2a AABABA is the most popular medium sized version of the structure.
a01b311e777f8df63dd15a97b257d65570c94edf Another, less popular option is represented by the ABAB structure.
65dd6277b13b5f298fc79788070c03be5aabbcfb ABCD is a structural form without repetitions, dynamic, and is also sometimes used.
56a2bf26150b983fa80b68d667914dc8b0dad2ca Verse chorus: this form is not as popular as before, but many songs of the first half of the twentieth century had exactly this structure.
3bf03ab2f649ace5ce537e18f180428441007235 It was very popular until the 1960s.
91fac3e786f242baef2be673138099af3e5725e6 The verse follows the chorus and is often repeated.
6ee32853fc4e4df9b0ed3196ac5474efddd44999 A perfect example: the song "All You Need is Love"by The Beatles.
3ed24df4b8cc1f12e058418df5eb6830a122e2a6 There are two main variants of the form: simple and contrasting.
e7e9c45d223930b7615c86b92bdf2f19d94b52c6 In contrast, the music in the verse differs from the music in the chorus.
9fe54fabc80a38782cbbc152d35736468a76f870 In a simple form, the music is the same everywhere.
4fc5fd8b8c1c862992c17ed6c1ef8191c926cf72 There is an additional variant called Verse – Chorus – Loss, which adds two or more losses as a break between choruses.
49b969d34f052f7349cc6dfc60d28c2cd125a460 The loss is always shorter than the verse and is accompanied by changes in the tempo and rhythm of the music.
899c40370ea1f971eec9ffa490b1e86e7c61313c A canon is a song form in which the main melody is followed by its modulations and modifications.
52158852085389aa08fcfccc6c955693d9e1a535 This technique is used to add several musical layers and create an echo effect.
63fe3e5e38547b5e86ff2843a25a6af8525539e8 An example is the song "Row, Row, Row Your Boat".
65c4573857f5af55835a2409c56cc60a68bf8984 The sonata begins with an exposition, which is an introduction to the main theme.
7ec8086a7d3ae2bcab11aae42b6abf5c0d1381c8 It is followed by the development of the topic through modulations and other techniques.
bd46e762ad5466dba37b8aecf2b3ba18af1d8300 And the last part is called a coda, in which the melody returns to the main theme, which creates the effect of completing the work.
f0453c793b7373279cb8a6fbd9f9b6891d64e873 Method 3 of 6: Choosing a genre
b69093bbff581b56fb246d84f3d8ec6182904c9a Pop music is a complex and complex genre, because in fact, it includes all popular compositions in a certain period of time.
0c6a247edb3538253b9f7ecb213bb52a8783a31a In the modern world, pop music is quite strongly influenced by rock.
009995eadb9313895782adcdd4b358503016341c To write a song related to the pop genre, you need to consider several points.
6692cf0864ae240cbd6673fbc010a75e679fa46e Form: both pop and rock songs are very formulaic, they place great emphasis on the chorus, which is always repeated several times.
4dd60ba50392eed70892097c65c9c6f6f29949fd The chorus is usually shorter than the verse, and is quick and easy to remember, so try to take this into account in your work.
67bb06bb3de197414116e6e3b17fa2c8c975ea16 Instrument selection: Many instruments are used in both rock and pop music.
936818f22105849cd82a77490566eacaadadaec4 These can be, for example, guitars (in pop music they are usually acoustic, and rock musicians prefer electric guitars), bass guitars, percussion and, in some cases, piano.
75bf0109f59b96a3c3093a97245539a4ae414667 Classical string instruments are also used to create an additional dramatic effect.
a05bce997ca0b4e1390058ca58266ac7d5f1d806 The tempo in the compositions largely depends on the emotional coloring.
14d36535b37c832135d6d993afb7d782672f3fe1 Sad and heartfelt songs are slower than rhythmic dance music.
a84d1140bb7f01e54c8c7956542d2e4a21c2ca5f These genres are widely used in live broadcasts, the emphasis here is on local musicians, and the quality of audio file processing is quite low (acoustic sound and a minimum of editing is preferable).
20a75e51b989386b66718022ebf84ad3bfe99a5b The form of songs is no different from pop music.
4dae84b9577f330eee180e24abce361b5469f077 The most common structure is AABA.
4551dd2ac82ead6c6d2804343af95e8da0ce4fbe In folk music, as a rule, poems that are capacious in meaning are used.
f85e50c46a709aa7007241d1359f874542f8d0b3 Selection of instruments: There are several instruments that are typical for both genres.
6967d3f05653f41ce80fd1af7a659db5bee4945b These are acoustic guitars, dombras, mandolins, classical stringed instruments that sound in the background (violin, bass), harps and piano.
38b45923a60ce6126f03e067e1d3c4e40d0f9ce8 The pace will also be determined by the mood.
5dbe3b7f9d2453d83043ebdb86dff07c97cf2dc1 Country music is faster than slow folk.
2319148cae439071cca61a24183f15429ba9d305 They vary in form.
586b3fafb857b940d43a9f7892388bc11121f8ef Keep this in mind when you write a song in this genre.
ab6710ad3ee161db52074323d75359d87287214b Forms: both genres emphasize the dynamics of verses and choruses.
52de734bd1e025780c86707f57d2852ed97f2878 The structure of AAA prevails, which can not be said about other genres.
5be94e610c7304f6e98c9a17f1638cd79b576f15 The emphasis is on the verse, occasionally the choruses that may be present in the text are also involved.
b9ff16b9aa93d9519b408a0663c2ade5b59d0114 Instruments: in both rap and hip hop, the emphasis is on drums, not guitars.
cf223832f90296efd9d4febbe25a4275ccb1d0b9 The emphasis is on digitization and on text.
ef2e088bd633745716fe233562c9cd21f2de476c Players, samples and a computer with temporary internet access are also used.
8e6bf4205bd5d2f830828ac3a5bed23c1f133f33 In addition, it can be synthesizers, cymbals and percussion.
e65b5cafe6a2e0f2ceb7fa42a87f1829e21ba8e5 The tempo, as a rule, ranges from 90-100 beats per minute.
016f17222e7f7fdb194850fd3b5c9ea16be34d5f Slower songs will be considered as lyrical, they are inherent in hip hop to some extent.
cdee14a58bfbdb811f96e1786d028f36ea679993 Faster songs are suitable for dancing and playing in clubs.
871f84187ffa8a9dbcb1e1eeb93376ddce0d4337 It is quite difficult to execute, but technically it is easy to write.
0978d198873dbbaa1c503462cf88c277b46a88c3 The pace is usually slow, but the forms can change.
423572dd979415cad1c4f060287b25786514ec59 Instruments: Jazz is dominated by wind instruments, which is not present in other genres.
d596300514853dad11e4937e18830b233ce9b7f7 It can be a saxophone or an oboe.
fe70e8f4630364a4da988af3ffdbcccfb39d8c28 Piano, bass guitars, drums and guitars will also come in handy.
32dd0de8aad17720c1474a3d23f552400f134063 Method 4 of 6: Text Overlay
d692acf9f9ffff1b590e9205d5ae09850aeb4e31 The poet can put the words to the music when it is written, he will work with you throughout the songwriting process or provide you with the lyrics before you start working.
492656bb0f2c7901e95a57c6cedfeff628fc099a Make sure that the poet's style coincides with the melody and the essence of the song.
9384d3543bc82f03529e7efd83b0c5c6a897cb94 Poets who write wonderful songs about Shakespearean feelings may not be able to cope with the lyrics for a song in the style of heavy metal.
ab6ceb75c2866be0b5cb4bd2d56e3fb373cb69db Find someone who will share your vision of the song and understand the emotions that it carries.
ad9037309819d0d485f6c597f5cdf3c9d13d20e8 Try to hum the text while writing.
42b114290a3ada94ca9d4a23f2b99c2fad12f0af This way, you can make sure that it will organically fit into the music, and there will be no strange pauses and incompatible stanzas.
ac9df83f49c62e600b83e89c5515af7292548b47 Before you start writing a text, decide whether you will use a rhyme or not.
f7c69a53c35b2617060a7b475941373203a96b55 Decide on the structure of the text.
8cbb6e1cd8f8e74cfb1b96375df9fe8df3979ed3 Rhyming words should be inserted into the text at a certain interval, and this should be planned initially.
b513d76556eca3d62c4b38f787240109f49ded52 Your listeners will be able to tell for sure whether you are sincere in your work or not.
86b498e7bd41f79b0701f4429fc76b96c66073ae The easiest way to start putting words to music is to determine their natural rhythm.
0a37875c72d9a3b9abd6d04431607da2f5467b8b Pay attention to how they are combined with each other.
bf5b60e65b565a3e0aa50f3ddb2edfe36c2e6e83 Speech contains phrases, pauses, stress and rhythm.
2e3e7561bac308839e5eb0cfb29c9fee8b824317 This is what makes it sound natural.
e61b2cb9010275da226730c8e513d5218ff130f6 Transfer this rhythm to the music you are writing.
90e6c37a1f468540dab138151cf14bbf70d0882a If you have problems with rhyme, or you want to add sharpness to the sound, experiment with fragmentary phrases to emphasize some words.
17df8c66404fbb594f1e01dfae6a92f63d1434c3 This will help to avoid long sentences or help to put to music a text that does not quite coincide with it.
a6ddcd481d63aa4a60a972521ce1b600ca5aa101 Remember that you can always skip words or phrases so that the text falls on the melody.
8bece40339050bc9bf6e5574f02a5cc79d3993f4 If a word falls out of the number of syllables in a line and is not necessary, you can omit it or rephrase the line.
67865de72124e9f7b44232e415b116fa264e22c5 Method 5 of 6: Adding depth and spirituality to the sound
ed0bb816bf54f054307d5ee83286b612e320fa98 Listen to your song and improve the sound on your own.
740bb54cef65dda81b58f7d4e665c6d4d7d9fbee Cooperate.
87bf62f9bb4985c3d77b9a0123b69a3482ae21ed Losing is a melody that fills in the gaps in the sound of the main one and dilutes it.
97332b4c3e54af942476c35fab9cb0c19fca4b94 Harmony is connected to the main musical line.
8021a48f7b2d6c8be5d3bbed1c538df7ec86a37d You can add percussion parts, such as drums, string quartet, flutes or chimes... your possibilities are endless.
6e73b24aed97c6de65c0f2d3548c9b8307febf2e You can also add sound effects, such as wind, thunder or street noise.
dc6293d92659f7fba2ea33967be1bc6c489ac3e8 Make sure that it will sound appropriate in the context of the song.
2b0ec0add9658d4144421f175202afa88bd16a0e Method 6 of 6: Recording and Fixing
37fb1e9f3f700b909c095d7c33e042891b0c5f9c You can make recordings manually to the extent that you want.
33880e39b979a62edf7fe3ee3cbc33fa8073c78e In order to do this, you will need to learn music theory.
e02f9c7df69918b5517ace5cc9588fec2f688988 A score is a form of recording that includes only general notes concerning melody and harmony.
fb742a2d515fe3f2a2c73170c11234b936b6caab It is used in jazz and musical improvisations, as well as by musicians who do not have a very good command of the theoretical base.
c2942616faad5cca952eff74f625d77b24fb64de These are computer programs created for composers and sound engineers.
ecacbe2e1d162c0fe7801e0a78dd94d858018005 They allow you to mix and record music, as well as record sheet music.
9b2ea19bd43022e20ab50ebf9310dd2b9140e643 They are quite expensive and suitable for serious musicians.
90e64a90584fb9a1e08bbdd55507b211b9854331 You can write down the notes or ask someone to do it later.
da35780ffa44cc0528f622685fd031a2dee57e5e What you will need
cd828140b99ad2a3e565c1fbb6b103170813b602 Instrument Music notebook or similar computer program MIDI keyboard(optional)
4fa7824cc6119e14645fe88bd33c37bd2b8ff1a5 Information about the article
63074c6c6626ecee7494cf0749cfee6fa89f0b7b Categories: Music
7cceec1c9876ea02b0f32ef7685cfb096e74d452 In other languages:
80e4493a218a5592702159c69f7674eff3db5405 English: Compose a Song, Español: componer una canción, Português: Compor Uma Música, Italiano: Comporre una Canzone, Français: composer une chanson, 中文: 创作歌曲, Deutsch: Einen Song komponieren, Nederlands: Een muzieknummer componeren, Čeština: Jak složit píseň
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065f8e41a20c940689359644aae39608d126c498 263
9c392ea7c9a33d058811c1662b8f8d6a0bc0e8a0 Studio microphones
f837813a0310063aa4bb2513fd9368029ebe9797 OCTAVE
2d1c48217693277652dbbc9f589ac2aeba186a73 Valery Meladze is interested in Oktava microphones"
e5ea8ab5ac0227a47717d8ab7d3168b7627ff28d The musicians of the Master group present the Oktava MKL 100 tube studio microphone
e95bcc7cadc2cb4ab2aa99c7eee93588ac46d531 Dmitry Malikov confirms the quality of the Octave microphones"
1413a02583fcf1f66dc84f69c12227c07e724f1e In the photo, Alexey Belov sings into a tube studio microphone "Octave" MKL 5000
596810a6f5d9f84618872b4cd8e75bb8b9dfb6e1 The soloist of the group "Aria" Artur Berkut sings into the tube studio microphone "Octave" MKL 5000
b64cf6ca8658d4290b4f62ef31a360676c3db571 Test recordings comparing Octave microphones with microphones of other brands
7059317d315e9ff0043842f02ab5afd90a8d7a1e Do you want to choose a microphone for a recording studio?
73f9a8ed1c1fea4f97814f7826d8ca3761a7c0b2 Do you need a clear and transparent sound?
a8734b075c2e329d3c35e397917a22317a01f0a0 Do you want a studio microphone, vocal or instrumental, the quality of which would exceed the quality of famous brands, and the price would be much lower?
e52e5e6cd50ef4de30d8a4fafbbfab41180cc200 Welcome!
baaf2762ca9adc67d2eb9fe53e85e57d2c3c64ba You are on the website dedicated to studio microphones "Oktava".
8211503f69808031843f91b6262aaef82fe16250 The quality of these microphones is recognized all over the world!
5e7da031751d00ffc199e5f6842780d4cb26c036 Abroad, Oktava microphones are no less popular than microphones of companies: Rode, AKG, Neumann, Shure...
20c8b39b65b92548351c009ea49d998b3308a05a Home Contacts Search Guest
b81dade97fb5668f200906c07fe08da522348c56 Condenser microphones
240df55c7d12ee98cef283769499d09fb01453e1 For professional studio recording..
cdc32ab6f7030f71a897d0f153bed8363a3aed5a Tube microphones
232cd4f106a8c1d0759ac7b018b78d640d5c8541 For high quality vocal recording
860f3837e9c6ee774122746cf752c18cd523931f Tape microphones
91abd62d22b01116c245f67c59411df575d6e604 The dense and velvety sound of tape microphones...
269fa048d408ffcd6aeaf83bec916959f1d394c9 Test records
e7975dce635af7ad1b757898bd6c889e4df5ab48 Comparison of microphones using test recordings
cff4e80873ecb6bb60dfded5ff6f1036ab22a33d To help the musician
a942b151703eb8d8cdb8fbc939e138b27a622cb3 Microphones Octave Some Questions About Microphones Questions Of The Guitarist Questions Of The Sound Engineer Questions Of The Computer Musician Questions Of The Musician Sound Recording Mixing Console Headphone Review A Little About Music Styles Notes And Musical Notation Review Of Sound Cards Review Of Music Programs Adobe Audition Fl Studio Review Of Some Music Programs Mixing, Mastering
bc885246a86ca5f084a46dd8f6afc435754fbebc Microphone for voice recording.
e4ec37d467d813d1f8716e1b4adf88aba5ce57f5 Buy the best microphone for voice recording (55) Microphone phonit.
9e93dfb1944f10491b5523ce8a8a0c7d70d11064 What to do if the microphone (52) is played by the tuner through the microphone.
1068766cfa2e2831bc94781789e33e5e58b32b77 Tuner online via microphone on the Oktava website Studio.ru (45)
d1c69a859a9638b242f2dabf8acf1c0b1450ce6b Last
5d0ad8409f65c03e2b2dcd42c242823c197aa3e0 A device for Recording the sound of Voice Vocals a device for recording the sound of voice vocalrecording sound and voice in such programs contains many functions for mixing and editing sound, applying effects, correction...
a8e7811528fa5d669d2d928411048ad1d720725f Share this page how to record a guitar in guitar rig 5 Recording in Guitar rig is interesting, many people ask me how to use the Guitar Rig program...
8da64a9ae05f2c3c158d0eaa2628c0b49eea9b52 "Questions of a Computer Musician
da16d69c9b01ff473e4706a622f849c0fa388fb1 What You Need To Create Music
6797ee428ae3bde2c0aba4205d5edf1619aeb57b Creating music on a computer.
1494afade23512b489d898daf89186671e46fae0 What is necessary?
7543fdb68a81ff7a514829c1129646d1e86b635c Creating music on a computer is now quite simple and exciting.
c22ec0772d6500533316ad9f83b7489160ec3feb All the necessary audio equipment can now be ordered via the Internet with home delivery.
60f85c78de2ae4468ff7435d6be59741243ed331 The computers themselves have become much more powerful and the problem of real time audio processing has almost disappeared.
a1ff7d3be166538f719024060b6ee5420ded57a1 But if you are a beginner and do not know what you will need for home studio equipment, then this article is for you.
07f34aa9ecd41a9eacaa3919a1d24b69db118e70 So, first let's define the configuration of the system unit .
00a3b8f28ae097aa845b59160333cb88581218da For comfortable work, you need a fairly fast processor.
6130a386bd453d9287ac3b28ef2080dae51e1199 It depends on how many instruments and effects you can add to your track, working with them in real time without cracking the sound.
8105be8cbc60e5cb6111a4937d509a1b839504d9 I recommend choosing all the same from Intel processors.
c49a501acc1c28001ba5e6f22cc2e9d9bd4ca195 (yes, AMD fans will forgive me ) Something from the core i3, i5 or i7 line.
39b1ce42160be25bfe0dfe4610baf113a299d71e For example, the average power option will be intel core i5 -3330.
79e50e3dd11f87f907ae727e10f450774c160efb This is a quad core processor with a frequency of 3000 MHz per core and it is quite enough for most music projects.
f1e2f3a12f34b33b031b9542c2241f0684467fe4 If you also like AMD processors, then choose something from the FX line under socket AM3+, not lower than FX 6100.
839f88e4c915548d7c419901a01623af06d106d3 For example, AMD FX 8320 #8212 is an eight core processor close in speed to intel core i5 -3330.
70b8b7d46710c583aad067fe3292b570d22c2738 I recommend taking at least 4 gigabytes of RAM, and preferably 8 or 16 from Kingston, Corsair, Samsung.
646cc8a7e0943689eb57c1fee469eacb1fb4272f The motherboard must have PCI and PCI E connectors so that you can select a sound card without thinking about connecting it.
a86059356552460a81d66421fc122dc9ecd51886 I recommend Asus or Gigabyte for the company.
f710b420497cbb54ce13712ff2a3bbb6554fdb85 You can choose a video card from the budget segment of the GeForce GT 630 level or even do without it by taking a motherboard with a VGA\DVI connector (this is for an Intel processor. And for AMD with a built in video card) A power supply of at least 500 watts, something from the firms FSP, Zalman, Thermaltake, OCZ, Hiper.
69931e99eebd5b1d55c1e022caae86c16438b5bd It is better not to take cheap companies like Linkword.
ab4b863acb87e6ca007cbbe9183d97267b3779c0 (after all, poor nutrition is harmful not only to you, but also to the computer ) Take a hard disk of at least 1 TB and a spindle speed of 72000 revolutions per minute.
c2b72915f7fdbd43cff8fbacbf52751a4a716bcb According to the company Seagate or Western Digital.
0e0c5533b605128ecf85c905beca4964f4b327ea Now about choosing a sound card.
970f62309f8582a98e5b147b22a2b7d178755cc7 One of its important parameters is ASIO support.
99a6e78da3849075bafe366dd0566ad916e55ab7 This is a low latency data transfer protocol.
fc486fe121e21dda3611bb60c52643070fcedc8e That is, the delay between pressing a key on the midi keyboard and the appearance of sound in the speakers will be minimal.
683202c4cb21cf5a90fb2a87fe19da8e695f2a52 Therefore, we will consider sound cards only with support for this protocol.
316fb24c651f68b94b922ce5a7c2ad26522e5a7b You also need to pay attention to the signal to noise ratio parameter.
4b490007ce17721d4c0b46e463ebae44308b1220 It is measured in decibels and the larger the figure, the better.
4a793ba585d8f63e838aa181c0619f1cbb0a0bfb (less noise and more useful signal) Sound cards are external and internal.
7fec7fad0a67a0d2d4d3c444bf041c82763e9dbd External ones are more expensive, but they have a number of advantages: 1.
216cffb829582ff2c9a06b66760c346ce7c4b22b All components of the map are located outside the system unit, and therefore there is minimal interference and interference.
50824c4c1610696dcc22db7bd847316e9adbdec1 2. Usually there is a built in amplifier for headphones and a microphone (higher quality than the internal ones) 3.
8f3c9c3cdef064b7d49eaa58f05fa8f7d51d80f2 You can connect it to a laptop or Apple iPad via the Camera Connection Kit adapter, I recommend paying attention to these models (in ascending order of price): 1.
49904d3de01faf6fb495de932061c07e5da66966 Asus Xonar U7 2.
222a89d4cfad30ad99bc81ea1f8f7acca959dc47 Roland Duo Capture 5.
1122a48dda70c7b5ead0cc786fd11c2f4c60005b M Audio M Track From the internal I would recommend: 1.
075bd65d284f54d333a333123fb05b4bc132712d Asus Xonar DX 2.
5497b960cda70725b955ac32c1626ee421711b05 M Audio Audiophile 2496 3.
b24ed8d2e7dc1d5cbc47ecefaa13452a2a4d810a E MU 0404 PCI E (this card has a zero latency effects processor) 5.
1e18c360be329a319aa51da7ff86116fa0e86553 ESI MAYA44XTe 6.
75caaa97cdcac89448f1145f269fe357594154c5 ESI JULI@ XTe (interesting map. You can change the jacks to professional balance (1/4#8243 TRS) or household tulips( RCA) by turning the top of the board) 7.
a535574dc143e7d17df1ab6d82ea4b4bbfacee67 M Audio Audiophile 192 8.
7a397ac8bee94fb8816dcf9cdaa2e29ca36fa255 E MU 1212M PCIe (I use it myself, though under the PCI connector. There are some glitches, but overall very happy. There is an effects processor with zero latency) The system unit has been sorted out.
d1ddf0966b89354b539c9e43c9b14383a5184e0b Now let's talk about the periphery.
87ff6cbcd4f784427a892458c744a8c44cebd141 To create music, you will also need a midi keyboard.
a79148857cfaa24226d0c049a1f5aefb03b1e4cc (you can certainly do without it.
c05bfb18301a9dd6344e114f873f4f0fd273c067 For example, in FL studio, use a regular keyboard, but this is not convenient.)
a94e86fcbc615786acfa000cdd1e64091dc4c497 They differ in the number of keys, controls, type of mechanics and sensitivity to the force/speed of pressing.
c65752c027f9d5630399cf970252772b0576ae0d I will tell you more about these characteristics in the next article, but for now I will recommend several models (again in ascending order of price): 1.
830380f3d7e93ae996059f2d7d3c592d22646f22 M Audio Keystation 49e 2.
7dc96a9984c97e32fccdb3f0360ff73f4b443308 M Audio Keystation 49es 3.
b8efa1c685a4b96aa8a19f24ad85cf238f4e7795 Novation Launchkey mini (compact 2 x octave) 5.
50d88cbad81f20a6d08f42aa638bd8d4c8d738cf BEHRINGER U CONTROL UMX490 5.
b27952fd5df796ec8921980fa7a8b6377bf7eb16 M Audio Keystation 61es 6.
a0b1f6e09cb130ec395e830c6438998af7632013 BEHRINGER U CONTROL UMX610 You need a microphone to record vocals and live instruments.
50069024422035f22663fe82b75153bff5378350 In addition to it, it is better to take a preamp or a mixer.
128e07764fb05a203fe329aab177179fd5bc739e Especially if you are using an internal sound card or are going to buy a studio condenser microphone (it needs phantom power).
3447bb9078d0265b2bbddadb0c4d5663f547a630 FL Studio Songwriting Technique This guide will show the basics of writing a composition, without using musical literacy, although it implies that you know some of its basics.
87291ccb41ddac9886b322799613047b56714bf4 But in general, it is dedicated to the general ways of constructing a composition.
00517ae4f2b7af17cd7758be89ea59f94874bae1 * Rhythm.
5050801dfed3b76c5f6b5bd4717344c607ba5a1e Sometimes, with a funky groove or bass.
d8d893aa8d2c324efe80656ab13fc2562b1e16de There are a lot of ways, but the song should always start with: Intro.
ba6ec00f7de49f08c71dd537da86f7f695f08654 Here are some ideas to start a song.
3ee0c03d3ae74bf4ad3a3cb73cb65490cdd55aa7 Synchronicity when the first 4 of the above points start playing together, it gives the composition strength.
efd43bb593e7696ef7a47746656611d15978fa2a Such an introduction usually plays up to 60 seconds.
91850c49218a723c6e372d44deffc2ac1aa9f4df At first, the melody vocals or the main "theme" enter without the support of other instruments, they feel "naked", but appear in the perspective in which they will never appear accompanied by an arrangement.
7a5d22a37bcdab83af4fa999747168760f84661a Many slow compositions start this way.
fcd4e4c3178584faaac069067c021aac3d0fe29a First, the rhythm#92 bass#92 percussion – there is nothing to explain, everything is built on the same principles.
0c7d9e4bb6043f2233b2bd18835da0a505d29d5b Building – you start with any of the main tools, and then add the rest (it happens much faster than in previous cases).
2b1f7530f2a10ec3fb6aa557662fa58ac72a6077 "Deviation from the course" is based on the principle of difference in the style of the introduction from the main part of the composition.
87ceebb10140e3ea41d27f66d5fc9c6855003417 This, as a rule, is served by special "artistic" reasons.
d9b8a6a11dcb8dee6f7740d2e2471fb1110b7a40 "Light intros" - lower tempo, less articulation when playing chords, the use of acoustic instruments.
bf9237ea69b57afde4ed0291b71e2d1978ecb3af As you develop, more heavy tools are added.
d1b582f286e81ee5ff5d1b979aa22392f34bb5dd "Heavy intros" - an explosion of absolute power!
f3aff9a5647753a381e3e9f29ad4d07755940d93 And when it seems that it is already impossible to tolerate, you can abruptly cut it off and use lighter tools.
29562a9d084fab21e21faa449a3b77ce80efe9e8 It is used in heavy compositions, and can also be repeated several times per song (for example, in the climaxes).
e1422f5bdc80173761a9804da0bceba30816a389 The main part of the composition.
11e6ad59be9376f46270dcbcff2de7ce9b73039c We all know what a verse and chorus are, as well as the basic construction schemes (chorus, verse, chorus, etc.).
aeb447126cdd11c31332e022efe20a788e09da6c You can follow them, or deviate from them, but we will look at some new elements of the schemes.
0576c8c10c5b84fb5d476caf460c2534e3196e50 Morphine G is a great way to introduce new instruments into the composition: 2 instruments play the same part, one sounds, and the volume of the second is "set to zero".
d57344ed39b5170802dd38929f0470b23c7fd83e You need to slowly reduce the volume of one, and increase it at the other, so that one instrument seems to "flow" into another.
cc24781023626164e4d8ac1bc1b5cece79832094 Intertwining – two instruments play two different parts, constructed in such a way that the leading one turns out to be alternately one or the other instrument.
3a72ee3e1c06e5b48450f152fdfd2c9f0a58e550 Pause – abruptly stop the music, to create some tension.
badc65e78fb203cc60bf4de01911640b58b472a8 The main thing is not to "drag" so as not to destroy the effect.
4b159936e80a54cbc24c7ee90f1092ec5e064e16 But when used skillfully, it is a very powerful tool.
f115f2aea09ea5fdf17926fa88b68e550f4fbb0b "Invention" - one instrument plays a part for a certain amount of time, then a new instrument starts playing the same part, the same amount of time, while the first one continues to develop the topic it started.
39add1deb131fa8702038698595abecc8673fd53 Texture mapping – from two to five different synthesizers play the same part at the same time.
1ff33bf955e817327912424a6af589f4f717bca4 This will create a powerful surround sound (of course, you need to skillfully choose the tools).
5a9ad6ce8f7549bb3dc84d20f20345754237f525 Panorama rotation – can be applied with the previous method.
60c1fa4b4e5d0920cde8f1444c7a3db238b8042e The point here is to pan one tool to the right, the other to the left.
806ed6cbcd17a5fba424c97ccf0639f5c4c189b4 As a result, a rotation effect is created.
edf97de28871fa645a5a9fffb58e6c0ff3d8c59e Digression make a variation, and when there is a feeling of strange tension due to a discrepancy in the theme with the song, bring everything back.
b38409c86614faa68f2b2d34dfaf81130cd3cc7a Make complex arrangements by adding "ghost" parts of vocals and instruments.
8a30fd06e209d3c342ecf168d6cf782566e83485 Raising/descending – create the parts of your instruments higher and higher (lower and lower), this usually serves as a" bridge "to the climax, it is also often used in the choruses (their" central " place in the composition is emphasized).
aba67604e9efc01e830c7138cb9fa04c650da47a The X movement is similar to morphing: while one instrument becomes higher and higher in sound, the second one "falls" accordingly, thereby we can add a new solo part.
faaecb5a2ae172bc75253fde1c4168018c444ad8 General recommendations.
842c1c5e3c6113a76c70dee8b7f34a6da67c83c6 Be effective.
9cd032fe14de086f184bc669f1ca58c014d92e12 Just say what you want, without unnecessary digressions from the topic.
2072bf75b8ae11d2ff49819fbbbcd579b50b2992 Be a good speaker, remember that the main wisdom lies in "powerful" combinations of words, irresistible dialogues.
c1c540bd8a8ba8215f1fe03fdc071afafa96e75b You should have a clear motivational core that will "lead" the audience after you, using the inner world of each listener individually.
0a42abe421a233efac7e8a7d25f3f59e7815357d Compositions are often similar, but we must remember that effective does not necessarily mean simple.
a5e75aa00e36d5a19198c7ada498f833ed5e035c You need to put only those elements that meet your ideas.
bf750973709db1df82690ad96d86f881879299d3 But you do not need to try to place all your ideas within one composition.
bcd69ed8d2cb6c0e7cc1be78ef01ea48de91ddf3 Allow the listener to enjoy only the most significant and of them.
d82db38bbbdd9eba276a7a34c1fc88841da61095 Create a movement.
8c14048c0407aa3a99ba62a454af1e1fbee0998d Movement is what makes the listener turn on your composition again and again.
c7550e081cd2bdf8d47a9ef6b6268fa68dd8f38a If we take a trance, then the slower parts will give movement there, it turns out a kind of game on contrast.
66d6ca7a0c8cac9f05009c07fd793afae1a75b44 It can also be like repeating the same sentence.
d34615b70baa9fa87d54f1cb3f45a1bcce4704d2 Analogies with movies.
846be195cbbeba864752f2d42a92829af421e896 Music and cinema have a lot in common: a complex hierarchy of genres, similar ways and purposes of transmitting feelings and moods, and many similar technological features.
e06d594cf490544698afc01b8c78486a901f6798 So you can try to embody the artistic techniques of famous directors in music (this is a well – known exercise for musicians to try to convey visual images through music).
aee2c59c8803e7411f05cbb9b3f0dc8abfaa4932 Have a good essay!
4c1bc7caccc9897a43603f6260ab4cd06fbce9b2 Source: Sound on Sound magazine.
262a06b8fea9c02451c393d04b4932803e750153 Translated by: Night Storm .
a713bff83a5dda042c05004a8b8b5bd3dea01f6e Music Creation School Music Creation School What do they teach in music creation courses?
30865de1467866819d8d83b4ee5309a9476e7517 1) Working with programs and plugins (FL Studio, Ableton Live, Cubase, Reason, Wavelab, VST and DX synthesizers and effects) 2) Working with sound (equalization, compression, panning, processing with various effects) 3) Sound synthesis and working with samples 4) Building a track composition 5) Recording and mastering at home 6) A certain philosophy, a competent approach to the implementation of creative ideas and technical tasks 7) Music marketing, design and promotion of the artist 8) There are no forbidden topics, if you want to learn something else - just ask.
4808e3d8e51de3b287fe77d1a43a8400388dd334 First of all, we teach you how to create your own compositions with the help of computer programs and at the same time work competently with sound, so that your creativity can bring pleasure not only to you, but also to people around you, that is, sound worthy.
6ed39d1772a4bec67da0dfdbdc41877c6d623370 Valid only until July 27 .
7dac0c4f96bd9b09f8fefdf779fc1c72d7040a24 Intensive training in 2 weeks.
cf6a46c5dcbc88e3420043b9579e67198cd48435 Dj ing 3800r. for 8 classes.
5b7014b2fe475d3e21de9ad65763098685591909 Creating music 5000r. for 8 classes.
ab0c297e2840f51d2923ae8ad6ba4411877d4593 Individually, until August 10.
592e14f889acf3247fe48ac43482f23685c0cf19 MUSICMAKER BEGINNER COURSE (Level 1) Course description.
0168978fb713aa95a440e5b6aa0eddb4b9866c6f In this course, students will learn how to create musical works using a personal computer, how to write drums, basses, how to build a track composition, how to work with effects.
1a960d0d00ae7e92bf6737704eec7bea1eba9386 At the end of the course, you will be able to write your first track.
06c8d6fa90cee2a6d6b4042037d606d064672f31 The style of music of the student's choice.
91e9694ae2fc788250573ad6ceb9f8c14a6546f5 Price.
4c4adb7ebc20249479d2e79ad430e926cc00efd7 3000r.
354697edd6e9dfc6c799e25fef8cf0e093154ce2 - in the group COURSE MUSICMAKER PRO (Level 2,3) Course description.
bab2b91f5e69c072cd6bccfba55b251aaf76d556 The course accepts students who know the basics of writing electronic music.
25556eb0dc6cb093d9f88bbc588058b81f77e7da We study the subtleties of sound processing, mixing and mastering tracks, study sound synthesis in depth, work with errors, answer all students ' questions.
c9c0b2606c17711fe8d9b803f58e63b2a1e212b2 After completing the course, your tracks will sound professional.
7defdc95bb1ddc0580ac0be76fc251278b72fb84 The number of classes.
3d99e6f6e4442fab93b31f84d66444081c9b857c 8 Schedule of classes.
516e4a6749918a576ec5dea0362768899c8d78ad 2 times a week, the time is selected individually Price: 7000r.
dce6529caa890234bf622a98b5d78dd7ffc33faa - Individually, the Online course is designed for those who simply find it more convenient to get knowledge sitting at home at a computer or living far from the Sound Lovers school.
73eb335bf344c64a505396e5c312ae1475eb0c0b The student sees the teacher's screen (using the TeamViewer program) and hears his voice (using Skype) in real time.
3610ec3c4a81e7c9a5c0445655dce992374a7e2c The teacher can control the mouse cursor on the student's computer, run programs on his computer and thus conduct training.
77c69fdf342954b226b829b02b9f08bf884fd596 The student can ask questions at any time of the lesson, and receive competent answers to them.
7b5efad4d5e2ca31f62d021a874f83b7c1145c20 The course is taught by a professional producer from St. Petersburg, whose audio tracks you can get acquainted with on our website.
6f28aa4a013f8c008450c87464546196e4c95418 The course consists of 2 levels initial and Pro (as well as full time training and at the same price), 8 classes each, one lesson lasts 1 hour.
b26e57e949b811eaa99723b06ee99d9b22d6cd1c For those who do not have the opportunity or do not want to buy the entire course, there is the possibility of one - time consultations/classes: A one time individual lesson on the MUSICMAKER course 1400r.
ae2c59ee7ce6d750523217446773cec1b8ea1320 One time group lesson on the MUSICMAKER course (up to 3 people) - 700r./person. Rent a studio for recording a mix - 500 rubles. per hour.
28404d9cdaab1436e60306a1691e08123abc0ab0 Call us, ask questions and sign up by phone: +7 (812) 983-85-83 Creating electronic music, Producer (ABLETON, FL STUDIO, CUBASE, REASON) The course is designed for novice musicians who do not have much experience in creating music on a computer.
55bfab8ea9ff725c005b5c31f2e985c1f60a801a The course is aimed more at theoretical training.
dd86ed993c0371e88b04f16822f2fce6d1aa8e2c At the end of the course, a residual knowledge test is conducted, after which the student will be able to proceed to LEVEL 02.
2cc2ed9ca6f7c04b4c634443db9fd4512b9cac15 1. A brief overview of sequencers ( FLStudio, Reason, Cubase, Ableton Live).
cc1a66c3a31135ddeeefb58b8c78b48a361ce3b4 Basic settings of FL Studio, Reason, Ableton, Cubase Audio, MIDI, etc. (All courses are focused on applying the acquired knowledge in any sequencer.)
e7fb50fe15207ab57f06813700257a5701071577 Browser, samples.
c166bd9cd2f052d227b07430b9d89e5b6984ee2b Types of samples.
9fa56c5c095e26137fbb44c9f86e5f5365645389 Music equipment and why it is needed.
732eb562e725f2da6fc5e5891fcab2604ba30999 What equipment is necessary for writing music.
ee70ce866ece13700c5582e74c8205a6ee2bd74e Ears.
bc5eea50ddcf060b9aa102b6e7d32a2e5b42221e The volume of the music.
04b37b57c7f7e24837213f25358943812f0d0f33 The Patterns window, creating a simple rhythm,one shot loops samples.
cf8ccef8b2417f3bf338876bad13d7a9e397934b BPM, creating patterns.
1ca276d0d5012c153f9458ceb3f078bddb058e2f Saving the project.
8b66f60827ada0e771d28b5dd0b56493382d233c Rendering.
6aff90de3f58e8e65cedaefea0ef32a28d439f43 File extensions (mp3, wav, flp).
37bad7fbc9f457a958e720f1788887e0c947712b Online Resources Acquaintance Piano Roll.
b020eb5320d738dfc3b42686f2837a050ae83575 ALT+A.
1ea220aa4f390adeb739547ea574d207eec2e1b8 ALT+U.
28f124ff7485526ad70cd854d7b7876fcbe07924 Arpeggio.
714da3bbf929b8fd215631358dca8399b9d30353 Fast melody.
72c09a11807e25a27f4c9a50fc496dbacefa1ce5 A selection of built in and third party tools.
bc886a6ca96b55690f5135187615f8e81f953160 Snap (Snap). Playlist (interface) the Song/Pattern playback mode, moving, copying, reassigning and appearance of patterns in the playlist.
0f1b5136756ca09d6c3366666355de568c671170 Creative Tools.
75216862999da8593225a534001e792f2b3b0f63 Quantizing.
e5f8bf4a5d28e8a8d690921c6b10236c0106cd49 3. SYNTHESIZERS Introduction to the Ni Massive synthesizer.
55d04225d224accac75eed7ba63dc56a93bf860d A brief overview of other popular synthesizers (Z3ta, Zebra, Sylenth1, Vanguard, Nexus, Omnisphere, etc.).
a5d115b987bbf2da954f4caddbd7f921e25678d1 Presets.
880f000eb10ea83dd683f13d13ea621504c68db7 Types and possibilities of filters (in synthesizers, in EQ) Cutoff parameter (Frequency)Resonance parameter (Peak) The oscillator.
dd1047f92a289b4381b9c3802b12ba3ef90d4939 Waveforms.
77cdf71e889993acac5611c955c73bf26eb263b7 Envelope generators, ADSR (envelope for amplitude), Env (envelope for filter and other parameters), LFO (low frequency generator).
e8cd2216a86e9fd4c93caa21ce9b02826b02eed5 Concepts of the operation of the Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release parameters.
e1ef4f95cf94854ae444dd897b7590863287427c Practical use of Built in effects.
bb1146f2035dfc9c02f62282a78d20787b696a37 Chorus, Phaser, Bitcrusher.
b5b589dc21fd9aeb21ec2eabb567f1b38c24df9f Finding the Bass Sound.
608bf4a1ed38fa7374922d9d71fcf265fff602bc 4. The Melody MIXER.
bacc5358604f011fec97508ebbe760267a9fd359 Melodic Instruments.
88a65ac8e8352ed7b6b6d7801db6b6f1691b13a6 Groups of channels in the mixer.
3390c84b889b068c83561d0fea08773641d225bd Mixing.
41540ffe8635e2a90cf55dcec363af395ac0e315 6. Panorama, volume.
010109edab0506770c19a74a90acb4552ba87ba6 Volume.
53821f41b82f414bc5d998e83e5a8df6b1f090ae Depth.
5a52a97c1ba973918d08753637acd5743c07b6fa Psychoacoustics.
2fc63cbc74fd099bd486d715eb7a7c2998481c12 The concept of phase and antiphase Stereo.
afec05f2361f65cb01a25dae227ac1eaaa7f2e7e Expanders (Stereo Enhancer), Phaser.
ce31db5c88f9c7e95735da5675ca4abe0e0d68db Chorus.
5fa31d53529362dad7da97f520f5d9205f5910b2 The concept of dynamic range.
678f0a4dffe83208b471bc5776afcd82291ccce1 The device and operation of dynamic processing processors: Waves C1.
59752302ef11256b41e14b077e59616bf0823df3 C4.
a41948df8ede2e44474fc39ac14205a0f5159065 Limiter L2.
9b84d9787522cee016fd4b250a7a833cef1431fc Attack, Trigger Threshold, Release.
efe48ffd5eeadcda0bc100b60a1fc137bf69588a The scope of application of compressors.
09ead9f2832edc31e7f12df9ef19ec3d6996479f Sidechain, application.
d25892ded0583f2a8104fe93b0e0a05a0b0f2b93 Common mistakes.
c90b666b7aa043ad9500d6d10baeefd3e9c5f306 Editing Tools (Tools) Using automation (Automation) Linking automation to the Sources objects: http://fl factor.ru/sozdanie muzyki na kompyutere chto potrebuetsya/, http://fl studio.ru/publ/5-1-0-231, http://schooldj.ru/shkola sozdaniya muzyiki.html
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077b8191e804011e967582e9f0ba8b0a4e56657b Microphone for a Noise canceling Computer microphone for a noise canceling Computerplantronics .
6d00782a4625d9bc1002bc610f84d1acc828eb70 Audio 300 is an analog microphone for the Plantronics Computer Question Manager Microphone .
98d0a9fa3a3f0f96d17aecdcc34e98121f509e3c Audio™ 300 is equipped with a noise reduction system that ...
829f91ebec827ddfcd2c3406fa0355f0aab17e37 Copyright [c] 2015 Studio Microphones Octave
801b706fea7c295edbcce79dfa1863c041f5e236 Get a video course on Creating Music!
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09b6aa6507d0cbe4150f1b0d4e83f607786f468b Harmony
7643ad3455c8f16d482f95867a69444c90cd8140 Improvisation
99e18dd30c57b8ccbeac24901d99a0798a50d7c4 Creating Music
8fd6eb14917bd7c9e6d5a3badf9ecbfa3ec967f9 Music Theory
d9b949cc8611a0716b225e5cb8842fd12efa321c Arrangement
dd45fd47772ac717e56c1edc0a8262a726de42d3 Creating a melody.
37d132b590d5c229eec5e0d237ec8878b17567e2 The basics.
1176af3a7eb7af0b73811cad3b37737c0f17f585 Location Creating Music 0 Comments
b757bff49ddde0265fa6473e7d0702d1e2b46bb0 As I mentioned in the previous article, there are three approaches used when composing music: composing a melody,composing a harmony or rhythm.
d8c4da6f2c5907b18065d6891daac85a654d46a3 Someone understands any one voice line by a melody(which is theoretically true), someone means something bright,memorable by a melody,and someone only means a vocal line.
da1698d20948b25bdf8d74fcf8249d39865d2be1 Each composer should form a strategy for working on a melody based on their priorities,but undoubtedly an important quality is the ability to compose memorable or, if you can call them that, hit melodies( if we talk about non academic music).
afdd685d70afd4704034cd536a4eb952b242cb88 Any well written melody contains a lot of interrelated elements,each of which determines the level of its emotionality and simplicity or complexity.
9c912496346d8be84ed3743b21241a0a27038399 "A series of repeated ascending and descending intervals, which is divided and set in motion by a rhythm, which contains a hidden harmony and conveys a mood , which can be independent of the words of the text as expressiveness and independent of the accompanying voices as a form, does not change its essence from the choice of the absolute pitch of the sound and the instrument " It is not by chance that the similarity of form and melody is highlighted.
7db3b5b51e4b5bac2baaeadd6b13a7baaa60d8e9 We can say that in the abstract, the melody already exists in the presence of only these two elements.
902422518c8833d34439db99e5ae03f1c9ddfcb0 However, it still becomes full fledged only with proper metrorhythmic design.
146895a9e2f4a566603c0f8dbf924ea0d6706fea The same intonation, but in different metric conditions, is able to express opposite images.
2e39f8212a24bf0f3bbe41b74de7fa1c4f5c5b97 The melodic gift has always been very highly valued and is still an indicator of talent.
6f535b38e25d1b9e5212bdc63f33da312d0f2759 However, many people do not correctly understand the very essence of the melodic gift.
b6535b313c038e9a548c8951a453ea4ef120f0a1 To create a melody means to be able to create the necessary musical structure from one grain of musical intonation.
1ce5c2bc7f84ef3a2231552cb4dafd4bdb97c3fc A common mistake of novice composers( and improvisers, since many aspects of these arts are connected) is the accumulation of melodies and musical intonations.
dfac3759895245e1a29735fd06005fe4f35b6fe8 As a result, the listener cannot catch on to any of them at the same time and loses the essence in this oiled porridge.
2d9bd312c582fc4ac07f896a9c2e0d94e678b8b0 If we compare composers of different eras, we can come to a parodaxal conclusion at first glance - the intonations used 200 years ago and today are the same.
6622ad1f5947f2a6662b371f21e3a6118497ce0c This fact tells us that it is not the intonations themselves that are changing, but the ways of development,development.
f1679d5df7f2a5e4e144c92364c6973e7821fe0f The intonation of a large second has a million refractions in the works of various composers.
2bc51dbb30438b17294613fb3fc51c4b6fce1f33 Two excerpts from the works of completely different composers.
c24e02d5c447f0a07cbd63b8735cdde24f03e8fb The grain of each topic is the intonation of the descending big second:
4bfa8e6b9510efa3ad0c4ac6525c59103dd8604a McCartney Yesterday
f0dbb96389338646df4a2a907cdcd4ca004f5ed6 Rodrigo aranjuez part2
8e9376bc8800158ff47e1271df332b83d2d39ab3 The methods of development and shaping are completely different here hence the different melodies,stylistics and everything else.
08afef916c28fe02e5cd550dd9a050b9490934ce In addition, these two examples are a vivid manifestation of two types of melodic beginning - vocal and instrumental.
1a9fbbf8d41fd1772133726d1f35328b32adcc15 The vocal line, as a rule, is very melodic and relies on second intonations.
987ac3af5ecb6ded4619d4c3d7b140c2db3ed1c4 The vocal melody is inseparable from the word and is closely interrelated with it.
a22722cd1cb02ae9c29070f1febe212010a15f37 Many composers try, if not precisely to convey, then at least to preserve the rhythm of poetry( music borrowed many rhythmic elements from poetry).Vocal melodies in general are not characterized by wide jumps,complexity of form and development.
2c4ea376d3d11392f1ced282f01af920c04f8a14 The very type of vocal melodies, in turn, allows us to distinguish two more types of melodic development(or the nature of the melody):
aba05f814043edb4db44d8044d1f83d6fd8e5e75 1. Cantilena
1c57e6a1de674e137df28de0d867add152019406 2. Recitative
6458bdaf724803a2619838ca25827dac0bcf20bb The cantilena is understood as the melodies of a wide breath.
0f295e7943a0eae91a6c154a8ab88c27cb41cdec They are characterized by melodiousness and melodism.
05a9f2440cfdb1b684918a99f9ebf55e9bfb4d0b An example of a modern cantilena:
74239d0d282cce3cb3b063e09789baadce1551c5 Recitative melodies are based on frequent repetition of a note and usually have a narrow range.
6ab9088bb5e220c00d73ed3be9a9780f7ac6c4c5 There can be whole constructions consisting of two or three notes.
f594d5f5a60b0b780957b51cfd86364feffdb67c A classic jazz example of recitative rhythmics is One Note Samba.
bf1cab2c17f0c13f1459ef4b4a57ae842a31ec85 An example of a recitative from Black Sabbath (the Paranoid song):
5986444117cb64603cda454ffd8b37735aa70f70 In addition to these factors, the genre beginning of the melody still plays an important role.
6ec36f35eb1969aa518c601680388f89adf7c3f6 Such elements as marching, dancing, songfulness greatly affect the style and figurative structure of the melody.
f2c36a32d1918241506cd2b5b02f6fbbda8fa120 Each of these genres is implemented differently in the composer's work, sometimes explicitly, and sometimes only in the form of a hint.
cee8bc12b931ceb5d6beea659c8221dd699b48f0 Thus, an important factor that must be taken into account when creating a melody is its type(cantilena, recitative) and genre.
9433b3f782442a937ccb7da76bcfe705a877c284 Therefore, the best exercise for a composer is to create melodies of different types and genres without any other restrictions( which will be imposed over time).
3fb451d455d1cc4b9fd9310b12a09ef8bfbeb73c The next article will be devoted to a very important compositional technique - the development of motives when creating a melody.
088b6fa5639b5c1fcd4cae5992f0f1a3149f4f36 »crosslinked«
5390e667a5f8252407231d3cbc0823b2857caa96 Posted by Denis Chufarov @ March 3, 2012 0 Comments
26b951ac1a4c03b016d875023cc7e531957b6cd9 Tags: composition, music creation, melody creation
dccdb2a94e41c7ca97ab7212278bd13a70168ea1 Related Posts Contrasting motifs.
868ea41cf96c81096e0236a20167860ba1664a20 Methods of motive development.
2dfcf898a3bd4e011123eee87384ecb67d0919d4 Comparison
4266ed07a17ed7b2ae0be47aa0842c7ce17db3f2 Fret base.
6fa2e57a2be79aabc71aa612d6cdbea7b69b5e95 The basics of the arrangement.
237018ae6be37fd21c4fa3cf5f01f5746fc65363 Lesson 3.
56f13082ab6cde9b7f4683bd7cb01df70f1624b9 Compositions and groups of instruments.
4e9b5e8fd2cb865aa7cd1e2bc1bf1a5eb1bfbedc Jazz song form
694c536fe23a628ed97b16882fa1f9da3d6ffd61 Creating music.
6b1518744e0eb3f40749c758b1dc6f35d1685ff8 The development of the motive.
e5b05e4e81264ba45e4cd021315ebc6017113d3a Harmony lessons.
73beb3e5cf041892b20ee2ab22b2d8fb790afd3c Chord sequences
725c1d28db94f03b005920bfcc143544615e1aed Step by step algorithm
6d4a11720fb1a6af86798f8739a0e10e1b585be8 Feet.
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ab77deb38457e424f0951c10ebbe25e43830421a Today, many people are beginning to think about the improvement of their suburban area.
88c5c0be1e108f0f4d20230772e6451cabdb8379 I want everything to be beautiful and harmonious.
112a94b73a435bc7fa05cc77a7c5cc8932a4a0ea After all, it is not enough to build a beautiful house, you also need to think through the design of the garden plot to recreate a single and attractive picture for everyone.
60fd5f3f4b022884a685f8b3812c7265ceefa50a Moreover, today it is not so difficult to find amazing and unique ornamental plants that would help to create something unsurpassably.
4bd50e1fc0800fc54298cf668dab43cbe48a2431 It is enough to study the range of products offered, think about what you would like to see in your yard and make an order.
a9a9a1a95db203398f8cfc704c5c3dc06d0c88da How to start landscaping?
7f70b0539f9415aeb6ebca002d906f091d3013a6 First of all, you need to develop a landscape project that you will use.
6a26bf85d07f9dafae517897110ca22ba334552f Landscape design is an art located at the junction of three directions: on the one hand, architecture, construction and design (engineering aspect), on the other hand, botany and plant growing (biological aspect) and, on the third hand, landscape design uses information from history (especially from the history of culture) and philosophy[1].
5c4da37982ef22dd2fbf068c87a8de5da33189e5 In addition, landscape design is called practical actions for landscaping and landscaping of territories.
4c6ef0a4589cacade5faa242fc1baaa8002d6239 Landscape design can be a special case of a more general concept — landscape design.
92f9bc1b8d9f83d9e880c6564e49f9f929d9c09a Unlike gardening and horticulture, the main task of which has an agricultural orientation (increasing the yield of horticultural crops), landscape design is a more general and universal discipline.
a38d2726c9f324fd2f5091cf9f114e5abf8ad461 The main task of landscape design is to create harmony, beauty in combination with the convenience of using the infrastructure of buildings, smoothing out the conflict between urban forms and nature, which often suffers from them.
c5014764aaf513794e5bd89a08f464a015a391fc Since ancient times, gardens have been a traditional form of organizing the surrounding space with the help of green spaces.
e216d339a6cb79317009e6e1efded0ab714d8c75 They gained special popularity at the courts of rulers and nobles of the countries of the East.
20f75e5530e95fdb389687da2e6443d95f11bd57 Further, gardening as an art has spread almost everywhere.
dea9257ea98000a05a9af770b78357ffa918aece At the same time, for a long time, the utilitarianism of gardening played an important role (fruit consumption and selection of fruit trees), later the decorative nature of flowers received more attention.
94c168d88cd9b5dc7b29c1765a1ca97e65a66076 But neither fruit trees nor flowers are so widespread in modern landscape design, especially in its modern urban form.
56fe1a7c962fa62bbcd004831af0fca2b35f1ca0 Styles in garden design can be divided into historically established and modern.
6d25ae5583def0bbf6b43cd688f056951a368c14 Historically established styles.
b8added23105d2ee830b53b8cd7ee16c2b1db001 Regular style.
43b27e17d715b74c7afcee7555351207ffa548db Perhaps the most famous for us is the regular (aka formal, French, classical) style.
15a8c0e85d6d302237e21bb98508d198342a8442 The world-famous and well-preserved parks in France and Russia are an excellent example of the use of a regular style.
c84a4a4ea04ab5b033bd258db0c0ccfb81762fea The main idea of classicism is "man is the king of nature", everything around should obey his will and reason.
fb5b2af504a03f1bcafd01adbec395cbcc186f93 The main feature of regular-style parks is the presence of symmetry, geometry and symmetry in everything.
11084f83a23ff646fe11b6294078e759c9544818 A mandatory feature of such parks is clipped hedges, topiary forms, straight paths, verified with mathematical accuracy.
6145446979c5137399c1d0cb2e442f456205a839 Landscape style.
4daafa1a44e10e7b146e257fd0f4b070182b7546 A little later in the UK there was a Landscape
2dccb65ded6637622b0d800a56a62175dd180ada (aka English, natural, free.
d63633b72a289b700ae670108b61f089147eced9 It appeared as a protest against everything French, including regular.
fce5fffd9c31425b8f32c6ffc2ebf1a7607945a8 The main feature of this style is the imitation of nature, the creation of a landscape that imitates the natural one.
5100e01ae005ccd9007fa6ee4f0f0220703d77aa Paths of smooth outlines should lead a person walking from one kind of landscape to another.
cd6fe5c09cf5446f325040bfc13c33f90af044bf And the creators of the parks certainly wanted to surprise him every groove with unexpectedly beautiful views that open around the turn of the path.
3bf150500b3a52b95830eb5f14cfae2c5d16d876 One of the best preserved landscape parks in the CIS is the Catherine and Pavlovsky parks near St. Petersburg , Tsaritsinsky in Moscow, Sofiyevka and the Arboretum of Alexandria in Ukraine.
37a5dd2c170b97c4bcbe3f5194b6394a2d5cf20e Country style Originated in America, country style has become widespread in many countries of the world.
06504ecaeb55659dd67001fda3e31b4e67af8de6 And in every country, the "country" style has its own special flavor, which is based on local folklore.
1bf90ade9d304c44b34c302146d68215aa6beb05 The garden in this style is modest, slightly careless and cheerful , it is a rustic garden, and at the same time it is quite comfortable.
56ef76cbad01fca481d40e1ed26fa73b2fb06c62 Firstly, such a garden is the most economical, and secondly-it does not require careful maintenance.
edc8f9fbca3a524c2d15f4fa58bbdf539906b565 It is not necessary to have a neat lawn, it is replaced by simple and natural lawns of unpretentious grasses, clover, dandelions, daisies and veronica.
31b8ba720354f7c1ee887bb7da9f05b7135d93eb And the lush flower beds in such a garden seem to grow by themselves, naturally displacing weeds.
2f831ddb2554dd0f358c814f3dd80472d3d5aa64 And the placement of ornamental plants, accessories and other elements of garden design can be completely arbitrary and unexpected.
1165411f0aa4a5d50fe4428bf4a439390d1a7d9a Natural materials are appropriate here.
5fe07e5df220ae36f9de909b9ec47b708a39fb58 These are usually clay, wood and natural stone.
42c8a755759153f3d9d555ca1be256ae915ddba1 In such a garden, fruit trees, berry bushes, and a vegetable garden are always very important and mandatory elements.
5a59acc9cb34d81ac67cc980c2f033d605b4dd63 When creating a Slavic country garden, a fence with pots, baskets, cast iron pots, wooden fences, picket fences (or their imitation in miniature, vases from wheelbarrows with summer flowers, troughs, basins, a scarecrow for the garden and samovars with flowers, cart wheels are often used to give the garden a rustic flavor.
d42cdfc19038fc3dfb5cc65fc1bdcb48458d2309 The Chinese garden is primarily a landscape garden, in which some architectural forms should have a special, symbolic meaning.
f9b3bf22a42d7c112b7c9cfb49ebef576af6046d Water is always a mandatory element of any Chinese garden.
c749325cda21d81c6f1dd9db5eccc9c4e230c568 Reservoirs should not have a lining.
6657c348ecbc7d08a69c26f4676965b136d7887b The path seems to wind over the water itself, bridges are thrown over the streams.
34d4f3cda7a0c0a9f46dbff09800c35ed26fd9e9 The quiet surface of the water is covered with water lilies, pods.
bfd8d6a57313d68bc00e0d42f86ce7d19a8cf167 Stone is an element created by nature, but stone can be processed by hands.
d74fcd2dd5b385684926d1eca70c0d686c2bd0a5 The correct location of the stones in the garden is equivalent to the introduction of the garden space into the cosmic cycle.
c4be9f79616d5d3aa96b20448f3c03c30230d893 And only through the stone, the garden can and should become a miniature world.
095707093858454cef77a034fcca8a13f6a57b3b Japanese style The main difference of a Japanese garden is its smallness, as a rule, it does not take up much space.
c0f3f25b909df36c245264b18f4d66f5f0d7aa2c All elements of a Japanese garden should be symbolic and full of hidden meaning.
e0f3f7b1ea0e09a75f081fbdd2f935426c1c43c1 A large stone, for example, can be a symbol of a rock or cliff, and paths paved in the form of waves will turn into a"sea".
241623322c6da1fb3ee14d3654548b2e06ec9439 Stones, plants and also water are the main components.
42912ec75e2f55ac9d993ed2f83dcab3453efe35 The creation of a garden begins with the selection of appropriate stones, which should be located in the garden in groups consisting of 5 – 3 pieces.
38074ac9fd2716952757eb1518c440132fe26960 Moorish style Gardens in the Moorish style are also called Muslim gardens.
9e70814ac75d5d8e3c36b6ef7339611e4ab6aa88 Such gardens are designed for a leisurely rest, where water flows, fountains murmur softly, flowers are fragrant, and birds sing in golden cages.
d6bb978e9742ffdb4462bf6a06e1a045c635a32d Moorish gardens are a "different" world-filled with the murmur of water, the shade of trees, the singing of birds and it is necessarily separated by a high stone wall from the surrounding world – the heat of the desert.
7bf65b1dad66ef39dfd08eebfa3a2764ad18f257 Modern styles.
1975d6dba5cda1608254d4c75e6d7137df8d979f The Art Nouveau style is also known as "Art Nouveau", as well as "liberty".
2a74d851ed10c8e80b4aa309be0e3324ad099a9c And although this style appeared at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries – it remains relevant and modern in the landscape.
d6134535cf5c6d3548ffe4af062ff4f08b93e490 The garden in this style was an open room adjacent to the house and devoid of any architectural decorations.
fe8685f29c395ffae9388b02e636f71c6870dee9 As a rule, the layout of such a garden is geometric, but not adhering to symmetrical.
22221faee0f7e0698b8bec172d629ce497a6e293 A characteristic feature of this style is symbolism, rather pronounced individuality, rhythmic and smooth lines of the layout.
74969a0506c929a5168846d3f872b6ed90cb18d9 In Art Nouveau, you can see a combination of European and Eastern artistic traditions.
660f36e28521f6cef880484d628155ef163188c0 In such a garden, there are fewer elements, if compared with an eastern garden, there is also a small set of plants, the presence of accessories is minimal.
d6d43c07ab8d718fef3ac63325ab3ea0beb1927c However, as in the regular style, the layout is always subordinate to the central point-the house.
a696387d198a44ab933af8e40983e0bd0553507f Postmodernism This style was also called "new design".
ef14bc26ae6d47608b8fd2f28b4cc0125bf1c115 Postmodern gardens are distinguished by their asymmetry and free layout, as well as a non-standard, creative approach to design.
5475828ba9a9baa62479a8d6400f37b498a0d501 Hi-tech High-tech style in landscape design is a relatively new direction, but it absolutely meets the spirit of the time.
e8844d277340d07378589af6a22efe20e6e3ad92 Hi-tech has obvious advantages - it is convenient for life, harmonious and easy to care for, perfectly suitable for busy people, since it does not require much time to maintain a style and image.
9632dd44c6a0e77c0922cb45688d1ecc7a472ade Trees with laconic crown shapes are used in landscaping — slender junipers and thuja, pyramidal firs.
b1d74cdf05c60a46c0b75123011965b306e3da87 Flower beds, as a rule, are not large, and they should not be variegated, spectacular plants are appropriate here: hosts , ferns, Siberian irises.
a539b2b1701d6c65944e022c0a8f74f53f0d9cd9 In high-tech, unusual artificial reservoirs are appropriate, which are decorated with metal and concrete, and glass balls can be used to decorate flower beds and rock gardens.
f6ce3a99ab45a0965f6c12095c868a425dda8469 Minimalism What are the main slogans of minimalism ?
64576f27d2fbfdb729f5d0368e6e171c9d95526b Laconically.
4ef8fa4a08c2cddca67c3072a3f68a6a70903356 Simply.
f597f6c43d8433714dd327e428790f9bcc6743b5 Expressive.
43ed24b8497e4bed125387e4aea928b426f3f748 Perhaps this style is one of the most difficult, since, having a minimum of details in the arsenal, it is necessary, nevertheless, to express a lot, and it is necessary to ensure that the space itself"sounds".
7b8d6ae69294cb50cfebdf264efecd433cca388c The motto of minimalism can be considered such concepts as spaciousness, geometry and simplicity.
6c20488e5904693f13e900a95b5e38e55fcf1129 Any materials can be used here - both traditional and modern, a lot of paving understates the area, the presence of relief differences is desirable – you can use the existing ones on the site or "organize".
002d5ba8525c5534c7bfed4d47dedd9cae1f553f Outbuildings on such a site are either absent, or they are not visible.
896d0bd58e1c17dbe07393a5d37af17ce7222f5a There is almost always a lot of concrete or brick, clear shapes and lines are required, light color, an unusual combination of elements in the space and an inappropriately small number of details.
aab226f8edabfdf387adc7a3c05729c240bab8e9 Naturgarden The name of the style in German means "natural garden".
3faf56bf29eed2dec04165a759868b63b7a982c4 Its main difference is primarily its environmental friendliness.
c7b6ef6020e71653b7cb1728215a4239482199ee This trend is one of the most popular and modern in Europe and is in tune with the trends of progressive humanity in the struggle for the preservation of our nature and the planet.
cf33ace19047d52911bcc30d713e67dfbe7eb2d0 The followers of naturgarden strive to arrange mini ecosystems on their site, in which plants can coexist according to the same principles as in nature.
536037ea9a0d8087a4ac894562819355c2ee8d7a Landscaping should begin with determining the capabilities of the site, its soil, topography and climatic features of the area.
929718c8306b126a78dc60213c166378f414ca68 After all, not everything that grows perfectly, for example, in your mother's native Ukraine, will take root in your region.
8d4a54de26d4519ac1fb4c0422996c63b604d1a0 Of course, if you are a fan of capricious tropicans (orchids, freesias, coffee trees and others), have a lot of time to practice with fastidious plants, then you can plant delicate exotics on the site.
a0c552ab127314beefc935618123b06d4d22eb0c No one has canceled greenhouses, greenhouses and winter gardens (as well as your "smart" and caring hands)) But many summer residents are busy people, so it is much more practical to solve the issues of gardening a suburban area with the help of unpretentious perennials: flowers, beautiful-flowering shrubs and trees.
992c13b4927b52f7a8c26a0bc184935d31c0de92 To begin with, make a landscaping plan for the site and decide which plants you will plant and where.
b43b2e80ec37524f78f6ed510dddd0ee17d91966 Here it is better to use the classical method of dividing the territory into three zones for landscaping: * External, in the role of which a "live" fence can quite act, separating your site along the perimeter from neighbors and / or undeveloped territories.
f845b3366a1f74791d94d20390058d7cfd55c2bb The inner one, which is directly adjacent to your country house.
4b59e8744c5002e2f85e1f7d5d4160bd2cb5678a An intermediate one, the purpose of which is to improve the territory, being located in places accessible to the eye: in the recreation area, opposite the windows, and so on.
cce78426645ecc3a759e3e966e0d703a33b7f4ce As I have already said, the outer part of the plot (and not only) can be very beautifully equipped with a hedge around the entire perimeter or partially.
d61df274fb627daf4a2fa6ea91928d671c87b97d A green fence may well replace a trivial suburban fence, and some summer residents quite successfully use it as a fence.
2117b224a55e6ec556bdef8ebc40ff4463fe957b A hedge can be arranged from fruit trees and shrubs in one or two rows.
9eeb089eae2b73fe85fe93e3c90219bce5c9e1b8 With single-row landscaping, fruit or ornamental tall trees are planted along the borders of the suburban area.
d69c2edfcf35493667e7a74c2dbcf170b511d811 In this role, high-growing apple trees, plums, mulberries or decorative coniferous crops look good: cedars, pines, juniper, fir and others.
e50b161b76da1eb005dd56632d87aa8af498bb29 With double-row gardening, the trees are lined with beautifully flowering shrubs: lilac, honeysuckle, currant, rose bushes, and so on.
f65196e86d93665a3ab40e8ac168355a84ff196c Someone wants to smooth out the appearance of a dull bare field and neighboring houses (it's good if houses, and not eternal construction sites or collapsed sheds), someone wants to tick the list "build a house, raise a son, plant a tree", someone is looking for a balance in the design of the environment.
f44bb97b5fa5f215c3272b383e232521358bdb87 The advantage of pine trees is that they are evergreen and grow quite quickly.
a3820f299d43d480e929b85a1082c1968839e53d In addition, pine trees, like other coniferous trees, secrete phytoncides that purify the air from bacteria and fungi, have a beneficial effect on the human body and spread a wonderful aroma.
d3c27d8e06c3602ef84829099527bfcdb516f1e9 Pine trees like sunny areas, but it is desirable to shade young trees at first — in natural conditions, trees do not grow in a bare place, they are given shade by accompanying plants.
c8489ca73f32a1d071348bc85366e51726859391 Pine trees grow best on light soils — sandy and sandy loam.
4b4689867d37f833db80120f6d7e2f81b4900a45 If the soil is heavy (loamy and clay), additional drainage should be provided.
64a555cc075faef57445733e4d93486855165626 In nature, pine grows in a variety of soil and hydrological conditions, actively adapting to them.
5eaaba4973aaad03586abe402252bc8073653c1d The root system may have a deeply penetrating and well-developed taproot, if the groundwater is deep, or it may be surface.
dab5835b967e75e237c9e0b9c0e5a70ef3abdfbe Special care for a pine tree planted on your site is not required.
04767ff41801ef64abaa2fdb7f032e4a6a239b7e Properly planted pine trees will delight you with their evergreen outfit for a long time.
11f2405ce06d14d4501d19d3d2577432bee68569 The most time-consuming is, perhaps, the landscaping of the intermediate part of the suburban area, that is, the part that is visible to us from the windows of the country house, places for recreation, at the entrance, and so on.
f4efe528e2886bf1e05ce4fdc0279b318d625646 This zone is usually the most extensive, and the plants "living" there require serious attention.
fd84c0e00e7615eabb096a3b51ed718ccf5c4d4b Therefore, when arranging intermediate landscaping of a suburban area, initially take care of the drainage, irrigation and irrigation system.
9663f6d1516c3f572e67789619aad3caa10c5ffd For example, when laying a garden, you can create a separate system for its subsequent water supply (for example, with the help of a powerful pump; as a source, you can use a nearby reservoir, if there is one, of course).
5657356cb5fa6bb87245f5224586e4f6ec2beb89 At the stage of drawing up a landscape design project, take into account the location of all country buildings and decide on the choice of plants that you will plant in one or another part of your plot.
9bc3d192690b7ea359c4e4c474a4fcc4b10fe445 It is important to remember that when you create the design of your site, you need everything to be harmonious, there should be no unnecessary elements that will only clutter the territory.
cc672a7c19379a377e94c3a6006050364929753e After all, only a general harmonious composition will help make the yard beautiful and cozy.
f0bfbeac600f47347699ecfcecac54d2b38a860c An equally important process is the preparation of the soil for gardening.
251d0ab7fea84c666e076aa231fc5e6d6bc45d30 Therefore, take care in advance of leveling the relief (if necessary) and fertilize the land when digging with organic and mineral fertilizers.
2e86834addada27321721b766ffaf7886778ec3d No matter how trivial this advice sounds, many summer residents leave such an important matter "for later", with all the sad consequences that follow.
27e478fba599bacfde8d8f644dc6ff89bef33dc8 Lay drainage ditches and think over the water supply system of the site.
15bf66abfabe55b301b538c54ef3ea75c420c7d6 Take into account the temperature regime of your region and the degree of illumination of the territory, because some plants like the sun, others prefer shade or partial shade.
3c05a68b75f814fe5fd1b209c4d5e87cf2510271 Think over the grassy part of gardening: choose the most unpretentious types of garden grasses, which fill the "bare gaps" between trees and shrubs.
2606c1d91c44949b16367fe04bab70e1463361a3 Be sure to plant at least a few evergreens on the site, they perfectly decorate the landscape at any time of the year.
7da9d289d32c86858c4729ecf19ea1562f78e229 When decorating flower beds, flower beds, hedges and other landscaping elements, try to achieve harmony.
b5aa8eae24efff6d4b132f674c75d5a38da3c766 For example, it is better if the flowers will be combined with the color of the bark and leaves of neighboring trees; the design of flower beds should be made in the same style.
19cfa144819f32549f16dfa0abccb4037865b57f Gardening of a suburban area should look like a single whole, and for this it is worth trying and choosing such plants for planting that are in harmony with each other, and then your country oasis will really turn into a cozy, comfortable and rich with incomparably fresh air corner.
871f5f2f83b5903a8fd63960b293a8ae57cd17d6 When creating a reservoir, the materials from which it is made play a special role.
2128105a383329ef876c4fe002dddf7e1f71dbb1 It is possible to distinguish flexible insulation coatings and rigid forms that differ from each other in service life, installation technology (laying) and further operation.
71546b4f1681ae9429530ba3573a51de76010ccd Ponds made of polyethylene are excellent for creating a decorative pond of small size and volume (130-4200 liters).
33ba09b78cb0eda70409d1ec07bc6e34648ea186 . Rigid plastic molds are easy to install and resistant to the harmful effects of UV rays and low temperatures.
d646854559e4014719996a9f2227171544c06bf6 The disadvantage is the uneven wall thickness (the unevenness depends on the technology used in the manufacture and the manufacturer's compliance with the quality control of the finished product).
b264c13ceb7e2c0b7ee91acc3f54ad6dc30325c4 Fiberglass ponds are ideal for creating reservoirs of small volume (from 350 to 1200 liters).
e8ffc9eae0c6ff212bd3130c760133d43749af19 They are as easy to install as plastic molds, but they are more resistant to the harmful effects of the environment.
16cd93cbb8ff2120c3a27d4e67cda37169625fc0 PVC film differs in that with the help of this material, you can create a reservoir of any shape and any size.
1326fbf3e25431642955fa092606191f7fc58a64 Butyl rubber (EPDM membrane) is a material similar to PVC film, but has higher strength and reliability indicators.
7fa68c2af3db4b4ccb8d753338849cfea6a2b9be It is especially well suited for creating large reservoirs.
16e33fc2e00bec9490563a59e4ceebe7d750f9b7 Now it has become fashionable to arrange artificial reservoirs in the garden.
ef68d6dc65b6ae9165d7219e0f768d7cdd66dd1a Any, even a small pond attracts attention and makes the garden unique.
7ef5831a9a3b87717c776ec84f8f1236688dc0a6 As a rule, the reservoir is decorated with a natural stone. Also, perennial plants are planted around the pond, which create a smooth transition from the lawn to the water.
c3660c6ed194a209815225be3d6e76f773688e44 Let's figure out what flowers are planted in suburban reservoirs, how to properly place and plant them, what should be their care.
6518023eb2a75065f2657f72966e0b208bf45827 DEEP-SEA PLANTS grow at a depth of (0.3-1 m).
3f6093eb09f15e4fdb8c556396b9e4a9c2208ad5 These include a lotus, a water lily, an aponogeton, a cup, a nymphaeum, an orontium, a mulberry.
8be1468a01f3842cbaadb0c79c8609d3dcfaa8cc .PLANTS FLOATING ON THE SURFACE They do not need soil. Their nutrition occurs due to useful substances dissolved in the water of the reservoir. Such plants also contribute to the purification of the reservoir.
75b1886aa5b9675316acac66f78b40bdc2fafbe2 These include azolla, vodokras, water nut, wolfia, hydrocleis, pitia, duckweed, water hyacinth, etc.
fdb9af0c3ccfa1cc730893d10de338322367f7d0 The most common plant for a pond in the country in this group is a water hyacinth or eichornia.
77eb7aa9e23cfa07f86eb92eff8d5ddcd0b7d5c0 OXYGEN GENERATOR PLANTS PLANTS are OXYGEN GENERATORS-they abundantly absorb carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen into the reservoir, thereby preventing contamination of the water space and its overgrowth with mud.
205c35fc4e3bad10528e44d2344830748e88a0cc COASTAL PLANTS These include: calamus, ammania, whitefly, bolotnik, bolotnitsa, vallisneria, watch, milestone, water pine, highlander, decodon, iris, St. John's wort, kaluzhnitsa, reed, cypress, krinum, lobelia, mannik, myta, narcenium, forget-me-not, porucheynik, preslia, sedge, cattail, sitnik, susak, euryale, chastukha, reed, etc.
835b3d9d71d878027080c9446a4a709b41420370 PLANTS FOR THE DESIGN OF THE SHORE These include: avran, anemopsis, astilboides, brunner, bagulnik, verbenik, veronica, volzhanka, highlander, gubastik, derbennik, iris, kupalnitsa, lichnis, lobelia, primrose, core, ostrich, tradescantia, helone, hosta, chistous, etc.
9560496f6e496337887478014f20ab1017fd067a Water lilies are planted in the soil of the reservoir (more than 30 cm thick) or in special containers (it is convenient to transplant, clean in winter).
223d0da70ce89d63171a4056a24a4762d8634300 The soil in the container is old compost with an admixture of sand and earth from the garden.
f37cf64a294d6f63a54cb3449183d53d83768e68 As fertilizers, you can use bone meal placed under the rhizome of the plant during planting.
b4a5d185a04a317a15f08204bd64d1f450c1e0cf Water hyacinth is planted in June, and in early autumn, before the first frosts, the plant is transferred to a room (an aquarium with lighting or wet sand), since this plant is not resistant to low temperatures.
c0ce9b87215ad24d2be46a8aacd44e5fff5eee49 Contests Ask an expert to find a builder
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3bb96a74c3e1a3034402041ef82008f5b38e16ec Bushes and trees
c1cc4ec69bd32272faedc947f7fa18cb1a83903d Shrubs and trees 3476 ornamental trees and shrubs 690 fruit trees 1656 recipes 1437 garden 253 seedlings 116 harvest 3439 coniferous 326 berry bushes 337
51997aab4aceddc5d868a7374d609b304bd8d061 Questions Photos of the Company Ask a question
85797ba8205d236b8ac057f096abb7eb612328f6 Flowers and flower beds
e3feb6005963e99dfafae5d1aadf98a23cf618bf Flowers and flowerbeds 15980 biennial flowers 117 flowerbeds 498 indoor plants 1397 medicinal plants 182 perennial flowers 6824 annual flowers 807 fertilizers 225 flower beds 339 flowers 13288
b931592f4f11e83516e6a10cd900bbec704fd57b Vegetable garden and garden beds
d286709d72cec0dfe6aa124a0272ad47dd32ad15 Vegetable garden and beds 6048 mushrooms 760 beds 209 home garden 98 herbs and seasonings 263 agriculture 23 medicinal plants 182 vegetables 2763 vegetable garden 152 greenhouses and greenhouses 269 seedlings 368 recipes 1437 fertilizers 225 harvest 3439
ec73bb2cff478d861539d5ec80aa1e6e8e74ea84 Landscape design
4f23b18d03c7d4f0581a8873e0625997728d316b Landscape design 1646 Alpine slides 65 arches 17 Architecture 21 bonsai 8 vertical landscaping 17 reservoirs 248 lawns 197 slides 10 site design and design paths 85 hedges 34 rocky gardens 14 stones 47 landscape 14 mixborders 13 landscaping 22 parks and botanical gardens 130 pergolas 9 rose gardens 6 rockeries 48 garden paths 224 garden figures 273 sculptures 19 dry stream 24 topiary 34 fountains 36 flower beds 339 trellises 12
f0a97b5d67a7c3ebec345834bd84e0d037e4927d Buildings and equipment
33410175a7949d8f2eacf9913ce140cde102e313 Buildings and equipment 1552 barbecue 15 swimming pools 72 gazebos 96 curbs 25 barrels 22 water supply 12 gabions 5 hammocks 9 pots 9 children's houses playgrounds 17 house 107 house and interior 559 firewood 81 fences 53 drip irrigation 12 frame skating rinks 4 swings 27 wells 55 bonfires 30 roofs 17 benches 8 stairs 17 summer shower 9 traps 4 barbecues 38 garden furniture bridges 10 canopies 5 arrangement 27 lighting 25 greenhouses and greenhouses 269 patios 20 sandboxes 16 stoves 42 wattle tiles 9 pogrebs 20 polycarbonate 14 benches 26 construction 155 terraces 11 covering materials 24 plot 152 lanterns 11
57933e2d080654bfd967a35a8892ac5896a90424 Equipment and tools
41f7fb315e31000c96d1f265c260d8cdd113f851 Machinery and tools 168 grinders 4 lawn mowers 11 generators 5 rakes 3 grills 2 inventory 5 tools 23 combines 4 cultivators 10 shovels 7 tillers 3 pumps 14 repellers 10 saws 11 garden accessories 4 snowplows 4 snow plows 9 machinery 22 trimmers 2
d2e4bae1a1139b6e5645dec10cd1e4a00a0af0b1 Recipes and blanks
1af6c0e9224d69bc7a5c38c7a04dae95f3793335 pancakes 15 jam 59 pastries 253 desserts 71 blanks 361 snacks 56 casseroles 11 squash caviar 6 porridge compotes 23 cooking 22 lecho 4 marinades 23 new year 903 pancakes 8 omelets 4 cookies 23 pies 66 festive table salads 177 national hodgepodge 1 juices 14 soup puree soups 32 cakes 45
ebd0fe3d233542331dde5c40b585e575627754d6 Home page Now relevant Now they are discussing Questions and answers I will give and exchange a Photo Contest Help
14a69dfc946a48446224272d5ffe5a5e278b5673 landscape design
388804ff38c19f54777c16347c909e862eef1159 landscaping
5b703ddd8493c425222fcfd395dc8de87e334186 Landscaping of a suburban area
465703e5bc98553a51fb9ebb875a6239c602a62a landscape design, landscaping, rules, plot, tips, design, design
5783245563e371702148613ad292b3fc3c500cef October 1, 2013, 20: 35
9ce38c3e97ed6997d2292dd3352688b60462d6c9 Every year there are fewer and fewer plants on our planet.
8de04415c51f588f911d255cda2b15a2414460ed Natural disasters (fires, droughts, floods), mass felling of trees for industrial purposes and other misfortunes do not improve our ecology.
8b8e4e8c5674b0de155889a9e9bd30f0843a3374 The "Lungs of the Earth" are getting weaker and weaker, and our health is also getting weaker.
9207c6e3acbbdf713c57db3711423ffede31e87a Now, despite the massive artificial plantings, it is no longer possible to breathe fresh air in industrial cities, and not everyone can afford to regularly go out of town.
2b8a80413d2cb1a9ed8f28833da6998a055d8f9a There is only one thing left for us: to create our own "green oasis"in the country and take up gardening of the suburban area.
3da249164ad8798d2a27cf490d1f72891a17420c How to start gardening a suburban area?
bc9bf35c3b26a081ad15987f8ba385ee6a7732b7 No one has canceled greenhouses, greenhouses and winter gardens (as well as your "smart" and caring hands)) But many summer residents are busy people, so it is much more practical to solve the issues of gardening a suburban area with the help of unpretentious perennials: flowers, beautiful flowering shrubs and trees.
4f9100aff7bdfa27319a99bbf2509bdf5972b786 And now let's look at the landscaping of each of these parts of the site.
5b1bc6dc649c688dc85400eff178a5b5197c51c7 Landscaping of the external part of the suburban area
28947a43f8b059a3343232b455b66b6f5eb2642f With single row landscaping, fruit or ornamental tall trees are planted along the borders of the suburban area.
484f95b1c65851f7a2204dd8412b29db3ee4fa0a In this role, high growing apple trees, plums, mulberries or decorative coniferous crops look good: cedars, pines, juniper, fir and others.
5d3d3b6d3003e1bec495b3c00ff931850d05d38a With double row gardening, the trees are lined with beautifully flowering shrubs: lilac, honeysuckle, currant, rose bushes, and so on.
02d9a71f0b7675821a672cad84900a7e9f4a8713 Thus, in addition to hiding from the immodest glances of passers by, you will also enjoy the incomparable smell of your fragrant hedge.
56282634ad9ab15aeea354e463ee56de3af52cd1 By the way, beautiful shrubs themselves are quite suitable for landscaping the external part of the suburban area.
28715b8e0f76fa3e575aac39db70a353f7586c89 It happens that the border of the site is overgrown with wild plants.
809ac7ca3f787ce392220afd361b04d5ff801458 So, in order not to waste energy on fighting them, you can simply refine them: prune branches, plant cultivated plants and flowers nearby, in general, try to interfere with the natural landscape at a minimum.
358c8ea88b4ee2553ebbfb9192b75d49d98e4aee Landscaping of the inner part of the suburban area
637c0d5e9517916683af454ea603ee5113fc45e3 And here there is a huge scope for imagination!
93aa5bec168bada0d75f3cfa93808aa2d3397d08 The inner part of the plot, adjacent directly to the house, is ennobled with beautiful flower beds, flower beds, border plants that are planted along garden paths and along the shores of suburban reservoirs.
b1c415df87d78ce6526cd627cbb5a76816351b10 A special place in the landscaping of the suburban area is occupied by climbing crops that need support: lianas of various types, ivy, vine, etc. They allow you to hide unsightly outbuildings, fences and any defects in landscape design.
551accd7bf9488a5e798bca61c424e0dc296ad14 In addition, it is very good to plant "convolvulus" places for recreation, for example, to organize an altanka in the garden – a light openwork structure planted with liana like plants.
401538cccdc8be7e7b7424ffd6eb3c109ecd0976 Also, climbing plants can ennoble gazebos, verandas and other suburban structures located in plain sight.
4df5818876d51941fe60b5efd2d5a958d876cbc5 During the internal landscaping of the site, an important role is assigned to ampel plants, a rainbow waterfall falling from beautiful hanging vases, planters or wicker baskets.
2ae934fad16e320b919711ce5be442f235aaff9b To improve the internal landscape, it is better to use unpretentious ampel flowers: fortunia, sufinia, silver dichondra, fuchsia, pelargonium and others.
8bc32b25b40bab943309c12716a466567890e15d Landscaping of the intermediate part of the suburban area
8714b068c70848066b6784af9e7127ea2532e37d The most time consuming is, perhaps, the landscaping of the intermediate part of the suburban area, that is, the part that is visible to us from the windows of the country house, places for recreation, at the entrance, and so on.
206405b65fa137433fe5e9b3d31e6b6cc5a3fa4c When landscaping the intermediate part of the suburban area, an important role is assigned to the lawn.
0b02ebe562d191339769b95e0e6339299f6fbfe2 You can combine it with a rock garden or rock garden – it will turn out very beautifully.
143f5fbbff5757be6b03efb5122471004579bae4 Click on the photo to enlarge
f318bf90149a9f3738112eec45779d7011f057e8 A few basic rules for gardening a suburban area
faa0d6b712f78e1196aed68602c28037feab6b68 • At the stage of drawing up a landscape design project, take into account the location of all country buildings and decide on the choice of plants that you will plant in one or another part of your plot.
ccc15166769baea1c9aaeacadf3215480d8a2042 And now I present you some interesting ideas for landscaping a suburban area.
7055143a74065095f28ea22c6f3e7c17d3302781 Next article: Gardening of a suburban area
be13e7ac753956c5b71c8869150b588dbf49da57 Author of the article:
dd9d95a0c02a0546941452c9c595bbf33f2f3349 Alensel (Elena, Krasnoyarsk)
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9b4441513f79fb5636321a206a772fbeaeb49066 15 golden tips on landscape design for beginners / 7dach.ru…
6268d9d30e90e5a50cca43ef4eb3cb026679be5f Garden plot design: essence and styles…
0a05a75bb264489295844c37159220989bbd663d Comments (5)
adc71c9661748be4ea3ac0b248c61aa64c9cdfa4 Samdolis (Svetlana, Russia)
4681c1294d3b35b0c439c3d8dbd7c4e9fce46e0d EDITOR
6180960e2c7a184603a13782648731d9bd067bfb written
a527443d2bb656797e4787e4c8cbc827e3459460 October 12, 2013, 23: 03
e63ccc004df5b3ee8e28cd1ad2107dd65c7f5e13 THANK YOU!
e129af7d392583cb759ffdeaf326c02e634e035b Elena, well, is it possible to write such wonderful posts and post even more wonderful photos?!!)))
239dcb4205199495788248a4fb558b6023c6bb1a Just accept the fact that this year Napoleon's plans for the improvement of the site will have to be postponed on you!
32900b2beebd6553586883c9ec9f9acec33158c8 I read the post and again everything in my soul was stirred up — well, what a beauty!
f9944ced95219565bd4f200a8087da2efbdfdc0e I also want one for myself!!!
93210021bc4961b3423a91207aee4336a22699f8 Thank you for the ideas thrown up, not this year, but next year they will definitely come in handy!!!
420e366b787159d47be0118436bf1321896916d2 October 16, 2013, 15: 27
d9ed43e3cb1b11ffe4c170a1410f0261a8e076c0 You are always welcome)) I myself am delighted with such beauty.
4e244b387dc7dd12854c9cda7afa4a1a88df3ab8 And after all, summer residents do a lot with their own hands)
99ff5dacae6f65591a00d72721c91d6ec4586b77 EvgeniyaMaskova (Evgenia Maskova)
a243821beb2adf3e1c9c96c926530d11a98f112d June 24, 2014, 16: 12
0923f92065f8f8b4dd4de08d8e7abd6ecf40d628 Very useful to be, thank you!
94ac178ff536176ddbfb8746cc24a9933120938d I really like it when there is water on the site) According to this plan, he will install a small fountain, the water from which will flow into the plastic insert as in the 5 photos.
6d420e8fcac7e0b14e826bf7fb56d08fe82da6a2 By the way, how can it be disguised(so that it would not be visible that it is plastic)?
c083aa11bf38901c7e88e3d8a3f9aa6d1539d4da And also please recommend how can a small swimming pool be entered into a suburban area?
62a778fcb5c1d95690750448a2234ce51419c18f Like this http://elki.vtapkah.ru/bassejn azuro kruglyj 360_360h90 sm lestnica skimfiltr 2500/ maybe inflatable from other manufacturers, but in general the size is slightly more than 3 meters in diameter, I would like.
fc307d8901f0ee9bea2e20ee0466ab5bc560e1eb Maybe there are already some examples that the pool would not be a black sheep in the flower hegemony))))Last edited on June 24, 2014, 16: 13
2ddf322b8f857b52db7c24acd6d33c90554d9a2b user 201
65bc6f4d0fdc158c9edff9c7abfc4704a0935d46 January 16, 2015, 17: 20
04f3d80f6eaacff0316c89bb91aeea6b459e75f9 Thank you for your interesting ideas!
1fc2b22038179c4bea61736beac7dabb8fe360da the comment is waiting for confirmation or has been deleted
e1978153780b7c73df523e8db3d6ab3517124c97 Kolmogorova49 (Nina Chusovlyanova, Zheleznodorozhny (Moscow))
2a55f6282fb7d9385bba2121bda7078ad5c6759d January 21, 2015, 11: 21
cbcb94ff73fdb84404e5c8a8f398aa184649b4af Thank you very much for your advice, I will use many of them in the spring.
7ea17aa0c62ea8682b499d909936e1faec4e5825 Visual Editor Toolbar Bold (Ctrl+B) Italics (Ctrl+I) Underlined (Ctrl+U) Crossed out Insert link Insert image Add smiley
288d6e4aa8a3da63bf2470e2dec2fc8a88d1f4fc Your E mail:
a67429fe24bb38e2359025367f78d7c8bbdc0f12 Or through:
1aa787fe0cfb373575fc2c0f6f826e7c6dc9fd41 preview
58d1bbce297de3c304a9fefc3b483181872a5c6b add
df9f97106cda3abd2e28961b82127e7ee4c34988 Other entries from the"gardening" section
b8d8280a66aaeae6dd3a49c9d357a3dbd3935d6d Ma xa
69144495bc82db4edaea14ebb6420175a0d6b4ea March 29, 2013, 14: 10
ad7d587af81447beea6df85881574356bd2ce28c Vertical gardening – let's hit the volume of greenery on our 6 acres!
438aec7bc361a59dffcef3f869ca68ae16558745 Conceptually, there are three types of vertical gardening:
0bed532198ea30c42357d36b78b4ad5146cd5a50 1. Landscaping of the space with climbing plants.
31f7cf8bf34dccf6b5660444a89c16a8ef5fd6c4 This, in principle, is the "vertical gardening" that is usually spoken about in landscape design.
622676d24f8fd8048aac97e634bc8ef32da5eef3 This view is very...
3e3aac8db7073808ef1f1f28508ae16e253e8a50 Read more >
194099228534f7d56644f1b75d8dee99be659eda August 29, 2013, 18: 20
6df0184188f0ed35ddfdc2df2fa80ea9151ee3f5 Artificial turf, information for reflection 6
b8ec748a9b6124b7798c55769708a528d5b7aecb We will continue to carefully consider the options for green carpets on our sites.
b2ef929a3cdc4b3d6bf1d520577175ca223c3ea6 Let me remind you, there was a sowing lawn, there was a roll, it remains to discuss an artificial lawn.
2324e112567dad761a261c045cd3413e58ce2366 There are such "inconvenient" places where a live lawn can be grown only with...
b8a11127545d4ff5750019a1dcd70eeee98d4f18 LilyBarta
18ab7a549dea41e569bfc7c1b14e8b55aa09733f May 26, 2015, 14: 44
6194bd4e1eb08a625cb670de279515e056d79e4c Can you advise what to plant to decorate the children's corner and protect it from prying eyes?
25cb6c99daa6926d7799ee6d1fba48276c5e59cc Now we are arranging a small children's corner for our daughter.
bb2b9a5a89d69bb1bfdc69947874421c5ddca3b1 Nothing unusual, just a house and an adjacent sandbox.
6e9be18dc153ca0dcc4b6c49f02b8b998534236e The base is already ready, and it can be seen in the photo.
e5b18e3ed346ac41585ec580c40150379fc35155 (Sorry for the construction mess, there is a cladding and renovation of the house, so everywhere...
b94d307af88adfa59a66320c010139a4bf3ce5d1 MaxNokia
6237335663c7115b10bfd4b6ac706594a1ae6ef3 March 1, 2015, 06: 08
8f5fb35bc6aa02421beb5e6a408061bf7168b1e8 How to properly and quickly green the sports field for football this summer at the stadium?
cb6fab15f53b34c1afd2121d753013a72a71bb1e A question from our subscriber Zinfira: I am interested in how to properly and quickly green the sports field for football this summer at the stadium?
06af1067c38d67edad4e4823aa3136a8f131b1a4 janlight
6b86c6b0c2ee7752ad53da107bc3018ab475945c March 10, 2014, 20: 46
f64565f269a52d8c8a1996dc3c042731e2fba98f The Canadian greening program is gaining momentum 0
e1d2555cd6a31417df7656fec8887144aab2b896 Many residents of large and not very large cities in Canada are seriously concerned about environmental issues in their homeland.
49b42a3c338d43f7702e53021941c1b8f14628f5 Urban landscaping and the expansion of nearby forests are already actively underway.
9afe21c77e875a19155ac9b061e6bf9d03425df6 The volunteer movement is growing when people do not...
6d7e08143ec59f5fe1af0b89dfacf200822d217f Katya
2aee576592e60fac9ccb6d88154cedaec611663c January 30, 2013, 01: 56
115de2d118d4f96c44b414e1a48e300a231fa908 Flowerbed Lady and the Tramp 1
071764333563fcbf3a1889f5ea09291a96d8c5e9 Landcad
4513c52d8b5922bb0fed69a79c219c4b542fdd48 September 24, 2015, 15: 54
1615052688bfd51011a46b673dd3e2337b8c447c Landscaping of the plot 0
1db1cfb531ec3aec1e3432c276fbd9635aa88821 photo gardening hedge landscaping
d19a376d4f78755290eba06ff43b4ea533582e2a View photos >
7b6f3897475b135f0d5df21dccb4e22d8307e0fa PremierSad
d434587b4b3cc42f8a74d162f8981f2aacc008f0 June 17, 2015, 13: 31
067a35d617e3d0ac6a20d29406f325c356c45e0f Elegant flower garden 0
9a80372bee6653cd9494fc054fc3a860393afc8d photo garden flower beds landscape design landscaping
00c73fb4fbafd2bb9ca45ca69a4baaa2b896fd3e June 17, 2015, 13: 23
d04e9b0a06e4d2ba175c621af7d0ad209e39ad27 Classic Garden 0
f1dc4d8de0c18a7f9051a31091050e3beb9580c2 photo gardening garden landscape design
894a8c88f7aaf843513cba341c393cd01d42a2d9 FlorinkisDesign
4c9a39bb7e3d08783946fe33f90ac036c58dc460 May 13, 2015, 15: 46
831d0043b101cf20d6225b2a954186fca9424068 Exquisitely decorated area along the stone fence 0
5a3c272f0b19c0b0e792e6c614168fdb389be4a4 photo Landscape design landscaping tui lawns
6a619180347196bafa54381e66426796477717f2 September 24, 2015, 15: 52
dd9bc917d0e75b15486f43dc338238572567d8d1 photo landscaping Landscape design
c481f51f09bdc706f069520d8f9d74f0b9b00248 June 17, 2015, 13: 29
ee99cd3ac8bc9f5d406391a376cd2cc70546598e Blooming pink accent 0
313856102a290734ea9ec8f74ce593b24b89dbc1 photo Landscape design landscaping garden
206637b1ac2485391e14ff723bd956e0d26e6986 June 17, 2015, 13: 21
d59a59b453f2067eeb4db0adba2638e55e87a4b3 Garden with a cozy gazebo 0
f85c914363e2ca29ee058cdefcaef0c33dd3538a photo Landscape design lawns landscaping
9c5824f55ee3129093b04b6a8823a0a85f3bf5d6 meggy10
fca6f36e126b6a8a5b431f9c8ee617680d558fd2 August 22, 2015, 12:46 pm
d8b093f6a82812e9da160abd0ae8eb0dda79afcd Help to decorate the front garden beautifully 4
f83b47d269fd30d9d045391d7dd4bbde10c390e9 I live in Uzbekistan, the city of Tashkent.
22d19053736e0987567d91687a2f872dc0b267b9 Recently, I arranged a small garden with stones in my front garden near the entrance, planted a few different plants, decorated them with stones and expanded clay, made paths, and it turned out quite ...
5d6a48f4f10467d75d9e00c9e56632819ceb2038 June 17, 2015, 13: 25
e77c3ac54fca9dbc958895e5d81b61de5b31db27 Green area for walking and recreation 0
d06a29014d64ce08c805f98bc9d3fcfeb16e49dd photo garden landscaping landscape design
11df211171f5393996795f71dcb891d82b5c9a96 Other entries from the section "design and design of the site"
a8a96f478011b769b613544606dc7eade1d727a4 Alensel
b9cd84bb7a538fba35b12352149ac55807ce0c60 May 26, 2013, 10: 15 am
2502fff9c77c7b13d0bb8e358960177c133a4f04 Landscape design with your own hands: creating beauty 74
6069d3925fbaefae1a41a0ad88f83c565a44f55f So, you have a new country house, and around... emptiness.
de1a38d4f68ae44b19ac5ff67f857705f5879ec8 Stunted islands of some kind of greenery, driftwood and a dull gray land.
728984ed56994581086dc56542ff31d2aa0a53d9 And you are scratching your head thoughtfully: where to start landscaping the site?
58599206a8335bb6210d15101fcfae4cc51acd50 - with the development of a plan, of course!
6b29a281b48b707349272cd7da639c568de31ff6 After all, with ideas you...
79af47e8625d778bf69468c7a2494fade45b59f3 October 2, 2013, 13: 41
4368bfa2636f9a653512cdfbd3d04a73c84cece9 Basics of designing a dacha plot 4
13b6df7564ed9189781bc70eab8f50b21dcbdf91 Designing a suburban area is a whole science that is evolving every year.
9054ab71196ef58972424a92a9d947ce175942ce In addition, it is also an art: we do not just plan "according to science", but we create a beautiful and cozy country nest, where it is pleasant to hide from the hustle and bustle of the city ...
9616e0faf7021ac5fe1e5e4841397ceb6aaad8b4 October 3, 2013, 19: 15
b28f5731f24dcbfec223e452725b6ca818e298a5 Garden plot design 5
38bb58ee967f795c174e14130be13ddc24585459 Historically, there are two approaches to the use of garden plots in the world.
62426708aa1c72feb2a1e7d43715f678226d715c Western – for beauty and Russian for food.
ca063b04e6ab154a4e39be94b1ff9f978ba760ec Advanced Europeans, as a rule, only rest on suburban areas, and vegetables and fruits...
e637f0d961561bef9edcc1ca65e8ed53f19a0f45 May 1, 2013, 17: 39
114e5c4777810e909ef8eeb32ec9af4bce0b6ff4 Landscape design with your own hands: stage one 2
6797ee0d8cdcaba4782c979d5740ed3bd584dd5c Every summer resident cherishes the dream of a beautiful plot.
7ebfc2bbd9a8a8889544cf54f3fe380f06365582 Where in the early morning it is pleasant to walk on the soft carpet of the green lawn, inhale the smell of the barely awakened garden, admire your favorite flowers.
0239e9b7d263abcab341bd2dd16f981773d6cd1d But the path from the realization of a dream into reality can be quite ...
dfdc06a1759a81e57e15900e8b4cae952f27e39b May 2, 2013, 16: 26
911ff5be13bb10584d5185b76c1d01fa8c0f615b Ideas for landscape design 2
317cc12376612ce28564f72ca0acbd3d149ecb21 In the turmoil of our dynamic life, a small oasis of your own dacha is a true luxury, where you want to hide from the hustle and bustle of a noisy city, calmly relax in peace and quiet, where hard (seemingly) physical labor brings not fatigue, but only...
d77fd3362339522cad07e67a0e4c79b06b847768 May 3, 2013, 19: 16
b809be6108919850e13bc272605b7366517dd7a4 Drainage of the suburban area 4
26866a23e45c26bae6799f4a0528e5dff8ef4a44 If the suburban area is located in a lowland, then during the rainy season it can turn into a real headache!
64c8327fd9e69f148a25d0d577a6d5276a22fd7e After all, none of us likes to splash in puddles, and even more so – try to plant something in the slushy ground.
859d5c4313fa9b5d7664ea6d9fe152061d2a5df4 But swampy or...
248cc268fe662d61bdc73a1ccee1c9a4ff8ef811 October 25, 2014, 14: 40
ed9708faca62e3d2b420b63fe81c51fd2b244ebf 15 golden tips on landscape design for beginners 3
a91aff0dffcecedc99089390607aaceeabadaab9 In this article, we give tips from Arnie Maynard, who is one of the most popular landscape designers in the UK these days.
b03f0100d9b12786e932962bc06b447c5a644226 Regardless of what works he comes across — urban or completely provincial, he creates...
c775d51a0975ae0e1ed92c6dc3c5c0c872863aca October 13, 2014, 21: 58
4e7434a6b975a75386fcf70250e0bdcd06c56574 12 garden paths for different landscape styles 2
e736377e539f08bcb9178f84fd8fa93f7b43ec75 What path should I lay at the dacha?
f8d3894deb5fc55ed104a671d459be02b7fb6094 To answer this question, it is necessary to determine the general style of the site and its image.
ae3db05d49a1ac18acab574b3f950a74d4e1e64b After all, the paths are the style, the nature of the landscape project.
115093bc35329796762ba41b97cd14563e7eef1f According to them, you can judge what kind of decorative effect he wants to achieve from...
773440fc5526f1e213ad46be52df5d0b94d7df90 October 24, 2014, 14: 14
0dac91a9931f346456620d769b492795f610140c 10 visual effects to make the garden interesting 1
b8fa4c7b626ec64367d0254e6d3e8cb9af535fea This large garden in North Sydney was designed by Julie Cartledge.
50e30c7d6e2a430bec5bc0b73cf6a8eff435cc1a For her, landscape design is not just a job, but a way to express yourself through creativity.
c37318ee7aa3822523dd79cb51fa4ddc95b15405 Now Julie is focused on the arrangement of large spaces, which...
dcabe7d9dd511fbf7223a5d1a1eee427b5513e79 October 16, 2014, 22: 18
3f572485d4c475934729a1e613d30064a4e742f5 A small garden with a big heart Lindsay Baudinet 1
50d1132b1f2703310ffa8aaa6ae8db06b3f9b876 In this article, you will find a beautiful story of a caring hostess about how she lives and takes care of her garden.
76f625e6403ee788d7d062e11aa1ed49220192c7 The action takes place in Birchgrove (Sydney, Australia), where Lindsay Baudinet has lived most of her life.
141d530222d2fdc02e09ed536f0ef42909f27e65 Our little...
74a04fd3a762d5532a6b216a41aaf994a8de7c41 October 28, 2014, 01: 22
8fb4485f4530405afb29bd5da56dbe0460301ccb 7 amazing ideas: arches for the garden in any style 0
3ef905fdba854329d79ba9cc664501d1aef0c6b4 Let's start with the fact that the arch is not just another small structure that can be built at your dacha.
426ac43af7a112342320caf908427b0e1242fdba The entourage of the arched passage attracts attention, enchants and fascinates.
5b0167e43b344165187d2cc07fa06a865958aecb This phenomenon is inexplicable, but for some reason, only after seeing the arch ...
a31e04be9a6661f64ed494ab4d90482fac2c788e September 16, 2014, 19: 02
dcbfab7af0acd51b83c44ef6f1dfd668d6076df9 How to create an Italian garden in a small space 0
0aedbff83f02e45f07014e05ae2273d7e9e8eebf If you are very cramped in the area, but you want to feel at the dacha, like at a resort, an Italian garden is your best way out.
beccf016780bd2d487cdc4daf9b76cd835f68496 Holly and John, moving into their new home last year, had no idea how much they would love to be in the garden after a whole...
4604789997c5253205713027a7eac13ca203f213 October 12, 2014, 20: 05
76b81c2f3b1d87f901215660419c0247d1545251 Amazing ideas for a jacuzzi area on a private plot 0
60810f78bf4dcae67e1dd75dfc61bafde4029906 Beautiful projects from all over the world are ready to inspire anyone to create something with their own hands.
36c3f29cedb7e88221c5eb5e220914b5fe15a79a After all, for the sake of such beauty, you want to invent, try, redo and start building again, finding the right solutions.
b2f3e122e8fc3f3cee6a9e3788460cbcf4f45c85 The first example of the zone...
3a33eb00a697d58e60d06d0cc2c2a0f93acc9d23 October 12, 2014, 20: 12
3aa58b5690620358d428514d4cc674e19b89076e How to create a beautiful backyard on 20 square meters 2
34287c18341492f85381467fa9618b05c858db81 Landscape designer Georgina Reid presents her new project created in one of the suburbs of Sydney, Australia.
d2672dc7e8d79b01aebcf2a86ff03b97d0099549 This house and garden belongs to furniture designer Jonathan West and his wife Shauna and their 4 year old daughter Zora.
8141b856e3f260066843a2850f68ebb88fe8a16e They bought this...
77e53a9758fcaf0148703ffe2f444503e756c927 October 28, 2014, 17: 19
fb55e3808f4a1802521a5c8b4d1f837338fb00b6 Unique garden in tropical style 1
973425b8ab3d8d9a5c89682693b1aa73da6c6542 A real oasis of tropical abundance is nestled in a garden in the north western part of Sydney, and it belongs to Helen Curran.
055be2c50697faefdf58d456baafd7904c47274b The woman herself has been engaged in landscaping her plot for many years.
8911503fd974e34ae0308727692d100c43a2ebbb She admits that the garden is the fruit of her...
b07635f84f268f95692e98c7535ed3c1a69845ac October 15, 2014, 20: 43
f116626c1c8c61c6a3f50a54d46feedb8bd83e77 How to create a modern garden on a steep slope 3
f4fd214f6dd9c744622a63034414fbe935275b2a In this article, using the example of a successful landscape project called "Hilgard Garden", we will talk about the features of arranging a garden on a really steep slope.
4ac9751d1961d8879c8ce1f529295a608d8668d7 The focus is on cascading structures that allow not only to plant the right ones...
a00c2c3ef538e4b27d5df3d28ad1ada6d4b981da March 3, 2015, 23: 56
6c1103758b9940f4664e4718579c16965397c6d1 An empty plot.
b68c81370985b43aa53da86ed9c7b6d7ec074202 I think how to plan what to plant without overloading it too much?
d6d4904aa0038887eb67ef3d7cc0636c95b7c917 A question from our subscriber Irina: While I'm all in search...
dcce49c972455a8e918bfcf42e165bbbed52ad65 There is a plot of virgin empty so far, I'm thinking how to plan what to plant, without overloading it much.
6f8f058fe9ced0644cd20e44db7146e7a7778b9f There is no photo.
761bb3e7626cb1074b626c0189637f698031bde4 On this issue, I think these articles will be useful: The basics of design...
a23d6ed59d983c27e4d6e7221420d45cb3aab646 September 17, 2014, 20: 04
8e3293b6e9bf5070f4234bf914f483b097f16228 Photos from the Australian Landscape Design Competition 0
8842096b806823ac8ec959f3593bee490c90f628 Every year, the Australian Institute of Landscape Designers and Managers (AILDM) hosts the most professional show of this direction in the country.
2501d8ff9ecb8ec3fda928055eb238ea59919e58 A high bar that implies not...
38e69db82849b067489f0f96564f5683c1407295 elenadmi
89523ef08f5e50119459a9dae7adc1e3d91acf8d July 13, 2015, 05: 14
23bd13255321db829011ed8d3043144a9abe9885 My favorite conifers!
a59512fa2b5b9ee3a773039589ec4e29f3eb4c64 design and design of the site photo
97b0d0a01060286d6b8c2dda4f9cad7581d96172 Try to search for the materials of our club using Yandex.
1ab2027b5ebffaedfbfbbd7cb391500d2f2ef5a1 Search!
8e44bd79eff997eca8920d65c5aab324fbbe8d1c Lunar sowing calendar for January 13, 2016
560c390fa14d8afd08c7ce425ec7bbfe86d00e51 5 lunar day, the growing Moon in Pisces.
da66a6d3b98d618b2ffde5d5eac480a73f51053d On this day, it is recommended to do planting.
1e7b341ce8239bfa596dca879e283adcba925945 Sow radishes and fast growing greens (arugula, spinach, mustard leaf, watercress, coriander).
b4f5504999445f530eb7c5fbdcb7b403bc190846 A good day for sowing vegetables for seedlings, especially eggplants.
2fdbe66475393b1604c0b192f652887354f77549 You can plant flower annuals (carnation)...
59a5c610074c286a10825ef707f885904486b0d0 read more
df10f532376eaacb309d969700fb981a2cb6d224 Next day Previous day
7a8e4d58b9eb96c0486c7547ebf4694d650e66d6 Subscribe to the lunar calendar:
36a021ff755e3817f1772cf0092e8f38ecc5209d We will send you the lunar calendar once a day.
ff313120f7354ca6ae3e07a50db57345bd7914d7 Seasonal work in the garden and vegetable garden: the second week of January 1
cccd198ab07c42a09303679ee91e9abdf5caf03c Flipping through the national calendar: the first week of January 4
8bd542847aca3fc625cbcc0e02f48376d02fa8fe 7 simple and affordable plants that will get rid of winter colds 36
e8b735ed689b66ecd770e1e9b67da680480d0d68 Firewood - good and different 6
59838a86f213cec9bc43f255ef3a32a90b1486ee How to grow radishes on the windowsill 6
6da7add12a36d30f9d4b10fbcb1e972d3485bf79 Flower beds in the country: which one to choose?
c38e6dc594e9ee16bea6e255ea99c0aaefdc0a05 Walnut is the tree of life.
d8183b8ae9ff7ed25679cd1a9d9ff4923f54d11f Walnut planting, cultivation and care 42
e1a67bbcd6abd1c3191d37f431101a33ef2b8e34 Tuya the charm of your garden 10
e3d92dbba2e6c7d9b8718f5b3ab96610758fccbb Ash for YOUR soil 25
2ddc857455c923ab22eb1bfc865bda28e18dc959 Notes of an old grump - The history of the creation of high beds 38
f4211fb6365677ac8896a87f645686f23873bca7 How to save apples until spring 12
98df84622dda9392939c445d2c87e48348a29458 Unusual pelargonium, or the usual geranium.
7588901a17bb04f56d09755ab9a3fcf39799b697 Planting in the garden and care 17
43cb685fa6843601ef7e3a2d46ca852b7e718bc6 The best decorative shrubs for the country 13
4e656a289ae1f38b858d6a151983ba26da456d75 It will be relevant soon
6932c776c687b00dd5741bb0c0dd875b0bc55b43 What problems can await in the spring at the dacha, and how to cope with them?
38468dda3fd84a66346827f5424f9c1827e8dff5 4 steps to a good petunia seedling 101
98d5d8f5a722a08f5a10a14f6f14dafc233f98be How to choose varieties of sweet pepper 15
154a072df7879d8bb9c529ad941af00e1207414f Reviews of the masters
b53b0ccfa395100a60d9bce06ed2114b7b873be9 Pavel
fbaf9050a346eb2eca86e4a9b7ba862e5cc70cd8 Chernyakhov Alexander Gennadievich
128a7a64be182b365777b80b0ec65391dd857c52 electrical installation works
a8bc855626c82c7bb1dcc5f6b6b0e8b05dd726a7 Alexander Gennadievich did ceiling painting for me.
32bcff0dcdc9fb9e5c19345d7d713f8610c66179 I am satisfied.
d6da5b0863168e7da4dd8cd4e2640f0a3f8f2c33 I am very happy.
240932ebe9b698eaa746a058fd6bfa26d85d80f2 I liked the approach of the master - he does it qualitatively, pays a lot of attention to details.
288ee9dbd23c060826c5390ee49563de4e9b6c0c He promptly started everything, did it.
d9050118e388df2685ff5b85c461462b9311cca3 I have no complaints, comments, everything is very good.
f05424488d9ff646fc903a5f45427ed1f8ba692b Talmach George
2ff4cb6e7edc4bbeb6fa99c5b4462998afb3a6ad Talmach George was repairing the ceiling after a leak from the neighbors.
85b61a15e3fca022b53c94b563267d10ec5a2e7d The master showed himself to be a responsible person, he arrived exactly at the time for which we agreed.
429c89b2451f136d54c790395fa8e01a0b493f26 Quickly, efficiently and accurately put the ceiling in order.
266d65b60b431196eedb9659220ae006d90a419b And in terms of price, I took it not expensive.
88c1c632a3076b9c69651956dda488c7d194a04c The work of the master was completely satisfied.
999697c80ac7b2df3a2e687042d2b28fe4c520d3 Denis
fd1b112b0505c1b28873dffc8c40a1480f811640 Koryavka Nikolay Ivanovich
74f212d582325abdc004cadab9f6247bcbcb4561 minor household repairs
4172f1887539625310ccf54396dac5036dc20de5 The master turned the part according to the sample.
7408b8aeb62b100361b2e9b5b99685fba374513a An excellent, professional and responsible specialist, I am satisfied with the result of my work.
710689724688f399e9d200d136d47be8442d1126 Venus
a31f62db6b1fe08d1d6f9ba8aa0211aa8b559796 Manvel Marlenovich Harutyunyan
8f204a8126aa0a450fac6cc4ec30431ef13a8e81 The master made stained glass shelves with lighting.
0067c366d10f58ee126a5c2fad5f4a14f816c391 I am satisfied with the result, I liked everything.
5c57556357f73c0b6b6921b7502b4520388df830 Dmitry
7a51fe5c89441230f7af6143e65f39b7e3a92a9c Bezverkhov Alexander Viktorovich
919990f8cbbc6c0412788be1d8492f39b6119d4b A wonderful master!
b2e1d03c3f53560505868c33132ba104db625b46 Thank you very much for advising me to work with Alexander.
183caf6a4ac1ab9d22c590a4f3165e3ecaf01a0e The rating is "7" on a five point scale.
ac10a306fc5ad624e67d58aa7e6caaf6129973a6 Mila
6faf72075a5469302b183426123257b6780d1917 Raksha Alexey Vasilyevich
64168e4966d9202fe807b6a5dc485055857baeec Master OF GOLDEN HANDS!
5c27660f4162fb9fb650196f8b3b86f1051df8d8 Works quickly, efficiently, good tools, punctual,you can trust!
c663e51b4c3e0d3fb68237174073253d6be293c6 Does not smoke!!
5cde49b4dcc196e4d9d8e7e3a3d9b5e6026eb1b3 For me, this is also important, since in addition to the garbage after the workers, I had to clean up the cigarette butts.
d05295b05e9dedd57907490cb0b1e0db7a266a6a I invited them to lay tiles in the gazebo, I did the work very well , I was satisfied !!! I would like to meet more such masters...thanks to the company and Alexey.
5a0c48c116b54cac08c55264b6328d45956db999 Ivan
b961b135629f804f8925afd8660bee9856d789e2 Glodeanu Maxim Andreevich
e705387fac84e9ee6057b1b21677a90166c8f493 Work – kitchen apron, ~3 m2.
d0fdf9f0af664a85c2280c3e4080aff3adae9b1c The work was done accurately and promptly (the next day after the inspection).
b83ec59dc9f60c431c34100c7213f5eada906bcd There are no noticeable shortcomings, I am quite satisfied with the result.
7b37259e149636e3330d530cbf408f2b8c1eda6a Daniel
1ce469695b2a96077852a16e5855ee4a7c8ec1ce Viktor V. Perlin
47549889a94d2f5a4e3488bb5d206434b0116251 I started working on the promised date.
569bd480eb8e5732774a74ddc4ca2eecede1e23e Despite the fact that it turned out to be more difficult than I expected, Victor quickly and accurately coped.
5b2fdeaba5bc53cf776758ae41661ba42760f705 I was correct regardless of the number of my "delitanstky" questions.
33aba18cf411a90245d9d2ed66c2c7b7563d60b6 Alexander
5500b3144675558c1f320d38d2e14e451516797a Zaitsev Anton Alexandrovich
d3df3f581df37504e85392311d9e0144ff7c7df4 wallpapering
4d743cf28e0107cde8938c4d0617d6feb30e746b Anton Alexandrovich coped perfectly with the tile cladding of the facade of the building, there are no complaints.
c3ab9528a495bbcc0f14875e3bc77dbf61c921f2 Alexander, Inna
5906d3ad4a9e4f61d56817f1add8190a4e05217a Golovinsky Igor Vladislavovich
d63497c53c06e9d6a3846e9f6f60baba75a29c1f plumbing works
fe3f5ea6b4955b22e5cb3c2f2e7fd1fbc34106c7 I have a gas floor boiler installed in my house with a cast iron heat exchanger and an atmospheric gas burner, combined with Logalux ST and Logalux SU water heaters from the Buderus program standing next to the tanks.
77798ed5efa9e6ebf985494c665743cfcecebce4 Previously, I had a person who served this boiler, but now I decided to understand his work myself and I needed a consultation.
566c33b27e163564fbda8f9470d6b0e3529699e3 Igor Vladislavovich reacted very quickly, arrived earlier than I had planned, showed me everything, explained everything.
7f5c58e66f3258a170c99654b8288dc31040c4a1 He gave additional recommendations for replacing the sensor.
2e9bb295744a5c93bac30dbb5e080fc3dd1f0c5b I was very satisfied, there are no questions!
5098d27bdbffbbc4bf7482e7b2fd9b310d99375c Everything I wanted to hear, I heard and received competent advice.
84726f5df2b4db057ffb0b1fc25e3bdcd259e8a2 It turned out that I solved the problem on the same day!
7a11232e87700553b80779766433579d48cc855e New questions
5da9a362b62da5b2cd1951102b2bc8103ee5b4a9 When buying seeds, is it right to be guided by: the head, the heart or the eyes?
55f7ec1ff83b51d2f92e572bc0a691a5edb3504f When there is a strong wind, snow blows away from the building.
2e742a218d76b31fd42ffda5b4690fb53cff3331 What can be done in this case?
d5b1383f934ed3220f7d15032399ece0a1b397ee Is it possible to grow large root celery in the Urals?
9db10319402225e19ddcb6c7bbae8fa2c05209cb If possible, how?
73e15291b0201b0f348843a197b830a7bd468ce0 Is it possible to use the soil from the forest plantation for planting cucumbers in the greenhouse?
9ea77a1d05bf141eed3169e650356384f155f2ca How to properly prune young blackberry bushes of Natchez, Chester, Triple Crown, Loch Tay varieties?
0c71b984ab53f47c60a082c3c7df86be79632566 Help to choose plants for a hedge plot in a subtropical forest 0
f9c8ad5cc0ec79ab4ea6560c7f098b420fe45aa7 How to properly vaccinate a walnut in winter?
cb2f30029f515190585d16662f0cd6230f7d0509 Help me unsubscribe!
60a41e264396b4215cba06454559f1c81d882d35 Do I need a bottom in the compost bin?
4770ca797aca17c4d2d312b764d9e3cca45f833d Does anyone have experience growing potatoes in bags?
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521f9cb9f3b41105d7df3885e346af6ff8807aff Prechistenka
7e71e3e1356c1280968c2d66abdd626776aa45f3 (redirected from "Prechistenka Street")
19ff2813895bd896138cb6dda41da7029b7cd715 This term has other meanings, see Prechistenka (meanings).
704a0ad5783fe335e21824e5169dc0ec8659cf60 The estate of the Khrushchevs Seleznevs on Prechistenka Street General information Country Russia
45c581d1a075b0a65729a624cdbb2b05aa5532ab Length 1,125 km
fdb5a345b5bb13963053bfe1cd678fd2978cca67 The nearest metro stations are Kropotkinskaya, Park Kultury
1192800356548a08495a9d0e138836cb986dfeb2 Postal code 119019 (№ 2/3), 119021 (№ 39/22), 119034 (other houses and institutions)
85c6124f948ef6f3d77c2eed8895d679bc2d75b8 Prechistenka Street on Wikimedia Commons
8e413a8663933dbb6f0637d1d0707c4da97fee4d Coordinates: 55°44'33" s. w.
138825c58715d65943ec522824ad637ebc74681b 37°35'44" v. d.
efd554b8baa6efe14592f917cd1497955ca615ca / 55.7425° s. w.
ef5d60236a62e0528cc804aebbe4e9885d6b5fd5 37.5956° v. d.
9856b06add7753151194b074c4967b6818bd6ec7 / 55.7425; 37.5956 (G) (O)
9951d504d757e62b377922c23955e26addf645b4 Prechistenka Street (before 1658 — Chertolskaya, Pokrovskaya, then Prechistenskaya, Prechistenka, in 1921-1990 Kropotkinskaya[1]) is a street in the Central Administrative District of the city of Moscow.
d3f0d5084b4243da27a2185d4a6d9fc6cfdf5a38 It runs from Prechistensky Gate Square to Zubovskaya Square, located between Ostozhenka and Arbat streets.
50dddfe409856c490baf0e38965ce97e816cc37d 4 Monuments and Sculptures 5 Transport 6 Street in Works of Literature and Art 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 References
05ab0481f68a4fe389bfabb234dd1d7ac7d08ac4 Urban development along the street began to take shape in the last third of the XVI century, after the establishment of the oprichnina, in which, by the order of Ivan the Terrible, Chertolskaya Street was included "with the Semchinsky village and up to the vspolya..."
b64ed2967c853ec61edfb578cdf5cce64048da92 [2].
2afafc1bd9c6a5ce6517aa09e6207151a98ef065 On the opposite side of the street, near the fortifications of the Earthen City, there was a settlement of another Streletsky order, founded in 1633.
6a58bdb5d424315021e4dc9258e86884662048c7 Its first commander was Ivan Alferyevich Begichev.
1f4b9a4fefa9a65653863d486c9ec84d5f224473 In the 1650s and 1670s, the order was commanded by the father and son of Zubov Dmitry Ivanovich and Ivan Dmitrievich, whose last name formed the name of the area - "Zubovo", which in turn later gave names to the nearby Zubovsky Boulevard and the square.
048817e44e30cd65a4dee745d2c7dd6c871a26da The last commander of the regiment was Stolnik Tikhon Khristoforovich Gundertmark.
8b809ac1b93d9f188ca1cb2461f4d9491968383d Under him, the Zubovsky Streltsy took part in the Azov campaigns of Peter I, and then in the famous Streltsy riot of 1698.
7806b208a95c410a9c78a84303b956da217f21ed After its suppression, most of the local Streltsy were executed during the mass Streltsy executions.
6db5868e894f272f7b02db7de16d0e52c2d7f17c Their neighbors the former Levshinsky Streltsy under the new commander Mikhail Fedorovich Sukharev, after the end of the Azov campaigns were determined to "live forever" in Kiev.
10cbea2bd143d0a038b52ab68b5b61b6eada5926 The settlements of both Streletsky regiments were abolished by royal decree in 1699[3].
ed680727f3c935bff09a89683c578924e81a87d8 The surnames of its famous homeowners have been preserved in the names of the lanes Vsevolozhsky, Lopukhinsky, Eropkinsky, etc. Until the 1930s, the vast estates of Khrushchev and Stepanov, laid out under Catherine II, were preserved on Prechistenka.. however, in the second half of the XIX century, the land passed into merchant hands, and the Morozovs and Konshins appeared in the list of homeowners.
7ab420a4958121e94d3a4e09094a8071f7714c88 In 1921, Prechistenka Street was renamed Kropotkinskaya in honor of the Russian revolutionary anarchist P.
aba7c3076f835b110d861d0a767ef9c44ea5ee4b A. Kropotkin, who was born in one of the Prechistensky Lanes — in the Regular (since 1921 — Kropotkinsky).
fe468a55b40e7ed253e856f1d3727a5f16fbb98d White chambers on Prechistenka Street
0617d52deffb770b4e272362f48d0bdfcb1073cd City estate (house No. 5)
738d3800819fab040146ccabd6d0a0ab0d27ab4d 1/2 chambers of the XVII century ("White Chambers") — the main house of the estate of Prince B. I. Prozorovsky, an object of cultural heritage of federal significance[4].
82c0b45405d9e00ee39b84f732a73c344378f859 It was rebuilt in two stages in 1685.
3c25ad5678c74db4d194f21c62d99e3e04fac884 It was renovated in 1995.[5][6]
0f8ddf56a9db59815c68734ad4273886a5c0cc2f In January 2009, lawyer Stanislav Markelov and journalist Anastasia Baburova were killed on the sidewalk in front of the building.
32d0bd834588263a24b41f5a2fedf9469bf906a5 5 p.
fccec34ad6168bba394098fe5f0f460e815b9102 1 the house of Princess Saltykova Golovkina (1st third of the XVIII century; 2nd half of the XIX century) [7]. No.
6694eefe06b97d9c7e08596a2902f3a00fe08def 7 the city estate of V.
2f262e4f4b89367fc8d8d1a9e48f77735108fce1 A. Vsevolzhsky (the end of the XVIII century; 1810-1820; 1844; 1867 alteration of facades)[7].
543eb9c73dd3a18c6504a1d95f506cfe443a9830 In the 1870s, the building housed the Polytechnic Museum; in the 1920s the editorial office of the newspaper "Red Warrior".
8f6b8fa0c3ac6bda879cc503692d24ad5923362d Vsevolozhsky Lane facing Prechistenka is named after the homeowner[8].
aecab9855ea9e5065707cb2e16f15804165703d6 L. N. Tolstoy Museum on Prechistenka
c734a52e98247308d037358008a525118114df60 9 apartment house of E.
570c5c9b3579c6f972c0031861925f766d599526 A. Kostyakova (1910, architect N. I. Zherikhov)[7].
ce0491c35a941a1fe33829dffc99a2d132fd5b7f The pianist and composer A. B. Goldenweiser lived in the house[9].
a5826e2a359f16de3c2ddf7bd5747caa1f67a4c6 11, architectural monument (federal) — the main house of the city estate of the Lopukhin Stanitskys (1817-1822, architect A. G. Grigoriev[7]; rebuilt in 1895 by S. U. Solovyov), since 1920 — the State Museum of L. N. Tolstoy[8].
83fd36c9cba6b5cceea0888c63b75cfb5527a8b7 In the courtyard there is a monument to L. N. Tolstoy (1926, sculptor S. D. Merkurov, granite), moved in 1972 from the Devichy Pole Square[4].
f0c570585575c7fb3762bce3f178a513f8a75b0b In the telephone directory of 1908, the phone number of F. P. Ryabushinsky was indicated at this address.
ad19459be93e5f4376ab169ad8e64013d5bb25a2 Until 1917, the industrialist and Moscow mayor M. V. Chelnokov lived in the house[10].
4dd5c761c9d9b879f72ab4931d1f5dfab02bcefb 13/7, p.
413ca4dac6992bd89255c64b4a54b9d404c64825 1, Central Federal District apartment house of Ya.
b8fa1ea4575952119890ba67af4f70021254d359 A. Rekka (1911-1913, architect G. A. Gelrich)[4][7].
1cf96f6bfedf2062c1b81e921dbe4d258e6e4f99 It was reconstructed in 2011 according to the project of the architectural bureau Project Z (architect Alexander Zelikin).
c93c10304ee9331dea14ac47346c98fd8039ea6d There is a panoramic elevator in the building, and a two level parking lot in the underground part.
64ddb2bd99917f7677c7a79992321eda3de7861f 15 residential building (Tver branch of the Ladies ' Guardianship of the Poor) (1st third of the XVIII century; 2nd half of the XIX century)[7].
6620387da544de4a5f41c0bcff430f8a71d50042 17/9 apartment house (1874, architect A. L. Ober), based on the chambers of the XVIII century.
5abcbfbc1b0c27018a0d55f6f6c57e50e1b6438f 17, 17/10 — the Bibikov Davydov estate, belonged to the police chief N. P. Arkharov, who rebuilt the chambers of the early XVIII century in the style of early classicism in the 1770s.
ca05670b7bd02e539c92a7fc015a83c7c95cc08c Then the estate was owned by General Bibikov and the poet D. V. Davydov.
f9a4f60bfcfae3ddea23c7842912c7cd3df0a302 After the change of several owners and a series of alterations, the female gymnasium of S.
c55e7077333598e0504935da9ccf339626f61a04 A. Arsenyeva was located in the estate.
a222771363978c5f9f378336fba83e46e8cc9ab3 Prechistenka, 22, 19
d6852530f97d9b503baef63a3c5858b928631df8 19/11, p.
756d485c7d410f5133ab4da7027bd7497874a2e2 1 - the house of Prince A. N. Dolgorukov (1780s, architect M. F. Kazakov (presumably); 1847; 1869[7]), an object of cultural heritage of regional significance[4].
8f72863ca2b6ca2b27b6aec83353b9de377c6565 Built in the 1780s, the house burned in 1812 and was rebuilt until 1847.
fe5704361f2874d6e9101372f8914fd69c8197ed In 1869, the Alexander Mariinsky Educational Institution for noble Maidens, which belonged to the general's wife Chertova, appeared here.
3daaeac4750b70069ce7f1e95e2c3990b2ebc13b At the end of 1921, a part of the Red Army Military Academy moved here.
53890f97cb24feb3ed51044e1995797fe5a9cd8b From 1992 to 1997, the Central Television and Radio Broadcasting Studio of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation was located.
74784cd899c5d46ea56148b3571349a0af41ae36 Now here is the museum and exhibition complex of the Russian Academy of Arts "Zurab Tsereteli Art Gallery".
9993e3a8967cbb2e3874ce6fd39df395736f6496 Morozov's House
ae563bce1ad1a6c3d46605c7b5419e798c25bd21 21/12, an architectural monument (federal) — the house of Count S. P. Potemkin, later A. I. Morozov
b3ba38203043ea56ed8c7d846fc195d6f1198b17 (XVIII the beginning of the XIX century; it was rebuilt several times: in 1871 — by the architect P. S. Campioni; in 1872 — by A. S. Kaminsky; in the 1890s — by M. I. Nikiforov; in 1904-1906 — by L. N. Kekushev[7]).
20170c65cc0bd7b48f6e682680e5d8c642b20ecf In 1918-1948, the Museum of New Western Art was located here[4].
42e2d2327ad40c82b0850802a933af115ea08273 Since 1948, the buildings of the estate have housed the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Arts (RAH), the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the RAH and the exhibition halls of the RAH.
f365cf9607eacd29c3769c8f609a21f08e5d8435 In the late 1990s, a complete restoration of the main building of the estate was carried out.
d274eaff8e759401782abff4a86a8bf50ed8d42b 23/16/15, p .
fa5ed841d39f9372a3bc49661e15a7c5f81ce0ac 1, architectural monument (newly identified object) — the main house of the city estate of A. I. Tatishchev — A. F. Lopukhin (before 1802; 1813-1822; 1860; 1900-1906)[4]. No.
ff781bbaa4790b35694bb02bdba94062ae0a6315 25 apartment house N.
099e366ca3b057a70a0a9e3b0c0801a00d276583 A. Ulikh (1911-1912, architect V. A. Rudanovsky)[7] No.
41ec8b73e055954d24e1e1b1ac13081dbe812e66 27 apartment house of A. P. Polovinkin (1910-1911, architect V. K. Kildishev)[7]
e9d638da0ee3182aaa8b2ab841b9fba0127382ee 29 apartment house (1910, architect A. A. Ostrogradsky) No.
20ed203c245b80546cfa96fbbc24d219c4e134b1 31/16 residential house of police officers (1935-1937, architect Z. M. Rosenfeld)[7][8][11].
6fcd2e99455b29c70d6759ca44d2dc6b60473fe8 Until 1933, the Church of the Life Giving Trinity in Zubov stood on this site[12].
9dacfb69202cf2607766723e802603326b67e57f 33/19, p.
d790247d433313e2d5bdcdd649689879cd3a7ce2 1 — apartment house (1905, architect S. F. resurrection) No.
8da56ffe6c40c1420905d6bc31a5152e44041555 2, the monument (regional) — house P. I. Golokhvastov with cellars (1782-1785; 1786; the XIX century)[4]. No.
2075e2801bdcbc0d5a2f18ece1d811402a422504 35, monument (Federal) estate of P.
d9a58d90cb8baed9a5c3eba941255e1281bb4500 A. Samsonov (1813-1817, 1865)[4][7].
e6f42f8a132970e902206b4af5fa97d4b550c557 37 the mansion of M. N. Maksheev Moshonov (1901, architect A. O. Gunst).
858bcc997d94b3e09e380764431096bd371e78c1 39 the Likhutin apartment house (1st stage (along Prechistenka Street) - 1892, architect A. A. Ostrogradsky; 2nd stage (along Zubovsky Boulevard) - 1913, architect I. S. Kuznetsov).
1d90aaf0f2cd142d5df65d7190ef6a6b92f8e814 The poet and artist Polixena Solovyova lived in the house[13].
351a0017cf0c356f70f55718d9857a1dd9a80e4d In 1899-1900, M.
bab31bf1d87b297e8bbc1b3d369ef4fe6bb26ffb A. Vrubel rented an apartment in this house, here he worked on his famous paintings "Pan" and "The Swan Princess".
8179138dc069c8e409a35b4b6de1cf9b0eb021f1 The composer N.
ab812df2bc6ecfc3e8b0f8fb06f96aaac5aeb6f9 A. Rimsky Korsakov, who came from St. Petersburg, visited the artist.
250259a82b05d0711c6d6eb8313752a3a0415237 The philosopher V. S. Solovyov also visited this house in 1881-1897.
4f2a63379de6c012eeb9c9dc476fa78a43f8070d I. P. Isakov's apartment house (No. 28)
771644cd56f46fd9b2e7c1261575bf90519731fa Polivanovskaya Gymnasium (No. 32)
3a01634273f46fe6d0bd72d81cabdbea67096ef5 4 - the house of S. I. Volkonskaya (late XVIII early XIX centuries; 1817) [7]
427addbee7b9de297bc4b172aa3392a1300ab907 6, an architectural monument (a newly identified object) - the pharmacy of A. Forbriher[7] ("Prechistenskaya Pharmacy")
cc864c6adbaa836948b04d340208f278a1154c77 (1780s;
f1d5e772fcaf0d7b224db2fe8a2a537b84344f0a XVIII XIX centuries).
9f99874fda975cd65fd2f4d2403e029b6bf6f842 The pharmacy has been located in the building since the 80s of the XVIII century[4].
7d45ae75b48af99445f608d4f8575815a0a3de2e The architect S. V. Barkov lived in the house[14].
bdc32fc4f0f2ea8afcdf582ed82c69d57e698f46 8 — the house of the XVIII century, based on the chambers of the XVII century.
9ace0d111c5c2c5ccc38369f8c70a1ea2f40ecc8 10/2, p.
f30b4046b15ff58a834b756e2894764c29f0a46d 1 the main house of the city estate of A. T. Rzhevsky Likhachev M. Philip (V. A. Obrezkova) (mid XVIII 1st half of the XIX century; rebuilt in 1890 by architect N. G. Lazarev; 1907[7]), an object of cultural heritage of regional significance[4].
0709e93fea6ccd40ddea0b74e07efea1cc4f2bca In 1839-1842, the owner of the estate was the Decembrist M. F. Orlov.
d53b13564ef44d7b24c073360c3c32af267435f2 The landscape artist I. I. Levitan lived here in 1885, and the poet B. L. Pasternak lived here in 1915.
78d81422f46cde02412c65e89c829de71eda13ce At the end of the XIX century, the house belonged to V.
810f086fd540d4064bf60c11af29a57cbe4a95fb A. Morozova; in 1897-1908, Prechistensky working courses were located here[15].
eb69c4a9ef26a8324dfd511294f54799ae8917db In 1942-1948, the Jewish Anti Fascist Committee worked in the building[16].
17bb03692e158954c96c4c27fa4372aadd5ae8f4 12/2/1 the estate of the Khrushchevs Seleznevs (1814-1816, architect A. G. Grigoriev[7]; the winter garden was added in 1881 by architect N. A. Artemovsky), an object of cultural heritage of federal significance[4].
6f02373f7c7fdc70355d40c43e91b2f16cc385e5 A monument to the pupils of the Moscow special artillery schools who showed courage and heroism in the Great Patriotic War.
fb36b6326c10b93af1d45f825a230db95c32a0e3 In the main house on the corner of Khrushchevsky Lane is the Pushkin Museum.
6eb81c5c3989fa873ed75306fd12947365656b7a 12/2/1, p.
6d78a586c01302ba2a0a132bdd37d1cc2ab8f482 8 school building (1930s, architects M. O. Barsch, G. A. Zundblat)[17]. No.
40bc7cb5c338035d4f3e0548b5c4a4e20ed2057f 14 — a house of the XIX century based on the chambers of the XVII century.
eafa4d2b648b846e0260bf53c6a5cca8d06d5fae 16/2, p .
a2b1fc88c6f122379680e239b715780e3032f8fe 1, architectural monument (federal) - the house of A. I. Konshina (1st floor of the XVIII century; perestroika: 1908-1910, architect A. O. Gunst; the new part (right) - 1932, architects the Vesnin brothers[7]) [4]. On this place, before the fire of 1812, there was the house of I. P. Arkharov; the ashes were bought in 1818 by Ivan Alexandrovich Naryshkin, who built a new building; then Musin Pushkin became the owner; later the house passed to Princess Gagarina, then to the princes Trubetskoy, finally, in 1865, the Trubetskoy estate was purchased in the name of his wife Alexandra Ivanovna Konshina (nee Ignatova, 1838-1914), millionaire manufacturer Ivan Nikolaevich Konshin (in 1867, the estate was rebuilt for the first time).
8720fea604bfb2f5a9118bfded3b693b6d4fc171 Before the October Revolution, the entrepreneur A. I. Putilov owned the mansion.
e0301076456745ea1fd7bd3af8ae49133887004d Since 1922, the House of Scientists has been located here.
31f31c43950df20c956d881b12c6828579807154 20 V. D. Konshin's mansion (1st half of the XIX century; 1873 alteration of facades, architect A. S. Kaminsky)[7]. A. P. Ermolov, the hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, lived in this house and died in 1861; until 1884, the owner was V. D. Konshin, then V. I. Firsanova, and since 1900 — the millionaire entrepreneur A. K. Ushkov[18]; in 1921-1922, the choreographic studio A. Duncan was located in the building; in the same years, the poet S.
7a9959aeac06bb5b9fe9b272aa0c8e9a03ce5e26 A. Yesenin lived and worked here.
fa76c40883cb9b6d751ce53497f7b19346b49d5b An object of cultural heritage of federal significance.
4e89fc98dae92bffa63bb48c2d44a83205084595 22, architectural monument (federal) — the main building of the Prechistenskaya fire station (Moscow Fire Station), based on the residential house of N. I. Rtishchev, A. P. Ermolov (1764; 1800; 1817-1820; 1835-1836, architect M. F. Kazakov (presumably); 1915)[4][7].
f82737c5fd3fb37c1ddfdfc6fcd942122924b5ab Here, in 1834, A. I. Herzen was under arrest.
d937527e2dbb9ee2358f45ce14b49d61fe825b98 24 the apartment house of S. F. Kulagin (1904, architect S. F. Kulagin) — "Kalabukhov House", the house of Professor Preobrazhensky in the story of M.
6259993e44fa9333d86659ba864eb779c1c26661 A. Bulgakov "The Heart of a Dog" No.
a17502a4113349f35aa717f67bc5b6e53298d428 28, an architectural monument (federal) — the apartment house of I. P. Isakov (Moscow Trade and Construction Joint Stock Company) (1904-1906, architect L. N. Kekushev[19])[4].
d7a76b04051fe0865c0c795ff8680a9e72dd4ea4 32 Okhotnikov House, XVIII XIX centuries, was built anew shortly after the fire of 1812; the building was rebuilt many times.
992e9a25f59aca4bcc0d19f9b470e9b86957e774 In 1915-1917, under the owner V. I. Firsanova, the main house was rebuilt according to the project of architect A. I. Tamanyan[7].
43c0ec18cf5e938492b62f153af8b8265b7abd74 In 1868-1917, the private men's gymnasium of L. I. Polivanov was located here.
cd89b975452be5c728fb3358210acfb5ba474acd Here he studied Vladimir Solovyev, V. Y. Bryusov (excluded for the atheistic ideas of school Kramena), Andrew White, M.
46bce1c136f0a5c8f4358e6b1b0582c193089e59 A. Voloshin, Vadim Shershenevich, Sergey Shervinsky, Sergei Efron, Nicholas Poznyakov chess champion Alexander Alekhine, sons of F. M. Dostoyevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. N. Pleshcheeva, A. N. Ostrovsky, etc.
7caf306b858da13aff6aac5d914ce2c9cba254f8 32, in the courtyard the Stepanovs 'city estate" with a circus umference"[20], XIX century.
4082d1f3a2d2202334eb6f88cc0822ce3fff17be 36, p .
f0f0f8c6f78a8a76715d0b80676c772baf983d69 2, an architectural monument (a newly identified object) — the Naumov Volkonsky residential house (1833; 1897).
50766364fa571750b42acbb802634ae585f65254 Since 1926, the building has housed the N. K. Krupskaya library[4].
7c0e38cb95737c3ad03ee046da852b5235616aaa Since the late 1960s, the building housed the workshop of the restorer Savva Yamshchikov[21].
359e0df33af8990da12b6579549fde09c2160fd8 40/2 apartment house of L. M. Matveevsky (change of facades, 1913, architect A. O. Gunst).
a84edf433bdc2e902a78bd81452bae05fbb536f9 Monuments and sculptures[edit / edit wiki text]
5f29ead7437d186a724387bab74dfa06d3e0b7f0 Monument to V. I. Surikov (2003, sculptor M. V. Pereyaslavets, architect A. P. Semenov) [22]. Installed in front of house No.
63c2bbb4959100e780987cd7922385898930a8e4 30/2.
52e02c6e36e6350522334e38bf251114fbb64b72 Kropotkinskaya metro station; trolleybus 15; bus 05, 015.
dd93d8c1aa891505599a862770424eff140db54b Street in works of literature and art[edit / edit wiki text]
1e4ff0f60e17c055043c4d62bf4edecd185fde38 Prechistenka is mentioned in the works of A. S. Pushkin, B. L. Pasternak, M.
4822f668dfe2750da90c6361c2aeeb5149723c7e A. Bulgakov.
d0331d3d694ec756db8907fa9073f290f40ecca1 When Potemkin in the dark
b5efb41fa00e6542ae40e5bcb91a0735e7555926 I'll find it on Prechistenka,
f078dead6eb755b3696f6793013b94e26421fca5 Then let it be with Bulgarin in the descendants
92992a606181800e5cc8151bb6c7bfc53db63188 I will be put alongside
a0dfaff763c5aa576ac5d3e2254d580d4d652f4a - A. S. Pushkin
6bbdf5e215a4e41c01e5912e898dddca09619626 "Let it be: once there is a social revolution — there is no need to drown.
94c4742c6e3bce9af45e8a7e2af9ca5e649016cd But I ask: why, when this whole story began, did everyone start walking up the marble stairs in dirty galoshes and felt boots?
28d48c4f1581cb92cd32a44489149e64e3f394b7 Why do galoshes still need to be locked up?
e8ff1162f88c0fd9e24df13dcef9056da52ed4f1 And even put a soldier to them so that someone does not steal them?
63492d77c095d276839d942ed27086b879d5c75e Why was the carpet removed from the main staircase?
21a8f73bb4e518cf2998e330cf3e6dddd3b94ec9 Does Karl Marx forbid keeping carpets on the stairs?
0b87cce48a688ee2816aad2b32933829bf847ff7 Does Karl Marx say somewhere that the 2nd entrance of the Kalabukhov house on Prechistenka should be boarded up and walk around through the black courtyard?
b5a42d88208f4bb99a10ebfb3b21a08cd982f1ed Who needs it?
97e36128b85cc0337b2578ab6f8ff6083dbdba88 Why canot a proletarian leave his galoshes down there, and dirty the marble?"
31103da19a9ed93a29df031e80df17c142cf4925 - M.
bec951ecbe57b6412da224a35db66e4ad70698fc A. Bulgakov, The heart of a Dog
40f48996e2d5c37d36886d8a1b6de5d11bf44e52 The world of Prechistenka and Arbat…
d90f2c24bdd0998fe568bcd36b93f8651c2c62a8 - Boris Pasternak
d8513abb6bc8ecfaa57bfe3f4c39ae8d3a0bfea3 Near the house number 14, according to the film "Guest from the Future", a trolleybus hit Alice Selezneva, who was running across Kropotkinskaya Street in pursuit of space pirates.
d9bd4c0bc570fb8e7237362cb04a283cd9baa6b8 Перейти Go to: 1 2 3 Moscow: all streets, squares, boulevards, alleys / Vostryshev M. I.-M.: Algorithm, Eksmo, 2010.
7f53e60e20c81921beab00c657ec7c1b987a935a 457-458 — - ISBN 978-5-699-33874-0.
8e9e815c5203880771bda36a6a91434d3814bd27 Учреждение The establishment of the Oprichnina in 1565 — The Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles.
9374ca85240711ff27adec52e9f4741bd6f52b66 St. Petersburg, 1906.
7eb8bd9298d48f8bfba85750852d66bc0049ebc0 Vol. XIII. pp.
9ea05ff6bcda685fca57c53b146949b5e0382a2d 391-396.
6b695f2967aadd7843add74fa9270bb75e09d2bc Source: a reader on the history of the USSR.
515be6bca9075f799937f33f684883da1b38e670 T. I / Sost.
7b875b7fb878bf0ac7e0a9353365056a2a465b6a V. Lebedev, and others.
faed0ded15fb53d5cd9663cf507527c292ea2a62 M., 1940 ↑ http://www.hramznameniya.ru/images/data/2.pdf ↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 The city register of the immovable cultural heritage of the city of Moscow.
fb09c29052fd35ff84f4adfa4e57cfa5230bd080 Verified on September 12, 2012.
250d408443c0edcf0b7fb9e6b0fb5e9cf52a2f82 ↑. "White Chambers" on Prechistenka photo ↑ Repin, L. Built a fortress.
0ef4678528142736c8718c591ded97f2d8e8214c // Komsomolskaya pravda.
7bdbfafb9a7916c1e798fccbc78c95cd66e43e02 — October 18, 2010.
14b708591332da29dd2b48dedca466a935c369ac — S. 27.
21bf1788b220a7c28e843e614bdf6113fae0a00e ↑ Jump to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Moscow: an Architectural guide / I. L. Buseva Davydova, M. V. nashchokina M. I. Astafieva Dlugach.
799447eef63990e4d0f7a9afdf5465199c9614ad — P. 281-287.
2ddabb1c6fa0cebd4fcead75e91f125c2d1a650a ↑ Go to: 1 2 3 Moscow: Encyclopedia, 1997, p. 662 ↑ Goldenweiser Alexander Borisovich.
776cb7dfea99368bff2ca9a176b86dd3327caf82 Checked on March 22, 2015.
bace813d75304a2780ac752c4fb8edc5a2424297 ↑ Dlugach V. L., Portugalov P.
a2a5d887e9f0f5d162886f12cb7fc1a8cb5a0408 A. Inspection of Moscow.
7e1c6c78222d2d60a7d80e40d8268681e2feecc9 - 2 E. -M.: Moskovsky rabochy, 1938.
5e35de62e7e60b1771c7a0fad60b98ee4c0079eb - p. 170 — - 267 p.
42180af8ccebb2936335f54ffba8a18e9e4f9bad - p. 390 — - 616 p.
91ea52f1e70e3768f45edeef79ecfdfe548abf80 ↑ Architectural monuments of Moscow.
084f6b7b465f56c842f55ed01eb706c75f0d3e87 Architecture of Moscow 1933-1941 / Author comp.
254c6622cf8c42681bb4f87be241e471f8d14f95 N. N. Bronovitskaya.
6ce8219fb3285a3b6e0722c4bba41339a82ac867 - M.: Art XXI century, 2015.
517080393380697b948e4651a4d00ab0b341f939 - p. 102.
54a6d9ac032478df272eb644fe4ea1520762c8d5 - 250 copies.
dbcaa7c1cdd48fdfe35f96de324c5fe462c64d98 — ISBN 978-5-98051-121-0.
1cb3494bdf4bb5daebebd491b492653315061b2d Solovyova Poliksen Sergeevna.
8f1ed18717ce8644d367eed3492541e31901151a Вся All of Moscow: an address and reference book for 1916.
5b9896d36fdd85488b591c063b1d4c3c09f15d48 - Moscow: A. S. Suvorin's Partnership "Novoe Vremya", 1915 — - p. 843 .
389fcd4f1bcf4d65f699f9634962cbcb9fa78066 Пре Prechistensky courses.
41cc988fde496d71a949e4dba50a4e8ce282d3ea Turgenev library reading room.
f8830b19f3007de5df0c9cc9d7bff5fe9067f7d7 Verified on December 2, 2013 .
4289aed12ded9af7564ef26438c7fbdb2cec697a Лев Levin E.
9bc192b1aaf42e89d9eac20c0fbceec62d2ea0e1 A tragedy that has become inevitable. booknik.ru (August 10, 2007).
7337048d9faafb6186e1921ffb340e8fd3cd8c0a Checked on July 20, 2013.
3582ccc44469afc6fcd91725a0d8e1279e3ba09a Archived from the original source on July 27, 2013.
8815107638584f5a0c2b09333de9b87365ebd14a Рог Rogachev, A.V.
15164daef61f1472e0b8c6b46a78dcaae29b2334 The great buildings of socialism.
3a758110f0c38958be455cb6f2c1e8310ca41330 - Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2014.
cae5a4ac3641ab6ce7b0359afe617ce25e648a2f 72 — - 480 p.
73d1d668c634568742302fe0dd445726e83db025 — ISBN 978-5-227-05106-6.
d9666f01e5938c942362440723e8bc31713d9ea9 ↑ Museums of Russia: Prechistenka and its inhabitants.
c8a7b69d7c9bebab6b9057e61de181e111689ea2 The Russian network of cultural heritage.
f527ef707b9afb03481dcc28c73f9b382158b271 Verified on November 29, 2013.
f7df11cc8faa95149690bdd453ec7f78d0ce7337 На Nashchokina M. V. Moscow Modern.
e1aaa0f11e8a0bf398d2068847aa3409c255a914 - p. 442 — - 560 p.
8c95b19b5144300bebb7d61354f62675fb3219f7 Низкий A low building with an arc shaped plan, adjacent to the main house of a manor or palace complex (Dictionary of architectural terms).
e8a63e1f9c8ecc9797e1444ebd8bdcb3774c8a12 Ям Savva Vasilyevich Yamshchikov.
dec3925853ac27906203d2dc9a8c6a94124cd60e Verified on March 9, 2015.
c12d46611be5432a8d090438fd5bcd818207ce14 Vostryshev M. I., Shokarev S. Yu.
41bc7e61dd4f81386de2a61aa9bda7b4b05bd12b - p. 413 — - 512 p.
c26706848b7d2b1261356e32ded52d7d97196171 "From Prechistensky to the Arbat Gate" / A. Krupchansky.
a045732617c48a0d50b782e55b3a9c6a80b24062 Preface by M. Fry.
caa8d25f3d70d3727db7db22e692705221cecf35 - M: Moscow, which does not exist : guidebook, 2010 — - 319 p — - 2000 copies.
27db9b2f6672a2514b5a623e82077d14b1075451 — ISBN 978-5-903116-98-0.
d414335717cadc3834ac8308a7ee7db729a7f714 Moscow: Encyclopedia / Glav. ed .
39f530aecf962279d43dcb382a2c033dba51f98b - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1997.
1ae0fcd5a7693132040e995c334430d5addb102a 661-662 — - 976 p — - (Library "History of Moscow from ancient times to the present day").
f9ce3317507884f48f2928fa3a1040047efde2de The portal "Moscow" Prechistenka on Wikimedia Commons?
a41e62e53b357afcc61c8ea5bec88138c0815ef7 Diploma. about Prechistenka Virtual walk through Prechistenka List of protected cultural Monuments (Moscow Heritage) [1], [2]
a41585e05e6d1a258ece0d47508b51f02df9cff9 10th anniversary of October • Abrikosovsky Lane • 1st Archive Lane • Maly Bozheninsky Lane • Burdenko • 1st / 2nd Vrazhsky Lane • Dashkov Lane • Devichy Pole Passage • Dovator • Elansky • Efremova • Agricultural lane • Zubovsky passage • Cooperative • Krymsky proezd • Kseninsky Lane • Luzhnetsky Passage • Lev Vygotsky • Lev Tolstoy • 1st / 2nd / 3rd Nepalimovsky Lane • Nesvizh Lane • Novodevichy passage • Novokonyushenny Lane • Obolensky Lane • Olsufevsky Lane • Malaya Pirogovskaya • Pogodinskaya • Plushykha • Pugovishnikov Lane • Rossolimo • 2nd / 4th / 6th / 7th Rostov Lane • Ruzheyny Lane • Maly / Bolshoy Savvinsky Lane • Savelyeva • Serpov Lane • Timura Frunze • Trubetskaya • 1st / 2nd / 3rd lane of Workers • Usacheva • Usachevsky lane • Uchebny Lane • 1st / 2nd / 3rd Frunzenskaya • Kholzunov Lane • Bolshoy Chudov Lane • 1st Shibaevsky Lane • Yazykovsky Lane
b1d618011ecc33388b033cc1b46abebeee0cb0ba Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prechistenka&oldid=76544580"
e3625b72effeb4752414a787efaa24fd468b129d Links here Related edits Special Pages Permalink Information about the Wikida Element page donot quote the page
134f95807e1ee9241d1c53c2ef400886b8b68a42 Last modified on this page: 17: 32, February 19, 2016.
f71f4a49fb9f4ead420847bb4d2e6130e3eea68d In December 1237, Pope Gregory IX proclaimed the second Crusade to Finland, and in June 1238, the Danish King Valdemar II and the master of the united order Herman Balk agreed on the partition of Estonia and military actions against Russia in the Baltic States with the participation of the Swedes[2].
2b6bfc969a7212dd3d54074c1282335f9eaa229a The Russian lands in these years were weakened by the Mongol invasion.
938bb3fd5b6be0974d26e7a05d59be4c3f98e484 Russian Russians were opposed by the Livonian knights (the landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia, Andreas von Velven, did not take part in the battle), the militia of the Bishop of Dorpat, Herman, the squad of the Russian Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, the army of the Estonians and the army of the king, mentioned in the Livonian rhymed chronicle[3] and other Western sources[4] (Danish — see comm.; or Swedish[1]).
196e661a90dc17c85e6528fe974351a4a6a9ca7a The Neva victory secured Russia from the Swedes, but there were still German knights.
2f9c2660324a950a364fe5314132e3b7a74252cd The Germans launched an offensive in the same 1240, in early autumn.
183560ec199a3653d09c2b145cb79f3106299eff They managed to take Izborsk by storm.
1b14ddd3fd300a632b1f2865df0f6cfe015f8466 The news of the capture of Izborsk and the extermination of its inhabitants reached Pskov.
5ef8ecaefd30db2b81527722cf165d81c5c4dfbf Pskov residents came out to meet the enemy.
5efc168bd19baa9a0f0047148c8713f530f2b80d A battle took place near Izborsk, in which the hastily formed militia retreated under the onslaught of twice the enemy's forces.
92a549953c6d106a135cb6c5cdceffd3171ac2b1 There were more than 800 people killed in Pskov alone.
fce283481387f09f9f8a7d83b726901808329ba3 The Germans approached Pskov, crossed the Velikaya River, pitched tents under the very walls of the Pskov Kremlin, burned the posad and began to ravage the surrounding villages.
afe8744d0394ff8cdf4fdecf2af02d157d770da0 A week later, the knights prepared to storm the Kremlin.
207aa52fd3f8d1f080a475b446f6eccdf85a69b4 But Voivode Tverdilo Ivanovich surrendered Pskov to the Germans.
4162ce2adeb7edc56a39e5e25235c5bd38c12385 Now the threat is hanging over Novgorod.
00153fd11ff52306082bc800aec3b3f242761b1d The German Crusaders said: "We will reproach (subdue) the Slovenian language (people)... to yourself"
035f7b4edc17c8c51f10829f644cc65b6604492f These events did not prevent the Novgorodians from expelling Alexander to Pereyaslavl Zalessky in the winter of 1240/1241, and only when the Germans seized the land of Vozhan and Koporye and approached Novgorod at a distance of 30 versts, the Novgorodians turned to Yaroslav for the prince.
9ec47889e423fe145e2fa99d74e82220f34c1425 He sent Andrey to them, but they insisted on Alexander's candidacy.
9d2d0a951c4c624c58d1ecf2754e83a25170e283 Arriving in Novgorod in 1241, Alexander marched on Koporye, took it by storm and killed most of the garrison.
726b6312109ad3bf7af07ba3ffa9643ad2ccaef7 Some of the knights and mercenaries from the local population were captured, but released, and the traitors from among the Chudis were executed.
e374ce55668317170e54e1a213764ebaabc3e38d In March 1242, Alexander waited for Vladimir's help, led by Andrei, and took Pskov.
76402bebea1083ea3ad1e7b2514eaa9998dfb9b8 The knights concentrated their forces in the Bishopric of Dorpat.
d319194512a31d4527ec1de2e64fea7f31100dd7 The order gathered a great force: here were almost all its knights with a" meister " (master) at the head, "with all their biskupy (bishops), and with all the multitude of their language, and their power, whatever there is in this country, and with the help of the queen", that is, there were German knights, the local population and the army of the Swedish king.
7cb248e10ea32f98c12393e13db2cfdcab253f5f Alexander decided to move the war to the territory of the Order itself.
adf15947791f41d89f9c4c29fc6ca4b0aa7724f6 "And they went," the chronicler reports — " to the German land, although they took revenge on the Christian blood."
33263f1989b5ef9e99dd94b6faaf64a30ebd6407 The Russian army marched on Izborsk.
5e20476f43f760452386f5933e644d45ee0ba2de Alexander sent forward several reconnaissance detachments.
0ee328bf5bd3b2c1f7a06dfd90432c771406a06f One of them, under the command of the brother of the posadnik Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet (one of the "nizovsky" voivodes), came across German knights and Chud (Estov), was defeated and retreated; at the same time Domash was killed.
afca46058ab9e5bf22d9a8d243c9d40f805a5ff6 Meanwhile, intelligence found out that the enemy had sent a small force to Izborsk, and its main forces were moving to Lake Peipsi.
63878d073555f4bd6870bef137002e2d2d9fd8a7 Thus, they took a short road to Novgorod and cut off the Russian troops in the Pskov area.
2079077fa0a253cbb7b799e7ff892cdb82a58592 The Novgorod army turned to the lake, "the Germans and Chud poidosha on them."
accccf0e00688178c2af7473de8b88fb5bd31508 The Novgorodians tried to repel the detour of the German knights by performing an unusual maneuver: they retreated to the ice of Lake Peipsi, north of the Uzmen tract, near the island of Voroniy Kamen: "on Uzmenu Voronen Kameni".
633a8adba7628e530178335cb44c5e3bcb0f56b8 Having reached Lake Peipsi, the Novgorod army found itself in the center of possible enemy movement routes to Novgorod.
7a2157c4ac8af8a8d52c165ec3cac2393ce3f918 The Order's army also approached there in battle order.
dbee0164ad69c29b622d45d1b5911730c6a00b61 Thus, the place of the battle was proposed by the Russian side with an obvious expectation to carry out a maneuverable battle against the German formation, called "pig", simultaneously by several detachments.
4f856d888d02400faa6062e3d2ba9981ead42b11 Now Alexander decided to fight and stopped.
5ad07fa0d90d4dab62c15e94b089773a785c7cab "Howling Grand Duke Alexander was filled with the spirit of ratna, byahu bo their heart is like a lion", they were ready to "lay down their heads".
d2fbdadfd6f85a15b4efcaf2a56d817a5692694a The forces of the Novgorodians were little more than a knight's army.
f0cd9bbe7f863e9cc5dfc498a79e8956b5ab1660 The troops that opposed the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi had a heterogeneous composition, but a single command in the person of Alexander.
97c7c1b6bde63cf66b92f59aa46a45f05e0c347d The order of battle of the Russians is not described in the sources, however, according to indirect data, it can be interpreted.
1461f23e0be6de7b4294333ff5773a04b58c6ceb In the center was the princely regiment of the commander-in-chief, next to the regiments of the right and left hands.
c7ba204c03f4ec67ce83ead87e327f58e6088374 Ahead of the main regiment, according to the "Rhymed Chronicle", there were archers.
d6ed1c663e03490df45684e20546a92d3a9a5667 Before us is a typical three-part division of the main army for its time, which could, however, be more complex.
3bc3d8fba3bfac547395fe1c92331bf36e4516bf The "grassroots regiments" consisted of princely squads, boyar squads, city regiments.
328da647b0715db3432f80f0e5278c02b639246d The army put up by Novgorod had a fundamentally different composition.
297e2de982368659fbef92ccebf48d7160e36944 It included the squad of the prince invited to Novgorod (that is, Alexander Nevsky), the squad of the bishop ("vladyka"), the garrison of Novgorod, who served for a salary (gridi) and was subordinate to the posadnik (however, the garrison could stay in the city itself and not participate in the battle), Konchansky regiments, the militia of the posadov and the squads of "povolnikov", private military organizations of boyars and rich merchants.
4f76a496a0e4981f65d3d7ab8a1d9b0f070b5112 In general, the army exposed by Novgorod and the "grassroots" lands was a fairly powerful force, distinguished by a high fighting spirit.
ac9f106015a0ff7d9ef7181009a9670a500c64a1 A significant part of the Russian troops, judging by their mobility, significant marching movements on Estonian soil, the desire to measure forces with mounted knights, and finally, the choice of the battle site, which created freedom of maneuver in a significant open space, could be mounted.
403f3752a0dfd9d49d77c468e4bf07241c20d94c According to some historians, the total number of Russian troops reached 15-17 thousand people.
259b5b8ea19e5e8ab2fcd66e5aac3efca5a209b2 However, this figure is most likely highly inflated.
71834818455789a8338f677a29e37f38c19ef83b The real army could number up to 4-5 thousand people, of which 800-1000 people accounted for the princely cavalry squads.
e84d596a2d008963c41a2858aa5356361123f41a Most of it was made up of foot soldiers of the militia.
b67f8571d4c9c118868d506051584b299edf7028 There is a special question about the number of troops of the order who set foot on the ice of Lake Peipsi.
886bc35a9e9cfa4852f064db16e4951bb86637f6 Historians ' opinions about the number of German knights also differ.
5eaabf703470c6f6305b4021158f4ba5abf09901 Russian historians usually gave a number of 10-12 thousand people.
caaf2f61880ceee78abcf9a201fef5c534075c68 Later researchers, referring to the German "Rhymed Chronicle", call three hundred, four hundred people, with the support of foot mercenaries armed with spears, and the allies of the order - the Livs.
31a548fa9fb5015370b9928ebfe92e4df69e6ede The figures available in the chronicle sources are the losses of the order, which amounted to about twenty "brothers" killed and six prisoners.
9f90f13404fadfffb9b9abec7af02f11421286b5 Given that one" brother "accounted for 3-5 "half-brothers" who did not have the right to prey, the total number of the Livonian army itself can be determined at 400 - 500 people.
acbfa5785969e12aff085f8bf1117068c159ebe0 Given the recent defeat that the Teutons suffered from the Mongols near Legnica on April 9, 1241, the order could not help its Livonian "branch".
1ad11a76eced7d09b53d16544d5d399c3399c40d Also involved in the battle were Danish knights and a militia from Dorpat, which included a large number of Estonians, but knights who could not be numerous.
5cad664388c4a7418f9f49154b2ed1ee3400f716 Thus, the order had a total of about 500-700 cavalry and 1000-1200 Estonians.
e9849eb87a532def21ac5e725dea50a44c2f5e54 Like the estimates of Alexander's troops, these figures are debatable.
c984a5c35caf322293b094676acf40de14855caf The question of who commanded the order's troops in the battle is also unresolved.
41bbd8429d8208447b417531c80276e80b70c479 Given the heterogeneous composition of the troops, it is possible that there were several commanders.
29794a6526f454a76e1773609bc7431f449f545c Despite the defeat of the order, Livonian sources do not contain information that any of the order's leaders were killed or captured.
1a8a6c1d817b4614d3e57310e6e791f3cbe18863 On April 5, 1242, the great Sich happened on the melted ice.
2b5afa23107bebab3dd64a2ffc1c3fbadf86f0e1 The Russians stood in the traditional "eagle": in the center of the regiment, consisting of the Vladimir Suzdal militia, on the sides-the regiments of the right and left hands-the heavily armed Novgorod infantry and the princely cavalry squads.
2dac701e8177ce24a0925c6a861e5ee1f3aebf87 The peculiarity was that a significant mass of troops was located on the flanks, usually the center was the strongest.
d14c2e7bdffb20ead594eed620a139683694d04f Behind the militia there was a steep bank covered with boulders.
728b8c1f7c9fadc8ef8889a806fdb331295bfb56 On the ice in front of the shore, a wagon train sledge was placed, fastened with chains.
d7c353d71dbd58abd552e8c4fe5696370ee5cacf This made the coast completely impassable for the knights ' horses and was supposed to keep the faint-hearted in the Russian camp from fleeing.
0b96d45ed4678fcbc57f7284a8f16d99d5ab108e A cavalry squad was standing in ambush near the island of Voroniy Kamen.
00abcb60ce49cb2c8b545fef717fd95bd4f45aa9 The knights moved on the Russians"boar's head".
d4a4297a1263e3bd0fcd6c1d86592442853fc57b It was a special system that brought success to the Crusaders more than once.
58e2279d0a8bb07e59307ebfdfad5cb2b8b06f29 In the center of the "boar's head", the infantry of the knechta marched, closing ranks.
fc4951a9d45a4f7f29f5feeb1c9a6a5fb81f53f6 From the sides of them and behind them in 2-3 rows rode armored riders, their horses also had shells.
07dfcf809cbf6465009a02909c1b09bc370634d0 Ahead, the ranks of the most experienced knights were moving, narrowing at the tip.
af878c93e87148a6ea3704b624563a734d4aad9c The "boar's head", nicknamed by the Russians "pig", rammed the enemy, broke through the defense.
1db09df165bb9144d6378bad1b734db4f8e4affd Knights with spears, battle axes, swords destroyed the enemy.
0f9a4ce6edbf0ba3f2014de31c8c567feb6a73f3 When he was defeated, the infantry of the knechta were released, finishing off the wounded and fleeing.
7dbaac716ffda526d2d1dc17b96dde85b93edd27 The chronicle story about the ice battle reports "there was a slash of evil, and the crack from spears, and breaking, and the sound from the sword section".
95f7bf6a8f4b0c5e88c4a7ba21dead21929799fd The knights crushed the Russian center and spun on the spot, breaking their own formation.
891d507cd05920d6f0c859d99039f562cf161aa8 They had nowhere to move.
9ec668fbb846a1ad67e2639d078ffa1449b7a527 From the flanks, the knights were pressed by "regiments of the right and left hands".
98b46a70662f971a7b9e4a66645074da54e07e23 As if they were squeezing the "pig"with pincers.
e3ab4d11bbbf8bb27e71292c714fdfa6fe248ad2 On both sides, the combatants had many dead.
4eb4b67443912a377cf2ee50e65914ee84d422f1 The ice was red with blood.
e1bef92a2e6ea236722dafd844e433f26ce1c4cd The enemy suffered mainly from the infantry.
f507f6c829439c1d21b1197b0690f96f38e68c99 It was difficult to kill the knight.
b0202d936b46c89c382f6ca20208885aab1f671c But if he was pulled off the horse, he became defenseless — the weight of the armor did not allow him to get up and move.
6cb779927f0cdfd567789ace42d5c165b2adf91d Suddenly the April ice cracked.
30ed37c7c3a5155ba987f58aae161c61fd27dc98 The knights were confused. Those who fell into the water went to the bottom like a stone.
a93c63a267eccafbadc98923e410368eafa7f175 The troops of Alexander Nevsky struck with renewed vigor.
5b489ed53eaff29c4e4aba7111c3562365c04ef7 The Crusaders ran.
d8f05c9e830176655b51657bccf20b4d2d9f11ea The Russian horsemen pursued them for several kilometers.
b526c95c04a581f28fe5a99e688a8a6f98e2780b The ice slash was won.
727c85f138559b9c105c461613d7c3cd9e4c80e7 The Crusaders ' plan to establish themselves in Northern Russia failed.
fc9a5acb4f0a3d7e50a4284ee768bfe2448e04c5 In 1243, the ambassadors of the Order arrived in Novgorod.
dfbe470628ebbe11f9c4cc387ff3b687760967a6 Peace was signed.
c958136f08ddf2fac4269ea678de8131e10d3ddf The Crusaders recognized the inviolable borders of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod, promised to regularly pay tribute to Yuriev.
9f5706af3fc68668989bb22d9ffd04bcfc9c8dfc The terms of the ransom of several dozen knights who were captured were agreed upon.
2e11b79a6b79671ea552380d1fb9c59df0591569 Alexander led these noble captives from Pskov to Novgorod by the side of their horses, barefoot, bareheaded, with a rope around their necks.
4966874e0289df766674cf5d0b17991a12c90a1b It was impossible to think of a greater insult to the knight's honor.
a7ad1fb14da503625027cf316e7b400192571f15 In the future, there were more than once military skirmishes between Novgorod, Pskov and the Livonian Order, but the border of the possessions of both sides remained stable.
4d37aa0af10de5b2d95e497bddf48ae97e6b3530 For the possession of Yuriev, the Order continued to pay tribute to Novgorod, and from the end of the XV century - to the Moscow united Russian state.
1339a27124607ccc386db6f7c049bf823a599a19 In political and moral terms, the victories over the Swedes and the knights of the Livonian Order were very important: the scale of the Western European onslaught on the northwestern borders of Russia was reduced.
d85e54d91001494177b65fae76cf67b063a3d48e Alexander Nevsky's victories over the Swedes and Crusaders interrupted the series of defeats of the Russian troops.
a503b4847c05f0a79c935b46e2ba66d59df62041 It was especially important for the Orthodox Church to prevent Catholic influence on Russian lands.
2630e1794a783e65b851beca616f8094a51b9bcf It is worth remembering that the crusade of 1204 ended with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, the capital of the Orthodox empire, which considered itself the Second Rome.
5d7aa6fb625b4805fc9c7d6d36aa89f51b7de614 For more than half a century, the Latin Empire existed on the Byzantine territory.
52c9193a44d89d9fb79a20199a19e549497ef3d5 The Orthodox Greeks "huddled" in Nicaea, from where they tried to win back their possessions from the Western Crusaders.
aa0891c71093b306784c24b73d92eefd347702b5 The Tatars, on the contrary, were allies of the Orthodox Greeks in their struggle against the Islamic and Turkish onslaught on the eastern Byzantine borders.
cf2e1a4f85f3e35ef11aed5052d2449a22436272 According to the practice established since the tenth century, most of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Church were by origin Greeks or southern Slavs who came to Russia from Byzantium.
a4d0ef748b04a087c0966ea678a6d047a91de32b The head of the Russian Church, the Metropolitan, was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople.
6355d72de28de910359f8aef21176d4544209201 Naturally, the interests of the Universal Orthodox Church were above all for the leadership of the Russian Church.
10de6d4331f901fb13876efb4a329ab50fc4fa54 The Catholics seemed much more dangerous than the Tatars.
081104c6340bc3cecfe72d4b3048f880925cb3be It is no coincidence that before Sergius of Radonezh (the second half of the XIV century), no prominent church hierarch blessed the fight against the Tatars and did not call for it.
ba77857a803131eba3a8292bafb4391fa9ea6699 The invasion of Batu and the Tatar armies were interpreted by the clergy as a "scourge of God", the punishment of the Orthodox for their sins.
da11d8f1ca7c29732eaf5f401c5b7f31b599c323 It was the church tradition that created around the name of Alexander Nevsky, who was canonized after his death, the halo of an ideal prince, a warrior, a "sufferer" (fighter) for the Russian land.
975b3049c85c9338657f85f7a1932fd49c1e3f3e This is how he entered the national mentality.
f64c8e7a5195c37b4c75e764a787ab42ce4d9813 In this case, Prince Alexander is in many ways a" brother " of Richard the Lionheart.
5d5e1cf31d0acbe101bb8e377e78f7c3cea106c5 The legendary "doubles" of both monarchs obscured their real historical images.
5efe016e9f69dcac58e5f9ac78730348c3e7ae32 In both cases, the "legend" is far away from the original prototype.
27f7cc8fce2efd806918cd0e60376bc975cfbbcd In serious science, meanwhile, there are still disputes about the role of Alexander Nevsky in Russian history.
89590cb228b84edfc0ceba6780ee75e3d31d4e88 Alexander's position in relation to the Golden Horde, his participation in the organization of the Nevryuev army of 1252 and the spread of the Horde yoke to Novgorod, the cruel even for that time reprisals characteristic of Alexander in the fight against his opponents, cause contradictory judgments regarding the results of the activities of this undoubtedly bright hero of Russian history.
8e212930b52e74bcc35a49693adcbde92dc85c6a For the Eurasians and L. N. Gumilev, Alexander is a far-sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde, turned his back on the West.
cf1f53e92a96db2e4b1a341bfa033871e03c0d30 For other historians (for example, I. N. Danilevsky), Alexander's role in Russian history is rather negative.
07d90c9c92a76e912a318dfe7885c5fa9b3f80e0 This role is the actual conductor of the Horde dependence.
37b71bdecfe892e68c9dfd6b7003aff1cf707657 Some historians, including S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, do not consider the Horde yoke "a useful union for Russia" at all, but note that Russia did not have the strength to fight.
d8a2f51035b487e89619b53d53d0683977e6c28b Supporters of the continuation of the struggle against the Horde-Daniil Galitsky and Prince Andrey Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat.
764fc9252f8e761015c333197dc326a214dd2311 Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, was aware of the realities and was forced, as a politician, to seek a compromise with the Horde in the name of the survival of the Russian land.
33c98ff7ea38fbceadba9404b9c326af79de572c Ice battle
c0f42174bed3b0b53ae7000fb9426b3cbdda2dec This is the stable version, released on December 18, 2015.
80cd7ffdc8d25a8437b70b5a9b02d4194be27c78 Ice Battle The main conflict: The Livonian campaign against Russia
2a449b5484ddb0b31906254f5626e126fa77404e Ice battle.
fad9941b9f6dc62107663038a9881cff539a4ef7 Miniature of the Front chronicle arch, mid XVI century.
27e64567306ccf57868752b5ff5a339b3b6b5918 Date April 5, 1242
3e0c6c945a663aa97429cbe5a47f9f68767d7a91 Place Lake Peipsi
f539d14c15df4a4fe747b208e7ea763a2158b9b3 The result is the victory of Novgorod
bb9ab0c7a5fd321229f5b07e80dadb22963f7e5e Novgorod Republic,
f63a24a349c39c295fb8655859946d5e80481f65 Vladimir Suzdal Principality Livonian Order,
89da124e04dfe1ad9946cd37d91a119e1d028898 Denmark
537f121685ec50da6637a1dacc58b44214caa932 Alexander Nevsky,
e1273c49f02873a67975416ce16ac79838463beb Andrey Yaroslavich Andreas von Velven
7874403102e1d773c0c16e432738503b848b02f6 15-17 thousand people.[1] 10-12 thousand people.[1]
1e4633f00d620c9813ffdd8ba6417ce718035234 unknown 400 knights (800 - according to the Simeon chronicle) and chudi "without number" were killed,
2ccfd8755d81c53f1bb006357313acd3f555136b 50 knights captured[source not specified 251 days]
c5a5f68d121d796e280e4cc7c8231a40a042cccd The ice battle (German: Schlacht auf dem Eise, Lat. PrœLium glaciale — "Ice Battle"), also the Battle of Lake Peipus (German: Schlacht auf dem Peipussee) — a battle that took place on the ice of Lake Peipus on April 5, 1242 (Saturday) with the participation of Izhora, Novgorodians and Vladimirites led by Alexander Nevsky, on the one hand, and the army of the Livonian Order, on the other hand.
c062217e22255d65210937ff4799ec3c3b2afafc It is the Day of Military Glory of Russia — the Day of the victory of the Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German knights on Lake Peipsi (Ice Battle) (celebrated on April 18).
d5074954959429eb4557a6f3a15fdf91360f3cc3 1 The beginning of the war 2 The course of the battle 3 The scale and significance of the battle 4 The memory of the battle 4.1 Films 4.2 Music 4.3 Literature 4.4 Monuments 4.4.1 The monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on Mount Sokolikha 4.4.2 The Monument to Alexander Nevsky and the Poklonny Cross
43ff71d1eedaa915f8fe6a4dbcb48e5cfd7c1c09 4.5 In philately and on coins
82861898eda5163a0aaf87882094f83b95aa719f 5 Facts 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 References
acea933d7f40f88ddebf29bceecb16eeb2b39ee7 The beginning of the war[edit / edit wiki text]
a9fedc330c5e62f484832e081d82927e3824cdf3 Map 1239-1245
105eee11866701b1707b33e88ca120b374dd358f On July 15, 1240, the Swedes were defeated on the Neva River, and in August 1240, the Order began a campaign against Russia.
36bcd766601efc8211f92107fc886ab47707439b The Germans took Izborsk, defeating the Pskov people who came to his aid, 800 of whom died[5], and besieged Pskov, whose gates were opened a week later by their supporters from the Pskov boyars.
1cbacaecbe778c689892fa61b3bb6c0899315b5e Alexander then led the troops into the possession of the Order, and after the defeat of the advanced Russian detachments on the feed, the main forces retreated to the lake ice for a decisive battle.
55d6327d1f0278f4997ac10da79349944c9d5811 The course of the battle[edit / edit wiki text]
075655af19d24ce879617c23ade00bd0b728e9e7 The Russian army goes to Lake Peipsi.
218bd442a7f49b5287dda4ee27cd3a433fa47314 Chronicle miniature
68602c215496b48c4257007eadf155d6e011ac60 Due to the variability of the hydrography of Lake Peipus, historians for a long time could not accurately determine the place where the Ice Battle occurred.
6ea25b0343992dcdd786c0a148e397b099f8d3fd In 1958-1959, an expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences conducted archaeological excavations under the leadership of G. N. Karaev at the proposed site of the battle — a section of the Warm Lake located 400 meters west of the modern shore of Cape Sigovets, between its northern tip and the latitude of the village of Ostrov, but no finds linking this place with the battle of 1242 were found[6].
1a4097c6805994d237cb9051a24e56d0b0451bbb The opposing armies met on the morning of April 5, 1242[7].
5eeaa38b3418aa065a1ef172dc91771397f5a2ba The "Rhymed Chronicle" describes the moment of the beginning of the battle as follows:
1243e6a1822f9a875b739b346f0d40b79f944e46 The Russians had many shooters who courageously came forward and were the first to take the onslaught in front of the prince's squad
2304d640a16ae9bfebc931161006126d186e787e Then:
37e704c09ad65e7f4cd4a53386a463d4a77effdc The banners of the brothers penetrated the ranks of the shooters, it was heard how swords rang, helmets were cut, as the fallen fell on the grass from both sides
a735b338a2f1e448f1c0e1f871f7f3be23b97896 Russian Russian Chronicles combine the news about the Russian order of battle with the reports of the Russian chronicles about the allocation of a separate rifle regiment in front of the center of the main forces (since 1185).
aa59f5557967e1ffad6235c563b3e01eb9e03c0a In the center, the Germans broke through the Russian formation:
af5684d6c74923f36c37f1b26c93ce02875cd4fb The Germans and the chud have made their way through the shelves like a pig
512fa0dd5387334a0bd542070897fb1c90074bb3 But then the troops of the Teutonic Order were surrounded by the Russians from the flanks and destroyed, and other German detachments retreated to avoid the same fate:
436d9b0b6690005f6fee5e8137d00056a8164c96 Those who were in the army of the brothers of the knights were surrounded.
5396454e66980aea2b6e26c54bc62d3e9266cd9e The knight brothers resisted quite stubbornly, but they were defeated there.
d3e6d041e08031cc277a23a4dd28df912dca7775 Some of the Dorpat residents came out of the battle, it was their salvation, they were forced to retreat.
c3b7faf84f3a50df02c3bb8b75de345eac325a47 The Russians chased those running on the ice for 7 versts.
2ba0514f0c5b7eddea1c27f7eedc60aad2edc860 It is noteworthy that, unlike the battle of Omovzha in 1234, sources close to the time of the battle do not report that the Germans fell through the ice; according to Donald Ostrovsky, this information penetrated into later sources from the description of the battle of 1016 between Yaroslav and Svyatopolk in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and "The Legend of Boris and Gleb"[8].
ddccde8a0574dea91d23107decc2c9032d2167d3 One of the most popular misconceptions says that the ice broke on the lake under the weight of the plate armor of "German" soldiers.
034c8b6d6b1591fb08e202de07a21e28dbe924fe In fact, the Russian and German soldiers were protected approximately equally.
3c1da90a9cbb1b7a80e873f7ca544197dbe59c91 Knights, like Russian warriors, wore a steel helmet, chain mail, a mirror, plate armor, or a brigantine (a leather shirt with steel plates) before the battle, the warrior's arms and legs were covered with bracers and greaves.
d74188bf2222b9992d5ed947b3a35f085f99027f And full plate armor began to be used only in the XIV—XV centuries[9].
bb9365feaf16259d3c54aaa81d44efa2229b0be7 In the same year, the Teutonic Order concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod, renouncing all its recent seizures not only in Russia, but also in Letgol.
556e1c93e0e1ce49d473123e41bd10aedd51498a There was also an exchange of prisoners.
65aa7ed3d890712547a33b07a65cf9f867351efe Only 10 years later, the Teutons tried to re capture Pskov.
f8e3c94e6883a9c6ee53e768f23722cf1a7b95f3 The scale and significance of the battle[edit / edit wiki text]
344abf0a161fe67da9fbb84b1b391aa17c7b297a The Chronicle says that in the battle there were 60 Russians for every German (which is recognized as an exaggeration), and about the loss of 20 knights killed and 6 prisoners in the battle.
96c6a4518cb72efd0b73f6682eb541b71012f028 "Chronicle of the Grandmasters "("Die jungere Hochmeisterchronik", sometimes translated as" Chronicle of the Teutonic Order"), the official history of the Teutonic Order, written much later, speaks of the death of 70 knights of the Order (literally "70 order gentlemen", "seuentich Ordens Herenn"), but unites those who died during the capture of Pskov by Alexander and on Lake Peipus.
d9f7a94db28ceae20bb868c8e86195d533fed270 In the Novgorod first chronicle it is reported: "and the fall of Chudi beshisla, and There are 400, and 50 by the hands of Yasha and brought to Novgorod"[10] (variant: "and pade Chudi beschisla, and Not 500, but 50 with the hands of Yasha and bring him to Novgorod"[11]).
59fe806e3f5409b45bb89957007e97a0898320e7 According to the traditional point of view in Russian historiography, this battle, together with the victories of Prince Alexander over the Swedes (July 15, 1240 on the Neva River) and over the Lithuanians (in 1245 near Toropets, near Lake Zhiztsa and near Usvyat), was of great importance for Pskov and Novgorod, delaying the pressure of three serious enemies from the west — at the very time when the rest of Russia was greatly weakened by the Mongol invasion.
471a1f314c6311fa3b3190a1ab950c984460e808 In Novgorod, the Ice battle, along with the Nevsky victory over the Swedes, was remembered at litanies in all Novgorod churches back in the XVI century.
55a45f0c947fab797560b184c551c4999727b178 In Soviet historiography, the Ice Battle was considered one of the largest battles in the entire history of German chivalric aggression in the Baltic States, and the number of troops on Lake Peipsi was estimated at 10-12 thousand people from the Order and 15-17 thousand people from Novgorod and their allies[source not specified 177 days] (the last figure corresponds to the assessment of the numbers of Russian troops by Henry of Latvia[12] when describing their campaigns in the Baltic States in the 1210s — 1220s), that is, approximately at the same level as in the Grunwald in the battle (1410) - up to 11 thousand people in the Order and 16-17 thousand people in the Polish Lithuanian army[13].
21eeabc2208da68867bd06e43cfb273e5c58e0fa The Chronicle, as a rule, reports on the small number of Germans in those battles that they lost, but even in it the Ice Battle is unequivocally described as a defeat of the Germans, unlike, for example, the Battle of Rakovor (1268).
5bbb33f00a5c22b4582b35c257429c9086de9c30 As a rule, the minimum estimates of the number of troops and losses of the Order in the battle correspond to the historical role that specific researchers assign to this battle and the figure of Alexander Nevsky as a whole (for more information, see the Estimates of Alexander Nevsky's activities).
10271228c69c5dc22548fd50206455835d323c25 V. O. Klyuchevsky and M. N. Pokrovsky did not mention the battle at all in their works.
91bfc62918a97ecbeca1513e5626370c85e02fd4 The English researcher J. Fennel believes that the significance of the Ice Battle (and the Battle of the Neva) is greatly exaggerated: "Alexander did only what numerous defenders of Novgorod and Pskov did before him and what many did after him, namely, they rushed to protect the extended and vulnerable borders from the invading detachments."
b63a04d0f1f72fb4386800a2ab0bb63d702a996d Russian professor I. N. Danilevsky also agrees with this opinion.
6265f67b7f1925ac2a1f31505a6ca6215c97821d He notes, in particular, that the battle was inferior in scale to the Battle of Saul (1236), in which the master of the order and 48 knights were killed by the Lithuanians, and the battle of Rakovor; modern sources even describe the Battle of the Neva in more detail and attach more importance to it[14].
40ec32c735726f8a1b9ffa80364c206c5d4f8469 However, in Russian historiography, it is not customary to remember the defeat at Saul, since the Pskov people took part in it on the side of the defeated knights.
43d0cfa315dc822891effe7e7a994c1e6f127702 German historians believe that, while fighting on the western borders, Alexander Nevsky did not pursue any integral political program, but the successes in the West gave some compensation for the horrors of the Mongol invasion[15][16]. Many researchers believe that the very scale of the threat that the West posed to Russia is exaggerated[17][15].
5f9d6fa6a4e0d37dda87e401029c10f352372b0b Memory of the battle[edit / edit wiki text]
a8601a3fb6ed51efd271704a9018345ae556276b Russian Russian ice battle played a role in the formation of the Russian national myth, in which Alexander Nevsky was assigned the role of "defender of Orthodoxy and the Russian land "in the face of the" Western threat"; victory in the battle was considered a justification for all the prince's political steps.
ab488567c3f92718dbcffd9610371b25f4607b38 The cult of Nevsky was especially actualized in the Stalin era, serving as a kind of visual historical example for the cult of Stalin himself.
4b2ff9dfc9cb7f7ff98e3606f1efa831dbad7096 The cornerstone of the Stalinist myth about Alexander Yaroslavich and the Ice Battle was the film by Sergei Eisenstein (see below)[15].
569da8011de5b98c1c9d55a26da93030879d5013 Pa mint to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on Sokolikha Mountain in Pskov
f1ade0fe51244e3750d6b2b499263e80f422a612 In 1938, Sergei Eisenstein made a feature film "Alexander Nevsky", in which the Ice Battle was filmed.
3016f84b6f782eee1465da65516be88fde6a1cbc The film is considered one of the most prominent representatives of historical films.
158b3ad49418a6d734ea242e50da2b02bcc8e0dd It was he who largely formed the modern viewer's idea of the battle.
f23a68edf2d8dd352efcc5ed478e64f4e830f11c In 1992, the documentary film "In memory of the past and in the name of the Future" was shot.
c549eabe7572a94fe33727baa6545a1886e08c8a The film tells about the creation of a monument to Alexander Nevsky to the 750th anniversary of the Ice Battle[18][19]. In 2009, a full length anime film "The First Squad" was shot by the joint forces of the Russian, Canadian and Japanese studios, where the Ice battle plays a key role in the plot.
d783cec377de8b2eeddb35fb6164e38fc8491ea8 The musical accompaniment to the film by Eisenstein, written by Sergei Prokofiev, is a symphonic suite dedicated to the events of the battle.
4fd1535d6ff7cd66e4e724acccd4e0163e1d56a4 Heavy metal band Aria in the album "Hero of asphalt" (1987) released the song "Ballad of an Old Russian warrior", which tells about the Ice battle.
8ddd93e088ef61b14255c8f42b88cf9952f4ae6a This song has gone through many different treatments and reissues.
af5ab2cf029a40f9e437da7d4ca0772860aabbf3 Konstantin Simonov's poem "The Ice Battle" (1938) In the spring of 1942, the German emigrant writer Arnold Zweig in an unpublished essay compared the defeat of the German army with an Ice battle[15].
63c8543209ba7166f0cf8e5ac29049ff8f9bd04d Monuments[edit / edit wiki text]
670c2d354d9b01abbf5e1516ad18bdcd49a15daf Pa mint to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on Mount Sokolikha[edit / edit wiki text]
4b33362fa4a0d0e69fbca3f207d73456aa9d9b57 The monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky was installed in 1993 on Sokolikha Mountain in Pskov, almost 100 km away from the actual site of the battle.
028f08975510810621a5cbfa5f69a7490c2a70ea Initially, it was planned to create a monument on the Raven Island, which would be a geographically more accurate solution[20].
1cf07cb02e5ccb42bff5556e47ea95dcbde7414a Monument to Alexander Nevsky and the Cross of Worship[edit / edit wiki text]
598cf10060ea3a8caa1176e06b3805ca9aa1791c In 1992, on the territory of the village of Kobylye Gorodishche of the Gdovsky district[21], in a place as close as possible to the proposed site of the Ice Battle, an armored monument to Alexander Nevsky and a wooden cross of worship were installed near the Church of the Archangel Mihai la[22].
b6533a2167aba467f241263e9e86d61a1d6055b4 The Church of the Archangel Michael was created by the Pskov people in in 1462.
943e83f3828bc307c319dd287bafd66838d9c29c In the chronicles, the last mention of the legendary "Raven Stone" is associated with this church (Pskov chronicle of 1463).
b81e1041e0be61a198cec965ac5c1a9765026df6 The wooden cross was gradually destroyed under the influence of adverse weather conditions[23].
95ef3fd4ba1ca01d4b4f553e50d9342df5ae767e In July 2006, on the 600th anniversary of the first mention of S. Kobylye Gorodishche in the Pskov chronicles, it is replaced by a bronze one[24].
355f389c258a79e5f4a6f24ac5b43a4a0c34a821 The bronze cross of worship was cast in St. Petersburg at the expense of patrons of the Baltic Steel Group (A.V. Ostapenko) [25]. The prototype was the Novgorod Alekseevsky Cross.
8febad28455ab1116473d887a90007543ad3ef8d The author of the project is A.
a613dec9d402acfb3019787de7dfbb3e3a6af737 A. Seleznev[26].
7cf46b404a082342702a7b4b06a02b44c4cc3e17 The bronze sign was cast under the direction of D. Gochiyaev by the foundries of JSC "STCKT", architects B. Kostygov and S. Kryukov.
304c74b6236432eb8222516dad94cc8bf439680a When implementing the project, fragments from the lost wooden cross of the sculptor V. Reschikov were used[24].
a39b695a97f4b194fe03ae532736c5aedc0a5234 Memorial cross to the squads of Alexander Nevsky
7fade01e3db8429e0fc16d9ad9f2cb68a8754bb0 Monument in honor of the 750th anniversary of the battle
4fd5bda27643ff50a649ff109a75bfa6290b9c51 Monument in honor of the 750th anniversary of the battle (fragment)
fbd5cf53a4d0d7c384e65c2879db3574ac042b06 In philately and on coins[edit / edit wiki text]
ae19f36febb1dff8dec541cb35691fcf5aa95d9f Postage stamp of Russia, 1992
037af507846c3d004d757556fdcca240d5d4b18a Commemorative Coin of Russia, 1992
45ffd43a65e7bfb712321396310fc8895efd0fe9 Alexander Nevsky (Stamp of 1967 with a fragment of a triptych by Pavel Korin, created in 1942).
043542cf4cbe3a6bc2a95923dcdbec4a14b25591 Due to incorrect calculation of the date of the battle according to the new style, the Day of Military Glory of Russia is the Day of the Victory of Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the Crusaders (established by Federal Law No. 32 FZ of March 13, 1995 "On Days of Military Glory and Memorable Dates of Russia") it is celebrated on April 18 instead of the correct one according to the new style on April 12[27].
c7e94ce663d6e13768c5cca45b7b3414a1fb8b1c The difference between the old (Julian) and the new (first introduced in 1582 Gregorian) style in the XIII century would be 7 days (counting from April 5, 1242), and the difference of 13 days is used only for dates from 1900-2100.
80f169dea717c2546dcedd61459ce618b43eb066 In other words, the Victory Day on Lake Peipsi (April 5, old style) is celebrated on April 18, corresponding to it in the new style at the present time (XX XXI centuries).
9e758e9f3f9159768275f68dd5e9e1ce30e26dcc At the end of the XX century, in Russia and some republics of the former USSR, many political organizations celebrated the unofficial holiday of the Day of the Russian Nation (April 5), designed to become the date of unity of all patriotic forces[28][29].
77d83fb1debdbe3f72f99ef296adc4d5ee800985 On April 22, 2012, on the occasion of the 770th anniversary of the Ice Battle, a Museum of the History of the expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences to clarify the place of the Ice Battle of 1242 was opened in the village of Samolva, Gdovsky district, Pskov Region[30].
11086757afbd160b56e83bf27d0fdc02f5bc8bed The Army of Ancient Russia The Novgorod Army The Second Swedish Crusade
cb2f81ae3a139e89a306246088e90eb169941e53 Перейти Go to: 1 2 3 Razin, E.
6615336f1a804f431e4fc4367da72951a43687ea A. The military art of the armed organization of Russia in the XII XIII centuries.
a8c1328f69dadef706f6249e9ad579af4d91ec1b Уж Uzhankov A. Between two evils.
65ef72395b923226f043d9eba1070700e109e6f3 The historical choice of Alexander Nevsky ↑ The Elder Livonian Rhymed Chronicle Бег Begunov Yu.
bb5a5f7bc89676b76814109737a3362dcfcb44d7 K., Kleinenberg I. E., Shaskolsky I. P. Written sources about the Ice battle Хрони Chronicle of the Teutonic Order ↑ The Ice battle of 1242: The works of a complex expedition to clarify the place of the Ice Battle — - M.-L., 1966 — - 253 p — - pp.
f8d40a8ca74e38eccb70dc9479c11d3dcbc97699 60-64.
37a9cd0185d36c052cc113c441227c11c40599cb Новг The Novgorod first Chronicle of the elder izvod.
092afb524c7323f8f4ea30c7245eda278f281f45 Its date is considered more preferable, since in addition to the number it also contains a link to the day of the week and church holidays (the day of remembrance of the martyr Claudius and praise of the Virgin).
b9bba653c0720b1181e2b550ac0eb807b06766f0 In the Pskov chronicles there is a date of April 1.
0b20a1f78dcdf029957eb2e1ad5ba2cb579846b5 ↑ Donald Ostrowski Alexander Nevskii’s “Battle on the Ice”: The Creation of a Legend (English) / / Russian History/Histoire Russe.
6e8a00623f07b71adbc3e75acea6ce9ea49efa4e — Vol. 33, no.
7e600eecce65c8ea0a8e3567f51006a6390a1939 2-3-4.
b22d2947bd53c113cad4e32469f565a237e4ded9 — P. 304—307.
cc3cee1751eb7b7e68791269e29040da018a5d45 7 common historical misconceptions.
3a52af5e879b80b4289a2bf961e0f3bac5129c99 Air Poster (August 4, 2015).
e5f6fb498e4e435db5a7801ad099d25e2da22b7d Verified on August 29, 2015 .
b21c2ff61942f3a41b6a86f76291eea69c413573 Новг The Novgorod first chronicle of the younger izvod.
aea9403e6aca5a0dd09b331f2ec8d0d6ef882f20 Ген Henry of Latvia.
c19e1863c4d5744f2d93475e72496f8be49a35c8 Chronicle of Livonia.
e87f6460a74038c8cab720136fbd23d5fef7392f Razin, E.
62cd3bb3f17177287572be9b3a76430718b46419 A. Military art in the war of the Slavs with the Teutonic Order.
441a2d171b700ddb486486846dacb7e05bf00508 Danilevsky, I. Ice battle - a change of image.
43b2049b0b7332af27d157c864f32d2a061e29e7 .
e228ea112538a11fd1fcdb91b8ac667f1e0cb3a7 April 15, 2005.
e7eb5befb98fa247359c4bc2c917cf56c503a287 ↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Dittmar Dahlmann.
0a96c8dca35d2eb8a41813538338c592ac0e2a22 Der russische Sieg über die «teutonische Ritter» auf der Peipussee 1242// Schlachtenmythen: Ereignis — Erzählung — Erinnerung.
1f9e25f5392390855318731195d8368a53770517 Herausgegeben von Gerd Krumeich und Susanne Brandt.
56fe142b5fd48192671164d617c057e1845ac40e (Europäische Geschichtsdarstellungen.
df6bb20110e66a41e0cdcf3153d400f145dceb44 Herausgegeben von Johannes Laudage.
57dcaa9ae7e79e05392ed1d71c786e46c0210ffd — Band 2.)
4da287194f5103fc51d019b885b467592e40bbac — Wien Köln Weimar: Böhlau Verlag, 2003.
11a6a9dd6c80372affc0cd346738c51ae02707d7 — S. 63—76.
3db86da7ea694f0895a227fd91183adec9033a1a ↑ Werner Philipp.
8c632038e23b45387ec7218920da0cb9ae858a0e Heiligkeit und Herrschaft in der Vita Aleksandr Nevskijs // Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte.
cb3f9f38e2f44e2f3289da30a83db92f55593274 — Band 18.
1228d882e31626c0134ec6c3245354bf4e567377 — Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1973.
ee5af2dda1e56e31d0f5dad508545c8aa8d9b54a — S. 55—72.
4c8be0b7e1d3cd42d75850123e7e55b674aa7040 ↑ Janet Martin.
bb494fc4f6547a4dd11de48225a2433c9f3cfd07 Medieval Russia 980—1584.
7f0b010be9ae8ee0535b57fe831df787590aa70d Second edition.
d10a35e6fbf4857249dda442b304ef1c0ca7caf8 - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
136b42820c400432c7edce076e66ea6ddefaec5a - P. 181.
8807764cded823ca1b3b996a9ab0ae4bdf4b3aa7 ↑ Part 1.
1cd6ac809a1f192af06822d0dd168709d0a7546d Video 20 min. 20 sec.
5c64a51b466f4c6e7cf83a4ecb58bbc76d3475ae ↑ Part 2.
61b8473e2c105910ea5b3bfac6d8b5fb116fc113 Video 15 min. 39 sec.
a53e35c654b8e538f9f6d9c4f7c14763a2891051 Interview with the organizer of the work on the creation of the monument to Alexander Nevsky / / Gdovskaya zarya: gazeta.
c3df1d5d1785ea70103f7302a15205031bd475c5 — 30.3.2007. Нов Novogorodetsky posad of Alexander Nevsky in the Kobyl Settlement ↑ "In memory of the past and in the name of the future" (photo and narration text) ↑ Memorial wooden cross to the squads of Alexander Nevsky (photos).
7f8d26c9361c27376a74dc1e61df90fb014a8fb5 Перейти Go to: 1 2 A bronze cross will be installed on the site of the Ice Battle as a sign of respect for the history of the Pskov Land (unavailable link from 25-05-2013 (937 days) - history, copy)//Official website of the Pskov region, July 12, 2006] Сел Seleznev Alexander Alexandrovich, author of the project Auto VECHE of Russia.
592dff71cfb48dee67db924590abfa81fcb24409 Открытие Opening of the Cross of Worship to the squads of Alexander Nevsky in the Kobyl Settlement (July 16, 2006).
d3245d28432ed60cf80f037b6db7fd0bd79606c0 Перевод Translation of dates of the Julian calendar to other calendars.
d30a44d130b8ca8ded9ac64bff076a90590e3cd3 Завтра The newspaper "Tomorrow".
c0858fb63a0a1e3e19c6ae6963ac99d684f7d77f Э Radio "Echo of Moscow".
9620dc0e6ab018ab9a5fe031e08ca97acdc1af1a ↑ The museum of the history of the expedition to clarify the place of the Ice battle was opened in the Gdovsky district.
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881205db331adb40bfcab708c65bae2ba6b70fa4 (in the lane, superl.)
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94f03427025cbf599c268531821d8a4f0fb84195 Who won the Ice Battle., 2006.
996d2825941befc19d6c5574c884570e090e49dd Olma Press.
e05936733c903f03826ab32e52ebe95121e3a20e An ice battle on Wikimedia Commons?
f55e5857c401cdb1d7dc68821d0047db38fc028c On the question of writing the concept of the museum reserve "Ice Battle", Gdov, November 19-20, 2007.
b87a48d840e05002377c12f4daae8b45b6932280 The place of the victory of Russian troops over German knights in 1242 (unavailable link from 25-05-2013 (937 days) - history, copy) / / Monuments of history and culture of Pskov and Pskov Krai, consisting under state protection The Conquest of Russia by the Tatar Mongols.
56ea716832d58e85d9b8d33f27f4a187774e637e Interactive map Monument of History and culture of the peoples of the Russian Federation (monument code: 6000000460) The place where the battle with the German knights took place in 1242 "Ice Battle" 430 kilogram bell "Blagovestnik" left St. Petersburg to the place of the Ice battle Sokolov B. V. "One hundred great Wars" Baranov A.
1c13d6236b88ed1b3f5d82602494ee64dc47f1d8 The number of brothers of the Teutonic Order Ostrowski, Donald Alexander Nevsky's "Battle on the Ice".
1ffc6a8be8e885515284b413d5debf45a4973745 The Creation of a Legend.
debc48dd99df20780ad80440f830c487d8f8acbd Selart, A. Livonia, Rus’ and the Baltic Crusades in the Third Century.
d982a586160911a290db1e1908a5d13492f30dc9 - Leiden: Brill, 2015 — - ISBN 978-9-004-28474-6.
680ed51e9b100d770d3c1e1d794282e7981a086e [show] Wars and armed conflicts of Russia Old Russian
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d48ec913c40bf8bd6d0ede72259cdb816bc960e4 Campaigns of Russia against Byzantium (860 • 907 • 941-944 • 970-971 • 988 • 1024 • 1043) • Caspian campaigns of the Rus • Eastern campaign of Svyatoslav • Russian Pecheneg
315784ae5dc72f4c2a7f331204c91a1c43e3214d Russians
a7992a9396bd07ee9bcd6d3577d538f97d0e3e82 principalities
4bd4334a32a96285bbec36777f6ea3b6a1747c7b Russian Polovtsian • Civil strife • Kalka • The Battle of Omovzha • The Mongol invasion • Mongol Tatar yoke (Tver Uprising • The campaign to Volga Bulgaria • The Battle of Vozha • The Battle of Kulikovo • The invasion of Tokhtamysh on Moscow • Standing on the Ugra River) * The Swedish Novgorodians (The Second Swedish Crusade (the Battle of the Neva) • The Third Swedish Crusade • 1348-1349) • Livonian campaign against Russia (Ice Battle • Battle of Rakovor) • Battle on the Irpen River • Lithuanian Moscow War (1368-1372) • Standing on the Ugra River (1408) • Russian Kazan (1445 • 1467-1469 • 1478) • Moscow Novgorod (1456 • 1471 • 1477-1478)
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e778fd31e0a07d00f5ad83d196a5524f5650400e Russian Lithuanian (1487-1494 • 1500-1503 • 1507-1508 • 1512-1522 • 1534-1537 • 1558-1583) • Russian Kazan (1487 • 1505-1507 • 1521-1524 • 1530-1531 • 1535-1552 • Kazan campaigns (Capture of Kazan) • 1552-1556) • Russian Swedish (1495-1497 • 1554-1557 • 1590-1595 • 1610-1617 • 1656-1658 • 1700-1721) • Russian Crimean (1521 • 1571 • Young • 1591 • Crimean campaigns) * Cheremisskiye (1552-1557 • 1571-1574 * 1581-1585) • Livonian War • Dagestan campaigns (1560 • 1594 • 1604-1605) • Russian Turkish (1568-1570 • 1672-1681 • 1686-1700 • 1710-1713) • Russian Polish (1577-1582 • 1609-1618 • Smolensk • 1654-1667) • Bashkir uprisings (1662-1664 • 1681-1684 • 1704-1711) • Conquest of Siberia • Russian Qing border conflict • Peasant Uprisings (Cotton * Bolotnikov • Stepan Razin • Bulavinskoe)
91c15fd5d990bd83a3c50e300619cce44be094aa empire
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42724976abf218f52fcf92c452432ec282de21a7 Soviet
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a73553a1f52809c455c04b4de9ead146dc2543c5 The current conflicts are marked in italics
85a9cae8a6170a6104c80cc1969839c930bad59a Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice Battle&oldid=75179544"
2b1167d9b945904470a6bfdebc962fd5ee5da6e0 Categories: Battles alphabetically Battles of North Eastern Russia Events of April 5, April 1242 Battles of the Teutonic Order Alexander Nevsky Battles of the Novgorod Republic 1242 History of Pskov
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b402d1f1f1fa6c5aae5565d8448790223ce6f2a0 "Ice battle"
beebbcfb1d05a761dcc753bd9ba606039b817ff4 1242
4a025b5f99d9bcb7712dac67a40acb60d54d3f25 Alexander Nevsky's victory over the German Knights of the Livonian Order on Lake Peipsi.
5d5c5d4f47b6ba9f1310ae60e3b613ab2d8005ce Events (2)
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c4f655a2864b1e6236e95971ff8bc849183a2de9 COURSE OF EVENTS
4056dcfabbddbf8c1d3d5bf906a2b63de146da27 The tenth century in densely populated - by medieval standards, of course - Western Europe was marked by the beginning of expansion.
47fdae2d34193bf884371954692f62c0f3274daa In the future, from century to century, this expansion expanded, taking a variety of forms.
69fcafdfc4fe3aba75903244fa199bcc6c362aee The European peasant, bent under the burden of duties to the seigneur, ventured to invade the rebellious forests.
6a93d46fcee3060e4d2b736dd5078826a97fd8ba He cut down trees, cleared the land of shrubs and drained swamps, extracting additional arable land.
20d15f878ca7abdaafa0d4ea27a1f09e357046b5 The Europeans were pushing the Saracens (the Arabs who had captured Spain), there was a Reconquista (the"reconquest" of Spain).
7cc657437faef545db92ea053d7c6df71edfacce Inspired by the lofty idea of the liberation of the Holy sepulchre and overcome by a thirst for wealth and new lands, the crusaders stepped into the Levant - the so called territories located on the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea in the Middle Ages.
b21a25e9fde1f95f07301a0e7b950c1a257476a9 The European "onslaught on the east" began; villagers, skilled urban craftsmen, experienced merchants, knights appeared in large numbers in Slavic countries, for example, in Poland and the Czech Republic, began to settle and settle there.
77aa39b88273fd979e2c9321e8b8caca0c8d384c This contributed to the rise of the economy, social and cultural life of the Eastern European countries, but at the same time caused problems, creating rivalry and confrontation between the newcomers and the indigenous population.
6d045b4dccf14fb05a4b07ab47fd2bd9d771f4aa A particularly large wave of immigrants poured out of the German lands, where the rulers of the German Empire (following Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) supported the "onslaught to the East".
8285422cddb774500c5550b168a755664df723d0 Soon, the Baltic states attracted the eyes of Europeans.
98f00a9414fc9a292b36a311adf2483a5c637678 It was perceived as a forest desert, slightly populated by wild Letto Lithuanian and Ugro Finnish pagan tribes who did not know state power.
bb309047702446c7fecea39664fd8e8d191725f6 Since ancient times, Russia and the Scandinavian countries have been expanding here.
646d0edb2c0a7123771d09716f6c02d50fc5bd1d They colonized the border areas to themselves.
637ac83fac41d34a870122bbc1c44aa409182c56 They imposed tribute on the local tribes.
52bd7677f02f6ff62c0d457e337cd239dca6a250 The Russians, back in the time of Yaroslav the Wise, built their fortress Yuryev (named after the name of George given to Yaroslav the Wise at the baptism of the name of George) behind Lake Peipsi in the land of the Ugro Finns of the Estonians.
01a5c669a38706fe4dd626434e1b3af717322f90 The Swedes advanced into the possession of the Finns until they reached the borders of the Karelian land controlled by Novgorod.
838fe6e608835d32580dcaa24546176693fa6b68 At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries, people from the west of Europe appeared in the Baltic States.
f1ad9b615a47a55ec05c62900f18d76434b5bd6f The Catholic missionaries who carried the word of Christ were the first to come.
1efd9dd80e49e70ee7f203227deaaf4c4c83b479 In 1184, the monk Maynard unsuccessfully tried to convert the Livs (the ancestors of modern Latvians) to Catholicism.
016eacb5b4951aecd0fafc0f6f399b7ceff3c377 The monk Berthold in 1198 preached Christianity already with the help of the swords of the Crusader knights.
e08d017f6af06914d38996414656021758db32e5 The Bremen canon Albert, sent by the pope, captured the mouth of the Dvina River and founded Riga in 1201.
7ea282c0b2505531e1f7cd00c33a7f11499a2d9a A year later, the Order of monks of knights was created on the Livonian lands conquered around Riga.
4c0ab207f9f649625454b17c6bc5edfc8a1109fe It was called the Order of the Swordsmen in the form of a long cross, more like a sword.
de14d70a3acf38943b0a89be2105cb3bcb35486b In 1215-1216, the swordsmen captured Estonia.
3ad3f15300235e5413662934d34d27102d47a311 This was preceded by their struggle with the Russian and Lithuanian princes, as well as enmity with Denmark, which from the beginning of the XII century claimed Estonia.
711947738b8d0bf4fba60d87ae6e9049e079ae4f In 1212, the swordsmen came close to the borders of the Pskov and Novgorod lands.
cf5b5f15a5e0a7c277a89035f6ebe76ed76dee84 Mstislav Udaloy, who reigned in Novgorod, successfully resisted them.
c733c29f5c7b619f4bd801a7a58633c47a38136e Then, during the reign of Alexander Nevsky's father Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in Novgorod, the swordsmen were defeated near Yuryev (modern Tartu).
6a083cf22ecdce337f9f0ae7f1cae8ef1f8e4eb8 The city was left to the Crusaders on the condition that a tribute was paid to Novgorod for it (Yuriev's tribute).
a7f5fab2148f17ba9bc2e9d28f0216fe62b987f6 By 1219, Denmark had conquered Northern Estonia, but after 5 years the swordsmen regained it.
07e79c9e0cd42fe0dea00a8c9a859a9c29d559c3 The activity of the Crusaders pushed the Lithuanian tribes (Lithuania, Zhmud) to unite.
a6ed1eafb6c46471fb5b06916d7e79903ed3bfe5 They, the only Baltic peoples, began to form their own state.
5937b443d56118f5881022affc79c2603e443532 In the land of the Baltic tribe of Prussians, which was located near the Polish border, another Crusader order was founded - the Teutonic Order.
4b2eff6561f3809ce1068c9f102a2e011c415f82 Previously, he was in Palestine, but the Polish king invited the Teutons to the Baltic States, hoping for their help in the fight against the pagan Prussians.
41e276e91d443a7a621a8a13cf330759527fdb1c The Teutons soon began to seize Polish possessions.
10fe5038eb377b42d082dfcd8b26d569086830e1 As for the Prussians, they were exterminated.
aaaf6e103005632ec8ca6bb5f9b3a56d30168ef7 But the defeat in 1234 from Alexander Nevsky's father Yaroslav, and in 1236 from the Lithuanians led to the reform of the Order of the Sword.
9d42a740c21ebadbd6384d313541742c60eb8d8e In 1237, it became a branch of the Teutonic Order, and it became known as the Livonian Order.
cda025f4ac173b0ab9ff35cd2e3f0b4ffefb2cd3 The Batu invasion gave rise to the Crusaders ' hope that the expansion could be extended to the northern lands of the Orthodox, who had long been considered heretics in the West — after the split of the churches in 1054.
80b9469d162169678be732de5ad3a63825964363 Especially attracted Mr. Veliky Novgorod.
4a9d8048200c61c5f8cb5237618e7c88af467cea But not only the crusaders were tempted by the Novgorod land.
6faea0478c0cd1a3ba37bea8e5fe7df61482bcc8 The Swedes were also interested in it.
2237dec11f7c6da4202be64f91d5859abd697b42 Mr. Veliky Novgorod and Sweden have repeatedly fought when their interests in the Baltic States clashed.
1d62d1c34f6a316203e088f749a56655e631e9ea At the end of the 1230s, news was received in Novgorod that the son in law of the Swedish king Jarl (the title of the Swedish nobility) Birger was preparing a raid on the Novgorod possessions.
3bbb2e12f336f4941a87eedf740654c62a412369 Alexander, the 19 year old son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, was sitting as a prince in Novgorod at that time.
56bbcc94ca84557319b2fa86e4b7cccbc8ec6b76 He ordered the Izhora elder Pelgusii to watch the coast and report the Swedish invasion.
8187b970b74d9d5a38eb8fe26df59fcda9fc276e As a result, when the Scandinavian boats entered the Neva River and stopped at the confluence of the Izhora River, the Prince of Novgorod was notified in time.
b2e66a752a3eb059e0d4a6b35aa0d5b92140a407 On July 15, 1240, Alexander arrived at the Neva River and unexpectedly attacked the enemy with the forces of a small Novgorod detachment and his squad.
9e1a4558870f1f04bb146192aad8d53ed855a0d2 Against the background of the destruction of north eastern Russia by the Mongol Khan Batu, this battle broke a difficult circle for contemporaries: Alexander brought victory to Russia and with it hope, faith in his own strength!
18e406e29f97d1a7ad4f3c4bd5cfdf230f31e90f This victory earned him the honorary title of Nevsky.
dc2dd8cc1738c814bd013bf7b73422b763b682d6 The confidence that the Russians are capable of winning victories helped them to survive in the difficult days of 1240, when a more dangerous enemy, the Livonian Order, invaded the Novgorod borders.
d19acea059b726618c3e46cf53e47b7d262e2197 Ancient Izborsk has fallen.
469a863cb3e0f36066b5a62aa7c5d05e5a99d832 Pskov traitors opened the gates to the enemy.
c75ed2195c2c412bab73dd0cef8ed10cb55e3887 The Crusaders scattered across the Novgorod land and plundered in the vicinity of Novgorod.
f16f87f23fe2bfd5383c030cc09d73c1bd5b9b89 Not far from Novgorod, the Crusaders built a fortified outpost, made raids under the Meadow and the Saber Churchyard, which was 40 versts from Novgorod.
247cb3a919e95978d5a24ac53273a037137c1898 Alexander was not in Novgorod.
e3940de9c95cbc1cf14035766364cce1b24359fb He quarreled with the independent Novgorodians and left for Pereyaslavl Zalessky.
8eef3fe559c6d640148378dcb9f7331f237f1c54 Under the pressure of circumstances, the Novgorodians began to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav for help.
22b465bbaf8ffc0aa9f76e3eb379b825ef012fef The Novgorodians wanted to see Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Suzdal regiments.
49e8c18ff1c010d94c71e233936153069ffd019b Grand Duke Yaroslav sent another son, Andrey, with a cavalry detachment, but the Novgorodians stood their ground.
7f31ed96a8a3baef15344e463066ae885f3aa9d7 In the end, Alexander arrived, brought his Pereyaslav squad and the Vladimir Suzdal militia, consisting mainly of peasants.
1617f5c7d7aa2f24af768d3395143c68b8f7f753 The Novgorodians also assembled regiments.
6c443f17f1c49c6ec4c06f6c1d563c6a9d216f91 In 1241, the Russians launched an offensive, recapturing Koporye from the Crusaders.
733de739e8d07d74c16496afcec5f4adfc86220b The fortress erected by the knights in Koporye was destroyed.
a341a30a2708f2e6d380e9c223899dca1f42130a In the winter of 1242, Alexander Nevsky unexpectedly appeared at Pskov and liberated the city.
b58a10a17b21a8a5d87af0ce671a63e819f72bba Russian troops entered the Order, but soon their vanguard was defeated by the knights.
cae8602941b6620fec136e783f36c04c6ad9702f Alexander led the regiments to the eastern shore of Lake Peipsi and decided to give battle.
4873229120dc7cdb08cc8d6643744ef31484d09f The Russians stood in the traditional "eagle": in the center of the regiment, consisting of the Vladimir Suzdal militia, on the sides the regiments of the right and left hands the heavily armed Novgorod infantry and the princely cavalry squads.
a5e3c6a995d2c0d438cd590d8a49dcfd22c958e6 This made the coast completely impassable for the knights ' horses and was supposed to keep the faint hearted in the Russian camp from fleeing.
dffbaf5a5626d6cc5568aba121dd21c86f9f6a87 The knights were confused.
d08e29b5ee9a6d5fbe7a8dfbaaa1f0fd034fe754 Those who fell into the water went to the bottom like a stone.
2a103ec0ddee077773ffa8654dc4cc2fe58fa874 For the Eurasians and L. N. Gumilev, Alexander is a far sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde, turned his back on the West.
f35ba4cc4b2708197146cca025db18e3031f5206 Supporters of the continuation of the struggle against the Horde Daniil Galitsky and Prince Andrey Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat.
0a80054d2d28355a833244e17306f5f89afd1516 Related events
e3941b733924327b06b719f3684d135dfd3e535a 1263 Death of Alexander Nevsky
e90bbe263ee215e52706ff32dc824122202b0222 July 23, 1240 Battle of the Neva
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54a13ef0f3d932fbcc6663ce16898354fbe38a23 Summary of the poem "The Demon: an Oriental tale" by Lermontov M. Yu. according to the chapters (parts), The ideological and artistic originality of the poem "Mtsyri" by Lermontov M. Yu.
e3f3ab6f7a5a824ac9d94a44e4359d84a539edc9 The ideological and artistic originality of the work "The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and a daring merchant Kalashnikov" by Lermontov M. Yu.
6302436c40aaf4bf62df4bea150408135aaaafcc "The pathos of Lermontov's poetry is in moral questions about the fate and rights of the human person" V. G. Belinsky
8f3afea9827edb2d59846f8da111fc7c0c0e622a M. Y. Lermontov was born in Moscow, in the family of an officer.
d63ad64984b56e41f64f9bc0cf99ab7e19b35dd7 The future poet's childhood was overshadowed by the early death of his mother and the constant litigation between his grandmother and father.
c1953800c61678474e99914b9c123728a8df32f1 The painful impressions of childhood left an imprint on the character of the young man, contributed to the formation of a nature with very vividly expressed emotional reactions.
59873be610712724c17ad8ee6e722549c6f86b08 Already in his childhood, Lermontov showed such a character trait as dreaminess, a tendency to fantasy.
61ea92551f50c82a32909064eb1aa5fa5309d169 The subject of his close attention becomes the parish.
54fb37269a88e5a50337d107c2d5ee7121720768 In the images of nature, the future poet seeks and finds correspondences to his soul experiences.
0754e2a4c88aaea2a1015c29add9bd382aa9093c A special role in the development of Lermontov's poet was played by trips to the Caucasus, which awakened his poetic inspiration.
fc5dcdbbab27a82b3a63a07a50478a409dbf0ae8 Blue Mountains of the Caucasus, I welcome you!
1cf53cf7dda73159e3f16052f4f4bb8b4594976a You cherished my childhood,
68781b1277a2563118e0cfa81e35168805cec1ba You carried me on your wild backs;
c118f217ded1d12f0d2be1a99171b77f64a0d8ae They dressed me with clouds;
3478539d8ac354cdb36a70232566aad4ac7d4e9a You have taught me to the sky,
6e24951f9b956d26fd5f069c9284935b15a7d80b And since then I have been dreaming about you and about the sky...
6ca7f271fd807cfd29174250904d0686db435604 - so wrote the sixteen year old Lermontov.
673ce5ddc0b2f83fed8aaa822b67c1a3d3bfe58e One of Lermontov's early poems - "The Prisoner of the Caucasus" (1828) - was written under the strong influence of the work of A. S. Pushkin.
eec4577146c35af63543c207443feab2c583c544 At the same time, this work is a peculiar stage in the young poet's mastery of the basics of mastery.
4cf09a508f95e23ed270b71ecbe136f4b2bc456e Lermontov redefines the plot of Pushkin's "Caucasian Captivity", the theme of nature acquires a different sound in the poem.
8ee365e705204468f230d06d8529b5cc71006e1b A distinctive feature of the Lermontov landscape is its fusion with the world of feelings of the lyrical hero, nature is endowed with the same qualities and properties.
b0f750df77a4e6d6ff80b618a20c3179ede47dd3 In the romantic world of early Lermontov, man and nature are equal.
2bcb0f1fd4e814fa1fe0fb0cceffa69595ce25ca This motif will later be developed in the works of Lermontov and, above all, in the poem "Mtsyri".
fe3625af57944c8708630a9d3c54351d2455cfd0 Lermontov did not imitate, did not co feast, but learned from the experience of Pushkin and other poets, his predecessors, what could contribute to the expression of his own creative individuality.
b2e16e5b68f63433f5123c13300723b0dab64380 In 1828, Lermontov entered a boarding school at Moscow University, and in 1830 became a student of the Department of literature.
7b457908b941840f6ae19571fc2ee37374bca416 Russian Russian epic Lermontov is fascinated by the character and mood of the Russian epic, he has the idea of a work from Russian national life, realized later, in 1837 ("A Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and a daring merchant Kalashnikov").
fd90b49983c2ecae9874abed3044648d65994847 The expedition along the eastern shore of the Black Sea enriched Lermontov with various observations.
2c90521ac23db30863dba6fc4059630638d539ac I was particularly struck by this old Georgian Military Road.
05dcb7d8fe5fb2a272847ff430017b9b07467cba The advantages associated with it were known to him from childhood.
8dc6faece2c33ad4c6b0f4d7507631ebc4e6ebc5 Now they are connected with the impressions of the magnificent nature of the Caucasus.
621412b5bab0146a50736911e30a3a73dfcbc526 So the idea arose to transfer the action of the emi "Demon" to the Caucasus.
70d45e4837883a92bacac2f92239ab13bf3f30e8 Lermontov returns to St. Petersburg as a different person.
e83242525d1a56938b74ff55935a4c3924bbc2ff His youthful optimism gives way to melancholy and even despair.
346831543b9364585ddf38f8b131c494ba92fe9d The poet compares the freedom loving people he met in the Caucasus with people of his own generation, whose future is " either empty or dark."
0b841af143d9248123d7aaa79427759b0243f8f7 The generation of the 1830s portrays Lermontov in "Duma", the only lyrical work written by him after returning from the Caucasus.
ccf8deae6c05012c8519e95dcef995fbfaedcb00 Caucasian impressions were reflected in the final version of the poem " The Demon "(1838) and in the novel"The Hero of Our Time".
2619e1ec7884b5529d0ee58eabf62782d28a1fca At the end of the 1830s, Lermontov began cooperation with the magazine" Otechestvennye Zapiski", where he published the stories" Bela "and" Fatalist", which were later included in the novel"Hero of Our Time".
07dc84aaddedf2802db66b7168d4ef01b10b8749 The fame that came to Lermontov in the late 1830s does not please him.
5a94320e7e68b3e2589f0c407f950a6ab1aaf893 The poet is annoyed that he is "coming into fashion".
89f53d42d07a4d0b94640736a1c3f3c7b1289666 His position in many respects resembles that of Pushkin in court circles.
9d7f2da33363465362b90ed20c0460dc3750772d The world did not like Lermontov for his audacity, carefulness and independence.
1f63a3d62d4663a54c08ae2d23eef8556fd26cb9 Lermontov was aware of this and had a presentiment that the time would come when he would be "persecuted with slander".
3446a10888cb34a59e8ae93a395c6497a0b036a8 The image of the "hero of time", which was embodied in the lyrical element of Lermontov's poetry, is revealed in the novel "The Hero of Our Time" {1839) not only psychologically.
50fcbc61a8549f5eee4afa06a3675e26a4017455 Lermontov's novel is a study of modern society, its moral atmosphere.
51447fa4ebb7dcbae103e1817610d8122be07a02 Pechorin, the hero of his time, differs from all the other characters in the novel in that he is the only one who knows how to judge not only those around him, but also to be critical of himself.
21b31fa2a1c94bf696158be258e2c53c3b09d69b Lermontov presents the reader with the opportunity to study various aspects of life in their relation to the fate of an individual, and to consider the fate of a person against the background of general historical circumstances.
c0b187b1532fab4808732bb1f962941bc1d44d67 Lermontov, a psychologist, examines the processes of spiritual distortion of the personality by the environment, paying attention to the events that determine and change in the life of the characters.
3a9e419d0b5bf26196def9d46e04aa519edf7424 This is a case of images of simple, "natural" people Kazbich, Bela, Maxim Maxim, "honest smugglers", and people of the Pechorin circle Grushnitsky, Werner, Mary.
fe6be3dfd537fc0823f3c6cac08a29909c0f706e The study of Pechorin's personality in the "dnevnik" chapters of the novel is based on the principle of mutual characterization of the characters.
438c571706a78657075eeda04c1f2e90e86cb37a Grushnitsky and Werner are not only heroes who have their own fate and character, but also their own mirror images of Pechorin's personality.
65adce6e82db639dc6e4d995cd183fc73ed5488b Lermontovsky Pechorin learns about himself by studying other people.
03158f209971357a82ffbc9b52fa88f9a609e9c8 The image of the main character is revealed not only in action, actions, but also in the description of appearance.
2a6fa8c4517d3810c2c4eae6c05b5ea820c7b518 Lermontov creates a surprisingly rich psychological portrait of Pechorin's appearance.
9f8190672058afc7ee8daab134dee085333c9b1c The portrait of the hero is created not only by expressive, but also by visual means.
55f54a88fa6d7fd6d27ef0c78d38172a853d329e In the description of the plasticity of Pechorin's movements, his figure, the expression of his eyes, the experience of Lermontov, a painter who was proficient with a brush, is felt.
76320313fe2572aa2c04e831dc4cd3a7867bb897 The composition of the novel plays an important role in the formation of Lermontov's artistic conception.
ac00c4876a9c0c53e5bf89c82d55f737193f271d The character of Pechorin in the first chapters of the novel is revealed from the outside, his personality is manifested in the actions, in the attitude of other characters towards him.
bd15baf9b50f173e9bdc2d904614154ca9c25cfe The diary contains the confession of the hero himself.
f28980d16e1055f0a38a0dba30aa63b5377c57c5 The chronological sequence of plot events is replaced by a psychological sequence of" recognition " of the hero by the reader.
c2eaea8172669ef7f798123c87589edb1753af2b In the novel "The Hero of Our Time", a deep psychological analysis of the vital spiritual life of an individual was combined with an analytical image of the era of the late 1830s, the period of moral losses and social rewards.
fecffaff9deb5c90a8078536b93262fb87658794 For a duel with de Barant, for impermissible poems ("The First of January") Lermontov was exiled to the Caucasus for the second time.
e617352a66042f8f6aa336218f9c563613ebf3e8 While the poet led a life full of adventures and adventures, in St. Petersburg they were preparing for the publication of his book 28 lyrical works written by the poet himself (1840).
322b7513d994217b87a5f26adf0c9207f14dcca4 Lermontov passionately dreams of retiring and engaging in literary activity.
2d6319ba07e59e7cc337e3ff902307fff21aa5e3 But fate decreed otherwise.
030795d7813ba449a79074de55871935b07565bd A tragically absurd accident (a duel with N. Martynov) ended the poet's life on June 15, 1841.
f96bdaa408af5c6ed8fca951e55d12ee73dca1fb The great poet of Russia, who would have been only 27 years old, has passed away.
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191142b196e9ddfd2dbde785fbe85e51167d077c © Lit Helper.
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995cda281ace8c71fe2bf595e643e1584ad296a9 Sumero-Akkadian mythology is the mythology of the population of Ancient Mesopotamia, who spoke Sumerian and Akkadian languages.
95daedf59050e1cf6044510569f69f69f07156ca Sumerian mythology — mythical representations of the Sumerian-speaking population of Mesopotamia as a whole, recorded in sources in the specified language.
aa676bcf0c76bb05859660a238d3e0849c124a16 Included the oldest (including pre-Sumerian?) the layer of beliefs of the inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia, the mythology of the southern "nomes" of the early Dynastic time, the mythology of the Sumerian population of the Akkadian Kingdom and the Power of the third dynasty of Ur.
cd856b78c55ad555042fb140cb071cb9040bfae0 The unity of Sumerian mythology is conditional: each city-state had its own pantheon, its own genealogy of the most important gods and local versions of myths.
de0a566a344e4c4164237ba5f513068b32deab14 The unified Sumero-Akkadian pantheon is the result of the syncretization of numerous local traditions that took place as a result of certain political events: the priests of the largest powers of Mesopotamia, primarily the Babylonian Kingdom and the Power of the third dynasty of Ur, were working to build a single mythological scheme.
72abe2fb5ff09f7ca09de71f9063be1d8ea364a9 There was a group of the most important deities, probably worshipped everywhere, but their names and position in the divine hierarchy were not always the same.
c2f47efe89770c0eefe4c50dc6a3fa122bc3c7db According to the Sumerian version of the cosmogonic myth, the primary element of the world was water chaos, teeming with monsters.
4ac8288094a40faac1a1f197738dc2c1a66f484c In its depths, a firmament was born in the form of a huge mountain, the top of which was the god of heaven An (Anu), depicted with a horned tiara on his head.
4d147d1c5d21f779b79545ec4c5224c115e17516 The flat disc-shaped base of the firmament was thought of by the earth goddess Ki.
878a56ac7d634958a721a4b0275532b8b7c2973e The gods of heaven and earth began to give birth to children, the most important of which is Enlil (Akkadian Ellil) – "lord", the god of air.
8f1a7ee834ee5f74d48ecb19354b295f89d8558d He divided heaven and earth and became the de facto supreme deity of Sumer and Akkad (Anu was represented as being very far away and interfering little in the affairs of the world).
8493817dc4a5945c492df5eb8df324a665f88752 The children of Enlil were Nanna (Sin) - the god of the moon, Utu (Shamash) - the god of the sun, Ninurta/Ningirsu is the god of war, Nergal is an underground deity with destructive functions.
c76f6997d90adbf5510d0b9fff22f3e1566fcd3b While occupying the supreme place in the pantheon, Enlil, nevertheless, depended on the advice of several great gods.
702b43a3d36dc9e5b5c366b0a4a614b3c1a2d970 One day, he saw a young Ninlil bathing and took possession of her.
03023f9d7661e26853bc6a76b843f9be232d4793 For this, by a general decision, he was banished to the underworld.
262420ac90c1b0f23239affcbc0f89a0d84cd8fd But Ninlil, who was already carrying a child in her womb – Nanna, followed Enlil.
95a8e882553e2339e574164ba4d5991cfb83e9aa There was an unshakable rule according to which anyone who got into the "country of no return", if he left it, was obliged to leave someone in his place.
34e0092040d111a50f45496edc8e244f26802cf6 And then Enlil, alternately taking the form of the three guardians of the underworld: the "guardian of the gate", the "man of the underground river" and the "carrier", connects with Ninlil, who is making her way to him.
f50afe1f79734eb4f4c92aa5a235bd286783c422 They give birth to three underground gods who are destined to remain in the afterlife instead of their parents and older brother.
bf7b7fc67601f48752ce01a9d151b014f4192651 The third great god after Anu and Enlil was Enki (Ea in Akkadian mythology) - the master of underground waters, the god of wisdom, the keeper of the me tablets.
0e599c45502afcdd60a513c1e719b980a9ff66ec His symbol was the winged fish-goat, his companion was the human fish Kululu.
9db577973649b1851056eb13bd75cc1fd101d473 The Sumerian myth of the creation of man.
cb5f23b66083d8b8b25c25b1ca2e8933d6fdf6bd Enlil, Enki, Sin, Utu, Ninurta, Nergal and some others are considered cosmic igig gods.
9a6e96d311933e80ef9879a00dbe57ca8b4ecdba Deities of less high rank, the earthly Anunnaki were called to work hard, digging channels and carrying the earth.
38735db05d64d3c7ec878ac9104df249c3bb3612 They strongly grumbled and Enki, together with the goddess Ninmah, decide to create people in order to shift the burden of labor on them.
2fb28a83148ed85a61ef6c27f1f92cce0aa5b787 Enki and Ninmah fashioned three human couples, determined their fate and arranged a feast for them.
8a905de651d6be53d8357251467bab351a69ef08 At the feast, the creator gods became very drunk.
2d4c2d2d98937153e7ac67c8b3f0a0592aa5c9ee Ninmah again takes clay and makes six freaks out of it, and Enki "gives them a taste of bread" and determines the fate.
2f765b722ce2e568d873978a5b17b81e22d54777 Thus, the prerequisites for social and intellectual separation have already appeared among people.
38c9d534f6b27a9f1e3bdaaba96ee59155a8b12b Enki gives people a plow, a hoe, a brick mold.
7abceed3287e4bd8baf02a192c1a181347171bd0 On the blessed island of Tilmun, also watered with the help of Enki, the goddess Ninhursag (identified with Ninmah) grows eight wonderful plants – her daughters.
914fffeb0f64b8f90945d544d8669d75216dc584 Enki eats these plants, after which the disease affects the eight organs of his body.
4a88914a1774c4b98381cb05b1072b8458732987 Ninhursag curses Enki and leaves the island, the world begins to perish.
1d3fa07fc6068403b9d442dd3b6e6ce029201dd6 Returned to the island with the help of a fox, Ninhursag again creates eight goddesses, each of which symbolizes the diseased part of Enki's body (rib, jaw, tooth...) and heals the patient.
8440d5d6ede3901cf92191a1d12984c7aa6baf0a Apsu – in Akkadian mythology, the personification of the water ocean and his wife, the gigantic monster Tiamat, gave birth to the older and younger gods.
c9bdeaad1ffbd36a9802e4a11786f260844882d5 But the gaiety of the mighty young Igigs irritated Apsa.
56f06ef97578b56e4eb71e7c4e186b0bba12a3d4 He, together with his adviser Mummu, decides to destroy the gods.
7aa8d81fea8f610932e66d258c565b142cbe1f15 The omniscient Ea, however, having learned of the terrible plan, put Apsu to sleep and killed him.
b7ca3fc8ccff4d83e5321649373d24d28739aea5 He built a dwelling over the dead man, creating there a beautiful son named Marduk.
dee22b379c02f4fdc96d5bc818a381443cafeffc Meanwhile, according to the myth, Tiamat, wanting to avenge his murdered spouse, gathers an army of eleven monsters (dragons, lions, many-headed sheep, etc.).
b81638de6adb093473cd3caee55e1ec3fe8867c7 She makes the monster King her husband, handing him the tablets of fate
aafea7c9cf876bcf996eac6e1a40e3cdbc0c73fc The Igigi are afraid to join the battle.
89d09a33d5ff1c890b9a5c3dcba5af800f2248d7 Then Marduk demonstrates his power by lighting and extinguishing the stars.
8998fb6530b68cf24288c8fa2da08f84667325c0 He promises to defeat Tiamat, and with this condition the gods grant him supreme power.
074a8e935c565c90acf0e926b5daacf6ffc86b86 During the fight, Tiamat opens a huge mouth, but Marduk sends winds that penetrate into the monster's womb.
313b95a51e518f30c63a568d6859a4bf239b6daa Tiamat "loses control", the young god pierces her with an arrow and kills her.
69c5ca1220b9cbb772e527470575ac6b9ec14271 Then he takes Kinga prisoner and deals with an army of monsters (one of which, the fiery red dragon Mushkhush, combining the features of a snake, an eagle, a lion and a scorpion in its appearance, becomes a symbol and companion of god).
952f61333c28fa3d8d154564a8ec99b6b9ca58d2 After the victory comes the time of the world order
f8ee255194452a045b0f2081ecee4ae1d535d242 Tiamat Marduk cuts in two, making the upper part of the sky (locking it with a bolt-so that moisture does not flow freely down) and from the lower ground.
4779b427d0ccab7bb063ec02a29f6d0295217bf6 He kills Kingu and, mixing his blood with clay, creates people.
2ff9803f9e00fdfc6960634bf2e4aa05d4125286 Finally, Marduk creates a heavenly Babylon with the temple of Esagil and sets his bow in the sky.
fd989832ccb99527bdbe535a3eca59ed2b171bd2 Archaeological excavations at the sites of ancient cities in the Tigris and Euphrates Valley indicate that this region, known as Sumer and Akkad, was inhabited as early as 4000 BC.
8b8806e79707605032d79e331aff5837daf6a9f4 Some scientists believe that there are traces of earlier settlements there, but a fully developed civilization, discovered during the excavations of such cities as Ur, Uruk and Kish, was created by the Sumerians.
0eb394c396495119e9feb143fffcdfc7635b382a Apparently, they appeared in the delta of the rivers, having migrated from the mountainous regions to the northeast of Mesopotamia.
277bd50cd190fe562171d6751f7c465554c66ab5 Their myths show that they came from an area that was completely different from their new homeland.
e2552a69b9089c65c22d39466cc626514b54f68a Cuneiform was their invention, and it was they who built the strange tower temples known as" ziggurats " and are a distinctive feature of their cities.
35b6061cd576797e66fd08b6ce06788b553e8695 After the Sumerian settlements appeared in the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates, the area of Sumer and Akkad was overwhelmed by the first wave of Semitic conquerors, who gradually conquered the Sumerians, absorbed their culture and adopted their cuneiform, but not their language.
89587165544272fc6bb417b4c5e3c7f6e742a198 The language of the Semitic conquerors is known as Akkadian.
f9a9753b7adc9021cb4e967155eea0da4652e85b It is one of the most important branches of the great Semitic family of languages.
e12aa1abf4a1f3065a529821f025bec7efa9f26c The second wave of the Semitic invasion (it was the Amurru people, or Amorites) led to the foundation of the first Amorite dynasty in Babylon, to the heyday of Babylon under Hammurabi and, as a result, to its hegemony over Sumer and Akkad.
41afaa255dd73bbfb3bbe37f6a9c08c9fd0ee19a Five centuries later, another Semitic people, who lived upstream of the Tigris, conquered Babylon and created the first Assyrian empire in Mesopotamia.
878eb0b2e23b69c1b550ebea05c94ced576afcfa Therefore, the mythology of Mesopotamia has come down to us in different forms-Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian.
cc34871b3c0ba2504472209db6d09708a538cb35 Here is a summary of the Sumerian version of the flood myth.
584353e4ce4e7261cc8afb444943193f0f921e4c The story begins with the fact that one of the gods announces his intention to save humanity from destruction, contrary to the decision of the gods.
78a80963c5355d604a3f617e679a2b45898ef7b6 The reasons for this decision are unknown.
a3d124514cddbb636bb36b185a40ec180ca9cd07 It is Enki who takes measures to save humanity from destruction.
47208ac44785f9f70607abda2f15aec646b09991 He orders the pious king of Sippar, Ziusudra, to stand near the wall, through which he will reveal to him the intention of the gods and tell him what needs to be done to save himself from the flood.
cb44fe2dd92211862793cb751dd3e7dff7a1feff Of great interest is another Sumerian myth, which seems to echo in the story of Cain and Abel, only without its tragic end.
9a924a368f47b9da6befa3dce6710c4f0c19ee43 This myth, in fact, concerns the centuries-old rivalry between the agricultural and pastoral way of life.
b952e49c856b477c3c652e9515e808d1416b471f It tells that Inanna (or Ishtar) must choose a husband for herself.
4681b5198e6ccfcd262d67bba51b4062430a6cee There are two applicants: the shepherd god Dumuzi (or Tammuz) and the peasant god Enkimdu.
ee1c153525bd155f68850a6e04797c0ccd799cce Inanna's brother Utu, the sun god, prefers Dumuzi, but Inanna herself sympathizes with Enkimd.
3f8b07662bde271942164a3a5bde77053472c124 Dumuzi is persistent and says that he has everything that Enkimdu has to offer, and even more.
b19aa306068377bb6f3bfcfec8eb5cebcd43a353 Enkimdu tries to appease Dumuzi and offers him all sorts of gifts, but Dumuzi is firm in his decision to win Inanna and obviously succeeds in his intention, since in other myths he appears as Inanna's husband.
0a4971833118030440aa11c063a625248802c681 When we look at the Hebrew myths, we will see that the myth of Cain and Abel traces the features of older myths, and it is quite possible that Dumuzi's refusal of all the gifts offered to him by God the farmer is nothing more than the original version of Yahweh's refusal of the gifts offered to him by Cain.
5745ccdfb7f1693b48fed3eeabe73c5fffd96231 An important figure in Akkadian mythology is the hero Gilgamesh, who, according to the Epic of Gilgamesh, is two-thirds god and one-third man.
f86a881f95e4a2f9a2c0e8ed87ead7c8e1e6cedd It should be noted that in the list of Sumerian kings, Gilgamesh is the fifth king of the Uruk dynasty, the second dynasty that ruled after the flood (according to Sumerian mythology).
d0e822058e2a2cecb7c9e633899d32f2a3ef0432 The first of these texts, entitled "Gilgamesh and Agga", reflects the struggle for primacy that existed between the ancient Sumerian cities.
dcc974b58de0919cfba19421b0c7ad1b3cacc7fb It tells about the conflict between Gilgamesh of the Uruk dynasty and Agga, the last king of the Kish dynasty, the first dynasty to rule after the flood.
20e85ac4e1cc76da3b8ae6f57a75dd96407a4b18 Most of the poem has not reached us, but, apparently, it contains a story about Aggi's demand to surrender Uruk to him, about the resistance of Gilgamesh, about the siege of Uruk by Aggi, and, finally, about the reconciliation of the two kings.
b2812ca0ea3065a523e933d575ed3d4db7a588ce The gods did not interfere in this conflict, so, strictly speaking, this text is not a pure example of Sumerian mythology
7ed6390426602a5d75f5c032eba183285532b274 The second text, entitled "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living", clearly contains a mythological component that was used in the creation of the Akkadian "Epic of Gilgamesh".
23c3ce976da41dac38a0a00d999ae20c5e36a51f Its main plot is the search for immortality, that is, a theme that runs through the entire Middle Eastern mythology.
3067b168ee40115825cd36bdf9e56043819310bd Oppressed by the thought of the inevitability of death, Gilgamesh decides to go in search of the Land of the Living.
0bbd78348f507862c55e0912a242e2a2ddedf1ff His friend and servant Enkidu, about whom we will learn more in the Akkadian epic, advises him to first talk about his intention with the sun god Utu.
d3e8552d54201a6022a58430634615e71de50565 Utu tells Gilgamesh about all the dangers, but then helps him to cross the seven mountains and reach his goal, which turns out to be the mountain where the giant Huvava lives.
265ab6ff9e90eab3f32af225bc64dedb095e8ad1 Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut off the giant's head.
779562fe1391b1f170c5ef066fe4e533b2b3ccfe This is where the table with the text ends.
14cf252d36081b697333f0c595a386a1f221179e The significance of the text lies in the fact that it shows how much thoughts about death occupied the Sumerians, it is also the source from which the Babylonians drew the material to complete the story of Gilgamesh, which appeared in the Akkadian version of the myth.
2680cc85d8b26a9eb2548b10cad4ad043d4d2caa The third text about Gilgamesh," The Death of Gilgamesh", develops the theme of death and the search for immortality.
b25b69d97515175bbab1f23d92f5ae78ad39d6b0 Apparently, Gilgamesh had a dream interpreted by the god Enlil as follows: the gods denied people immortality, but they gave Gilgamesh fame, wealth and success on the battlefield instead.
986aef80620a37ce059f3876eeee88648c09d5bb The second part of the poem describes a funeral rite, which, according to Kramer, may shed light on the significance of the tomb found by Sir Leonard Bouli during the excavations of Ur.
607d1f022eafbb3707ff672b618c470cbbf3f32e It is possible that the Sumerians, like the ancient Egyptians, killed the wives and servants of the deceased king; the text itself implies that the deceased king is Gilgamesh, and ends with a sacred chant in his honor.
0cf162136eda02c84446e61d5d6ee400f0ac5376 American archaeologist James J. Pritchard took the trouble to carefully compare the two texts and found many amazing coincidences in them.
bb89128f68956203d1bd59cf45077f1e55d0dfad First of all, the sequence of events common to both texts is striking: the appearance of the sky and celestial bodies, the separation of water from the earth, the creation of man on the sixth day, as well as the rest of God in the Bible and the joint feast of the Babylonian gods in the text "Enuma Elish" on the seventh day.
a65b27915a696b854c8f873470d2476cc605d549 In the seventies of the last century, a discovery concerning the biblical flood made a huge impression.
724c3d0704650b37cfdb882e1e3421bf327267d6 One day, a modest employee of the British Museum in London, George Smith, began to decipher the cuneiform tablets sent from Nineveh and stacked in the basement of the museum.
c51be944bfdaf9f304b31f4d500436440efdcd8d To his surprise, he came across the oldest poem of mankind, describing the exploits and adventures of Gilgamesh, the legendary hero of the Sumerians.
878653691e8dace5493be612df6184493e878c6b Once, while analyzing the tablets, Smith literally could not believe his eyes, because on some of the tablets he found fragments of the legend of the flood, strikingly similar to the biblical version
2337ac53cf3334af5b8f8915fb35717a2104f4f6 As soon as he published them, a storm of protest arose from the hypocrites of Victorian England, for whom the Bible was a sacred, inspired book.
e0fe3dffa6f7dbb30a993d6265cedff535d3cdbd They could not accept the idea that the story of Noah was a myth borrowed from the Sumerians.
31b113202595fcc19eacb57c3ee41d0bdc421adb But George Smith did not lay down his arms.
e5a8d2c05e6bba4a05d5c2baf636aeafabb9afd2 He personally went to Mesopotamia and found the missing fragments of the legend in the giant ruins of Nineveh, which fully confirmed his assumption.
2cda6a53394fa699f40880d56b56f03111ece4f8 This was evidenced by such identical details as the episodes with the raven and the dove released, the description of the mountain to which the ark landed, the duration of the flood, as well as the moral of the legend: the punishment of humanity for sins and the salvation of a pious person.
83d42ff842c5ffd04c19a24f4b554ab9e8b618c1 Of course, there are differences.
ae335f840b08af0c2a6ee1cddc6decf5902316e4 The Sumerian Noah is called Utnapishtim, in the Sumerian myth there are many gods endowed with all human weaknesses, and in the Bible the flood is brought upon the human race by Yahweh, the creator of the world, depicted in all the greatness of his power.
e4e3ee6e37f91b850bb5fbdb94d1d8ec58cb1572 The alteration of the myth in the monotheistic spirit probably belongs to a later time, and it probably owes its final religious and ethical deepening to editors from priestly circles.
c0728594b159cce012d5b968e7ff2a636f6e3f04 The god Enki had a sore rib.
b5b2a1201ceb9ddaf98fff0ffed6a46e1e0f6de8 In Sumerian, the word "rib" corresponds to the word "ti".
4e133508bb906648c346ba429678e61b00489d34 The goddess who was called to heal the rib of the god Enki is called Ninti, that is, "the woman from the rib".
255b233aa2944d85b18009bebd389591bb5ee0dc But "ninti" also means "to give life".
3b2d843591ca679a59b555ed9276610aa3de7c7f Thus, Ninti can equally mean "a woman from the rib" and "a woman who gives life".
e2766765abfe9e86fd2c92408926aea93f29bfdd The period of the third dynasty of Ur, the time from which most of the written mythological sources have come down — is the period of developing the ideology of royal power in the most complete form in Sumerian history.
9caa3ffb9383add5ee612927b58d35a6f593b6a9 Since myth remained the dominant and most "organized" area of public consciousness, the leading form of thinking, it was through myth that the corresponding ideas were confirmed.
3d6d4c6fe47d3ca5f497394428b6d9b3759032f2 Therefore, it is no accident that most of the texts belong to one group — the Nippur canon, compiled by the priests of the third dynasty of Ur, and the main centers most often mentioned in myths: Eredu, Uruk, Ur, gravitated to Nippur as a traditional place of the Sumerian cult.
652e13fb2de86b93531573ccdd3cd3a8e7757a99 The concept (and not the traditional composition) is also a myth that explains the appearance of the Semitic tribes of the Amorites in the Two Rivers and gives the etiology of their assimilation in society — the myth of the god Martu (the very name of god is a deification of the Sumerian name of the West Semitic nomads).
ab82aa60d7ac2a9feff7add0050e5336e884c133 The myth underlying the text did not develop an ancient tradition, but was taken from historical reality.
f30f56bdbb7688b285ed70389a5b3c3d5a77faf3 But also traces of the general historical concept-the idea of the evolution of mankind from savagery to civilization (reflected-already on the Akkadian material - in the history of the "wild man" Enkidu in the Akkadian epic about Gilgamesh) appear through the "actual" concept of the myth.
debf95b7fd716ec39b02bc62ffc72de322a1fc75 After the fall at the end of the third millennium BC under the onslaught of the Amorites and Elamites of the third dynasty of Ur, almost all the ruling dynasties of individual city states of the Two Rivers turned out to be Amorite.
20927140652fa37731f58cd4e2eaa29634723027 However, in the culture of the Two Rivers, contact with the Amorite tribes left almost no trace..
e4dc828129f69e7b1197363afe7c8f4578dd0ff8 Myths and epos of Mesopotamia.
b66b175c7dd3e7a6a82f67793bd98a286133fc0b The cosmogonic myth and the supreme gods of the Sumerians.
ea3783e14506b93f3b14e07f0e62238c8cd395dc The flat disc shaped base of the firmament was thought of by the earth goddess Ki.
621d489cd8e2c1effb8dfce8ee423f3fe8f93dbb His symbol was the winged fish goat, his companion was the human fish Kululu.
a90bd7669ac46488f227620620ad4372f0cea2e7 The Birth of the Gods.
fd9915f08382988b6a85217d25bd90ebfc04121e (A. N. Fantalov, ink drawing).
397c9e30f38717731f429fcdda2c230614cfd5e6 The healing of Enki.
fd444a40cb8c08c835ecd0362a0a42758849292e The Babylonian myth of the struggle of the gods.
38b4c56df0bc1833870ad6686422cedf87f5590d Meanwhile, according to the myth, Tiamat, wanting to avenge his murdered spouse, gathers an army of eleven monsters (dragons, lions, many headed sheep, etc.).
3f5bb189d4e0006be58baefb8ac453cbe4d35ad9 She makes the monster King her husband, handing him the tablets of fate The Igigi are afraid to join the battle.
d1eb068f2969bc7c98d89ba54fb548b6b98a1080 After the victory comes the time of the world order Tiamat Marduk cuts in two, making the upper part of the sky (locking it with a bolt so that moisture does not flow freely down) and from the lower ground.
3a47535295dd6db6ec81596a66b002608ce2776a The Sumerian myth of the Flood.
4698deef5e6fe3d27def39da975103fadcb3cb78 The great god Enlil is always annoyed by the noise made by people.
382e75ab4cf62e280489a4161de497438ab8a91d To destroy humanity, he sends epidemics.
febc12f50530944b6170ffd8d6342720a91a0c73 The sage Atrahasis, on the advice of Enki, turns with prayer and sacrifices to Namtar (responsible for the sphere of diseases).
06cb2cdfee88908263f2375ab84ceae6b8271303 The victims had the effect of "the country has grown, people have multiplied".
34633ed984902ba7f2d4cf8eeec11599db922d69 Once again, the discontented Enlil sends drought and famine.
df75577321f3cfad9b8fef398c1027ecf69cc278 Enki advises people to make sacrifices to the god of rain and storm, Adad, and the country is once again saved from destruction.
a27f59114ac100b25e2da293ca0c885d154fb024 Then Enlil decides to arrange a worldwide flood.
4e653579b47013da753e2f9da4b46c64cdf41990 Enki orders Atrahasiss to build a large ship and take his family, animals and plants on it.
a4b956bbc7083c7c1f5ff5bd21986fe7ea385f38 The flood lasted for seven days and nights.
31c95979eba4183f1a209ddb19dcbf547166c424 Atrahasis and his family survived him and, as a reward, received eternal life.
67514361ca54e938d0c583e6828c77229bee2334 Sumerian myths about the Underworld.
7c66222f022ece23286a0f881ae3b974390c4b1d When it became necessary to lead the underworld, Ereshkigal was sent there, because no one else from the upper gods wanted to go there (the ideas about the afterlife in the mythology of Mesopotamia were very sad, the souls there "dressed in the clothes of wings" eat clay and drink sewage).
bb0fab8ad1fefdf6e6e8434cd6080a4cfa938e7f Ereshkigal became the queen of the Anunnaki, "The Mistress of a distant land".
afd81f0ef72f88ea4e1410c7085c134f518e1a53 Once, the Igigi arranged a feast.
cb45be902a275b169107a8af144db52f01db8ac0 The mistress of a distant land sent her servant Namtar to them for the share due to her.
efdd2db5bb852541cbdcf6996212eb458a3559e8 When the messenger appeared, all the gods stood up, except Nergal (two lion heads, a club and an axe).
1df164917a8102af91103de72d9013ad400ff5d1 After learning about the incident, an angry Ereshkigal demands that the guilty person be handed over to her.
e15dad396170f733bd3ba9e9e95e1d0a3534f0ee Otherwise, she threatens to release the dead into the wild.
26e97e9732fbfad4a21622eb8c9bd51caed94afb The Igigi tell Nergal to go down to the underworld.
24924bc3aaccf0856d0d769dd3add331e2c4fedd Nergal approaches Ereshkigal, grabs her by the hair and pulls her off the throne.
24430cd9429721e99c41ada144a76b899eed70c3 The terrified goddess offers herself to him as a spouse and promises him power over the underground kingdom.
7703154b82ec91ea6b94899e80a76956e434bbc9 Nergal agrees.
c7abef0eacc4760f7d0d5e6e1c6423317591f8fe Ereshkigal's sister, the goddess Inanna, also decided to descend to the "land from which there is no return".
7822842834cc234175bc36556cda74f3c54658c1 Ereshkigal, fearing for the loyalty of his spouse, who could not resist the beauty, decides to ruin her.
2308af496ba3f752dbb2f6490bf9772112bc998f In front of each of the seven gates, Inanna is met by a gatekeeper, and selects one of the items of clothing (and at the same time elements of a magical amulet) as a payment for passage.
d64d8e774b6d6d3423af20df14c8d0f985b53dbb Inanna appears before Ereshkigal naked and defenseless.
bc69b4d68a00f7599a98e3113c12994ccdf35c82 She directs the "look of death" at her, turns her into a corpse and hangs her on a hook.
72b4c6d21473cd0cf3332e8cb0011bfb9e6c26b7 Inanna's faithful servant turns to her father Enlil and brother Nanna, but they refuse to help.
b05ff807e82c3b67072df71091d4829419832754 Only the god Enki decides to intervene.
66f8810270f5a11be16b4f9d42769e71259ba440 He scoops up clay and creates two funny freaks, Kurgar and Galatur, who penetrate into the underworld and revive Inanna.
f60e7e78c09bada7dc5bd8c5d842e0faca5deb42 However, the Anunnaki demand that someone else remain underground instead of the goddess.
140f1a4ce355449172e5a66a5e0ffe81eea67692 Accompanied by the demons of the gaul, Inanna rises to earth, but none of her relatives agrees to sacrifice themselves.
76769c9ad6dcf957ede49a2e50f8c5598b003278 In the city of Kulab, she sees her husband Dumuzi, the shepherd god, sitting on a throne and surrounded by beautiful maidens.
d8bb024cf93097d11539eb8be167a54f6e04b5e4 In anger, Inanna fixes the gaze of death on him and gives him to the demons.
ec753c09d4978e48cadf7a82480fd1c39a014d52 According to the myth, Dumuzi's sister Gestinanna ("The Vine of Heaven") decides to sacrifice herself for her brother.
922194bc0b6f7507f1e99a395603ee4fe4554e18 But Inanna makes a decision: "Half a year you, half a year your sister."
9022e4ef09dadf5317c6575eda002b5c6c108249 (In the Akkadian version, Ishtar, on the contrary, descends into the underworld in order to free her husband Dumuzi.
8c926477e81e56972be17692e6cd3db0142b0c3a The goddess Inanna in the underworld.
0ed2a1a8ad468d2ab1c2969fdff1de1eaa9dcaf7 Mesopotamian myths about the me tablets.
93db4e15d5d2a38fe5286b1d93a4aa124996f7c9 Inanna, wanting to benefit her city of Uruk, decides to get the tables of the wisdom of me, the keeper of which is Enki.
40360a759d8e20b100ca6a4ddb8696e58b3e7bce She gets Enki drunk and, having coaxed permission from him to take everything she wants, puts me into the boat and sails away.
da75c66d8ca8615088164f4df17acb386fd72dec Enki, who has sobered up, sends the demons of the water element in pursuit with his adviser Isimud.
757fb787fabe10487dbfdbb30d9aa494e959063b But Inanna manages to deliver me to Uruk and they are lost to Enki forever.
26dfb0c687f571931031c91ebdee0b61265775a9 The Akkadian myth says that when Ellil took off his insignia while washing, the lion headed eagle Anzu stole them, along with the tables of the destinies of me, in order to become more powerful than all the gods.
37f08ab273857b40112bd3632edcd10ff45a9ef9 In pursuit of him, the god of war, Ningirsa, rides on the wind.
d7961bcb7df390b3df41936fa68a7e1c381a43ec He overtakes Anza and wounds the bird with an arrow.
17a9d4960bb04abd1ca130e0a6743526cb3ff502 But, with the help of the me tables, the eagle heals the wound.
c9cbaa4f141a0ac890ba1cc5d20de49fccfc0357 Only after the third attempt, Ningirsa defeated Anzu, who now becomes his assistant and symbol.
caed4556c101bc1c90f60d56bc1f98f2f27aae91 Later Ningirsa/Ninurta defeated the monsters: the evil demon Asaga, the seven headed hydra, the six headed sheep, the seven headed lion, the good dragon and the "lion terror of the gods".
9e0649dd2248574094f37bff16446ec64f2bcb4e A source:
56a058364152682979b6be6aafd67fb5a40f87b8 http://mythology.webhost.ru/ Alexey Fantalov
587eac1112fa27cc0682922beceef7a3a8afa60c BACK
91948ac01eaeb6a65dd538e1357bba91142bdc17 Sumero Akkadian mythology
e71bb98da03348a466363e9c64249ac55c096806 The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on July 13, 2015; checks require 65 edits.
2f1e2dc74a6fc80d956e2458cb59086377b42727 The God Enki (Ea)
33aad7bde2a0d10e9c05fff56f19f4f0a478b255 Sumero Akkadian mythology is the mythology of the population of Ancient Mesopotamia, who spoke Sumerian and Akkadian languages.
aacc7908acd833d54af2ca63f92ebb526b5cb065 This article does not touch on the mythical representations of the population of Ancient Mesopotamia who spoke other languages; for them, see the articles: Hurrian mythology, West Semitic mythology, etc.
168a51e123e7942d3be87e0cdb30fa7a84017c8c 1 General information 1.1 Components of mythology 1.2 Comparison of Sumerian and Akkadian names of mythical characters, terms, locations
b7ba37a935fb867b482650f736bf8b84ce50a863 2 The mythological picture of the world 3 The Pantheon 3.1 The most important all Mesopotamian gods 3.2 The patron gods of individual communities
0b7c04310abde1c3b1350e9f5475ad6411fba03f 4 The most important myths 4.1 Myths about the creation and arrangement of the world 4.2 Myths related to the annual cycle 4.3 Myths about heroes 4.3.1 Etana 4.3.2 Gilgamesh, Enkidu
a7605e94739ab444c09af22b8b4db353fe47e618 5 Notes 6 Sources 7 Literature 8 References
4048a795f5565fb8b8a16ad14ccb5d5ad4dd0e4a Components of mythology[edit / edit wiki text]
bbb85d504022cab3f856487e38f95475c7634da0 Sumero Akkadian mythology combined the following components.
8dd661bf5da2afff08233aefe354255fd01aff84 Sumerian mythology — mythical representations of the Sumerian speaking population of Mesopotamia as a whole, recorded in sources in the specified language.
32e7ca1c815235856b1d9b3d7ac9316440be0433 Included the oldest (including pre Sumerian?) the layer of beliefs of the inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia, the mythology of the southern "nomes" of the early Dynastic time, the mythology of the Sumerian population of the Akkadian Kingdom and the Power of the third dynasty of Ur.
0e8ed4be0caa1a8e11a7320897052cde12e23bc0 The unity of Sumerian mythology is conditional: each city state had its own pantheon, its own genealogy of the most important gods and local versions of myths.
8028c58274fe1c0a16ad6f1cc1b8ea42127e8296 Akkadian mythology — the mythical representations of the Akkadians until the end of the III millennium BC as a whole.
c7a70b502e764b86c213a087ae1f0e38a815c00e Its origins are in the oldest Semitic beliefs; however, relatively early these ideas were strongly influenced by Sumerian culture; for this reason, Akkadian mythology itself is difficult to reconstruct.
6e34eaf94f72905e4db6d1eab7e0c86827485037 In a broad sense, this term refers to the mythology of the entire Akkadian speaking population of Ancient Mesopotamia, including the Babylonians and the ancient Assyrians.
02cdb8f033359c23d0c529a65e935b6e1c4078fe Babylonian mythology is the mythical representations of the Akkadian speaking population of the Babylonian Kingdom as a whole, and eventually the entire region of Lower Mesopotamia, known in ancient sources as "Babylonia".
87d449a97b943f82c94517a6497d94ec391eea44 Assyrian mythology is the mythical representations of the Akkadian speaking population of Northern Mesopotamia as a whole, primarily the inhabitants of the upper reaches of the Tigris, where the historical region of Assyria was located.
8a5ac58cd4e4fb8979094168bc64b59175144991 The mythology of individual cities of states — the mythological traditions of individual cities of states.
dea4829c8f1ce9aa8a191023f7f870b5a3b03606 Comparison of Sumerian and Akkadian names of mythical characters, terms, locations[edit]
df8eb56b93816fa08362864b4bd29a237ea26efe Sumerian name (transcription) In Russian language literature, the Akkadian name (transcription) In Russian language literature Notes Abzu Abzu Apsu Apsu is the embodiment of the underground ocean of fresh waters An An Anu (m) Anu, Anum is the god of the sky Enlil Enlil Ellil Ellil is the god of wind, air; the supreme deity Gibil Gibil Girra, Girru Girra is the god of fire Iškur Ishkur Adad, Adda, Addu Adad is the god of precipitation, storms Martu Martu Amurru Amurru is the patron god of the steppes and the population living there (Amorites)
337e177006cdf8f78bf6ff5c1a17b0458225b876 Mythological picture of the world[edit / edit wiki text]
976e2520a40862cd4a89657074f69814512b53bd As in most traditional cultures, the universe had a sphere like image and a three part structure.
b64730cb1f8a0d87683f4af191361d88560048ee The following levels were highlighted.
6b2d8870da8ff98222ff89f4a08e45ab10f77efd The upper world is heaven; the abode of the higher gods.
cbeb979478101be70d5769cc14d4262d05854b9f The middle world is the earth; the abode of people.
acba7dd45572a9ce5f32eabd9957197abe5636cc The lower or chthonic world is the underworld; the abode of the dead, demons, and chthonic gods.
11d879c57ebab50ca5cfbc4cd767dd268ee24f94 Pantheon[edit / edit wiki text]
0a785f64509236287b53a6371e698f5f5999343b Main articles: Sumero Akkadian Pantheon, List of deities of Sumero Akkadian mythology
1b3102c3224ae15e5af5050e17caedbd4edfddae The unified Sumero Akkadian pantheon is the result of the syncretization of numerous local traditions that took place as a result of certain political events: the priests of the largest powers of Mesopotamia, primarily the Babylonian Kingdom and the Power of the third dynasty of Ur, were working to build a single mythological scheme.
dd84038544e76af27c5791ff1f3c822908a0a53c The most important all Mesopotamian gods[edit / edit wiki text]
d44f62c8b94b7c5f2214c429ec24857457053fe1 Symbols of deities from kudurru Marduk apla Iddina I: 1 — Sin, 2 — Ishtar, 3 — Shamash, 4 — Anu, 5 — Enlil, 6 — Ea, 7 — Ninkarrag (Gula), 8 — Ishkhara, 9 — Nergal, 10 — Zababa, 11 — Nabu, 12 — Ninurta, 13 — Nusku, 14 — Adad, 15 — Marduk, 16 — Bau, 17 — Shukamuna (Kassite deity), 18 — Ishtaran[1].
335c3b7e09656c1c294d935e7e79c8334e5db333 The most important gods were worshipped in the vast majority of cities; their cults are rooted in the most ancient stages of Mesopotamian history.
203889ecbf0fb5eda2cdd7587b7af1b2a7e0cdc6 An (shum. "sky"), Anu(m) (Akkad.)
19b0c0adc0731ba669e35aa3dcacbbe611dabf7f — the god of the sky; his cult had a special significance in Uruk.
b9749d62cd49350827c643447f798b3432f1a6c8 An acts as the highest entity in the divine hierarchy, the embodiment of supreme power, the cosmic builder, the supreme judge, the patron of royalty, the "father of the gods".
944b35938bc3dd767b771610d3650cd4c29f5ae6 With the increase in the cult significance of the city of Nippur, many of these functions passed to the "firstborn of An" - the god Enlil; the differences between the functions of the two gods were erased, but in general An was considered as a passive supreme deity, the embodiment of the highest justice.
030b61f5d1c9d2bcdb7f323b2eb3e865c5a80156 In the three part structure of the world, An is the lord of the "upper", the heavenly world; he is responsible for the stars and weather phenomena.
0e5b689394bedd0ce7f8ec6c138245e1461eb10d Enlil (shum. " Lord of the breath (i.e. air)"), Ellil (Akkad.) — the supreme active deity; like other important gods, he could initially be the patron of a separate territorial community grouped around the city of Nippur.
a17d2d5d9c504bc4658dfa871870bee0bc6eab72 Enlil's functions are close to those of An: he is the" father of the gods", the fate determining, supreme lord, the lord of the wind; but unlike his father, he takes an active part in the life of the gods and people.
2f281379996875b92dfbaacaa4846c0fd0051817 In the three part structure of the world, Enlil is the lord of the" middle world", the world of people.
a8293fd72c176917b0cd0d3f4fb55351aa4f06e5 In relation to humanity, it manifests itself in two ways: on the one hand, he is responsible for fertility, is the giver of a harvest and a prosperous, peaceful life, on the other hand, he is a fierce and warlike god of the storm, bringing natural disasters to people.
16ec2e4b607a859db62415b1782a58279eef5a43 With the rise of Babylon, most of the functions of Ellil, as well as the epithet "bel" (Akkad. "The Lord") gradually passed to Marduk; in the Assyrian pantheon, Ashur acted as the supreme god
7229344428c433c5b5d4ea0ef9c4c70072a15ad1 Enki
e83bd45259d994c3900f293423e5b66e3def60d2 (shum.
ec25ce660f7951853d987b495be279be93e46005 " Lord of the earth (?)", " Lord of the bowels (?)"), Ea (Akkad. 'Aya) - god of underground waters, fertility, wisdom, magical art; creator and space builder.
5291a4e544579f6cd3094816434f6d43d8cdd05d Initially, he could have been the patron of the ancient city of Eredu, where a characteristic cult with the sacrifice of fish can be traced back to prehistoric times.
0117e302ae2e9e46a7aa9cbe13e2e0a19a30874a Enki is in charge of the "lower" chthonic world, or rather the part of it that is connected with water; his abode is the Abzu palace in the underground ocean of fresh water; his attitude towards people is favorable.
62e3313f478a0b53d70757bf3fe3869a6d1b0b6c In the genealogical scheme, this god is usually the son of An; his wife is Damkina, one of the children is Amarutu (Marduk)
09d4aea4629fd72d952490d6ba850be2065940dc Inanna( Shum.), Ishtar (Akkad.) — the main female deity of the Sumero Akkadian pantheon; was revered everywhere, including as a single hypostasis of various female deities responsible for fertility (cf. "Mother Goddess"); the most important center is Uruk.
49afad9671951af196e0cad10a400d399a51c472 Early sources do not give clear information about the functions of this deity; in the subsequent time, Inanna merged with Ishtar — the Akkadian version of the Semitic warrior goddess Astar, taking over some of her properties.
41cca7fe30aecc30c8e51993db0c40f4951d5c0d The complex basis on which the image of the goddess was formed determines the complexity of its functions.
2f429ed753641ee00bf0aaa4ac2167696152e752 In various sources, Inanna appears as a "heavenly lady", "mistress of all me" (the title of the highest gods), " heavenly cow "(that is, the giver of life and essential goods)," woman "(the semantics of female deities)," heavenly harlot "(the projection of erotic functions into the scale of the universe)," multiplying people and countries like sheep " (the reproductive force of nature).
a1f0b10c692cd553f99f830f4ab91803edd0845a At the same time, Inanna Ishtar embodies destructive forces; she is a great warrior, crushing cities and countries, unsurpassed in battles.
0df74ebf4e899ce1cf5194c7fdded62e115b6307 The cult of this goddess was also associated with the concept of "Sacred Marriage" and the practice of cult prostitution.
8fa70dd8e0d6e010d97df922800cbe2663017694 References to the position of Ishtar in the divine genealogy are contradictory.
4befd2e86695753e1894c933a7563a0d4dc35ab1 The astronomical embodiment was the planet Venus.
11dc36c86a511ed87189f223891577e46fb9db09 With the rise of Babylon, part of the functions of Ishtar coincided with the functions of Tsarpanit, the divine consort of Marduk.
06adb574871c7c2926b835c01f2a14cb103d41a7 Marduk (Akkad.), Amarutu (shum. "Taurus Utu?") — originally the patron god of the community centered in the city of Babylon, one of the minor gods (igigs).
538bc1ec9f1c5483d091d2bdf6e732a1379bb2af With the rise of Babylon at the beginning of the II millennium BC, the importance of Marduk also increases.
2632cb5fed4a48c89c7a926d3d9761d370cf021c In the process of evolution, his image has absorbed the features of other important cults, primarily Ellil, Ea, Shamash, etc.; as a result, the image of Marduk is complex.
d1de5b11ba0a1f4b19abfcacb258b6c6db9ceeb4 In the sources, he is described as the "lord of the gods" (the head of the pantheon), a space builder, a divine warrior, a hero responsible for fertility, the "father of the human race", the god of wisdom, healing, magical art, the patron of irrigation, the giver of peace and prosperity.
f5e30e753552e86b04b6a0182f275501a53ddec1 Unlike many early deities, the image of Marduk has no pronounced features of ambivalence: Marduk is favorable to people, and wars and disasters are usually interpreted as a consequence of the existence of other forces acting in his absence.
04942271dfba181b49dede5ad16e00ae948bee0b In the New Babylonian time, the cult of this god reached its apogee: there were no equal characters in the pantheon, he was perceived as the lord of the Universe.
4b18f9669aaaa5090450fc15d0f00d6508b164d3 At the same time, the gradual assimilation of other cults led to attempts at a monotheistic interpretation of the image of Marduk, according to which all other gods were his hypostases.
eceb0260868b2d929eac376ae65193fff2b8b2d2 The astronomical aspect is the planet Jupiter.
77727546e1ae13fd046caf9c4988ea76bee1fc41 Ashur (Akkad.?)
1a4caa7713e0c977eb89db35b49e6e44478ccd69 — originally the patron god of the community with the center in the city of the same name; with the expansion of the Assyrian kingdom — the main god of the pantheon of this country.
7f024e7d4b2c5d648c32b03ece1f0dc24bfaa62a The evolution of the image of Ashur is similar to the evolution of Marduk; here there was a perception of the properties of the most important Mesopotamian deities Enlil, Ea, Shamash, etc.
28448e97a51138574c5b2feb3f745f089ffd6455 In fact, he was a local version of the Babylonian god: in the Assyrian version of the epic "Enuma Elish", the name of Marduk is replaced by the name of Ashur.
e169a1116e8fc93d2b46a6a90857e8f08cd73ab8 The cult of this god had a special ideological significance: the Assyrian king was considered the high priest of Assur.
53e7a89b9211fd903afac45e24eb5b1964256c22 After the destruction of the Assyrian state, the cult of Ashur continued to persist for some time; references to the "Ashurism" of local residents are found in sources up to the third century AD..
2a37495a337de734679320938959ee04e7a2f280 Nanna (r) (shum.), Zuen (shum. "lord of knowledge"), Sin (Akkad.) — a lunar god, especially revered in Ur.
811a4cf779d5c46e92de2f3b94bafc5f28c78eb4 His cult had an important ideological significance in the Sumero Akkadian kingdom, the high priestess of Nanna was the daughter of the king.
68d1c3be23696df95ec9c0390a46dd279410922c In the divine genealogy, he is usually regarded as the "firstborn of Enlil"; his mother is Ninlil, his wife is Ningal, and his son is Utu (Shamash).
7cd49593e21dbc74b24d1b186b53d51dc62988fe In the sources, Nanna is called "radiant", "Enlil's Calf" (meaning the "horned" of the month), "rook" (another reference to the form of the luminary).
56389164b17b98a0025304559ba3e7c719cb15e5 Like other patron deities of communities, Nanna was responsible for the fertility and well being of nature and people.
671a8c7703bd15ba017ac7fb71d62669b4c21544 The function of fertility was sometimes associated with the menstrual cycle (due to the connection of the moon with the monthly period of time), as well as with a special favor for cattle (cf. "horniness" of the month).
79d4c003697e6d759b67f080cd50cb53343dc52a In addition, Nanna was also responsible for determining the fate of the living (in this role he acted as Enlil's adviser), and the dead (during the new moon, when he descended into the underworld).
e598f3a466b5c696342b063a91ab5fc813be84e4 The differences in the names of the god were caused by the change of the phases of the moon: Nanna is a full moon, Zuen is a crescent moon, Ashimbabbar is a young crescent moon.
80ce3e8fc4ffc3703d023c30be7035fca9a46f91 In the Akkadian language, the name Zuen (Suen) as a result of the contraction received the form Sin.
47a1c9f4d55c935f1042317f25fc77f0d2b8be01 In the Babylonian and Assyrian traditions, Sin was also considered as a healer and diviner god.
3bd890c5543ee40588581902b2f9a012883e4403 After the loss of political independence by Ancient Mesopotamia, the cult of Sin continued to exist among local residents for some time, until it was replaced by other religious traditions.
5ed0eb83fcc735f0972705e17906fe2d4469160a "Mother Goddess" is a conventional designation for a number of female deities (mainly the Sumerian pantheon) with similar functions, but worshipped under different names in different cities.
180ab3cba8244eafcd9af7693dd9619bf8384304 Among them are: Ninhursag (shum. "Lady of the wooded mountain"), Ninmah (shum. "Great lady"), Dingirmah (shum. "Great goddess"), Ki (shum. "earth") et al.
c077c7a601083e888a0df25392e35f3ea779b9b2 The character of these goddesses goes back to the oldest beliefs of the population of the Middle East.
cff3e7e012c8ea824853a87b1992209fb94b99c5 Subsequently, most of them began to be considered as various aspects of Ishtar.
ecd0b1d749af6336628237be89758e706170b0c6 Shamash (Akkad. "sun"), Utu (shum. "sun") — the sun god, the embodiment of the beneficial forces of sunlight.
c824481caab51fa6f8cd36111df869714db3dfe0 The Sumerian Utu is the son of Nanna, which reflected the idea that the day is a product of the night; its cult center is Larsa.
2ba84c4c746d270d5c28cbd1ab9ded220dcd39df The Akkadian Shamash may have originally been a female deity; its most important cult center was located in Sippar.
d69b33e402e9c2ee3b794e9ac8001bfef73a4eeb The role of this god in the early stages of Mesopotamian history was less significant than the role of the above mentioned deities; however, over time, Shamash began to be considered as one of the great gods, the "god of heaven and earth", the embodiment of justice, the judge of the living (at noon, at the zenith) and the dead (at night, when he descends into the underworld), a warrior, expelling evil demons, the giver of prosperity and longevity.
a0681b8f54d201f5a6d348ca4566b2ede0e432f9 Adad (Akkad.), Ishkur (Shum.) — the god of thunderstorms and strong wind.
93a48315142ab620b37a567a7712d4639a493c52 Sumerian Ishkur was the main god of the city of Karkara (the location is unclear), responsible for the fertility of this area; in myths, he appears as a minor deity, the son of Enlil (or Ana), a warrior god, "riding on a storm", "roaring wind", and also as a caretaker of canals.
c5ffbdc27e8d3d364352b0ed1a056529a88ca159 Akkadian Adad acquired great importance in Assyria, where it was associated with the royal power, as well as with the art of divination.
324443b04d80dd99deb6f14e53d60fab2e49907d Dumuzi (shum. "True Son"), the Hebrew or Aramaic form of this name Tammuz is often used.
292bcc1509713dfa26f84977b0109101590e481d The deity of the dying and resurrecting nature (the change of the seasons); his cult centers were Kullab (one of the districts of Uruk) and Bad Tibira.
e140c75448af14128bf4976c75fbad1691641c57 The functions were close to the functions of similar Middle Eastern deities such as ak Adon (is), Telepin, partly Osiris, etc.).
5049ebfdcb134494863c355aab4ea395bbec4228 Chthonic deities are the lords of the "lower", the underworld inhabited by demons and the souls of dead people.
193e3010c84b2e839fe0c6edb86faa3c2e2bfb79 Information about this group of deities is fragmentary, contradictory and usually depends on the peculiarities of the local tradition.
13a971ab8d046dd976d7b7ea80678957ea333042 At the head of the "Land from which there is no return" was a deity with the epithet nè eri gal; in different traditions, this role was played by: Ereshkigal (Inanna's evil sister), Ninazu (son of Ereshkigal), Girra (god of fire), Erra (god of plague), Meslamta ea, etc.
23cc9bb0fe436746f5a066761c34e97fe86db090 In the Akkadian tradition, the title nèeri gal evolved into the name of the god Nergal — the lord of the underworld, a warrior god who sends epidemics, but also an astral deity, the personification of the planet Mars and at the same time the god of fertility.
0091ea755270a7894fcd09aa6bc40eb2bb633fc9 On the boundary stones of Kudurru, where the symbols of deities were carved, in the area intended for the lower world, the god Ningishzida was sometimes depicted, more precisely, his symbol a horned snake; chthonic features were present in the image of Tiamat (the embodiment of primary chaos), Ishkhara (the personification of the constellation Scorpio) , etc.
fe29ca1741b42fbe0778a0f3d4a6075f96ae8b2a In general, the gods of this group had ambivalent functions: the semantics of the earth was associated with both death and fertility.
51c52010bbac14f32a71dff58ff9f7a311e44c05 Warrior gods are a group of deities who fight numerous enemies or monsters.
ea3285ada0dc504fbbd96c02e8251b8031bde6ce The most famous are: Ninurta — (originally the patron god of Dilbat (?); especially revered in Assyria), Ningirsu (originally the patron god of Girsu; revered in the state of Lagash), Zababa (the patron god of Kish), Tishpak (the patron of Eshnunna, the winner of the monster Labbu), Pabilsag (the hypostasis of Ninurta; the embodiment of the constellation Sagittarius) , etc.
ed2f0e873a392cea0a45cda50122c2af292703b2 The traits of a warrior were often inherent in the most important gods: Enlil, Marduk, Ashur, Ishtar, Shamash, etc.
ce63f0892794f44e72655d65e6196d55e21651d2 The patron gods of individual communities[edit / edit wiki text]
66e6623f0831b0acccb54896fee7c71c13dc2961 The patrons of individual communities were originally local supreme deities responsible for the fertility of the land and the general well being of local residents.
fa79f6a9033b7344677ecaa71a736dd829115295 Later, their functions were specialized.
7fa30f526be7817275ebfc0df88d01a8db61fc43 Patron gods of some cities of Ancient Mesopotamia City Patron Deity Main Temple Notes Ashur Ashur E Ashur/Ehursaggalkurra Bad tibira Dumuzi Emushkalamma Over time, Dumuzi was replaced by Lulal Borsippa Nabu Ezida, a deity of Western Semitic origin; the son of Marduk, the patron of scribal art Babylon Marduk Esagila Der Ishtaran Edimgalkalama, the God of medicine, the divine judge Dilbat Urash Eimbianu, the Goddess (hypostasis of Ki) or god; subsequently, Ninurta Isin Nin was considered the supreme patron And(n)sina Eugira is one of the hypostases of the goddess of healing Gula Kesh Ninhursag Urshabba Kish Zababa Edub Kutu Meslamta ea Emeslam Chthonic god; since the end of the III millennium BC, he was identified with Nergal Larsa Utu Ebabbar Marad Lugalmarada Eigikalama Nippur Enlil Ekur Sippar Shamash Ebabbar Terka Dagan Ekisiga Semitic god of precipitation; in in the Western Semitic world, he is known as "Dagon" Umma Shara Emah, the Warrior God, the son of Inanna Ur Nanna Ekishnugal/Egishnugal Uruk: Kullab An E An (?), "White Temple" (?) Uruk: Eanna Inanna E Inanna Eredu Enki Eabzu/Eengurra/Eunir Eshnunna Ninazu Esikil God of healing and warrior; since Akkadian time, the patron god of Eshnunna was considered the warrior god Tishpak
e652e260063ca9c3bfb87942fbc58ff8c683c88b The most important myths[edit / edit wiki text]
634960b280c054f7517858b370fa4c694b5381cc Myths about the creation and arrangement of the world[edit / edit wiki text]
a4d2ad6979ac1efc9fc68bf9c8f33c980dee1b3e Enki and Ninhursag is a Sumerian myth that has come down in the tablets of the era of the third dynasty of Ur and the Old Babylonian period; the confusing, vague nature of the narrative causes difficulties of translation and a variety of interpretations.
2c5bac25a50fe0a7b643d1b0584541eab1d8ba0f The action takes place in a certain mythical, "original" place — the country or city of Dilmun, where there is no old age, diseases, "the lion does not kill", "the wolf does not eat the lamb", but where there is also no fresh water.
bd6e035a745796945b1d88288b3b867a5221e4e6 The mother goddess, who appears here under various names, asks Enki to get water.
35777f8ddf1f622dd348843075905e4024495a6a Enki creates rivers and channels, with the help of the sun god Uda (Utu) fills them with fresh water from the depths of the earth; wharves and irrigation structures are also created;
db610899b7cc2ad8d84ac359b34bb4bd87b4ec1f Dilmun is settling in.
5977cff6c961610a9a90aaefc6d704c9e5af5731 The goddess Nintud, the "mother of the Country" and Enki create swamps where the god connects with Damgalnuna/Ninsikil; the latter gives birth to the goddess Ninma.
9db89c21e465ccc238401df3312716ad8d3f14dc From Enki's connection with Ninmu, Ninkurra (the goddess of the [underground?] countries); from the connection of Enki with Ninkurra Uttu (the deity of vegetation).
276f4a8d5f496cd863f1a609f35151d976908fe7 Ninhursag advises Uttu to avoid contact with God.
c00e7be88fce25191b4b8434c46d01421a534b0b To win Uttu's favor, Enki distributes water into the wells of the arid lands, which fills the gardens with fruits.
1c32981c063e8fd2e4b4e8a49115522496b0df0b Enki presents the garden fruits as a gift to Uttu, and she gives in.
d7ef53274dae50270c2db622c91cda5506fc7edf Ninhursag extracts or transforms the seed of Enki, cultivating eight plants from it (corresponding to eight groups of plants).
b0996445822fa577931200b272b00de92002d7fa Wanting to know these plants and determine their fate, Enki eats them one by one, which causes anger and curses from Ninhursag.
c1d17d22b04750c4cb8c00f4d228d543bbb63fae Diseases affect the eight parts of God's body and he begins to die.
30c0a34229b157db8bbe91b037f8565ca829d1e4 At the request of the fox, Ninhursag changes his anger to mercy and returns Enki to health; she creates eight deities, at the birth of each of which one of the parts of the god's body is healed.
c6dcd61263d1f789193e7c8c7710f7ef84af7de2 Ninhursag determines the fate of these gods: Abba becomes the god of vegetation, Ninsikila — the patron of Magan, Ninkirutu — the spouse of Ninazu, Ninkasi — the deity of the executor of desires, Nasi the spouse of Umun Dara, Ensag the patron of Dilmun.
56674eb51aac0ea15af9e7e61c38b85c94981611 Enuma elish (Akkad. Enūma elis "When above") is a lengthy Babylonian cosmogonic myth preserved in the New Assyrian and New Babylonian tablets from Assur, Nineveh, Kish and Uruk.
0ab930ead8543ebfc6f5bf69b3b161df139d9d73 The legend was probably composed in the era of the II Isin dynasty (c. XII century BC) in order to substantiate the supremacy of Marduk in the Babylonian pantheon, for which the Sumerian legends were reworked, primarily about Enlil and Ninurta.
e45a64ae1f262dec0d61e427a69ace44af40aaa5 A significant part of the narrative is occupied by the glorification of Marduk and his city of Babylon, but the main role is played by the cosmogonic canvas.
4bcf51ca8396e0e7224a23c0b26165c71837bfea According to the legend, at the beginning of time, "When the sky was not named above, the earth was not called by a name below," the forefather Abzu and the ancestress Tiamat mixed their fresh and salt waters, respectively.
a391177ef1c96f1b2b8c04ad5b86c503ee0ed9f2 From each of these mixtures, one generation of gods was born: first Lahmu and Lahamu, then Anshar and Kishar, after them Anu, who gave birth to Ea.
d3f50bfb94909615acb7020cdafc91430b10f7e1 The noise made by the young gods began to bother their parents and Abzu decided to kill the children.
6de97427d51dcbfd61d35f15eaac9d2b65bf3748 Mummu, Abzu's "adviser", came up with a plan to do this, but the wise Ea guessed their intentions; he drew a magic circle and uttered a powerful spell, as a result of which Abzu fell into a deep eternal sleep.
116746b2130968d0e4d0515c4d7caa078931118b Ea took the royal place of Abzu, subdued Mummu and settled in the depths of the freshwater abyss (into which Abzu turned); there his wife Damkina gave birth to their son, Marduk.
f127205eededccd0a32b27ff9c5df79179a4961e The new god was endowed with extreme wisdom and great power: he was distinguished by giant limbs, four heads and a robe of sun rays.
f391c1be63011b6b8832bea5251c9476e6b43111 The original gods began to reproach Tiamat for inaction and she decided to fight; together they created monsters, snakes and dragons, at the head of which stood Kingu — the firstborn Tiamat.
a64054831498024f149633d25632b7dee5e51f9b Ea has found out about Tiamat's intentions and tells Anshar about it.
0f967565903dd02b8db23512960a6cff3d07d3f4 Anshar instructs him to take measures against the conspiracy, but Ea obviously did not succeed in the end (the text in this place is damaged);
0040988da362a9439b0a9bd29eece0a729e23d6d Anshar had to turn to Anu, but even that failed; because of the failures, the gods fell into despondency.
b7bee02743f3e9823fb79f5096e170e15d6962c2 Then Ea turned to his son Marduk and revealed to him that it was Marduk's destiny to defeat their common enemies.
e56209f68b1d13378cafd65d5038eee590f09947 Marduk agreed to the battle, but put forward a condition: in case of victory, he will receive the supreme power over the gods, his word will determine the fate, his will will be indisputable; in the face of the threat, the older generation of gods, Lahmu and Lahamu, agree.
b7e0c9a14f5f12230249ea4d66d4cec083a6fbdb Having experienced the power of Marduk, the gods gave him a victorious weapon: a bow and arrow, a mace, a net and the seven winds.
33e03b9c8c4dfc99c0f72311e1f72a1644516d99 Marduk summoned lightning, raised a monstrous storm and floods, and in a chariot drawn by four terrible horses with sharp teeth oozing poison, went to battle with Tiamat.
a10e4167cad6fa0cce401d737428bd92a486b586 Horrified by the appearance of the foremother, Marduk nevertheless enters into battle with her, throws a net on Tiamat, lets the winds into her mouth and hits her with an arrow in the heart.
c8cb1ad449496a5062b88bdeb494dc79ef9208dd Tiamat's warriors flee in fear, but Marduk catches them in a net, including Kingu, from whom he takes the "Tables of Destinies".
cab05609c44c24971cd849e758ffcbc9a55e7819 After that, Marduk crushes Tiamat's skull, tears the arteries and cuts the body of the defeated enemy into pieces.
634385d3631c9f72eaba50e2a29fc356db2cd334 From one half of Tiamat, Marduk created the sky, where he created the celestial analogue of Abzu Esharra (the abode of Anu, Enlil and Ea), the stars, the signs of the zodiac, and established the laws of the movement of the heavenly bodies.
6e4d6bf3da7022e0a303e45444f127bf524db04b From another part of Tiamat's body, as well as the ashes brought to Anu, Marduk created the earth, from the head of Tiamat — a great mountain; from the eyes of the monster flowed the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, the chest became a chain of hills, the tail became a barrier for the waters of the Abzu, so that they would not flood the earth.
bb941bc0a7ca40a925da43638901fc13fca85a7f Marduk gave Anu the "Tables of Destinies" for safekeeping.
2cf8cd210c1652a0e11907c7122be9eb41485180 The gods recognized the hero as their king.
bf442693d669087cdcf8b58e4e1e64b376fa402f After some events (this part of the text is lost), the gods killed the captive King, cut his arteries.
42967af1beda1bacd426f0cd22f61b0c0944fcbc From clay mixed with the blood of Kingu, Ea created people to serve the gods and fulfill their will.
cbd9d111b2947db543fab724a76a3b16cbfe7710 Marduk divided the Anunnaki into two parts: 300 gods remained in heaven, 300 were sent to earth (became Chthonic gods).
c6a6ad5148b12390b3d07173d9801adfdaa1bb8f In gratitude for getting rid of their hard work, the Anunnaki presented Marduk with a magnificent sanctuary, Babylon, where they built Esagila, the ziggurat of Etemenanki, as well as temples in their honor; after that, the gods began to feast and determine the fate.
68c444447928def14f678f1250cb1168b7156971 The rest of the text is an exposition and explanation of the "fifty names of Marduk".
1a902fc0044b7f2a2b3d55e082b34916e6251a38 Myths related to the annual cycle[edit / edit wiki text]
fe52d25f0c3b9806da26856e2aa3c80aa11cf04e Inanna's descent into the lower world (shum. an. gal. ta ki. gal. šè "From the Great Heavens to the Great Bowels [In anna turned her thoughts]") is a lengthy text in the Sumerian language that tells about Inanna's attempt to extend her power to the lower (Chthonic) world, as well as about the fate of Dumuzi, the groom of the goddess.
7f56ff68b7d719100d431ed34773e971c1788391 At the beginning of the story, Inanna leaves heaven and earth, leaves the temples of Sumer dedicated to her, takes the me belonging to her and goes to the "earthly interior"in solemn vestments with regalia.
759137a3bd427dbd300e114a97b534a3171c3d2b Fearing not to return, before leaving, Inanna instructs her messenger Ninshubur: after three days and nights, to go around all the temples in mourning and in Ekur to beg Enlil not to let her die; if Enlil refuses, go to Ur, to Ekishnugal to Nanna, if he refuses — to the wise Enki in Eredu.
a20037ce03fe5a7748d7940450d0f77c154fb510 Inanna arrives at the gates of the Ganzir Palace, the abode of the gods of the lower world, where she is met by a Neti guard.
14b96de2bc30e01b65e66c0217d2db73f9d0f2fc Inanna tells the surprised guard that she has come to participate in the ritual for the deceased Gugalanna, the husband of Ereshkigal, the mistress of the lower world and Inanna's sister.
fd68af132cae0c13af98980c9db3c237f6baf19a Neti informs the frightened Ereshkigal about the arrival of Inanna, after which he lets the goddess into the "Land of No Return".
414dfc9b8646c3dffae9f80a238e98c587c23e63 But the laws of the lower world are not subject to the power of Inanna; passing through the seven gates of the Ganzir palace, the goddess loses each of her seven powers and appears naked before Ereshkigal.
7f5dd812b75a68ef5b61e1c94efcd3bee14c8605 Inanna's attempt to seize her sister's throne is unsuccessful and the seven Anunnaki judges of the underworld condemn the goddess to death;
a1253b84a5311ff7cac3af22da2a84ee03377ec5 Ereshkigal turns Inanna into a corpse and hangs her on a hook.
a20a430b8817460eb1dc05ba8e697d4cbda109af After three days and nights, Ninshubur does everything as his mistress ordered;
bbef563ab756e8cbbcfa22c50a2f977b55bc4aaf Enlil and Nanna refuse the messenger, believing that Inanna wanted too much power and therefore she is to blame for what happened, that the laws of the underworld are all powerful and that no one will stand up for the goddess; and only Enki is ready to help.
a2b8e69aab8ac30dd328b4f3bb6debbafa7432f9 From the earth under his fingernails, Enki creates two characters Kurgar (shum. kur.gar.ra) and galatur (shum. gala.tur.ra), gives them the "grass of life" and "water of life" and sends them to the gates of the underground country.
a8d861dc23ae767696c8c49f2479dde2f3231eea The characters see Ereshkigal, who is suffering from childbirth(?) pain and, conducting an "echo" dialogue with her, "bargain" for Inanna's body.
e05af8aecbc88956a6a2aad1aeae4364c3a4fcbc After that, with the help of "water" and "grass of life", they revive the goddess.
17cac0792bdba1be6be30884de4b6b69e49f4c8a However, the Anunnaki grab the goddess and say that she will be able to leave the "Land of no Return" only if she finds a replacement.
e64e11332e49959efbc91a64bd9e63da559040c5 Surrounded by hordes of demons, Galla Inanna goes out through the seven gates of the lower world, simultaneously returning her vestments and insignia.
312a733150006dec0925b021de856a61495a8f28 The first to appear on their way is Ninshubur, dressed in rags, whom the demons are ready to seize, but Inanna prevents them; the same happens in Ummah with the saddened local god Shara and in Bad Tibir with the grieving Ulul.
627db39ae11d6a22c37ed631d0faba2f7023b13f Finally, the procession reaches Kullab (Uruk district), where it meets Dumuzi, who, instead of mourning, sits in luxurious clothes on a resplendent throne.
95e0119b89aea5a96523881eb9b84939338fc032 In anger, Inanna orders the demons to capture him, but Dumuzi calls out to sunny Ut, Inanna's brother, saying that she went to the underworld of her own free will, and now wants to send Dumuzi there instead of herself.
2dcee114a33ec561f3f00ed7223a6419f9dd44cc Utu listens to the hero's request and turns him into a lizard, which allows the latter to escape from the demons, but they continue to chase Dumuzi.
1449a278af15c5e55234e1da4ef6c8e4b9b38e67 Further, the text is damaged and partially restored by another source — "Dumuzi's Dream": in this place, perhaps, there is a description of other attempts of the hero to hide from demons, for which he takes other forms, hides with his sister Gestinanna; the demons torture Gestinanna and find Dumuzi;
85e79d67ae7505fe13b569eb9313ed47ee6f1fa2 Gestinanna is ready to go to the lower world instead of her brother.
a6b95a1ebc73a01e3d8493cdffd4feb261d48576 Then the text of the original poem continues.
fdc4008bd646ebc31e345d42ee745ca04ac82195 Inanna is sad about Dumuzi's departure and decides that only half of the year her lover will spend in the lower world, and the other half will be there instead of him
adfccfaf5f0f1482bded91b205a4ebbf4798c28e Encyclopedia of Mythology
9fc74ba553058f7456e10f48a023cd66010d1e59 Antika
ca3ac30d5a6e0bc387a92e58020966a862fbbcf2 Gods and Titans Goddesses of antiquity Heroes of Greek myths Demons of the ancient world Characters of antiquity Mythical creatures Myths of Hellas and Rome
25409e252e4041a19038bcf0698113f32aedcc03 Two Rivers
bca03c0b02640434dd1ea52b973b3547da376467 The gods of Mesopotamia The Goddesses of Mesopotamia The Heroes of the Two Rivers The Demons of the East The epic of Gilgamesh
231f27fde9953d9733e96a03ad9bea75793d8c62 Gods of ancient Egypt Egyptian goddesses Demons and Demiurges Myths and Legends of Egypt
6dceb13422743db5ca19a5053c45d64f47728a45 Gods of Ancient India Goddesses of Hinduism Avatars of deities Fabulous creatures Myths and legends of India
8318a7f7457f1a010a3cbc12c805c3073d851311 Celtic
c62146b78bbfc19888e5e21e04ea8d3bb92914cb Gods of the Celts and Gauls Celtic goddesses Magicians and demons of the Celts Heroes of Celtic legends Knights of the Round Table Mythical creatures Myths legends of the Celts
1ebc4b79aba730389a0f024a35fc2cdac91de244 Gods of China Chinese goddesses Heroes of Chinese myths Demons and monsters Chinese legends
988def60e113a38343c547a5d6bad2d10ee967c1 Mesoamerica
fad89757ea33af52da34ad5ccb9fee15ff4e4222 Gods of Mesoamerica Aztec and Mayan Goddesses Myths of Mesoamerica
047774e752eb075afa928fe053ecd0a9709cd1cf The gods of the ancient Slavs Slavic goddesses Heroes of the legends of the Slavs Mythical creatures Demons and Evil Spirits Legends and epics
7c0ecd02ad6ad1ecc03ef9e5dd67edfac89d0dc0 Scandinavian gods Goddesses of Scandinavia Heroes of Northern myths Trolls Giants Jotuns Mythical creatures Demons and monsters Scandinavian sagas
029c5a82e4c7701b68adb862746444417787c3c2 Gods of Ancient Japan Japanese goddesses Fabulous creatures Heroes of Japanese myths Myths legends of Japan
375584a62397968d9c9cc270797b76b96ad25cc9 The firmament
4da9a92750a746cea8d1a5b7f3500ce34ab9c698 Mythology of Sumer and Akkad
a17c7729fc0a32025ece64cb22b7a8af8b1c4090 A B C G D E F Z I K L M N O P R S T U F X C H W E Y I
bc6dae41ac48d4dd36d7d384e418906ebbc3d00a Akkadian, Sumerian, Zoroastrian mythology Ancient Greek and Roman mythology Aztec and Mayan mythology of the peoples of Mesoamerica Vedic and Hindu mythology of ancient India Ancient Egyptian and West Semitic mythology Celtic, Irish and Welsh mythology Chinese, Taoist and Buddhist mythology Scandinavian and Germanic mythology Slavic and Old Russian mythology Japanese and Shinto mythology Gallery of paintings of mythical creatures
54127648db9c086be4056140af0c9a75054f269b Sumerian and Akkadian mythology of the Two Rivers
42c72fe9ad07b45c947f04448f873e50972ab357 The Gods
02b05ad20c9c21af54af10d3329003675a38ae80 Adad
e2dc6c91403aa5ffa6d8699c44d56421ecdff798 Anu
b86a5e3ef8390b75ab565db0b2163446b5a48951 Ahuromazda
6d9f39ae1228b8545052aa4dc4e887bc6a39db11 Ashur
5dc2b3179376bab74157c431906d27919b74da35 Baal
500ba9dcf7dcb59f3546ab5e8cadd1ba5e120585 Zervan
912643b1e62e75b2759a01bfdf9e92d8f46f5247 Marduk
99ee39f0ce5470e739495dca2ecb8cf34ac8bc75 Mitre
95e82e8d678be15e1a33e3876125834265b3fa16 Syn
24484417089e3eb966dd00b9f2aea9788374d306 Teshub
12b58b71b3b7785b016f5063f74d40e0698fc5c2 Utu
538f2e66aa905a835d24673acb4e05514ae6fb45 Shamash
a0faddb24e8bcb88f6909644d6d17237d8d6b2d3 Elohim
234102dd5dcb81e4946e9e89bbe5736e45c3aacb Enlil
5270cdf77f8c5744658fe55c3bf779b9bd6c4635 Goddesses
90fc457bcfbbee8d35c72a5250731a7bdf1a446a Astarta
e367d3bcbbb10b82d0eb67ec5ca19d16d4a2e8f4 Inanna
8eae867e6bd94b1c6e1226465ac992c92d81ca51 Ishtar
cc6744aae23cea36d805f5f55ff4e16191cd67d6 Demons
f2deb83e3129c57af8c5476cfc634dc4f458e3d0 Azazel
89738acc36d9e3cf0ebc506356c1902a8bd81bd8 Angro Mainyu
bded7b8cd82148a17c7519b224a21f5da1a3ad9e Lilith
765759c52c9e47d45d5b8a2ea65d7a6efab8a506 Heroes
6f9a78c2bc54e7eceacf6b15c6fe68cbee24fd04 Gilgamesh
52d042673ff4e30435bf417ccf4751586c9ff907 Zarathustra
08465574a54949330c80b9e5d970be1f31578759 Ut Write
b3c68cdef713b258f6e5642a4bbdb7a804c5e2f4 The Epic of Gilgamesh
3c5ecbf00f4e2f093c53d35684c30c2fc9c43a73 Angro Mainyu God of death of Zoroastrian mythology V century BC Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) ancient Greek geographers called the plain area between the Tigris and Euphrates.
a7830f66d0d5162233748e93cbcccfd24b100711 The self — name of this area is Sennaar.
3fd562088f3f9d227e40fd6639ccc10e5fe2bd86 The center of development of the most ancient civilization was in Babylonia.
e362a830d22d25627522dea373e597db4f295ecb Northern Babylonia was called Akkad, and southern Babylonia was called Sumer.
70e5f4a86f5fca964e3520e554c410a457d0d434 No later than the IV millennium BC, the first Sumerian settlements appeared in the extreme south of Mesopotamia, gradually they occupied the entire territory of Mesopotamia.
f93a2ceeb99837956d756904daa0f6776adf9b76 Where the Sumerians came from is still unknown, but according to a legend spread among the Sumerians themselves, from the islands of the Persian Gulf.
fbd951874ed9def7d6aedef598d9d75a0fbf27df The Sumerians spoke a language whose kinship relations with other languages have not been established.
7a3a1fd9ae71c3e92446fdcf919d41a0daf1daae In the northern part of Mesopotamia, since the third millennium BC, there lived Semites, pastoral tribes of ancient Near Asia and the Syrian steppe, the language of the Semitic tribes was called Akkadian.
9e095c717108a2e9e0a269c856e067be99b241d3 In the southern part of Mesopotamia, the Semites spoke the Babylonian dialect of the Assyrian language, and to the north they spoke the Assyrian dialect.
ec910008040a7aa64f523a735de16e284f68d0ec For several centuries, the Semites lived next to the Sumerians, but then they began to move south and by the end of the third millennium BC occupied the entire southern Mesopotamia, as a result of this, the Akkadian language gradually replaced Sumerian, but it continued to exist as the language of science and religious worship until the first century.
a7f31c202501efb84698183d234c8b293e757edf The Mesopotamian civilization is the oldest in the world.
5f274c3691fac091aa57129db666b4e2c3822682 It was in Sumer at the end of the IV millennium BC that human society left the stage of primitiveness and entered the era of antiquity, which means the addition of a new type of culture and the birth of a new type of consciousness.
6addd3e5cdf5dd803c3ffe83c9e84850188b80e6 An important role in the formation and consolidation of the new culture of the ancient society was played by writing, with the advent of which new forms of storing and transmitting information became possible.
bd0091221cdefd67b146a7e6e8c7fcae028144d5 Sumerian cuneiform, the middle of the III millennium BC Mesopotamian writing in its oldest, pictographic form appeared at the turn of the IV III millennia BC.
8a828bb26e94285de49d70405efbd7604d217e41 It is believed that in the early pictographic writing there were more than one and a half thousand signs of drawings.
fb89786f86484a6f4a2624ab812c9c5f6fe9a070 Each sign meant one or more words.
a114454ce5cb2f234a9554edf197bea976a906cb The improvement of the writing system went along the line of unification of badges, reducing their number, as a result, cuneiform impressions appeared.
3ce75a345809542c9b4f8d410c5eccd441c07e24 At the same time, the phonetization of the letter is taking place, that is, the icons began to be used not only in the original, verbal meaning, but also in isolation from it.
2016ac8eeeb78d73d22319bbefa68912136975ea The most ancient written messages were a kind of puzzles.
da58d07cd66b8eb952be6a9964c19754d5cb2df6 The developed cuneiform system, capable of transmitting all shades of speech, was developed only by the middle of the third millennium BC.
fdc9166358f295d6655d1c266e359bf7409dec65 Most of what is known about the culture of the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians was obtained by studying 25 thousand tablets and fragments of the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.
843e1524354bf1f8b28ffd680bd3859ecf3e2acd Ancient Mesopotamian literature includes both monuments of folklore origin and works of authorship.
91c163b0386869268ba001de4e644884572b8916 The most outstanding monument is the Akkadian epic about Gilgamesh, which tells about the search for immortality, about the meaning of human life.
41d98fc31c841bd36fea4c7e8f0fb52ae9b09855 Of great interest are the Old Babylonian "Poem about Atrahasis", which tells about the creation of man and the World Flood, and the cult cosmogonic epic "Enuma Elish".
e8e880ef683a1855e0dae7baf021cf254306064b Mythology of Mesopotamia — the mythology of the ancient states of the Two Rivers: Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia, Sumer, Elam.
535dca921dddc6c362aaa4df11edfbab297b52f4 Sumero Akkadian mythology is the mythology of the oldest known civilizations located on the territory of Mesopotamia, and developed from the IV to the II millennium BC.
600daf04b93897849890bd686200c5f3b23f68ef Sumerian mythology.
01ea8bb694c7ab0adadd926db1e9bc4bf560a863 The Sumerians, tribes of unknown origin, at the end of the IV millennium BC, mastered the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates and formed the first city states in the Two Rivers.
2c8599cec92505b968359c3be0993a2d9831eaf6 The Sumerian period of the history of the Two Rivers covers about one and a half thousand years, it ends at the end of the III beginning of the II millennium BC with the so called dynasty of the city of Ur and the dynasties of Isin and Larsa, of which the latter was already only partially Sumerian.
87347837ba6c722d2cfe8c6af96573a3dcc27ce4 By the time of the formation of the first Sumerian city states, apparently, the idea of an anthropomorphic deity had been formed.
3762cee0069e6cd95f1cec8d7fd2ea3930c3590f The patron deities of the community were primarily the personification of the creative and producing forces of nature, with which the ideas of the power of the military leader of the tribe of the community are combined (at first irregularly) with the functions of the high priest.
720450647a08756e0ad2f9386c82601cbbecbabc From the first written sources (the earliest pictographic texts of the so — called Uruk III — Jemdet Nasr period date from the end of the IV — beginning of the III millennium), the names (or symbols) of the gods Inanna, Enlil and other deities are known, and since the so called period of Abu Salabih (a settlement near Nippur) and Fara (Shuruppak), that is, from the 27-26 centuries, theophoric names and the most ancient list of gods.
3105254c37705436e1584f8cf1797e261ce496a2 The earliest proper mythological literary texts — hymns to the gods, lists of proverbs, the presentation of some myths (for example, about Enlil) also date back to the period of Fara and come from the excavations of Fara and Abu Salabih.
def82dde82a50c7efec194cb7102c0811fd52697 From the time of the reign of the Lagash ruler Gudea (about the 22nd century BC), building inscriptions have come down, giving important material concerning the cult and mythology (a description of the renovation of the main temple of the city of Lagash Eninnu — the "temple of fifty" for Ningirsu, the patron god of the city).
380cade0bf957e6626810d0fe969c0a20d5e6482 But the main mass of Sumerian texts of mythological content (literary, educational, actually mythological and other, somehow related to the myth) belongs to the end of the III beginning of the II millennium BC, to the so — called Old Babylonian period the time when the Sumerian language was already dying out, but the Babylonian tradition still preserved the system of teaching in this language.
de770662555ad8bbfbf96c3f20955fa67c08bf9e Thus, by the time of the appearance of writing in the Two Rivers (the end of the IV millennium BC), a certain system of mythological representations was recorded here.
8148a289189eca244b93db796a0dd27e6e94e063 But each city state preserved its own deities and heroes, cycles of myths and its own priestly tradition.
7b8a024e7fa9f7a88c6fea1e4a423ff9c8ac99e3 Until the end of the third millennium, there was no single systematized pantheon, although there were several common Sumerian deities: Enlil, "lord of the air", "king of gods and people", the god of the city of Nippur, the center of the oldest Sumerian tribal union;
0c81bb6e3fdd9e51c0d619381896661153d223cc Enki, the lord of underground fresh waters and the world ocean (later the deity of wisdom), the main god of the city of Eredu, the oldest cultural center of Sumer;
d7ec7f36e83e0728e2baffcd71f2d698a267d4ea An, the god of heaven, and Inanna, the goddess of war and carnal love, the deities of the city of Uruk, Naina, the moon god, worshipped in Ur; the warrior god Ningirsu, worshipped in Lagash (this god was later identified with the Lagash Ninurta), and other deities.
db5df517f08ec34ef156d98ae95bd22d92b635c9 The oldest list of gods from the Farah (about the 26th century BC) identifies six supreme gods of the early Sumerian pantheon: Enlil, Anu, Inanna, Enki, Nanna and the solar god Utu.
b4422f85a28261255c64f870697d33ab0b3917ea The ancient Sumerian deities, including the astral gods, retained the function of the fertility deity, which was thought of as the patron god of a separate community.
0e35beb7edbe76d740c2495bd9976372fb726d08 One of the most typical images is the image of the mother goddess (in iconography, images of a woman with a child in her arms are sometimes associated with her), who was worshipped under different names: Damgalnuna, Ninhursag, Ninmah, Nintu, Mama, Mami.
d717e5f64ed2c6de6eda95dc69fe02f80a767103 Akkadian versions of the image of the mother goddess are Beletili ("lady of the gods"), the same Mami (who has the epithet "helping with childbirth" in Akkadian texts) and Aruru — the creator of people in Assyrian and New Babylonian myths, and in the epic of Gilgamesh — a "wild" man (the first man) Enkidu.
805cf83c4d4074bfd66a137018a885da378dcbc0 It is possible that the patron goddesses of cities are also associated with the image of the mother goddess: for example, the Sumerian goddesses Bay and Gatumdug also bear the epithets "mother", "mother of all cities".
9bb9f5c7799cd755abe37f2b0608b7209be86b04 In the myths about the fertility gods, there is a close connection between the myth and the cult.
3a16c85f3707c38d0b670bb31751ae0d09500097 The cult songs from Ur speak about the love of the priestess "lukur" (one of the significant priestly categories) for King Shu Suen and emphasize the sacred and official nature of their union.
d47b96a276ee0eaa71fdac7cd307aaf54c02f7ae The hymns to the deified kings of the third dynasty of Ur and the First dynasty of Isin also show that a sacred marriage ceremony was performed annually between the king (at the same time the high priest "en") and the high priestess, in which the king represented the incarnation of the shepherd god Dumuzi, and the priestess — the goddess Inanna.
3d8d0a7cb67da1f72d19e24e53eacbeddddab134 The content of the works (which make up the single cycle "Inanna Dumuzi") includes the motives of the courtship and wedding of the heroes of the gods, the descent of the goddess into the underworld ("the land of no return") and her replacement by a hero, the death of the hero and crying for him and the hero's return to earth.
707873b01740d79834483c81d228de4c16c271d3 All the works of the cycle turn out to be the threshold of the drama of the action, which formed the basis of the ritual and figuratively embodied the metaphor "life death life".
634119ff405fa54f9184df4f39337df2394ec84f The multiplicity of variants of the myth, as well as the images of departing (dying) and returning deities (which in this case is Dumuzi), is connected, as in the case of the mother goddess, with the separation of Sumerian communities and with the metaphor "life — death — life" itself, which constantly changes its appearance, but is constant and unchangeable in its renewal.
a791d7436cabc192ed5d00bdfac2f4c77e7eaf4b More specific is the idea of replacement, which runs through all the myths associated with the descent into the underworld as a leitmotif.
0f31da7346c7a4cdbe160b1ec6e67f22a5738503 In the myth of Enlil and Ninlil, the patron of the Nippur community, the lord of the air Enlil, acts as a dying (departing) and resurrecting (returning) deity, who forcibly mastered Ninlil, was banished by the gods to the underworld for this, but managed to leave it, leaving "substitutes"instead of himself, his wife and son.
9a2eae0f908ad2d9216eaaf35cf0a13acf2d318d In form, the demand" for the head — the head "looks like a legal trick, an attempt to circumvent the law, which is inviolable for anyone who entered the "country of no return".
e07c101d8fe837bcd45a1ba1d00d1f042ca233d9 But it also contains the idea of a certain balance, the desire for harmony between the world of the living and the dead.
0bd4310f24f44c6e23fe45062240cdf33474ccdd In the Akkadian text about the descent of Ishtar (corresponding to the Sumerian Inanna), as well as in the Akkadian epic about Err, the god of plague, this idea is formulated more clearly: Ishtar, in front of the gates of the "land of no return", threatens, if she is not allowed in, to "release the dead who eat the living", and then "the dead will multiply more than the living", and the threat acts.
d9ca86cf59f56c782a382c1b3159de2205be8db3 Myths related to the cult of fertility provide information about the ideas of the Sumerian people about the underworld.
6c8f88ff5f2d0fe666cc8ad03f11e5518955e711 About the location of the underworld (Sumer. Kur, Kigal, Eden, Irigal, Arali, the secondary name is kur nougi, "the land of no return"; Akkadian parallels to these terms are ercet, ceru) there is no clear idea.
0206f2c5b31a4fd25886d687e67a6f12921733e2 They not only descend there, but also "fall through"; the border of the underground kingdom is an underground river, through which the carrier transports.
71f7ff788de0f58e81c4605bdd7212fd3ede0f50 Those who enter the underworld pass through the seven gates of the underworld, where they are met by the main gatekeeper Neti.
a3bb7cebca171725792ea50297b0808f41363b7a The fate of the dead under the ground is hard.
db4c7120de870953bd9aef8645bc797f5ebd1ceb Their bread is bitter (sometimes it is sewage), their water is salty (slops can also serve as a drink).
b80d6117b9eb81cf360c9da70cf49d143e208775 The underworld is dark, full of dust, its inhabitants, "like birds, are clothed with the clothing of wings."
50a0c45ad34d65cdbc9b040e4837f8f8d91d83bc There is no idea about the "field of souls", just as there is no information about the court of the dead, where they would be judged by their behavior in life and according to the rules of morality.
feb633c5f86b015a91a7fd91f2b7081618632039 A tolerable life (clean drinking water, peace) is awarded to the souls for whom the funeral rite was performed and sacrifices were made, as well as those who fell in battle and those with many children.
6f16e49f5eb138688be90de48b1535c09c93ad1d The judges of the underworld, the Anunnaki, sitting before Ereshkigal, the mistress of the underworld, pass only death sentences.
0fd15d44119514e986921c1bb068686cdb3cc35f The names of the dead are entered in the table by the female scribe of the underworld Geshtinanna (among the Akkadians — Beletzeri).
101975092cb65034424d8f92258c7b385962ec3c Among the ancestors of the inhabitants of the underworld are many legendary heroes and historical figures, such as Gilgamesh, the god Sumukan, the founder of the III dynasty of Ur Ur Nammu.
5d56418e1be9dab67934843054201999672f1764 The unburied souls of the dead return to earth and bring trouble, the buried are crossed over the "river that separates from people" and is the border between the world of the living and the world of the dead.
4be18ff6edf3a974ee269fee6ca9e530e1ad09d5 The river is crossed by a boat with the carrier of the underworld Ur Shanabi or the demon Humut Tabal.
57710642ff2d4c649fbaf81e6f52b9335fbcb19f The actual cosmogonic Sumerian myths are unknown.
18a681a902783d8d3cadf6df8c2360c953646656 The text "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" says that certain events took place at a time "when the heavens separated from the earth, when Anu took the sky for himself, and Enlil took the earth, when Ereshkigal was given to Kuru."
6171020cdcdb871447e6760473cc694cffabab0f The myth of the hoe and the axe says that Enlil separated the earth from heaven, the myth of Lahar and Ashnan, the goddesses of cattle and grain, also describes the merged state of the earth and heaven ("the mountain of heaven and earth"), which, apparently, was known by the god Anu.
35b43aabda958681e0663669d0b5cc7d2011e448 The myth "Enki and Ninhursag" tells about the island of Tilmun as a primordial paradise.
e9f88b7869881bc14106820787cb3ce49e6aba8c There are several myths about the creation of people, but only one of them is completely independent — about Enki and Ninmah.
49ca0dcae188c7249b20aec79a2e61a002883464 Enki and Ninmah sculpt a man from the clay of Abzu, the underground world ocean, and involve the goddess Namma — "the mother who gave birth to all the gods" - in the creation process.
cfee641dc70fabd91e1fc141639683625de0d4f7 The purpose of the creation of man is to work for the gods: to cultivate the land, graze cattle, collect fruits, feed the gods with their sacrifices.
b7d9016f9097dff34dc5459e4a2bd17c9eee606a When a person is made, the gods determine his fate and arrange a feast on this occasion.
3d740155fb2b60f02316987f5f1c3a60db36a6f6 At the feast, the intoxicated Enki and Ninmah begin to sculpt people again, but they get freaks: a woman who is unable to give birth, a being without sex, etc.
59ec9061404bfe75cee2eb0be0d526171aa0c0e5 In the myth of the goddesses of cattle and grain, the need to create a man is explained by the fact that the Anunnaki gods who appeared before him do not know how to manage any economy.
12a7cd13fd4bd436a55d42759bf9fb467004e0d9 The idea that people used to grow underground like grass repeatedly slips through.
93374848b275611a0b6d972f7cafd5b486af39e7 In the myth of the hoe, Enlil makes a hole in the ground with a hoe and people come out from there.
6dbdfe044b6571939651bf1b6aa045012799fe52 The same motif is heard in the introduction to the hymn to the city of Ered.
4a91f54f29da2519445a19979faa80fc47dc3970 Many myths are devoted to the creation and birth of gods.
1afaa259b4666919fbb9e6022e72f952b2b6df5c Cultural heroes are widely represented in Sumerian mythology.
ea3485701b860f3685dfd59973a19080d8b9fe31 The creators of the demiurgists are mainly Enlil and Enki.
d9a2532abd367c089c1ea32ebc6d1ca82603920c According to various texts, the goddess Ninkasi is the initiator of brewing, the goddess Uttu is the weaving craft, Enlil is the creator of the wheel, grain; gardening is the invention of the gardener Shukalitudda.
68dcf04f78cf3b123c152e9a2c807ba97d58ee01 A certain archaic king Enmeduranki is declared the inventor of various forms of predicting the future, including predictions using the outpouring of oil.
39b86821128b9ff0d71420f456b7a84316d068d0 The inventor of the harp is a certain Ningal Paprigal, the epic heroes Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are the creators of urban planning, and Enmerkar is also writing.
8a00101fa6aca80c05a0a348b485082ab1d92d4f The eschatological line is reflected in the myths about the flood and the wrath of Inanna.
7b753aecad47bb9a25521c75c6e73b489bcb214c In Sumerian mythology, there are very few stories about the struggle of the gods with monsters, the destruction of natural forces, etc. (only two such legends are known — about the struggle of the god Ninurta with the evil demon Asag and about the struggle of the goddess Inanna with the monster Ebih).
b02a99e5f4b27649b72108977a2c8befc849a113 Such battles in most cases are the lot of a heroic person, a deified king, while most of the actions of the gods are associated with their role as deities of fertility (the most archaic moment) and carriers of culture (the most recent moment).
37e27808e83bc1a700e7bd01bdd70a6d9b9f70d0 The external characteristics of the characters correspond to the functional ambivalence of the image: these all powerful, omnipotent gods, the creators of all life on earth, evil, rude, cruel, their decisions are often explained by the whims, drunkenness, promiscuity, their appearance can be underlined household unattractive features (the dirt under the fingernails, painted in red, from Enki, disheveled hair Ereshkigal, etc.).
d45249e284f3c0f9813dd2bc62e403dff23fadac Variety and the degree of activity and passivity of each deity.
62bc27d46d6deb4bf6f5f32a2c70a3ca3adbb5f6 Thus, the most lively are Inanna, Enki, Ninhursag, Dumuzi, and some minor deities.
fcaa603526da1f9e092ea2f070ffcb68f90b7261 The most passive god is the "father of the gods" Anu.
8cbcf16c6b14abe99c82bafc0ce4cdfd4f6c3303 The images of Enki, Inanna, and partly Enlil are comparable to the images of the demiurge gods, "carriers of culture", in whose characteristics the elements of comedy are emphasized, the gods of primitive cults living on earth, among people, whose cult supersedes the cult of the "supreme being".
665ad7b175e960605f911a3fdc718130e576189b But at the same time, no traces of "theomachy" — the struggle of old and new generations of gods - have been found in Sumerian mythology.
68f10b4229fde701269a103450afee38fac1a243 One canonical text of the Old Babylonian time begins with the enumeration of fifty pairs of gods who preceded Anu: their names are formed according to the scheme: "the lord (lady) of this and that".
f25367fb7eb0c3f11eb6098c7495aa95f8813922 Among them is named one of the oldest, according to some sources, the gods Enmesharra ("the lord of all the secret forces of Me").
268fe4d28102821cbd0718387dd5c2ce51f2e6aa From a source of even later time (the New Assyrian spell of the first millennium BC), it follows that Enmesharra is "the one who handed over the scepter and dominion to Anu and Enlil".
95acaef63434fcd2128537cfe66d094b22c1f5fa In Sumerian mythology, this deity is chthonic, but there is no evidence that Enmesharra was forcibly overthrown into the underground kingdom.
ef24225009f34417e16ed45a538bed139a8fc75a Of the heroic tales, only the tales of the Uruk cycle have come down to us.
56aa2003f031d87fb08b637e50abbbb5b83bda30 The heroes of the legends are three successive kings of Uruk: Enmerkar, the son of Meskingasher, the legendary founder of the I dynasty of Uruk (27-26 centuries BC; according to legend, the dynasty originated from the sun god Utu, whose son was considered Meskingasher);
199b8e4e29ceb536de1bf12f0385e3bcbffef5be Lugalbanda, the fourth ruler of the dynasty, the father (and possibly the ancestral god) of Gilgamesh, the most popular hero of Sumerian and Akkadian literature.
1be71c1dfd16193838779988a79a6ba8b1d4cdc6 A common external line for the works of the Uruk cycle is the theme of Uruk's connections with the surrounding world and the motif of the heroes ' journey.
4c30ef2969f6c2235caebc8f00a8671246d28ffa The theme of the hero's journey to a foreign country and the test of his moral and physical strength in combination with the motives of magical gifts and a magical assistant not only shows the degree of mythologization of the work composed as a heroic historical monument, but also allows us to reveal the early motives associated with initiation rites.
47e38f792bc139cd2b5b71bad54aae71a78c2dc7 the binding of these motifs in the works, the sequence of a purely mythological level of presentation brings the Sumerian monuments closer to a fairy tale.
771c5874284008ab4628c7a27aba45117f95e445 In the early lists of gods from the Farah, the heroes Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh are attributed to the gods; in later texts they appear as the gods of the underworld.
1da9b04e1d865095ec5792eacb760c1a234a3d9a Meanwhile, in the epic of the Uruk cycle, Gilgamesh, Lugalbanda, Enmerkar, although they have mytho epic and fairy tale features, act as real kings rulers of Uruk.
b738c88dd223eac5019181d3d771b0fd82fff02c Their names also appear in the so called "royal list", compiled during the third dynasty of Ur, probably around 2100 BC
7776738e01e507c61a6088f23fe204d64b374f82 (all the dynasties mentioned in the list are divided into "antediluvian" and ruled "after the flood", the kings, especially of the antediluvian period, are attributed a mythical number of years of rule: Meskingasher, the founder of the Uruk dynasty," the son of the sun god", 325 years, Enmerkar 420 years, Gilgamesh, who is called the son of the demon Lilu, 128 years).
c596cb82398b4d84fcb1f641283a060afde0709c Thus, the epic and non epic tradition of the Two Rivers has a single general direction — the idea of the historicity of the main mytho epic heroes.
a2ff5e544f5b525dfc59eb63754228134bbe6664 It can be assumed that Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh were deified posthumously as heroes.
78e04b6f9649449ff346f0bc878fa6c0ab306cd2 The situation has been different since the beginning of the Old Akkadian period.
802af7ab071f0ffba9430228db230d24b59426d7 The first ruler who declared himself the "patron god of Akkad" during his lifetime was the Akkadian king Naram Suen of the 23rd century BC; during the third dynasty of Ur, the cult veneration of the ruler reached its apogee.
16a1c481402a53b4f1b0f42ee42a8bfce8e4b332 As a rule, the development of an epic tradition from myths about cultural heroes, characteristic of many mythological systems, did not take place on Sumerian soil.
cf3341ffc1b585e2cac24c45e097081575cf9614 A characteristic actualization of ancient forms (in particular, the traditional motif of travel) also looks like the motif of god's journey to another, higher, deity for a blessing, which is often found in Sumerian mythological texts (myths about Enki's journey to Enlil after the construction of his city, about the journey of the moon god Nanna to Nippur to Enlil, his divine father, for a blessing).
506dc4525e65ac417fd778673814f7428854299b But also traces of the general historical concept the idea of the evolution of mankind from savagery to civilization (reflected already on the Akkadian material - in the history of the "wild man" Enkidu in the Akkadian epic about Gilgamesh) appear through the "actual" concept of the myth.
ffa898909c845cfd1176ede4e1bca6db86ff7a7f Akkadian (Babylonian Assyrian) mythology.
9418d7893f51cf7a033c1dc0f5fab8e21d7eab74 Since ancient times, the Eastern Semites Akkadians, who occupied the northern part of the lower Two Rivers, were neighbors of the Sumerians and were under strong Sumerian influence.
5e4dac0036b3dd7587fc9fdbb0e6bb463b87a8e4 In the second half of the third millennium BC, the Akkadians also established themselves in the south of the Two Rivers, which was facilitated by the unification of the Two Rivers by the ruler of the city of Akkad Sargon the Ancient into the " kingdom of Sumer and Akkad "(later, with the rise of Babylon, this territory became known as Babylonia).
c38659ebc6e179cb37c9d76f308aec6b45b5197a The history of the Two Rivers in the II millennium BC is already the history of the Semitic peoples.
dc6c70192ef3e55091c3ea6218e225fbd98e2d19 However, the merger of the Sumerian and Akkadian peoples occurred gradually, the displacement of the Sumerian language by Akkadian (Babylonian Assyrian) did not mean the complete destruction of the Sumerian culture and its replacement by a new, Semitic one.
5aaed4f2959443be96920c49f0a3f099194bd0e8 No early purely Semitic cult has yet been discovered on the territory of the Two Rivers.
4aaf65b74a8a5299e3e6cf418e602e4d1df1ff8e All the Akkadian gods known to us are of Sumerian origin or have long been identified with the Sumerian ones.
bf620bfe6a864bc2cbf918200f9d5829bb8c6b76 Thus, the Akkadian sun god Shamash was identified with the Sumerian Utu, the goddess Ishtar with Inanna and a number of other Sumerian goddesses, the storm god Adad with Ishkur, etc.
b1c78524cdfdc242f552a97bebe660c573a9d794 The god Enlil receives the Semitic epithet Bel (or Balu, or Baal), "lord".
c40f934134d948fc1f9bd3da9ff73d45a054ad23 With the rise of Babylon, the main god of this city, Marduk, begins to play an increasingly important role, but this name is also Sumerian in origin.
61b9e072c3901a8956bd23d1659506ff037b40db The Akkadian mythological texts of the Old Babylonian period are much less known than the Sumerian ones; none of the texts have survived completely.
fbbd281c6afa0729cf41a54f1e74aeb5a0e58536 All the main sources on Akkadian mythology belong to the II I millennium BC, that is, to the time after the Old Babylonian period.
a2dc47a1e63365310bd65c663b2c865b5cea4d13 If very fragmentary information about Sumerian cosmogony and theogony has been preserved, then the Babylonian cosmogonic teaching is represented by a large cosmogonic epic poem "Enuma Elish" (according to the first words of the poem — "When above"; the earliest version dates from the beginning of the 10th century BC).
00d0c711e4ebb96d6526c130274af01ad2466910 The poem assigns the main role in the creation of the world to Marduk, who gradually occupies the main place in the pantheon of the second millennium, and by the end of the Old Babylonian period, he receives universal recognition outside Babylon.
543c5ac3e318d8aef778449bf79c3f1cf1892087 In comparison with the Sumerian ideas about the universe, what is new in the cosmogonic part of the poem is the idea of successive generations of gods, each of which surpasses the previous one, about the theomachy — the battle of old and new gods and the unification of many divine images of the creators into one.
0df82d2201c00599ae01909e3e5bcd54afd704e9 The idea of the poem is to justify the exaltation of Marduk, the purpose of its creation is to prove and show that Marduk is the direct and legitimate heir of ancient powerful forces, including the Sumerian deities.
9c1c43ad0edadae2272f7b059174a712b4972fdb The" primordial " Sumerian gods turn out to be young heirs of more ancient forces, which they crush.
479485ceeb3506d7e7e3c34b7239f9610a2981ca He gets power not only on the basis of legal succession, but also by the right of the strongest, so the theme of the struggle and the violent overthrow of ancient forces is the leitmotif of the legend.
83380858a61e46b704bdc5e57419f504fb8d4650 The features of Enki Ei, like other gods, are transferred to Marduk, but Ei becomes the father of the "lord of the gods" and his adviser.
4945dce4f13df91b3f60f709fdcc452f347aa638 In the Ashur version of the poem (the end of the II millennium BC) Marduk is replaced by Ashur, the main god of the city of Ashur and the central deity of the Assyrian pantheon.
616bfa53553df968ddb7ee0c1b26b9e90a775ed8 This was a manifestation of the general trend towards monotheism, expressed in the desire to single out the main god and rooted not only in the ideological, but also in the socio political situation of the first millennium BC.
db8ad81818b9a73555accc3d0751c3a96571831b A number of cosmological motifs of "Enuma elish" have come down to us in the Greek versions of the Babylonian priest of the III century BC Beros (through Polyhistor and Eusebius), as well as the Greek writer of the VI century Damaski.
b7dc889a8e55c2f75da12712ce9214e0a5bcbe2d Damascus has a number of generations of gods: Taute and Apason and their son Mumie (Tiamat, Apsu, Mummu), as well as Lakhe and Lakhos, Kissar and Assoros (Lakhmu and Lahamu, Anshar and Kishar), their children Anos, Illinos, Aos (Anu, Enlil, Eyya).
b2e708bedd9e0e1c360ddc73862c62692843b78c Aos and Dauke (i.e. the goddess Damkina) create the demiurge god Bel (Marduk).
6021da1723a9439a14d19fb32543da6f6e99e359 In Beros, the lady corresponding to Tiamat is a certain Omorka ("sea"), which dominates the darkness and waters and whose description resembles the description of the evil Babylonian demons.
df4550c46a1ef6356f034bd9af42dd584bfb383e The god Bel cuts it, creates heaven and earth, organizes the world order and orders to cut off the head of one of the gods in order to create people and animals from his blood and earth.
14d5990fb74c5eb2faed664d7426f4f96ea7763c Myths about the creation of the world and the human race in Babylonian literature and mythography are associated with tales of human disasters, the death of people and even the destruction of the universe.
10d338e45c3055e79eec17d61a0aba3c6c3b1f31 As in the Sumerian monuments, Babylonian legends emphasize that the cause of disasters is the malice of the gods, their desire to reduce the number of the ever growing and annoying human race to the gods with their noise.
61405e69e6af443fa583e887c441e5b00a5723d5 Disasters are perceived not as a legitimate retribution for human sins, but as an evil whim of the deity.
60374d134efe389e16d9952324e728479475af81 The myth of the flood, which, according to all data, was based on the Sumerian legend of Ziusudra, came down in the form of the myth of Atrahasis and the story of the flood, inserted into the epic of Gilgamesh (and not much different from the first), and also preserved in the Greek transmission of Beros.
6809a720a1fbe918cd97cfb3acccf9f309c40809 The myth of the plague god Erre, who fraudulently takes power from Marduk, also tells about the punishment of people.
0e1415ccfb553a9ff475f7859eff428c73195341 This text sheds light on the Babylonian theological concept of a certain physical and spiritual balance of the world, depending on the presence of the rightful owner in its place (cf.the Sumerian Akkadian motif of balance between the world of the living and the dead).
88f15a349cffadc2e28558ff8dde33b18cf0fa7a The traditional idea of the connection of the deity with his statue is also traditional for the Two Rivers (since the Sumerian period): when leaving the country and the statue, the god thereby changes his residence.
5ff87a7d80e27a6a8e76f9c37ec187fd74c95fdb Marduk does this, and the country is damaged, and the universe is threatened with destruction.
523608495e1036e6bc1a867fc16538e0a21fcf0a It is characteristic that in all epics about the destruction of mankind, the main disaster — the flood, is caused not by a flood from the sea, but by a rain storm.
f3d082726daedbdf1340992f9469c33813809a9c This is also connected with the significant role of the storm and hurricane gods in the cosmogony of the Two Rivers, especially the northern one.
f5bba5da0f23a73f2216f678f806cc783c5dd48c In addition to the special gods of wind and thunderstorms, storms (the main Akkadian god is Adad), the winds were the sphere of activity of various gods and demons.
114b9967d6a5aa34ef43591657e5269dfb2045d5 So, according to tradition, he was probably the supreme Sumerian god Enlil (the literal meaning of the name is "wind breath", or "lord of the wind"), although he is basically the god of air in the broad sense of the word.
3d4a4d85ae33eb2ed6d37919fa6c9660d96e2f99 But still Enlil possessed destructive storms with which he destroyed enemies and hated cities.
902eacab87f07bc3ba6d57bab0bdf2bedd8ff864 Enlil's sons, Ninurta and Ningirsu, are also associated with the storm.
fd0d3b8e253b7ddd74401b17b26e4600a6fbcb2d The winds of the four sides were perceived as deities, at least as personified higher forces.
db6a523a20ade170ca534a9fe434bb96ff3f9044 The Babylonian legend about the creation of the world, the plot of which was built around the personality of a powerful deity, the epic development of episodes telling about the battle of the hero god with a monster - the personification of the elements, gave rise to the theme of the hero god in Babylonian epic mythological literature (and not a mortal hero, as in Sumerian literature).
5069dea447a2d9e223a94983f144b9731ce9f27f According to Akkadian concepts, the tables of fate determined the movement of the world and world events.
96525fa24de42775de507e1c512a46e4eaf58441 Their possession ensured world domination (in Enuma Elish, they were originally owned by Tiamat, then by Kingu, and finally by Marduk).
3e8563b14822f6a86e8ecfb0f00f016aab738fba The scribe of the tables of destinies — the god of scribal art and the son of Marduk Nabu was also sometimes perceived as their owner.
6e39c3329f82bc3ef652a0d7d14d5884696d4c74 Tables were also written in the underworld (the scribe is the goddess Beletzeri); apparently, this was a record of death sentences, as well as the names of the dead.
5e77718827170dce6bab51541e420bcc5928a149 If the number of hero gods prevails in Babylonian mythological literature compared to Sumerian, then only the legend (obviously of Sumerian origin) about Ethan, the hero who tried to fly up to heaven on an eagle, and the relatively late story about Adapa, the sage, who dared to "break off the wings" of the wind and cause the wrath of the sky god Anu, but missed the opportunity to get immortality, and the famous epic about Gilgamesh, are known about mortal heroes, except for the epic about Atrahasis — not a simple repetition of the Sumerian legends about the hero, but a work that reflected the complex ideological evolution that the heroes of Sumerian works did together with the Babylonian society.
10c96da2309774c44d440d98f72138ba34d3524e The leitmotif of the epic works of Babylonian literature is the failure of man to achieve the fate of the gods, despite all his aspirations, the futility of human efforts in an attempt to obtain immortality.
eaeef56a04c5895f6543666ff0df29c7ed9e4ff4 The monarchically state, and not the communal (as in Sumerian mythology) nature of the official Babylonian religion, as well as the suppression of the public life of the population, leads to the fact that the features of the archaic religious and magical practice are gradually suppressed.
761628f5cd65202660e28bb2f1ad1f1faf25c879 Over time, "personal" gods begin to play an increasingly important role.
a8c5df79e1a2df0a4fdc59a0b804b3db69be03d5 The idea of a personal god of each person, which facilitates his access to the great gods and introduces him to them, arises (or, in any case, spreads) from the time of the third dynasty of Ur and in the Old Babylonian period.
adc0a715852f01a25441521df6cf325fcd1570f4 On the reliefs and seals of this time, there are frequent scenes depicting how the patron deity leads a person to the supreme god to determine his fate and to receive a blessing.
e0cf462c782e10dd352081af6f3c7fda9aba5f5d In the period of the third dynasty of Ur, when the king was considered as the protector of the guardian of his country, he assumed some functions of the protector god (especially the deified king).
79f44e5b5de8e95b426d6ad76de25e764fa84b1e It was believed that with the loss of his protector god, a person became defenseless before the evil willfulness of the great gods, could easily be attacked by evil demons.
89bc8c89e8a26abc8c557a40d7e253400516e4df In addition to the personal god, who was primarily supposed to bring good luck to his patron, and the personal goddess, who personified his life "share", each person also had his own demon spirit sheda — among the Sumerians, alad) - an anthropomorphized or zoomorphized life force.
37075d0c43ef51c330f920e65e807e5a2aba25a8 In addition to these defenders, a resident of Babylonia with I The first millennium BC also has its own personal guardian lamassu, the bearer of his personality, possibly associated with the cult of the placenta.
afe39e287a741af397938a1ca2ebeb89c827b447 The" name "of a person or his "glory" (noise) they were also considered as a material substance, without which his existence is unthinkable and which was passed on to his heirs.
734ee6e3d8c6a1fecadb572bfd7d0fab7e795903 On the contrary ,the "soul" (write) is something impersonal, it was identified with the breath, then with the blood.
55ce2e08179d9107391d4b86117d3ff0250d653a Personal guardian gods opposed evil and were, as it were, the antipodes of the evil forces surrounding man.
e55d6e7b8278d8ac1b3f5f782bb19f4108c83833 Among them are the lion — headed Lamashtu, rising from the underworld and leading all kinds of diseases, the evil spirits of diseases themselves, ghosts, embittered shadows of the dead who do not receive victims, various kinds of service spirits of the underworld (utukki, asakki, etymme, galle, galle lemnuti — "evil devils", etc.), the god fate Namtar, who comes to a person at the hour of his death, the night spirits of the incubus Lilu, visiting women, succubi Lilit or Lilith, possessing men, and other evil demons.
68314f17eece76296e05b42ea9cc61a1c02b72a1 The most complex system of demonological representations, which developed in Babylonian mythology (and was not attested in Sumerian monuments), was also reflected in fine art.
8e49fda16d64702a6b88608ad9aea610e6389d95 The general structure of the pantheon, the addition of which dates back to the third dynasty of Ur, basically remains unchanged throughout the entire era of antiquity.
f64bee3717cf1d42bb470cebca6e635f11454db0 At the head of the whole world is officially the triad of Anu, Enlil and Eya, surrounded by a council of seven or twelve " great gods "who determine the" shares " (shimatu) of everything in the world.
86cb920c29b30fc9bd79ba5863eca651e2c6e17a All the gods are thought to be divided into two generic groups — Igigs and Anunnaki, the gods of the earth and the underworld, as a rule, are among the latter, although there are also Anunnaki gods among the heavenly gods.
8ee14d3011830ce489c82b5a1522ff2bbe890719 In the underworld, however, it is no longer so much Ereshkigal who rules as her husband Nergal, who subdued his wife, which corresponds to the general decrease in the role of female deities in Babylonian mythology, who, as a rule, are reduced almost exclusively to the position of impersonal spouses of their divine husbands (in fact, only the goddess of healing Gula and Ishtar retain special significance, although, judging by the epic of Gilgamesh, her position is also under threat).
3426702e490387ee7dbda343fc5c6b5d3425c409 But the steps in the direction of monotheism, manifested in the strengthening of the cult of Marduk, which monopolized almost all areas of divine activity and power by the end of the second millennium BC, continue to occur.
c107dc95852eb71d378cd2a151ba6e42a6363bd4 Enlil and Marduk (in Assyria — Enlil and Ashur) merge into a single image of the "lord" — Bel (Baal).
43472e1527dacf93b3f19dd9c16800fc8f565c48 In the first millennium BC, Marduk was gradually replaced in a number of centers by his son, the god of scribal art Nabu, who tends to become a single Babylonian deity.
bbd2504b57850f3d3663582d0ec502a258ce5eb9 Other deities are endowed with the properties of one god, and the qualities of one god are determined by the qualities of other gods.
c9ddf647691303523ebe6ebe592c9d960a994909 This is another way to create an image of a single omnipotent and all powerful deity in a purely abstract way.
eefb1382af3f3acc79d8063d4f9e2161847b6d2b The monuments (mainly of the first millennium BC) make it possible to reconstruct the general system of cosmogonic views of Babylonian theologians, although there is no complete certainty that such unification was carried out by the Babylonians themselves.
007a7d68c4e77725a5efdeab29bd34f94d0ee977 The microcosm is represented by a reflection of the macrocosm — "bottom" (earth) - as if a reflection of the" top " (heaven).
2dde406bb28adb0e879e02656cf63afa51cc8b77 The whole universe seems to float in the world ocean, the earth is like a large inverted round canoe, and the sky is a solid half dome (dome) covering the world.
3f91d89e85cbed79e3f04df25c0554836d7376a5 The entire celestial space is divided into several parts: the "upper sky of Anu", the "middle sky" belonging to the Igigs, in the center of which was the lapis lazuli cell of Marduk, and the "lower sky", already visible to people, on which the stars are located.
5d8a70bb326ba136b56089d84b67fa53c5ce121f All the heavens are made of different types of stone, for example, the "lower sky" is made of blue jasper; four more heavens are placed above these three heavens.
2b4910d07e70dacc150b18803d93bd7bb6c1580e The sky, like a building, rests on a base attached to the celestial ocean by pegs and, like an earthly palace, protected from water by a rampart.
94b98456e6a0ce6d9fd3d05ef5db9dbeb4a8c150 The highest part of the firmament is called "the middle of the heavens".
3bd329862182a999142aea447fc2a12096867fdc The outer side of the dome ("the interior of the heavens") emits light; this is the space where the moon Sin hides during his three day absence and where the sun Shamash spends the night.
cf36df34d275330d0b462809b5cdcce1580a5276 In the east there is the "mountain of sunrise", in the west the "mountain of sunset", which are locked.
70982d7ed6378e15c5ec1cfb6423ce26f7c52063 Every morning, Shamash opens the "mountain of sunrise", sets off on a journey through the sky, and in the evening, through the "mountain of sunset", he disappears into the "interior of heaven".
b1a6f7245103e58fd2008e4144cf6c5e51c486ee The stars in the firmament are "images" or "writings", and each of them has a fixed place, so that none "goes astray from its path".
dc0e34e683a4d4a6877db057e7146697cf5ac884 The geography of the earth corresponds to the geography of the sky.
832070037cfa2b32210f9790c5b40ec568eff4d2 The prototypes of everything that exists: countries, rivers, cities, temples - exist in the sky in the form of stars, earthly objects are only reflections of heavenly ones, but both substances each have their own dimensions.
599a0554c2a640d0ba7890cb1fcf62d132c32541 So, the heavenly temple is about twice as large as the earthly one.
48e9e2e12e017e10783fb64b10a935d75dc16f17 The plan of Nineveh was originally drawn in heaven and has existed since ancient times.
ad72953b7f7ab4472f225637b70fa9c9a059d575 In one constellation is the heavenly Tiger, in the other the heavenly Euphrates.
5b34faf295284db0dc1f5f3f7a93603b5016aa11 Each city corresponds to a certain constellation: Sippar — the constellation of Cancer, Babylon, Nippur others whose names are not identified with modern ones.
b294ea434f5fa1eb61d4ce2c870a86f23e79919b The sun and the month are divided into countries: on the right side of the month — Akkad, on the left Elam, the upper part of the month — Amurru( Amorei), the lower part — the country of Subartu.
b2aacc86e9b5e8a5b1789465b39d34b763aa943a Under the firmament lies (like an overturned boat) "ki" - the earth, which is also divided into several tiers.
4ba1392249973cd274fab3024a5ec7c7845052fa People live in the upper part, in the middle part — the possessions of the god Eya (the ocean of fresh water or subsurface waters), in the lower part the possessions of the earth gods, the Anunnaki, and the underground kingdom.
101640def660d4c8fef6da7298321877cd5cb5d4 According to other views, the seven heavens correspond to the seven earths, but nothing is known about their exact division and location.
80ed71592efb70cf2bb45953df64431ddc26fcbd To strengthen the earth, it was tied to the sky with ropes and secured with pegs.
cd210bf529de3fef3ad63f22fe34bf519ba6bfb8 These ropes are ropes — the Milky Way.
3e3ea4d0ac30a5f0a678d5bce1324d46fe4ec499 The upper earth, as we know, belongs to the god Enlil.
15e9c1d56352f524d67834110ce616ecfe1b36e4 His temple is Ekur ("the house of the mountain") and one of its central parts is Duranki ("the connection of heaven and earth") they symbolize the structure of the world.
5de85851abb6764cd0865e35bf0308d8f698461d Thus, a certain evolution is outlined in the religious and mythological views of the peoples of the Two Rivers.
f095cb91cf3af22a379c9d7af2f8907bc964198b If the Sumerian religious and mythological system can be defined as based primarily on communal cults, then the Babylonian system shows a clear desire for monolatry and for more individual communication with the deity.
06cd5169e652534563f3b7c1a3824fe4882478f1 From very archaic ideas, a transition is planned to a developed religious mythological system, and through it to the field of religious and ethical views, in whatever rudimentary form they may be expressed.
e67e2e870443792e243132bf62d60dc95c8b3680 Hurrian mythology is the mythology of the peoples who inhabited the Northern Mesopotamia in the III II millennium BC.
73535befab7b2c041db99800f842fb455cbddc20 Assyrian mythology is the mythology of the peoples of Assyria, located in the Northern Mesopotamia in the XIV VII centuries BC; it was based on Sumero Akkadian mythology, and after the capture of Assyria by the Babylonian kingdom, it had a strong influence on Babylonian mythology.
3ad611aa0fedbbcbf864becbacfcc78b61c9cab7 Babylonian mythology — the mythology of Babylonia, a state in the south of Mesopotamia in the XX VI centuries BC; it was influenced by Assyrian mythology.
21b4c6e4e845b6c9b69d84e8794977da669fbf88 The history of the formation and development of the mythological representations of Sumer and Akkad is known from the materials of fine art from about the middle of the VI millennium BC, and from written sources from the beginning of the III millennium BC.
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3a5a7c1d29eb8c9d8bf702480c433e1f90923611 Home > Infoteca > Religion > Religions and Beliefs > Bible > Myths of Ancient Sumer and the Bible
a129987079214b05a31f5ef87437b60bd111bdbf Myths of Ancient Sumer and the Bible
53fd607df069c8217ab384c9faecbfba549b9a2b Comments: 16
648c24d708c6c9c5b16d88211f86c9fc8aeffbdd The first Sumerian settlements appeared around 4000 BC.
304ffffb5281c92d0bf40ec3776e35c7cd9aeddf The largest of these cities were Eridu, Nippur, Kish, Lagash, Uruk, Ur and Umma.
d65153cbbba7c68359bfa26e1e308e07de6d21ed Their population created one of the richest cultures in the history of mankind in the Euphrates and Tigris basins.
cfcf5e1ce71b2eb8e02aacb8848df612bed9507d The main creators of this great culture were the Sumerians.
2d0c065759e32e8971c69d108945d1c6bcfe93a1 Already in the third millennium BC, they built wonderful cities, watered the soil with an extensive network of irrigation channels, their craft flourished, they created magnificent monuments of art and literature.
830912a86061275df433f882dd3c7ac2d927ad60 The Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hittites and Arameans, who later founded their own states in Mesopotamia and Syria, were students of the Sumerians and inherited great cultural values from them.
251492bc5763d6027c649c4ef4c18d3e2d665bd9 Until the middle of the XIX century, we had only scant and even ridiculous information about the culture of these peoples.
5f5b64c5ca3c5e589b0ddbd5fa02230d799618f4 Only the archaeological excavations carried out on a large scale in Mesopotamia revealed to us the greatness and wealth of these peoples.
a20ae4582b2c32b0da9f05f51384aef10070ff04 Such powerful cities as Ur, Babylon and Nineveh were excavated, and thousands of tablets were found in the royal palaces, covered with cuneiform script, which has already been read.
682a76b8e7b9bf77be84799d9dfff6e646a43d0a According to their content, these documents are divided into historical chronicles, diplomatic correspondence, treaties, religious myths and poems, among which there is the oldest epic of mankind dedicated to the Sumerian national hero Gilgamesh.
3ae269bb1df4409ee42084ad59d3bc92dc482097 As the cuneiform script was deciphered, it became clear that the Bible, which for centuries was considered the original creation of the ancient Jews, which allegedly arose at the suggestion of God, goes back to the Mesopotamian tradition, that many private details and even entire legends are more or less borrowed from the rich treasury of Sumerian myths and legends.
12325f839f70ddbf478ed65662c5b41f5b8a7712 Almost all of the written sources on which to judge the cosmology and theology of the Sumerians, refer to the end of III Millennium BC, when there was already a holistic religion of Sumer, so the study of earlier religious beliefs is very difficult (the first pictographic texts of the period of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr, Dating from the end of IV - beginning of III Millennium BC, include symbolic images of the gods such as Enlil, Inanna, etc.).
8f16dfa1cd7e2c3aab15306975817fa16cd9ffcb Its main motifs were adopted Akkadian mythology after the conquest of Sumer in 2311 g BC Akkadian king Sargon.
9d5c3704b2cc55a3799c1db1a2f25400e24edb51 The main Akkadian mythological sources date back to the end of the II beginning of the I millennium BC (none of the earlier works, unlike the Sumerian ones, have come down to us in full form).
0a9a2f9bbcbcbcb6c3208b10a435fb284d71efea After the conquest of Mesopotamia by Assyria, Assyrian mythology inherits Akkadian (with the replacement of the names of the gods).
257de489cecf88f815fdd9938420cd530ce88d78 However, apparently, these myths were spread not only through military campaigns, since their traces are also found in the west, for example, Ugarit.
0975cd0a1fdb469fe9ea6a355c7c263299f80435 The famous archaeologist George Smith read on cuneiform tablets an entire Babylonian poem about the creation of the world, known as "Enuma Elish", which outwardly has nothing to do with the biblical legend.
414f0e382cc0b3e21a9c89e75e1772ee5fd07334 The content of this mythological epic, of course, with large abbreviations, can be stated as follows.
08284f6c0b27a64083cd509dc4b2914da376a573 In the beginning, there was only water and chaos reigned.
113a216c517496bc3dd1194075a44b682ca63142 Out of this terrible chaos, the first gods were born.
ac6eaf5795b65e111b98a6728ac9097117213f22 Over the centuries, some gods decided to establish order in the world.
9868d58f6a6464f8dfce6fb779e66038de5589d3 This provoked the indignation of the god Abzu and his wife Tiamat, the monstrous goddess of chaos.
a823a316abb74f80a598bd68edf3fa9fca5295d2 The rebels united under the leadership of the wise god Ea and killed Abza.
c010c89e54c271a997e9716d53ed5da71fa20162 Tiamat, depicted as a dragon, decided to avenge her husband's death.
d1c54f09debd770441859b2bdc662e03d85efd04 Then the gods of order, led by Marduk, killed Tiamat in a bloody battle, and her giant body was cut into two parts, one of which became the earth and the other the sky.
186c573bf69800fe560605a722364daeda399b68 And the blood of Abzu was mixed with clay, and from this mixture the first person appeared.
8ac6f1fdcc5c9b5cf369b06a79bad6e00fe521c1 Scientists rightly believe that the text of the book of Genesis (ch. 3, v. 5).
9e9e50ae2d46336129140377ee7aaf8ca209efdc Once, while analyzing the tablets, Smith literally could not believe his eyes, because on some of the tablets he found fragments of the legend of the flood, strikingly similar to the biblical version As soon as he published them, a storm of protest arose from the hypocrites of Victorian England, for whom the Bible was a sacred, inspired book.
89eb49712d3d5ee1bed3da91947118ddaba71344 What Smith read, in their opinion, rather indicated a random coincidence of details.
84b7c7379871db9f5c094aee7396ccbc4c5e8b7d This dispute could only be finally resolved by the discovery of the missing cuneiform tablets, which, however, seemed very unlikely.
5d6a8214f31412edf7a29a160c158b597442d96d Myths about the creation of the world
5355c1142e7dd913f564e713bfd2e33d1f2160c3 Sumerian Myths:
415cdec0ca5d6f2ac34ea9c2acf1ba7d493d3fa2 "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the lower world", "The Myth of the Hoe", "Lahar and Ashnan".
52415c3963e8aeee118551127c650e9d5bc2438f As such, there are no myths about the structure of the universe among the Sumerians.
be3bcbefcf519099f0467143d0a8b3b453f33766 There are only mentions that in the beginning there was a primary infinite sea.
0af87754aaa385f8db1c04bbcd719571715efaed Somehow, the "universe" was born in it (the Sumerian word "an ki" means heaven and earth).
de6068abe406701053a3055e4ae3ffdf558f27aa The earth was a flat disk under a domed sky.
132efb37c7a5371c8bd81972d3608f1cfa7f7ea3 Between them there was a certain substance "lel", in which the stars and other celestial bodies were located.
459d65f7574b96d70468b50ebc2c13e76e74dde5 Then plants, animals and people appeared on the earth.
72fee3083e2dbb701a6705eae02f9baf1f606962 All this was controlled by a whole pantheon of deities, outwardly similar to a person, but much more powerful and strong.
b9beaa4f92e9242bd8fcfc1bfa6a62986ceb9438 Such superhuman immortal beings were called dingir, which translates as god.
01c0857d2052dcb6a0641f6a1539f574460bf455 The primeval paradise was located on the island of Dilmun (the poem "Enki and Ninhursag").
14f771fee89f9f39f2533451739bcbfcafe8429a Babylonian Myths:
b07bdf9aeb39f8632e80e50e1b16e3081f4ba642 "Enuma Elish" (X century BC): At first there was only water and chaos reigned.
aa9da2abf74809e7a4621b5d28f0456b75370cc3 The Bible:
bd5b00a0636968c38f99fa4091b6bce35238db50 The first book of Genesis (Gen. 1: 1-8), in particular: "And the Lord God created man from the dust of the earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul."
bf18e59effc827ced818801a3fac95f4921daa67 (Gen. 2: 7)
24b531cfcfbfb97731eebf3b438669ff28970c9d Here there is a noticeable difference in the words "clay" and "dust", from which the first man was made.
52f5fc9e88395f2e87a1317ddbee0acfacbfe2af There is also a more serious difference - in Mesopotamia, the "abyss" was represented by a personified pair of male and female principles: Apsu and Tiamat, and their copulation was considered the beginning of creation.
9bb518f60c4cd5cca4ebf65c5e3c9831b8789d3d In the late Jewish religion (about the 7th century BC), which was finally formed after the return of the Jews from Babylonian captivity, Israel sees creation not as a struggle, but as the act of the one God.
d0e7f3be678e2ba7632a974de262952356d5fc5f In Canaan, creation is also described as a struggle between Baal, the king of the gods, and the eternal dragon of chaos, called Leviathan (Latanu) or the Sea (Yammu).
109894ef80e3d507437c1c8d8d691f1745c86a2c The title "king of the gods" is applied in the Psalter already to the Jewish god Yahweh.
87e68eee732d45600558841079a60685bcbc1f48 In the Old Testament, this symbol of chaos is mentioned repeatedly, while such terms as "serpent", "dragon" or "monster" are used for its designation, as well as "Rahab", "Leviathan" and "Sea"
7474d5c4b46a91950b28c2a69ad31264498ded70 (for example, Ps.
c53f81cb8e383ff1b60028c524a50e4d785b4c07 73, 13-14;
a755c08f7b7c4cdbed60c48cc6e8eb93264cabef 88, 10;
c51badf5841edd33bb66093e01d08de42ed8d40f Job 3, 8, where "day" should be understood as "The Sea" (Job 41; Is. 27: 1; 51: 9; Am. 9: 3).
f28f5e89b33286de8f25f56cc2e7ed8f042d78f8 In Christianity, the "beast" of the Apocalypse is also associated with this image, the story of whose destruction ends very eloquently: "and the sea is no more" (Rev. 21, 1).
73f4931fc6f17b83ce6492bd755e71d8b73ba6e0 Differences between polytheistic religions and monotheism
f423183cb2017b49272af68edcb17ce0630adbeb The polytheist considered creation as a struggle between various forces of nature, and the established world order as a harmony of many wills.
e48d1762bbecb2a9c751f016b387a14d9b4307ec It was believed that a certain principle, which was subject to the world order, which even the gods followed, was set during creation.
9dedc6b82b55837602416ae2b35fd97549a4a6fc Humanity had its own destiny or destiny that existed even before its actual appearance.
70f16d118e4da69e585b8fb04c3f4c8331697ca0 At the same time, the biblical faith did not proceed from such principles of the world order and from the idea of the inevitability of soulless predestination.
b51deaae48d3d99edcaa0c6478714edffbc034f9 This world order is not something fixed and eternal;
081bec5eba3c58b8efe0c8bc2f315b16706c3b68 God is entering into a struggle with the world that has departed from him, and therefore the current picture of the world should not be considered final.
15d2e6dfb9f1c0df14e5f7342f623495c1d1345e At the same time, it is necessary to mention the polytheism of the ancient Iranian religion Mazdaism (see), whose influence on Judaism cannot be overlooked, in which the outcome of the struggle of the forces of "good" and "evil" depends on the "righteous" actions of people.
f761e9f610c823aa00ce5411cd77008a2d834510 Since the Jewish religion is a much later work, the Israeli vision of man is also fundamentally different from the polytheistic ideas of the ancient peoples.
a1aa7acfaa62cc3335e94e154a0c83c0bbd30092 A person has a high dignity and value, since he is granted the right to be a being responsible for his own actions, which generally reflects the overall course of universal morality.
27ee4c4b3fdda92a56e94bdf0c06c7761c139d74 The Creation of Seven Days
f87fdd602bb22cf8dd5bb6c7d58fd931a5838dd4 The sequence of events: the appearance of the sky and celestial bodies, the separation of water from the earth, the creation of man on the sixth day, as well as the joint feast of the Babylonian gods in the text "Enuma Elish" on the seventh day.
52d3bd3f36ef62051522bcfd6e0b2d1478dd504e The Bible: See Gen. 1.
8b4fbed5c678cbe9e256d42ecdf9894f0fde51a6 Remnants of Polytheism in Judaism
376eabd18b658adef7366f2d78e4249f46e5c547 Despite the traditional idea that the Jewish religion has always been monotheism, there are many traces that polytheism existed already at the time of the cult of Yahweh.
18b93f52897d8eeb4ce7115b01af36f68dca56c7 "...and you will be like gods, knowing good and evil" (Gen. 3:5) - the remainder of the original polytheism - "gods"is used in the plural.
87ea7db4a430030d90185495584807fc225cd906 Also:
bee13f67338bc358fa332158d3d58c974d219259 "2 Then the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were beautiful, and they took them to themselves as wives, whichever one chose."
49d0ab3dcd6b62edb47f3fe7339485375a5d0e79 (Gen. 6: 2)
66a88b2a0ac5e8b99f526926fe65790c3afaabb9 "Sons of God" - this is the definition given by the Babylonian myth to the rebellious gods, since they were really the sons of the god Abzu and the goddess Tiamat.
bd6cf133a42694e6a9bc55e73ed7782a1c4a6bfc The Creator's stay above the water in the days of creation
182306a7d99f33e1f14eadeafa6e25ae93245a8e Ugaritic epic (Phoenicia):
c495def6d17aa8f9e69e9eeab2ab25d9e5426542 The text according to which God sat on the water like a bird on eggs, and hatched life out of chaos.
ad3d1b5138030a3df2cc14a3af5bb5675c26fd2b "But the earth was without form and empty, and darkness was over the abyss, and the Spirit of God was rushing over the water" (Gen. 1: 2) - here the "spirit of God" incubates life on earth.
44c9cba0bc5f953648180d60acb594776ea897f4 Mention (of the dragon)
d5f1a124562ec36f2cf24f1ce284053b2b3877db Leviathan
96291edd7eaeeee324484ca176a845143c70321e Ugaritic poem:
b25d705c5bce96e7286cdf4979fd4d9038b32de9 The god Baal defeats the seven headed dragon Leviathan.
746a33db4d22d0fb3c7edae1ebf4eae85f4edf29 "In that day the LORD will strike Leviathan, the serpent that runs straight, and Leviathan, the serpent that bends, with his heavy, and great, and strong sword, and he will kill the monster of the sea" (Isaiah 27:1).
c8ab3a51ced12eb1226bd3f849ba412339c14e64 The monster also performs under the name Raav.
5d0ca49aae5842ac94b8d085253753cb3ddaabca The conflict between Yahweh and Rahab is mentioned in the Book of Job, one of the psalms, as well as the Book of Isaiah.
4b0f0799ef14847228942c59adca558131000dd0 In the time of the Sumerians, Enlil was considered the victorious god who defeated the dragon.
5fa1d3fc1735a4cde0567526cdce8701d6886504 When the Akkadian (Babylonian) king Hammurabi conquered Mesopotamia, the god Marduk became the winner of the monster.
4a1698d962605d1edbc4f8589dc1c21c75722c56 The Assyrians replaced it with the name of their tribal god Ashur.
3c49871d7520fccb7b314e565492ef50396d6302 An echo of the myth can also be traced in Christianity - the legend of St. George killing a dragon.
d8af4a0c22535114e73b9b7a14af7333c257ce25 About the creation of people
2cdb7403cb888867cc4f9565ee024c3389d9058a "Enki and Ninmakh", according to which the gods molded a man from the clay of the underground world ocean Abzu and determined his fate - he had to work for the benefit of the gods.
8be38b0bbe86cc9685dbc6252117766c559e640c "Enuma elish": the gods of order under the leadership of Marduk killed Tiamat in a bloody battle, and her giant body was cut into two parts, one of which became the earth and the other the sky.
f7b99283aad825b97252288f24e28173fca0b945 The blood of Abzu was mixed with clay, and from this mixture the first person appeared.
5ccc14d0ae3e8d8eca63a98f51d36f22bee00472 "And the Lord God created man out of the dust of the earth" (Gen. 2:7) (he molded him out of clay).
1b53959def8297577c667ec73f3c98425b6e18b1 About the fall of man
30865adbada6237479f9699630d2efc1a1f89988 In the myth of the god Enki, paradise is depicted as a garden full of fruit trees, where people and animals live in peace and harmony, without suffering and disease.
4d41dc81aea4574f2352ea1508784eb85bc36f9d It is located in the area of Dilnum, in Persia.
eaf77b2cbeaaee5cd13d5ddb7ca9da7748ad1028 The biblical paradise is undoubtedly located in Mesopotamia, because four rivers originate in it, two of which are the Euphrates and the Tigris.
5fff0a13b14330ee4d336af9a2aed3e42d5f4553 The Sumerian hero Gilgamesh went to the paradise island where the favorite of the gods Utnapishtim lived to get the plant of life from him.
fc15ac34299297b8d477e1cb2e2fe958e7bda710 When he was returning across the river, one of the gods, not wanting man to receive immortality and become equal to the gods, took the form of a serpent and, emerging from the water, snatched a magic plant from Gilgamesh.
41bcc5929ab29e946f50edfc481f042d7f631e3e By the way, in this Sumerian legend, one should probably look for an explanation why, since the time of Abraham, for many centuries, the Jews have depicted Yahweh in the form of a serpent.
b7a98ca938177405e599df3d63dab41b710825a9 The serpent seduces Adam and Eve to taste the fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, in the Mesopotamian myth, the god Ea is an insidious adviser to people.
d8832e43831ca11a23cb62fa3c45cc3856396da5 God banished Adam and Eve not only for disobedience, but also out of fear that they would reach for the fruit of the tree of life and, like God, gain immortality:
681da8741926db67fc78757a33db1a1eadfbced5 "And the Lord God said, Behold, Adam has become like one of us (here again is a remnant of polytheism), knowing good and evil; and now, lest he stretch out his hand, and also take from the tree of life, and eat, and live forever" (Gen. 3:22).
65edf7d9bf9feafe0d52c6845e032904c580eb99 About the creation of a woman
14243a5f81f0dba84138d888237d73d28d5dbdf1 In the Sumerian myth:
3d7987e59f1504fb0d6675cd859c603182007e1e "21 And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man; and when he fell asleep, he took one of his ribs, and covered the place with flesh.
6ecefcd3758345c84f1749e5df1abb338b87cc58 22 And the LORD God made a woman out of a rib taken from a man, and brought her to the man.
81c39c6517e92efa0117d3abee21fe301a9f72c1 23 And the man said, Behold, this is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called a woman, for she was taken from her husband."
55d2d7c0082b7657121bfa2a82c79aa15c5264c9 (Gen. 2: 21-23)
0e1699c60935dbcb132608054c392750f2b420a8 A tower to the heavens and a mixture of languages
e0bb68463b69bf61310f76c0571836b05ac4374c In Babylonian, the name of the capital "Babylon" means "the gate of God" (bab ilu), and in Hebrew, the similar sounding word "balal" means the process of mixing.
2653ae28c43edf6e63067bc44a89ad06da338db5 As a result of the sound similarity of both words, Babylon could easily become a symbol of linguistic chaos in the world, especially since it was a multilingual city.
8a207b272c8d6538e154f0bf6d8333d9494d4eff "Let us mix their languages there, so that one does not understand the speech of the other" (Gen. 11: 7)
08de0e2e817ab19361334e23bed610651cb821f0 The flood and the story of salvation in the ark
e0543e3041a39dc6ca193f71931561a811a3331a The Babylonian Myth:
cb707fe816720e71a9e87f14fcf4b06fdeb3a769 Unfortunately, the tablet on which the Sumerian myth was recorded has not been completely preserved, and the beginning of the myth has been repulsed.
39e4e3f8c292b754321172a5f752def7eee0c98f We can fill in the meaning of the missing fragments according to his later Babylonian version.
6411fd1cf30fcb28d101336b9721c734235a94fd It is inserted, as a story, into the epic about Gilgamesh "About the one who has seen everything...".
6a5c8ca91a40fcf2b058becedfc9b07420c9cf05 The first readable lines tell about the creation of man, about the divine origin of the royal power and about the foundation of the five oldest cities.
9a61a2976bd916202ca63bb7b826f90b57a0f738 Further, we are talking about the fact that at the council of the gods it was decided to send a flood to the earth and destroy all mankind, but many gods are upset about this.
d77bd4dee176f8a100e5cc632748bd877320755e Ziusudra, the ruler of Shuruppak, appears to be a pious and God fearing king who is constantly waiting for divine dreams and revelations.
31dcce50b000b9dbe40c514f29ddacfe26a10022 He hears the voice of a god, most likely Enki, informing him of the gods 'intention to" destroy the human seed".
1e12af1c72516279e6ab811284b51852b5cea6af The rest of the text has not been preserved due to a large crack, but, judging by the Babylonian analogue, in it Ziusudra receives detailed instructions on building a huge boat to escape from an imminent disaster.
16aedea67fd2feb3265741a861848890c12b07ff The text resumes with a vivid description of the flood.
08e74ff9eb3d6abb4cdb0820b295809a69e8d366 For seven days and seven nights, a storm of such force rages on the earth that even the gods are afraid of it.
24df80121848f217e94da806095bb4054709077b Finally, the Sun god Utu appeared in the sky, which illuminated and warmed the earth.
bc5d58f90fafbdadc3b5500f0d470f8d04d4c068 Ziusudra prostrated himself before him and sacrificed oxen and sheep.
e2ea0b3cf37d8c0220cb85e801336b7e2115622b The last lines of the myth describe the deification of Ziusudra.
f47cba43ac49c345394af42cc1181602df2a8e1b He received the gift of "life like God", that is, immortality, and together with his wife was transferred to the divine paradise country of Dilmun.
13567562ae791b2e1c2cc47fae1848c21dffd2bd The Babylonian version of the flood myth exists in the form of an independent legend about Atrahasis and in the form of the insertion mentioned above in the epic of Gilgamesh.
c3bfd12e6f38468465f6e46c2a6ad8b09a359b41 In the last story, the hero's name sounds like Utnapishti.
dc2e092724ba202a9de38ef18e7bcf3e904cdd48 It is an almost literal translation into Akkadian of the name of Ziusudra shum.
80fb9f7b3329ea6d9d2731b3ab1f259dbb0fbb4e "the one who found the life of long days".
7145689131b1bcd0c06d2270bc5c0533a054a166 In Akkadian, Utnapishti means "found breath".
77dff1acddf19fe90bc35e73f7d0b91a077a74a8 The myth of the flood has been preserved both in the form of the well known biblical legend about Noah, and in the works of the historian Beros, who wrote in Greek.
6cfe84927b13b656cc5a3a2232058fdb1467d168 Only Berosus calls Ziusudra Xisutros, and the god who warned him about the danger was Kronos.
d03068e6cc986a4883d466137b2eecc92f5d646d The first 37 lines are broken.
93d04c50be4a599fd3ab0661fb4532b57dad21ad Extermination of my people...
fc75f033cdbd6bdeabeb32cb0b8dc49fa9a240ab Created by me to the goddess Nintu...
e4861752e5952a0b219ef98611f82d581c0cc79e Truly, I will return it to her.
6bc64ead2a4e5af5626a376ea6667d0ce0d6fe7a I will bring the people back to their places of abode.
c24c684bf2092f412b115240a73bb9401220afa2 May their cities be built, may their troubles be scattered.
bc107f28dec7cc3ad23bf1d8cd46f17edc72f503 Bricks in all their grads to sacred places
c1fd8f1abb13f7ed34afb3517c01f62653f62a73 Truly, let them deliver.
26e76d5e9952baad66cceb8c652b506358ecaecb Let them be gathered in the holy places.
f066def4b78674782a817189cfd4c7b0475bf4ae The sanctity of water fire quenching let it be
e7a69f91c1b1d3e55a421f9dc4428fb21a76d162 It is established in righteousness.
e2dc25aa3d0c8f9ef4c3a65877b8acdd2904b30c The rites, the mighty Essences, will truly be perfect,
a6cc9ef1f19f9bf6c9d3eea4a96e76e31f9a84fa Let the water water the earth, I will give them a blissful peace."
ee8041e1c6d38d2b1aecf9247dae9a0e2e9ada22 When An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag
ba2493f08b6da9a25990beaeabe49959ea74054b The black headed people were created,
57084d8ab27c7cd852dbfb7aaa0ee30bd2da3986 The animals in the ground began to multiply violently,
3e9d0843eaf57fe9e4dec9584010dff00349cb5d All kinds of four legged creatures
89cae17fff5b211cbef8f58d206d52f003789c28 the valleys were covered with a worthy pattern.
44a9996607ab0d40104419cef172bbb24402f434 More than 30 lines are destroyed.
e2e24c38560dca8cd688891b7746baf88613eb3d "I want to direct the works of their efforts.
2add34d1630d9c0b33f6307b1fa6504b2d49323b Let the Builder of the Country dig the earth, let him lay the foundations."
42bc8f308c499ab8a213c7f5bcdc003ab752fe9d When did the Essence of royalty descend from heaven,
4e4d57dc1a27e70d4dd6f62fd9f15658870597b2 The mighty crown and the throne of royalty were lowered from heaven,
f7caae81635f102e8a26538731b4881f3397a02a He created their rituals, He is a powerful Essence
acdf57524559259153688cea51420603fb1dd007 I made them perfect.
2e993fff92889824c59f5b408b5875a130b7033e He founded villages and towns.
eda63ff191d233548a27e46a2159a34d4fd10c87 He named their names, he distributed shares to them.
e06a01d2f4e10985f8997f3e29cf24892dbfa326 The first of them is Eredug, which he gave to the chief Nudimmud.
39b35d7fcaa3e4e372a59f0259344c6863529f26 He gave the second one to the priestess of heaven - Badtibir.
30369c6bfa870e7b6a749c833e7e22faa79818ce The third is Larag, which he gave to Pabilsag.
2a1311e1dd1a0aabc3395b6484df5b626ba02646 The fourth is Sippar, which he gave to the hero Utu.
8d9d8fd3c10b7b0073a776353e4fcc170c95163e The fifth is Shuruppak, he gave it to the Court.
e8debb3080d333dcf71de541439123ef9c79c6ea He gave names to these cities, he appointed them as capitals.
541899c45e398fc45937f87cbc48078b9b30c8df He didnot stop the spills, he dug through the ground,
841e1c415f918964329afb98a985114deb5ac297 He brought them water.
e4e07ae4f4bfd93142773fa8829319313d88b015 He cleaned small rivers, conducted irrigation channels.
21e6d35a236816fb9394db5b3f6729ca98b542bd 40 lines destroyed
10c104b72c72c58a95fa9d56265e2647efe43384 In those days, Nintu... their creations...
cc217787bba43191dd755d6b70df9af8aa3a7f42 The bright Inanna starts crying for her people.
0aa928bda161af2616a1dd64c3d3656cae0191c7 Enki consults himself.
f12f0ab4cb997913ef7229cbb8b972b51b0a8d60 An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag,
116ee6a1a244839b87d42559493ba24e407cc380 The gods of the universe swore by the name of Ana,
afd9969ce0d3512ec3590cb51b9dff282753a91c They swore by the name of Enlil.
fd517642f5dde36d2bbcf716a833adf76856fc67 In those days, Ziusudra, the anointed of God...
80feaee398f04d14dfda9c465feb308ab9e1880f I built an oval canopy for myself...
8391bc58d0b7e268eeb8cc0c91cb9a0c108cd960 In submission, reverently, with the humble,
d8fb47df34f5a3c9a73f4b596e9b80a1d37327bd With righteous words...
6204a9a4b72088727c1cc8d8878f04f822bf0ec2 Every day he stood, bowing...
2c4765c999d20dd0632bfb720ecae08638acc6ff It is not a dream, then the output of his speeches...
5ea5681403bc131c9156d0952863f877667b30b6 To conjure heaven and earth.
63314cd5f2827ecabcbe68ed8d4ea70bdec8680e In the Kiura of God... wall...
8bbea4bbc479d554bcc7f49eee7f2ac9830decce Ziusudra, standing at the edge, hears...
5c61799b0eee0334b06263ecfed8ec66ff9d3187 "The edge of the wall on the left, well, listen!
4ffe575c5fbd79fcf10affa9372abcdb4f6ebfff The edge of the wall, I'll tell you the word, take my word!
a0a472145493f9509c7c958b69df6092513e8bf1 Be attentive to my instructions!
a8e42f4b1208ec65a2aea403622652f958828c38 The flood will sweep over the whole world,
10fbbd36e4605cb6ee3ab7e9bed04e3faef5bdd1 In order to destroy the seed of humanity.
0bb8d89a7d7ff9926e75255f17727821305dad68 The final decision, the word of God's assembly...
a6c008a4244507860141c2a111905f13e377124d The solution given by An, Enlil, Ninhursag,
ccbdcd7657d9179748608a08f71333d8c36be667 Royalty, its interruption..."
12a2f8eefa1988c937a9bb4a31350994c2a79551 About 40 lines, destroyed.
19e5ac23e2b19008fd64d157042d45873f2984f5 All the angry storms, all the hurricanes, they all came together.
9cffc4a8f2af845db8edf938c6b882849a4a78dd The flood is raging over the whole world.
814f6e9ed683e97379ffa128fb3146d264ec077e Seven days.
e15e8f7e84dd90b8b816737532e478498f34c3c6 Seven nights.
eab461e1e211d934abe1f74e109708a346ae903f When the flood raged over the Country,
9d3d1c4b8bfb0828625c80f73f4235ee06496945 An angry wind with a high wave
1a5e7eade356bbdea9356cbbd2ba23162e98e827 He threw away a huge ship,
6341eab0ab86c215f6c02dca31a0f00f447030b3 The sun rose, lit up the sky and the earth,
44d5e53ffefcb33a19c38f8b617fa49ba44d6eb1 Ziusudra made a hole in his huge ship,
bcb890d2570f5dd175941ca52334d65a031cc1c4 And a ray of sunlight penetrated into the huge ship.
7e415aa989c836eb19540ed2becd22284531ed8b King Ziusudra
1bb7d9fdfe7667cd076ad11303424af836d481df Utu prostrated himself before the sun.
39df2ef01c5fd3d1730ef6c0d5f76dbc94c8d311 The king slaughtered bulls, slaughtered many sheep.
901bf921418cd7eef30cbd33424e2bb2986f528a About 40 lines were destroyed.
dbe1480bddf3431ed9285bb1cfe03c20a025ea6b They swore by the life of the heavens and the life of the earth,
e2d7150cd2d4e68c3424e4ea81409c585a457a24 An and Enlil swore by the life of the heavens and the earth about this.
fbe9a8af08df10a6ac8ec45fd16e08b1d2327c1d Who took cover,
72705ed28a0367701b5ae365d699a27dafc712c9 So that the living things may rise from the earth,
26c34b13d7db05456e389d88a41547f8fe4693b7 So that it will come out for them.
62723ceaf09ccbee78beea0c78e994c3808006df Before An, Enlil humbly prostrated himself.
c2a0250e3a7f718648dea53df6bd26e6a4970f69 Enlil and Ziusudra spoke kindly.
4dfee7f6bcd36743105cfb285768d121e06a6143 When life, as if to God, was awarded to him,
78503d27d4bb8c15b8c2fe744d861cf6cea77419 A long life, as if to God, he was told,
99e32ad0cdbbc703b3a72350b494fa514d090220 Then they are King Ziusudra,
c26c4619d506ff965be2a91b823e839db6205c41 Who saved the name of life, saved the seed of humanity,
8eea1c780f8d7d07940a5cf09dab5c3e15079558 They settled him in the country of transition, in the country of Dilmun, there,
2c204a5a74593aab9148a37d7c93d114c325df4d Where the sun Utu rises...
65a7b136bd87052407f06899eb9e1fb5c0aa5794 "You..."
a9072ae554ee1720e46c79c9ce44f7a68e803844 The end is also destroyed.
f6be5ff463b695ff722f9957a76a92a19f2f8554 The Bible: See Gen. 6.
68c0ebba8237a0d6f307ec8dc1e13a25d718c249 Saving a child who was sent down the river and then became a great man
de74d3b232aa848ebcf056f2090b004ebd23e0b2 In 2316 BC, a coup took place in Kish (Akkadian Kingdom) and Lugal's personal cupbearer Ur Zababa overthrew his master.
de04b8741ece261929d26c6d2c814c1f32a04b31 After seizing power, he began to call himself Sharrumken, which means "true king"in East Semitic.
9d402bef19200ff77293e8ce97fc7dbc3652f392 Subsequently, this name was transformed into the one by which this outstanding person is well known to us - Sargon I the Ancient (2316-2261 BC).
aca6299c44eb2a9263b0dce094d520f11ee4f90d Legends tell that Sargon's mother was of a noble family, but immediately after his birth she put the child in a basket and sent him down the Euphrates River.
8a87cfcc6b5a68fb9849f6cc7349e3cd1d9e301d The boy was found and brought up by the water carrier Akki.
64ceb40c69037cb28ab3159680d3d90c5a5fb1c1 When Sargon grew up and became a gardener, the goddess of love Ishtar paid attention to him, who promised him her special favor.
98ea2e4ee191efe3ecc6bad57fb89db90e1db2aa So the favorite of the goddess got into the inner circle of lugal Ur Zababa, and then ascended above the other kings.
4566db8916c2663b15f3980bb14706b1a71aa975 The motives of the miraculous rescue of a child who was sent down the river and then became a great man are very often found in the legends of various peoples.
ca7603982196ec3e2b2d046d14ec1800957ba268 The salvation of Moses by the daughter of Pharaoh:
de39705ea74c07dfcd389972930c9746d8fb2126 "1 A man from the tribe of Levi went and took a wife from the same tribe.
957e581e5b13d04e73eafbd2911a64d6dfc1143d 2 The wife conceived and bore a son, and when she saw that he was very handsome, she hid him for three months;
814466a5cb630b214d0581adecd178dbd115245f 3 but when she could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of reeds and sprinkled it with asphalt and pitch, and put the baby in it, and put it in the reeds by the river bank, 4 and his sister began to watch from afar what would happen to him.
2f0ce9f00a0f585001395ee1da005ddce13351b1 5 And Pharaoh's daughter went out to the river to wash, and her handmaidens walked along the bank of the river.
69797a3f4955b0020ef70613eae64b474200cca2 She saw a basket among the reeds and sent her slave to take it.
450df77549390ed6837890e60211cc4f21a53447 6 She opened it and saw the child; and, behold, the child was crying; and she took pity on him and said, " This is one of the Hebrew children."
659fa852389b5d9f1518391ba789b0db9be09a4f 7 And his sister said to Pharaoh's daughter, "Shall I go and call a Hebrew nurse to you, that she may nurse the baby for you?
c04d657b40409872a62c3accbd8380a6245ed4dc " 8 Pharaoh's daughter said to her, " Go."
cfc6559b4a45232c01cc727ea9df6446f8af9546 The girl went and called the baby's mother.
de9bc17b2b2fb3da8054d1a056920782ccdcb6ac 9 Pharaoh's daughter said to her, " Take this child and give him to me;
0b9e6246a8f6615b51fa5ac99f850016750d2a26 I will give you a reward."
ad511b39847136ff044e5e4dc4068e0f856592b2 The woman took the baby and fed him.
7900b1d736c7e35e74665654dbccbdda00a315a5 10 And the child grew up, and she brought him to Pharaoh's daughter, and he was with her instead of a son, and she called his name Moses, because, she said, I took him out of the water "(Exodus 2: 1-10)
34919dc96943c4ff4a6c3ecf9659f1308bdd1089 # akkada #bible #babylon #babylonian #old testament # judaism #mesopotamia #tanakh #sumer #sumerian
a7ba551e831ad5a9346810587ecd2fc72eb1d259 Similar
aabaefa9d04a33314e34ce9a6ee0a0d61701d74b Who wrote the Bible?
e15355c5f0478e40ec6b0ad5110e3be583a922d9 Richard Elliott Friedman
20814f2921e0831d362efb196555cb7517a366f8 Here is a synthesis of the research work that I have done over the past ten years.
44204038d39e6dd65e903574f428572f584873df I have published individual components of this research in academic journals and periodicals specializing in biblical history, but I also decided to publish some of the most recent discoveries in a form accessible to readers who are not Bible specialists.
eb3a8db5f0f4f4ff2f5ee81f916c02b5f4cde709 I tried to avoid technical jargon and complex comments, and also provided background information to the inexperienced reader in the subject.
9fd5fa6ee2f8c59a18a37707a12d419edf5c8e42 The Cult of Yahweh
8cdbb8a0ce3a12dcd2516a78fe77836082e5445a Ruslan Khazarzar
89ff16ddd452062b96e1f6f0bfb11ed408a7c999 The Babylonian Roots of the Bible
55a39047250643c54d05ddbdf05151986958ce88 Ancient Sumer.
7c590e7b0cb4f0e61c86e6b8c79a0a19cf0a69be Essays on culture
3b22bf928f63b53396fc69c6842b6a60040c58e2 Emelyanov V. V.
41fe8524bf50bf88f5c2089b79b7ca9855354b86 In the book of the orientalist sumerologist V. V. Yemelyanov, in detail and fascinatingly ra it tells about one of the oldest civilizations in the history of mankind - the ancient Sumer.
f4f81a79d9140b6a7477b1c9188b249ff3023ebc Unlike the previous monographs devoted to this problem, here the components of Sumerian culture - civilization, artistic culture and ethnic character are presented in unity for the first time.
d36fa50d961490e45744b304b0e2a07f70b71d17 The History of Judaism before our era
3618a713864c5fb31fe12af7ea57852c9e01a55a Yuri Klimenkovsky
eedb1b304d5f49cdd04528528957dc0e03579a3c In contrast to the canonical version of the origin of Judaism as a religion of revelation, real Judaism has passed through long stages of its evolution, beginning in the mythologies of ancient Mesopotamia and the primitive beliefs of semi nomadic Amorite tribes.
c3086bb4b9ab4e2bd6e396fabe36ac8e775a2894 The unearthed Bible.
ab22bc19365376cd02b4fde3ec760a040d0d73eb A new view of archeology
3b1bfeb44af335eb8d928f1a473375ded76e20d5 Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman
159281c4c14c9184beba2b486e6a320c8e4bf046 Authoritative Israeli scientists, Dean of the Faculty of Archaeology at the metropolitan Tel Aviv University Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman in their book " The Unearthed Bible.
eaa9cf2e30230b04909d3ed1da142cbceb288259 A new view of archaeology on ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts" (Bible Uneathed), came to the conclusion that in the territories of Palestine, Egypt and anywhere near there is no significant evidence of the existence of the patriarchs, the great kingdom of Israel, a large - scale Exodus from Egypt, the conquest of the "promised land", etc. ...
4a427fe79e955be708b94ff7b074d03fde3b9f54 This is stubbornly evidenced by the land of the region itself the results of 70 years of excavations.
479166fcead256070c2ee7e4e2b27068cfd08c30 The exodus of the Jews from Egypt.
51658069c4ad0b4dc911eddcb22635f810815617 A great historical event that never happened
bf722c594a93a1962aa6118e8a43f9587d9810d3 Mikhail Bogoslovsky
43073bd0e2cc87402b71934271a744748fee8066 Religious scholars believe that along with myths and legends, the Bible also reflects some historical events.
d168f15a4869e5513d7d887bcbc13fb410abfdd9 The so called exodus of the Jews from Egypt allegedly belongs to the latter.
c87aec223ce0ac92c5991a62aa6af411e1fcafae Noah's Ark was a giant round boat
da1738c226b5cfd33063126417969e8202aed54d An ancient document from Mesopotamia contains detailed instructions on the construction of a ship that allegedly saved the entire earth's fauna in ancient times.
8729fac3f92e39da8755f1faae714c3915d84f1a Daat Emet.
fead8a8b6a36d19155756801797fe2e0926f7b8c Issue #1.
dcca44bb09a536d5ead9bc88ccc191604e6a7e98 The emergence of living organisms from inanimate nature
fb23b09117754adee2bec79167a434e41ff8fe1e Discussion of the error of the Jewish sages, who believe that the spontaneous emergence of living organisms from inanimate nature is possible, where the holy truth about halakha and science is told, and the reader will learn a lot of interesting and instructive things about how reality leads to enlightenment for those who will be awarded the knowledge of the truth.
e47405aa70d78692bd002d86d07215cdb98874de Issue #2.
492761c190b113b08b3b32d7e96b6d4f38773efc The ideas of the Jewish sages about the anatomy of animals
ff71b1188f8f21dd188a8ac1557b889243b8ab34 Discussion of the erroneous ideas of the Jewish sages about the anatomy of animals, which gave rise to no less erroneous rulings on the issue of treif (animals that become unfit for food due to various physical injuries).
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717635471cab9f255f609c6caa5170e236bfa7e5 Sumerian myths The myth of Dumuzi and Inanna The myth of creation The myth of the flood The myth of Enki and Ninhursag The Myth of Dumuzi and Enkimdu The myths of Gilgamesh Babylonian myths The Descent of Ishtar into the underworld The myth of creation The Myth of the flood The epic of Gilgamesh The myth of Adapa The myth of Ethan and the eagle The myth of Zu The Worm and Toothache
9f470cbddb48267e84972c570ca87d50c57c92f3 Chapter 1 Mesopotamian Mythology Before we begin to get acquainted with the most important myths that have their roots in the history of Mesopotamia, it is necessary to say a few words about the ancient cultural conditions in which these myths appeared.
4195da50f36d53e6dd5a32f3b119b61e7ed38846 The excavations of Sir Leonard Woolley in the city of Ur indicate that it was a highly developed agrarian type civilization, with wonderful temples, priests, laws, literature and rich mythology.
fd20fc06a33f5ba98645ec0cdd6ce62bf072a7be The first king of the Amorite dynasty ascended to the throne around 2200 BC.
e42bf483d7e83b95ccb86032a00548f889f8aef7 Therefore, the mythology of Mesopotamia has come down to us in different forms Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian.
733c24242bc1209244e8dd640b1a0abe7a10f398 Although there is very little difference between the variants of any particular myth, nevertheless, there is a very significant difference between the Sumerian and Assyrian Babylonian versions of the creation myth.
12ecdb74dd9d09da424f3c2674f7383b1bd4d9db Moreover, some Sumerian myths have no Semitic analogues.
ed7b93559fe2debf61e037aac9da088bf1b6297b We will begin our story about Mesopotamian mythology with Sumerian material.
ea26bbe59baa9dc39e16edf4ea39499aed0db522 Sumerian myths Among the huge amount of material that is available to us thanks to the selfless work of Sumerologists, there are three myths that have found such wide distribution that they can be considered basic myths.
27bb2aa96f342c22f59b6a67aef5d319323e79b1 It has now become clear that, although these basic myths occupy a significant place in Semitic mythology, their roots lie in the culture of the Sumerians, so we must begin our story about Sumerian mythology with them.
d8492a5785c206dd765188051ed4bae9777c62d0 The myth of Dumuzi and Inanna The first of these myths has long been known as the myth of how Ishtar descended into the underworld, and existed in separate fragments; however, thanks to the efforts of Professor Kramer, this myth is now known in its full form as the myth of Dumuzi and Inanna.
1d78a93a00cb5f2409f4ee7d1f3ecd744d95fcf5 Dumuzi is the Sumerian analogue of the more famous name Tammuz; and Inanna is the Sumerian analogue of the heroine of the Semitic myths Ishtar, the goddess of heaven.
b8155ece477575fef7cbc52b90bee79dec835cee Dumuzi is the prototype of all the gods of vegetation, who die in the fall and are reborn again in the spring along with the awakening of all plants.
42d98da8422319d37e842d5640d103664e32bbc4 In the version of the myth that became the basis of the cult of Tammuz, the central plot is the imprisonment of the god in the underworld.
662880bec49e01dbc845781ecec380ec4f3c8738 It is also the main reason for Inanna's descent into the underworld.
ad1dc1e89e46b3eef0fca83ab6d4c0e10e319d90 However, in the earliest version of this myth, which is given by Kramer in "Ancient Texts of the Middle East relating to the Old Testament", the reason for the goddess's journey to the underworld remains unclear.
552106ef658fe4f1ac7998a528d59254a3e528e3 The following version of the myth corresponds to Kramer's version.
6429c0a34c8d12d5d2b7f66146d207d1b258276b For some unknown reasons, the goddess of heaven Inanna decides to go down to the underworld, "from where there is no return", where her sister, the goddess Ereshkigal, ruled.
923ef08620282445f0e39f3e15b76da1d32af5bc Kramer suggests that she could be guided solely by her ambitions, the desire to subordinate the underground kingdom to her power.
9404c6dc7505a1084e4c29bb4ce86f2fede851e6 To protect herself from all possible troubles, Inanna gave her vizier Ninshubur the most detailed instructions: if she did not return in three days, he would have to perform the funeral rite, visit the three supreme gods in turn – Enlil of Nippur, Nanna, the moon god of Ur, and Enki, the Babylonian god of wisdom – and beg them to do everything so that Inanna would not be killed in the underworld.
8300e6030320d5bb77b2d2b66da37b9a5f7c2f31 After that, Inanna put on her royal clothes and ornaments and approached the gates of the underworld.
39b6210bdfedf8d1fe80082260dc7be8bb33df58 There she was met by Neti, the guardian of the seven gates.
7b1deb83726aa10a4f9d3581c5292d49fb207de1 By order of Ereshkigal and in accordance with the laws of the underworld, Inanna takes off one piece of clothing at each gate.
1fccebcbf3a0c578f7764e8580f3036015c84ef8 Finally, she appears before Ereshkigal and the Anunnaki, the seven judges of the earth kingdom.
8972fef18570b686bd37dc864a4f986774660bd8 They turn their "eyes of death" on her, and she turns into a corpse, after which she is hung on a pole.
3ba946bb9a12f35ff4f4733005834763d14e00e2 After three days, since Inanna does not return, Ninshubur does what Inanna ordered him to do.
491dd816ccec23f25d336ca8c8d25934fcd38528 Enlil and Nanna refuse to interfere in this matter, but Enki performs some magical actions, with the help of which Inanna returns to life.
dc9bce8717afc8341dccab075b2d1183c269d9f2 From the dirt under his fingernails, he creates two strange figures kurgarra and kalaturra (the meaning of these words remains unclear).
4c26d00b81dbb22d2d58b3f8f17f02c02d1d260b He sends them to the underworld with living food and living water.
bffbdfa010f211c507df543ed7b5a4cf764649dd They must sprinkle Inanna's corpse with the food of life sixty times and sprinkle it with living water as many times.
57edfdecc10b3007ecd8add3719720a568fbcd83 They do this, and the goddess is reborn to life.
639f0044b72e28921ae6639dc183cfac28701837 According to the laws of the underworld, no one can leave there without finding a replacement.
bafbfaa4d22f30221ff72d8a0a1b79316a18181f Therefore, the myth goes on to tell about Inanna's return to the world of the living, accompanied by demons who must take Inanna's replacement to the underworld.
a4d0f9a305a77b4def303d351c5651fd9796ee12 The demons take turns choosing Ninshubur, Shar (the god Umm) and Latarak (the god Badtibir) as replacements, but Inanna saves them all.
406b3100c49cc62ca02e84b2cfc033a34175c3bd At this point, the text given by Kramer ends, but in the note he mentions a recently made discovery.
0ed614f310baeeb60546565822457bd5c95042a3 It turns out that Inanna and the demons accompanying her come to her city of Uruk and find her husband Dumuzi there.
c42372e21c0d09222c7504a467e0145f98118b9a He does not bow his head before her, as the aforementioned three did, and as a punishment, she hands him over to the demons to drag him into the underworld.
dffd3f0b4af8c305ffe18e2f81ab027fea3a10bf Dumuzi begs Uta, the sun god, to save him, then the text breaks off again.
7e8f1a57411e9773096761ee94c97de91b708f62 Therefore, we do not know whether he was still carried away by demons to the underworld in the original Sumerian version of the myth or not.
6989bbedf958a5227988d84bcb38960accc62ca1 This is the first of the three main myths in its Sumerian version.
106d3f6f78b3d9b29daa0df4bacc9af2e035203f It is quite possible that the Sumerians brought this myth with them when they began to settle the delta of the river, and that this is the oldest version of it.
717fcba1c2d4552463e36e6321db3b4fa6b1ac71 In this version, Inanna does not descend to the underworld to save her husband Dumuzi (Tammuz) from death.
f71aba59c15816f4d483323c810c5ff602355c6a On the contrary, in complete contradiction to later versions of the myth, it is Inanna who allows the demons to carry Dumuzi to the underworld instead of herself, although the reasons why she herself descended there remain unclear.
48f712ef101936b12e7d96e40775d9cdba5aeedb Nevertheless, the rituals in honor of the cult of Tammuz, which belong to the Sumerian period, already give a later version of the myth.
784e9e6af9e600093544fe75f9af1db1770707a9 They describe the chaos and desolation that engulfed the earth when Tammuz descends into the underworld; they talk about Ishtar's complaints and her journey to the underworld to save Tammuz; they conclude with a description of Tammuz's triumphant return to the world of the living.
9c58addda8a75c2cde1fc997117e0c40081ca838 It is obvious that these rituals are part of the seasonal rite, so this myth can be rightfully considered a ritual one.
cd0f88c549b17309145c0c632084407d1fd68ce4 The explanation for the changes that occurred in this myth can be found in the fact that the Sumerians, having come to the delta, moved from a primitive economy to an agrarian one.
ba615ff3d5a446baaceafc132dd49b1ecd9ccf13 In prayers, Tammuz and Ishtar are often depicted as a male and female coniferous tree, and coniferous trees do not grow in the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates.
e7e300018593c55379edb6bca9bcc2c8c4e1c91b They grow only in the mountains, where the Sumerians came from.
48113802eb36e9def2dd863658ad7f28331acb52 Moreover, the fact that the" ziggurats " were part of the Sumerian temple architecture also indicates this.
7aab8a552761f2e2dab83c8cde3ac3284957f7f0 The original version of the myth most likely arose under the influence of living conditions that were extremely different from the way to which the Sumerians had to adapt while living in the delta.
41d91aa70e2a9a3fb7ee1d4bcd8f0851f73cc8a7 There is evidence that Semites and Sumerians lived together in the delta long before the invasion of the Amorites and the subsequent conquest of the Sumerians by the Semites.
23bca947caa313e2b329eeef9b527806dc197b94 We know that the Semites adopted cuneiform script from the Sumerians, as well as a significant part of their religion and mythology.
14869b38f318a4c68a09a71f576318161f0bf354 This can be taken as an explanation for the changes in the myth of Tammuz Ishtar that occurred in the Assyrian Babylonian period.
6874a0e68c52f04e7403bc2f24836fd028c33a92 Next, we will find out what changes this myth has undergone, moving from country to country.
6d7d4689793c025818ec3c7a370322c56e8b0aeb The second fundamental myth that we find in the Sumerian version is the myth of creation.
1f4d7f5996f1d08858b1c1e0e26455216a7c6a4c It should be noted that in none of the ancient myths about creation do we find the idea of creating a world "out of nothing".
553c4270f6f90e3e49977f350a5086fdeff5a837 That is, in all these myths, the creation of the world is the restoration of order in the existing chaos.
168c4b431dd406a1d90f7015fb51eafc371029d2 When we consider the Assyrian Babylonian myths, we will see that the cosmogonic myth existed there in one main version, the famous "Enuma Elish", or" Epic of Creation", as it is now called.
23461ede45ec88c1f8296c39e6fb68f91c32af93 However, there is no analogue for it in the Sumerian version.
7851f4fd714f0603f29c1a6102f60b01ea738adc Professor Kramer showed that Sumerian cosmogony should be literally pieced together from various myths about the origin of the world.
bbe41431b8004208af66b432115ccae22fd5855b The following retelling of these myths is based precisely on the research of Professor Kramer.
fc438fd6b47b362c2eb016896f982a7518a6fc90 However, he does not forget to warn us that there are many white spots in our knowledge about the Sumerians and that many of the tablets on which these myths were actually written were broken.
ec24951bf4235d15ac38d42978aa71fd06b3f0f9 Therefore, at the current level of our knowledge about the Sumerians, it is simply impossible to give an absolutely coherent retelling of Sumerian mythology.
7a74606ff24146ba243be7b9b9c2f3821b292121 Sumerian creation myths can be divided into three subgroups: the origin of the universe; the structure of the universe; the creation of man.
f5dd18e08956e8fbb53d611a34cd8172bc7106a4 The origin of the universe On a tablet with a list of Sumerian gods, the goddess Nammu, whose name is depicted by an ideogram meaning "sea", is described as "the mother who gave birth to heaven and earth".
cdaa53fcb126a11adf8d07d60e6aca0177a12eb7 From other myths it becomes clear that the sky and the earth originally represented a mountain, the base of which was the earth, and the top was the sky.
f65c1c73ecb4b5c35457beff6ef734f057de1e89 The sky was represented by the god An (Anu), the earth was represented by the goddess Ki.
b673c49d567d299e43da598298469130c209f9ef From their union, the air god Enlil was born, who separated the sky from the earth and created the universe in the form of heaven and earth separated by air.
124d92e90820c4c5f1e4a87083f70c8b3f25a76c Sumerian mythology does not give any explanation for the appearance of the ancient sea.
ac5dac9574fe8868bcc7c40dc73bb09d32ace56b The structure of the universe This aspect of the creation of the world is touched upon in a number of myths that tell how the divine creatures and other elements of the Sumerian civilization arose.
760281c19982db523c7e2d2633490a5c5de3ef44 The first of these myths describes the birth of the moon god Nanna, or Sin.
6ae2db20dd8c5da3174ec6f7ec2f89fa28ea9f35 The details of this event are unclear, and it is quite possible that some day our knowledge will be supplemented with new information.
23b0f570954916712c5027f241e4149e4af72c91 However, the essence of the matter is as follows: Enlil, the supreme god in the Sumerian pantheon of gods, whose temple was in Nippu re, fell in love with the goddess Ninlil and forcibly possessed her while she was sailing in a boat on the Nunbird.
3b2d3ec8c52780e9175e916409b6527c9d687aaa For this dishonorable act, Enlil was thrown into the underworld.
152e6493f1c9e59f245c017669c5b46a590c0e11 However, Ninlil, who was carrying a child under her heart, refused to stay on earth without him and followed him.
ae131468acde892df0128e04fc97ab4e95e8d99b Since this meant that Nanna, the moon god, would be born in the darkness of the underworld and would not light up the sky at night, Enlil devised a clever plan: Ninlil became the mother of three deities of the underworld, replacing Nanna there, who was then able to ascend to heaven.
dde6d26660a59d465b7199a4d2513f9b8cca737a Obviously, this curious and the myth that has been in oblivion for a long time gives the key to understanding the transformation of the myth of Tammuz and Ishtar, which we have already talked about.
c00f85bb87507a2ad139fef3fa26961afa3ff3b4 From the texts associated with the cult of Tammuz, we know that his middle name is Enlil, and Ninlil is the second name of Ishtar, so Ishtar's journey to the underworld, the reasons for which remained unclear in the oldest version of the Sumerian myth of Inanna, finds its explanation in this myth about the birth of Nanna, the moon god.
09d9e527f7587f7cdb858da0132f87619a035ff1 In the Sumerian pantheon of gods, Nanna, or Sin, was the main astral deity, and the sun god Utu was considered the son of Nanna and his wife Ningal.
14d1e890fd53aee30d1ffb91d4a0cc0477109a59 In the later Jewish cosmogony, they changed places, and the sun became the main luminary, and the moon received a goddess as a patron, as in classical mythology.
e1cd2c0f7600f63c5d154e2a6c2732ab4f8280dc The Sumerians imagined Nanna passing through the night sky in a round boat – such as the Sumerians themselves sailed on the Euphrates accompanied by stars and planets, the origin of which is not given any explanation.
e811d7fac07214619b05e3df3023d0af4f27d0ed After Enlil separated the sky from the earth, and the heavens began to illuminate Nanna, Uta, as well as the stars and planets, it was necessary to complete the organization of life on earth.
561f69403ec58aefce2a2db1d163a221b1cf4b3c Various myths are devoted to the elements of the earthly order.
f457d454fdd5e3c5d0b8ccfb9bf4403a30e0faa1 It is worth noting some illogicality of the ideas that the cities and temples of the gods existed even before the creation of man, which occurred at the very end of the divine activity to create the earthly order.
d954daf0d28bf9210cdd43673e8ada0f169ec693 Enlil is considered the creator of all vegetation, livestock, agricultural implements and objects of civilization, although he acted indirectly through the creation of less significant gods who perform his tasks.
4dec1ea16b0d673748a4f0e6fffcf621e63c0c6b To give the earth cattle and grain, at the suggestion of the god of wisdom Enki (the Babylonians – Ea), Enlil created two smaller deities Lahara, the god of cattle, and Ashnan, the goddess of grain, to give the gods food and clothing.
ef25739075b78f329c8ae814b08548ea2aa2b12f The myth describes the abundance created by the gods on earth.
f59c44bf8c088738072f137746432151d65875a6 However, they drink wine, get drunk, quarrel, forget about their duties and simply cannot get what they need.
936a92de9e2104ef0660f1666b4ae38798c352fb Man was created precisely to correct this situation.
c7b9ed9c5ec18155d063e22982290f063b74d7ba The following passage from Kramer's translations is part of the myth of Lahar and Ashnan: In those days, in the dwelling Where the gods worked, In Dulkug, Lahar and Ashnan were born.
2a8f0593324273bcbeea0be102bf5b4a2c35dfc1 And their creation Anunnaki eats and eats, Canot get enough.
d0aa7ecd53417a1d0b378360196f40d96f615526 From the purest pastures, Milk... and much More, Anunnaki drinks everything — He canot get enough.
c81f6779091619af6cf7478054ac057b1395320b So that there was milk and much more, and so that healthy cattle Walked on pastures — a man was created.
5f835e4d662801f7f5d11f1db800a319ed9ef703 In addition to the myths that tell about the creation of food and clothing, there are a variety of myths that talk about the emergence of other elements of civilization and the structure of the universe.
741352e86a8b35ad0a0d754ec92fcb2ed662ec9e The long poem, most of which has not yet been deciphered, describes Enlil's creation of the axe and how he gave this valuable tool to the "black headed people" so that they could build houses and cities.
ec6b42db9a496d2c31d089e92b5f3969212bc60c Another myth describes the activity of the gods to provide the Sumerians with the most necessary elements of civilization.
dde5a512f81c30e8114d4a31f3df6677c8f87143 It tells how Enki, having first visited the Sumerians, traveled all over the world, distributing "tables of destinies".
4530ece2d1109be3b63bcc780aa53493cac37a11 This term was used by the Sumerians to denote the creative activity of the gods to restore order in the universe.
b2cdcfbae6aca6d4da4b28db95460184f8708d3a First Enki goes to Ur, then to Melukha (which probably meant Egypt), then to the Tigris and Euphrates, which he fills with fish, and finally to the Persian Gulf.
422150ee249de391ecae8e675bec13983c7b8e59 At the head of each of these places, he puts a god or goddess.
79bc72302be46920cc6ee7ce642934ceae75f659 An excerpt from Kramer's translation of this interesting myth illustrates the nature of Enki's creative activity: He (Enki) ordered the creation of a plow And a hoe, He forced the bull… He called out to the harvests;
9df2462cad22b13129d5814e9fdf0c9452719d39 In the barren fields he cultivated grain;
7d0554b7f84956882345a52cb2a25a719ab9b51e The Lord, the jewel and Ornament of the Plain; ... the farmer of Enlil Enkimdu, the lord of canals and ditches;
7a7b21c768f53e2676caba1e5d07cef07745b60e Enki ordered them to be controlled;
7bb71375bb65c211f79017c8257a8a8a53405ad1 The lord called to the fields And commanded them to give birth to grain;
52ec3e089472fdf8c103677d625f16f4e77788aa Enki ordered the creation of small And large beans ... ... grain, which he put in storage;
bbfcd58b580e4f71fb1d1d2a490b5f764685afba Enki created many Repositories;
95880fd4d3f49e2feade883d7fcfe07a305d81b5 Together with Enlil, he created abundance on earth;
999044cdcafabc793c7c89efbea20f0044f25d8d The one whose head... and whose face... is the Tower, which is the power of the earth, the Support of the "black headed people", is Ashnan, the support of all things, which Enlil put at the head of everything.
3cc8b538dfa4964c0938c2588593cb46a0f58c0b Enki then appoints Kabta, the god of stone, as the master of the axe and trowel.
71997349c7ef46a98ac00e375211699cac292877 He creates the foundation and builds houses, and makes Mushdamma, the "great builder of Enlil", the god of construction.
a42a2b1d888a93ba88f6580b65fae7bfe026afa2 He fills the plain with plant and animal life, and puts Sumukan, the "king of the mountains", at the head of this life.
51bca7dd29cc409191b1383846467296e3515ae0 Finally, Enki builds stables and sheepfields, and he puts the shepherd god Dumuzi at the head of all livestock.
5c19e92579bba81e5a5c5940dd4f3d3fb8c061e3 The last myth concerning the structure of the universe is connected with the activity of the goddess Inanna (or Ishtar).
ddea72f17df7815d249e41b5445e5090510d26a9 We have already mentioned the "tables of fate", and we will see later, when we talk about the Babylonian myths, that these very "tables of fate" play a very important role in several myths.
7f6370c42681bf9826a55e8710ed8ea437d5b748 The possession of them was one of the privileges and attributes of the deity.
1568e0047946ba9925d3964b7e1cd7f66d97ab44 Often in myths it is said that these tables were stolen or taken away from the gods by force.
e0f14ceec86e93a2f07c9be7ae9fe2db5f1aabd7 The fact is that God, who possesses the "tables of fate", received power over the world order.
0dca0ccbb5086f413638243b96bfdd1458312fba In the myth we are talking about now, Inanna wants to spread the benefits of civilization to her city of Uruk.
4027e591ad5b343696772cf04990dc720dddf276 To do this, she must receive "me" – this Sumerian word, apparently, means the same power and authority that is contained in the Akkadian "tables of fate".
b74d059a8073a23964fa2caf61666fd00258ad1a The "Me" is in the hands of Enki, the god of wisdom.
977195e46fcfee18964aac9f6f285723275c1c2f Inanna goes to Eridu, where Enki lives in his house Apsu, by the spring of sweet water.
2c843019fd474be7c30a268f23d9bad56c648a10 Enki hospitably receives his daughter Inanna and arranges a grand feast in her honor.
b1b47f6795b60eb70326e384cb9f622253d1ad40 Becoming drunk on wine, he promises her all sorts of gifts, including "me", or divine orders, which, according to Kramer, " are the basis of Sumerian civilization."
dc33af8e682af30546879ce6f9075fbd13e89ab2 The myth lists more than a hundred elements that make up this very civilization.
eb26479bb2b2569ec9d89d3cef625f77919a52bc Inanna gladly receives these gifts, loads her boat with them and sails to Uruk.
a4e69f2470ea5368e341dc9029f40495181cae54 Having discovered the loss, Enki sends his servant Isimud to return the sacred "tables of fate".
80793efa0c0c8713ac3c02f920058f4fc14adcb4 He tries to do this as many as seven times, but each time he is prevented by Ninshubur, the vizier of Inanna, of whom we have already spoken.
0b28387ebd24daca70943bf086598cf44fb73304 Thus, the goddess brings the benefits of civilization to Uruk.
4544c7cae9c2a7abf6d6a355e74b0a11115faf29 It should be noted that the theme of rivalry between the Sumerian city states is somehow visible in many myths.
4fa12c5541166c53d94c61c5856879b8376eae63 The first in the lists of "me" that Inanna brought to Uruk are the symbols of power: the crown, the throne and the scepter.
1f371a0697c369b00fd42b2d350405b940703c73 From this we can conclude that the struggle for supremacy in the Sumerian state was one of the main motives of the myths dedicated to the arrangement of the world order.
e2c560cb3203b3c35a1875758ceb5f4f05a7baf4 We have already noted that the myth of Lahara and Ashnan ended with the creation of a man who was supposed to serve the gods.
6e600b751c444c5765e0747dc4728c0c4e75e987 Another myth, the text of which is scattered and difficult for general understanding, describes the process of creation of man.
6431e7f5ca705a4679559d4703a4109654f2c80b Although the Sumerian myths differ significantly in content from the Babylonian "Epic of Creation", they are united by the same understanding of the purpose for which man was created.
4c2d27fb8a20bae8737099d60bd70d04815d4980 Man was created to serve the gods, to cultivate the earth and to free the gods from the need to create everything necessary for life themselves.
f48501bdb132248263e363d7cfb490a8ab19af78 In Sumerian myth, the gods complain that they cannot get food for themselves.
26df0f500bbb202cfdfaee08ded8fd1e69861e19 Enki, the god of wisdom, to whom the gods always turn for help, is asleep.
d0ed8170e8583dc46c66221bb87d23cfb4dd485f However, Nammu, the prehistoric ocean, the mother of all gods, awakens him from his sleep.
f6232a9e8b51955391067af4bdfe6e3699b5cedf At the behest of Nammu and Ninmah, the goddess of birth, with the help of other deities, whom Kramer describes in his retelling of the myth as "kind hearted and noble performers", mix clay taken from a source of sweet water and create a person.
0813063e43046dcea04aeba414383c8502b9a319 Then the text written on the clay tablet is interrupted, because the tablet is broken.
4db09d644003250d883e8a10940eabeb85140bfc Nevertheless, some interesting details are being clarified.
dd340ac50595ce7cfb39c1d1c1db712eecca8653 Enki arranges a dinner for the gods in honor of the creation of man.
fd1af6dc89c1b527932fa7f9871b13f4f97189e7 Enki and Ninmah drink a lot of wine and get drunk quickly.
76642c6261a04b48b9df7727b71f6e5fa10da9b9 Ninmah takes some clay and makes six different human creatures, whose origin is shrouded in mystery.
eb024a10be30d4443f3b4b4ca2edc28958fead5f Something is known only about the last two: this is a barren woman and a eunuch.
37063a5cf22e91bd1de29797164beb683e45c251 Enki announces the fate of the eunuch: he must always be near or even in front of the king.
02dabc9e335d8a9b33a30ab2ccbb3fd8b88ec40a The myth then describes the next step that Enki takes.
c9271bd11f0d58108ed709898b2383f3681f7cc6 He creates a weak person in body and soul and asks Ninmah to somehow improve this unfortunate creature.
a743b5e2f5624dd00b14331da135631915b51b17 However, Ninmah canot do anything and scolds Enki for creating such a creature.
bf0d488171b87294b78200369795377f0ee4b763 In Hebrew, there are several words meaning "man", "man".
7e07ee9a1d3796a124cc70e6753d6fe25eccc949 One of them is "enoch", the root of which has the meaning "weak" or "sick".
144d9ecfbb835354cde3ac4f0b1290c853303232 This quality of a person is very often mentioned and emphasized in Jewish poetry.
e74fb6fc8eaf35c357251002b2f5ca4b854b7ae1 Perhaps it is this element of Sumerian mythology that underlies the Jewish idea of man as a being unable to rise to the place in the universe that was intended for him by divine providence.
0fc892c4a963835cc1371155faf35ee5456b9f2a Later we will see that the Babylonian myth of the creation of man has very important differences that influenced the Jewish myths about the creation of man.
d0f7574564c629617444fddb62a8b03180e83925 The third main myth is the myth of the flood.
80e21d116138810462e3b76cbce2ad14e9260bcc In his work, Kramer showed that the myth of the destruction of humanity by the flood in one form or another is found in all parts of the world.
23be2f78b3571a4f908f71cbdb3dcf799489bace The main idea of the myth is that the gods decide to destroy humanity; the means by which they decided to do this is of secondary importance – later we will see that the gods resorted not only to the flood.
7265fe5691f78f609129e42b0d73cb733e10ac72 It has long been known that the biblical story of the flood is based on the Babylonian myth, which we will get acquainted with in the next chapter of our study.
0fd534321fd8bb0cb25c63edcd40a0f1aab1c1be However, until 1914, when the American Arno Peble published a fragment of the text of one of the clay tablets, no one assumed that the Babylonian version of the myth, in turn, was based on an even earlier Sumerian myth.
b680415e2426562fea5f4560753d5d51d2e7b3b1 Other tablets related to the topic of the flood have not yet been found.
1a9151cd7b1e1c37da50958665e9acdb7ab87151 The part of the text where the construction of the ark should be described is missing, but it is clear from the following passage that it existed: All the storms of the world Struck with a single power, And at that time the waves overwhelmed all the sacred places;
9927c90dcc43906f722a7d8af35e55144c581331 Streams of water rushed Over the earth For a week: seven nights and Seven anxious days — The huge ship was shaken By the waves like a chip.
85af086b169a363eefa1a908d3ccf7be3123ec13 And here comes Utu, which Sheds light on the sky and on the earth.
6db5e22f8077cf1bd9632cc489fecfa7afddc446 Ziusudra opened the window In the ship's closet, And Utu stretched out the rays Like strong ropes.
59fb1de461e2d2a4f73719452eb60f8c49cc9ba5 So King Ziusudra prostrated himself before Utu and brought him a bull and a sheep as a gift.
b478833bf5616749ae55c7f91e0dc42071676795 Here there is a gap in the text, and then the tablet describes the appearance of King Ziusudra: King Ziusudra Flattened himself in front of Anu And Enki.
3a4dc4030b0d51af16baab649fb3149e68027f35 Both Anu and Enki granted Him mercy, and this mercy is life Like the gods;
e92f3d6cb944b8e2fc1ebcb76945041c00fde96c And eternal, and easy breathing.
f0db1ded80c96fb1740fc83a294062a54d25722a And here is King Ziusudra the guardian of the name and seed of the Human race;
923251706fbdb953cb7f65989c6dc0dc94cfc165 He came to the blessed land by the name of Dilmun.
256ae4ecf6277762d16726f8424f55b6bff44682 The sun is shining brightly there, and they were told to live there.
31b796c14c0652adfac2e048303dd7c08982d2ee From the Babylonian flood myth, we can conclude that the Sumerian version contained much more details about the cause of the flood and the construction of the ark; but we will leave them aside.
a500751d4ccac9971d15e1c1543f2197e19e2955 The question of whether the flood myth can be considered a ritual myth is quite complicated.
a796943e8e07f1ed722f023dbcf5c38ce5737ed8 However, we can postpone its consideration until we get acquainted with it more fully and evaluate its connection with the myth of Gilgamesh.
671ab04208a3abb948a9755b799d7a4c864a7ac7 In addition to the three main myths described, there are still a great many Sumerian myths that should be included in our story about the oldest mythology of the world (well, maybe with the exception of the Egyptian one).
4936bed748774f76c8c78f5ae25cd6960f3a44d3 It should also be borne in mind that our knowledge of the Sumerians is far from complete and the meaning of many words in their language remains not completely clear.
3e84bf9b791e5ce5cc8e9078d85da14c1ec698a5 Moreover, the texts on the tablets are often fragmentary and fragmentary, and they are very difficult to read.
036a6e06d85643b1017931516dc8ea8f4277335b Therefore, although this presentation of Sumerian myths is based on the research of the best scientists, further research and excavations are likely to bring something new or supplement it in the future.
f01844e1874db0ed414208cbd02f24fed1a41b68 The myth of Enki and Ninhursag has no analogue in Akkadian mythology, but it was Kramer who called it one of the most complete Sumerian myths that have come down to us.
692d8ab813d1ccc1b590c601a3cec50337d2fba4 In the "Ancient Texts of the Near East" this myth is described as the myth of paradise.
6ddb66f402c673a5c5872db089069df04bc6b3ad Some of its elements formed the basis of Jewish myths about paradise.
cc1f12e2f7312633ec0d8229fd733cd592c2b858 The action of the myth takes place in Dilmun, which is spoken of both as a country and as a city.
ecc87df13929017ccbebe29e38e55b72afa20f5a Modern scientists believe that this is Bahrain.
5d7f5d01f041967d27b638dfeb4e1c327bfdc34a The main characters of the myth are the god Enki(the god of water) and the goddess Ninhursag (the goddess of the earth).
7db0abe9ab746684d5351f43bc15e9dbead2ffdc The story begins with a description of Dilmun as a very clean, bright and bright place where all animals live in peace with each other and where no one is threatened by illness or old age.
34b545a108c563497a65aed1a1a7d86bd7c0b2ba The only thing that is not in Dilmun is pure water.
f6831cd751b3273db29fb3ce5d37f321b05577da At the request of Ninhursag, Enki gives water to this place.
05f23b2e77e28bdc15ca535f1ff30e804f99d2af The myth goes on to say that from the union of Enki and Ninhursag, Ninsar (or Ninmu), the goddess of plants, was born.
b23afbd0841e20b6adc7741b0982b520b67e7aec Ninhursag pregnancy lasts for nine days (one day for each of the nine months of pregnancy of an earth woman).
3825eabbed7966fff82852344899f5d5961bfeaa After that, Enki enters into a relationship with his daughter Ninsar, who gives birth to the goddess Ninkurra, and she, in turn, again gives birth to Utta, the goddess of plants from Enki (not to be confused with the sun god Utu).
ce2d196bbfebd82a9d7ca784ef16af6e4bd3c867 Ninhursag then warns Utta of Enki's intentions and advises her on how to handle this situation.
9b7b1345041f6bd340742b8aa7265f34de7e180d On the advice of Ninhursag, Uttu demands that Enki give her cucumbers, apples and grapes as wedding gifts.
42b0eca403e33821eb85cf15261e5a6f9b1564b1 Enki brings these gifts, and Uttu greets him joyfully.
92b62dc0fca0a468370a04572564804710020e8d Eight plants appear from their union.
87b7dca00a4fad3e558eaed161a3b8438a5fab98 However, before Ninhursag has time to name them and determine their properties, Enki eats them all.
492ed0123aed8dca18abd4512efabc0f810940cc In a rage, Ninhursag scolds him terribly and leaves.
1ea381236e5fbcb6c0b7d5c873a9eac5e045a19e The gods are in fear, and Enki feels pain in eight parts of his body.
dd16f8466dedcab1b6a9003baf39d16494f7ed10 With the help of a clever fox, the gods summon Ninhursag and force her to cure Enki.
27241ced2891b70f8b338706263733de38a3b67e She does this by creating eight divine beings in turn – one for each part of Enki's body that is affected by the disease.
d52100885e51bee5a4cd93a14bd9bf1c39a0e7ad It is noted that there is a direct connection between the name of each deity and a specific part of Enki's body.
5065f88468ac6bb01b9c442f0c03cb6e661a231e The final lines of the poem give reason to consider these eight deities as the children of Enki, whose life and fate are determined by Ninhursag.
add098bcb1f8fc0dfb92ec9fe2c50d0981f7cf75 This myth has no analogues in Middle Eastern mythology, except for the idea of a golden age, which was widely spread, and the theme of incest between father and daughter.
cd5e66c9fb326b9d2eae5fb2f6e57ce852705890 The same theme is reflected in Greek mythology – let's remember the relationship between Saturn and Vesta, as Milton says about them: The red haired Vesta was burning with love for Saturn.
c9b02c101ee0e381438b7d00201d58fd682d3983 Even though she was his daughter, no one saw shame in that.
7cea0fdb6242184d140cc362a2fb31cb693f897e However, we do not have a clue to the interpretation of the details of this myth.
bff3a0b50d47545c2c3e63275664d31445b72376 Professor Thorkild Jacobsen says that this myth tries to find a causal connection between disparate phenomena and events, but this connection is causal only in the poetic sense of the word.
9d1318f5393a0a8876738111bc9a981f1d14b509 Although, if plants are considered as a product of soil and water, we can still trace this connection, albeit with some stretch.
2e60c902a3063c07a0b312995fd80f190953b995 However, at the end of the story, it turns out that the deities born to cure Enki have no internal connection either with the earth that gives them life, or with water.
0097a67d0cb3a0c22c55227f5bafddb2f2002e6b The myth nevertheless shows that, although the Babylonians borrowed a lot from Sumerian mythology, the Semitic mind could not perceive many of its elements.
13e9c713ae9fae150524099f90e57f8cfa425a2b The myth of Dumuzi and Enkimdu Of great interest is another Sumerian myth, which seems to echo in the story of Cain and Abel, only without its tragic end.
59ac50c82ae26f8a0bc1363c84784158c02c877f This myth, in fact, concerns the centuries old rivalry between the agricultural and pastoral way of life.
dcd429f40559a9ea4d35c68591e26f220db0f98c It makes sense to cite here the final lines of the myth in Kramer's retelling.
e0ce9b110c62f55065fa7e1b560b020d6990a7fa Enkimdu says: O shepherd, why do you need this quarrel?
21b7c3a470fa3ebef542b500ca0396f598a720f9 O shepherd, why do you start it?
52a5d184cfaabcc1b20b3bba4c6532e9951cd4fc Why do you compare me to yourself?
c25deef9843eda072e57a12b8b030c4acc273d1f Let your sheep eat grass, Let your sheep graze in my meadows, Let them eat grass in the fields of Zabalam And all your flocks drink Water from my river Unun.
efd1a05e5b23ef5145dc3a696eb9f8e38b1bbd81 Dumuzi says: I am a shepherd, and you are a peasant, Do not interfere with my family life, O Enkimdu, as a friend I ask you.
9bb66bb3758ab2c42a66c0cb08e602d3dce5265f Enkimdu answers him: I will bring you wheat and beans, I will bring you beans.
d0091825d81f5c93888621abc6960285dd997106 And the virgin Inanna, what is so pleasant to you, the Virgin Inanna… I'll get it for you.
d5e4cc09156cdce030a2332baf83d0f3189e2f52 An important figure in Akkadian mythology is the hero Gilgamesh, who, according to the Epic of Gilgamesh, is two thirds god and one third man.
ac3433ca64fc338c027417e6991085e00ab16747 But it also belongs to Sumerian mythology.
521d67be79144d70ed603192d63ed3c6352f4f4f Three Sumerian myths included in Kramer's "Ancient Texts of the Middle East" contain episodes involving Gilgamesh.
de1c8b3d07045b44420ee4e5fb9d66bfeb13e921 It is included in the collection only because it indicates that the figure of Gilgamesh appeared in Sumerian sources.
300e5d35161583f64485d9013b8d3f991b8c12fe Now we can leave Sumerian mythology and move on to Akkadian mythology, namely Assyro Babylonian, most of which, as already noted, is based on Sumerian myths.
0073612fae689df0349c13ec866ac27430e10867 It should be borne in mind that the Semitic conquerors adopted cuneiform from the Sumerians and adapted it to Semitic (Akkadian) a language that is completely different from the language of the Sumerians.
fddddcc6faa4da9ae407c82297d1e31a05af926d Therefore, many gods of the Sumerian pantheon appear in Akkadian mythology under Semitic names.
913e45480c3c1889f5e53bddf840fa755e73c080 Inanna becomes Ishtar, Utu becomes Shamash, the moon god Nanna becomes Sin.
761118d4e296d41155c89c38f7d57913e460616a Nevertheless, many ritual and temple terms retain their Sumerian form.
3d18fd34bcfd83b3c8294549b8d13c388313c95b Many of the prayers and hymns were still recited in Sumerian, which remained the language of religious rituals and liturgies even after it ceased to exist in its colloquial form.
c45ca6334968fcbe8272c68d3ee43cedd76103c7 Similarly, now Latin continues to be the language of the church, although no one speaks it in everyday life for a long time.
bbd6d4fd06b414469d40e5e0bdd585cd16256409 Thus, the Akkadian versions of Sumerian myths reflect both the changed political situation (the conquest of the Sumerians by the Semites) and a completely different mentality of the Semites.
3a129be15341c84028a89f047a9025be5c06be0a Babylonian myths For convenience, we have designated the myths described in this section as Babylonian, although many texts were written by Assyrian scribes and were kept in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.
08431938d9b00b62605a762e0dc921b71b3f9026 Professor Sidney Smith says: "It is obvious that the Assyrian scribes were engaged in processing literary texts that they borrowed from the Babylonians.
45eebc2b34a5c1fe6431ab9c986277313476f7a1 They changed the style of the first dynasty of Babylon and gave these texts the form in which they were in the Assyrian library."
c7350e080e958f9bebd145089201504f9ad11e65 Assyrian gods were also worshipped in Babylon, and Assyrian religious holidays were celebrated at the same time and in the same way as in Babylon.
1731af84c7ec120ece1778464d4c32c5b3214fd3 There are several myths or legends that we can call purely Assyrian.
01442b989dbc5493df5db8899a239d90abfe27c5 For example, the legend of Sargon of Akkad, which had a very interesting history.
0affaa0d6f5530c97921106359c95fa6c6d555e6 But mostly the myths that we will talk about have Babylonian roots and represent a Semitic development of the older Sumerian material.
398187954d829bee902483196ca3e389247da879 We will start by getting acquainted with the Babylonian version of the three fundamental myths, which were already discussed in the previous section.
d7356510516e31935173a8531bdccfc18e779f61 The descent of Ishtar into the underworld In both the Sumerian and Babylonian versions of this myth, no explanation is given for the reasons for Ishtar's descent into the underworld.
43f58f9e249b1c145286b4d07108247226a4c775 However, at the end of the poem, after the liberation of Ishtar, Tammuz is presented as the brother and lover of Ishtar, again without explaining how he ended up in the underworld.
a9a4e1793097b171abff9cf7e40076f8f96b7718 The following lines make it clear that Tammuz's return to the world of the living was greeted with joy.
8f4f23fc813b1b149e298484361acbdac3ba50a5 And only from the text included in the ritual of worship of Tammuz, we learn about the imprisonment of Tammuz in the underworld and about the desolation and despair that settled on earth during his absence.
da3332b2222e39c5f54dc64b42c6e11acfce805e In the Babylonian version of the myth of Ishtar's descent into the "land of no return" , there is a description of how general infertility reigned in her absence: "bulls have stopped covering cows; donkeys do not leave their seed in donkeys, and men in maidens."
1b576216be46e6bd1d1107ec97f82696bd27a238 With these words, the vizier of the great gods Papsukkal announces that Ishtar will not return, and the consequences of this.
6cf7ed138464c0f246f6b98fe07e74de252362d6 The description of Ishtar's descent into the world of the dead basically coincides with the Sumerian text, but there are some differences.
7195008418e2de7647f385c25f7c78758ac41bd4 When Ishtar knocks on the gates of the underworld, she threatens to tear down the gates if she is not allowed inside, and free all the dead who are in the underworld.
6e96f1b878caf32c02e6e6a98833e435b8fd47db This is how the scene is described: O guardian of the gate, open it, Open the gate and I will enter!
0d887897b6020e51ea7ee7af3735dc240b13cdc0 If you do not open the gate, I will break the bolts and tear down the gate;
8941847e00ec68729f84abaadc10076cace60f59 I will tear down your tower, and I will come there;
a344b74c66e3fc0a8999d2349ab76fe7b0abca66 I will raise up the dead, devouring the living, so that there will be more of them than the living.
c62bf0c468d3728ffbbf04ec8fb2826019dcbebb In this version of the myth, Ishtar is a more aggressive and even formidable figure than the Sumerians.
8c9706d88325dbb1019fe6e30bee24801a4f38ca Ishtar's threat to release the dead and set them against the living reflects the Babylonians ' fear of spirits, which was a hallmark of their religion.
04abc97de3ee4790984a4644dfa83c09d6f05306 As in the Sumerian version, passing through each gate, Ishtar takes off some piece of clothing.
299b0dfb15340867e26c63ceddb08b2a6ded237b The Babylonian version, however, does not contain a description of how the terrible "eyes of death" turn Ishtar into a corpse.
ab3b1b421cdcad225058f999aff94c69be8ae13c Nevertheless, she does not return to earth, and Papsukkal's appeal to the gods follows.
d3972c166c93835b82ba70d3ae888919eb48295f In response to this plea, Ea (Enki in Sumerian myth) creates the eunuch Asushunamir and sends him down to Ereshkigal for a vessel of living water.
85fb61ef70db91714f2f5f6d6ab9360f89c79bf5 Thanks to his charm, he manages to persuade Ereshkigal to give him living water, but Ereshkigal does it very reluctantly: she orders her vizier Namtar to spray Ishtar with living water.
6fbfd1ba16e0f5d2bd6cae4188011e9d3c2b085b Ishtar is released and returns to earth, having received back all the jewelry and clothes that she gave at every gate of the underworld.
b35747861d22676a4ea07e766077a5b52024a2fe However, she must pay a ransom for her release.
5297002f4eec13aa27e39882ab5939b5710e0b17 Ereshkigal tells Namtar: "If she doesnot give you a ransom for herself, bring her back."
9b1d0c35edd68b7d731bc0ab52ae43e15ce6540f The myth does not specify what is meant by ransom, but the mention of the name of Tammuz at the end implies that it is he who should descend into the underworld.
3efc84f8ba84874633ddc8b7ec771f9439b21b75 However, there is no indication of how exactly it gets there.
4e2d54464c6610666552c4e3a6b8973f22e90255 We already know that there is a Sumerian myth about Enlil's descent into the underworld and that Inanna accompanied him there.
786539e472561b500389504f671e58c70e466e34 Also in the cult texts there is an indication that Enlil and Tammuz are in principle the same deity.
d8a1749461afe995d13a00400f48cd91b1a12809 Therefore, it is quite natural that as the myth develops, the descent of Tammuz into the underworld becomes increasingly important and is associated with the extinction and rebirth of plant life.
66009564c346cabbfc9cb20267a5881bdfbb9421 When this myth eventually spread to other countries, the theme of his death and mourning for him came to the fore.
e9180461e078802bd7aa6c3deed2a5d927afece8 Hence Ezekiel's mention of the women of Israel mourning for Tammuz, and the myth of Venus and Adonis, the ancient Greek analogue of the myth we are considering.
6b447583af2361e30fc8859570ca20368829a0f0 The death of Baal in Ugaritic mythology may represent the earliest stage in the development of the myth.
1b74ba8f7278d059a6742ac38d3a733fa113ed3e We have already seen that in the Sumerian creation myth, all creative activity was divided among various gods, with Enlil and Enki as the main figures here.
8a3517b75b55b2f5061e6a8e3fc0ed22f99fa179 In Babylon, the creation myth took a dominant position in the hierarchy of myths due to the fact that it was associated with the main holiday of Babylon – the New Year (or Akitu).
eaf07ee73ea381ec90cf6c293bb6287a1cb36d18 This myth found its embodiment in a liturgical poem, known from its opening lines as " Enuma Elish "("When above...").
495e775b6c38f7c5ec4c5b5dd0f7d1cd24014d36 The main role is assigned to the god Marduk.
b361d87f2b672ec643dd074bdbb96eb9607c7f33 It is he who defeats Tiamat, saves the "tables of fate" and performs various creative actions described in the poem.
9cf2b0eb1051d8f3116e8e22ceaaf402392cf37a Seven tablets with the text of the myth were discovered by a British expedition during the excavations of Nineveh.
d1b7dc3c3a1e12ca362d71620bfd98dfdd90dc80 Some of them were translated and published by George Smith in 1876.
89613c1d6ec1825de257b1dc5eab3d4109498b20 Some scholars too hastily drew a parallel between the seven days of creation and the seven tablets with the text of the Babylonian myth and put forward the theory that the Jewish retelling of the story of the creation of the world is completely borrowed from the Babylonian myth.
aa69926249b572a6f287b217fd47b605d2fed2c7 We will come back to this later when we consider Jewish mythology.
bf6acb83e4b943175eef630568e39755493fb746 Later, other parts of the text were found and thus filled in some of the gaps that existed in the myth.
209b4d32fe598955830c5bbd4145b86c2fa7780d Most modern scholars date this work to the beginning of the second millennium BC, the period when Babylon came to the fore among the Akkadian city states.
8515e19b0f31072fca25d2df68a8c0e50ee1ffc1 From the cult New Year's poem, we know that during the meeting of the New Year, the clergy twice quoted the lines of "Enuma Elish", accompanying the reading with magical rites.
e7c27b34dd27ed3bc7840029a6bf38046c998337 Excavations at the site of the ancient city of Assur, the first capital of the Assyrian empire, have found tablets with the text of the Assyrian version of "Enuma Elish", in which the place of the Babylonian god Marduk was taken by Assur, the main god of Assyria.
ceb592b04cae9d662771c8c40309e0ccc83c4902 In general, the Babylonian version is as follows: the first tablet begins with a description of the oldest state of the universe, when nothing existed yet except Apsu, an ocean of pure, sweet (fresh) water, and Tiamat, an ocean of salty sea water.
e0c99d2b4c6cdaedf33af5f6d2f8b1220cad3850 From their union, the gods were born.
6c4b604cc862d8c96c097cfa3179903690dd84bf The first pair of gods, Lahmu and Lahamu (Jacobsen interpreted these gods as silt deposited at the junction of the ocean and rivers), gave birth to Anshar and Kishar (the horizon line of the sea and sky in the interpretation of the same scientist).
d95e5e1373af9536073a7a9efb80941c6dfea6a4 In turn, Anshar and Kishar gave birth to Anu, the god of heaven, and Nudimmud or Ea, the god of earth and water.
0e0b26cfc78eebcadfe0950c3e73de36630bcb50 Here there is a certain difference from the Sumerian tradition.
c86aa96440abb3f5c366a25cb5a16287fca6cffe Enlil, whose activity is already familiar to us from Sumerian mythology, is replaced by Ea, or Enki, who in Babylonian mythology is designated as the god of wisdom and the source of magic.
7cb70e2167b829f796f1ba06c9e2765943256fef Ea gives birth to Marduk, the hero of the Babylonian version of the myth.
f7f6993776b90cc0ff3f63fb46fcf7ddd19c7174 However, even before the birth of Marduk, the first conflict arises between the progenitor gods and their offspring.
eb2daef52f29ffbb9a9b5bc7f80ddce7ca7c32b7 Tiamat and Apsu are annoyed by the noise created by the younger gods, and they confer with their vizier Mummu, thinking about how to destroy them.
25f8795e5d7ccbbbc2d168721b5a6ea57394a820 Tiamat is not particularly keen on destroying his own children, but Apsu and Mummu develop a plan.
3b407ee4abb0d78071683dc24b56749611b3d535 However, their intention becomes known to the younger gods, and this naturally worries them.
84bbfa9daae2bd136c474e56b1d7cc1e4d1454d6 However, the wise Ea comes up with his own plan: he casts a sleep spell on Apsu, kills him, blinds Mummu and puts a cord in his nose.
2c54231f264a2735cc8d5c9f60268dc72edfca5a Then he builds a sacred monastery and calls it "Apsu".
aef58d197026794651b038114c92c4274412c52a Marduk is born there, followed by a description of his beauty and extraordinary strength.
1ac515b6dad07536d596b56d4a973a75c593f1ef The first tablet ends with a description of the preparation for a new conflict between the older and younger gods.
950772ee9d7b8dcba6b6f02a892ad7bc46e9d573 The older children reproach Tiamat for being calm when Apsu was killed.
07f11c7d3ec65d4acaa177435b232c0a643b39db They manage to "stir up" her and take measures to destroy Anu and his pomo shchnikov.
6a36992e64375000b9439c9130d2da26fbe7a3dc She forces Kinga, her firstborn, to lead the attack, equips him and gives him the "tables of fate".
cff9297bb147f709c97bc716965de4d47fca5c0f Then she gives birth to a horde of terrible creatures, such as the scorpion man and the centaur, whose image we see on Babylonian seals and boundary stones.
67c22ba14b511c2e5729157deae364705319f1a2 She puts Kinga at the head of this horde and prepares to avenge Apsu.
5dd9c2807d75f0ca81fcff41212a6f17485e31a2 The second table describes how the Assembly of gods perceives the news of the upcoming attack.
bd0413aec6c1180fd24d9744a531884780f73303 Anshar is alarmed and, thinking, tears his thigh.
0594094ea0fd1a0c7d392984e52e1111afeac73f At first, he reminds Ea of his previous victory over Apsu and offers to deal with Tiamat in the same way; but Ea either refuses to do this, or he simply fails to defeat Tiamat; at this very point the text is interrupted, and it is not quite clear what happened to Ea.
6091a51e0d46f91e94a1af4e9306bf5d58779f03 The council of the gods then sends An armed Anu to convince Tiamat to abandon her intentions, but he also fails to do this.
c9579fdfbd718c57e652227f2e151b13c0079167 Anshar suggests that the mighty Marduk be entrusted with this task.
15428d4756a7fe0b9fb4e80bcb5b6889a1a0d42b Marduk's father Ea advises him to agree to perform this task, and he agrees, but on the condition that he will be given full and unconditional "power at the council of the gods", that his word will be decisive in determining the fate.
cdbf34ac1ab34e534e0265d2727adcadc52ae5fe This is the end of the second table.
243751c75fe1bd78b48a39809edd6f9b6ef78fe4 The third table once again repeats the decision made by the gods, and ends with a description of the feast, where Marduk officially receives the power that he demanded.
99ee162407470f3b9fd038b3cb76d788153f4769 The fourth table begins with a description of the presentation of the symbol of royal power to Marduk.
67c2da966765033b0afd37524074fa10d801fd18 The gods demanded from him proof that he has sufficient strength to cope with the task entrusted to him.
e80093ba83491ba46d6808c21ebc0aaff35d5f14 To do this, he makes his mantle disappear by his will, and then reappear again.
3324b9353a8c09d39d98bfd2bf1be41abf2b78ee The gods were satisfied and declared: "Marduk is the king."
dcea16b8bdfb4607855446317db05e3745ab9775 Then Marduk is armed for battle; his weapons are a bow and arrows, lightning, and a net held by four winds at the corners; he fills his body with flame and creates seven terrible hurricanes; he gets into his cart drawn by a storm, and goes against Tiamat and her horde.
b1654c474cc5cac0f7c0ea93b8ed268b3013ad26 He challenges Tiamat to a duel; he throws a net to capture her, and when she opens her mouth to swallow him, rides into it on an evil wind and hits her with an arrow right in the heart.
7b52cb0ced5539dab6b6766afb05081b24179959 Her assistant demons run, but get caught in the net.
5386d1eb396573bb048523a78565898e12c79f6d Their leader Kingu is also caught and tied up.
0e48ef462ff342c7b61c047e04a653d47e987ae4 Marduk then takes the "tables of fate" from Kingu and ties them to his chest, thereby emphasizing his supremacy over the gods.
39fa48c7e35d24a6026166e2bb4253d7faaafc23 After that, he divides the body of Tiamat in two; he places one half above the ground like the sky, strengthens it on poles, puts guards.
a5541f35ea2bd62ba0c2e8779b18b1bcbe6c978a Then he builds Esharra, the dwelling of the great gods, after the model of Ea – Apsu's dwelling, and forces Anu, Enlil and Ea to settle there.
e1488376aad32cee96f8a33980ba88301e813f88 This is the end of the fourth table.
5afd8124616ee502dc4d1b8986c7388cf89cc410 The fifth tablet is too fragmentary for us to learn from it information about the first steps in the structure of the universe, but its initial lines indicate that Marduk created the calendar first of all (this has always been one of the first duties of the king).
34968a40e2161eecd8aae60fa1c854a5d64b9c76 He determined the months of the year and their sequence in accordance with the phases of the moon.
fd2393add1cdafd863718e17584e8ba9777f8d9d He also defines three earthly "paths" – the path of Enlil in the northern heavens, the path of Anu in the zenith and the path of Ea in the south.
5eba55cf2a040ac4f249c4cce6184e35ce386fdd The planet Jupiter should observe the celestial order of things.
87f60c4b78c445165fd40449e42e52f6db150126 The sixth tablet tells about the creation of man.
afc41a87ec1ffba68da1ee9fd65bde65c207acca Marduk declares his intention to create man and make him serve the gods.
278c7581c2b12a65b9987cfbfbe7a0836fd11ec3 On Ea's advice, it was decided that the leader of the rebels, Kingu, should die in order to create people in his image and likeness.
9c437279dacdea6460231680b58949debc9ed0b1 So, Kingu is executed, and people are created from his blood who must "free the gods", that is, perform actions related to the implementation of temple rites, and get food for the gods.
6eaf748bce7c183b1a4391d84cfba47b36f8be3a Then the gods build for Marduk the great temple of Esagil in Babylon with the famous "ziggurat".
5b0dc8d44a630dec1c4a5fb1c134b37b0ceab65d At the command of Anu, they proclaim the fifty great names of Marduk.
686abd0f5a1d93b232912e103bbddfbfecf6d26d Their enumeration takes up the rest of the poem.
5ec87237df4efb61ae3fa87133cee92855f083e0 This is the plot of the Babylonian creation myth.
68adfdc5f172149a9d785038265fde831b9121c3 It clearly traces the Sumerian basis.
9e0c305cf5c80f1dc1871a17e232ce720cb4cf36 However, those elements that are scattered across several Sumerian myths are brought together in the Enuma Elish and represent a coherent whole.
3dea2d7a4c4e7d46e275325a41d3ba60d5537c50 We have no evidence that various Sumerian myths were ever part of the ritual.
adc2699610fedb957fff276ec628a760de024cbb The poem "Enuma Elish" became a ritual myth with magical power and playing a vital role in the Babylonian New Year holiday, in connection with the dramatic embodiment of the plot about the death and resurrection of the gods.
d72d59a90cd9dee6760fd36925453cff625d264e The third of our fundamental myths is the myth of the flood.
9675965552086ce50caf5825eed0afffabf07a8b In this case, the somewhat fragmentary Sumerian myth was significantly expanded, and the Babylonian version of the flood myth became part of the"Epic of Gilgamesh".
51c66bb2fa4f89f42287356c3934dab82df3f300 We will deal directly with the Babylonian version of the "Epic of Gilgamesh" a little later, but the myth of the flood is connected with the" Epic of Gilgamesh " as part of the hero's adventures.
31a52d49636128a63bf3196c5b76af8232911c36 The problem of death, disease and the search for immortality was practically absent in Sumerian mythology, but it is very noticeable in Semitic myths.
9c318d824d3d8b6c866c79eab99e7576646d8826 In the Epic of Gilgamesh, it appears to Gilgamesh when his friend Enkidu dies, which we will talk about later when considering other parts of the epic.
7bdf7de0fdecdff75345775ebfe106b0cc46e038 Now we are more interested in the connection between the epic and the myth of the flood.
5435595844840157a1be8db033b09a80c480df51 After describing the death of Enkidu and Gilgamesh's grief for his friend, the myth tells us that Gilgamesh was shocked by the idea that he, too, was mortal.
06a24e9039112a1a0338373f86723cd0a1479544 "When I die, wonot I be like Enkidu?
a121cfcdb46ec24c9e72aeb556f37f6b61ec322a Fear settled in me.
1f076357316e39917b0e353601c40c8d4618c9e9 Fearing her, I wander through the desert."
2716302cb2c93d6c67af53cff80b59afda487923 The only mortal who managed to escape death and find the secret of immortality was Gilgamesh's ancestor Utnapishtim.
24b94b949f89575872a3d34ba5af67de572b6d2e This is the Babylonian equivalent of Ziusudra, the Sumerian hero of the flood legend.
abe32c6b141d72a30f4bf4528f8e041a3f92f29e Gilgamesh decides to go in search of his ancestor to uncover the secret of immortality.
8f9be9cd7ed920c6e9fba1cfec05615a8cc9a0f0 He is warned about the dangers that lie in wait on the way.
f3b301b7cefd5aa6b3abffd366c1e16f4928a38d He is told that before he reaches his goal, he will have to cross the Mashu Mountains and the river of death.
785aa484a7a9ad0d277a9fb653fa215d37f51c5d Only the god Shamash could do such a thing.
6fcc09668c618a13b8761be8f82d3ad7ef119a7e Nevertheless, Gilgamesh overcomes all obstacles and comes to Utnapishtim.
34d266325ac107f7f19b4184b4380b9cc3af3804 The text is interrupted just at the place where their meeting is described.
828bce0615ce320efbd07345d671a98528178b37 When the text becomes legible again, we read that Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that the gods have kept the secret of life and death for themselves.
08343aafe892929ba41b4b2e1bddf67b72a0c2d5 Gilgamesh asks him how he managed to achieve immortality.
044f93075857b20696033275ee11a91e7f48cd93 In response, Utnapishtim tells him the story of the flood.
5265103eea4bf60d96309879ebedcd83a929d4cb It is written on the eleventh tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh.
697ecbe5597320c78a464e83189d700934c064e1 This is the most complete and well preserved part of the epic, which is recorded on twelve tablets.
fc9498c1c116d28ad3716bdb2c32030ba9cec703 This myth was widely known in the Ancient East.
09abc73ab84e1cfe3f87ece3bb1b851c570ac073 This is confirmed by recently discovered fragments of Hittite and Hurrian versions of this myth.
7e06b8f3c9eb912765efab1db5e2461195abc013 Utnapishtim warns Gilgamesh that the story he is going to tell him is "the secret of the gods".
a57ba64cfe50fe62764a080d49bc77faa378df58 Utnapishtim describes himself as a man from Shuruppak, the oldest of the cities of Akkad.
4c3ba4eadb696683349ff69e032ef91104380f20 Ea secretly informs him that the gods have decided to destroy all the sprouts of life on earth by sending a flood on it.
6bb535e0c378b4b90d208b67323576d25695b78c At the same time, nothing is said about the reasons for this decision.
b439d806c6430578c51524e74d1866adcfc0cbde Ea tells Utnapishtim to build an ark, to which he must bring "the offspring of all living things on earth".
75d80216ccfdbc57a6a40052afa312fa302267e8 The myth gives the size and shape of the ship.
37996dd7630238fa64f0126d5bfd5b5448603554 Judging by this description, the ship was shaped like a cube.
9102cb4aa34e1c5ee87a44c286fdaa8004826113 Utnapishtim asks Ea how he should explain his actions to the people of Shuruppak, and Ea says that he should say that he angered Enlil, and he expelled him from his land.
808be8f9cf0f1aadc75d8d1591f967cc8046abbc Utnapishtim says to them: "Now I will go down to the very bottom, where I will live with my lord Ea."
5570e7ef782627415cb6fa1f58d26ab7ef1440d3 Then he says that Enlil will send down abundance on them.
a3b31fa89f91de4992174b932c6fe69dd6a58fe4 Thus, the inhabitants are deceived about the intentions of the gods.
26da87c2dee6dece4e9adf544616c579f07a3934 The following is a description of the process of building the ship and loading it: "Everything I had" I loaded there: I put all the silver on the ship;
7581af23d3d8f553a128d3599dab4d0c98a87226 And he brought all the gold;
a25f9eb7e7c7f83e3871b5c2a6a497658b8a5b78 And I drove all God's creatures there.
91b948cf599ce901c67a63ae89b1fa624b40f3ee As well as family and relatives.
7c837bd395e58abe2c8dc2ca39eeb9b0c318508a And from the fields, and from the steppe, I brought All the bugs there;
542e2eec64c32c97cbb7552cef1fb8c504f40afc And he brought all the craftsmen to the ship.
6861cafeaa44cf5d373c59b2aac4e3a5e2799eeb Then a description of the storm is given in colors.
c872d4ea1dce74775a32d68ef1324730aa7d7b1d Adad thunders with thunderclaps;
de4f62cdfa646b5c0ea7f46c4e802432d8ca8c90 Nergal demolishes the gates that hold back the pressure of the waters of the upper ocean;
bd525bbc6ae40d27beac9205950f4e8d05641ffb The Anunnaki raise their torches to " ignite the earth with their fire."
a28cac86d28cc80b73dd01051ad32153cad00f89 The gods themselves are alarmed by what is happening and, like dogs, cowardly cling to the wall of the heavenly house.
4bf2dc686699f94d83ff28b478e461ce77641baa Ishtar, who apparently incited the gods to destroy people, regrets what she did, and the gods echo her.
1f07feb82e9c5554209404c1b2be6d540b5de978 The storm rages for six days and nights.
4ebec1fef5d66c70664a1e1f080a63bf97d10b29 On the seventh day, it subsides.
ad457a8d85ea9a1caf921071cccc6917271a362d Utnapishtim looks out and sees a devastated plain in front of him: "All the people have turned into clay."
68733ea8b7ef58cec05ae515ee1da2aa442cdc9c The ship docks on Mount Nizir.
f6f3ef3d8d3fc31e90ff4177ac4b15b07281dc65 Utnapishtim waits for seven days and sends a pigeon, which returns without finding shelter.
ab279a66c4245b24a539212a1094d43ba2733d31 Then he sends a swallow flying, but it also returns.
741c8ed9a781abeac31ccc8e97395e169911cae5 Finally, he sends out a raven, which finds food and does not come back.
eb6c7585e841a5813da4fcbdc4cab7fd2eff1ded Utnapishtim releases all those gathered there from the ship and makes a sacrifice to the gods.
570e846331d8fa4251dd2d17b9f8e293d236e88e The gods smell the fragrance and, like flies, flock to the place of sacrifice.
073cad248f71518aae57d97fa3c6a4581887b2fa Ishtar comes, touches his necklace made of lapis lazuli, and vows never to forget what happened.
cad91b42988acd2b1f3ec92d58597879b20c960f She reproaches Enlil for having decided to destroy her people.
f8eb5dfc63f84b4ef6e4dd8f8a40738493582dec Then Enlil appears.
64d220a36e10df6119be37bd0e8ebaf912e2eb5a He is furious that one of the people was allowed to escape death.
6cc6e5063ac2e9668b2da3cf54b668aa2fd9fdfe Ninurta reproaches Ea for betraying the secret of the gods.
14597be0face0b3fd160cd02499e6546095055fe Ea argues with Enlil, defending Utnapishtim.
c79e38f1f7de22174d3183767417238178fb50e0 Enlil concedes and grants Utnapishtim and his wife the immortality that the gods possess.
b66c873d1cfe2160a88de6e4d0dd1459be81824a He commands that from now on they will live far away at the mouth of rivers.
09d8792562c8b5ad4e4b5d05d3826b525315fd3e This is the end of the story about the flood.
d01e04dc26ab559d946f732839868b38e6f89016 The remainder of this tablet and the entire twelfth tablet are dedicated to and stories about Gilgamesh.
54fc39edf48eff018e0f64a325a3d0a1c0e2c52a Although excavations in Mesopotamia have proved that in ancient times Ur, Kish and Uruk suffered from terrible floods more than once, there is still no reason to believe that any of these floods flooded the whole country, in addition, floods occurred at different times and were of different strength.
63139644c0b3f826ea83c66eeb23951b3f2af38e Nevertheless, this myth is based on the fact of an unusually strong flood, although it was associated with funeral rituals and the idea of seeking immortality.
816af87e108526d5e346303cd72edc8e260aa3b0 However, there is no convincing evidence that the myth of the flood, like the myth of creation, has become a ritual myth.
9dbbc8e10049b0fb8f9b6da482335a0d3ed9276c Now we will proceed to the description of other Assyro Babylonian myths that have been found in various graves discovered by archaeologists in recent years.
859969f4faca5d48e6f88e98598fd23c7d739817 The epic of Gilgamesh is a wonderful literary work, which includes the myth of the flood, is partly a myth, partly a saga.
c94d102ddf6f229716a3e048680782d73b189323 It describes the adventures of the semi mythical king of the city of Uruk, who is listed in the Sumerian chronicle of kings as the fifth king of the first dynasty of Uruk, who allegedly ruled for one hundred and twenty years.
0ea61d929cdf3f4f248a2c5ddcda87180fe0ed9b In ancient times, this work was extremely popular in the Middle East.
24daa0871fbd6238aa3ef5a3caa68eb83a438b7a Fragments of the translation of this text into the Hittite language, as well as fragments of the Hittite version of this work, were found in the archives of Bogazkey.
16bb8c0c55216449dee0a96dbc7076d2bcf33e96 During the excavations carried out by one of the American expeditions to Megiddo, fragments of the Akkadian version of the epic were discovered.
6d7700091516144fc0ecaec7c1cfa8e159f9b476 It is worth quoting Professor Speizer's words about this work: "For the first time in history, such a meaningful narrative about the hero's exploits has found such a noble expression.
daf39a31a9cff939ad98b3ddf8e0bd99cb4c0bfe The size and scale of this epic, its purely poetic power determine its timeless appeal.
b741dcd20c632d581d04055834da96b0e19b9011 In ancient times, the influence of this work was felt in a variety of languages and cultures."
5c0044372cd4d299a927d850349017b42bd8c41d The Akkadian version consisted of twelve tablets.
5c9b13252f22b6b11d84f56834d4e6ca162130d7 Most of the fragments of these tablets were kept in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh.
f7012a730717f648fa1e9fae25c93db8e876eaf3 The eleventh tablet, on which the myth of the flood is recorded, is best preserved.
f427c8eeb23c99eb93762b824c25ace75ce5d1a3 The epic begins with a description of the strength and qualities of Gilgamesh.
1da2260c81289199282b7abee4efc53633155485 The gods created him a superman with extraordinary height and strength.
0aa14a893fd6bd861c40c6952601abb4742b9ba8 He was considered two thirds God and one third man.
bb93954464e165dc168480c41273d0ea66f960e0 However, the noble inhabitants of Uruk complain to the gods that Gilgamesh, who should be the guide of his people, behaves arrogantly, like a real tyrant.
4febcc896db10caf7ab3c0c0abc81176ce71bef2 They implore the gods to create a being like Gilgamesh, with whom he could measure his strength, and then peace will reign in Uruk.
1007da849a0faa2effa7257d09197389fb3b6d47 The goddess Aruru sculpts a figure of Enkidu, a savage nomad, out of clay, giving him superhuman strength.
2699c52f6411a6031854b372c35ddfd6e920ae07 He eats grass, makes friends with wild animals and goes to water with them.
ddc8ecd5e1959d7690059f8684ce0ba11db86111 He destroys the traps that are set by hunters, and rescues wild animals from them.
9f6b3f06416e06f8081c5fcccc1bef94113a2ba0 One of the hunters tells Gilgamesh about the character and strange habits of the savage.
8486543c8e35e9e62996a19e1fd51501f66fa97a Gilgamesh tells the hunter to take the harlot from the temple to the watering hole, where Enkidu drinks water with wild animals, so that she tries to seduce him.
35499a3acc63550c37893fa876de344ac8880505 The hunter obeys the order, and the woman lies waiting for Enkidu.
7fbe67e8c8329e81ea4ad0e0ac9d2fddaf31eced When he comes, she shows him her charms, and he is seized with a desire to possess her.
f92051190a6773c2359a702ba36fac2b2ff9b222 After seven days of lovemaking, Enkidu comes out of oblivion and notices that some changes have occurred in him.
3c52cbbffd1a3c91045113aad32021b99de1c9fc Wild animals run away from him in horror, and the woman tells him: "You have become wise, Enkidu; you have become like a God."
966420db7ed161be8699d70eda860df373529171 Then she tells him about the glory and beauty of Uruk and about the power and glory of Gilgamesh; she begs him to throw off his fur clothes, shave, anoint himself with incense, and leads him to Uruk to Gilgamesh.
506833d4633131eafab46ca218da4a51497b0db3 Enkidu and Gilgamesh compete in strength, after which they become best friends.
f3d330a790f3897ebd02717ff1a662d876dc4e37 They swear eternal friendship to each other.
48b660406c870c4d8bc1b95e7e44c51638950838 On this
5cdd4db2a0d309b3f12a8717b3329a397f05baa7 In the last quarter of the XIX century, a republican regime was established in France
c803bcc0315a2a8774dfef970d5e9a2ae2263bae The Second Empire was replaced by the Third Republic
1872380fa0430a68bb49a5398f6e096854169ae9 The Constitution of 1875 became the main law of the country, the state symbol is the blue-white-red flag, the anthem is the "Marseillaise", the main national holiday is July 14 — Bastille Day.
51d8c8ccac0ab9a76bfd93b474e2ec89c504b91a Democratic freedoms were introduced in the country — the right to vote, freedom of association in unions and associations, meetings, rallies, processions, speech, religion, etc.
f0debf4b18a506d70d0ed4eb0d94dca4fa2d05f3 According to the Constitution of 1875, the head of the executive power in the country was the President of the Republic.
33e527fa58df67218f04dc679e72448adaccb8f3 He appointed and dismissed the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and other ministers, but was deprived of the right to make any important decisions alone.
b6c210fd3bb654c3ff8756402b7ccd86bd782a90 The President of the Republic represented France in the international arena, signed decrees and promulgated laws, could return laws to Parliament for re-discussion, had the right to pardon.
0ace37990222e3c884ea0d67b48e633cda87ef38 During the formation of the Third Republic, the highest state officials and the parliament of the country received permanent residences that exist to this day.
41edb64d7f31e5ad13570507ee6eac2a8b9af08f The Elysee Palace became the residence of the President of France, the Matignon Palace became the chairman of the Council of Ministers.
d81ed575ee5248e20fb432e01ef3ba72cc3760b1 The meetings of the Chamber of Deputies were held in the Bourbon Palace, the Senate — in the Luxembourg.
63d7ae0d04c39111ebf63351e5381d587ef89a45 The beginning of the XX century. for France, it was the time of the formation of the main political parties of the country and the formation of the classic French multi-party system.
840df8d889bfa63b637fb39a8854c3f5e2f74169 The elections to the Chamber of Deputies, which took place in the spring of 1902, created a radical majority in the Chamber of Deputies.
641b798187201ec1a78a250aae77c2142be597e0 The government no longer needed the support of various elements from different Republican parties: the policy of the cabinet of Valdek Russo was justified by the voters.
2b4bc1df28766f4565e42200c9c8e2766db60d70 Nevertheless, on May 20, Waldeck Rousseau, quite unexpectedly, both for opponents and even for supporters, announced that his cabinet was resigning, considering its duties to pacify France fulfilled.
ce9e4ef64e908fdabee81f6e15e168d0d398ca41 Attempts by the enemies of the cabinet to explain this resignation by discord in the cabinet itself turned out to be based on nothing.
545cc7457369a9bbd286072faba9e287d54f1043 Thus, the government majority was secured and the resignation of the cabinet — for the first and only time in the history of the third republic — was certainly voluntary.
715bd5a616a1832a7b784cc20b068fadfde90091 The Chamber of Deputies elected the radical Leon Bourgeois to the post of president by a majority of 303 votes against 267 submitted for the former president, the opportunist Deschanel.
9c28fb75f521635794104bc0666abf437cbffa20 The formation of a new cabinet was entrusted to the radical Kombu.
ed3b1a620f129935e59c7010eed18d9073bd9846 He took the portfolio of internal affairs, and from the old cabinet he kept only the Minister of War, Gen.
a94057978befa6d83d14424e9060768483215a1f Andre and Foreign Minister Delcasse.
f86c8bdac338214cc38799728f98a643a1bfd46a The other members of the cabinet: the Minister of Justice — Vallee, the Minister of the Sea-Camille Peltan, the Minister of Commerce-Truglio, Agriculture-Mougaud, colonies-Doumergue (all five are radicals, or socialist radicals), the Minister of Education-Chaumier, Public Works-Maruejul, the Minister of Finance — Rouvier (the last three are Republicans).
791a2d7f72587523b0112b9c1090d66831ff014e The ministerial declaration promised the abolition of the Fallou law, income tax, two-year military service, insurance of workers against old age and illness.
9f78324126eff7c742661b7763bafecd3372b668 It declared war on nationalists and clerics, but did not concern the separation of church and state, but expressed only the intention to strictly apply the Waldeck Rousseau law on congregations.
ee4aae732b5fbc5e08dceecd29a03c22af8432f6 Nevertheless, the Catholic Church understood the ministry's declaration as a challenge and immediately began to mobilize its forces against the government.
90b7d7d5347a14a3247c2c3388e60acae5b0129b In turn, the Government has already announced the closure of 135 schools of various congregations during June.
d8a801e777e8b7d10fc200b04fadca66eaf79a71 The government did not hesitate to dismiss officials for participating in hostile demonstrations; at the beginning of 1903, several generals and colonels were dismissed, whose wives and daughters took a demonstrative part in charity bazaars organized by spiritual congregations.
4a5e65ff54a9698df869775bad625968dca2f536 The debates in the house more than once took on an extremely stormy character, but as a result, the government always received approval by a majority of 70-120 votes in the house and 50-70 votes in the Senate.
b15e3a4cf06d90784653e60fffab97ad2dd4f91a In November 1902, the north of France was engulfed by a huge strike in the coal mines, but the government, through peaceful intervention, managed to persuade both sides to make concessions and thereby end the strike.
3ebd7c064169a6fc4499559b2ba2129c0cd6f523 At the end of 1902, the Ministry submitted to the Chamber of Deputies a draft law on teaching, which abolished the Fallou Law.
5fc55dac7197ff77dc005dc04333e7a0ca062396 In July 1904, the law on teaching passed through both chambers and entered into force; the Fallou law finally fell.
5fbf5d7c1aeeb07aa31c8af4f69590dbaf93ab5c Russian Russian friendship, although Delcasse, an ardent supporter of the Franco-Russian union, remained the Minister of Foreign Affairs, but the Franco-Russian friendship cooled somewhat during the activities of the Combe cabinet.
83b588252d0b1dd2af79094d3a6f9523c3872694 France became closer to England and Italy.
5f04ae6e20b95a6bf11f46c3cfb9b57fd1097dc2 The political rapprochement with Italy and England was completed by treaties on the peaceful arbitration of disputes between them; similar treaties were concluded with Spain, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands.
527d8e2acf2c3344c36dd36cdb5712a464acd1b6 The new Cabinet was formed by Clemenceau on October 26, 1906
f1416fc270691dfd07b850d97bf36127f5bd0ab7 Clemenceau, Thomson, Barthou, Ruo and Briand moved from the old office to the new one with the same portfolios.
e2600e3d66b4c21ce4975dd7bd7ed69fafe1d112 In the declaration of the Ministry read in the chambers on November 5, it was said that the Government would protect the peace, not forgetting, however, that peace between civilized peoples rests on military force.
e9f692c1faea55f253023f23e0abcbb52e08212c In domestic politics, the Government will strengthen democracy; this will lead to the fact that individual cases of State power will take more moderate forms.
565a143bc6b5bf58e78227b590eec1d0040b392d A draft reform of the military courts will be introduced: the consideration of crimes against the common law will be transferred to the general courts, and disciplinary proceedings will be provided with all the necessary guarantees.
7efb56c4c4f407eef9c512bb310a0e150962f990 The Government intends to implement the law on workers ' insurance, improve the laws on trade unions, and establish a progressive income tax.
24eaa292f1b7ae6b84dd98cc6bad91326d8a84bc France was almost entirely occupied with its internal problems and paid very little attention to the threat of war.
6cebb9ad9e49889904359034639890761dd137ef In 1913, representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the General Staff, convinced that Germany was preparing for war, had difficulty convincing the Chamber of Deputies to adopt a law on three-year military service.
9ac81ded5facbdc71beebebdc01ad1848a75884b A president named Raymond Poincare became elected in France in 1913.
8b0af7b2bff5c1006b841120791dd812cf5669eb The most important task of the new ruler was precisely the preparation for a large-scale war.
39c56aa04a02d98e9e67c835f920968a19988cae Meanwhile, the new president of the French Republic, Raymond Poincare, did everything possible to strengthen the position of France, and especially insisted on an alliance with Russia.
913332550353045c52ed8a6de57fb2fe8b982f54 When the international situation became more complicated in the summer of 1914, he paid an official visit to Tsar Nicholas II.
fe41bac36a34dfaea7a5b58c951f39d9ece82044 Despite this, for the majority of the population, the war that broke out was a complete surprise.
594231f52b6198995baa41a035b4593cb59bc3db The most recent months, which passed before the outbreak of the First World War, were filled with a very acute struggle of an internal political nature.
c3990e012b5055b3cef7e3bbe63efac4bc076763 Only the very moment of France's entry into this terrible war removed the rather difficult question of what course the country should follow.
aac3ec8260cd7c80935418ce122e948564b4a1db The start of the First World War fell at the end of July 1914.
07615deb6e62d9745acf93e2e200e9efd740f533 It was the twenty-eighth day of the second summer month.
030e64faad03e52cac5998379bdadb8f5f00eddf However, France entered the military process not quite at the beginning of the actions, but only on the third of August.
a205289d46ee9b83c98b5108dedf7e6c12a23add The German command planned to destroy France in a very short time, breaking it, and only then activate the main focus on the fight with Russia.
9a5f451f077e169c1a67acbe1a981c36361e43fb German troops launched serious mass offensives in the West.
483cfc1ad1b65d6d00481635346342297294394b In the border battle, the Germans were able to break through the front and then began to advance deeper into the French country.
a4d6adbe87eabdc75655e139f8ba974d217501d9 The month of September 1914 was marked by the legendary Battle of the Marne.
9e5bb9fc902267d4459f9c97db169bd80034b6b3 The further fate of the campaign on the Western Front depended on the outcome of this battle.
f107c6d8bcd3a4ca75e9e6c24b8b34129007b1e0 The fighting turned out to be terribly fierce, but in the end the Germans still managed to be stopped, and then even pushed back from Paris.
ea1b1f046d4da6e801aa6efb5e4f19c34880a58f Germany's plan for the lightning defeat of the French army was a failure.
a6150315b704e33a41576684313142f97acacc80 Thus, the terrible struggle on the Western Front has acquired the character of a truly protracted one.
8b99030c908d5ea9f09667a29c87f3d8798517f2 The largest-scale of all the offensive operations of the Germans started in February 1916.
8c63bb6bd2fcebe174e4770488c5378b12878661 German troops were trying to arrange the capture of a strategically important French fortress called Verdun.
1f65f4112fa2c7c0ab13fafb0ac89d6ca606ea46 However, despite the gigantic efforts and a huge number of losses, the German troops failed to take a strong fortress.
d82fa18da85b495db4ed73694ae7f2e8d4ec088e The Anglo-French command, intoxicated with success, began to make attempts to take advantage of the favorable situation that had developed.
1aac1051641704fa1c2955e7744a792d01243544 So in the summer of 1916, they undertook a very large offensive operation in the Somme River region
1ba5c4620332380f75da53c7d0a01fe036b75e63 Here the very first attempt was made to intercept the initiative from the German troops.
cd5315ecffbf60ef205a8156bd11b65b2ecc7070 But in the month of April 1917, the situation became much more favorable for everyone against Germany.
d8ddb5dc1edf39404135917a0df2ee6f4acfcfd0 This happened because the United States decided to join the side of the Entente.
effde8f2c0841edd88faae68a97dd79a30753fad And the material and technical supply of the German opponents became guaranteed.
3c18291cdcea16badddf34435dc36bd455d56524 Realizing the fact that time, whatever one may say, began to work against them, the German troops decided to make some desperate attempts from March to July 1918 to reach a turning point in the course of those military operations that were taking place on the Western Front.
0a3acf8e9306bfbbb36071d26812b229b661501a Through heavy losses, the German army, exhausted to the extreme, managed to get close to the resistant Paris at a distance of about seventy kilometers.
fdb800e15a334856fb37c7f14c890a57a619fd8f On the eighteenth of July in 1918, the Allies carried out a powerful transition to a counteroffensive.
cd29ce77abff1d8919a0644ce43052baddf20713 And already on November 11 of the same year, Germany finally capitulated.
12e4d19a9e91630f7f6b0b0643c6e6fcd8d3d5e0 At the famous Palace of Versailles, at the end of June, namely, on the twenty-eighth day, in 1919, a peace treaty was signed.
318591e2c1e08be41cbe1bf0a338a5fadaa427a0 And thanks to its conditions, the Saar coal basin, as well as Alsace and Lorraine, passed to France.
f7085ecf9713577c2108eadf8fc0a8c51467c576 The internal policy of France in the 1920s was largely determined by the unresolved problems that arose after the end of the war.
0cba6d0fb6f3ddcf053dd56ccc050f98950aa83b The two main directions were connected with the financial and foreign policy of the country, which was led by Raymond Poincare and Aristide Briand.
9b8b892a9deaba32a522e62e01da7d6d2ac0ec99 High military expenditures were covered by France at the expense of loans, which inevitably led to inflation.
c72f47282412354772945b99d0bf659db5fe438c Poincare counted on German reparations to keep the franc at least at the level of 1/10 of the pre-war value, to cover the costs of restoring destroyed areas and to pay interest on loans to Great Britain and the United States.
b5dae5c690a4568f59f8f31ed91d27be7f9efb40 However, the Germans did not want to fulfill their obligations.
88b5e7b79454c39e1e8eb0934c9c3429a2bfc3a6 In the first half of the 1920s, Poincare enjoyed the support of the nationalist-minded parliament elected in 1920.
0de80046dac64ae60ee29de6bb8b6b53bba7a2fc But in the next elections of 1924, despite the split of the left forces into the warring Communist and Socialist parties (1920), the coalition of radical Socialists and Socialists (union of the Left) was able to win a majority of seats.
d2f26b975f54af0a8b1aed4fb816ef7a28852ab7 From the mid-1920s until his death in 1932, Briand led the foreign policy of France.
8ebbfe342b144c42ef2b72dcea02e4affc8e251d He made skillful and tireless attempts to establish relations with Germany as a basis for maintaining peace under the auspices of the League of Nations, although he knew that Germany was engaged in rearmament.
3e90d0a9eeace7748163cfeb8c0ddb0f07267530 Briand was sure that France would never be able to stand up to Germany on its own without the support of its former allies or the League of Nations.
27f053ce8eae223d1450f257cb1518dc48e99741 In the early 1930s, France was gripped by a deep economic crisis.
b555e64c2e6301faf2d212c2eae8b0a8bf4bd1e1 A mass labor movement unfolded in the country, and at the same time the threat from Nazi Germany increased.
8ecca0378a6c68cf18a1a5eded790afb56dc93ac Both the program of equal social security, which the working class insisted on, and the policy of effective rearmament to eliminate the threat from the remilitarized Germany rested on the need for an effective recovery of the French economy.
e7731178f5fc5a7c415abee1e2270d212412fc8d The world crisis and its most serious consequence — unemployment — manifested themselves in France in the middle of 1934.
aafc90050f997e2c34e5d8128231bfb7c4fdf1a4 In the 1936 elections, the Popular Front won a decisive victory, partly because it seemed to be the only defense in the face of totalitarian right-wing forces, but mainly because of the promise to improve the economic situation and carry out social reforms (similar to the New Course in the United States).
b6a9b4b4ab5e03b9bf1f65fdebdf03a75ead9e93 Socialist leader Leon Blum has formed a new government.
a0f320804c89d6bb332735f1c678467e57a305c1 Hitler's rise to power initially had little impact on events in France.
307ab50c567716ed0bf294bac795ee1f566acfee However, his call for rearmament (1935) and the seizure of the Rhineland (1936) represented a direct military threat.
679bdc749fb457c4eb74a97bcf64a42915f6f5ef This radically changed the attitude of the French to foreign policy.
61e8cdb549b0180edcf7fa0698255e4f6f65a1f7 The left could no longer support the policy of rapprochement of both states, and the right did not believe in the possibility of military resistance.
8be2c4052d564c82deecca7aef4d60c40f79cfca One of the few concrete foreign policy measures of this period was the mutual assistance pact with the USSR, concluded by Pierre Laval in 1935.
1b56d09e4aaa2c5bc789eeeaaef5958bd8e051e9 Unfortunately, such an attempt to revive the long-standing Franco-Russian alliance to curb Germany was not crowned with success.
3d06b4e48b3429ef414636eee4623ebcd1705863 In 1939, Britain began to rearm the army, but when Chamberlain opposed the German invasion of Poland and declared war on the aggressor (September 3, 1939), Daladier followed his example.
be553f403e53f3b7e2ef80e993fee04f98a4089a In the period from September 1939 to the German occupation of Norway in April 1940, France was inactive, so the confrontation with Germany acquired the character of a so-called "strange war".
54c7c709bbf0114159107533347d0c763cdd7f16 Morally and militarily, France was completely unprepared to repel the German attack in May 1940.
e415292f8cd90e0959c2d9c268420c544faab61c Within six fateful weeks, the Netherlands, Belgium and France were defeated, and British troops were expelled from mainland Europe.
051e567769893619f7bf3702c1bd21bbeb0c0f37 Despite the military power of France, the defeat of this country was so sudden and complete that it defied any rational explanation.
e3f3213238a115541dbb23722787d469b2db470b According to the terms of the armistice, the French army and navy were disarmed and demobilized.
36521ffa591d78227f3d3a7bdece4c63d87d8ea0 France had to pay huge occupation payments in the amount of 400 million francs (since November 1942 — 500 million francs) daily.
206832cb0c728b44f5c746ac0cc9b4c1edf6741a On the territory of France, both in the occupied and unoccupied zones, all political parties and the main trade union associations were dissolved.
3f4c4a13b9efdefb658cea0d21dd4d08808ad761 Meetings, demonstrations and strikes were strictly prohibited.
1bca006ceb3354638173156fca8cf77b3b3256b2 Almost the entire French economy was put at the service of Germany.
e0dbfb6639b3e33fdb5533c763b17e48d93fee53 By the beginning of 1944, 80% of French enterprises fulfilled German military orders, which were paid for by occupation payments.
6d0c551364a6a60917062808bdf39f23c831d0ab Germany exported up to three-quarters of French raw materials and from 50 to 100% of the finished products of the main branches of French industry.
6becb2f41cba7388c088afd22b6ee283a516ea6b Since 1942, the export of French workers to Germany for forced labor has become widespread.
67dca1733af8e4da4837d779d9fd6c89d7ff6db8 The invaders deported about 1 million French people to Germany.
4126c69bce6f8b1f0c923e97bf8efd5158b0e27c Although the Resistance contributed to the liberation of France, the main role was played by the Allied combat operations that landed in Normandy in June 1944 and on the Riviera in August 1944 and reached the Rhine by the end of the summer.
7eec4458ab37caa700be2f414da89cae1df22b44 The reconstruction of the country began, which took place under the leadership of General de Gaulle and the leaders of the Resistance, especially Georges Bidault and Guy Mollet, who represented the liberal Catholic and socialist organizations, respectively.
251029f4025fc76bd47bc4705e05eb7558985764 The leaders of the Resistance called for the creation of a new society based on brotherhood and general economic equality, while guaranteeing genuine individual freedom.
8a58daddf99d49b3570241a72818bce7dd0ca585 The Provisional Government has begun to implement a social development program based on a significant expansion of State property.
4e06cd321cbb6dc72ef5c65b25568f7b8c294d26 The implementation of all these principles greatly complicated the unstable financial system of the country
477299b4ad979d4373b25d8243d84fe33f646044 To support it, it was necessary to restore, systematically develop and expand the industrial base of the economy.
44117c901cbe618579f529bcc2f38ef3e9928c72 In 1948, industrial production reached the pre-war level, in 1949 the card system was abolished.
747a0a9a8f82169d0fb4a203d35aa11337ba3f98 The economic growth rates were inferior to Germany and Italy, but were significantly higher than in England.
55b669037a01af42cf97e47cda10d464e20536ed The growing labor movement in the 50s forced the government to make concessions.
468421e5374e520a2deb10a9150a2d4ec6a7394c The law on collective agreements was adopted, wages increased, and its guaranteed minimum was determined.
0d372b38b84ac18fe575ae6f9b34011e0482dbc9 The President was elected by universal suffrage on a general basis for 7 years and had broad powers.
ba601129bb1b9c79e4b18ef9a4a0a61baf8c1edf The Union for a New Republic party created by de Gaulle won the parliamentary elections of 1958, and de Gaulle himself won the presidential elections (1958-1969).
ac8d7ad5286ba53a4ec4ead349e10e63534d419a According to the main indicators, France has overtaken England and reached the fifth place in the world.
a787cba6f4500e2614b5a0c6eb17593f366e7752 In terms of economic development, France was second only to Japan.
f075e5087f2b27f8c69534972c9be5240d7299c6 In Western Europe, it has become the largest supplier of products.
5d961b1dc061ebb42c9ad62d23ffb9950fcfa4cc He was president until 1969.
c17bcc28a62a84a0ff5af40716fc2c880b95e34f This was a difficult time for France.
c754f2871f351d26bcc70550992767092527f17e The colonial system finally collapsed, a state crisis broke out as a result of the aggravation of social and economic contradictions and mass unrest of young people in 1968.
71ed1312d197cc8299a5e7ea6d94413878e44767 The next presidents of the Fifth Republic were:Georges Pompidou from 1969 to 1974 Valery Giscard de Sten from 1974 to 1981 Francois Mitterrand from 1981 to 1995 Jacques Chirac from 1995 to 2007 Nicolas Sarkozy from 2007 to 2012 Francois Hollande from 2012
cdecf7cfec1fd178b5310a3253b2166655d2f307 He defined the further political course of France with the words "continuity and dialogue"
90cadfea542c1f9e2dced87735ba461076f15516 Continuity meant the continuation of the main directions in the economy and politics that developed under de Gaulle, and dialogue meant their partial change under the pressure of partners in the ruling coalition.
40d17524349950eba60ec1e486d4e24ef5de1bb9 Pompidou appointed one of the most famous supporters of General de Gaulle, the president of the National Assembly, the reformist Jacques Chaban Delmas (June 1969 — July 1972), to the post of head of the government.
6dc661ea519e7df1d0ad33f55d7073e69bb225ce The innovations of the Chaban Delmas cabinet caused discontent and criticism from many more conservative-minded Gaulists.
937acc901b7f978a12a3e63988fd172410c81e92 In the current situation, Chirac, following the example of Mitterrand, used the tactics of" coexistence " and appointed the leader of the Socialist Party Jospin as prime minister, the right-wing president began to coexist with the left-wing government and the left-wing majority in parliament.
d8bcf4b284db19c8b6aeb889fb4e5c4282b8767b Jospin formed a left-wing government consisting of socialists, left-wing radicals and other left-wing groups.
59d200feae93fb44a7216c14f212200bcb8f026f Speaking with the government declaration, Jospin promised to guarantee women equal rights with men, to soften the legislation against immigrants, to increase the minimum wage, to make the transition to a 35-hour working week.
52d6abae4ee9a58e79ab045721f438953d81378e Soon, the minimum wage and allowances for schoolchildren were increased; the transition to a 35-hour working week began.
6f251dcb068507fa52b5516e2ac069491b03698e The economic development of France accelerated to 3-4 % per year, inflation decreased to 1 % per year.
0f90522da6dfe17c468c62d926b998e9619d4a9d In 1997, the volume of industrial production exceeded the level of 1974 by 55 % and more than five times exceeded the pre-war level, but mass unemployment remained.
aae72e648758b359801c97cd34056562552015b7 France continued to be an active member of the European Union and the North Atlantic Pact.
0b76213d24ffc10ad62c894aa6e7afc6cf23d513 Since January 1, 1999, in France, as in other countries of the European Union, the European currency ("euro") entered into circulation — at first only in non-cash payments.
95dd4b073188fb358c41614197d71b36e8ebe0f6 In the summer of 1999, France took part in the NATO military operation against Serbia in Kosovo, although it was conducted without UN authorization.
cd8bc575686cd0e6ed772b48268301a41f79a91a Germany continued to be the main partner of France in Europe at the end of the XX — beginning of the XXI century.
97650ea4c2312f5207cc37e25ddedb47e4de4361 The leaders of the two countries, President Jacques Chirac and Chancellors Helmut Kohl and Gerhard Schroeder, constantly met to discuss the most important issues of world politics.
ed483d93fb1320e58b5c9a607f2b702a13d2b508 In December 1996, both sides signed an agreement on Franco-German cooperation.
d1419555187157d2eef1ed33205eb7634c90a6f3 President Chirac spoke in favor of strengthening French-Russian ties and called France and Russia "privileged partners".
f6abc936785a16c9f302e7c56b02ec8329040b35 In July 2008, President Sarkozy put forward a draft constitutional reform, which received the support of the Parliament.
478ddc54e994d553ca7600d7b89015e626fe7ed2 This reform of the Constitution was the most significant during the existence of the Fifth Republic: amendments were made to 47 of the 89 articles of the document.
3afef6944c6819a4184ffc4498f596e238af696e France in the XX century
11a9f645fc7b297d996f9f142d6781d9ad2a3adc This article should be wikified.
21091c9e15597358bd18aa0a40bfcf555b998284 Please design it according to the rules of article design.
23bb3a9b3875eaa0bdd8b75626ce1fb775c241d9 The history of France in the XX century
9f70df5a865c575d5dc649d9ca209ae0272a8af1 1 The Third French Republic 2 France in the First World War 3 France in the period between the two wars (1918-1939) 4 France during the Second World War 4.1 The Vichy regime (1940-1944)
eaa0153b1a8d737ca6a8d95e9490f2e21248e585 5 The Fourth Republic (1946-1958) 6 The Fifth Republic 7 Bibliography
6fbd51bf7d0b38a421ad6892c3a54396642f5772 The Third French Republic[edit / edit wiki text]
688d9dc54c6871f485a7e9c964bc7c66248bc4ca Main article: The Third French Republic
6db8b2492eb263f86ecd0039c733f238fdb45e86 With even less right, it was possible to look for the reason for the resignation in the outcome of the elections; there were 233 radicals and radical socialists in the chamber for 589 deputies, 62 government Republicans and 43 socialists who did not refuse to support the cabinet.
4dbb1d64795f06f67f9869ebf3540eec2ecf2e54 In the same month of May, the trip of the President of the republic, Lube, to St. Petersburg took place.
d2e1d4858c08c4f275dfec23e765f7acc0eec698 At the end of May, the French colony of Martinique was hit by a terrible eruption of a volcano that was considered extinct, and a strong earthquake that destroyed almost all the settlements of the island.
c982c258e2fc5833c7ef083e015003fb34cb3765 Up to 40 thousand people died.
891aa86b2d5ea3c7bb9df615b997b9c04474e485 On June 1, the summer session of the Parliament was opened.
603577e841fcdf912e8e83ec08210303304a7a2c He took the portfolio of internal affairs, and from the old cabinet he kept only the Minister of War, Gen. Andre and Foreign Minister Delcasse.
9dc52ab96eb524d1da4b490de850970cfa48ba1b The other members of the cabinet: the Minister of Justice — Vallee, the Minister of the Sea Camille Peltan, the Minister of Commerce Truglio, Agriculture Mougaud, colonies Doumergue (all five are radicals, or socialist radicals), the Minister of Education Chaumier, Public Works Maruejul, the Minister of Finance — Rouvier (the last three are Republicans).
662c076e4742b75927b1fe91d1296909046c27e5 Delcasse and Rouvier represented the right wing of the Republican Party in the cabinet.
e9a6997cf2d85f1b124185a0b126597d00904c8f The Socialists to whom Millerand and Bodin belonged in the cabinet of Waldeck Rousseau were not represented in the new cabinet; nevertheless, they were part of the bloc of parliamentary parties that supported the cabinet of Combe and during the entire period of the cabinet's activity was a special parliamentary organization of parties built on a federal basis, with a permanent general committee.
8b9f002ba7e2296ab9bbb73a1421f179b13cb28f The ministerial declaration promised the abolition of the Fallou law, income tax, two year military service, insurance of workers against old age and illness.
dd21f25b213c5e3cf21c2caea883b05b19c8ed25 Congregations did not always obey voluntarily; their schools sometimes had to be closed with the help of armed force.
92147f98b7dacd9695f2454aab3342efa51546b1 Later, similar measures were taken with greater caution, but still caused opposition and discontent.
ba52092d0ca446c2696d32307a5f88e1727c7993 Members of the congregations emigrated to Italy, to Belgium, and especially to Spain.
f030f125e7eed8bb313023a78f00a59d8a5e9209 The French ambassador to St. Petersburg, Montebello, who was clerical, was recalled and replaced by Bompard, a supporter of the cabinet's policy.
70eb2ca34a52669100af1decf21172fb3d4e5381 The right to open educational institutions was granted only to persons with a higher secular education (according to the Fallou law, secondary education was sufficient, regardless of whether it was secular or spiritual); control over teaching was granted to the secular authorities, who received the right to close educational institutions.
05a326537d3e17a3e68e93440dccff1dc7414452 Persons opening an educational institution were required to declare that they did not belong to unauthorized congregations.
5d0b34ed4c56d2e9e75045eef343b339e9725608 By virtue of the new law, up to 10,000 schools maintained by the clergy were subject to closure, with a total number of students: boys — 350,000 and girls — 580,000.
7261f63be5948a3f40e17e1f779d97ceb73fa36b To fill the gap created in this way, the government had to take care of the immediate opening of completely new schools in 1921 and the expansion of several thousand old ones.
01e6c403b7abe6f402caa7e22ec4ae1d7796537c This imposed a burden of 50 million francs on tax payers. at the same time and over 9 million annually, whereas previously the corresponding expenses fell on the church and monasteries.
a087ab36e790a4bd7feb596dc69a1b54cbe5b222 In November 1903, Waldeck Rousseau opposed the government in the Senate, arguing that it was too harsh, regardless of the circumstances, to implement the law on congregations.
b123b4d14571bbce6c67ed3ea3c3c7972cd4efde This speech delighted the opponents of the cabinet, but it did not have much influence; the government retained its majority in both chambers after it.
bd2b40f1fdebb0e690efda3ffb4a8496b81309ed In January 1905, the government passed through the chambers a ban on teaching the Law of God in the Breton language.
47aa2bdfce93bb27dbd18e38c30c830ba33962eb The government, however, did not dare to cancel the concordat, finding that the religious consciousness of the people was not yet at the proper height.
2ad4b4dfee902b1c30e43dd5af9aa4c5b798f125 In September 1903, the opening of the monument to Renan in Treguier gave rise to clerical demonstrations: the troops were forced to drive away a significant crowd of people from the place of celebration.
214c74514325d0b23cf3119fed5a003bde3a437e In April 1904, crucifixes and other religious emblems were removed from the courts.
e0bb2f9030101f85b17dd93cc33cf59703ac1a09 Russian Russian friendship, although Delcasse, an ardent supporter of the Franco Russian union, remained the Minister of Foreign Affairs, but the Franco Russian friendship cooled somewhat during the activities of the Combe cabinet.
0f81b9ee98ff5378a5cef4bbfe925ca8b84c2f68 During 1903, the Kings of English and Italian visited Paris;
668dd0353451550dcbb97c822c993adac445ab24 Loubet gave them a visit in London and Rome.
e615456b56409cb240866290a2b6599aa6289730 Loubet's trip to Rome (April 1904) was an act of not only international, but also ecclesiastical policy: he did not consider it necessary to visit the pope, and could not have done so due to the statement of the Roman curia that the simultaneous visit of the head of the church and the head of state, who deprived the pope of his rights, is possible only for a non orthodox sovereign.
e30fa257b77d53b903cf079756d2f0f2c7316e6c In the visit of the King of Italy, in Rome, by the president of the French Republic, the curia saw an insult to itself and expressed its protest officially.
8b4d86f1d916caf75498dda1b37485840efa81b0 The French government responded by recalling its ambassador from the Vatican (May 1904).
d249364d6ebdf51fe65fe2ec623ab1d60779d9bd Nevertheless, the pope delayed recalling his nuncio from Paris.
8a5efff95402f9bb92220b6ca7041ca38484290c In July 1904, the pope dismissed two French bishops without obtaining the consent of the French government.
86ef99b436c3c99a93c19442df772899039cd6bb Then the entire staff of the French embassy was recalled from Rome, and the papal nuncio was informed that his stay in Paris no longer had any purpose.
05e6413bd63144227be21b93a47fdbcd18e2a337 Diplomatic relations between France and the Holy See were severed.
d577bcdd523885359976e41e9a8d72ace83005ac A number of episcopal and priestly chairs that had become vacant could not be replaced due to the impossibility of an agreement between the French government and the curia.
d54c7298ed8b47af7a6280e400ea906fa4a2aa3e — The political rapprochement with Italy and England was completed by treaties on the peaceful arbitration of disputes between them; similar treaties were concluded with Spain, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands.
95a574b42d30556f8b58c0633eda4c07b151015f Another agreement between France and England concerned colonial issues.
63c67d6123223482e35520e366e67107c14a83b0 France has pledged not to demand the evacuation of Egypt by the British;
a856b3b6300b3d9f65d0d68e86f303376cfd2bda England recognized that France has the right to protect peace and order in Morocco and provide the Moroccan Sultan with the necessary military and financial assistance; for the next 30 years, France and England should enjoy the same trading position in Egypt and Morocco; to ensure freedom of navigation through the Strait of Gibraltar, no coastal fortifications should be erected in a certain part of Morocco; in relation to fishing near Newfoundland, France refused the privileges granted to it by the Utrecht Peace; in Senegambia, however, the borders between French and English were corrected in favor of France in Siam, the Menam River is recognized as the border between the spheres of influence of England and France, and both powers have pledged not to annex Siam to themselves;
0432c32dc4febd2092cdd015658ff2b7f1ba7f18 England refused to influence the customs legislation of Madagascar.
e28c9344bea77662d561d79c306d72b1457b6839 October 6, 1904 Spain recognized the Franco English agreement regarding Morocco.
e4bba77724a86e1486fd8ab12e7c21f3fc859bc3 In the agreement with England, no attention was paid to the interests of Germany, which has well known claims to Morocco.
09cff56e7b68df3e3eb3b62c21ba9671a5b28914 At the end of 1904, as a result, disputes began between France and Germany, which somewhat shook Delcasse's position.
ddc2d844bded285434f8587954b4de132d0798b4 Meanwhile, the latter valued the rapprochement with Germany very much: he allowed the expulsion from France of the Alsatian Delsor, who came to Paris to organize rallies and give lectures on the Alsatian question.
543adcba110d32fcd9cdef5d6657d441377d5f2a The movement of the issue of income tax was slowed down by the Minister of Finance himself, who did not deviate in any way from the financial policy of previous cabinets; he declared the purchase of railway roads by the state untimely.
ab4219aa58a1d15e83e3eca3c3598ec3cd75d8c5 In 1903, the Dreyfus case was resumed.
7c3f224cef5fa0a86ead96d1802a38821e6f0418 His additional investigation was completed only in July 1906: the Court of Cassation overturned the verdict of the Rennes court, recognized Esterhazy as the author of the notorious bordereau and found it unnecessary to re examine the case, in view of which a special law passed through the chambers, Dreyfus and his supporter Colonel Piccard were restored to all their official rights.
5a093ff123c6d0175249be03ed0f6de30e90b009 This outcome of the case did not cause the previous irritation of passions: French nationalism, in its form, in which it was manifested in the Dreyfus case, no longer existed at that time.
13babe89eb0e499ebc82cac1a82403a0494d634a In order to overthrow the government, a slanderous accusation of bribery was brought against Combe's son, who was acting as a private secretary under his father.
96c2f8034424cbf9df8f720244f197d3bf1238a4 A systematic campaign was waged against the naval minister Peltan, led by one of his predecessors in the ministry, also a radical (but with a vividly nationalistic tinge), Locroy.
e368b5292df2bcef92ec3870aaeeec57c5b119a8 In this struggle, two opposing views on naval affairs were expressed in part: Peltan is a supporter of small military vessels (destroyers and counter — destroyers), Locroy battleships and cruisers (the Russian Japanese war irrefutably proved that Locroy was right in this dispute).
712b5ad28e575bfab93d9215fdb1837ad27a75b1 Locroy argued that Peltan weakens the navy both by disproportionately spending on small vessels, and by selecting employees, in which he considers the political beliefs of the appointees more than their suitability for the case.
d69fc50d60e8ee5d7f2fb352d095eed55343093e There was a similar campaign against the Minister of War Andre, who undoubtedly contributed to the development of political informer among the army.
428f7acfe7ad5177a66e403ab544f15d48095435 He was replaced by the radical socialist Berto.
ba8c646cf4c072fd9f00ba1225f7b7333858e4fc The former minister in the cabinet of Waldeck Rousseau, the socialist Millerand, also took part in the agitation against the cabinet, accusing the government of forgetting social policy because of church policy.
a797562496309629726a6e61877f4d665ad41f04 From the combination of clerics and nationalists with socialists and radicals, a cohesive and strong opposition was formed.
069e6b9c13360fea423227ad4c81b3bcfe5a0a9f At the opening of the parliamentary session in January 1905, some radicals nominated Paul Doumer, who belonged to the radical party, but participated in agitation against the cabinet, as a candidate for the post of president of the chamber.
79b1f1cec56cf922e87065eeb990e414c3c227a2 Dumer was selected by 265 goals against 240 given to the ministry's candidate, Brisson.
3c620d70e3f1efedbbe13124e31dfe2248d82dc9 A few days later, when discussing the general policy of the cabinet, it received an expression of approval by a majority of 289 votes to 279.
739e5a1c8df217ce0ba7bf6d2e8795ef6026e4f1 Dissatisfied with such an insignificant majority, Combe resigned (January 14, 1905), having held power for 2 years and 7 months.
aa8f8e5c9bc10b7804f62643443007e058acd004 On January 24, 1905, a new cabinet was formed.
a564a314a1a3889df28d37cbda3601c69fceefe6 It was headed by Rouvier, who remained the Minister of Finance.
4d99dae07f1454e21e3808cf9abfa0cab88fa9ea From the former cabinet, Chaumier, who had changed the portfolio of public education to justice, Delcasse, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Bertaud, the Minister of War, entered the new one.
4695a5b46338cf1e4cd6d017a69821dad49391ff The new ministers were: Etienne, Minister of Internal Affairs. del;
5265bb9ac13f4d3430e53ac6efeb0b534939d7d0 Thomson, Minister of the Navy;
356f9fd1cddc9f4e80436d3a93072055aeadeaf5 Bienvenu Martin, Minister of Public Education and Worship;
98b180da88f4ec9a9309e1d1c6b016cb2400c6f2 Dubief, Minister of Commerce, Posts and Telegraphs;
ef811b313179a7f402de7246e0f3af0c0941763d Clumentel, Minister of the Colonies;
1b0d7c1d89d64d4963c704f4f6713952c41f66fa Ryuo, Minister of Agriculture;
89ff257ef33c3a232119da633c71e080ea79154f Gauthier, Minister of Public Works.
f5350281897b157776cf6081a33add325b6b9d54 Persons with a pronounced radical coloring (Combe, Peltant, Vallet, Doumergue) all, except Bertaud, left the cabinet; its left side was strengthened by the radical socialists Dubief and Bienvenu Martin and the radicals Ruo and Clumentel, but they did not have the most important portfolios in their hands.
90e04675f069e5f44283e27f55184ec1720e05fe In its first declaration, the Rouvier cabinet promised to continue Combe's policy in all essential matters.
2656e7d653a2cc694fd85ff299235434e5088fa9 The ecclesiastical policy of the government has changed very little, becoming perhaps a little more lenient.
a8ee58120af8ac56367e712cbe6ad12b952f68a0 The project of separation of church and state introduced by M v was only slightly different from the project proposed by Briand even earlier.
d5a338501d8c518c3eddbbac6b2edab13efee1e2 The essence of the law, promulgated at the end of 1905, is as follows: the republic does not recognize, does not pay for or subsidize any church.
69d4ec3ae5beb07b9232c1dba31e293723f1020c Starting from January 1, 1906, the state budget of cults, as well as the expenses of departments and communities for them, are being destroyed.
699fab66b9d302f8fb8f39fbe1582ec00f9f5839 During the year, the movable and immovable property of the church, with all the obligations that lie on them, are transferred to religious associations of believers.
3f813ed3cae3ff2266b0dac0b5446bc017301f54 Properties that previously belonged to the state, departments or communities are returned to them according to their affiliation, with an obligation to rent them out to associations of believers within a certain period of time.
9d06b665f0abdd1ddd1b7d67afb536a00a230fe1 Church servants who have served for at least 30 years and have reached the age of 60 are provided with a lifetime annual pension from state funds, in the amount of 3/4 of their previous salary; at a lower age and with a smaller number of years of service, a reduced pension is assigned.
d04fbf8f4609d66ff4ea53413d3ab450835e835b Believers are allowed to organize associations that enjoy the freedom of religious worship.
14a79e88c04dbec84c9f1a06fecc0a7f6925c1fe The separation of church and state provoked attacks from two sides.
d063a289de97db7e51ca65ff9e8aa5026ff5750b On the right, clerics attacked him for taking away a privileged position in the state from the church; they saw a violation of freedom of conscience in the termination of the dependence of the church on the state; clerics considered church property an inalienable property of the church and called the encroachment on them robbery.
740c47217b47f22d3cb4bc4fc30d662b982bf602 On the left, from the socialist camp, the government was reproached for a lack of determination and consistency; it was pointed out that the so called church property was acquired by the church thanks to the state, and therefore can and should be considered public property.
fa8bbad11b65ff5244dd3882a498e0330e057353 — The law on insurance of persons living by earnings was not passed under the Rouvier cabinet; the income tax bill was not introduced by this cabinet at all.
0d4daf9d5e05c9e06f5d2c1ec4cfbf1056c6652f The composition of the fleet was significantly increased, since in 1898 the German fleet was only 1/4 of the French, by 1908 it should already be 3/4, and in 1917 it should surpass it if France does not build 24 large warships.
55e4249d6ed242081f3636d73ec361b09bce92cd — In February 1905, an international court of justice was sitting in Paris, examining the case of the sinking of British ships by a Russian squadron (see the Hull incident).
f28a109b76672a217c6f08ba5f0fc2a7ad38c443 At the end of April, the English king visited Paris again, at the end of May and the beginning of June — the Spanish one, whose life was attempted by a Spanish anarchist who threw a bomb into his carriage.
0227888211a069195f43d50cd345df1fde29842c The Tsushima disaster (May 15, 1905), having undermined Russian power at sea, turned out to be unprofitable for supporters of the Russophile policy.
7bea164293df1c919aec118a2ec6ca37766c800e On June 6, 1905, Rouvier took Delcasse's place, giving the finance portfolio to Merle.
c285ce605680fe06439aa823d7825eb6934eb80b Rouvier's task, as the Minister of Internal Affairs, was to settle the dispute with Germany.
324318fac76af5e269746623736a3ca6b35ad378 The conference convened for this purpose met in Algeciras (in Spain) and in April 1906 worked out an act recognizing the sovereignty of the Moroccan Sultan, the inviolability of his possessions and the economic equality of the powers in Morocco.
b3de0ba85ca582e71c79ee20ab3c2c9af31a2a1d In reality, however, the entire internal administration of Morocco was placed under the strictest control of the European powers.
ec1550154580c91f6469e0369afe86385f34046c The Sultan must appoint an officer recommended to him by the Swiss Government as the chief of Police.
69ca9fb1e762003724f3b2b04ea8df9b549ca88e - Dissatisfaction with the measures taken by the cabinet against the formation of syndicates by officials was expressed in the resignation of the Minister of War Berto.
0c2da4a64071ee20644f8a7461c5abf681c29b48 He was replaced by Etienne; the portfolio of the Minister of the Interior passed to the Minister of Commerce Dubief, who was replaced by Truglio, a moderate Republican.
5149c9252b3c2f18276f2d417bc81872ca795daa On February 19, 1906, the seven year term of the presidency of Loubet expired, who resolutely refused a secondary candidacy.
4dbc7cf34ef334c6c51c2e6f96034642630ed5d4 On January 17, President of the Senate Fallier was elected President of the Republic, receiving 449 votes against 379 given to the candidate of the right, President of the Chamber of Deputies Dumer.
4c0c0a678b345804a1160127e67924ca29fa9520 Not only all the left wing Republicans and radicals (by the way, Brisson and Bourgeois) voted for Fallier, but also the socialists, with Jaures at the head.
37305c7f2119d52b123a886d4d71945d4093c7d9 On March 7, 1906, Rouvier resigned; the cabinet of the radical Sarrien took his place.
cc286e83333e20c2a0fdfbf7825fc5657de11907 From the old cabinet, the Minister of War Etienne, the Minister of the Navy Thomson and the Minister of Agriculture of the RSO moved to the new one.
bd552b8e4056a087419a1e33610097e816004b2f The color of the cabinet was given by the new Minister of Internal Affairs, a radical sociologist liszt Clemenceau, the famous destroyer of ministries, who for the first time accepted the ministerial portfolio, the Minister of Public Education — the independent socialist Aristide Briand (the main fighter for the separation of church and state); the Minister of Foreign Affairs — the radical Bourgeois; the Minister of Trade — the radical Dumergue (should not be confused with Dumer).
db3b3bd72d349d7a92153fc820478f36797bb8b0 Sarrien himself, who took the justice portfolio for himself, stood politically as if in the center of the cabinet.
fe11789993c11cbcf5eede94ed0a3af8ca9746ad On the right side of the new cabinet members were the Minister of Finance Poincare, the Minister of Colonies Leig and the Minister of Public Works Bartou.
b42ed72f0adc35d7c251f9ffe694ed92b07a83a2 The cabinet included the most prominent people of the French parliament: it was repeatedly called the cabinet of chiefs.
83140090826b130aed9aa6e470830e3ec56a5644 The formation of this cabinet was the same movement to the left as the choice of Fallier.
9aa53e7ee40221ee30f4c42589afa1a637f6f811 His main task was to implement the law on Sunday rest, which in enterprises that do not allow it, can be replaced by rest on another day of the week.
8c9c2a57f2faad18d1f6aea0158c5b7bd5fd5dcf This law aroused the strong discontent of the bourgeoisie; nevertheless, it came into force, although it was violated in some places.
742b458f2f09f901d559812e636a618072a468a5 When the Russian government applied for permission to place a new loan in France, there was a disagreement in the cabinet: Clemenceau was a strong opponent of the loan, but Poincare and Bourgeois stood for it, and the issue of the loan on the French money market was allowed in April 1906.
5fe9e0fa41569be3d7684974d5612e84a3ce0f5a On May 6, 1906, elections to the Chamber of Deputies took place, which moved the center of parliamentary life significantly to the left.
f61c7b82511f520a2c72c9ecb4e371adde52dacd Of the 8,900,000 votes cast, 970,000 party Socialists, 160,000 independent Socialists, 3,100,000 radical Socialists, and 850,000 radicals fell to the share of the party Socialists — in total, the left received 5,080,000 votes; the right, counting the progressives, did not collect 3,600,000 of them.
91abee03f6b2f0660d9912a2ea9d6ca8a225d65c The United Socialists won 53 seats in the chamber, the radicals and radical Socialists — 360.
ef6b9ab98bf84be6a01a648dd98e2383adecd02c All the leaders of the left returned to the chamber, including Jules Gade, who was blackballed in 1898 and 1902; only Paul Lafargue failed again (in the fight against the independent socialist Millerand).
2ee7bbb388fdffc8861dd5745e5ac4be21f25bd2 The right and the nationalists have lost many of their leaders (for example, Flourens, Rocha, Piu).
e3b4a87523c03887a2471d8aa5d8c9592580d548 On June 19, the session of the Parliament opened;
0ead43021d064f7ab74764062dab47a8e61f7aba Brisson was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies.
e58aee0ade25b9c68b94e84fa0951655586c5ee8 The position of the right wing members of the cabinet was becoming difficult.
69962a9903232719f9f7058ccb5c5fe12b07ea8f In October, Sarrien resigned due to the inability to reconcile differences in the cabinet.
a19bae52e9dcaafe25a4a45948a19fa5c9a706e0 The new Cabinet was formed by Clemenceau on October 26, 1906 Clemenceau, Thomson, Barthou, Ruo and Briand moved from the old office to the new one with the same portfolios.
49f57641ff5591d0075fd0cbc083e9028ce8eb80 The portfolio of justice was given to Guyot Dessin, the portfolio of foreign affairs Pichon, finance Callot, trade Doumergue, colonies Millies Lacroix (not to be confused with Ed. Locroy, ex. minister of the Navy), the War Ministry — General Piccard, who until then had not participated in parliamentary life, known for his role in the Dreyfus case.
12b7094cffa3ecb908a530c91dee25b0f26abcdb A special Ministry of Labor and Social Events was re established, headed by Viviani.
a0f514d02b337c055945daaf31615f3868e0b3f6 Thus, there were two independent socialists in the cabinet (Briand and Viviani), three radical socialists (Clemenceau, Pichon and Doumergue), five radicals (Dessin, Callot, Piccard, Lacroix, Rouault) and two Republicans (Thomson and Barthou).
f46bd286c005eeb9f0dec0b690ae9ad5dd4fb585 In January 1907, Deputy Flandin introduced a draft law on the freedom of public assembly, which abolished the obligation to make a preliminary statement about an assembly to the police authorities; this project met with government support.
341a243df8a90c993ce37a1746bcb519c2baf573 Russian Russian government's efforts to conclude a new loan in France were opposed by Clemenceau and Callot; the latter directly stated in the Chamber of Deputies that a Russian loan, not approved by the State Duma, is out of the question in France.
229ef7bbcd4f280c17c447b179670b9114f54caf During the strikes, the cabinet at first showed a rare impartiality in France, but in 1907 it followed the path of its predecessors in this regard.
1d2bbfe177a144cc44124fbc9d413fa55a31890c The desire to form syndicates that had manifested itself among the officials seemed dangerous to the cabinet for the correct course of the state machine; finding that the strikes of officials could not be equated with the strikes of workers, it began to persecute the syndicates of officials, especially teachers.
1d72a9277b659c040c4fe6edfbf3ba7fcf4bb9e4 As a result, there was a strong cooling between the cabinet and the Socialists, who at the end of April 1907 moved into direct opposition to the cabinet; strong discontent was also revealed among the socialist and radical radicals.
4a4df0664691eae19be12cd5232d9389c50d8a84 France in the First World War[edit / edit wiki text]
5cb511968c00a6b0d632ddfbc5bde2c717b5b74f French aerial photography of German positions, 1916
890993109454e175b4800d1f760592377d131c3d However, the Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911 still caused alarm, and in In 1913, representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the General Staff, convinced that Germany was preparing for war, had difficulty convincing the Chamber of Deputies to adopt a law on three year military service.
9c9b7b322bc6aeeeab2b06ca1cd1ad2329691c5f This law was opposed by the entire bloc of the left, especially the socialists, who, under the leadership of the famous Jean Jaures, were ready to call for a general strike to prevent mobilization.
ee1a48cbceeaabafcc54cf314e91cb0b3a24737a They were sure that the German Socialists would do the same (although reports from Germany did not confirm this).
53328820c83d9d3ac76c55c18422a5d07eb8ca6c When the international situation became more complicated in the summer of 1914, he paid an official visit to Tsar Nicholas II. Despite this, for the majority of the population, the war that broke out was a complete surprise.
2fafe7b1a23b3387d9df2c435ffe8473650a0ab6 France was saved from complete defeat during the massive German offensive thanks to the courage of the French troops during the retreat to the Marne and the offensive of the Russian army into East Prussia.
b371b65896b43b12e5f5a0910c6dc1127c2c681f After that, both sides switched to positional forms of war.
6dea523cf825ac8bd8505c934f1ecf7380959fb4 This trench warfare lasted for four years.
48acf477c2a8f965e1bad52d5c823383151ffdc7 In 1917, after the United States entered the war, the German army made a last desperate attempt to achieve victory through the last major offensive in France.
4527f961741541e3441a80fdb3e2631aaeda88e9 It achieved success, but the arrival of American troops, ammunition and food in Europe stopped the German offensive and weakened the morale of the German army.
0c7b42f72c9b779d78305bf9d6cf420cf7728b86 The famous Marshal Ferdinand Foch, with the support of the Clemenceau government, led the Entente troops in a brilliant campaign that culminated in the expulsion of the Germans from France.
c79d12a562810cb45a82800ec413db4b76767c63 In Germany, which was close to the exhaustion of its resources, a revolution began and it requested an armistice, which was concluded on November 11, 1918.
5360968b7124e39406b6628e3ea14fe0babc9def Pigeon messenger car of the French army PMV
c2d87d13eae34b97010b5dff4df4bcb77f017dbd Peugeot 18CV armored car of the French army PMV
471fc3a2e252a15f3b6f8870356ba5399605b9b7 Bath car of the French army PMV
e0a10a6843bd67452205707f0f036f7e15d53a2e French armored train PMV
e63611be14ea1ab31f59ee1b5f530db2a1764566 Projectile of the French heavy PMV gun of 400 mm caliber
daecfde3ec5aea64e323b737e3e72ae961b7ab3b France in the period between the two wars (1918-1939)[edit / edit wiki text]
1c2ae60456d06ab90a7d0cf715f1632acd218348 Poincare counted on German reparations to keep the franc at least at the level of 1/10 of the pre war value, to cover the costs of restoring destroyed areas and to pay interest on loans to Great Britain and the United States.
66764ca7eadf164435eb8005d097fd159c26cfa8 Many even doubted the possibility of Germany paying large reparations.
549453ee2be0c403a5b5b1deec7090b78638472a Poincare, who did not share these doubts, in 1923 led troops into the Ruhr region.
e05dc9fb3cbd01d0c699bad8b2a58b7649d7155e The Germans resisted and capitulated only after the introduction of emergency measures.
e325f3eb87d1e851ef67d9dd25e13dad09acabb6 British and American experts put forward the Dawes plan to finance reparations payments, mainly through American loans to Germany.
0ffc80ac99dae8bcae7372fe1fac427959889095 In the first half of the 1920s, Poincare enjoyed the support of the nationalist minded parliament elected in 1920.
1752d3d2e3a6b2cebe0dd89d52c16d86c9041b5f The new Chamber rejected the Poincare line along with his firm monetary policy in France and, in order to improve relations with Germany, brought first Edouard Herriot and then Briand to power.
48807f3af329259a8c77c8533e2fcafcf53971af Briand's plans to ensure peace in Europe apparently met with a favorable response from Gustav Stresemann, the Reich Chancellor and German Foreign Minister.
d93a9d1b0a1b87c8006782b0d739de260523cf96 Stresemann initiated the conclusion of a guarantee pact on the inviolability of state borders in the Rhine region and on the preservation of the demilitarization of the Rhineland, which was reflected in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
6a17a058a5259c66878a3478233e0fe255fefeae From the mid 1920s until his death in 1932, Briand led the foreign policy of France.
5d5d5b5071fdc13f7b23aaf7a910560f489b5bfe Moreover, in the 1930s, when production was declining all over the world, France would hardly have been able to achieve genuine international cooperation, which alone could have saved the country's economy from collapse.
55b2e88dafa899e0e35f50d84ecce5982396d1d8 In the 1936 elections, the Popular Front won a decisive victory, partly because it seemed to be the only defense in the face of totalitarian right wing forces, but mainly because of the promise to improve the economic situation and carry out social reforms (similar to the New Course in the United States).
2e83d0f2191d283e78c85104634ba72870b26824 Unfortunately, such an attempt to revive the long standing Franco Russian alliance to curb Germany was not crowned with success.
feac8585aaa0279802d6f7c190362c53eec4a675 After the annexation of Austria (1938), Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia hand over the Sudetenland to Germany.
88373e352b612e1c3efedb33d72de0a99ba64e2b At the Munich Conference, France agreed to the partition of Czechoslovakia.
e90354da9ad389615850ab2f69d4ca5eea97828c The French could take a decisive position at the conference, since it had non aggression agreements with both Czechoslovakia and the USSR.
776fed2bdbb91397155422d2c63378bfc603d298 However, the representative of France, Edouard Daladier, took a position similar to that of the English Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain.
42bb270171dc1e3b11c3d466c993c350ef913534 France during the Second World War[edit / edit wiki text]
ddc99ec3255b6dea6dda98d81ff43056d2d0de6a In the period from September 1939 to the German occupation of Norway in April 1940, France was inactive, so the confrontation with Germany acquired the character of a so called "strange war".
b96db7085a621523de4e8d632cb2a192585dffe5 Vichy Regime (1940-1944)[edit / edit wiki text]
ab9dd09674764c3bf7032b370e26af3e56d1ea25 Main article: Vichy Mode
96246dde77897f7834fa0741d9b1bb41f1b56881 The armistice agreement concluded on June 22, 1940, put an end to the fighting in France.
f2d5fff074c266c4d49adef0592cd6bff86d40ec At the same time, the French General Charles de Gaulle spoke on the radio from London and called on all the French to unite to fight the invaders.
eba197d604ed77a22a63f2df8fdbb4cc59211601 On July 11, the deputies of the parliament gathered in Vichy and handed over power to Marshal Philippe Petain.
bd90de76ca4587b8d3f8c8a09698d2be4ba4e523 The Vichy government held control over 2/5 of the country's territory (central and southern regions), while German troops occupied the entire north and the Atlantic coast.
ca876318e678702d290dcfef2c3be5d17269689a The Vichy government lasted until the invasion of Anglo American troops in North Africa in November 1942.
bccc63e1b43a65549a5ccf7fdce46a9b2ee1a50e After that, the Germans completely occupied France.
0a423d0592255c9a3fd8d37a796e44f806840718 The Germans carried out a brutal policy in the occupied territory.
7420641d47b15271b596d68e4b048cc7faf38ec4 The resistance movement, initially weak, was significantly strengthened when the Germans began to export the French to Germany for forced labor.
7ca0bfe6624556fb6620fdf2ffe067918a315af1 The implementation of all these principles greatly complicated the unstable financial system of the country To support it, it was necessary to restore, systematically develop and expand the industrial base of the economy.
4594de602f0f743e3f6d31a34803491dd809af78 The relevant plans were developed by a group of experts led by Jean Monnet.
e4e9916b838cc2e625b8bc5f6b24cbc8c8670bef The Fourth Republic (1946-1958)[edit / edit wiki text]
e3fde8fd05bf263e43795d45ff3c291bb7941a58 Main article: The Fourth Republic
8d9084b9c94bb4c109c2933f32df82cb440d8838 In 1946, the Constituent Assembly adopted a draft of a new constitution that eliminated a number of shortcomings of the Third Republic.
ac227c4be6a1b1d9451dc7f992760388146af747 General de Gaulle spoke in favor of establishing an authoritarian presidential regime.
8120d6284e05603c78b1a9abdaca7ad2f512f14a The Communists (who, thanks to their active participation in the Resistance, now played an important role in the government) proposed a single Legislative Assembly.
6a613d9f5b9ce5c37037b6ec096c1dc9bcb61cf1 However, the majority of voters considered that this plan was fraught with the threat of a communist conspiracy, and did not accept it in a general referendum.
974cde871036163743b53258098551a4f5e6ea9b In the second referendum, a compromise constitution was adopted, according to which a weak president and an advisory advisory upper house were supplemented by an influential National Assembly that controlled the activities of the government.
1f93e03a28047d2927e407c274b0626dd8067a23 The similarity between the Fourth and Third Republics was obvious.
acd4d23cd0b4cee73b80438c878f13be1780c189 In 1947, the United States announced a comprehensive program of economic assistance (the Marshall Plan) in order to prevent the collapse of the economic and political structure of Europe and accelerate the reconstruction of its industry.
a8c47ab2fb1970ff5ed473dff18d170b80693a7e The United States provided assistance on the condition that the newly created Organization for European Economic Cooperation would mark the beginning of the integration of European states.
af35420ce4258f1b76af8ae1937c030656e78a9f Meanwhile, the Cold War begins, and in 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created by the United States to strengthen its position in Western Europe.
4541a34dfc2a0ba14f93c235b3e079dcd2317f7b France took part in the general activities under the treaty, although this weighed heavily on the country's budget and depleted its military resources.
fdcc438d222c014b097be9d18ac2dcb965ccc6bc Thus, there was an insoluble conflict between the fulfillment of contractual obligations to NATO and the financial capabilities of France.
1cc0acc81976cbfe6e981f185d44350fa2c7f06d After the Second World War, the national liberation movement intensified in the countries of Southeast Asia, including the French protectorate of Indochina.
ed7378a86ca301f08806b4f3883b11890a2f775f Although the provisional government of de Gaulle promised to grant political rights to all subjects, which was confirmed by the constitution of 1946, France supported the reactionary regime in Indochina, which opposed the forces of Vietnam, which had previously fought for the liberation of the country from Japanese invaders, and then received the support of China.
eddfd869d89fe2eb125f4c9cc06f06748b2b113e After the conclusion of the armistice in Korea, it became clear that France would have to evacuate its troops from Vietnam.
1e8b0316ef7e205a5cecef974b62e1d468fdd1a3 During this period, the Communists ' attempts to discredit American aid or refuse it intensified in France itself, and de Gaulle's party, the Union of the French People (RPF), wanting to protect the country from communism, sought power and a change in the state system.
ec273e53e6e82a97b7177f4a7fe8a122b782b79a In the general elections of 1951, the party political struggle reached its climax.
94cec9a5297dfaec4ac64ed064b464cf81df7945 The Communists and Gaullists won a significant number of votes.
3f87c551c2f763ea4f39f3d90868db105a693291 However, thanks to the change in the electoral law (the rejection of the proportional system of elections and the introduction of majority voting), the Republican parties that united before the elections in a bloc called the "Third Force" were able to win almost two thirds of the seats in the National Assembly.
a2e71f507e5b63479de8d6223bd4b9c37ba5b650 This allowed them to form a coalition government.
4963fb1758b4207ea6d9636f1eda9c403a27f530 Shortly after the complete defeat of the French army in Indochina, in the large scale battle of Dien Bien Phu, Pierre Mendes France was appointed the new prime minister.
2bd1cfdafed5b2b5df9840b6b960d58e9802f76a A former financial expert with strong anti colonialist views, he conducted peace negotiations and in July 1954 signed the Geneva Agreements on ending the war in Indochina.
67b9e1604ef219249ae1f0398cf7678ac611adc5 Although Mendes France had his own program, he immediately became involved in the struggle for the approval of the treaty on the organization of the European Defense Community (EOS) and for the inclusion of the FRG in its composition.
4371740aeff9fc784729d6503d1ff7e280b0ec47 In France, the opponents of the revival of the German army were so influential that this treaty, inspired by the United States, was never ratified.
3683ff011ab7034c52adba56c176a869bc3c38d0 The failure of Mendes France, who supported the EOS project, caused hostility to it from the Republican People's Movement led by Georges Bidault.
730a8096894e76e8320c9618f69eccbfc54f90ce As a result, the Government was forced to resign.
dac4f6663990a48c6b02158b1b2be27a8a47ae8d In the mid 1950s, unrest began in North Africa — Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria (the first two were considered French protectorates, and the last was an overseas department of France).
eab75a83e13512047e04ed151cd576a64337ff09 Tunisia gained independence in 1956, and Morocco in 1957.
2139978136023fd3b264c60fbe2fd6e5fa5fafd1 The army, which had just returned from Indochina, was transferred to Algeria to repel terrorist attacks by the rebels of the National Liberation Front (FLN).
299df04a7f88d557852f21bcf3924c92a1a9085b Although during the election campaign, Molle promised to conduct peace negotiations with the rebels, in the spring of 1956 he announced a general mobilization in the country to pacify Algeria by force.
e4b21471ed437a466641d774de20e2e72036e326 Since Egypt supported the FLN, France in retaliation sent its troops to help Britain in its campaign in the Suez Canal zone in the fall of 1956.
6937c4ec083de040006b5e3851fac0eb41ac3dc5 By getting involved in this conflict, the French government lost the trust of the people and political prestige, and also significantly depleted the treasury.
2d68f30512c475b33b9a20abba321bd4500cdda3 The French army in Algeria, with the instigation and support of the Europeans, who made up 10% of the total population of this country, actually ceased to obey the government.
dc9914055ca44a231a95c60a5353f18a98c4aea9 Although the major cities of Algeria managed to calm down, a wave of discontent was rising in France itself.
2b0295a97868b2761da8a2cd18cc914d03ddddae The fact that the army clearly exceeded its powers did not absolve the government from moral responsibility.
e6acf5cc36bc9b3ab1ceeea374985a359d79308a However, in the case of restoring order in the army, the country would lose its effective force and lose hope of victory.
ebe7f578dadf304bb34103e510ffd872b5b83860 Instigated by the Gaullist leaders, the army and the French colonists showed open disobedience to the government.
f9f32789c46a33ff4ce7b1aa2414389ff925b13c Violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, the metropolis was under the threat of civil war or a military coup.
127e9c193017ee5d95d91ac5394894f3474dfdf4 Torn by contradictions, the Fourth Republic on June 2, 1958 transferred emergency powers to Charles de Gaulle — the only person who could save France.
06d41b65eb96e4c743141cde628c61fa86525516 The Fifth Republic[edit / edit wiki text]
a59b677afda3d0cf82f4d6914efb738a3eeb6f8d Main article: The Fifth Republic
08a18e3a15a0b75b73f237e9086f915a57791371 In 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which expanded the rights of the executive branch.
1edd35fee98ca58a589405b074a0a1ce78c580aa General Charles de Gaulle became President.
90acf4ff2560e5bdf4a73b8b4885224551140617 By 1960, in the context of the collapse of the colonial system, most of the French colonies in Africa had gained independence.
f4f15fc88eb25c5613694aba1aad1933e75ddff4 In 1962, after a brutal war, Algeria gained independence.
949f5e2ec0e72b328080d5119a1b146230507ee6 Pro French Algerians moved to France, where they formed a rapidly growing Muslim minority.
47470d7b58eca6fe54f4200181acd41036450d6c Mass unrest of young people and students (the May 1968 events in France) caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike led to an acute state crisis.
cdc496c3d895b33a9ff63f35ceb54e4457f4b5b1 Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign (1969).
0fe41b63db9e3d31651a2be51681a2f70098291e I knew Mitterrand.
09b1844dea1e9c54a068af8ea3e5b36327f2279a I deeply respect this man, I remember the advice he gave me when signing the French guarantees to Ukraine, which then renounced nuclear weapons: do not believe any promises from the outside, rely only on yourself.
c20f40a9503b65c088e31421ccf1a393e46976ab This, I believe, is the recipe for French strategic independence, which the country has kept since the time of de Gaulle.
f84773e811d343a9a4a6aa611bf4821ce3792c19 The original text (in Ukrainian)
18dff2f682f254e78a7f3bc5789bf4a51e9ef9ba Gliboko povazhayu qiu lyudina, pamyatayu porada, yaku vin dav meni, pid I write the French guarantees of Ukraine, sho vid I was happy with the current vid nuclear zbro: do not be afraid of the same obitsyankam zzovni, pokladat lishe on yourself.
75b8c96f19f550fbd9a1448ba96bfdde4fdc478f In my opinion, I am introducing a recipe for a French strategic independence, like a kraina zberiga z chas de Gaulle.
a7f235d50166a9113bceed5daff6700151a1c6da - Leonid Kuchma, [1]
06f441cc129b3d57b8800af0b17a46f3e6370e3d Gaullist Georges Pompidou, who served as Prime Minister in 1962-1968, was elected the second president of the Fifth Republic in 1969.
9716dad91f5955d716eedd76a22c3837b064e5cd In 1974, he was replaced by Valery Giscard d'Estaing.
95f8d90cf8822d718dc815034edb15b0f4b27fbe From 1981 to 1995, the socialist Francois Mitterrand held the presidential post.
1ed6537bd1ff97285fb2bcea3e72eb164df3d23e Since May 17, 1995, Jacques Chirac has become the President of the Republic.
d35bdd5d4d5b094c3f628ed32a3cd49af1a6e868 After taking the post of president, Chirac focused the main efforts of his government on combating inflation and budget deficits by reducing public spending and social benefits.
323070ba114ac40571f7514631997eaa30ed3841 In November 1995, the Prime Minister appointed by Chirac, one of the leaders of the ODA, Alain Juppe, announced a plan to eliminate the budget deficit and social insurance funds.
dcabe07bfed349cb176e4213f897631b29f59a1f He proposed to increase taxes, reduce medical benefits, freeze the salaries of workers and employees of the public sector and cancel the pension benefits that they used.
4434c43dd62f3f3083f762e32b279225394b6f5f Juppe proposed to close unprofitable state owned enterprises (primarily railways) or sell them to private ownership.
61935e58df9ed1acb23311b87c10a0a28f3d1a54 Juppe's plan met with vigorous opposition.
3f326cb08d13da271276ad4bbb22cc59578dd226 All the trade unions that united workers and employees of the public sector went on strike, which gradually covered the vast majority of employees of public services: railway workers, electricians, postal employees, metro staff.
984d6dd9a8d223e6dbb2f1ee64d6f637512c8acf They were joined by students who demanded an increase in education loans and job guarantees after graduation.
1b58e59910446a849c7e380afb7fb22704fe6156 Mass demonstrations in support of the strikers took place in many cities.
143187fc3cb8ccdcac10a9396cccb57256ded3ef In total, about 2 million people participated in strikes and demonstrations that lasted for almost a month.
a57561799264405e70f934853e01ba1a1f98bfa3 The government had to cancel the Juppe plan; its popularity began to fall rapidly.
2d9f76c6c4a5e5451d4cbcf5d4f8a422cfa54151 The 1997 elections.
cae95efa6a0636d0c57e9245f5985f73058ebae1 Fearing that the decline in the popularity of the government could result in the defeat of the right in the upcoming parliamentary elections in 1998, Chirac decided to hold early elections while the right had not yet lost the confidence of the majority of voters.
66beac946dc901cfb855629e9b625df780e043f4 In April 1997, Chirac dissolved the National Assembly and called early parliamentary elections.
bfe840e6ac12a27ace8a8391dfeb66b1ba0d9abd They took place in June 1997, and, contrary to Chirac's calculations, the the victory was given to the socialists who acted in alliance with the communists.
3a93c1c71301834d6f58add0cc5738ba1e6c069a The left wing parties, which promised to end unemployment, create 700,000 new jobs and reduce the working day to 35 hours a week, collected 42% of the votes, while the ODA and the SFD 36.2 %. More than 25% of voters voted for the Socialists, and slightly less than 10% voted for the Communists.
bfd2db76849d1c5141b45d95ff589349c07454ff The National Front, which stood alone, collected more than 15 % of the votes — the best result in its history — but since no party wanted to block it in the second round, only one National Front deputy entered the parliament.
9180067793bc489ee85f3a287b0f287fbb014cdb Together with other left wing groups, the Socialists and Communists won a strong majority in parliament.
0ecbba6ffcf4a3088bcea609cc027b139adbfe1c In the current situation, Chirac, following the example of Mitterrand, used the tactics of" coexistence " and appointed the leader of the Socialist Party Jospin as prime minister, the right wing president began to coexist with the left wing government and the left wing majority in parliament.
b415d4868da0da91a95215bbeb958d4a99d243cc Jospin formed a left wing government consisting of socialists, left wing radicals and other left wing groups.
93fb10ae7bca0d2708653025636be18553a64f04 After a 13 year break, the Communists again joined it, receiving three secondary ministerial portfolios out of 27: the Minister of Industrial Equipment, Transport and Housing Construction; the Minister of Youth and Sports; the Deputy Minister for Tourism.
d4310cf37a28a2ed9742340103a702b3a2be08a5 The main posts in the government were occupied by socialists.
ece514c8e94edbfc3d5d358c70ddef14cd1bdc67 Speaking with the government declaration, Jospin promised to guarantee women equal rights with men, to soften the legislation against immigrants, to increase the minimum wage, to make the transition to a 35 hour working week.
249c10e5163073bd3343637172bb609901fb0bab Soon, the minimum wage and allowances for schoolchildren were increased; the transition to a 35 hour working week began.
ef210e6cfaca4a343a54f03a2654500e1178d7e6 In 1997, the volume of industrial production exceeded the level of 1974 by 55 % and more than five times exceeded the pre war level, but mass unemployment remained.
314812dbabd84fb771b25a7419cb37f13a413596 Since January 1, 1999, in France, as in other countries of the European Union, the European currency ("euro") entered into circulation — at first only in non cash payments.
7511f5be0a8087baafce0b25254176ee2d27bbff On September 24, 2000, at the initiative of President Chirac, a referendum was held in France on reducing the term of office of the President from seven to five years.
6a94864862e2d6f2e4a71bbc2e2de6f9d4c4fc50 The referendum did not arouse much interest among voters — almost 70% of them did not participate in the vote, setting a record of non participation in the elections.
b6c1bc891c5b180eec64914b7ba1b288b9f9eb60 73 % of those who voted supported limiting the term of office of the president to five years, and the new law on the terms of office of the president came into force.
3f8aff0de31ff8e912c16c80a9a381786e5570af The elections in May 2007 brought a victory in the second round to the leader of the Gaullist party, former Interior Minister (2002-2007) Nicolas Sarkozy.
c6085cc3c0c937ef82b447afb82378e6e4b97d26 France France in the topics Armed Forces • Science History of Gaul • The Middle Ages • Absolutism • The Great French Revolution • The Bourbon Restoration • The Third Republic • France in the XX century
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323329b71a8c73c130417f304891263c48dcfcbc History of France Antiquity Prehistoric France * Antiquity • Roman Gaul (220 BC 481) Medieval France Merovingians
19f4162c76dd39b3eefd952f37d2b2addf5c153a (481-751 • * Carolingians (751-987) • Capetians (987-1328) • Valois (1328-1589) • Bourbons (1589-1792, 1814-1848) Pre revolutionary France The Kingdom of France • Italian Wars • States General of Modern France French Revolution
7032d451ab3bcd02968ea3f8cda5650391bf0f81 (1789-1799 • * First Republic (1792-1804) • First Empire (1804-1814) • Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830) • July Monarchy (1830-1848) • Second Republic (1848-1852) • Second Empire
8badd4211293d8c25dfba6c27abbb5ad5354d3cc (1852-1870 • * Paris Commune (1871) • Third Republic (1871-1940) • Vichy Regime (1940-1944) • Provisional Government (1944-1946) • Fourth Republic (1946-1958) • Fifth Republic (since 1958)
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396e4d60a55d9ca4979a9f090da242c7bfa74725 Category: History of France
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95d4a73b02b43732d0679cd68cc94945948c9992 The beginning of the war The surrender of France and the Vichy regime "Free France" Resistance Movement French National Liberation Committee
9d0a4f2f36f13401337ed3460177bf09b3ce534f CHAPTER III. FRANCE DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR The beginning of the war on September 1, 1939, Fascist Germany attacked Poland.
8e6aafedaadc57ddc473084b5b99dffe217e5d48 France and Great Britain declared war on Germany.
af7bdccc8afbddcadf5990e548716baae4e98326 The Second World War began.
00c3ef8244ff9e9983d2493d05157a3ab7c25391 Poland has not received any real military assistance from its" guarantors", France and England.
94dfdb7bf215b870f85e6d911f14e5df6cd2d975 As a result, the Polish army was defeated by Germany in two weeks.
21645cf02fc6047bf9d8eb8d06e4896ae86104ec On the Western Front, the Germans did not take any decisive action.
c6864f5280ed0f59ba70c39d73ed0f224e2a07ac Great Britain and France did not take the military initiative, hoping that Germany would deliver the main blow in the East.
5d4fd46854cc2aa1d2cf9c2263225d3c9fb640c1 Since there were no military operations on the Western Front from September 1939 to May 1940, this time was called the "strange war"in France.
c21f9c1e65c884897395b1c4d6f8d6cb1fe3d10c In the autumn of 1939, the cabinet of Edouard Daladier was still in power.
cd5dcad5b1be4532972cf8f23b9bd34edc22e264 In March 1940, he was replaced by a government headed by the famous right wing politician Paul Reynaud (March June 1940).
95e4d1e3bb72992ca5f85a42ca6e169b5e4d01c3 The cabinets of Daladier and Reynaud, citing wartime conditions, gradually eliminated democratic freedoms.
5657c4b86f1d02c66e4a331049b855f72e4dcd5d In September 1939, martial law was imposed on the territory of France.
0da793e6da93983b1114ca4aec3efd735e582a76 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited.
9a4ac4ef8099075272dbbc0b809af93f46100e68 The press and radio were subjected to strict censorship.
1887b36a4b0ea8b42e780967f40833b2a7fc25eb The 40 hour working week and holidays were canceled.
acba21fe130833a8f38e8afe313244ad8b87d7a1 Wages were "frozen" at the pre war level.
1f1d1a3bbc1fd4c63b6a41f3b10ee5406fa44a57 The conclusion of the Soviet German non aggression pact served as an occasion for the unfolding of an anti communist campaign in France.
402a74f9cbc7ecffc3f93ca7474be309b2fdabcc The Communists were declared "agents of Moscow and Berlin".
c2e4531e1fef3655323537596759472200b8ce37 At the end of September 1939, the FKP was banned and began to operate underground.
7b5e6b7da7cf5df3ff7e0d9a96d3b53e6c7bc89b The capitulation of France and the Vichy regime In May 1940, Germany launched a rapid offensive on the Western Front.
4543a75fa9dabff5dc3f40787e827742bfd7a5e9 The Germans struck the first blow on French territory through neutral countries Belgium and Holland.
e01ba6a4d9d44c1d2a577d818aa6d04f4d48ca6b Then the main forces of the Hitlerite army attacked in the Sedan area, where the fortifications of the "Maginot line" ended.
afb809fa63f01d9fad4f5cc0a20a0d4968fe2cf0 The front was broken, the Germans went to the rear of the Anglo French troops and surrounded them near Dunkirk.
f9481001f399af2a5f2dfa2ae5fafc8a05c21993 The Anglo French fleet with great difficulty managed to evacuate the British expeditionary force without heavy weapons.
2e285e45785f6ec59dc796cecee90b498433c026 The main forces of the French army, having lost the support of the British, hastily retreated.
4becf5327563034b4c5c34183f6ecae74c88f2a4 On June 10, Italy declared war on France, and German troops were already near Paris.
9451c0a47b8e0aa8f4bd36a9ff9601e9d89fb818 The Reynaud government left the capital and moved south, first to Tours and then to Bordeaux.
0be3e99dfb57c0267bd23908fb4ec303e42eb465 On June 16, the Reynaud cabinet resigned.
caf63aac2cc899852ba2a50f13d21ab7524a13b5 The new government was formed by 84 year old Marshal Philippe Petain, a supporter of ending the war and concluding an armistice with Germany.
7ca28e0a5d645ffb19f81eedea4267b6f8debc66 He immediately appealed to the Germans to stop the hostilities and inform them of the terms of peace.
9e81e3d357716bde258318c78ab06e7d3d1c4976 The Franco German Armistice was signed on June 22, 1940 in Compiegne, the Franco Italian armistice was signed on June 25 in Rome.
5183f55ffe5590e82ab998527a58283aab74a2fc Two thirds of the country, including Paris, were occupied by Germany.
8e96f276074396c528cbb1bf0cc184ebc72ee205 The southern part of France (the so called free zone) and the colonies were not occupied and were controlled by the Petain government.
b2adb45e1e961a57bd31976e162a4d7ce2c8acc8 It settled in a small resort town of Vichy.
48c0db5f426a4bc9af7d10a559983853fc9616ce Formally, the Petain government retained the entire military fleet of the country.
f0b1fb205c36d7bb706c1b336f5d764b7db3baee Great Britain, which continued the war, fearing that the French fleet could be captured by Germany, decided to disable it.
d7532afbe273ec7560b227c0da42c583ca7a67c1 On July 3, 1940, the British fleet attacked a French squadron stationed in the harbor of Mers el Kebir (Algeria).
f50e0a82400a652e181b8b3010698a1d207eb928 Most of the ships were sunk or damaged.
14da4944a3533f8301751548a210f915052b86f9 At the same time, the British seized French ships that were in British ports, and blocked the French squadron in the port of Alexandria (Egypt).
92256ba91f3c71eaf55fa747fa755248fda5c626 In July 1940, in the unoccupied zone, Marshal Petain published "constitutional acts" that actually abolished the Constitution of the Third Republic.
1133c08be7fcfa1677a4710d04958766e2510671 The posts of the President of the Republic and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers were abolished.
6e82cf6e3495401ec6f779ae0ad40bd88c10286c The sessions of the Parliament were suspended.
31514a88ffeef11e111d20084f925b432b803a54 The fullness of executive and legislative power was transferred to Petain, who was declared the "head of state".
8b60cb4811d47ca89c0f3002ab513f7aceb23862 Pierre Laval became the second person in the Vichy government.
708139e48904ab1264cd4e8ae835006a2d544f82 The Catholic Church has gained great influence in the country.
0f24fc4266c98cb82591b8beb7a2a426f9dd20d0 Religious congregations were restored the right to teach in private schools, which was abolished by the 1905 law on the separation of church and state.
26d08ef55a0740cce0a6244dc0b02f677b23d0c8 State funding for private schools was also restored.
c302a1ed76f0c28b80d0d5792f4c8206055f1c11 Vichy propaganda quickly created Marshal Petain an aura of "the savior of France", who saved the French from continuing the war and returned peace and tranquility to the country.
500ba5a0c0a4506b2bb5862008a5e858f58b64e6 Germany exported up to three quarters of French raw materials and from 50 to 100% of the finished products of the main branches of French industry.
11327ee09a4485627e74c54ff4775e6f98553222 "Free France" Simultaneously with the defeat of France, the history of its resistance to the invaders began.
bc8ba722004c1a4178b922c06bb52c8bc0fa0d7f It is connected, first of all, with the name of the outstanding French military, political and statesman of the XX century, General Charles de Gaulle.
5873819e514d4bec66fb55a538b1a242cb5b4b4e De Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 in an aristocratic family and was brought up in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism.
2bc8d8133bc9fe697a7e7b985f399dd9b0c7f5db After graduating from the higher military school of Saint Cyr, he fought on the fields of the First World War and finished it with the rank of captain.
91f81bd7c37c1626e965237b10830775e1a3da27 During the interwar period, de Gaulle continued his military career.
c3c76c0a19a0083599f5c7156948b05e1769b0dc However, since the mid 20s, his activities went far beyond the army service.
48071ee3a03f1cfa38aae47e56bb5c49a2f956cd He wrote a lot and made reports.
a0d0c4874bc4f98c51e667a006502ee03e5e2c75 De Gaulle's four books — "Discord in the enemy's Camp" (1924), "At the Point of the Sword" (1932), "For a Professional Army" (1934) and "France and its Army" (1938) — reflected the author's own military doctrine and his life credo.
444ea1e3354bb9ede7567876216e4a1f44c39c4a He was essentially the first in France to predict the decisive role of tank troops in the future war and presented himself as an adherent of French nationalism and a supporter of a strong executive power.
59ff1142b37fb3ee72d85d503b8fcf329aaa416e De Gaulle was a staunch opponent of the defensive tactics developed in the General Staff of the French Army, which was based on the idea of the inaccessibility of the "Maginot Line".
759e349bddcb9e418f886b6c185a7bf6b7c89d7f He warned about the ruinous nature of such views and called for strengthening the country's defense capability.
7b5918e72846a2397ea4ec59bb2a40cc04912a1b De Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to form additional tank corps in France, equipped with the latest type of vehicles.
66cce21a905d030cb9d6df0ad9cdd442a6def202 He was looking for supporters in military and political circles.
2f0297c27fb041dbc5079f1ef3ef8d744d3e7647 In 1934, he even managed to get acquainted with Paul Raynaud, but de Gaulle did not achieve effective support for his ideas.
4fe118011950348ea4b0cff784216143d59315a5 At the beginning of the Second World War, de Gaulle, who served with the rank of colonel, was appointed commander of tank troops in Alsace.
55981d73ed5e9828c62bacacf2e6c29a4c91dd9e When Germany launched a rapid offensive on the Western Front in 1940, he was ordered to lead an urgently formed armored division.
d6fb349b75367c8ec8a80ec3bfc242605701fe07 Throughout May, she fought selflessly, suffering heavy losses.
2725b8111ceda5872b296d003e2289aca38b3e71 The enemy had a huge advantage in tanks, artillery and aviation.
ba804c081b0bdf914b2316b5570533f43e427094 For his military services, de Gaulle was promoted to the rank of brigadier general.
b382b9b7ab8580ada8ae517f2b489cfe1dd5888f In Paris, Paul Reynaud, when reorganizing his cabinet, appointed de Gaulle Deputy Minister of War.
343fe9a9999ec347af04a4cd7cb023fe9ab2a25e The general immediately arrived in the capital.
559037eab580b7c385bcee41f969be80c2231158 He stubbornly insisted on continuing the war and tried to convince Raynaud of this.
e91c0c857ac4a422eb629e68e6b28ba4af33ca4b De Gaulle suggested that the government move to the North African possessions of France and fight, relying on the huge colonial empire of the country.
d849d91d8f06d56dc48f951f95407ebdf91f2590 However, the chairman of the Council of Ministers preferred to transfer power to Marshal Petain.
254eab3b06de2587f117bcce8685ddfa2ec34b5f Then de Gaulle committed an unprecedented act.
cd67c017ada53335fe27c7c37278febd603d3d44 He resolutely refused to submit to the new French authorities, who took a course for surrender, and on June 17, 1940, he flew to London on a military plane.
4a19c159cdd7a148bd8dd29bf17cf596adcc1562 In the English capital, the rebel general immediately met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and assured him of his firm intention to continue the fight.
9eb3dd8af807c33f090cfeedd6ecda32f631e5d1 On June 18, de Gaulle made a famous speech to his compatriots on London radio.
eaa8aac29805bbe3a2ed2b991663ca31769309fa In it, he argued that the situation of France is far from hopeless, because the war that has begun has a global character and its outcome will not be decided only by the battle for France.
ac494037d42aa8ed466a08a19a7bc77507f8c333 The speech ended with the following words: "I, General de Gaulle, who is currently in London, invite French officers and soldiers who are on British territory or may be there to establish contact with me.
2d43b2394ba1fca84c1aeaeff15155726daab096 Whatever happens, the flame of the French Resistance must not be extinguished and will not be extinguished."
d828f4473e356abc95f5793689eb590d585429d1 So already in June 1940, the flag of the French resistance to the enemy was raised.
627aa20180cd02c9ed2bcbd8ad051bab35a317a6 In London, de Gaulle founded the organization "Free France", designed to fight against fascist Germany on the side of Great Britain.
2238b65d09ab3d539b17305bcebe78cc705442de The Vichy government sentenced de Gaulle to death in absentia for "desertion" and "treason".
0756ac4e6154eb28e707fbf4ad4e5354685b2f91 Nevertheless, both military and civilians of various political views and beliefs began to join the "Free France".
4d9a4e09b097d94b9ec062bff15ca07ab97a747f At the end of 1940, there were only 7 thousand people, less than two years later this number increased tenfold.
ea091aa358322883db688e827bc81070c32187fd On August 7, 1940, de Gaulle and Churchill signed an agreement on the organization and use of French volunteer forces in England.
5a9aadfb3218f88ca6e6abc7d291a0182357cc51 De Gaulle undertook to form these forces and exercise their supreme command in accordance with the general directives of the British government.
f28c7c6604374b8a51884c608f7d0a589fa63846 Great Britain did not recognize de Gaulle's rights to exercise state power and considered the "free French" only as volunteers in their service.
b68b9ede0d3021a8f2b9d6d705f535f536f6c843 However, it provided de Gaulle with regular financial support and gave him the opportunity to create a civilian body in addition to the military.
f29dc7272857de9bf374e2692c136900d410afdb The BBC English radio station was also made available to de Gaulle.
8591016a277e191d6cb26fd7456de7ae41d48f6d Through it, "Free France" carried out propaganda broadcasting to France.
d20950cefe294f8e24d9c6ae37ebec9b2156de93 First of all, de Gaulle directed his efforts to seize the French colonies, mainly African ones.
a3a4b8bdbb638822f20c879141d1b121e52b5fec With the help of his supporters, he began active propaganda there in favor of continuing the war and joining the "Free France".
e0ee66a151d31ef72869b19021709b59ae682f1b The North African Administration categorically rejected such proposals and remained loyal to the Vichy government.
9e43d49d9e899d9b877b544e3149cac600895cbf The colonies of French Equatorial Africa behaved differently.
01ee86e0a54752b2255a7b234b12a9a47dbf6241 Already in August 1940, Chad joined de Gaulle.
93e9a882372a57910e16ccdc2f57ea9ab33ef5a1 After some time, the Congo, Ubangi Shari, Gabon, and Cameroon joined the general's side.
fde6a2fa733d816ab0c6696d73c5f01aa29b9909 Several small possessions of France in the Pacific Ocean declared its recognition.
9a74ca3db5d22e2d38f1dfea10be04a91c7ccc18 It was the first big success.
fd80de29d94a8d23ff79de8638e006ed0b50fff1 However, in September 1940, the Gaullists suffered a serious defeat.
98b80d9f486f6d22e06fbe53e951ae2923e7f73f The expedition of the Anglo — French squadron, which aimed to capture the most important port of French West Africa Dakar, ended in failure.
54e8859bc516dd8b014e52143973f4c177141815 The garrison of the city remained on the side of Vichy.
d8466715fc13965393fcf67bda40f58234e3d9be And yet the "Free France" has now received its own territorial base on the African continent.
de38054f3db99da782356cd65b901d979854310c This allowed de Gaulle to start creating his own "state apparatus" and resolutely dissociate himself from the Vichy government.
83fda420e28d424d01e0d65294c52012e6536dfa On October 27, 1940, de Gaulle issued a Manifesto regarding the leadership of the French during the war.
af8c4c4fce4be66cf32bee9c7ce636853c7c64dc In it, he condemned the activities of the Petain cabinet, spoke about the illegality of its existence and called the collaborators "accidental leaders" who submitted to the enemy.
6a7b05b2275033c5a293afdae7e0fe9b8b33a563 De Gaulle said that on behalf of France, he would exercise power with the sole purpose of protecting the country from the enemy.
633ee3bcb69aebbe53d26c7593bdba04061e2475 At the very end of 1940, the Department of Political Affairs of the "Free France"was created.
58d2f4a049bbf8a4e8866ac6b2f9abe081b3542b His work was supervised by de Gaulle himself.
19652f9732fc63f3b8a8352e3a9c30acff975ac3 He also defined the tasks of the Department: "To create and use information services that collect materials about the political situation in France and in the Empire.
f25abfd26de936973a730a9caf481118b0ed3899 To organize and support the Free France movement in France and in the Empire and try to extend its activities to old and new political, social, religious, economic, professional and intellectual organizations and convince them of the need to subordinate all personal interests to one national interest at the moment."
09120da193f7e5d1cec925c3aedf958a87a49e3a The Department consisted of the General Staff and the information Service.
1740cdfa6d332908f13ebcea55ab6558dcc01c66 Three bureaus were subordinate to them.
a8714856dd9584e4f25d5c8bb9103a1d90be48f0 The first defined specific tasks.
43180de0fdbdb3cbd8667815c4260732f9d68bb9 The second was to implement them on the territory of France and the colonial empire.
0de57b6ecbb446f6d90eca2318b81ee36d1462dc Subsequently, it grew into the well known Central Bureau of Awareness and Action (BSRA).
d61b3df741102b893b939fa08eb3eac0811736a5 The third was engaged in establishing contacts with foreign countries.
62abf6f6e7aa1e721e73fbc0528d8782f147ee78 Its representatives were sent by de Gaulle to various regions of the world in order to achieve recognition of" Free France " by foreign governments.
41f87e544fd2829d51ca47f513c16ac9d9167813 In September 1941, de Gaulle issued an ordinance on "Free France".
b6d3b2e2eaf1e91e64a6c6e4e03cc07c7347f884 He established a National Committee that temporarily performed the functions of State power.
8ebb767451e1e924728698ca6b79e85ea8ce21cf It was intended to exist until "until a representation of the French people is created, capable of expressing the will of the nation independently of the enemy."
a20c18c0f5f399341cbb5aea634bc0f2554e3d89 The National Committee consists of commissars appointed by its chairman General de Gaulle: Rene Pleven (for coordinating the activities of the committee), Maurice Dejean (for foreign affairs), Rene Cassin (justice and public education), General Lejantiom (for military affairs), Admiral Muselier (military and merchant fleet), General Valen (for aviation), Andre Dietelme (for internal affairs).
fb7465aef6408b3b43a6327af11fc818da86d097 The Commissars headed the national commissariats.
ac65e0c969c082b14a013ca333442a4cf906bac3 So, within the framework of" Free France", some semblance of a government was created.
0624a1d0266d4d15e162ce26c7526659099c02b8 The cooperation of " Free France "(since July 1942 - "Fighting France") with the allies in the anti Hitler coalition was not easy at first.
20e28d8b15038dfa5612c5ba5480335db1a42a56 First of all, this concerned the development of de Gaulle's relations with the British government, before which he defended French national interests.
a17b163e55145577a79e2e4741065e5b4eae6cb1 The head of the" Free France " sought to prevent the spread of British influence in the French colonial possessions.
4572f52151b0597481f872bab3aa6ee6c240ec30 In the summer of 1941, as a result of a joint military operation of the British with the "free French", the Vichy regime was overthrown in the French colonies in the Middle East — Syria and Lebanon.
da45b7c111b9aafbcf31b4c767143ad64b4a06a2 In the spring of 1942, Great Britain seized the island of Madagascar and eliminated the Vichy administration there.
f200aa0c5d11994720a416420338b91886cfc288 The British wanted to establish their power in these French possessions.
310837fc601fa4f446138d06a6a3762d0d09b3d6 De Gaulle categorically prevented this and, at the cost of huge efforts and difficult diplomatic negotiations, joined Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar to the Free France movement.
42852a3a6683479c11764d371dad60e5c1bcfabd Immediately after the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, de Gaulle, on behalf of "Free France", initiated cooperation with the USSR, which had previously maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy.
131917cd6696b26898a37238322bb9beced529d4 The events of June 22, 1941 found the general in Africa.
76d374f05928ccd2c6d1f98835485edb9385048f On June 30, the Vichy government announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
e4e56f1058d0072e1037a103e6088315f565e50d The plenipotentiary representative of the USSR to Vichy, A. E. Bogomolov, was immediately recalled from France.
97e3c3394cc50c5ff78859fd112a65b9e7961d52 But already on July 1, the Soviet Union's ambassador to Great Britain, I. M. Maysky, telegraphed from London to Moscow that even before the break with Vichy, he was privately visited by de Gaulle's representative Cassin, "who, on behalf of the general, conveyed the sympathies and best wishes of the USSR" and at the same time"raised the question of establishing certain relations between the Soviet government and de Gaulle's forces."
cc8c704cb8730d1eb42e3b46d77fd217feb55e0a In August, Cassin and Dejan put the same question to I. M. Maysky for the second time.
c90b3e7b2c647eeeb01deacc584dea7306cc3b9c And on September 26, 1941, the Soviet Ambassador to Great Britain sent an official written response to de Gaulle: "On behalf of my government, I have the honor to inform you that it recognizes you as the leader of all free Frenchmen, wherever they are, who have rallied around you, supporting the cause of the allies."
b99f214043be1226fcde2a79802f207cc44fc702 Both sides decided to exchange official representatives.
f1830cc3aa45566eb305232be3dbf998d482c637 In early November 1941, A. E. Bogomolov was sent to the UK with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary Plenipotentiary of the USSR to the allied governments in London.
45962e880de15c8f03ce3c3a67646605854ebe46 The Soviet government entrusted him with the functions of maintaining communication with "Free France".
c4910975ff05ebe218e8ebaa9c5b65c4d3328990 Roger Garraud, Raymond Schmittlen, and General Ernest Petit, the military representative appointed by de Gaulle, also left for Moscow.
01d3003473a354c3cac7bbeb94da62a78a6cc4d8 The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy before entering World War II.
cb730db0e3df3b729a9dc1d93e2fadad2b87420e However, the Americans were interested in using the French island colonies in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, controlled by "Free France", as their military sea and air bases.
b5fcd217daeece5d24972092aa232d54fa864ce9 After the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies in December 1941, de Gaulle turned to the United States with a proposal to establish diplomatic relations.
a9db6dd41c9fc53ca2a3df39d03b1caeb9c6da81 Official Washington did not give the head of "Freedom of France" a positive answer for a long time.
907e180a08f6b14a9d8c406bb7378f4fca3fbf8c Only in March 1942.
36eb96cbeb0033989959b3e86c20781059f59bc0 The United States recognized the authority of the Degollev National Committee in the Pacific Islands.
32005094eff8df2791543a8594de00df009a9952 In July 1942, the US government published a communique recognizing the organization headed by de Gaulle.
25ac13afd4b8d9f3943cd99944a1b830120c541a Since the second half of 1940, the first Resistance groups began to form on the territory of occupied France and in the so called free zone.
eb2114f3c2a6e4e2da7584b2599ce42bdc49b12b The most active role in the process of countering the invaders was played by the French Communist Party.
72c0bee2205289209e27c7488af133400f0a5114 The Manifesto published by her on July 10, illegally distributed throughout the country, defined the main goals of the struggle in the current conditions — national and social liberation and the revival of France, the conquest of freedom and independence by the French people.
5f6d12c0800b70c9fa5646c4fa9f3856892de28d The Communists launched extensive activities to publish the newspaper "Yumanite", pamphlets and leaflets in the underground.
bf12eba0a1c73f9459ff872efdac4ceccae1e133 They organized acts of sabotage and attempted attacks on the occupiers.
176147480a1fd13838e881289088e4ca55226b65 In 1941, in some cities of the country (Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Clermont Ferrand, etc.), in addition to the communist ones, there were also groups of bourgeois patriotic Resistance.
56459c7b1c63ac9d1b288e783320a765dda33888 They conducted anti fascist propaganda, published illegal leaflets and newspapers, collected intelligence data.
05f81ea066a65e819ac33f68147a07edf3d45b89 By the end of 1941, the Resistance movement in France had become an impressive effective force.
c2db77b3ef4cb7e62f10fa5803056f666097840e Almost all layers of French society were represented in it.
32258925ca204675963eccb3d3c0fa74b06608cd General de Gaulle set himself the task of uniting the disparate Resistance forces around the "Free France".
97849b253229c28da259e054715ceaf4a69c8c3a In this regard, he made a number of speeches, where he outlined the program of the organization headed by him.
49e8a094fb4181590cf14c3bb00aa15661055f25 In one of them, he stated that the original motto of "Free France ""Honor and Homeland" is now being added another " Freedom.
bfb3c229884733f2dc5229bf73c81ab04d2ab9ee Equality.
cc6c0eefcfed56b5da95d97ad170a56caa3de8d9 "We want to remain faithful," de Gaulle stressed — " to the democratic principles that the genius of our nation gave to our ancestors and which are the stake in this war not for life, but for death."
3987e8ecda3b3d50965a2b89d7a6f429a3ca9c8a In order to practically begin to unite the various Resistance groups under his leadership, the general began to send special "political missions"to France.
bdfa7d1cee6e95da954dc1e7e529884305fbbdc7 The main one was entrusted to the outstanding figure of the French Resistance, Jean Moulin.
9596e55bfff5e0cfa238d50db88922ce2dc5628a In October 1941, Moulin, on his own initiative, came to de Gaulle in London.
9d16a005a1e247872ed22910eceb13e65f290751 He presented him with a report on the situation in France.
31377971532354d9d12a203cf98f9308ff9ca4ca Moulin considered the immediate and comprehensive assistance from the British government and General de Gaulle to be the decisive condition for all further successes of the Resistance.
b1c0dee2a042e64c65c193b407cee474160b4fda He asked to provide political and moral support to the Resistance organizations, to provide them with means of communication and financial assistance.
05461f9fb4a6c9350d061dc3f923373eceebfb32 Moulin made a strong impression on the head of the "Free France".
598e72dd3169bc96b407beea634e1261360396a9 Thanks to him, for the first time, he received reliable information about the movement that unfolded in his homeland.
ebefc7bf14d16e8783dad34e677149c5e9ac5ce8 De Gaulle decided to entrust this man with a responsible mission — to unite all the Resistance groups and ensure their subordination to his leadership.
a82e7b57740d4d04eb524ac7feb655bdbaa4574a In January 1942, Moulin parachuted into southern France.
560be8784265d8f82a8db18c0a58b97fb72972a7 Since 1942, the links of the London organization with the Resistance movement began to acquire a systematic character.
e23acd4ed937347012245d05275a553120cef884 A commissariat for information was created under the London National Committee, headed by Jacques Sustel.
67ac319f01a72c9565418141f44d72210445d656 Its functions were mainly to supply information about the activities of the "Free France" to various radio stations around the world, as well as to underground publications published on the territory of France.
724d9183d419ee3dec8756346e997ebf0f68734e At first, not all Resistance figures advocated submission to"Free France".
fe78773f6dfe5498f4b6a4ced0da92c24f07cb7d However, gradually, many began to lean towards this.
d69a432de99856c6a1c5b022838b8cafb76c30b6 The leaders of various Resistance groups sought to get to London in order to personally get acquainted with de Gaulle.
888256cd2b2813a3e3f5937fde608d3014000adc During 1942, he was visited by representatives of political parties that had gone underground, socialists Pierre Brossolet, Felix Guen, Christian Pinot, Andre Philip, radical Pierre Mendes France.
d0b4561b3009c79e4b20fc109ee872840af340c0 The visit of Pinot to the English capital in the spring of 1942 was of great importance.
4c52df614481186770e0a9369c03de523f72cc4f In the draft Manifesto compiled by him, the head of the" Free France " was called a representative of the French people.
5f06a2bc84d5bac39db864f8edf308d4b4ea9d56 De Gaulle personally revised the Manifesto, and Pinot took it to France.
f774fc6f6d0578d6536a2bc570e3182d13d2efc1 In June 1942, it was published in the underground press.
0f7b5a16889fd18e10ab181ee283ee5dc95338a3 The Manifesto condemned the regime of the Third Republic, which led the country to a catastrophe, and the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the fascists.
602ae841d996f1c2c1ef7a2f8712db0ecf942cd1 The restoration of the integrity of the territory of France and its empire after the end of the war was declared.
216de658d8e7c2170d9fa11220d4bd81c422e99f "As soon as the French are freed from enemy oppression," the document emphasized, " all their internal freedoms must be returned to them.
e3326ddb7e9e49747cc2f566f805154f8555dab3 After the expulsion of the enemy from our territory, all men and women will elect a National Assembly that will decide the fate of our country itself."
4391ba8d5dc512ec4c60afd237485493d9ee1acc In essence, the text testified to the recognition by the head of the" Free France " of the basic democratic principles.
e784a001954939454638e0f9ab7a06c994bbf2b0 It promised to convene an authorized parliament after the liberation and restore democratic freedoms in the country.
50654e41bff9a704f3621db4b2951c9356e8657b The appearance of the Manifesto had a very positive impact on the relations of the "Free France" with the internal Resistance.
1350359b1c41c9be76399f77465a92b0260292ab Non communist organizations now joined de Gaulle one after another.
1078976b0142de6afe36b2cb918b8d4790b37c85 The general also sought to enlist the support of the Communists, realizing that it was the FCP that was an effective resistance force.
90f9fe2bf9ff09a10aff8ff2da1ebfed94ee96c8 At de Gaulle's insistence, the Communists sent their representative, Fernand Grenier, to London at the end of 1942.
fee57688414512ac7a88e52d1d8f60e223e8ed9e The general did not share many of the views of the Communists, but he went to cooperate with them, realizing that at the moment it was absolutely necessary.
18fe717dafc69defc5e0768e2cf7f32ca8210092 The French Committee of National Liberation After the defeat of the German fascist troops at Stalingrad, there was a radical change in the course of the war.
1b82496b23ca35c3e31c4c63bd9908e5b01d6fc6 The defeat of Germany and its allies on the Eastern Front created favorable conditions for the opening of a second front in Western Europe, which Britain and the United States promised to do back in 1942.However, instead they decided to land troops in Algeria and Morocco, where Vichy troops were stationed.
c41884b386f5b5ae9e2f0aefc83ef24fc4790e3a The Americans believed that it was necessary to act in accordance with the Vichy authorities, and sought to find some high ranking French military who could drag the Vichy administration and the army with him.
2ba43259422c283ea819e92c0ba3c2b0828de084 The commander of the French fleet, Admiral Darlan, was quite suitable for such a role.
2fe30684943563da4e782c845b6f471c73fab84b At the beginning of November, he was in Algeria.
00757b831d272c1bf5bd3653196ef0d8dde4b24e The Americans were also worried about a backup option — another French military officer, General of the Army Giraud, was ready.
bbc10f57b264fbbd5df4194acda3851c6f5be41d The allies expected one or the other to take the place of de Gaulle, who, in their opinion, was too intractable and ambitious.
7f396afd53451451d0816c983d4e161cac808815 He was not even warned about the upcoming military operation.
9e613818b133ec1a4445b3b09e35a89f847a6623 On November 8, 1942, large Anglo American forces landed on the territory of Algeria and Morocco.
f507da51925cd18f9417f3cf23c42e8cebeb31a5 The Vichy troops laid down their arms after a short resistance.
02626ef40c58619d19afcc2adffe7f9d131285f3 In response, Germany occupied the southern, "free" zone of France.
73454d26f960b1a7ed9d48f15898c6a00831e57b The American command proclaimed Admiral Darlan as the High Commissioner of North Africa.
de8708e9dd79a269f714f019e9ca204745dc0272 However, on December 24, he was shot dead.
f2df2d6f0a5674e4fd80c5d5c54c4e20e10f904e A few days later, General Giraud was appointed to replace Darlan, who received the title of "civil and military commander in chief".
a5b6cf23b6e7dad9d2611e744351823e9f18d2a3 His entourage consisted mainly of Vichy fighters who had defected to the United States.
00e3ca0285456ebcdbe4f9c5c981915614f39df2 The general himself was clearly sympathetic to the Vichy regime.
71725152dd2773d093d3d893eed5880d29909012 He saw his main task only in winning the war.
88e081f24edc6efe92c72b08467b09efefc6861e Giraud did not object to uniting with "Fighting France", but, commanding a large army and far surpassing Brigadier General de Gaulle in terms of in particular, he took it for granted that the relatively weak forces of "Fighting France" should pass into his subordination.
a12826b446d8be01b2a7f015c473d50c6a12231c Giraud took a clearly pro American position, acted on the orders of US President Franklin Roosevelt and was supported by him in his intentions regarding the London organization.
d193b3038c6b62d6de128d2e5bc9bc6d5928eea9 In January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill held a conference in Casablanca (Morocco).
837721d33e405f36ab3dec01181d8e62b5bfe44d The American president and the British Prime Minister decided to unite the groups led by de Gaulle and Giraud, but they faced serious difficulties.
aacdb09e25dbdd0ac22a246be1038b1401d4dde3 The two generals met in Casablanca, but did not come to an agreement, since de Gaulle categorically refused to allow the National Committee headed by him to be in a subordinate position.
dc7728cdb5b4a54d7040216c97dca70f9b955a04 Thus, Giraud continued to be the only head of administration in North Africa, and de Gaulle had to return to London.
e0aba34b2af89d8690f7e4a6675cece67a10e6ee As a result, in the spring of 1943, the head of the" Fighting France " again began to fight for his recognition.
ab7c2e0ff57c9891e2e9963903d4a40234cfd53d He decided that he could count on success only by enlisting the support of his most important ally in the anti — Hitler coalition — the USSR and the Resistance movement.
0b2f2942b387fc97e71e3cab4f41361052755814 De Gaulle wanted to visit the Soviet Union and see I. V. Stalin.
787a957fad3e32fd8c5e12cbd3ebcc084a1b4487 Moscow has so far refused to accept the head of the"Fighting France".
576226292d9988c380ca5ab87cf8923fe63e8162 However, the Soviet government made it clear that it preferred de Gaulle over Giraud. de Gaulle's contacts with representatives of various groups and political trends of the Resistance were constantly expanding.
0d1a39aaf4bd402f2ecabee89cca42dff2054160 In the first half of 1943, socialists Vincent Oriol and Andre Le Trocker, radical Henri Kaye, and the leader of the Republican Federation Louis Marin visited the general in London.
b9d966b1b4d09ffea36c2d9d617375aca42f0dea A new important political mission was entrusted by de Gaulle to Moulin.
82595832fe5e63e38c54fc03091c4213c12f6d59 He was supposed to unite all the Resistance organizations and parties that opposed the occupiers and Vichy in a single National Council of Resistance.
0912a7f2197061846c156a8f265305e2a8faa42b He managed to do this in May 1943.
fdf909105acbce2a440fb531c2075b9411852284 The National Council of Resistance included representatives of 16 major organizations that fought for the liberation of France.
a12bb0dc1fecc8b418e7aec352082d1fd215a75e Among them were the Communist and Socialist Parties, the General Confederation of Labor, Christian trade unions, and the main bourgeois patriotic groups.
7cd8c1560a17f04b2b0ffe1758d8308671b76502 The first chairman of the council was Jean Moulin.
d764ccaac9b1f1f75aad4b07d37ca57ff3c7ff09 After his arrest and tragic death in the dungeons of the Gestapo, this post was taken by the head of the Komba Resistance group, Georges Bidault.
31784a08a987f6873078fa7e43c6fcddaee958c9 Having secured the support of the internal Resistance, de Gaulle began negotiations with Giraud about the need for their meeting and unification.
b884bb279ec145d173e9773ab876caebaa9fdc0c The governments of the United States and England advised Giraud to agree, and he invited de Gaulle to Algeria.
f930fa136877f54bea425653e351b33a30c8eb03 Just before leaving London, the head of the "Fighting France" received a telegram from Moulin, which said that preparations for the creation of the National Council of Resistance were completed.
0673c6a44486ff5c8de7d55feba2d9da4c60a583 It also stated that " the French people will never allow the subordination of General de Gaulle to General Giraud and demand the speedy establishment of a Provisional Government in Algeria under the chairmanship of General de Gaulle."
f3f6e87b5d170be1424dd9e57dcbc37561543572 Thus, having presented himself to public opinion as a national leader who enjoys the support of the Resistance movement, the general came to Algeria at the end of May 1943.
8642fe1aca698504a8a58824411b00d421b61c16 De Gaulle and his supporters initiated the creation of a government body headed by two chairmen.
9215247d20d757a62b064170b3d3ce540a713f7d The leaders of the United States and England, as well as General Giraud, agreed to such a proposal.
98c01105f160879a96623d5e7a1f3eaa8d9b8900 As a result, on June 3, 1943, in Algiers, de Gaulle and Giraud signed an ordinance establishing the French Committee for National Liberation (FKNO).
b4f2a4d2ff0e2b5c52c523b41ee854536f684e8a The committee includes de Gaulle and Giraud as chairmen, as well as 5 more che
ffe346d2a13acd14485821747255b884582d8476 WHY IS THAT?RU answers to questions.
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149bf5542e526ed87e2802620ea228a48f7a4ef4 History of France of the 20th century
b32959aee6d54e7b3f1dd3a3d457ab72e23594d7 Added: Why Category: History
bb1b0d4fe01c24b57e4f5fe45889da828d2dce1d With the fall of the French king Louis XVI as a result of the French Revolution of 1792, the era of republics began in France.
43d0955e50b5ffd1b7013d04de10312bfcbe4dc8 In the twentieth century, France entered the period of the Third Republic.
9cd0f35d4239703a09d8e7f945ddedb1fc7ed10c At this time, the cabinets of ministers were often changed in France and an internal conflict with the Catholic Church was growing.
31f7fc4f7ce682f68ea340cef01a61171d0d5c94 Since 1905, the process of separation of the church from the state has become irreversible.
e27e3554d7e25808c8df703a94c4370c6b65db69 Internal economic and social problems captured the attention of the French leadership, until the beginning of the First World War.
14a3d4a981d10fe471d526f706a7f89cd72299a2 Attention to foreign policy problems was shown by the new President of the Republic, Raymond Poincare, since 1913.
3fa630dde293e1d20f954b6e80f79f4f39b4d086 He was heading for an alliance with Russia.
7b006364c67d1d6328cc69ffbf1dfd2ec5e2af5b Despite the efforts made, the war came as a surprise to all European states.
b28895ca3c02dc8a9de7093130e001f15186d977 France bravely endured the hardships of the war, and with the entry of the United States into the war and the offensive of Russia, it was able to conduct a campaign to liberate its territories.
fe6c8e6e90e56e4e1497ffade58d6934f697518e After the end of the war, the French economy was a ruin.
fb2f2d160be8aa9a610a6b0398144078eb0a84c3 Hopes for reparations from Germany were not justified.
2ff00fe67985d49c60b0e2de0a331bb6cb1091d8 France was sliding into an economic crisis, which did not fail to break out in the 1930s.
c5abeb95723885e38c2e71c14ba9550a317103e7 Only thanks to the government of Leon Blum, the country did not slide into the abyss.
9e999b411d230c4bb1f7157858cc125c753fc2db The rise to power of Hitler forced the French to seriously engage in foreign policy.
cd87eb945c72a16d079a8b3d849a07923a1e0f8b In 1935, Pierre Laval concluded a mutual assistance pact with the USSR.
4caee8580829dee9c40a49a34688717dc67ffa8f The French government made a big mistake by agreeing to the division of Czechoslovakia, after the Nazis rejected the Sudetenland in 1938.
20125a9fd90b9df0e3abadc7793e84978fa6012c Following Chamberlain's example, Daladier condemned the German invasion of Poland.
706411db79bd1c7cbc3206ff24c0b1a107cc084d Bound by a treaty with Poland, France entered the Second World War.
9ca2d0027812307cba8879805162c7231aed8d66 In May 1940, Germany defeated the troops of the French, Belgians and Dutch in 6 weeks.
87ed4f0bd22265347fdb99cadae5b4b0782618b9 On June 22, 1940, General Charles de Gaulle called on the French to resist.
d8e07fa22b407243a05a621531b6192381db532f At first, the sluggish Resistance intensified and operated throughout the entire period of the occupation, until the landing of Allied troops in Normandy and the Riviera in June and August 1944.
8a5b7eb6eca167ef9f909ba9a01bc9f547796d7b The Third Republic, which ceased to exist, became the basis for the emergence of the Fourth Republic on the basis of fraternity, economic equality and individual freedom.
5dd61fd5862613ad9215a3f8788c31128be8a6ca The Constituent Assembly of 1946 adopted the Constitution of the Fourth Republic.
3f13ce4f6841bc9abbc96452fede49e01907e686 Since 1947, the Marshall Plan was adopted for the reconstruction of European industry with the prospect of integration of European countries.
b78ba022b8e7a654db0844e347d3eaa05144a4d7 With the beginning of the Cold War and the creation of the NATO bloc, an enormous burden fell on the shoulders of the French economy.
4e7b1aecb4cad3379a4897396185201e0e3b3192 From 1954 to 1957, mass riots followed
1d48968ebd7a4d70e1089db029e383aad10db01f The government was forced to transfer extraordinary powers to General de Gaulle, as the only authority capable of saving France from bloodshed.
0c22b3236fb683a1b490cdb8106a953a4e9e0817 On June 2, 1958, the Fourth Republic ceased to exist.
5a493b52e72de79d40aa7e0e809115f0b6bab577 With the formation of the Fifth Republic and the adoption of the constitution, Charles de Gaulle became President of France.
9e1612f9ba7f4c9983626cafdf1c7ea38d00d1ce Modern France is part of the European Union, since January 1, 1999, a new European currency, the Euro, was introduced into circulation.
20df2baf1f484e414b220d46af3943cb0794c006 Jaguar is the most powerful car that is loved all over the world.
36aa09a023ca3d50a0a7e4c509aa0c73bd8794c6 If you want to buy a Jaguar for yourself, I recommend visiting the website avtomobil.ru, where you can buy a Jaguar car at a tempting price.
0e19978248489bf93e8333db810e4a2576d70e68 Tags: France
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24af22269af65e6f7781a9e5ef656cd47e38481d In the era of expressionism, under the name of Claire Studer, she published two collections of poems in Germany: "Contemporaries" (Berlin, 1918) and "Lyrical Cinema" (Basel — Leipzig, 1922).
b44b8fc97f8c5940d930665b3e307e9bb32eeb03 The wife of Ivan Goll.
dc7a94cc1b65621da000b36b2f87976d7b6f5fa9 She left her memoirs "Chasing the Wind", recreating, in particular, the panorama of 1919-1920.
8fcafecb325ef062394c5294bb6ad381073b89b7 (Paris, 1976).
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2320e82f02ed920ea361a164cd53efef9e791970 History of the world
b4960c5e84483076da8b105a33657138f0f11250 Bronze and Iron Age
2079b48b1e81d2ea278c3ce77c0cdc3b82dda6b4 Middle Ages
42efe1eca5f79e6903babc6a7ace5e1b05fee356 Ancient Europe
0fa897067d565bb829a90030793695574106a1ea New period
95e4cefb465071940c811164d9716f0af5e84bfd The modern period
1b062c67374a18dc50a79ad1d5d3ee017238a9a9 The State of Manna
310a6468210cec713909548b11bc2f561bbf3653 The State of Atropatene
bb973bf87dce429f617aef464c1dcd3e24a7ad4d State of Albania
94dc0d5601af9adf39a8a80baf13c949df2dc74e THE COUNTRIES OF THE EAST.
9de61e8bd560d7dc5bad2dcd8102bcbd0a6caf33 TURK...
03e009dbc16abd7e227a51fb0fd13c250c0e4092 China (Middle Ages)
05fa24cb64924fdfbb8ec1880534f2086b541a2d The peoples of the Caucasus
0963bfb85c7e02166ce33137c26c0ecbcf6fbf03 (Wednesday...
3d650af04d324783edb62b0cf86a795143ba0f85 Medieval cities
8ea1578e46fd2dfd1252a61ebe754ccf04a90049 The Crusades
b31df138682388a140d266d0074cae728d7155e1 England (Middle Ages)
d26aaa7466671b0ca199c8d95cb27370afbbb099 Czech Republic (Middle Ages)
0046ed0f96d53d91a6fec5cc910bacebf5edabda Spain (Middle Ages)
7417d75303f8f7d45ba3f2897dea8d56d7ff6318 Italy (Middle Ages)
79073eaaf28c99d8f76b395dbe1e9f7e71fdc264 The Netherlands
e95feafc14303e6b5b3e6dff84d8cf11e933dc81 (medium ...
28896be9c487ac39bb51278064967a5aff6aab83 Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth
c55a4cd83fb079983b8f28ab0320200af4b115c8 England (new period)
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4bb78ab2c3102cf7e65a0caf71b2ac684cb45fcc The Ottoman Empire
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c93f0a7914727b43ab36449938d84afab026870d Italy (new period)
cf68e62f60d5b0d22af6c70c92e44b9ddd0aa83b Austria (new period)
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c21eb4745c4f2860715cbcbca87d8718458806af Japan (new period)
709b75a7428527a89b90a9a3885de4ea0de87e34 World War I
3a9d35292994bbebea2326ed216e90fa9e165af6 World War II
55b9a958d5a2c5498818adc273cdc8e572e689ca The subject of philosophy
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6e7de9346e9af76ada926df5a5fba3de510f929a France after the Second World War, the post war situation.
6187f3803434a71380cd4e4328672e9c059d9d3b Temporary mode
8179a5fb3e82acbf809f6b05eada465e0066961d Despite the fact that France suffered relatively less damage in the Second World War than in the First World War, however, its international prestige was severely undermined, and financially it fell into a position dependent on the United States.
cffda565263ac5f88bd63c4a61d368f58fd9c98d Indo China got out of control, Syria and Lebanon gained independence.
34ae0b11494939749f1d6fa284f2d8c3322664df The post war history of France is divided into 3 periods :
18fedb196ddaf43dee5145bdc01f83f55c784f5a 1. Temporary regime 1944-1946.
29fadf32b4da811acabdc4571121da3ae53971f8 2. The Fourth Republic 1946-1958.
5a637ed9753d85a2d003014f4ada131cd12523af 3. The Fifth Republic after 1958 to the present.
66a5dddf80c58fcc5fb490b6f823d28a1aeda211 Under the Provisional Regime, France was ruled by a Provisional government under the leadership of General Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970).
97faa72aa14067605edd0b4cc9fb7b4d8a397842 Leading a policy of nationalization, the Provisional Government bought power plants, coal mines, aviation and insurance companies from the owners.
06f7f4032cd51ff56543656529982820fe18313f The social legislation of the times of the Popular Front government was restored, the democratic system was restored.
21e99ad0bc0590e623d384245aa6b19a7552bb9a In October 1945, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held.
b38a53c04f085a2eb3cf04d604ba2326bd718387 Charles de Gaulle proposed to create a presidential republic on the model of the United States.
8df68bea6975ddfcee869bbb0ea7d2de503893c0 But in the political struggle over the draft of a new constitution, de Gaulle lost and resigned.
3a3b8350b37c2b0ccea761f694175c9e564be41f The Fourth Republic.
32b1b734902df48aea22240d7c86954c4badaf9e France in the 1950s and 1960s
f13f7144d8b90c0abcd7a570860a6ee2619fc0f7 With the adoption of the new Constitution in December 1946, France entered the 12 year period of the existence of the Fourth Republic.
7229118b18360a311eacf14ffd57fbdf21ea8b5c It was one of the most democratic constitutions in Europe.
f1abc19886d6aa9d2b8511470102d20445d88896 France was declared a parliamentary republic.
57bd4b5516de2dc2a83f6a0970fc5231b8e94e61 Universal suffrage, social security and the right to education were introduced.
1f024573b86c28fe76039df191d63549fc4c3dff The Parliament consisted of two chambers: the National Assembly (later the Senate) and the Council of the Republic.
b128c358ad70b9b928139b6af31c126c1026cd12 The President was elected at a joint meeting of both chambers for a term of 7 years.
5148eafdaef00d55c408800d3351c799138a650c In 1948, industrial production reached the pre war level, in 1949 the card system was abolished.
9692211d34220180b12c3f3e11223ccd872f2d16 In the 50s, the economic recovery began.
570700f956bd9acf4b3ac1cd4991fccc11f1a412 The "Monnet plan" was adopted, which provided for active state intervention in economic development.
ed484ac494787575f352caee97634f389e0a4850 In May 1947, the Communists were removed from the coalition government for supporting the strike at the Renault plant.
3c8992f33169b641e069e4da52919304f7f4c0b2 In the 1956 elections, the left forces — communists, socialists, radicals won.
3122100f4281f38947b4e85fb5bb3da97baa8b41 Under the leadership of Guy Mollet, a government was created, called the "Republican Front".
fa1d58ca809e2a1619fdaeee74d05f564218d327 The new government in 1956 confirmed the independence of Tunisia and Morocco, but the war in Algeria continued.
463f2a9efa595554c83442c1d6d521acd52a75ab According to its status, Algeria, whose best lands belonged to the French, was called not a colony, but an overseas department.
3ffbc0dc3368a948ab9f3bf8816c2b0182cebdcc The French military contingent that fought in Algeria, on May 13, 1958, raised an uprising and refused to obey the government.
a40e071e6f663ab32241f1a1a623eb8c067b9172 On June 1, 1958, the de Gaulle Government was created, which was given the right of legislative initiative and unlimited powers.
8f8af594971962c41bc3e4ff9515038159ad8619 A referendum held in September 1958 approved the constitution of the Fifth Republic in France.
ea1f2570c05ddcc10a3f615fd5271ff1133a1130 France became a presidential republic.
073ff9ef65aa526a94e95e6e05d9cc83f51c2ece He was the head of state and executive power, the commander of the armed forces, could issue decrees without the need for their approval by parliament.
a9209cb5e2df3019aea5aa78392b7618ad0eb656 The President had the right to dissolve the parliament, call new elections, and submit new laws to the people for approval by referendum.
6d799546100bd6b605e5ffef712a798a981956b5 De Gaulle's goal was to strengthen monopolies and make them competitive in the fight against the monopolies of the United States, Western Europe and Japan.
cdcd7307c004434c33e42f5432b384f0f31fcf31 New industries were created nuclear, radioelectronics.
f2e836bf97a12e3f8a370289aeb645ed4bfa0c77 The problem of colonies was also solved.
e45fbdca049b87dd44c6294450ceaf3b52403faa In 1960, Ecuador and West Africa gained independence, and in 1962, according to the Evian Agreements, Algeria gained independence.
6a66b1fb010b3d0cee6e5fa3b3da612975a9d0da During this period, a secret armed organization was created, which aimed to overthrow de Gaulle and establish a fascist dictatorship.
7322e7c539b0c5d1b84f4828a0d2cb98c183821e In foreign policy, de Gaulle put forward three goals :
f20b18ac254060ac50a75d5770d7212639f7e09a 1) restore the "Great France";
4120547dbe0a05e162675dc4e09c4b9f448a91e7 2) strengthen the independence of France;
4b94cecbbd7cbb4e1ead3b0e5c7ede0955da8743 3) weaken the US influence in Europe.
e9b83e0f93ed508f85f2d84219ca10975f10e13f De Gaulle settled relations with the USSR, criticized the US invasion of Vietnam, and by all means did not allow US interference in European affairs.
d6c196dae577d1a4275c9ce3ab8b9d0bff58855d Taking independent steps in foreign policy, in 1966 France withdrew from the military structure of NATO, retaining membership in this organization.
f8c89231d6913fe13a3c0e1326176d2cf63dabc0 The ten year rule of De Gaulle strengthened the French economy and raised its international prestige.
67b16e811abcf5193848e10e0a6577510a80b4b6 In May 1968, students demonstrated, demanding a radical revision of the education system, an increase in subsidies for education and scholarships.
16d429d912e6045f4b3dafad9ac68b0fe6f9c634 The police used force.
a05d1f8a123622af2ef7071f06cc76b221b4157c This caused a month long general strike that paralyzed the entire country.
b8158607bbcf5bb17b7d806b844ecbc221b4080b Having lost his authority, de Gaulle resigned in 1969.
87072751a17e73e19678a44926c03ed74112b1fe In the same year, Zh. was elected president.
c2e9fb9789155e8b640210d779e834679f432175 Pompidou (1969-1974).
41814442769cb77816a67c09971da0a44fb60211 France in the years 1970-1980
529961d84ecfd0ebdab7e73cc534417cb5076df0 J. Pompidou improved relations with the United States, did not prevent England from joining the EEC.
d703004ae9fb2032e620bac1a863f997ea764547 After Pompidou's death, Valery Giscard d'Estaing became president.
7273ead5190e611f909431317c2689add9b5977f Gaullist leader Jacques Chirac became prime minister.
0612e9e4c5dd7ce0e82335dcdcbb3f3de2ab8f42 In 1974, France was gripped by an economic crisis: production fell, unemployment and inflation increased, the standard of living of the population decreased, the labor movement intensified.
b873c609df486e01cfa166424f4bfab7855df4d5 This event accelerated the coming to power of the left forces.
c43a569ba57ce12122477efcbfa9b41bb678ba67 In 1981, the left forces won the presidential and parliamentary elections.
561382b1abcc3b7ad2c0cea4e3c8e23c9821d27c The leader of the Socialist Party F. Mitterrand was elected president.
b085efb986972da724650919112c4fbc8e869d40 The new government has implemented the biggest reforms since the Popular Front.
7167a8c0bf24d78693f09c1e765d02d3496ef364 Wages, unemployment benefits and benefits for large families, pensions and social subsidies have increased, the working week has been reduced to 39 hours, state intervention in the economy has expanded, the policy of nationalization of property has been implemented.
04947e11bcfd067e60b866f976247dfe6d331d56 In order to curb inflation, state control over prices and wages was established.
d95a4e20a3c92a54a6aa69f133788673eef1ca1c In 1984, the government stopped the reforms and switched to a regime of austerity.
56b5c1deca2a590c098c6ca6ec9999e9a144ea2c After the defeat of the left in the 1986 parliamentary elections, Jacques Chirac became prime minister.
bdb14c7c225fd4eaa4e4a402c5b984007083ce22 He returned nationalized enterprises to their owners, eliminated taxes on large capital, and reduced immigration.
2ad8f41b1da499c74b93f83d031af38ec3a0a053 State regulation of business was weakened, all forces were directed to the fight against inflation.
5fa22a233df13b26be2801b8c1eed86fd004e7aa Unemployment has increased.
b70b72ec1715bbaa77931aebe6a61ec28e3cb707 This was the reason for Chirac's defeat in the 1988 presidential election.
b94c6434aa652e39a5135bd95ba8d5eceab41b72 Mitterrand was re elected for 7 years of the presidency.
34c6feb5d2aa35c7c671593c026817c9522f7fda In 1995, the Socialists and Communists were experiencing a crisis, which contributed to the election of Jacques Chirac to the presidency.
f3211ecddacef07f1966cc5d12958385f7bfbce3 France at the present stage
0ef375e13d325841d4fff4aeb4c5516507008450 In the 1997 parliamentary elections, the bloc of left forces (Socialists, Communists and Greens) won.
d01229efbf850d35eae895f183be79be03ac8767 The leader of the Socialists, L. Jospin, formed a government.
8ec6ee0b4ae9fbb402355a5c15da51c5ffd172f4 The 2002 elections also ended with the victory of Jacques Chirac.
d510c47b9967a89d115a34a777d775f350e0c700 And in 2007, M. Sarkazi became president.
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3c662649476d1748eb668afd62cfba2f6b324fb0 Country France
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d804cf6c9cb158566e5fe4415641d0448411c1fb France during the First World War
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c85752f952b31b71c3c446b60d56f7bc74596960 Home - > History of France -> France during the First World War
bdde819d3eb0822abb371dd7afaba27fe06b7ed6 The most important task of the new ruler was precisely the preparation for a large scale war.
8e1d6583348037812653f450e315c296ce490f84 France itself wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine, which were taken from it in 1871 by Germany, to its possessions in this battle.
d2a00a051f5ca5d4910190de039d4213aceec42a France also planned to seize the Saar Basin.
8b70f2260e2aa9d4e48d82af2d74d46ae32276d4 It was the twenty eighth day of the second summer month.
eb7931469a26825ceaa6dc69c124ce899c60fe88 The largest scale of all the offensive operations of the Germans started in February 1916.
4628593bede01eb8a24341d889e7a56a47f1787f The Anglo French command, intoxicated with success, began to make attempts to take advantage of the favorable situation that had developed.
e381fec4fea914057c63f3bd339a148f2ec9f6b0 So in the summer of 1916, they undertook a very large offensive operation in the Somme River region Here the very first attempt was made to intercept the initiative from the German troops.
0fed89320d75cd014f47abb4c5a2a2d3293de2f6 At the famous Palace of Versailles, at the end of June, namely, on the twenty eighth day, in 1919, a peace treaty was signed.
da18c07eb27e26c7fc46a2fc5f0749d63d441bb5 Look at the photos for this article (they increase when clicked)
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664d88d849716a5e3693445e149e5aa25a12b52a Normandy the territory of nature
cc498e25497a2ae6f91444935ce00104b5bd60e9 Air tickets to France from 1900 rubles
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944a0031ee0578413663d35e4d8a90258f0164ca Many people have been dreaming of visiting Paris, France since childhood.
72c36bf922b79898486b15162c60159cfb913e2e To see all the splendor of this country, created over many centuries by world famous artists, sculptors, architects and other creators of art.
53e3d2dce6825f7f1a11da61d071210611b59445 Our website will help you navigate through the variety of attractions in France and choose the most interesting places for you.
8659c0b4a1e852a52a5e981522b7b85a5d8cf36c Regions of France
8dd0fa8e408fc50c3c134b0b26a2ec17ba05b18c Aquitaine
7404a4c6a588027455d739c03238b869c00a8d52 Brittany
f48fa5b998d1a20e5aefa573097ab4dfd104f679 Burgundy
f4eca03a2f5fdf89a2babe3dbbccd4ce6a424ec9 Upper Normandy
2a84e03e6575b8c13eeb53b2dfd818c13f596a0b Ile de France
b498bf6cbd4242d7f6d0c65db152fdb9f9d237f6 Corsica
1b0a39d6f1e6e10a072e53be9a3eaea74a4933a0 Languedoc Roussillon
788ad447136fba8c67a81a4cd2ba4b6743796dee Limousin
5d404cd1aafbaaf29215cdad9503a9e5c62c3028 Lorraine
936dba46bd3fc9578de72673c9e813da12ff5bbc Lower Normandy
dbccb2c109cf9ea444ff87b7113896ee1b3820b2 Nord pas de calais
6c5411ecdce8a5e32709d7c38b29a0e3eeb7fe1d Auvergne
82de41b9f0271b2ab3d073eee05c8817a2b41a8f Pays de Loire
a1f48e0606790684388f68dbf3e383efe960f93b Picardy
41723d215368a92dde6827d6d7ae2d3a25970e86 Provence
6f4f90b85154700ca51c2b96fdf306c166ba42dd Poitou Charente
473aef3b33104744de7c585b9cab04a00fb298b8 Rhone Alps
14c8b38d6c21012c09fdeb8a3b3d5d42965e841d Franche Conte
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583510e940544c123a4fddadb315e2b66b7df58f Alsace
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064a1302e1be74ee66cfdb99a52be56731e8631a The country of France - the Internet encyclopedia of the tourist.
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36b853aef045759a89a3fab8425b4eae155e3ec4 The political history of France of the XX century Textbook CHAPTER I. FRANCE AT the BEGINNING of the XX CENTURY The political system and political associations Economic development The Colonial Empire Internal politics France in the system of international relations France in the First World War France after the First World War CHAPTER II. FRANCE IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD The National Bloc in power The rule of the Left bloc of the Government of "National Unity" "Second edition" of the Left bloc The Second Coalition of "National Unity" Popular Front France on the eve of World War II CHAPTER III. FRANCE DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR The beginning of the war The Surrender of France and the Vichy regime "Free France" Resistance Movement French National Liberation Committee CHAPTER IV.
cf698c45f6f27e236f92fc3d0518712391c4d149 The PROVISIONAL REGIME The revival of the political life of the country The activities of the Provisional Government Political development CHAPTER V.
ce11e199939dc7735766e255591f3c1a862661a6 The FOURTH REPUBLIC The rule of the coalition of the "Third Force" The center right bloc The Republican Front The Crisis of the Fourth Republic CHAPTER VI. THE FIFTH REPUBLIC The Presidency of Charles de Gaulle The Presidency of Georges Pompidou The Presidency of Valery Giscard d'Estaing CHAPTER VII. FRANCE AT THE END OF THE XX CENTURY The First presidency OF Francois Mitterrand The Second presidency of Francois Mitterrand The First Presidency OF Jacques Chirac LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APPENDIX PRESIDENTS AND GOVERNMENTS OF FRANCE (1899-2002) THIRD REPUBLIC VICHY REGIME PROVISIONAL REGIME FOURTH REPUBLIC FIFTH REPUBLIC REFERENCES
256bc991cc519bed0ed9c6040b699401b3c3cf4f The political history of France of the XX century Marina Arzakanyan.
4b163d05a7f88b1af37e9468c328da44e5421548 The most popular books by the author Marina Arzakanyan
29127414c34df37be93fc8552b22de30df74aa85 The Political history of France of the XX century Marina Arzakanyan
d01732aa5b01b65466d0ed784f97de0490fabfc6 De Gaulle Marina Arzakanyan
d458666814f0c731019d4b310546c38cb891393f The great de Gaulle.
5b973cee2d60ec6f0c86e3f4e39da5c1003522bb France is me!- Marina Arzakanyan
6c4ae90659bb6291c70cc007552c71af287ac9e7 46 47 48 49
73253bfd7304f5a6520d99ae88d8ab50b3b60d1c The political history of France of the XX century
eb9c3021e0e987730862252c3ac69b55fe235e89 Poer's opponent, having collected more than 58% of the votes.
6602c77c565b199eb4a89f95d5f6b049ad6efffd So, Gaullist Georges Pompidou became the second president of the Fifth Republic.
bba621fe29a7142e74eb8401d0397dfa9d6951a6 He defined the further political course of France with the words "continuity and dialogue" Continuity meant the continuation of the main directions in the economy and politics that developed under de Gaulle, and dialogue meant their partial change under the pressure of partners in the ruling coalition.
cdf4f8a4020d020e4421bfae23a208cc796dd466 The main partner of the UDR was the second right wing party of the country — the National Federation of Independent Republicans, led by Valerie Giscard d'Estaing.
e94b3997f7ba17997557f2b66e53ee59191c9ac7 The Government of Jacques Chaban Delmas.
743731450bee5c0975be2f217cfe79b64306861e In September 1969, the Prime Minister presented to the National Assembly his government program, which was called "new society".
f44f16c9a075b26bd857f21deddd2297a53a456b Its essence was to establish in France "contractual relations" between employees and the administration of enterprises, which were based on the so called "social coordination".
ffefcdc9e1381dd463c7800106e1d0c5b01c797e This implied the creation of a constantly functioning institution of "mutual consultations" between representatives of workers and entrepreneurs in order to avoid acute labor conflicts.
c6a8105ad41314cc97905e89ce6e8f863934df69 It was the principle of such consultations that distinguished "social coordination" from the usual system of collective labor contracts.
ecb7beebf051857d9ceb285e2475c6f5969c73a2 In addition, it provided for the inclusion in the discussion of not only issues about wages and working conditions, but also new elements — staff information about the progress of affairs at the enterprise, measures that "interest" workers in the growth of profits and labor productivity.
389314b73ebbd6202c145617376077d3da491ed9 The reformist experiment of Shaban Delmas was decided to be tested in the nationalized sector, where at some enterprises (in particular, at the Renault plant), in line with the "new society" program, so called progress contracts were signed between the administration and the trade unions.
076094ed4aabec072551bde53014aabe86875566 The government hoped, if successful, to make it a model for the transformation of labor relations in the country as a whole.
ba83c6631c8be5fc1cbd2662c7ea941371701714 However, the idea of the prime minister did not receive widespread support, so it had to be abandoned.
407f8f7ffbd325c2dd78f557a75f46ec76730082 In the economic field, the cabinet of Chaban Delmas went to some softening of dirigism and sought to give the French economy an "international and European scale".
71e4d6212b8f9f5d1d3e4be4ebdfeba0d5c2ebf5 The government provided additional benefits and subsidies to the country's largest monopolies, encouraged export industries.
fd3d11ef88e4105fc35c5e53ce64fc43d2253736 The main action of the Cabinet in the social sphere was the adoption in 1970 of the law on the replacement of the interprofessional guaranteed minimum wage (SMIG) with the minimum interprofessional growing wage (SMIK).
ac3ef4830ab95b3fbe09e4c2d4e7df6781717bd5 If earlier the SMIG was established every six months a year in agreement with the trade unions and its increase often lagged behind the price increase, now the SMIC was automatically raised after the increase in prices and national income.
ea435527f8bf653aa0e5cca106818b2d4566bf07 The retirement age in France was lowered from 65 to 63 years.
f005e108c688bbdb11a77891c94bc45ccd93f93b The Government has increased family benefits to low paid categories of citizens by canceling them to more affluent segments of the population.
5fc0bde83639bb8fcb6592e5131690871409bf3e The Cabinet of Shaban Delmas has started implementing administrative reforms with the aim of decentralization, i.e. expanding the powers of local government officials and local self government bodies.
9f68e5eaf5c87894242bde5783c172ad49dda8f8 The Government has undertaken some liberalization of State control over the mass media, for example, it has granted autonomy to the National Radio and Television Administration.
107595e26174c6f6e66683681f78ff65403a0e3b The directors of television programs were appointed directly by the administrative council of the department, which expanded access to radio and television for opposition journalists.
69fd5b134f84841e695335dbb30eb58e2c6f6000 The innovations of the Chaban Delmas cabinet caused discontent and criticism from many more conservative minded Gaulists.
6930e3c7d7952f51edb8799720cd993031a0f137 The President of the Republic himself did not approve of some of the Prime Minister's ideas.
e47f513afec3afca6b60f7d063d9e1be71bbf6df As a result, Georges Pompidou decided to change the head of government.
2f48f791abb528e73463dee69b50a850353f40b8 He appointed an authoritarian Gaullist, Pierre Mesmer, to the post of prime minister.
ed2ef2633de41e54f3113c80df80881e2b314fdc The first government of Pierre Mesmer and the parliamentary elections of 1973.
3346a2d1d9d1068b263bd8cb0741a07352861b37 Mesmer, having formed his first cabinet (July 1972 March 1973), announced that the main goal of the government would be to prepare for the next parliamentary elections scheduled for March next year.
ec8364605931fb8295c3443ee2c2a61b6754d45e Such a task of the Cabinet had serious grounds.
ed42f67d064309cf6d0b7b2c888a64cd2ce06ed1 The ruling coalition was afraid of the victory of the left opposition in the elections.
e885dd30b0484e94ad2379510c4b77313592a5a6 Such a turn of events was quite likely, since in the early 70s there was a regrouping of the left forces in France.
d9faa3899fe1ef1581b36a9e279606f3f9efbf29 In 1969, a new Socialist Party was formed on the basis of the oldest party in the country — the SFIO.
7f2010225e8cddcfca92fae28c475053e2ddf39d Soon it was joined by a small left wing association of the Convention of Republican Institutions, headed by Francois Mitterrand.
591002cf68c02ce4bfd19335ff3c62f26f63565a At the congress of the Socialist Party held in 1971, Mitterrand was elected its general secretary.
d40f9861f2c60d58a53f248a35b3471f56400b29 Immediately after that, the Socialists announced a course of rapprochement with the French Communist Party and the development of a joint program.
0d23e2063aa497cfa689d310f220599073ad739c The General Secretary of the PCF, Georges Marchet, responded to such a proposal.
3c5218605d02cf8423770c654023fd38460c018c In June 1972, the Socialist and Communist Parties signed a joint declaration (the program of the left forces).
b2bea12a3889dc85f9ee7cff935884072d8c0503 After a while, left wing radicals joined them.
9d68007b0763cb230f9034ec96f52b39d03ad630 Program
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9c812f1a90d8c4dd6c6bdb5192099ff4827c5efa Volume I.
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1a855781a206da53ebebc1edf57ff44d23298208 In the author's edition by Viktor Petelin
beebad15b48c68eba0f58371a61476fb9bc86ddb Political History of the First World War Sergey Kremlev
f9a3bcf1422320cd9b4c20780aa0aead393c4809 Great men of the XX century Vitaly Wolf
df8ca21d9db7f846538c1053dda918d9319e75a5 History of France S. Skazkin
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eef36d178534bfa12d5655ed7ca3acf50055db5f The History of France through the Eyes of San Antonio, or Berurier through the Centuries by Frederick Dar
06a244517a29f1c9a0e487af6998c67a70ccff44 The History of Russia from Ancient Times to the end of the XX century Boris Rozhkov
5a4a197e03a63c63c652c9dfacee5ae9afddd5d2 The history of France.
61e34372afea318d336240fb4742707309832756 Volume I The Origin of the Franks Lebec Stefan
5ae058852ba171198f3aa0960a16a65e1ce6f426 The history of Russian literature: the 90s of the XX century: a textbook by Yuri Mineralov
79583a96b03355fde9b7f663acfb62bc5509a7e1 XX the beginning of the XXI century.
696c0cbd9de2b0e6ea525c68726ffe2903d54ab0 11th grade.
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3f9541e840336866f54151f592ce65b5669bb81c The murder of Stalin.
6daa3b87fd6a9f4d6b3a2cce6454df969dce0e88 The biggest conspiracy of the XX century Sigismund Mironin
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7c8482de5e9e5879b8419cd626f2807fe01698f8 Diplomacy by Henry Kissinger
844b913164f8e09610de82da5e1213b1f6b7e654 Art History by Ernst Gombrich
f1ef60c3005edda6757325d2048d1837ec1803fe Combat U turn.
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9ebae8094b4319eaae17e196bf57db5217916e28 City of Fallen Angels Cassandra Claire
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35bea64febd86f39cc49716105467f22fd1a6500 To the beginning 1 2 3
b705d0303039e5a2fecc5718eca927520ef78fe7 The Political History of France of the XX century Textbook
6ed029438411c7748064b82d19a1154032d25970 CHAPTER I. FRANCE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY
dfbbcea62643f57012af60339c65ccdfa73ade07 Political system and political associations
87226758e9fcce7e2ce4e2be60b9445e5f54cdde In the last quarter of the XIX century, a republican regime was established in France The Second Empire was replaced by the Third Republic The Constitution of 1875 became the main law of the country, the state symbol is the blue white red flag, the anthem is the "Marseillaise", the main national holiday is July 14 — Bastille Day.
bce235f634409a69fe57ba8cd3ce0ab819554713 Democratic freedoms were introduced in the country — the right to vote, freedom of association in unions and associations, meetings, rallies, processions, speech, religion, etc. According to the Constitution of 1875, the head of the executive power in the country was the President of the Republic.
4582b947da8e70bfda2ffb1ef747cab476f13417 The President of the Republic represented France in the international arena, signed decrees and promulgated laws, could return laws to Parliament for re discussion, had the right to pardon.
cf2e5405f4c2f2dfaf4ffc5e04ec8b8353e93a23 Legislative power in the country belonged to a bicameral parliament.
bb63c0a1a2615e81b669e4fcc1cb12e304fdc420 The lower house — the Chamber of Deputies — was elected at general elections for a term of four years, the upper — the Senate — by special electoral colleges for nine years with the re election of a third of its members every three years (not counting several dozen senators for life).
5dc9d5e14e2ed6f8fcadd38f68bbb3472027d74a Only men at least 21 years old, except for military personnel, had the right to vote.
fa4ce0dc82853e9c1e4edb4128bfb4900bac9c13 The Congress, a joint session of both chambers, elected the President of the Republic for a term of seven years and adopted amendments to the Constitution.
d59156fac7eab8a8519c5a3740d002ec97bfdf8c Both chambers were engaged in the consideration and adoption of laws and the approval of the budget.
b4041e7a57c08d29b7aa34194785d8637c38958d The Senate had the right of a "delaying veto", i.e. it could return for reconsideration the laws adopted by the Chamber of Deputies.
6c75f2fedf2d6ea370819a74f06f3340998d3617 However, the center of the country's political life was the lower house of parliament.
9f4917a44dd26f46f8d8c8109765ca00fa86e195 The parties and associations that had the majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies formed a government that was responsible to the Parliament.
d5bf360458c41a2a8e7917fc8910c699e4a748ea The Cabinet was obliged to resign if more than half of the deputies demanded it.
d10d477709ceb70f561eb55ffe9b88d1021d7202 Representatives of various political trends sat in the French parliament of the late XIX century: monarchists, Republicans, clerics, radicals, socialists, etc.
42321b923daea51f0b4ffa2af7c81473df27fb65 The beginning of the XX century. for France, it was the time of the formation of the main political parties of the country and the formation of the classic French multi party system.
d397e6d646589a3ea2e526cc4dfdb98bdb06d63b On the right flank of the French political spectrum were the Democratic Alliance and the Republican Federation.
854017c21975f12ec7740e5e393f679d0f29b309 The Democratic Alliance was formed in 1901 by Republicans of various shades, representing small political groups.
83d1628e3f86f8f765cb0fcd8cf2375edd21d5e0 The main slogan of the party was the conservative motto "no revolution, no reaction".
568fdf838975c795c63c3fe45af6696f90da8d3d In 1903, moderate Republicans proclaimed the creation of a Republican Federation.
1f6be31b39deafba4c3c9fe429c7fa338cfc789f The party actively defended the traditional way of life, criticized reforms aimed at modernizing public relations, especially anti clerical legislation, and also preached nationalism.
398cdd02289355a8e5ac42bdb8a536f291d26541 Both right wing parties expressed the interests of the French big bourgeoisie.
90c1e34c42a4997df9b0801d6f927b21216adc09 The Republican Party of Radicals and the Radical Socialists (Radicals), which emerged in 1901, united the left forces committed to the ideals of a democratic republic while preserving private ownership of the means of production.
4ffe8574b27ffb8e8b2b8e3f0ea0be16f8013710 The program of the radicals was of a moderately reformist nature and provided for the strengthening and protection of republican institutions, as well as an active social policy, the fight against clericalism.
d0cd32d4a6f46ce69122fa4c49c0ca9cd9c9673c The most left flank of the French party political system was represented by the Socialist Party.
8f826e360e82477b221372bc1a068dd6318505f2 It was formed in 1905 and officially bore the name of the French Section of the Workers ' International (SFIO).
1762256e0b1eec3ae7c618cecc7bf69893de6fb1 The party widely propagandized socialist slogans, but in fact followed the path of social reformism.
47925f935b4108a266146b3bf4d0ad88c5d6496b The associations that emerged in France at the beginning of the XX century did not immediately acquire a distinct organizational form.
6b6f6a4f41cdad7d9cbee8a90864d809c3758d70 Their interests were not shared by all political and state figures.
4a94477487b6f3519193478f49707052a3cea274 Many of them represented small movements and groups or were independent at all.
42ddc885591e2a14a26a20b854df6bb3316cdcd0 Among the French politicians of the period of the Third Republic, along with radicals and socialists, there were moderate Republicans, opportunist Republicans, independent socialists, etc. During the period of their career, individual politicians left the ranks of one association and joined another, and sometimes of the opposite kind.
8f00eaf8ad1be71dcac34357117bba14e1a7bf1b So the radicals and socialists sometimes moved to the right camp.
34e592867a1054ddea60b84cf62a6cf6f0043922 Within each individual party, as a rule, there were several directions.
9aa4ce489f1e40265af436d6af4608d60cf14b44 In this regard, the following were quite appropriate
b3cf1ad98c5556615d28836ccbcbbdac82cce8f4 The FOURTH REPUBLIC The rule of the coalition of the "Third Force" The center right bloc The Republican Front The Crisis of the Fourth Republic CHAPTER VI. THE FIFTH REPUBLIC The Presidency of Charles de Gaulle The Presidency of Georges Pompidou The Presidency of Valery Giscard d'Estaing CHAPTER VII. FRANCE AT THE END OF THE XX CENTURY The First presidency OF Francois Mitterrand The second presidency of Francois Mitterrand The First Presidency OF Jacques Chirac LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APPENDIX PRESIDENTS AND GOVERNMENTS OF FRANCE (1899-2002) THIRD REPUBLIC VICHY REGIME PROVISIONAL REGIME FOURTH REPUBLIC FIFTH REPUBLIC REFERENCES
0a3fd43459d90288d9b1d9274e0627b638fea246 57 58 59 60
35bf7bc90360359bcb46df1bf3729edfd9a0ebb5 (the first cabinet June 1997 October 2000; the second cabinet October 2000 May 2002) undertook, first of all, to solve socio economic problems.
c04aeffe384abafd7ce64f5fb0dd84705a3080e2 He declared the fight against unemployment as a priority direction of his policy.
26945c116ab637ba47cd7204871db349ea433568 In this regard, the Prime Minister began to implement a gradual transfer of workers from a 39 hour to a 35 hour working week without reducing pay.
f235fd28f08b4b8a59538ce837f4d4e50ee1621d In this way, he hoped to create new jobs.
d06eba411e500e10b06e24546ee97fff6866e246 The Cabinet did not suspend the privatization process initiated by the right wing Juppe government.
d77bbb25575c83479a4dadcded0a8df5a88ecb7d The country's largest insurance company, Gan, has moved to the private sector.
f2676db6929228c51140ce0af100d5c3a0ed50f5 The tax situation has changed somewhat.
3c8f3de858b31ee97a1fe2fb598ce346b4b299b1 The tax on large profits of enterprises was increased.
c99514cb4816f3eff8dd43d17e634ab28b2cb5ce At the same time, low paid categories of the population received various tax benefits.
76ddfde60d182020e8d6b16f243fb0e58ad7d3bd The minimum wage (SMIC) has increased.
aab0311a61ca0300bfbf4e442b7ece9cae5b3b72 Initially, government measures led to positive results.
b2697214e7018eb108135c1a05258751fa70eaf4 The unemployment rate has decreased.
59292f8bdea5a3e3fa1429f3843eee29839b691f Inflation did not exceed 1% per year.
9abe4313d8828d365f7e7591834bb8cad7fb81e4 The economic development of France has accelerated.
df5c3d09521e8d87dec20d2bcecea3071316ab8f The budget deficit was brought to 3% of gross domestic product, as required by the European Union.
f55456aba2c6f8329270e6c7c99dad4b3d3f04f7 In the early 2000s, the situation changed for the worse again.
7e9b1ccd741dc56a690ec69bc471149348e9cd8b Economic growth has stalled.
986368257405acdb71a08d7c228d421c3115e152 Unemployment began to increase again.
86d3ca64ebd1c34a9967bd8dba52b0435b277102 During the reign of Jospin, a number of other important events were held.
3ffb4f5abcad40f39ef3f022842975f07937d979 The Government has made the law on citizenship and immigration more liberal.
ad505f50989b6ea586e4e72e093baa27c391821f It also resolved the issue of the gradual transition to independence of the Pacific possession of France, New Caledonia.
abcc58bc7e36be5f71d3d3025c959926779bf9f3 Jospin's cabinet granted limited autonomy to Corsica.
3ba0364e439f8139473d9e4d87d1590d94a00e6d In September 2000, the French approved the most important amendment to the constitution — on reducing the term of office of the president from seven to five years in a general referendum by a majority of 73% of votes.
131a95652d73479261d0f925382a66fa6c32dea2 Foreign policy.
1e66f401a8b8f0c00d4280a89d55c93c300a48ef Chirac's first important international action was the resumption of French underground nuclear tests on the Mururoa atoll in the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1995.
11fff7d1d5a28955467a3acbf686c8b9ce514114 Despite the protests of the states of the Pacific region and the world community, the French president said that his country should complete a series of works on the modernization of atomic weapons, for which it needs to conduct several more experimental explosions.
7c4d1aac57d2173cb677d69e15391f53dd951abd In early 1996, Chirac announced the end of the tests.
824351c2f0e19c960c6aac10f6910c4424f7365e In the second half of the 90s, the rapprochement of France with the United States continued.
61c558577323586f7e4e1426e33c281ceb4a5aeb In fact, the process of integrating the country's military forces into NATO structures has begun.
07dfad83539e973688f94a472ff5a78eef459593 France participated in the military operation of the North Atlantic Bloc states in Kosovo in 1999, fully supported the US military presence in Afghanistan in 2001-2002.
8643c307411cfbd880c5e20b8d710f1ff171d5f2 France continued to be an active actor in the process of European integration.
7e73e9f0ba360e810669e375d5573530100b0794 Together with other countries of the European Union, it signed the Amsterdam Treaty in October 1997, supplementing the Maastricht Treaty.
e18b71a7c21531ded32e420658c2238d6fd7b8ea It provided for the expansion of the powers and strengthening of the role of the European Parliament and the further development of cooperation between the EU member states in the foreign, defense and criminal law fields.
3068c19bb8bcb7aa3cae9388fbba7954ca568abf Since January 1, 2002, twelve of the fifteen countries of the European Union (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria and Finland) have switched to the single European currency — the euro.
d71cef57050c15c1e54e5e21a3bb2fe436a395db At the end of 2001, the Convention was formed within the EU a new body formed of representatives of the governments and parliaments of the 15 EU members, as well as deputies of the European Parliament.
fef9fe4587821a5cc6c1ed791ca759e8332eb083 It was designed to develop the concept of the enlargement of the European Union and its further strategy and tactics.
097643c5574212f1ff5cc6ed8964a60f4ce17c07 The former President of France, Valery Giscard d'Estaing, became the Chairman of the Convention.
0ab4b7a55e7d4b52fdaaa423c46459224ada2832 In December 1996, both sides signed an agreement on Franco German cooperation.
0797f05e4a86c331417b7d7532a9a52b7ea1ab43 President Chirac spoke in favor of strengthening French Russian ties and called France and Russia "privileged partners".
d457d1871fdc4d8c539fc39892517596c190f9b2 During his presidency, Chirac visited Moscow seven times and discussed with Russian Presidents Boris Yeltsin and Vladimir Putin the main directions of bilateral cooperation.
40b378bb84f899ef936165c2e8b85582f022b48b Boris Yeltsin visited Paris in January 1996, Vladimir Putin in October 2000.
0a2f7b0ed721dd226fab8441679b8a47a41a4879 Presidential and parliamentary elections of 2002 As the elections approached, the political situation in the country became tense.
7cd5d605b4534e32f5d175862a487a49358aebac Already in 2001, it was quite obvious that the main struggle for the presidency should unfold between Jacques Chirac and Lionel Jospin.
2c95d0c1cb9b8a1bc16b086f43f3c6e232a241cd Therefore ,the "coexistence" of the right wing president and the left wing prime minister gradually turned into a confrontation between the two leaders and often resulted in mutual attacks.
39b0a4e009df8df9e6bede0113c39bd263096278 A total of sixteen people have put forward their candidacies in the presidential elections.
d0f753abb8095d50a7af567d8d2b985d065b7603 Nevertheless, in general, the campaign was characterized by the sluggishness and passivity of almost all candidates, including the main ones.
e9da0811efff0635c2989f9c7a48643fbbe90239 Chirac, undoubtedly, headed the list of right wing candidates.
52940d5d8d742bebd5d1cd83e84a42536312c652 He fought under the slogan "France as a whole", sought to present himself as looking after the interests of all French people and emphasized the achievements of his country in the international arena during his own
9fa066a3cce95440159e5bec7c72e692cd9fe1ec Network marketing (or multilevel marketing; English multilevel marketing, MLM) is a concept of the sale of goods and services based on the creation of a network of independent distributors (sales agents), each of which, in addition to selling products, also has the right to attract partners with similar rights.
b9a2dd72ff6744c4633544b68da17e0f96cc83ad At the same time, the income of each participant of the network consists of commissions for the sale of products and additional rewards (bonuses), depending on the volume of sales made by the sales agents attracted by them.
9e237ec045467e033fb032614448a5bcdb0a6613 Network companies may also apply slightly different schemes for paying remuneration to sales agents
24e41f3d3e3cca0f2c6c26e0f23ae896f938f2f9 For example, in the UK, Amway pays remuneration depending on the volume of retail orders received for the company's products
b9a30e1dcedf91c17c57df78200dc1515db30be6 In the USA, Amway Global pays bonuses depending on the" indicators achieved during the month " (monthly productivity)[3].
c6a199ec93080e6731cd96290f28b2d46985774a Network marketing can be considered as a form of out-of-store retail trade, a special type of direct (personal) sales, in which the sales agents (distributors) of the manufacturer's company independently establish, first of all, on the basis of personal connections, direct contacts with potential buyers.
a311890ab1c84e3ecb76d264febaeaf41e476c2b Sales are usually carried out at the buyer's home.
67c9ca82d7e54edab7702172e71eac7f52b21587 Having sold a certain product to a buyer, the distributor offers him to find new buyers for a set percentage of the sales volume; those, in turn, are offered to find new buyers on the same terms, etc.
4e609a23b0fcefebcc0d25e1d19bd78102b5d7bc Thus, a multi-level network of buyers and sellers is created (in various network companies they are called differently-partners, independent business owners, dealers, consultants, sales consultants, independent agents, etc.) [4]).
da44ae6fdc28339463daf3e6c67bd5b5652adb0b Multilevel network marketing is used by such firms as Zepter International[5], Vitamax[6], Oriflame, Talk Fusion[7][8][9], Avon Products, Neways, Faberlic, Amway, Mary Kay[10], Primerica (formerly A. L. Williams)[10], Shaklee[10], Kirby, Siberian Health Corporation [11].
bbf43942b36fac33e78c628213656c2566fa62f4 The global network business is estimated at approximately $ 150-200 billion.
05558427604c1b37925468795671efef903c4824 The largest corporations have a turnover of $ 5 to $ 9 billion per year[12].
6a598eecb6d23982cf36bf02ef9ce79d1b1fd31c In a number of countries — for example, in South Korea, China and the United States — there are legal restrictions on the activities of network marketing companies[13][14][15].
c2e15520be70f5b80b70bc89cbfd0dd37aba36d1 But to begin with, SEE a little history.
a71ecf245ae202bc8eb0e7d4ae72a194c51a02cf It is inextricably linked with the name of the American Karl Renborg (1897-1973), whose realized ideas turned into a multibillion-dollar network marketing industry.
070f2eac345e503b893323b101d321e703bd324c In the United States of America, where Renborg found himself in 1927, he began to create various food additives, the basis for which he chose alfalfa, which contains many vitamins, minerals, protein and other useful components.
c0face658e154bf4f25b358394b8e6e66f08bb9e Renborg offered the drugs created on its basis to his friends for testing, distributing the products for free.
5bcd37d0d6f7aaea3fed5c41fc30d2b2de7c761a There were no results - no one tried the obtained dietary supplements.
9a9f8ac8eeefeaf427cf4d32392c2fcfa0200ce0 Then Karl began to take money for them, realizing that nothing free is valued.
4ef02c9b72b3e2df2753d9e4bd208a5987d0df0a The results immediately appeared, and the most positive ones.
a43704f702652545973d0d854456b45629a15443 Information about useful additives was widely distributed (each of Renborg's acquaintances had many of their own acquaintances), people asked Renborg about meetings to get more information about the new product.
34dc9db97287c6ac1526871bec11645e5172dc19 Karl, of course, could not satisfy all the requests.
fc41094d3740c6d24e85653d5366fac5e0455372 And then he came up with a brilliant idea.
225090087eccf48dd4fb174b1184b47cc6e2407d Renborg invited his friends to give information about food additives to their friends themselves, and in case of a successful sale, he promised to pay a commission.
d8a2ff797a3acf38d17d4434a642443755ac202b He decided to pay also to those acquaintances of his friends who, in turn,will promote his product further, using their own connections.
d879fc164143bf77f8599a74ed6ba82ad0784684 This is how network marketing was born.
12ccb57a655995bfc8316184e4a440e0ef40b3c7 In 1934, Karl Renborg founded the company California Vitamins and, thanks to a new sales system, when consumers of the product became its distributors (distributors), the company quickly reached a turnover of $ 7 million, without investing a single dollar in advertising.
0b5b68cd45ff762c24ce3e331a0ab8a58638aa72 In 1939, Karl Renborg renamed his company Nutrilite Products, retaining the principle of distribution of food additives.
294a2b9dce7e05518533f157a8cb0999840f7abf His employees themselves invited newcomers to work, gave them the necessary information about the product and invited everyone to build their own network, inviting their friends to the business.
9a41641bcbfeebf3dbf9dc1dcc3e554fc68ea004 The company provided all distributors with its products and paid each a commission not only for the goods sold by himself, but also for each sale made by a personally engaged distributor.
c4def18028f9316aba505c539b49115a56f7ca37 Thus, Renborg introduced "single-level marketing"into the practice of classical business.
e7634f1899124a4c34cf1913daabef9ca15714dd The further history of SM is connected with the names of Nutrilite employees Rich De Vos and Jay Van Andel, who, after ten years of successful business in the structures of Renborg, in 1959 created their own company called American Way Corporation, abbreviated AMWAY.
683f7f86a0d9c21fee6ea6bc54f01463bafd8250 The merit of these people is that, firstly, they went beyond the implementation of only one product, including in their assortment, in addition to food additives, household household goods.
bf11a2dfe471022d4b9ad58eb5a31755ba95ad30 At the beginning of the 2000s, formal regulation of MLM companies was introduced in six US states (Georgia, Maryland, New York, New Mexico, Wyoming and Louisiana) and Puerto Rico.
ad5e019088488d4cfee977c7922161b5192b7736 The legislation regulating the activities of MLM companies usually provides for the following requirements:
55cab78d35b7a4df49c86eee5110750138e1dd1d the right of sales agents to break agreements with MLM companies and the obligation of companies to take back unsold products at a price not lower than 90% of the original;
fcefffaaac6ac79b19e264ba5c2d8364d64f7516 prohibition on the use of statements guaranteeing them a certain level of income when attracting new sales agents;
36147673ad60ecc9849ad34ab3983129e850e73f prohibition on setting the minimum quantity of products that a sales agent is obliged to purchase from the company when concluding an agreement;
fec52f576dbc103b129d440805fd16c5f3f0b0f9 prohibition of schemes that provide for payment only for the activities of attracting (recruiting) new sales agents.
6294ff65005cf28fb9e3aaa8fa98644b9f87d19c At the same time, in many US states that do not have legislative regulation of the activities of MLM companies, there are laws prohibiting the creation and use of pyramid schemes.
d4deb53400933e90da66b5525ca8fd1963c2054f On the basis of these laws, control is exercised over possible violations in the activities of MLM companies[17].
e88ce2bea233d07697e9c87351e51aa07a872230 In Russia, the first practical application of the concept of network marketing dates back to the early 1990s.
a3f1e9c7448f43cdd8695156f6d97a78616d48e4 The sharply worsened socio-economic situation contributed to the mass attraction of people to network companies.
183b5502faa50f97e394ef56bfa838862d6ccc52 In the first half of the 1990s, network marketing was represented by no more than a dozen foreign companies with an assortment including biologically active food additives and cosmetics.
73ba4c0199de9419a7d3550e0fad999f9296dc21 In the second half of the 1990s, Russian network companies began to appear, engaged in the production of their own products or the distribution of products of Russian manufacturers[18].
236664e788a8e62564b7d50daa437a116b3a4f1f In the PRC, from 1998 to 2005, direct sales were banned due to the appearance of many criminal "pyramid" schemes operating under the guise of direct sales companies, in whose activities many millions of participants were involved, which resulted in mass riots and social tension[19].
4d138f9d890545f794b5e422e9b3794da27d0ceb Due to the ban, ten foreign direct sales companies that were allowed to operate in the PRC were forced to change the business system and sell their products through retail outlets and sales representatives[20]
ddd44b75c7a111e00cf56db5201e7e982cf360f4 Since November 1, 2005, due to China's obligations to the WTO, the ban was lifted, but strict restrictions were imposed on the organization of direct sales.
f8bea85b25104e02a11b87ad3108babbeb6e6c96 Only 14 out of 200 direct sales companies operating in the country were able to pass licensing for such activities, including four Chinese and ten multinational companies (including Avon, Amway, Mary Kay Inc.).
d2c1d08244b47ab3ae810d2ae5ff92315e6a162d The transition to the new scheme and obtaining licenses required additional capital investments.
c5d09717f2828c3f58c23f8f01c163ddc38cb0e1 For example, Amway, which started operating in China in 1995, had to spend a lot of money on rebuilding its network of 180 thousand direct sellers and switching to a new business model that provides for the presence of retail outlets, a service network, distributors and direct sellers.
bd99aabd6a84ed0178566d23a76b2f9e52c6cbf4 Some of the former direct sellers received the status of regional distributors and official employees of the company[19].
41ddbc54179817ff60c881a2cdae75b22e674fa2 Despite the restrictions that led to higher operating costs and lower sales, large network companies decided to continue operating in the Chinese market, based on its high potential.
068fd3dc64c7eaa62b4b30bc74c19fef89d8aa62 By mid-2007, 14 multinational and five local companies already had licenses for direct sales[21].
4dcc4459eb4154ce0619662d1e07e5eb0700d514 Direct sales (direct marketing) is a type of product promotion on the market.
ae73a6e07015f4381352222a148575e0ce1b7567 It consists in establishing and supporting long-term direct two-way communications between the manufacturer or wholesaler and the consumer.
b1e6d156b3655c1238c22b9d247ed3c9cefff2e7 Personal sales (personal marketing) is a method of influencing the buyer.
52563423b6f29e0c93a9e34eff51e494dedd2ac7 It consists in a personal oral presentation of a product or service (including a catalog) during a conversation with one or more potential buyers belonging to the target group, for the purpose of making a transaction or selling products.
e664af68c16b516ccd0509c89234f1e97d2a8980 The personal sales method is used by agents and managers of advertising agencies, representatives of cosmetic (Oriflame, Avon, Faberlic, Mary Kay) and medical (NewWays, Vitamax) companies, as well as distributors of Amway, Herbalife DGH, Vision.
9085d03da5981cb427d55285a2530cdf6ce1e717 Network sales (Multilevel Marketing-MLM) is a way of promoting a product on the market, when a distributor has an interest not just to sell as many goods as possible, but to attract new distributors to this business, for whom he will be the "top link", and, accordingly, receive remuneration depending on the volume of sales (in fact, purchases) of his "bottom line" and the entire structure or part of it that is below himself.
771b2d9e39143a80c8e7dc9ea19982ffb6a1829a Pyramid structures are a way of doing business when each participant is interested in increasing the number of new participants in this business.
9923093f7a477ba5436dbe092b61651ff343ec0a It is not necessary that the business participant himself should attract other participants.
c46e8b0827ac33c21bec2d6fb8ce33944155c7fb As a rule, such a business has a pronounced multi-level structure.
300e21c55b6de8e11ca909b0e52d4eed89b09019 The increase in the income of business participants at the upper levels is provided by an increase in the number of participants at the lower levels.
a5bce08b2108da650a9e737523c922f7529b3e0e Prohibited financial pyramids are a business that consists in the fact that each new member makes a certain material contribution for participation in this "business".
2618b108bba225bdc04a2827ee5a740b2615913e The contribution is distributed in some way among the higher-level links.
66b4ff79ef17dd1dfe2653da1ccfb860543cff3f In order for the person who made the contribution to be able to return it, he must attract (two or more) new members to this organization in order to compensate for their costs from their entrance fees.
07a5927039844f5b5621b524cb849bf23e4c9cba Distributor (in the MLM structure) - a person who has expressed a desire to distribute the goods of the specified company under the guidance of a specific "sponsor", as a rule, who has confirmed this desire with a certain material contribution.
0f5c6808d9099f4729dcbd50e9b10dff077a4bea Leader / sponsor (of any level) - a person who has brought a certain number of active distributors into this business, has built his own 1/2/3 / more level distribution network and receives income from its growth and functioning.
0071ae73f004a645d079df35faf1175f31dbbcfe Points are the conditional equivalent of the cost of the product when the distributor buys it from the company.
9a7eafabb3303db0c85f217dfacf57f8cf7c3ed0 Each product has, in addition to the monetary value, a value in points.
9885ecd43a19b2373d561e4c1af9efe59588dffb Group points - the total cost in points of all goods purchased by a specific participant of the scheme and its entire subordinate structure.
0195f5b6acefbfa3a81c84b5667410c60f03ef59 At the same time, the product can be purchased both for resale and for personal consumption.
2039ce7476f3d1b8f0c09780725f62a9ee91d85a Bonuses - a monetary amount expressed in discounts, or in the form of money, which is credited to the group (branch) based on the results of purchases (in points) for a specific period.
60c87a91ca1ca05c76915a6b3a64b62df034a62a The distribution of these amounts of money is carried out in accordance with the company's marketing plan.
6563f0d0e2cb7186544e28e892875a5138b21e47 A marketing plan is a document describing the rules for distributing rewards for marketing services within a "branch".
3efad743393bd5d4d971c6d785298b836448bb09 It is more correct to call it a "reward distribution scheme", since it has nothing to do with either marketing or planning.
cbc13d7360c1bb67bd90837140df5141ee9fe8b9 Allows a specific participant of the scheme, knowing their own volume of purchases and the volume of purchases of their lower branches, to calculate their own remuneration.
7f6b95150aa4f37f6a497cc7566e2122ba1604b7 You can't get any other information from it.
4482a4f3802791f84b8aa1604d5a39110a8def0f Qualification is a certain "title" assigned by the company to the distributor for the volume of purchases made by his group during a certain period.
e08c6f4679b007f47eefa5291fa4d9cbb9951eab It has nothing to do with either the title or the position.
dae1d16771cfc11cefefe6e0630076452b67ec6a It has an indirect relation to the amount of remuneration.
19ee4eae27f3258ce7d010decea51ef81af941c5 The basic idea and method to build a network of customers that will not only consume a certain amount of product themselves, but also sell it on with some fat (fat is usually in the form of "sold for a sum of money, are eligible for the nuclear procurement discounts", and sometimes what is direct rebates — i.e. discounts offered after the purchase, for example, in the form of a coupon on your next purchase, or even in the form of cash refund a certain percentage).
3bbabd7cd66cebfb861bf176ef106f7ce7304814 The organization provides some advertising support (sometimes direct, sometimes not), but the process of riveting the mosk of the next sucker falls entirely on private shoulders.
72e2f3666117bef05ed3c576fb66f56d96a21aac To meet the participants 'needs (which contributes to sales), they are usually assigned some beautiful-sounding names — "consultant", "supervisor"," captain"," leader","partner".
4096ba21686f11a500f80dc8379be22c1e075485 In internal advertising (for participants, not for the general public), glamorous and fascinating symbols are widely used, such as damaged cars, golden laptops, mobile phones from Dima Bilan and other shiny and sparkling things, which, according to the redneck (who is a potential sucker), are an integral part of financial and business success.
b28fa298ceacb52e673471d78e6c279e6ee2bdbf In the sabzhev organizations of new generations, new methods of hilling the suckers of working with personnel have been adopted: they are inspired that they do not work for some position in the company, but, on the contrary, develop their business.
5afa31cbe4f0c9d272ed9f7d88af0cf16327843e Suckers are very proud of this substitution of concepts, especially since it resonates with the teachings of rich dad (see Robert Kiyosaki), who is widely quoted by them.
27af3d659e1e5c0bbf7339601d37f5284a896e08 Also, the respondents completely reject their involvement in the sabzh, while claiming that they are cooperating with a trade and production company.
e1cc13f97861ec27b2faabf0cf9a6f8d445179bf It should also be noted the turbidity of the main goal of life taken from the same Kyosaki — the achievement of the so-called "financial freedom".
0587e4bd83bbd3250d0dbf0de0e34197a485673a This means the presence of money, although, as will be disclosed later, only a small group of founders cuts the money, while the rest go out, at best, to zero profit on the result of their activities.
bd95bb04f54e848d96dc02cc46f07f3eee04ca8c Techniques of mass destruction of consciousness are also actively used
a5d78645d8ea2679d7d050058615eef5fae2b3dd The most favorite and common is a variety of meetings (sabbaths, pumping, business seminars, etc.).
446820b4d1a53628f5f9e9402c36e828cce1bcc6 Due to the herd instinct inherent in monkeys that have never become human, the processing of a group is more effective than an individual one, mass ecstasy and the feeling of a neighbor's elbow in his belly easily and effortlessly breaks through any logical resistance.
593e6133c24ba9410bdb0b6ab3cc9b09b9ecbc3c Moreover, it is very easy to "introduce" your already lured gophers into the crowd, which will put pressure on the psyche of individual people from the crowd, creating the "avalanche effect"so beloved by network marketers.
3fbb0b0284d3cd62875c88e60c5ba22e7f9651a3 It is interesting that if a suspicion begins to stir in the mind of a zombie that he is not really in paradise, but is running around a pyramid with a bunch of the same idiots, from where someone unattainable shits on his head, they can tell him with a smile that the structure of the organization is not a pyramid, but a tree: the root and trunk are the richest, and from them newfages stretch up to the golden sun.
27e1e3d1890c43e49576f02bc9c944a6792d0524 By the way, such stupid sects are very fond of using diminutive words and terms like "sun", "insult", "money" and other slag.
3179bea921b52cd1dc4f85d6b107fc2892b8a998 In addition, various gurus quote immoderate praises in their address, as well as all-round self-abasement of adepts.
eac763d814e57eda2e847ba25ec1e89b64f27983 The fact is that diminutive endearments and self — abasement program suckers for childish behavior-naivety, credulity and uncritical perception, and infantile suckers are easier to manage.
4d5d9aec5eb9309900a9cd9a5767baffdb5b811c So, as soon as you hear arguments in the style of "our great boss cares about our well-being and shines for us like a good sun" and "only then did I realize what an insignificant worm I was, and now I have become enlightened", then get out of such a party right away!
3f540b08ecdea49b7c2003753dc396ba0c3266bd For any network company, the "product" is the basis of its legal existence.
2d026f5e78182dfe7e18a36ad2c4e4b138b8de85 On the other hand, a network company needs to sell its "product" at a price much higher than similar products are sold on the open market.
6795c441d51075b5353440331b9dbaffe9f1b5f1 There are three methods used for this.
7accd58234bd7ab18e71a3f2b78ca4b131c155b0 Withdrawal from the open market.
537dfc3ef875e255b151176f85fb889ef760f8b4 Avoiding competition with similar products from other manufacturers.
9cb875701350f54845ee21bde205a12f544863c8 Attributing unique properties to a "product" that are not present in any other products distributed on the market.
57e29f5be0d5313b26d3e5c7ef2543d735e5e60c A subsidized "product" with properties really higher than the price analogues sold on the open market, but which cannot be bought separately from the rest of the "complex package of offers", of course, paid for by one common account.
91db65c0f8b7606ab59f4b5c5c1c53176cd58487 According to this method, a wide variety of things are distributed, but the most popular segment is the so-called "health and beauty products" (in fact, often having the opposite effect).
b72221e841ed3856f69c08033f2a53ef4d536fd2 Cosmetics, weight loss products and other shit, which, firstly, can easily be declared to have some exclusive all-conquering properties and, secondly, is easily and effortlessly recorded in glamorous show-offs, that is, the main property is not some kind of utility, but (artificial and dubious) exclusivity, "I'm not like everyone else!".
70299cc58f8a5a082f7ffc325d85b076f029cdbf The paradox is inherent in the very nature of a person: the desire to be "like everyone else" (who bought a Mac, etc.) and at the same time stand out from the crowd ("Mac, not some kind of RSUK!") just forms "interest clubs", it is also the basis of "network marketing" and other various other "brain viruses".
e7c1d2593a903130cfb62aa931acc161883a6dee Despite the very wide range of products sold in MLM, almost all of them differ in a characteristic feature: they do not have any pronounced commodity properties.
0cdcad7875fd494c2724974ba5c7f284ac879945 If we conduct independent tests of the proposed "products" with common analogues, the results will clearly not be on the MLM side.
1221a2cdc9782221cd05f269b6fc3b584351d475 How to evaluate the effect of dietary supplements?
c4b1e6cfebc71d47ed3c78b9ed6e51693dadcb77 Only years of research on thousands of people.
8107bc0b29f4effd21783a8f8bcc9fe1422da075 But no one has conducted these studies.
63c43b873e3a58a5848b8338fde826aa253ea6a8 And how to evaluate the" environmental friendliness " of dishes or lipstick?
be2c3b8e4c62585337fee192560d93ccb47818e6 In what units of measurement is the "splendor" of the eyelashes evaluated before and after applying cosmetics?
cc8b31aa422ec5d0ed980960834782c81d5f3c43 In a word, all the distributed products either frankly do not correspond to their advertising, or are extremely doubtful, but it is difficult to check it, since it is released only in closed networks of distributors and only to verified people.
cb44bf59ab0e9907bbb9af2c3025de943a4ba1cc By the way," product testing " is carried out by disparate enthusiasts, who do not mind spending time on this huita, after all — if you want, you can dig up a copy paste on the Internet about comparative analysis at home of all sorts of whistles and farts.
6a8abc46bb611a02b6dd7c8172facaa27108b4a2 Sometimes MLM products accidentally, together with a dozen good, suitable similar products from normal manufacturers, fall under the hot hand of ordinary consumer goods tests.
b949ecb42156bc051a85b527bbb24184eb368707 The result is a little predictable — for example, see the summary of articles from the German magazine "Ökotest "and some similar sources (Choice magazine, Australia, Consumer Reports, USA, etc.), where Emway was lit up.
c1df9623150a4e9892354a42478facbe2e065a73 What's on the exhaust?
a4db3bdb3d22a62815f90a733a6dc1542b171783 There was loot from suckers — it became loot from the organizer.
ca22c413835d434430b54b2194a9221fb6f69c51 Some small part of the suckers in the process, of course, rakes up a little babos for themselves, but, firstly, this state is unstable, because it requires a constant influx of new residents, and, secondly, noticeable babos appear only on very high steps of the ladder, literally tens of hundreds (depending on the coverage of the pyramid) per country.
b53c5c9f9d71ab1edda1e15c45f3ee9395980d19 A huge number of suckers sell the same stuff.
410c392a82ba752344cecc67483e8e49a942b2ce This lowers the price of the junk they sell and creates competition in the spirit of "who will save faster, he is a good fellow".
f657320b73bdb90e2810807cae3d13f09badc0be As a result, suckers fight for pennies, stack unsold goods at home and believe in a bright future, and the organizer sells huge batches of goods without hitting a finger, and makes a profit not at the expense of sky-high "markups" for their goods (as most victims of this scourge believe), but precisely at the expense of sales volume.
1387725c5cbf0cd12256a42b0148354502b1e7ba Congresses, corporate games and trainings are organized to maintain the loyalty of consultants.
bc77806c3a8991f0c33a3e467db7d37b0afc2090 There are four cosmetic companies operating on the Russian market that use the direct sales method: AVON, MARY KEY, ORIFLAME and FABERLIC.
f5b54ec1f74ec6545bc3ceceeaf0c466fd21e8e6 AVON is the oldest cosmetics company in the direct sales sector.
684f2eca2e7cf1eb668092b5e44e3f39c5c6eddf Currently, its network includes more than 3.5 million consultants in 143 countries around the world.
cd8a10e904d442804f188a63c3acfdd96b23b2a2 The company's branch in Russia was opened in 1991.
5a680c2d4373bb4684e00b8adf13d39cef957bdd AVON started direct sales in 1995.
616b1a62852f7f048ba1d527f4ac81d89bffd17a In the entire history of the company, it was the most dynamically developing market.
350e4358abe0a8122a92e1db11d7da157368d6ea AVON offers the largest number of new products, the company also opened a hotline for the first time, through which potential buyers could learn about products, get advice or contact the distributor.
4db2863733b4d539e1a4f6026dc110df334bada7 Mary Kay Ash, having retired in 1963 after many years of work in the field of direct sales, founded her own company MARY KEY.
3de2fd088ad96e3ab3982cbceb89955f0a8f8765 Currently, the company employs about 850 thousand consultants, while MARY KEY is one of the leaders among direct sales of cosmetics.
77a2382999a920822256d77fdf799f888a6fa545 However, it should be noted that the company did not escape the crisis.
83ae7f05c4b67d75508b5e972af9098a98d50e1c In the 80s, many consultants only worked part-time at MARY KAY COSMETICS in their free time from their main work.
a3710ea6e8de471159910e088f0d6e2a006c32bd Introduce yourself / register Views
3b69fe9f03e4d1562eea79e34630b74409090229 Article Discussion Edit history
c1c0638d4a9ecf4960eeeb59505d019e32f0ddc7 Network marketing Network marketing Material from Lurkmore We do not smoke, do not swear.
f79eb55c9cfa791d748355937075bfceca69585f This article often becomes the object of a war of edits.
1b2bd84997259c00fa342c7a228c13097ae5b8c2 In addition, it is periodically raided by the intellectual majority.
c5c01d5375feae901ddca9b10057f609714a6a66 Therefore, if you notice things that are not kosher, in your opinion, here, we ask you not to rush headlong, restore justice and thereby ignite a new srach.
853cce227371f53fd9f12e53e2df1847714f7a3e We'll figure it out without the snotty ones.
c53f37855c52ab4f881d18a194bdb580e087520b Article detector!
7b1f8d0181e3f374b5c767ffac4a4b8bbf074812 One of the side effects of reading this article is the so called butthurt.
b59d9ad31dc683050d6d107b57d79be60ee2666c If you start to feel pain in the lower back, you should immediately stop further reading and accept the fact that you are an Independent Amway Entrepreneur, even if you belong to another MLM sect.
5b15f970f442e30ce6e1475b5b1bfec73de9b4ba For your information!
f2a90bbab2d8164f10de171451071b72d5c36411 In this article, we describe the phenomenon of network marketing itself, and do not make lists of MLM programs.
4c826ce8165c230e4627b47632abf29618f4a7e6 Your opinion about the systems in which you participate or in which they tried to drag you into is not interesting to anyone here, so all edits with the mention of the next network pyramids will be pumped out, and their authors will be shot on the spot from a jet shit machine, for great justice!
a47ee4a10378230c4d08b0f292e2780901e00924 «
8c110bd4c370d973bf6e2733ae2c3908d89be02b "Aum Shinrikyo", "White Brotherhood" and " Jehovah's Witnesses "are all garbage compared to the"Network Marketing" sect.
cd44086bcdfe9d2d19f8e9fd724120e382b81107 - Alexey Kalinin
f3c1b8fec1b5515371ff0dd2be4e91458c9207de Network marketing, also MLM (multi level marketing) is a technology of hoarding suckers, in which suckers hoard themselves, and the organizer, selling his shit in small wholesale, without spending money on the retail segment, gets loot and happily rubs his paws.
903e2099b9d99e1d83b4c415c56ad39771677d14 Network marketing is actually based on the exploitation of a person's social instincts for the selfish interests of the organizer.
72c5fb2f45e01ecae332c43be5a75f6642bffab0 In the broadest sense, network marketing can be called any where (it is necessary to emphasize): Bring a friend/client and get a discount/prize/nyashka / bonus/dick on the forehead.
d26b6961384f024c1d1f3997ed63645c7e9f675c To become a member of the ilit club/sects/organizations, you must buy a minimum set of goods/services The minimum set of goods / services purchased above is valid for a limited amount of time (for example, a month).
bdd0b3da514f922c9765dfaee2354f8fad07d85b After the expiration of the control period, you must again buy the minimum set of goods/services, regardless of whether the previous one was sold/used.
64390464af2f3e9c46e41a7647a72a551909bca9 Recently, either people have become smarter, or the need for more and more suckers has increased, but some organizations are beginning to hide their ugly face, actively use various tricks, silencing, do not call things by their proper names.
03eedbe062538fef45d652a20f55336f46009ba9 Historical background
752d48d0ea1d02150fb80d4df1b30f9b513f5d31 Contents 1 Historical information 2 How we sell 3 What we sell 4 Hours What's on the exhaust?
f2b9504eb6871b1b95f274f11dd1fff068f260a8 5 Commercial cults 6 MLM and personal growth trainings 7 A reference example of network Pairing 8 Network Marketing in Russia 9 Robert Kiyosaki 10 Firing Lists of Network Operators 11 Network Marketing in Politics 12 How to Deal with This 13 Trolling suckers and Their Managers 13.1 Thick Trolling 13.2 Thin Trolling 14 Also 15 Links 16 See also
a0c9205e4100bdd71dab2644ab8e3c957ef2c586 In the people, network marketing has received the status of a pro business.
dfccd17cd4209a87472642537fc90377f403bf96 The system uses the passion of greedy people and cattle for freebies and their desire to earn money without doing anything.
6abe8c752f518e0956aa3bf409c9ba7a4e6bae01 Less often (under cover), the technology is called personal growth training or psychotraining.
ddd0bca6c624125a28cae974ffa6406d41c6faa7 In smart books devoted to the study of totalitarian sects, a beautiful definition for MLM is given — a commercial sect.
48ae7bd1c7a749c02d7a9f85ac2146478219ba14 Network marketing also has prophets, commandments, meetings, and chants.
05ed8d2a43ce43a25a70471d0541af9ba882ed62 The technique itself was invented by the founder of financial pyramids, Charles Ponzi, and was called the " Ponzi Scheme (http://www.mlmv.com/news 1346.html) ", and used, in particular, by ofenyami (they are also peddlers).
7c6b7c46d902ff27435272b324de2f91860ed322 It is also possible that it was a reverse borrowing.
ad2f296243020d7a94b27688fc507c3a005fe7ae So, in the Middle Ages, indulgences were sold, that is, liberation from temporary punishment for sins.
6e40b18b343b6d994d664ab262fbca5c53fee19b The monopoly issuer was the Pope (sinless by definition).
22a5b7617911ee52679d15128e3bc172cf0dc8d4 The fact is that, having bought indulgences to the very tomatoes, and with a good lawyer, with the support of the FAS, you could try to prove that you are also a dad.
47c30cc5ae255bb91b751312b660c2560d2fe5f9 Well, or at least you also have the right to absolve your sins.
f0151433decbaf735ff0aad31b2e0c6732b4bd88 In a simplified version, this scheme actually worked for employment and was called trading positions.
2ba25db18757019e9275f7220b6ae5a8ab3ef4ae In addition, the drug dealer rule was in effect: you consume twice as much yourself as you sell to others, and tell them how cool it is, for example, to eat dietary supplements or cook in Zepter pans.
c8e26b7881fae8ddd46df1781d887a2564a2f917 In short, you recruit new distributors for yourself.
37251ef01690886879683a017c9d2435b60cf3e4 The CIS countries experienced unemployment in the early 90s.
7551475901dce36a0534c821bcde561ae150d808 That is why network marketing has become popular among the population.
5ef77579cecc77fc4e6ba993c6d145162161fb17 Herbalife left the greatest trace in the memory of humanoids of the former USSR.
e1c9548370d08c770ba98af0c32900ff3344a639 How we sell The basic idea and method to build a network of customers that will not only consume a certain amount of product themselves, but also sell it on with some fat
92ec1cf53e7f0b6f960017a70ea5899b493c463b (fat is usually in the form of "sold for a sum of money, are eligible for the nuclear procurement discounts", and sometimes what is direct rebates — i.e. discounts offered after the purchase, for example, in the form of a coupon on your next purchase, or even in the form of cash refund a certain percentage).
20118ebc6d940e1cc0389c3ab8e6522fce7bb606 To meet the participants 'needs (which contributes to sales), they are usually assigned some beautiful sounding names — "consultant", "supervisor"," captain"," leader","partner".
690ecf8c5f8aeb51160f52d136c42a4428d0671d It should also be noted the turbidity of the main goal of life taken from the same Kyosaki — the achievement of the so called "financial freedom".
dc6b53b857d437f032ce84c8c965d37588cd83a3 Techniques of mass destruction of consciousness are also actively used The most favorite and common is a variety of meetings (sabbaths, pumping, business seminars, etc.).
c375f5600f27576928cd9f15a1cd9860ac00c6a5 In addition, various gurus quote immoderate praises in their address, as well as all round self abasement of adepts.
258e80fdb616f6b2a2db101085da938b6e5eeb93 The fact is that diminutive endearments and self — abasement program suckers for childish behavior naivety, credulity and uncritical perception, and infantile suckers are easier to manage.
c8a601c308573bac03b03024a43169cfed135d6f So, as soon as you hear arguments in the style of "our great boss cares about our well being and shines for us like a good sun" and "only then did I realize what an insignificant worm I was, and now I have become enlightened", then get out of such a party right away!
227a6dfef85c1510f394d1accb4b66ee33c61698 Favorite arguments of preachers and orthodox sectarians of networkers: 1.
bd32d20ef501a12fe3b76510e7e7b9941c4fd45e 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
447890c16d89651a74fcb772bfdd7cf36dfa3cba A serious divorce for a classic sucker.
e00c883e54be162ff8497193e0c25ce4d6888f32 Be careful when you see such pieces of paper!
6477741d2871e568c07bfdf9a1366731b4544c88 This is not MLM!
5f96c2508a2f1741af9e2989f6f21802063859b1 No initial capital is required for a network business.
0e4596210f57424b0b3cf08796b6272295a8dd82 I use the product myself and save on a discount.
2781fd15984b8fa5d295889004b2e5acee468b07 Our product is cheaper because the Company does not spend money on advertising and does without retail margins.
d0e28fcbb48d008e2bda0fef1231a6c69c1f4b47 Our product is more expensive, but its quality is much higher.
839a005a500c58cd80abaf320c05286803505a08 Yes, it is expensive, but I invest money in my health (options: rest, education, future, life).
15dc88e2fe3c177736d5a22303013cf47c696536 Do not skimp on yourself!
912618a0e8dd22e82b03be656585dcbbd49149a2 You decide on your own whether you want to create additional income through retail sales, or build your main business — YOU control your fate.
324f988597c2551d335655d60080b0571f3c358c Stop working for your uncle!
3f11c08c0bc9ef84d041fd34d664e9944d721e19 What we sell For any network company, the "product" is the basis of its legal existence.
d363d648a4920268b51fe13dc8e4bdcb5ab3ebd5 That is, it is impossible to buy the products of a network company in stores.
2820555f01e1f8791b45115f67b473f17ae12cdb It only spreads from person to person.
71acf55ba538c3f61c6cc1c851a025c4e415a07e Like drugs.
1e9ba9f75cba085b990a792048f3fc0e07c4f496 Accordingly, no one conducts research on the comparative characteristics of the" product " with similar ones available on the open market.
fe425354682706b6a1868f54705c7b71da072a89 2. Attributing unique properties to a "product" that are not present in any other products distributed on the market.
b70fa592cca0d419f6a6941690516318dfebce8d According to this method, a wide variety of things are distributed, but the most popular segment is the so called "health and beauty products" (in fact, often having the opposite effect).
25567f1949023481cf4f8d84f3f5d749e024032e Cosmetics, weight loss products and other shit, which, firstly, can easily be declared to have some exclusive all conquering properties and, secondly, is easily and effortlessly recorded in glamorous show offs, that is, the main property is not some kind of utility, but (artificial and dubious) exclusivity, "I'm not like everyone else!".
cf3437f4383153d874930a84eda76f68e9f1b84e And how can you evaluate the" highest quality " of plastic or steel, except by taking the seller's word for it?
69fc0f25276187537a273bc4b11d4fdc181098f8 The destiny of such studies is to remain the voice of the screamer in the gooseberry.
0d6baaf746698ecfd4f631d1fecc35d662534799 There is a good Chinese saying: not the one who raises the price is rich, but who has a turnover.
f89ced7461133be52f16f5ace068135e6946c22c As a result, suckers fight for pennies, stack unsold goods at home and believe in a bright future, and the organizer sells huge batches of goods without hitting a finger, and makes a profit not at the expense of sky high "markups" for their goods (as most victims of this scourge believe), but precisely at the expense of sales volume.
796032e2b99f399aa7578c1e7533ff5eead1892b And various illusory discounts and " bonus points "are eaten up by draconian restrictions on their use (a simple example is a restriction on the minimum purchase amount of a" dealer", which gives the right to use bonuses).
08dfbb233fc81c4802d3fa0b18b3535c6df4735e The silver dream of a networker
0b669a295fa59b1dc78bd43e27ad79cd7ae97e9c Commercial cults are overwhelming (or absolute?) most of the offices of the participants in the shooting lists below belong to what is commonly called commercial cults.
00d682888e00eaf7a8b6180dacd9c401f121fd67 "Commercial cult (http://sektainfo.ru/allsekts/kommercia.htm) — a destructive cult without a pronounced religious orientation, but with all the other characteristic features and features of a destructive cult."
a77e2545e2d9347959a1c773079093412affb341 There are sects in which there is no proper religious teaching — the teaching about God and the connection with Him.
b299253d9b54c86e2b824b9e43e1a7377f59fd91 There is only a cult of well being and wealth and loud, obsessive promises of success that will bring entry into an organization, company, club.
cbc028c303e69d4073d23ff55c133e86023fddd8 Religious scholars call such sects commercial cults.
7d9dd5b02d3589b6949937af682414acbc2cb653 Typical examples of such sects are "Herbalife" or " Am Way "("Am way") and other similar organizations that operate on the principle of a pyramid, or, as they themselves call it,"multi level marketing".
2878160d8641420a0b656a924c4f400790b16ea5 So, as a rule, such sects do not have religious teachings, but their methods of activity and controlling the consciousness of their members are completely sectarian. http://sektainfo.ru/allsekts/kommercia analiz.htm
37867f670f71a2d5e66dbff039ceb66ef576082f In any organization built on the principle of a pyramid, only the top earns.
1be2c7d6475bed840e46d33edffda8f573942dc7 The one who gets to the top will be able to earn a five figure or even six figure sum in a month.
df173f6bc2d08d05afa74636bd6c304529759bd3 At the foot of the pyramid, there are losers, since each "snowball system" sometimes runs into its own borders.
41da46f36d6b088cb982db9b45221c043b000d6c In other words,: "the dogs are tearing up the last one.
bb24103b548cf4735e9fc69b24e56c27bd897733 " And so that the pyramid does not collapse, the leadership creates an ideology, due to which it is possible to keep people in their hands.
ea4054610ef9c59374bc30975cf587768abb8e75 This ideology is more or less present in all such organizations.
d5fd6ec0596e7f0106f8b80a24a201122ce6e39b But if a critical mass of ideology starts to exceed the admissible limits
881b7109284ae541f688775aee8f093b21e615d6 (leaders are beginning to say that the members of the organization is to promote to the masses of unique technologies that improve and enlighten the society with high quality products, whose efficiency exceeds all existing analogues, or even on the mission "on a planetary scale," which is imposed on each member), the organization becoming a cult.
599025a5699ea2daff13148a177df66d71857a14 Psycho Sekten: die Praktiken der Seelenfänger (http://www.agpf.de/ZEGG+AAO Nordhausen+Billerbeck.htm)
e15fa12a0a1c5bbfc8cf79f4db1c58e96599fbbe MLM and personal growth trainings Many MLM systems are disguised as so called personal growth trainings.
2dbd432b7a43682fac77dc131d6d266d5c67e09e The organizers and participants offer naive suckers to undergo miracle trainings, after which they will become masters of the world in a couple of months.
a433b6027b3c04799329dfea7189524ba4e34c82 There is no clear answer to the question why they themselves have not yet become "The Black Lords of the entire Galaxy".
43fda618024615ac51edf0accef72f3ab8108713 During the training, the suckers are actively brainwashed and brought to the state of dummies ready to perform any tasks of the coach.
9a4bd043dd8b6c258e8551b666d42d4c1200bbea After that, they begin to bring new participants, while moving up the "career ladder", participating in the organization of trainings.
d15921a96250becda5b0417b66515da3178f62f8 The most interesting thing is that people are not paid a single tugrik for this work, but they are cheerful and happy, and only repeat (and quite sincerely, because they really believe in it!) that the training has helped them tremendously in life and absolutely everyone needs to pass it (and not once).
f4372306481b334f4b5fee3b01492da615b65730 The most famous company that conducted these trainings is Lifespring, which closed in 2000, in Russia — "Step into the Future", "The First Training Company", "Planet of Success" , etc.
dc2c0a69419c3f37139ec94bd6f3e7ec78eaa53a The most important difficulty in combating personal growth trainings is that active fighters with them themselves suffer from FGM in the terminal stage (see Dvorkin).
63802107ae64da0a18f76f4fe5d79608392c8145 A typical training on network marketing and personal growth
9b5d21104fc937cfcc085762f579bbf7bab24e4a A reference example of network pairing To my friend (read the consumer), his friend and colleague (read the seller) came to visit and offered to order some fancy pots from the catalog for half an hour, at a price equal to two used cars.
23ef8a7e2fe34649eea37c025d19ebb86c7e2475 The consumer refused.
6819e11abcefd216b60ce1a3e20e555b81a68cfe The seller insisted.
0c777a32dfd7ff16fec6becb97a5838fce629199 I insisted for another four (!) hours, not understanding the polite hints about the late time and early rise.
1b38cbf613145889d507a7988b697540461ac378 "Okay —" he agreed, " you donot have to take it, you can order samples and if you donot like them, refuse them.
1c4a9231880c4d022e8b1345875bba79979c820c Just sign here and here.
037216cd0e017056ae8410c33a4dba9a939ed18c That I am interested in reading it.
f80ccdd9861e2f16498045f5cc5d53993c237918 And then you'll decide for yourself.
82b903218e97a071b81add6552c41dde74b98642 And I'll explain to you once again all their advantages… That is, count another four hours... the consumer really wanted to sleep and to get rid of it, he signed it.
5e078ddacad0e5f38841276b46811ca28f3931b8 Two weeks later, the pots arrived.
5e7a5218b2fd3f23e5e057256c630ea3ef1542ae And then it suddenly turned out that it was impossible to refuse them.
dfedb8116202a1a72d53005d0d0d0254a20afd3d Because with that carelessly signed signature, he pledged to buy them.
4508d6cb7d9e91c7c9e660df5972279681525d05 And if not, then ... my friend bought those pots.
f210976149f2a0a90574b053c226231322823bb0 And you, of course, think that he never met the seller again?
a19512f587f60064795ba81a9e27705741e30efa Since he ran away from the city just in case, fearing terrible revenge.
2ce3aa3ba471cc83cd6e9b235a97da7af6b0f0df You are very naive people!
114bbb49cb8682d42a7db25c7f2e631a78b23826 I say that they have a civilized capitalism there and no one runs away from anyone because he was framed the day before.
6bf57da0ee27a44f5a3ed4975e39e711778715d6 The seller came to him the next day!
0ce1f720cbf55014696d227536819b5dc251ed74 - I understand that you are in a difficult financial situation — - he sympathized — - and I want to help you.
845333428889107a4a5cf9b5fa7e1d8fa153ff04 - What a turn!
b5628827f996addecbc4e0c76951e50ddd093832 — I suggest that you find buyers for pots, and with each sale you will have... and I, as a person who solved your financial problems and an intermediary who recruited another seller into the distribution network, will have my own percentage from your interest… In general, network marketing.
d171847679bbc07a5dd126c203b47743a784b620 In its ideal, to which we still have to grow and grow, version.
e6e46ddbcde78af7b561a4d807646b079997d269 © Andrey Ilyin
929d3331cbf140654a5e76f2e7e96d98b485c39f Network marketing in Russia Despite the fact that this phenomenon was born in other countries, it has become widespread in this country.
dcbe6affd7d1b0dfa0e3b4b9093889b143f8bbd9 Apparently, the reason lies in the habituation of domestic cattle for decades of stagnation not to buy good, suitable goods in stores, but to " get " them through friends.
fcdedcc73b2d3564395e3809bffad30bc4b3b68a In the countries of the victory of capitalism MLM is equivalent to, though marginally, but small businesses, and even talking about what business ethics (such as the victim advised not to lie, how much earns from this, not to complain about what "product" does not, etc.).
193b44fbb4d52eaeb281faed3fcb74b8f553a002 In addition, there is the historical experience of salespeople, "stray" dealers of household scraps.
075ad0749afe853a7e6e98daabcc98c0105d1511 In general, such a way of promoting goods/services can be justified if they still have the declared properties and at the same time it is required to explain at length to a potential end user why it still makes sense to buy such a product.
a9f8ce90e715cbcf0abe3d982a869d5122e74d8c In this country, in contrast to that, the market for most products sold through MLM is usually an order of magnitude smaller due to the lower purchasing power of the population.
7c03cf72ceac47b3838465e2c5d84071fec0104c Therefore, often our MLM developers are forced to compensate for this lack with a fierce, frenzied brainwashing of noobs and are guided not at all by the creation and cultivation of a loyal consumer, but by the unlimited growth of a network of pseudo businessmen zombies, almost universally suffering from pronounced FGM in the terminal stage.
ce8abf61d7a878cff16382dd6e4b4d31497584f5 At the same time, since the vast majority of noobs are recruited from the bottom of society, and a few end users who are inaccessible to a noob are, on the contrary, somewhere at the top of the social pyramid — even an initially good, suitable business degenerates into a banal financial pyramid, where there is a forced sale of so called boklans.
6fd7287de11e3b44e8fe39a32517141253c6b35c "naebusinessov for the sale of naebusinessov (http://intway inside.com/?p=95)" by the well proven method " grab the bags, the train station is leaving!!!!111111odinodinodin " Recently learned about this system.
f607ff203dcfe88720c9e8908dc1c660d02595b6 It seemed that a SCAM, like: invest more money, and then sit in debt...
802303d0e6c440c8ab29bd701e0959d7bd81020e But in our city on Wednesday 14.04.10, an interview was held and the person present at it convinced me!!
82e7a8cde0b2a09af52bf938e747277921119903 I'm in shock...
3ffaaae1a9fdc0e5ba7e949bac7a40ea724ad1ac I'm only 12 years old!
401a665b6fdb42e9acb5dd52abeac15507a975e1 But you can become successful at any age...
80d75d6d907c5953ae99a435b774a9d0faccf945 I will sign up soon and.... that's when we will live!!
cb452596511737288c55e290609fbe38d830c447 I'm starting a new life...
fd4386289e98068ab19ad823a6f03054174d1aad I already realized that this is my chance!
427400a46e64e3db2c6d14766468df07dcc3ad78 Kristinka about Intway (http://www.infokr.com.ua/forum/messages/forum1/topic1039/message37373/#message37373)
b4d9774d889e597347265afa222325ae780ad481 Robert Kiyosaki
7a2be025534e1e85942d790fa686b4ce5c9f6885 In the books there is an attempt to break the stereotypes of a person.
63e20f5e6c1ea8de7b7f463b0dd68989d0a84446 The repeated repetition of certain phrases creates the effect of suggestion, creating the illusion that these thoughts no longer belong to the author, but to the reader.
17a031edbfa527755e0e4cb8d0460b87448efdd7 Keywords: "wealth", "money".
4ed7bc6d4cba98a7e1c3e219f67491a9b2611a50 And also there is a disbelief of the adept in his own individual solvency.
7a20dac70f1511bd9a51c45c46498d4e88eaf34d An attempt is made to deprive the socializing skills mastered by the adept over the years of his life.
3930b80bed59626573b96d6ed4e6f61878523207 Such literature pushes some people who are dissatisfied with their lives to take rash steps – to quit their studies, work.
9c11a1d9ec56f8d00263f3f6023f290d35150ffd At this stage, a person is emotionally destabilized and entangled in contradictions.
f7cfa439dfbdd07af75ac2b296ddc41a213405a6 This is especially dangerous for children and adolescents, to whom such "knowledge" will be brought by their parents.
5b2991f6cc3eddf28ac0af3c818461f2a9237563 - From the discussion of the article.
68452aef9d004fab6d729a34ab025ee8e5101c69 As elsewhere, in network marketing, a link to authorities gives weight to what is said.
07ea06cbf168edf976a17bc7172e624ab212af13 And again, as elsewhere, their words are arbitrarily interpreted in their favor by anyone who wants to.
0ac81960cdcfd212ec53c3d226526b73a3854d3d Such, for example, is Robert Kiyosaki.
9635a83afb077a3b350794a0cfa772f888fd1632 An American entrepreneur of Japanese blood, as everyone thinks, who made the main capital on real estate and received, by the way,a sooo good education in a sooo cool university the US Merchant Shipping Academy, where only the best are taken and only on the recommendation of a senator or governor of the state.
c8c68a698807aada81761e187261c3340a220a04 In short, this Robert is not so simple.
57df21f72e40c9c3a601586857554f5891592fcd At least, that's what everyone thought, until one inquisitive racial pindos (http://www.johntreed.com/Kiyosaki.html) I did not dig under Kiyosaki and dug up that in fact Kiyosaki (before writing his books) was stuck I've done a huge number of real estate transactions — a whole one, and that one for some lousy lot in Arizona.
0846eb80a5e12d0482387428520ac511a6fcd77a So Robert made all his money on the sale of books "Rich Dad, Poor Dad", in which he pushes several quite reasonable ideas, seasoned with hypnosaMLM serum: in kindergarten, schools and universities do not teach how to handle money correctly, and this is a direct path to personal financial ass. (In Russia, it is still not customary to talk about money in the family.
46a5ed02d8e87b975cc094bf0f7a626361f471fd There is some strange shame when discussing these topics); it's never too late to learn how to handle money correctly; anyone who wants to live on more than one salary let them learn to live within their means and slowly invest to get additional income (or fuck up investments) — the main point that excludes the use of Kiyosaki's teachings in Russia, where it was possible to invest only in Sberbank at 2% per annum for children to adulthood; before you borrow or buy on credit, calculate how you will pay (it's best to buy good business assets on credit, then others will pay for your debts).
35be9f56df90dd0f5ce69e67691ecc6a60e27dd0 In general, foreigners very rarely distinguish between consumer loans and investments in profitable assets.
e2e134e9c03ae4277941164a807b2549ebd127d0 Plasma is a direct waste of money in the trash.
72ac62cc82a0c8802e8fc87b1c09ecf09623420a Networkers like to refer to Kiyosaki in the sense that he considers network marketing as one of the possible ways to create an additional
d401c41a19b4c9f9a237b4e67ffd6160af49ba3f income along with real estate, stocks and other kosher things.
2f8faca1f35a1d0e7b673f95f1bfdf008b49f257 Even his saying is quoted that if he had to start from scratch, he would take up network marketing.
bf7c5b0926c7b0d3963bd5dd46f017981107eac8 It is not known whether he deliberately chose networkers as his target audience or it happened by chance, but the fact is that they are his main readers and any of his new books are guaranteed sales of millions of pieces by default thanks to them.
f069d36097fa4c6d7448d5783d1ccf2f88c9d884 In this regard, opponents claim that he is already engaged in MLM, just that he is not building his own networks.
584a87793cf3d3aa60073bf9a0cadddeb80a7cb0 This is also supported by the fact that he publishes books regularly, but there are practically no fundamentally new ideas there.
502295c5d247f59486e06564bf130f06f7ba4e63 In fact, there was no "rich dad" in nature.
faad4e4f75606d284f8ec95af786085a3a27889b This, according to Kiyosaki himself (when he was pressed by journalists), is a "collective image".
adfb91bbf3b43ea86bc3a02b1ce21ae0597bba5b And "poor dad" was actually a doctor of science who headed the Department of Education of the state of Hawaii, had his own house and received a salary equivalent to more than $100,000 a year today.
222c75e252942fe3e9dd4919adbefc6f939cddb7 A separate conversation about the translation of Kiyosaki's books into Russian (http://megamozg.ru/post/4876/) .
095eed356782edce9b6b11847020fd2f0ba226a1 In general, conversations about "rich and poor dad" can be perceived / interpreted something like this.
e1459a6960fb7242ad02f6d2d327b22af4902e18 "There's a dad at the neighbor's Vaska cheerful, groovy, drunk every day, chasing his mother, chasing Vaska, chasing the entrance, chasing the whole yard.
2e2288bc8550840e7d1609a1166c3dd1514bfa2f But how fun it is with him!
6d0682c1ecd033ce223aa7b00db605608e8b53fc So what if he spends the night at home in a week or two.
6203605c9f756c6299e07c7f83e5386202c1161f And sometimes good people are given 15 days.
ca21263636b1bd32d692e2fd3cced7cd53cdbedf And over there, the neighbor's Petka has a folder created by a schmuck.
cd5443e23689821edb303a031070f914ea4c177c They bring him and take him away on the Volga.
2add58001761c60ab4ed51da0be1ecf593522554 You canot hear it, you canot see it.
88808523c64ac1d8200f7d09843e27bd48aa2b63 In the yard, the nose does not seem to be on foreign business trips, then on the south.
65c1eb6b503992b3c8378651d54d3782e0884236 Boring things."
02b89307480e24bdbec2ee385584eacd6adcaf01 Of the whole book, only the first chapter is really valuable, it shows how capitalism works with simple examples — even easier than "Dunno on the Moon".
e9fc1418d34bb9cb96fd98e59327cb23c3b6e504 Firing lists of network operators Network marketing in politics is a relatively recent phenomenon that has crept into the light of day in Ukraine.
cfb542f3fa2d5970b8c520cc12b216d5c01a90cc We are talking about buying up voters ' votes in local elections using MLM methods in regions where the Yenakiyevsky boor has historically been sucking for a long time and steadily under any circumstances, in particular, in the Sumy region, where the local big shot of the Party of Regions with the speaking surname Chmyr was the inspiration for the idea.
ac5ddbd822735d69ee14a22be2a7c47e797f9ede As a network product, the final result is proposed in the form of a 60% victory of the corresponding party (the directive issued by the Yenakievskis for the 2010 elections for all regions without exception).
e8f6b5bd1cada7e46bb884b32b72cc01472c89e9 Lulzy about the adventures of Yanukovych's witnesses (http://obkom.net.ua/articles/2010-10/14.1610.shtml) ; also see here (http://www.vsisumy.com/news/politika/piramida chmyrya) boring technical details of the scheme, however, are no different from the methods of sabzh, coupled with NLP and Kirby vacuum cleaners.
990e1a6e49608b195fce8e4d215541ec47be2c3d By the way, in this particular experiment, herbalife workers, as well as their suckers, ended up doing the same as they started (http://obkom.net.ua/news/2010-11-01/1220. shtml) .
6f8e96a037f160fd2868099d829d291bfa87554c The chmyryats, as it turned out, shat so fantastically that they were then caught in an enchanting attempt to cover their tracks, buying out the entire circulation of the city newspaper with a description of the scam on the eve of the elections.
d2e1dc22f9bfc66016792e5228f10db201da575b (http://obkom.net.ua/news/2010-11-17/1220.shtml) Suckers, of whom there were allegedly as many as 130 thousand, are quietly indignant.
b7d056d523bb497fc60f39d4901e397238ad16ef How to deal with this, no one is immune from infection with brain marketing.
b24b427cd69b6f75916cd38114cf5b693eb4c558 It is not necessary to divide people into suckers who were recruited, and "not suckers", to which, of course, everyone counts himself first of all.
a6049213c364d4c8467420ee1513d96a234da78c Any infectious disease doctor will confirm that most of the diseases are due to banal human carelessness and pokhuism, the boundaries of which have no limit.
dad31206b1f3147e1000e8c6d6a0e7261c9fa2de All those who entered the infectious disease clinic, before they got sick, were convinced that "everything will be fine, I have already done it a hundred times".
77ec08897e741f3a5090ddfb3640b7b5acf518f6 Even if you have a great immune system, this is not a reason to wander around the pestilent barracks.
af28bd64d1319568f12482f563d4b34ec793508f No one has canceled the simplest hygiene techniques.
fda830089895c67a95c8506d4d52e7c3bbec9be1 The following are the ways to maintain psychiatric hygiene: First of all, before you go with your bare hands and quotes from lurka to convince and troll MLM schikov, realize that very intelligent people (professional psychologists and psychiatrists with experience in the fields of PR, political technologies and other technologies for processing people's brains) have been engaged in the development of a zombie machine.
af2fd74a6c84db23f323d11000a293a72b7e7db2 Plus lawyers who try to drive the company's activities to the maximum within the framework of existing laws) for a very considerable amount of money.
5ea73f15ff1e9814cf53a11c0ac0473c09df2e6b The days of organizations like the "White Brotherhood" or "MMM" have already passed, which in the early mid 90s were slapped by individual scammers literally on their knees and kept afloat only thanks to the fearlessness of a post Soviet citizen and the lack of sane legislation.
0b51953a94f4823139daccba3ce64bed92b30744 Europe and America have long acquired immunity to such cults (the same Hare Krishnas appeared in the 60s of the 20th century), so in order to lure already frightened Western citizens into their networks, you need to have a very strong, convincing and constantly updated ideological base.
a56e05201d3cac3d0aa49bed7075581d4b7596de And this base is very difficult to break even for an experienced psychiatrist who has got a hand in such cases, what can we say about an amateur?
d3e74560f6fd48b1df81fba96f54e078535f209b The result of an attempt to persuade will be a little predictable, and moreover: there is a risk, and a considerable risk, to catch this infection yourself.
37aeb85e0e1eb22e11443dba58ffe4e6a23788c3 Therefore, the best thing that can be done is, as in quarantine during a pandemic — to protect yourself first of all, and let the patients be treated by specialists.
d51407198e535538f27dc548dbf86cc14ffbf3c8 And in order for specialists to do this, it is necessary not to engage in holy wars with those who have fallen under suggestion, but to contact the media.
cf54c818e860c0804033207e1a60e596addb49d0 And the more scandals are inflated with the involvement of the media — the higher the probability of crushing the mass of commissioned articles and advertising.
a11ad440d12c681232203a7655f26c9bb5ee7ecb But the main thing is not to get bogged down yourself.
7eb8763d4271f8af5d739e8306faec98d18179b4 The simplest way to protect yourself is not to go to "guest evenings", "open days", "free trial classes", "presentations", etc .These classes are theatrical performances, after which you can pick up a slight degree of fanaticism and get bogged down for a long time.
c4b45cede83b57f054f2422830ab6cb0f5b20b72 Moreover, after the monetary contribution, the classes will no longer be the same as at the guest evening — they have achieved what they need from you.
031889ae6dd9890b8bd26a261a7df93df8691053 If you are a boy and received a message in social networks from an unfamiliar pleasant girl who offers to meet and chat, but at the same time calls not to a cafe, but to one of the offices in a local business center, then with a probability of 99% they want to recruit you.
b05f1e80f53ba9de0d5395d26c989d56ee857017 In general, it is necessary to make a habit of treating with great suspicion any cases of happiness falling from the sky on its head.
5f9ac382ec0063a5cb0d4a693014d7a9d3c2a520 It is this vulnerability of human consciousness that is exploited most often.
64fdac4b77afcc7a988ad16c320225af82d785db Vulnerability lies in the unshakable belief that happiness itself will fall on your head, without any effort of the person himself.
d74e89724b20103a1a2cfdb6f7967990ccdf5ffb In simpler terms, the one who believes in free or cheap (with a huge discount) cheese, which, as you know, is only in a mousetrap, is vulnerable.
c3e56a004f567d1f1ec27b3f9c45759d57b1b2a0 Zombies (for the time being) remain quite human, if you do not hook their marketing point, which can cause some difficulties in detecting, especially at the initial stages of the incubation period.
c61f3462a4ed1b3811f07e0d174d1e0accff9a3c The principle is quite obvious that it is better to prevent a disease than to treat it and the consequences after it.
0287aaaf0232967e4558dd53283395b87097eae8 A healthy person is always immune to advertising techniques that are used in our case.
da7685c6d88ad72306c29c48e93c9bc2b5fa78b9 Humanity has come up with a very limited number of levers of human control so far.
87a6d67008a16bbea12d276e5dc257078b2db532 All of them can be counted on the fingers, and you can find out in the relevant literature, for example, on the theory of advertising.
b4edc98763d90afcb6051005f1ad2c1faefd98e5 Yes, advertising is now a whole science.
8caff2f8570a83ed9032369dac231dcbabfce4be Trolling suckers and their managers is a simple matter, but often brings little lulz.
d8476cbe723efe0f10b8e2eac8eba6cef4a3ebac The reason is simple and complex at the same time: the brainwashed MLM schikov is not able to give out something intelligible except for those thoughts that were put into their brain.
7a0370ebee2792afa7074c2d1f7f6a1c36cdb80d Fat trolling Say that you do not see the difference between a sect and network marketing (you will be almost right).
93ff7b7d9fcbb07a52f8d124c7c1c670b18313a5 You can tell that your brother was also in MLM, and then became a Scientologist.
b794ab53a4ac5a83a2cca65f1836395df4d83ffe And then he died altogether.
6bedf339640839751f6b74defefdc31a614ec8dd A lot of lulz can be obtained by attending "free seminars" or "trainings".
d3dd366058524e8b92a9476edf6d329bf2381ade To protect yourself from brainwashing, do not forget to wear a foil cap. Suitable method [show][show]
5cb8b0cd7c664e28bafc8b6938329fe9d757e7cc A lot of lulz can bring a game on the envy of "successful": Pretend to be a networker and say that you already have a "stable business" that y brings you a lot of UE per month.
07905a8a6c4285fb7eab56fb9d8f9ba539e6ca8b Bugurt from someone else's success is guaranteed.
983a6f8d6b7d6a2fe838ba5869670804cc05bb42 Tell us that you work at a factory and earn a lot of money without doing anything.
c3c6bf292a0aff2dc979ec5ea962f4a5a46ca8cc Do not forget to use the techniques of "get it done first" and "I feel sorry for you".
b506cdba3777362e7636082267aa485e35cb9275 Say that you work as an ordinary manager, earn pennies, barely make ends meet, and that you ... like it.
737063902d151300e0dcbca618bd508b20d0e328 Networkers are sure that all people want to earn quickly and without stress, and such a statement causes them to break the template.
2bb4869c94d6561996aa6d03836c36b6f4c51554 Correct presentation
07dd0fafb1b8f780dea6d62043228546db164fe8 The subtle trolling Sorin said: I once had such an eagle clinging to me on the street, "we give you a wonderful Swedish LED lantern"… I had a lot of fun.
4a044e45f6dceaa8528744f881514080e4be35ef I took the lantern, said thank you, I accept the gift, put it in my bag and went.
0d7e3076b1607a88ede5ebd236f5cafa33019bd5 He rushes next to me, "but wait, the gift is that it is sold three times cheaper than in stores, I did not have time to tell you all the conditions offered by our company..."
951ce5873dac0313a685ccf2c856408cf09fe378 And I calmly and happily explain to him: "The gift agreement is a real transaction concluded at the time of its execution.
0df6a99d654ca82e123aee4e7c55eaf416bfe9d9 Regardless of the amount, this contract can be concluded orally, since it is executed at the time of conclusion.
eb48163a0b2c2166f314f0c72efeb9f9308d6ed7 Your company in your person made me an offer, I accepted it and accepted the gift.
8ddc6fc1d93df3b6de4e85b10f93a54a858b011b The right of ownership of the thing transferred under the contract, unless otherwise agreed, or otherwise provided for by law, passes at the time of the actual transfer of the thing.
db88b496941efeebba00e086dfd8910e2e39a461 That is, the flashlight is already my property, I donot need anything more from his company and from him personally.
94745e62503cb171ae9a382fd01089d11b4568a7 I am very grateful.
3316ca678b1ad05b2b47e58e7ff1480eb89a7512 There could be no question of any terms of the contract, since the gift contract cannot be concluded under the condition that is explicitly stated in the civil code.
6f35a48fb4b6216cc45892c39550250703e6610c If he believes that I have illegally taken away something from him, we can go to the police on the way, and he will make a statement there indicating all the details of the incident.
10af4031ed1f1c7fecd34846f66e28a37fa147e9 If the police do not help him in any way, then his company will be able to go to court with a claim to me about the demand for a flashlight...
9bf3ea7589f2aa023d82133066a0f9429c8932cc " 399258 (http://bash.im/quote/399258)
91f1b1a1c1a1720a5de47e424aacd4f29de0283c For subtle trolling, you need to be well versed in the economy.
2cad50cc5aca0dd6c6d53cb3a40f9b755e55cabe Load the sucker with phrases containing complex economic terms.
764d5a9e76b70a551b305d325185176ea0598160 From the abundance of incomprehensible words, the sucker will come out on shit.
39047110e5bad5bd3a66be31fa1261fe32b016c3 "Network marketing does not exist."
6cb8ea158e131f22134eabf20fc36a5d8c291d36 An interesting way of trolling is to open the sucker's eyes to the books of Robert Kiyosaki.
afc9ea008c8ac23e7bd8438403d59ce3acaac805 It is worth knowing that the books of this sacred cow of MLM schikov are very dangerous.
ee7a5a4dbe33606b68b04a94c8f00ee860bc5489 However, if you try to tell this to a successful businessman, you will most likely be proved that this is not the case.
bb2d1e13bbd6b2cdda03ebb777e22259d82b076f "Robert Kiyosaki and the real economy are like Daria Dontsova and literature."
630df194c5b10abfa95d9d050a3cb36c24a133d2 Also
f11cbb1d7cef2eb467fa8baf5b475c28a16ab9ae An example of the work of spherical network marketing in a vacuum and the consequences of this activity for people can be observed in the anime and manga "Welcome to NHK", in which there are a thousand and one references to Amway.
cf766eb56ab7c0bf03a90d3bec735ee13f98678b And if in the anime the main character managed to get out of this shit, then in the manga he got into debt up to his ears, which later had to be paid by his parents.
5e79a1bcb47c1e4d6132b97489364ad1affd054e A long time ago, in a distant Galaxy, Yakov Perelman showed in the most popular book "Living Mathematics" in numbers and on his fingers
f73dd926bec058b311917a1474415cdb6f8048d0 (http://wikilivres.ru/%D0%96%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B how many people have a real chance to get a real profit, and who owns only an illusory opportunity.
64c217192cd12f60bf4b9b0d6801d10ddd0c1261 From the point of view of mathematics, network marketing is by no means a pyramid.
1adca24b423c47e87e9af36bf134e42f2ecedb27 Because the pyramid increases by a fixed number at each next level (see arithmetic progression), and in network marketing, an increase of a fixed number of times is required at each level (geometric progression).
2dca7ddae56d5ef6e7d1bd6a369e132ec9ad908a A visual (though not quite accurate) geometric representation will be a tailcoat
8aa8c449bdf6a84c25f5adf1223a2ef0c60d26ac Network Marketing Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
2629d78dcc55136485a2cfb22170364acf162825 The scheme of the sales structure in network marketing.
0550f7300771c8241081c67bf70d58d89b3adec6 The level of revenue depends on the total sales level of the distributor and the underlying branches.
f6e9de2603013644c2b281db68cf4da1cc229429 Network companies may also apply slightly different schemes for paying remuneration to sales agents For example, in the UK, Amway pays remuneration depending on the volume of retail orders received for the company's products In the USA, Amway Global pays bonuses depending on the" indicators achieved during the month " (monthly productivity)[3]. Network marketing can be considered as a form of out of store retail trade, a special type of direct (personal) sales, in which the sales agents (distributors) of the manufacturer's company independently establish, first of all, on the basis of personal connections, direct contacts with potential buyers.
ff2e5f9ef2ca3c93a1c9fec6205b25f4b5c1ded9 Thus, a multi level network of buyers and sellers is created (in various network companies they are called differently partners, independent business owners, dealers, consultants, sales consultants, independent agents, etc.) [4]).
f0b0892c38984e1917a72c798df7b5b9573c02b2 1 History 1.1 Network Marketing in the USA 1.2 Network Marketing in Russia 1.3 Network Marketing in China 2 The attractiveness of Network Marketing 3 Principles of Operation 4 Criticism 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References
24382d2b47fc54eadf9488ba7b43205bb215151b The history of network marketing dates back to 1945, when American entrepreneurs Lee S. Mytinger and William S. Casselberry became national distributors of the company "Nutrilite Products", basing their activities on the principles of network marketing, which later became widespread[10][16]. In the late 1950s, two companies were created in the United States, which by now have become the most powerful representatives of this sector of the economy — Shaklee and Amway[10] (the latter was created by Rich DeVos and Jay Van Endel in 1959 under the name "American Way Corporation"). The industry flourished in the 1980s 1990s.
ad2dc6c9e15c21d5deb82e938b1f1f81832d33f2 By the mid 1990s, network companies offered consumers any kind of goods and services from cosmetics, underwear and art objects to car tires, household appliances, computers and long distance telephone services[16].
a6e566cc649e104076bf5e72565bc3000fe54201 Network marketing in the USA At the beginning of the 2000s, formal regulation of MLM companies was introduced in six US states (Georgia, Maryland, New York, New Mexico, Wyoming and Louisiana) and Puerto Rico.
dffe5eba8bf073c515337ef156325965dde7802b The legislation regulating the activities of MLM companies usually provides for the following requirements: the right of sales agents to break agreements with MLM companies and the obligation of companies to take back unsold products at a price not lower than 90% of the original; prohibition on the use of statements guaranteeing them a certain level of income when attracting new sales agents; prohibition on setting the minimum quantity of products that a sales agent is obliged to purchase from the company when concluding an agreement; prohibition of schemes that provide for payment only for the activities of attracting (recruiting) new sales agents.
8ae2aa97ebbe70ca7f55b0bef19fed4bbbf7b862 The sharply worsened socio economic situation contributed to the mass attraction of people to network companies.
61b6713f87382f4f576596a03076d350d5e90773 Due to the ban, ten foreign direct sales companies that were allowed to operate in the PRC were forced to change the business system and sell their products through retail outlets and sales representatives[20] Since November 1, 2005, due to China's obligations to the WTO, the ban was lifted, but strict restrictions were imposed on the organization of direct sales.
6d0915620154d206eb559c750a2fe2106d3f697b By mid 2007, 14 multinational and five local companies already had licenses for direct sales[21].
7b2da8cf49d392695766adbd04a094c7efec9bc6 Avon (China)
65994eca115478faac1002e2851fd6334e5795a6 Ltd., Nu Skin (China) Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., Pro Health (China) Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., YOFOTO Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., Oriflame Cosmetics (China) Co., Ltd.,
3bbb1ad86de8861be995dfb870878f3ce48c9159 Kasly Ju (Tianjin) Ltd., For You Group L.L.C, Mary Kay (China) Cosmetics Ltd., Amway (China) Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., Perfect (China) Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., Guangdong Apollo (Group) Co., Ltd., Nanfang Lee Kum Kee Co., Ltd., Herbalife (China) Daily Use & Health Products Ltd., Shaklee (China) Co., Ltd Liaoning Yilishen Tinxi Group Ltd., Nanjing JOYMAIN Technology Development Ltd., New Era Health Industry (Group) Co., Ltd., Guangdong Kang Li Medicines Co., Ltd., Beijing Luo Mai Pharmaceutical Ltd.
c2cc22d68021721c960c3f3f92b78031c7d457f2 The attractiveness of network marketing Working in a network company can be attractive for those who need additional earnings and have free time, or for those who have the opportunity to work only on a flexible schedule (students, young mothers, etc.).
22a815777dd94db638c52f86cf366c2f525ee412 According to the results of research conducted by the Direct Sales Association (eng. The Direct Selling Association, USA), 90% of sales agents of MLM companies are employed less than 30 hours a week, and 50% - less than 10 hours a week[1].
fc983fcc44bd20aea66038f0008194ea42885cc3 Working in network marketing is one of the forms of private entrepreneurship.
0a7c173fd76681ff27efd325fb8732df470af9e4 For beginners, it can be convenient because it does not require large investments to open "your own business".
4465758f791290abd635c5a71f46e20f338f182d At the same time, however, the desire to become a successful entrepreneur is not enough, and only a small proportion of those who try to work in the network business stay in it for a long time and receive solid income[1].
edfa7697dcf4ddf11770a4c25c944fb30afff07c From the point of view of MLM companies themselves, we can talk about the following advantages of network marketing[10]: the use of direct sales allows you to save on advertising and retail space; sales based on demonstrating the exclusivity of your own product can be more effective than sales through stores that offer a wide range of similar products; a company can educate loyal customers who prefer to buy only from people they know; companies stimulate an increase in sales volumes with significant commission payments to distributors.
f280eb20db9a0be3f443b10b1212ca55999fdda5 Network companies are better able to survive economic crises than linear businesses.
d1811def648c507b26de64588c3843a814fcd60b Some difficulties arise for those companies that are focused on financial services or the sale of expensive goods.
70f66cc6f61daee6ff45e939008fe59937c01668 During a crisis, there may even be an increase in interest in network business — people try to hedge themselves, not having a firm confidence that their workplace is safe, and often come to network marketing[12].
481ee181cb689f7b9e18753da81aaa34b31b0e8a Network marketing allows a person to independently choose the growth rate, schedule and employment, as well as business partners.
f6f8d919532eeb6d5edf45ca2d7b0d2f8c53fd55 The distributor interacts in the network on partner terms, which allows avoiding subordination relationships.
4cc5788b7d82e4363281d8d6243b0a25fd053ba0 Most companies conduct
5f84d27e107eedb96752ba6b90e9dc17319ca65a there are various trainings for distributors, including those aimed at stimulating personal development.[12].
9d3063cf3759882bcf2831691b056309404e0eb1 In network companies, people regularly receive public recognition of their results.
883bbbab5ffcb3f36e2509dc5cc30a32a1c087c8 The improvement of personal indicators leads to an increase in the income of distributors.
1807d562386193394eba44223546f2dcde3b0486 But it also leads to an increase in the income of the entire company.
9e70dea9f3d51f6c132b67fddc0d066878d851fd Therefore, in network marketing, there is usually an atmosphere of mutual assistance and partnership.
4b832fc36ac318d75daea022213e900ef78d0417 Companies regularly hold meetings where they congratulate their distributors who have reached a certain level.[12]
622d996659aa5ede149597700c929348863f6ad2 According to John Vaughn Aiken, the longer a person works and the more clients he has, the more income he receives from his activities.
94f55d2b3263ab653cfcf6c5d7126b6881f5cb63 Over time, the business begins to work for him[12].
f7332fb3b76c78d0458e66ef3f26c986d3c136c1 In terms of network marketing, it is much more important not the number of personal customers, but the number of attracted distributors (referrals), the size of the created network.
57417f6f5929c79a9fb847e561acd2828c1f2ac5 Criticism of the activities of companies using network marketing methods often causes disputes in society, and MLM companies themselves from time to time become the subjects of legal proceedings.
ec1c2ac9d42266fb3cef4d957dd49881435d7f92 The criticism expressed against them mainly concerns the following aspects: the similarity of network marketing with fraudulent schemes of financial pyramids; accusations of price collusion (fixing prices for the products offered); actual coercion of novice distributors to unproductive expenses at the initial stage (participation in paid training seminars, trainings and other events, purchase of training materials, etc.); emphasized emphasis on expanding the network by attracting new lower level participants, to the detriment of increasing actual sales; encouraging (and sometimes even forcing) the practice of purchasing MLM company products by distributors for their own use; the potential possibility of exploiting personal relationships as a channel for recruiting new network participants and a way to ensure sales expansion; invitations to meetings without explaining a specific goal; not informing potential participants about possible financial risks, the potential destruction of the network due to the exit of people who fail. the use of overly complicated compensation schemes; the use of specific rituals and techniques aimed at maintaining the enthusiasm of ordinary participants and zealous service to their company.
9401637304d13bb35d8caf5d21f8b7e243785aad The activities of network marketing companies often take place outside the legal field.
52a4f2495e069994a817f980c22fac03a2c8e2a2 The goods are not accepted back and are not exchanged, as it is required under the law on consumer rights.
d629cec0cde3b1408ef810f7ab8439b4084e27d3 Money is not returned for unrealized goods, there are cases of fraud[22].
f3b46ef1f6a99beecf53b9886c2f5e392638a926 In June 1987, an article was published in Money Magazine claiming that distributors of network companies expecting millions of dollars in revenue and selling a huge amount of goods, after deducting business related expenses, received very little profit.
5691038a09ef419811ce9010a4d86d8a618fa199 Some even had to mortgage their own real estate.
4c2b0058dc0d017842c44f55609199c9d20064dc Thus, in the state of Texas in the United States, 300-400 thousand dollars were invested in 1986 in the now defunct Starcom company[10].
a645c15a13439130c234341cc758c3e77aa7ed0a Multi level marketing is often compared to financial pyramids.
ffbc97be76269f6a84bd7d58299d3e36f5bb7fb2 However, an article in Money Magazine emphasizes that legitimate pyramid shaped structures in network marketing consist of distributors who make money, first of all, on the sales of a particular product personally and by people invited by them at the lower levels.
5f50282a69766033e00c2ead7c913ca939c3e840 Those acting under the law include Amway, the Ada, Mich. company, Shaklee, A. L. Williams[10].
bbbbe50bb2ad2df6b052f7d7881e6c051c70604f In a lawsuit that lasted from 1975 to 1979, it was established that the Amway sales and marketing plan was not an illegal pyramid scheme.
7db51ab88698408e60d506ea9a3d383442432433 Assistant to the chief lawyer of Florida, Fred Hochsztein, notes that some network marketing firms are legal, but many of them are not.
a292f94e925ca7f26002e072678d08049e463976 Illegal companies give their distributors the opportunity to make money not by selling goods, but by charging new distributors for joining the company[10].
38a928f031d7b089994cba9685fe4cbf22fa1f94 Even legitimate companies often do not notify potential distributors of the true amount of expenses and efforts that will be required for a sustainable income in this business, while mailing lists and commercial brochures of companies contain generous promises[10].
144f276cdab342c1a3352376cf7002b13f3413eb For example, according to Amway materials, the average working distributor earns $ 76 per month[10].
f197448867d3b08521db62483a984d2c4e9589c3 Some distributors quickly change companies and sell products from several network marketing companies at once[10].
5b9e5ca8b8abafc2b5ee7ea3010fcf71f3adeeeb Network marketing is often criticized by representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church, who call companies that use the network concept for the sale of goods commercial cults[23][24]. In their opinion, each such company does not have its own religious teaching, but has a cult of wealth and prosperity, which is condemned.
b6b94680cb9aa6858af7ab81787d0de99ac008bc Network companies are mixed up with New Age movements, accused of forcibly changing a person's worldview and creating psychological dependence.
07835b37cbe3b1d0da86e31248a1205c82abb94e Priest Sergiy Dashchenko believes: "Such psychological dependence in patristic theology is called a vice, when a person is no longer able to fix something.
d237d8b5c9c6f6e223fb8fe95d8031d6d7fda418 In this case, the Lord Himself can have a psychotherapeutic effect through the prayers of relatives"[25].
1cf51b8f62aee9a064abc9e4be087c1e32c708d5 See also Pyramid Scheme Litigation Related to Amway
f5260c866aa05362d33370d89917859f238a9bb0 1. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2687200391.html «Multilevel Marketing».
e4dd05272f8e633dd41606ae3d82788a1f0bda99 Encyclopedia of Small Business. 2007.
e60a788476fd9546b5edc875fbce72e8de5c8f79 Encyclopedia.com 2.
2e204ab6cf5f767f23796ec8eb8951b4c55d1612 ↑ How does an NPA earn money (http://www.amway.co.uk/cms/opportunity/how ABO make money) 3.
daacaf100b8128e4dfcc6bf10182074c940f474a How does the Amway business work?
8a765db99d5d260abd99f6e2927918eba93b4442 (http://www.amway.com/en/start a business/how amway works? aid=Start+a+Business How+Amway+Works) 4.
b5d58d294881c77dcaa95d65126b0b0456d79612 Golubkov E. P. Marketing as a concept of market management.
1e0932a8bc262c486bc61f01492e9bb288ed3351 "Marketing in Russia and Abroad", No.
06b408c9d80b1b7fb7e8a8d026c5e4915c5d8d64 1, 2000 (http://www.cfin.ru/press/marketing/2000-1/12.shtml) 5.
d139429a18f1d051b418a7d90ea922f6f52a144f ↑ Company profile of Zepter International (http://www.zepter.ru/index.php?m=110) 6.
69c5829aeb810a3f47d48e3d01bc7b09f228b9cf ↑ About the company Vitamax (http://vitamax.ru/vitamax/default.htm) 7.
522cb8eb11c6558e32949db5e43f2a975b481cf5 Бизнес Business 2.0: now in video format (http://www.cnews.ru/reviews/index.shtml?2013/04/26/527185) 8.
5309a4346baa2f719b66f0fa122ee0dd4e56c8b1 ↑ Talk Really Can Be Cheap (http://www.forbes.com/sites/quickerbettertech/2010/11/10/talk really can becheap/) 9.
30a68a0121e671596a8dc2a26431792fc003b8c0 ↑ Direct Selling Association (http://www.dsa.org/forms/CompanyFormPublicMembers/view? id=1BE83000000A4) 10.
1dd7f3ad1fa845fafacd3be5c7cedf64a31cca93 The Mess Called Multi Level Marketing With celebrities setting the bait, hundreds of pyramid style sales companies are raking in millions, often taking in the gullible.
d7b05853f1f7c5837298691cad3e2951bbf20d5e (http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/moneymag archive/1987/06/01/83883/index.htm)
5a44136e83bd7093ba93aaf189ece5155374776e Link and the features of the structuring of retail chains ("Economic Review", "Marketing", No. 3, 2002) (http://www.review.uz/page/article/digest/91.htm)
6562702fe9b775d61c2c85945ab41ad3cd6933c7 Law and Multi level Network Marketing (http://www.law.edu.ru/article/article.asp? articleId=158481) Specialists are required.
51187e5a7dbf4bae6a57b2df71bbf1c3d0619690 Payment in dollars (http://www.kp.ru/daily/22671/13270/), "Komsomolskaya Pravda", November 9, 2001 Continuation: Recruited a friend — get a percentage (http://www.kp.ru/daily/22676/13492/), "Komsomolskaya Pravda", November 16, 2001 Gshablon:Link GA Source - "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Network Marketing&oldid=64999356"
93f58418b33e5993c4fcc598399040d5fdabf253 Network Path Home My Services
35161034c510c0fd2d174b7f0869885e8ab92056 I recommend it
6a6b60a2dff3b1f28df7a623b40a3e4c5f5a456f Home ▶ Network Marketing ▶ Network marketing: pros and cons
0b0f099968b6c3aab3a7d18f1b0cb8cc58d2022e Network marketing: pros and cons 29.05.2009 Lola Pirhal 35 comment.
a807f01ccb0a239464484247644ed0dc4430f0c7 Get site updates:
985ac3ec02042ae042cea4595abb8d7971d5e128 Network marketing.
3d93dc1b3ad879c6db572e8083b76b8cdff2b11f Almost everyone has heard this term today, but not everyone knows what it is in practice.
c150ac8643ab5f05c176283b062bddbbefcbc239 For reference: according to the glossary (http://www.glossary.ru), multi level (or network) marketing is a form of conducting
04292bf7d89b6f25eba55144b422b604e22f7119 out of store retail trade, in which the sales agents (distributors) of the company-
99635efccfcd0c08e4c24a40ab742c3dfff27ffc the manufacturer is installed as
1cd771e885ba505af255d588fc569752013d5e83 contacts with potential buyers.
8fedfb3fe889df858b26091f82501bb26be8ae86 Simply put, network or multilevel marketing means the delivery of goods, information products or services from the manufacturer to the consumer using a multi level structure consisting of distributors.
5a1682e713e1f089d9bdb67975ab4ddeb5d9cb76 Today you can often hear a tempting offer:
814064a9e7b1f5dc113bf67b653d5125615064ae find your favorite thing: step by step instructions On the pages of this blog, we have already talked about how to [...]
ae08934c92408ccaed81bd7cfec586515bc7c2cc "Own business without
fef0d02da9a017e385a5f1900c1952a7db896090 material investments!
c31516ffdb17eb25808d8a246d63daa5dacd20d5 Unlimited opportunity to earn money!
e91a8f7a86d5a24770dc513ae002e5dd41c73558 " Or:" With our company
074157e37067d73aa5c2b50c3e5dba17b235621c excuses and
43803bd07bf09b9660ee19d099c738878512b40e You will become a millionaire!"
874f15322e335344f0460091e2ffd78e1f3b73ae Any,
def5865045999f4fbaec6e6844dcd873db0dbf2f excuses
97e134d3fed10571eafeb31b02a8c67c1a0a841c hearing this, he will think: "Well
5a63c702b1b76954cdf3f48a0b35341bcd474acb they destroy it
6cf9bb9e1805d16ad18eec698c54e49bf2969804 then not all people are rich, once they become
2cd7484bc1b15fccff822cd21eebb9f498794c14 our
c0f9af5dbfeade4b985c82d23b8f1ebca647a506 is it so easy to become a millionaire?
8737f095a0015e0e92a06ef20a91934d9b7f2536 Only
d848c9713eb1c248d99ae01d257fe9b269623d27 future
8ca492b4057156ed12b057aad0c91e65fe4f685d money is being siphoned off…"
05359eaaa0f8167329727c341192d5f2d8955b18 I read it the other day
401c83144df38976bc160ba1a7a97db5ca5f130d On the one hand, the author of these words
b892f067921d231448e8f0a591107de8b2ad3202 sunny
3543b8671e8cd9a2df896a23cae86231a8395ce0 will be right: companies that profit from
3fa7b4caae79f69e9ce98c4d3d926733b4cafd62 eclipse 20
e6e3f3e8d0774dba3a65d301f9286a473d887b8b on the trust of people and
b575acdaf4260d2e07f0f2998c79f377c280e8b9 (You [...]
bb908cb12a6afd21e2fb39c23f8099df031fee3f information about
c52280f8cb5c8eb061327f93a279def0f5914b32 it is enough to fake SM systems, but today we will not talk about how to distinguish a "scam" from real network sales companies, but about how to understand whether you should try to earn money in this way and
d80b215e9bf005543e44fe9462ec5c2c780e03c5 Taffy: Human like That's how
74a2afa49703be801f4bc4f3218a63bf95b1b8c3 how profitable it is in general.
a24ae9faf6a4ba419bee6dc5d1d746acf826b198 We
ac67d521a419308a2c791090690343bed1fce444 it's started.
ceef5237c47e936c12f25b66d446450c0c68279e let's analyze all the pros and cons of this
471d1ffa9f3c7ad0bac5ccab5989c8993acd416c "God said:
199d55e091808d9930a69827b9e68d27ad923220 the system.
d0eb43e6f9864e5711ab2010f73d54aad3bd74b2 I will create a man by
8a26d61130804c0bb8f3f42686111e0c8ff13f3d Network Marketing history But to begin with, SEE a little history.
f2ca5ddabce6a5fa9ae462972b0b96a6d9f6addf It is inextricably linked with the name of the American Karl Renborg (1897-1973), whose realized ideas turned into a multibillion dollar network marketing industry.
f3e64935aa48ddd4da972bf9669c0c92f4447ec4 the stereotypes are wrong.
030dd3546ea98d02ee81b6209c1fc38b02c2780e This is sometimes more important than any professional techniques in business.
1783ecd6713e3bd8289d336e72780f3db05f04cc Oksana Lutchenkova
d3579865252d01cdf2e47491de669c783f836ff3 Thus, Renborg introduced "single level marketing"into the practice of classical business.
2855fe17c8b6dfb15176db20322f549f3cc2f827 Recent commentaries and Lola
825302d40a9978733f32dbac8dbfd4e808d115b7 Pirhal: ))) Actually, with any.
11112d57d15818b3f1a117dc91b5293f7e6d257b If in the short term... alexey
01e4bad71e3c8324d373aa41883a70c38f2251c9 Pros and cons of network marketing Pros of Network Marketing Like any other, this type of business
f9dc96564cf0b515e1f46af3232335b8a9c5bf84 cupricov: Lola Hello!
562dd91411abf48fbe97213a0969ddccc0b031da Please tell me, for today ...
ae4490c99aa73cb11d072c712d425954317a52a9 business has its advantages.
8cb4c77237d5480bdcba741ace35490997427f5c Of course, any distributor can successfully tell you about this
6ec3a262cb79c1c7649f48a33e6920fa1802f0d5 Andrey: Article
9b160ba5c115c0e09a02314b939f263c3f0e6754 any network company.
1d0ee73a892c18b117fcc1be6dc7d708ac7caa80 But, in-
19a3a33b972e07f19411a164e483e18ad340b762 motivates....
54ad08fdf97b495ac8549efe56fdbe3fc7c2ae2b first, I'm afraid that his story will be embellished with facts that are beneficial to him, and secondly, he will never
055b654c8bf1f1bd6e53125cb11e33d6097656a2 he will tell you about the disadvantages of working with his company.
5068e9d81c2d4514a0e5cb083144b2004ce82d5f I want to give you proven facts about why it is profitable to work with such companies – than I will immediately answer the question why network marketing still exists.
4af8242e6a0c42c02ec8a198d6046120403b57e0 Victor: Good afternoon to all!
7e42b00659a301e6a56975000bdc75ca65bb49c6 I agree with the fact that in the network market...
a869f3a285128cf73755ec869300cfff74d64cbd 1. The possibility of unlimited
c50e43f034d38913298a5b2bd9c540f43e644033 anna:
5da6d6bab8200708fd7e6eb3c85ca0f48771d9e7 earnings.
17b6b9bff2233135bf0dce642881a5cc6033fbc4 Theoretically, this phrase is true, but in practice everything depends on the character of a person and his
694507b1a4c44e657c1ebbc815d657e745393bde Thanks for
0c044d8f27ceaf858af2da711a2b29e8bf4c6629 the desire to earn money.
c316a05bf6f2ad954d36baedd56cabfc496ae0a7 Moreover, as
9bddf36f767d2c0067bbbdfdbd4375049e548a4e a useful test....
db19224af8940a0fb314a13e1d2315687ad71f9a as a rule, those people who are not looking for easy ways to earn money achieve greater success.
87f3d9cc05f17f8dd25b1b574e54961fd2324d59 Yes, and this is despite the fact that most people are attracted to network marketing precisely by the ease of achieving what they want
eb9b5bbfda6fae41bc262ac87268e8860118dc8c Categories Archives Tags
e009c79c67e0b910380ea79f5c5d2b864907a99d riches!
83a700e278fbdcb2ab7a572898c3d4e28c8c454c If a person is ready to achieve this goal, earnings are really not limited to anything: the more products you sell, and, most importantly, the more other people you can attract to your team, the more you will earn.
5726a70763adef45fb27354ab33759f1c731fcb9 And no restrictions!
9bdf14453b1829a1f7d1e8455976f5cb4b56c197 The most important thing in this business is to build a large, cohesive team, which in itself is not difficult if a person has at least some organizational skills.
d15d5ff621352bb016e5dd157a95b5c961092c05 And if not, then usually a lot of trainings are held in companies, which are designed to help such people.
dc3da50a9948b066970729b39c362d9bfa0c860d Истории Stories and Parables (51)
aee58501b1a00e93ee6eb3176a370d9861230b83
770664931f97851c6436325a7dfaa039a1e6dcfe Leadership (130)
73169c154dba3de881563b49b64348c1eacbe041 Personality (94)
8dc76364d990d317919c53360945be0da83a50a3
65d69493e257ef32264eba844a5a31309e41b2b9 Interview (20)
c2ebcae2ce39b04e9df958c7b75ee08b46e3d220 Success Stories (31)
99a695ed7f3a8c991750b38615313a25b0357fc0 Tips (43)
7abe1bbe80e2c304478cd87d382799928371514e News (28)
8842e7fc7fdbc89d49befa28c8dce7a907c87b05 Relay races
36c733d6c90695f3c5190554489359cf015eaa65 (1) Network
a99124baff53d102e6aa0aae50fc2614b9f67aff the company
70c813a753ef1d0f412a9b4245c83a0aba95ebe3 they exist in 125 countries around the world.
c8580b3822f4fcb13d381dc8aedb074d6caf065a Currently, there are more than 4,000 in the world
f8969a18a0daab6f59b42990613def0b8b6d48eb only
c112e88173d4d3c5c1409a17bee4837673523991 network
1d4b9976a7192d005bcd4e442c66c2d9e755c90d
772f841cd50ce92db5c174d4dd4f87b3f76da6de large companies,
086da05646702c5cd657432fffb8ede2a0331bb2 the total turnover of which is in
925f954bb08dcc1e7ee95aa7758e900a94e17b47 Reviews (2) Network
aa946df65e46abecff2df60f7016e796863ca4c9 marketing (36)
8eb6964dc671941fbd014aa53058d592cc01a1ce Techniques (93)
e26973e6ee8ab9cd8cb3f207d1b90f00d2669eff 300
30dbf36c4d5616cc72e26ecac7c2954d41b422d4 billions of dollars.
e599e33601c08e71cf3ee270b2eb9087cfb43d6a Business (33)
e562afc7421c7130f2eca3bb1bb0fed10b49ec92 In the USA currently
779f85ae2a813f992856dc4940404dd16820e7c8 the world
28250c910f8a1df05447e14189aca065edd114d8 exceeds
295b6b7ea32a096943c54178b4411f93e8a864d6 works
e7c95b4c28243c79cd41d964c2c889a4d29d25da more
5296d5cced2aa1cf19afd9cf498d89f0d85481f2 large
a6a0845258a40575703021e5244ff9c70838a23b 2500
25ccc7de796bd5997a37a063a9668cca196a0232 companies,
be6a563e765d0c1d984900fa192952eade3c457c through
98910a6e9ae7a753e5a63f81b499a1f233a88256 them
a38016e27b60dc1f9de32576d01e944ed991355a moving forward
ea3a2c23f38997579a07ef8742464ba88cfee18e 65%
9ea1fd304e183dc47d52996b75497b46fcbc91f4 products, and are engaged in this field
3802a68da20f566d7fb269f15c34508be3676bf9 approximately
7362311a4c956e0be62fa0e6add86284262492c4 population,
779ad79b70facf47c40d7427ff4acb9e4811000e I. e.
2b01c5b342fcf518a57727afe96a45be0eddfd2b 15%
6da953b713d7447f5911b562cb9d452df578e13f every ninth resident.
aef36502d67b0520654deb764dd055a7e905cfdd In
d387fc8d57b2e3dccc525701c8a6c2c147ff9ed6 volume
6bf1d12aa9bea99f737b13a6a6f2e9e372a06ddc sales of goods through CM reaches 90%.
0d8351c4774765eef152a9c38105a7fd690f989e There are more than 700 network companies operating in Europe, and more than 800 in Asia Minor.
a286075043d42dcdce8d6668944e827f7a64024f marketing
7bcbf908e034c8e5209b8a83d086693f77bafb3d become
c2ee7e6d882ae7c889520b14391d319f42ba8429 use the largest
e2728bea7285e81e229834cd7eeea69235e061ae and companies,
cc97afea3892ab29ce943b4f12fd454929e5db80 such as Ford, Colgate, Canon, Lipton, Coca Cola and many other flagships of the business.
a500be122b293104792fe9276bff569dbfd19178 2. Financial independence.
17fa870f4cbcb7e0494ea08a5d635697699dd1be One of the main arguments for SM is called this factor.
d7e8dce2a8e3f467616fddeb457d4de0394d3c18 It sounds very attractive to many people.
8285bd524dea38f3a5bca4e80e1d971ef74bf198 But not everyone fully understands,
19fb623eb9e7434ed6d6855a245c1997a2deee9b Self development (43) Tests
93f5ce7884a73932bda95c8d5a8639b68fb51129 (17)
51e28a8b917c785de6260c0ee353fcc5f49d6c12 what this phrase hides behind itself.
6e15142121359a28a16dc7027d09a7b930282235 By it, distributors understand independence from the employer or from parents and relatives, if it is a young boy or girl.
6fdbbf3880533e07f76be40bc61197f285c9401c But this phrase does NOT mean that you will be completely protected from financial adversity and will not depend on life circumstances.
03f072d7058adfa30067fdc5fd9278031b26f112 It all sounds like this: "Yes, you will be given the opportunity of unlimited earnings, which thereby does not put you in the framework of the official salary and gives you financial independence in front of your parents and society."
d7773bc9f85940c77bee67be1d640d2a4d530377 In fact, the meaning is somewhat different: "Yes, you will be given the opportunity to earn as much as you can, which thereby does not put you in the framework of the official salary and gives financial independence to parents and society."
a047980f005ab85c5f90b6039348ed9b5f850af5 And as you know, every person has different opportunities.
5d11b1834bdc4c2caef63f2928b1d6ab7d56aa20 And here the advertising slogan will be really true: "Find out the power of your abilities!"
688e48fea08b3b73445da1240f084be3d9040ca5 3. Own business.
231904254538ab0109cd139d0bf6b2034b078808 "Donot you really want to use the unique opportunity to start your own business without investment?"- the distributor will ask you in a surprised and, again, tempting way.
de8922fc5d5c38633e3a0f14bd4e5332ddef185f Here he is really right: there is such a possibility, only the distributor does not say something.
ef837b5433a32636a08bf0e8ea29bbbaaf3b8099 First, the business will become a business not earlier than in a year, when you will compile and promote your recruitment and training system
57acd0d57ba008328cc4afd1d022fd3c8ea4c911 people in your team – which, in principle, is similar to drawing up a business plan in a classic business.
8cd69e6ed6f2f5373550d0988c4e0e311f819da5 Secondly, the phrase "without attachments" is not quite accurate.
8e2eb1b637360355fdfdb80080f4ee2027c83961 It would be better to say "without significant investments".
9285da3192ebf17d1550961a3d38ce2825e14af6 But more on that later.
7b1732b4202ffb911c21f53b2080bbc5ed52040c 4. A close knit team.
ac325cc892bd3c45b69ab12cc192de7a0e75652b You canot argue with this advantage.
58fefa4b9985d415ebe8056acc19aabd6d9d22f0 In network companies, a lot of attention is paid to training and training, which is not always found in companies that do not use CM.
45d02e8a9ff70f5baac26dd86564aa7c65e4406a Simply put, by joining the company, you, along with the products, also get a personal teacher who will help you in everything and guide you on the right path =)))… The main motto in network companies: "I learned it myself - teach it to another!"
dd9a4959db2b5dfc81057847189935dcdeb85297 And you get those managers who have already achieved some success themselves as teachers.
ca2e9f0a2f3c95229a97147e9f0a682375d625eb And in general, as a rule, all the people in the team are quite friendly and ready to help a beginner.
3ef5ebc577bb6836531487218712c72ba72139ec Disadvantages of Network Marketing And now about the disadvantages.
e4c6c5842c0cce780ba9a754252464b9a4d05727 Namely, about those tricks in the CM that most often frighten a beginner and leave negative, and sometimes even categorically hostile, impressions about the network business.
8480454ec794730296fdb0a0198abe4534df231f 1. Instability of earnings.
5f4346d99813e326bd01fd0639de7ae14f2348f5 No matter how high the distributors promise you, they will still not be high for at least the first 2-3 months in the company.
65610a5941039ab507c1aef12f970efca22d6080 For this period, such earnings are suitable only as a side job.
eaebe47425c9f545a41d705608612a34bef824ca Because
6f3c712b9b8b3af5c8137bb0c211fa56a92e0bbd it will take some time for you to train and recruit the necessary people in your own team (as well as your product customer base).
dec70c00731400bceec4cfd18814ee7f38222b8f And for each person, this period is different.
ed69cdcda3b0ef097ece01cdcc26cd01698e2d77 Someone is extremely sociable and has good organizational skills, which gives him the opportunity to acquire his regular customers in the first month, and in the second to train several people in the same skill and get a good income.
8e8dc192365aac5dcb9a32e5bfe3187a096eba7b And someone, on the contrary, is very shy and prefers submission, and his training can take a long time.
bb11e7c2c91ca757a9d78b90778d43ef84945ba5 If, of course, this person is patient.
fc11223b45ff0c9b13d2c6fc4ffff32e4626f0e4 If not, then he will become one of the opponents of SM, claiming that it is impossible to make money on this.
ddd24b608c1ab5baa72154fb1202baebaf9287d4 But, on the other hand, there is no business in nature that made a profit in the first month.
aee789a446447e7ba96f6790660e6917fdeb9fbb 2. Moral burden.
3a29743ca5d8bbb69488126a96a2f82103baec6c This point is the main reason for leaving the network business.
76814d870f82211af336a9501708f6fc4c9b739e Not everyone can withstand the constant pressure from customers (and they are often not quite adequate, because many have already formed the opinion that they are always trying to "sell" something, and it will take some effort to destroy it), as well as from the distributors you train and even your teachers.
337137bee911ce30e545551fa238a684ccdbc5ae Since it has already been said about clients, I will tell you what is difficult in training people.
22fcb421da1bc6ef6738170b4f932ce959c9416d Usually the team takes
5e23f6a8f72e86ceb0a132d28dd0928fd71f9cb5 people of almost all ages, and each age needs its own approach.
c32320ae7d764aefc5f24de7cc1e5fc42170bc81 Young people, for example, listen to your instructions inattentively, and it is worth a lot of work to explain to the student why it is necessary to do this, and not in another way ("simpler"), and why all these subtleties in communicating with clients.
2dd34d9918e071a488ea8e6b821f317306c0ffd7 But the older generation, on the contrary, will listen carefully to everything that you tell them, but... will not believe it.
3485c96fce58e3caa0f3491aa68c3212c9613497 After all, in their opinion, they have a rich life experience, and they have already learned everything that is possible… There will also be a load on the part of your teachers, because first you will be taught yourself, and something may contradict your habits and principles.
ad68e50e6b3df23da4b544e3c3d032e2960bf81e 3. Unavoidable material investments.
af0c8a4e06b614826344aaca8f8e26b228845df6 Yes, investments, despite the phrases "Own business without investments", will really be required.
b21475c0add2e74f845888759d4fc7c9f0b82fa4 The only difference is that it will take several thousand dollars to establish a business according to the classical scheme, and in network marketing – from 100 to several thousand rubles.
193bb1b5cdc27c1cdcdc704d938915e3ad4ef1f1 4. Responsibility for others.
132021c50a0bf5dced27c53a9a9cb02597c92b72 Some people prefer not to be responsible even for themselves, let alone for others.
dea8cf024eae4e82d14c591d41e694cd918b4a24 But the whole system consists of a team, in recruiting your own assistants, training them; and then they will recruit their own, etc. By training people, you will to some extent bear moral responsibility for those whom you have attracted and whom you have undertaken to help.
a01e33f4dcdb6ba1ae9f34a97cf8f6deeedf1a8d And
791fcbfd5835ea192fe43b144acecec26a1684a9 if you are not ready to be a mentor to the end, despite the character of the student and the difficulties of his training, you should not take up this case.
24ceaf39762842873a272861857ef4f5ebee6745 You can only earn money by selling products, which, however, will bring less income.
d05ead61b9f7b9071b576accea88122e026d61b2 Сетевой Network Marketing: pros and cons ♎ Network marketing has its pros and its cons.
f4d922968cf699721233f8143c1f2caa66ecac36 It is a personal matter for everyone to determine what is more important for him Сетевой Network marketing Pros and cons of network marketing In conclusion, I want to say that the main qualities of a successful SM leader are sociability, organizational qualities, purposefulness and patience.
b1990c44c342d566e1495f0aa96291d8b11363a4 The presence of these qualities can affect your success in this business.
6adee4d7981b0244ad074037d2a2906b3779af30 And the more developed they are, the higher your chance to succeed, respectively.
23d26837f4db0a4be54a48a09a5718d9d2fd0767 What is network marketing for you?
ff46476de39bade0d089fd2310e9f3e5deab086f Deception or the greatest opportunity?
c9a70460798e93a58325584807432ff233ee4ff3
d809a8786c5a5356f8a9b783ceb38d8587c0cb68 Tired of listening to refusals?
d73ccd1316f757ad8a8bf9a1a572ce1df8ab99d1 Tired
e274eeff768c6396088ec6eb091f4bf4d47ab1e0 work
88f95e5c5f57354e85f47d40907d5d7026b8291c using grandfather's methods?
b7d93209feaafbc1a12da3a4ff746ce203ae75ff Then
46ae5ea60197674cec85df3db1bbe9224f059dd1 simply
5d751bf6dd1bd7f8d93d234f50d274c9353f63ea put it on
b0affc47420f4918ca4c7e28dfb1c47f4ddea702 your business on the machine!
b3329b4fe2c894cfc3904d47a19e7ae2069a2390 4.40/5 (88.09%) 47 votes
0ed6f7ffade2a14ac87b420aba960fce9171a093 P.S. If you liked this article, share it - click on the button of your favorite social network
e57e7ed1a05c5e94f9b2d1c3307f1e119bb91073 Lola Pirhal
06b26fee175ecdb966b5ae3470bb4f889e512abb Сетевой Network Marketing
db5b62998074b455c40ca58f4f54faeef24241c8 Lola Pirhal I help people to make life easier and richer.
4f52a410862df6ba4ec3b9832bb405f31a36fb49 Interests: leadership, personal growth, personal branding, brand blogging, e mail marketing, Network marketing 2.0
3b6551f1ab894e97764bde1685b1e43926448ae6 +38 067 7923605 kartauspeha.ru B
6394f93558ab2ba6086bbbc3e6d9969b94f7f882 Previous notes si in the section " Network Marketing"
7c7d9ed53455e032cfc7a4f2fbd32abafc66b689 And who are the judges?
b3736a03ee23dee9576970b7fe79a07f214bb3f9 Negative opinion of eo setev om
6f429e4402f0be08f7595ab043917d93facff622 Setev oi marke ting: I'm not serious about the revolution
339795e989ad16e8ac9592d2ffdfc9071884be2b Why do I set up a brand ting?
1f05360709f4174b4daab5bacb5c4fe489aeb2c9 The answer is Donald Trump a
0b30a65e01e7c0ca589c17a9d6e506e0f35f073f Three steps to fina nsovo y svoboda de
8cdebf473a5506d3841a0c66ade8b13f2fbbe001 The specialness and success of ab MLM
28dd2855fc5d1d7e87515d942409d8eb481f548e What do you think about this?
a9c1bfc087d921090637040256c65b2a08ba2658 Leave your first comment and get a wonderful gift!
c73272144552265fb34b04d16dc1c85b4cb69251 Comments - 35
4b611b149b831e5e68954706400aa3e2c10d2a90 Sergey 2012-09-25 at 16: 09
e1c3fe7b55d413b8210fd933cac1a42a61672062 Of course, there are disadvantages in network marketing, but I still found more advantages, there is an opportunity to develop creatively.
6c157f367e61fc12cc3898c43f921d466e85ceda Victor 2013-02-09 at 3: 45
a522b9f709f555c994885d2b3029586a6ee6649f Yes, that's right.
8a901e48baed9ff6133c471d24b9bd8595e07fbf The only thing I can disagree with is that this is "my own business".
0db67398e50e4481bf951e745f0d28b9f21ac9c2 Cooperation with any MLM company is a private business for the owner of this company, but not for the distributor.
bbbbac71e286587c352809e0ff91ccbc4c6f3002 Give an answer to the question: "What will happen to your business if the owner decides to close the company?".
cb6ef242732e20b0c8b40a4533a16eb983078a39 I think you understand...
11503c14f2bd9d661e20f320c4eaecfaedbc33a3 Lola Pirhal 2013-02-09 at 9: 36
3edc23cdc1ea8c705a7f0290b90781364432bab8 Victor, and in traditional business, the owners of dealer networks are the owners of their own business or what?
f247a7a4b8e7eb9d07d4fbf8c470c37880596190 And if the manufacturer decides to close down?
b52807ac5a91a0004a0d2f849e27512e086a5391 Do you think they will cry and commit suicide?
a0cbcb037a8a71e61079c4955242f5b81928f96b They will have the main thing (in addition to business skills) - a network of connections that knows them as a competent pro.
beeb96322e155497e136789d31f84c09a2272838 In the network business, the main thing is not the company, the main thing is the network of connections.
8fbcdea3f94d2b00aa5491de239785f2cd0edd9c This is an asset of this business
3e1fb1e28ea06a2e18574c0cda805a47e209eef2 Victor 2013-02-10 at 3: 19
2c20661c8bea6fbcd26936416e1dc389ebf6a6fd Lola, did I say that this is not the case in traditional business?
298446bb5b291225b957dc59395bc6dd06c0e759 Yes, I totally agree.
290f962fcb957247157b57dd9b10d2eeff81760a I wanted to say that I would not consider "own business" to be one of the advantages of network marketing.
3639f61389e711e47c3997f56c027cba546e954f Yes, there is a network of connections, but these people will not always follow you to any company.
afdf0d846ebd3d00000b5961edd68299d1499ad2 Lola Pirhal 2013-02-10 at 10: 56
0a8acb19771233bd3748e9f3f14ecb2ce94014c1 And yet, in ordinary life, we call the owners of dealer networks owners of their own business.
4a4975f33063fa84ad59199672578815c4d6a3e7 Apparently, this term has taken root in the network by analogy
cec634557870039ecbc8be8143f6c12808f498a5 Dina 2014-10-08 at 11: 58
6e7827082610980cc074c4583777c9b1b40df701 I agree with Lola.
b908ff5d4b51fd26cb5b7b9d2423c92e46f64146 There are many examples of this, when the leader in connection with the closure of the company or dissatisfaction with the marketing plan or the appearance of a new company with
8d6ef22dabddaadb4ea5fe03b9169365b14fe923 the best marketing plan goes to this company together with its structure.
dc33de3e71c4e2d72659270517af9f2b8f5918b1 All working partners are transferred.
12948cd5e901a64d2162d94a0f25e190f6e843a8 Artem Yarovikov 2013-05-09 at 14: 14
24018835848cb9512a7b4fd02092e8f2f2db5ec4 Lola, great article.
4474639cf839fe8b2570271b2fe3ec763216c40f I have only one question about the lines "Network marketing has also been used by the largest companies, such as Ford, Colgate, Canon, Lipton, Coca Cola and many other flagships of the business."
70cc2bb1a4d1b4209e81980ae7ddcbfe1f680864 I am interested in surprising the source of information.
8af72a34926887d1d78b07200d62bb7f27323e47 Where is it written about this?
bb6d66ae4deea98fe641b4066b2d04eeb0e6a61c In such a case, it is necessary to double check, otherwise the Network Industry Manager has already been recorded in the list of professions of the Russian Federation
d029410d129590fc8d80fc15b430aff556ba924f Vladimir 2013-10-08 at 16: 50
8dc8149185bb1df3d902368f5840bd0638a2f6a3 And actually Lipton is part of the Unilever Corporation and is not a company but a trademark.
75e56d2e7ef1d75bec000d0553e77fcf4859ba5b Can you imagine 90 % of sales through CM in Japan?
2eb3e765e3a1ebf93fb286222e801a60226861ed Transport collapse on the first day of trading....there are many more mistakes here....
b2a972b95031a298e8fceebd523e8c98852ed59f Denis Vogel 2013-06-14 at 17: 30
ef4e7b1b421ba854c839347faa4d90c724d3b8f1 Since I also support the fact that there are more pluses than minuses in Network Marketing, I will add a fifth point to such a plus as Training in Network Marketing.
bc8332d3383f7efbd2c60b136f24c5c6811a7139 Training in independence, the basics of business, leadership and other things that you are unlikely to be taught somewhere for free or almost for free, how and how well it can be obtained from the distributors of a Network Marketing company.
f65389c17746cac2dbdb83eaf82f9f5378427251 I know a sufficient number of people who now, for some reason, have not made MLM their main business, but have engaged in a linear business, but they always speak with gratitude about the school that they passed thanks to Network Marketing.
05e27a9f3423655231cff25b8228d9f35990bf98 Olga Zhukova 2013-06-21 at 19: 14
c78a9d0b1879b6985e95cac3c72f33ccc025711f There are undoubtedly more advantages!
fba4ede1869949b3d0b00837290ac4064d5f6bc9 You didnot say anything about the possibility of developing an international business.
2267c67fc7f771364650979f3bf3de1fcc069269 And what are the confessions worth when you take a step by step up the career ladder.
a8bcd04b5a8396588023fe05d0e9d61699ff4e82 And for people over 40, this is almost the only chance to make a career, in the corporate world, there is no such thing.
562d63545cba4a54cdc278f5c97498a8d75c5c64 2013-09-25 at 16: 05
f4b36777e5dd42fe8f9233906896c14529a670d7 The article is excellent :cool:.
c3bd7c6284512ce64c7498db41bed175a9ad1e09 Everything is very competently and clearly written.
9466357ada1da006b0f724cf88dd8c2b203fd18b But in modern conditions, sociability and leadership qualities are not at all necessary for recruiting partners in an MLM project.
81e3fafc5a16dc7f28db16ea8ed70b42f6023e95 Many teams use automatic recruiting systems (recruitment of partners).
8217e3c20112d9e32fe52b350ef299af518971a1 For example, I do such things for my teams myself... and I calmly lead 3 projects.
693a4fd5d5dc446c08b8021c610f6540f683c093 All you need to do is constantly advertise on the Internet.
22c0b511aa53ee1d80e8234ff93615da9fa7dff3 There are free methods in which we invest our time.
cb3d2ac45b7045ec7185035ed8731eea5c18061d And paid ones, where investments are needed, but it saves time and turns the system into an almost automatic one...
c6c482ca40a220ec84a139baf05de8d4920e0ef0 And this can be done by the way in ordinary business, they also start using such systems and quite successfully.
ecde06a0c061c085c985a19629db7dc586678d1d Lola Pirhal 2013-09-25 at 21: 35
d713d7ee32d985bcb9458bcf31b04040d7b19d42 It does not matter in what environment you are doing business, in real life or on the Internet, communication skills and leadership qualities are necessary.
39e0bc435ae15548864565734b55057bb97d1e03 What you have written is the basics of MLM 2.0, but the network business is not limited to simple recruiting.
7b8c82c3b4b10d6516841af9d372bfd45e32742f Partners still need to be trained, and so that they can also train
d2bbebc3f1442a2aedec14ce7ce274df26de21ca Evgeny 2013-09-26 at 9: 00
34c7ad2197ca322e7002696770b900be35c2f847 I agree with you.
a8662b433c6ae9c96829c35328a348f36155070d Only working via the Internet significantly equalizes the chances
0a560eabb5b9d9a129d196f1cc6ac2451e649526 Lola Pirhal 2013-09-26 at 9: 16
3cb9647790810c324240ee86300b294afaffd92e I would say that it does not equalize, but simplifies it due to the automation of routine processes.
f523003e3a9e8b708fbcc8f6c1912c09dae96e62 But working with people is working with the same people, in whatever environment this business is conducted.
c558a41ae87a16217000368de5ff266cb24d8699 Evgeny 2013-09-26 at 9: 41
a6ab3b2c6ba7cea965d68d6df7e1de1e71d95b5f No, Lola.
f99e08b67a091bd76e8875616708b44052baed16 It equalizes... with the correct organization of the process by the "senior" sponsor... and you will not convince me otherwise...
ebeea6ebe9602b66e269e095109533f56763ea19 Lola Pirhal 2013-09-26 at 9: 49
ef4673623cef7008592084bfcd353acf0d165b45 I'm not even going to.
cefd63a0482ea5a475aec14e788e2a7057c4f117 According to your
5b391f1d0d7b434b43794a8c850ad5b91cde50a0 I realized from the blog that you have been doing this recently.
366d5e34ddb98a2dd8a8a1f384e0656e77a21e85 We'll talk in 5 years
49e8f3d6d19ecc2d4e600c326c7a3232144b14a4 Evgeny 2013-09-26 at 10: 26
d6daacf1227c9a9c0daccf6011e90aa8e2fcf44d My site is really fresh, you noticed it correctly...
83a9a3aeae63fb1bf364e5e134346f00a9c7e010 But this does not mean that I have no experience in business automation and in managing people...
89467a89bb212d414ea4f37c0d5dda4270ec3760 It's just your opinion
c84502a463592ec2a821db061ac04d14ddee421a Lola Pirhal 2013-09-26 at 10: 47
d02c8b71d8d7d51af3d8fc7cd3378d30bb225669 Evgeny, then you need to change the article "about yourself" I have no doubt that you are a leader and a good organizer by yourself, that you understand automation issues, etc. But the fact that you are only a year in this business can be seen with the naked eye by one detail: You are still sure that everyone is the same as you, everyone WILL BE ABLE to duplicate, everyone IS READY to work hard.
a64c97efeee17da860a98b2f4a88654185867685 In practice, this is not the case.
8ed872b51ba21bb5b5cd04e59f445f6347fcb835 Everyone WANTS money, but not
09341a093fe800b4ff57461de85e92954f0fc225 everyone is ready to work, and after 5 years you will understand that the fact that you know how to work with people does not guarantee that everyone who comes to you will do the same.
2fef38186600e26e0eb0448df829b44a25703ca3 Your leadership qualities do not make your followers leaders.
6a27e8ae9d7672ef14ab9c8a9f05c800514e2b51 Over the years of working with people in the network, both in real life and on the Internet, I realized one thing (and this is confirmed by ALL real network leaders and professional coaches): You will not be able to change a person's self identification, you will not be able to force him to be successful.
82e90c7f95f2e1e6cc199e223b85e44ca173c26e Only he can do this, and business automation has nothing to do with it - these are just tools.
a796c7aadb160117c155c61241451ed820eba34d Believe me, I know this firsthand.
fd111dbe00e445d1adbdc6c8363dd68778ca0a68 I have been working with network business automation since 2009, I am one of the creators of the sensational training "MLM on autopilot 2.0", my entire team uses automation, is trained in focus groups, but not everyone reaches the goal.
b2589a6a87eb75996432b5eb24341816174d74d1 Why do some people earn money, and others do not?
f1a78760f7034d0b50da23b26d653c09207178bd After all, marketing is the same, everyone has the same conditions in the team, everyone has automation
cbf2a8190e6165a41645d89b41a06b8e98254682 the same, everyone has the same training.
571baeb06fa576f819e1d96a4cd1dadd7ebbb0dc Evgeny 2013-09-26 at 11: 37
0328dc8c40d319e598387c1d468361425ded7442 Lola, go back to the first comment...
ff9857dda957f8fadba2056afa213348c720432c In this comment I wrote only that with the system, a person without leadership qualities has much more chances of success in MLM... and that's it.
46bc9015d931a09c51a3f75f02e11159712c2cbe And you have already reached the "personalities" And decided to measure your experience...
38b241e4a26c2cacd1c614202eb42bb900aef16c Unprofessionally ...
89d2248494df5bd2ea9d6c07fea4cca88fc818fa PS: And thank you for PR
042da083a8bae027e52fc47b1de18f209fc75f99 Lola Pirhal 2013-09-26 at 11: 59
3f29667c82662870a1d5aa598c95e01ddd9b2e0b Oh, why didnot you write that there are more chances, you said that these qualities are not necessary at all.
2816ac9ae81ec4f5f93bb0f07fcd2ab931cb03c0 I just insist that without these
0c062e3869b758060b055c8fa75cd8c26a02c7e2 you canot build business qualities anywhere: neither in real life, nor on the Internet, nor in a network, nor in a linear one.
a1fa925f86ec1129e1e04e829904543b3624b749 Do not deceive people with seeming ease
5a074b06f6c795cd390caa305fd70c937f9e162b Tatyana Salimova 2014-01-04 at 22: 11
f7246ae2047cf590b9914dcd679a6ce24a5b1106 This is for sure automation has nothing to do with it, it's only a small part of the system in MLM, everything is much deeper.
3b4fa5ca8493f44ca3fea8055756185a3383b2e4 "Your leadership qualities do not make your followers leaders." but they should. that's the secret.
147d2464098c401dd7f74d41104ec9dc4a8d79eb The problem is that the "gurus" are engaged in info business and not building MLM structures and supporting their team.
eceff12ea04a2f96c262285ce0605a3e3652307e Natalia 2013-09-26 at 13: 19
9fe475c80768607a9c4f6b7b7e580f697e12fca0 I read the comments...
16701c298223abd1a4886db3d724f7bbf68eee56 There was a question: Lola, what do you think depends on whether a person becomes a leader or not on his internal motivation or natural data, character qualities that can not be changed?
98dc8438f3c74a6b9a1d21501e24c93d894752a4 Can it be that there is motivation, but there are not enough qualities?
80bc4a438feb5e3b52f860c65784b4e256a5d6be Lola Pirhal 2013-09-26 at 14: 07
46b7a1d84614621e96e60d504f832df95d550f94 A man will become a leader or not depends on its willingness to take responsibility for their present (to admit that he really deserves what is today and nobody else is to blame) and for their future (to understand what it will be depends on how it will work now).
d6df1c4926910d23e41ca2ad5a115cd8f33d4ff7 And, of course, to work hard.
3ad86a8a6839d930b48868429af9cc6478498ce1 It does not matter whether in real life or on the Internet, in a network or in a linear one.
d3821f6dc1d1c9aee3f8c3eb874ba634acadf78d Where the result is tied to people, you will have to work a lot, and first of all, on yourself.
9989c4474a3cba67042a93a9371efdc79bbace4f Kirill 2014-01-01 at 18: 29
ddc669f0c7033e223dffde0147a0f7e3296febbc I think motivation is more important..
3760e13dac241beb02ef448ff5d9cb44d8fe3b87 And the qualities will come..
4e719196df29dde9500e0abadfde9ee2d90aacf3 Natalia 2013-09-26 at 14: 26
a717d589d11d22b40bf7434211d520a37bd311a6 It turns out that the root is in the ability to take responsibility.
3889db613532ae360fb97985f7e2f868bede86f8 But it's true - I began to remember familiar people now: those who do not blame the circumstances, achieve much greater success and feel completely happy.
b581cb58afcc26b07073e76653e34abe7fb2ba73 And they are drawn to them, they are really leaders...
8cb10ff97146c9c5c399f972c576444031b502fb And with completely different characters ...
7d5ac9e9ca5505b0c729c2a5ee111eca56c66d53 And those who then he is offended by fate - they will not get out of apathy and bitterness in any way.
bfb3234ca27b5604db35363b56c02bb4d5ee40b0 I should reconsider some of my beliefs, I feel so))Thank you, Lola, for the answer.
27c56874cb4fc2fe10b96a7e7e469d503fb0d64c Andrey 2014-03-12 at 23: 17
2474e7911215a1a86e4d09bf5e81303a5cccf05d Tell me the principle of distribution of commissions in the network business.
9fb53e12110d33c78e4d14418a5bb316ac62f297 If we follow the path of simple interest, then the more dealers there are, the higher the motivation costs and, consequently, the lower the income.
9ea113d114fae0ed6ba594c06f3fa71ec5444a77 Or there is some kind of formula.
8a5f8680a31d6f98be90fa92641aa0c469261f06 I am not interested out of idle curiosity, I want to extend the principle to my business in the field of providing services.
35d0bfe473198e60758e64891716eaf05175c68e I will be very grateful, if, of course, this is not a terrible secret.
85618c4058059cc679c7094b29530a5c3ae8ef7b Lola Pirhal 2014-03-13 at 10: 48
bdde9656a4db0ccdbfd0db5063e27f8e72c2cca0 Andrey, it's not a secret.
b03a725a0b9e9ca0eb89e92ddf128f06a3cfb6e5 It's just that different network companies have different compensation plans.
48a4d888f31692c8938116158b1def7a62e75be6 By "higher motivation costs" do you mean payments under the marketing plan?
89654c382b448fb2326381e4ee86cc36512bebe5 They are, of course, not unlimited.
7ef641e02207390c530418dde4b995329ecb6fb5 In classical marketing, they are up to a certain level of depth, in binary - only from one branch.
9f743bbfc9ef12e735ed927e0a0b1b418ce06e34 And in what area do you provide services?
9fa11102f7d0a5efd1c32e89b565844070a58a35 Maxim 2014-03-13 at 14: 26
1bfccbc7a89ee6f7e4fc1a5d3025180978ccab2c Andrey, there is some balanced formula that most network companies adhere to, plus or minus some percentages.
00d55b16c8994fa6459023291e9c34bd7271ab57 Up to 30% is the company's production costs, plus the profit of owners and investors.
cedfe4aad1968b376e208e70d325a3cc4049312b From 5% to 10% - the company's costs for working with the network.
074c6c81b4f9fbd51f36ce2c8b0d6adc5b2bdccf From 30% to 40% go to payments to the network, according to the marketing plan, i.e., incentives for business actions (attraction, promotion, training, strategic development).
216789fd5da685af6c7b2af4f6e7b5620bd50945 Up to 30% is the distributor's retail profit.
e1a7a71d84771305e9f1c66b1678a6ea79da474a Of course, this is not a clear formula that everyone adheres to
cd5d130394902bbbb3577db75f02d14beea8238e the company.
86dc65be77ee46cf6ff7c40f022d513562fc1b0f There are plus or minus some figures depending on the company's products.
2aad86ddd42cd8b05e9e9803b58f2e309d27d275 Alexander 2014-09-30 at 14: 10
5bee9a42e7ed873c2c1d3c72d28bf30ea2829d0b MLM has never been a business.
dddfcd391d372e0c93e2a24ba3a23e65ad4b7af0 It was invented for the ass headed housewives of the state, who from nothing to do sold each other remedies for senility, obesity and cellulite.
aedd78ba0889ad717f7ec9412b3ad566443809ff Since all this shit did not help, then a more"perfect remedy" appeared, for example, from the shit of hippos, etc.
ec329e6e91485f1c7129ec8405d5e15dc2c54783 Due to the increase in the "assortment", the incomes of these "businesswomen" also grew, sometimes reaching a fabulous$ 25 per year.
0d5e76fef01661abdb9befadad6c704f95d5cf6a In the countries of the former USSR, this" business " is elevated to the rank of a cult by as much as 0.5 % of the population, consisting of scammers who bring unnecessary products and services to the market, and meat, which mostly ends up either in mental hospitals or in sects.
24515c04f8c24871fc444e5318dc310b362a30aa Irina 2015-02-01 at 17: 25
567138d42700a35eaee333abade03b4cebc9d370 Thank you very much, Lola!
54e1dec96db36bdf5c80863b3963123f63aa0e78 I'm in the network for the second year and I completely agree with you.
02d2fbd1f555c0297a72c1562e61286b3b8be621 To run your own business and generally work in the field of business, you need to sharpen your patience and continue working when success
3e6230b7011f58c701a2707223c688dabd122c9f it's still far away.
85dcc0433f4580d84883d7152f1302def16ee569 Success does not come immediately and only to those who respect other people, constantly study, are able to set goals and plan, are able to organize their lives in such a way that work and family are also in harmony.
6027cbd17bb05ba47d9fc3d151b40e8b1d309ffc I wish you all success in your good endeavors.
967e9c5ce3916b359cc5d707f39fb1d5328a7a53 Yulia 2015-03-12 at 23: 16
2a3080cb99e9aaa433ddec47e71226b1db4c7618 I periodically write about network marketing.
cfe74d7c9762bd34f1a50641c333c9a2e94c1c83 And honestly.
fc74509af6d2d702200cd13f7b47d4abe239f457 About mistakes, about the truth.
4e2e4e94952549c10ffbd5e62ba1b85138ad3569 What you wrote - to the point.
c7e22280251d9338f6d883f5dff7ed8917bb5690 I invite you to my blog http://tvoisposob.blogspot.com . Network business is also a business and many make mistakes already at the stage of entry .
05d25911b57f9e0aa052c688ce24d8f3d4c1c38a Maksat 2015-11-08 at 19: 08
4fa9c894eba60eadbaddd27a5b76398ce1732632 Lola, I'll take care of this case!I would like to find a person who would be my mentor teacher!
19449f9d7af25671abcbfa0bd6949f0ac5895cfd Viktor 2015-12-04 at 12: 37
95b2e3e5bc85dd16d5d149565e756d6965af6f4b Good afternoon to all!
c2910878d50dcab7c54a6a8ad033479a6514494d I agree that there are pros and cons in network marketing.
fdae7af552f0f1bc5ad415dc6c789651de3351d7 Probably the most
ff3db4baeecadb6d1e382615b640429d50eef123 a big plus is that in the network business (I mean MLM) - this is the principle:you only grow if you help others.
eb4ea95e3089f5a0a2284f38c602a95620fb1567 And that's great!
373311bd73594923ad42ca7060188abbfb0c7f3d + very democratic conditions for starting.
c90bcb3ae2baa50fc181a1d7dcf2e8d97d35ef93 Is it possible to earn income here?
177ff759f517cfdd8a6181360423eede12198b3f Odnozna
966240c07b1af0b6580a2819f0fdeaad28cf0316 of course, this can turn into checks for round sums for you, you just need to learn how to use this lever correctly.
acc7f90aa0a5370a8f17f0909eefbc355ec730ab 5. Great positive results in network marketing can be achieved with unique and innovative products that the company offers.
9321dc99959bf1029adb99be92cd964e669ab21e 6. In no case do not buy into offers related to the promotion of a product of questionable origin and quality without certificates, manufacturer's address or prohibited for distribution through network marketing.
e380daa81caf07f46e611d4a32b06d1ca0a1a857 Promote only the products that you are sure of the quality of and use for personal purposes yourself.
afd80f219d7e25ee733b517ab71d43699dd9d052 7. And the last thing that you also need to pay attention to when choosing a company is the system of training your organization in network business.
a20c56519bed081f5c4473c0b227721acd30f9e8 You should be able to get the support of the team at any time for any questions that arise.
29370b2896e6aaa91e57639f14249ed14e104073 At the same time, it is the Internet companies that can help you at any time, wherever you are, that have an undeniable advantage.
b0c85be077ee1ae62eea38eb6c002b0346262587 The most famous companies in the Russian Cosmetics market: - - - -
a080f7baba6b495437878b73dd1b181c1a6b6fc5 AVON; ORIFLAME; MARY KAY; FABERLIC.
d8d88fd383b5dfbf31393ce53a2038ce5ff11e65 Household.. products: - AMWAY;
83fd979c1a6b085ff566ee43bc8d252eeeee979b - WHITE CAT.
b9dc6906ac4f4166ef00248f79787336ca75e958 Tableware: - TAPPERWARE; - ZEPTER.
ee5d91705a9c589df2eb5401d8573752b1a5e7a0 Underwear: - FLORANGE;
f23292c5fa0ee338d82ae17d4a27e887078064ec - DINAH.
33f441ea895d854980d7a391cba07859ee0fcd06 Bed linen: - VENERA.
ffc26729a4012704109ed0aa5e2e8356a19c9877 BEAUTY HOME;
714ba76bd0ed3f79e1726647c6453e9bedc106c4 - SAWAY.
4916dfa14e5c96eedebfadd08fc6f8fc06ae8ac3 MLM Network Marketing How much people are talking about it now!
b6becd66465557ec416227e7ff8dd6941c3e2c5e There are many different network marketing companies on the Internet.
5dd75f78e4b17d352269557b44464cd1a58a8373 And in real life, even more.
53af9188f4186b36b50a6bf66b3221688251fb03 All the poles and newspapers are decorated with ads that promise us huge salaries if we sell outlandish goods. (Abbreviated as MLM), Stands for multi level marketing.
f8e26ca9ccde73aeea18ca8d875d8dbca4fd46ea The name marketing comes from the English phrase multi level marketing.
18d8c3aba4e0bac54c35d4781f75e22fc141806b The essence of network marketing is to promote the product, organize the turnover by direct sales to potential clients of the MLM company.
35175aeacb0e3ef06c3bc7dbb59d4cc59dda64ef Network marketing (MLM) is a partnership.
2b17876b81c07c400b8c9d9a82b1eaaf4cc85d5a On the one hand, the MLM organizing company acts (sometimes it is a manufacturer, but as a rule, an intermediary), on the other hand, it is a private person.
d574230d380aef7b8e9a8cb125c47724744b6095 The MLM company takes over the production (ordering) of products, accounting, accrual of remuneration, and a number of other functions.
dc449189221b7d9493dc488414de0ac786474e8a A private person (an independent distributor) ensures the sale of these products.
88e9f90e4af486fffa7ae852e9f3c4fcb89beca8 In fact, the same scheme is used in many "classic companies".
0c53fd09b15f534c14993ecc9f2bd47e6a46a288 The difference is only in the form and amount of remuneration for the organization of sales.
f79fea0359bd86b69dec002fe85ced6c07949a02 Thus, MLM is really a "people's" business.
5bc554836e10b30fc2b2b768abc30d46c338be3b Companies using MLM give an opportunity to earn a lot of money to a large number of people, because the process is very effective.
73e42412f8177056c3c27aec3c989f63c1bb732f The idea that multi level organizations of distributors can be used to promote goods and services, many of which will work from the comfort of their own homes, and this will be much more effective than the work of sellers in a store, appeared relatively recently.
e46d00e1a30f06c47c8c040d86090e9e785345fc The incredible growth of MLM in North America, where the idea was born, has affected all parts of the world in the last decade.
67936861265b33a6de21128b1cdf843216711d72 This does not surprise people for whom MLM is a lifestyle.
d9fdf4154ef2679d0bbc0f1c79ca68525103f0c2 They understand that the potential of MLM is unlimited, and this business has no nationality.
61d8c2223b84347541e7549154745d4a3df1b72a There are more than 1,500 MLM companies operating in the United States, a number of which have multimillion dollar turnover.
f664932edf52ae00b1610ee02ed9f5c58a068bd9 The network marketing strategy is also used by such companies as Coca Cola, Colgate, Gilette, Visa, Lipton, Ford, Canon, Sharp, Xerox and many other world famous companies.
66a8a90f59a7b5ac2879007e13b523485e482f6e But the point is not only that millions of people realize the dream of a better life, but also that the number of products and services is constantly growing, the range is updated by attracting new technologies.
5a6f237582aae65003062836d4630e70af20e141 MLM is not tied to any specific product or technology.
d18c1e1778c7b6f5d4fe5e680fd10f05541ee963 The possibility of updating, embedded in the concept itself, allows the industry to flexibly fit into an ever changing market.
6b8b6866afae7e17573ced662011c474bfb1a909 Thus, MLM is the economic wave of the future, a logical step in the evolution of free enterprise.
9145561cdf09e58319e4a4b168c3619f05405eab And it is precisely because people work for themselves that they have the freedom to enjoy life.
b55aa9d8cbccd6ae3af4542e3d2d8200986ab183 Someone is madly in love with network marketing( mlm), someone scolds him and hates him, someone is just afraid.
3827578e9d4754b6307fbeef7c2e7eceeadd8d0e If you are bored of working on a salary and want to start your own business, then network marketing (mlm) can become the bridge to a new carefree life.
747390c0d2491466a6d1b99c162e4577f4de4a51 Become your first "own business", help you accumulate start up capital, develop a strong personality in you and help you find connections and the necessary skills for business.
eade0d5def74ce6d4ac1d29e79062f1b153cc3e7 Russia first met with network marketing in 1989 on the land of the city of Novosibirsk.
fcf5e02960a11d0f57dea9881790e0133f360b78 It was there that the first Herbalife distributors appeared, whose products quickly spread throughout the country.
a37018d55f533df3296c060892b9bcd828ef13d9 However, the negative image of MLM itself also spread quickly, and there is nothing surprising in this.
2fa5851c9c4cff61227e349992983fa8311dd0e6 If in the USA and other Western countries MLM has long been included in the practice of everyday life, and all major universities had departments of network marketing and a developed system of training distributors, plus laws against financial pyramids, then in Russia MLM fell on absolutely raw ground.
405eb34b957714f074635b01b14b7517a9d81c68 Thousands of people rushed into it in pursuit of fast and big earnings, who did not understand either the philosophy or the strategy of this business
13c193dbdcb350cabe5c100851626cc187d00f40 (and how was it possible to understand, if the first translated books on MLM appeared only years later!
ec6414fa6d67df0e27c42e8b3559ced35ba710a8 Entering into a serious and completely incomprehensible business without any preparation, tens of thousands of Russians very quickly suffered an imminent collapse and left the network business disappointed, blaming anyone and anything for their failure, but not themselves.
8ff54637ab3be205d2f0dc484a4b1eda6ac28bbd First of all, they blamed, of course, the MLM itself.
d614fe3e4bf519a83c289bda7cb298559e77407c About the advantages of Network marketing: First you need to answer the question: advantages over what?
627102c4b7bdcdb369fc2997af22c91a3fee309d Well, of course, before other affordable and legal ways of making money.
070dd3100da56bcbb9b1d55ae4edb770031b9996 It is in the combination of these advantages that the reason for the phenomenal development of MLM around the world lies.
ec9a93caea40c57292a1ad95ec9d9cc23575d7b2 The advantages of network marketing are obvious and obvious: 1.
c39daa7c75e5fffd42b63fd5ca11a0c42d909539 Work in a comfortable team for yourself.
746dbc1d6fc7e7c7660c697e0ce4f642f042253f 2. The possibility of combining MLM with other (main) work.
874a581f82009969531f2f926a503b86dfc41ce6 3. Freedom.
0432d734e1d5e27ff777c76cce5125153e1d783e 4. Unlimited financial perspective.
2e65561ae1197f6dfe4691855ef0993d14cab7c9 5. High rates of career growth and salary growth.
e0ca32846c30f0da7177fd5adde1ff1259e45179 6. Independence of career growth from personal relationships with higher level sponsors and company managers.
73fd675e4dc04aaf6ae1437a4b1e910893df8e55 7. An ideal alliance between employees at all levels of the company.
eb9fb0bbc7b912c4bd929322e8c7280ac4e90415 8. The opportunity to master a new profession very quickly.
e277cd8b45e0d2b40ac81ca2769f6ece512471b5 9. Independence of a successful career from gender, age, available education and the nature of previous activities.
322cd9d8e1dfa7f48087f18e295b44b223f4d80b Significant personal growth.
527d52b531ed26432ac296bb6f39c886e9c1c58d The constant growth of new connections.
4150a853e571ad864816058c0d2fcfa9c72ee7dc Absence (or very small size) start up capital.
77202aeabcdc2db26a7a8bc2c825cbfaf8a50143 No dependence on external negative factors.
a8fa5ea95b09613c14f9a7f385f3b402cd62382e No financial risk.
357bf0054ba8de6886cfe0ff45161f6344a9f6fa A good and long term prospect.
13781ae2fe0650851a665e9b2e462002076bfe9c The creative nature of the work.
43793b3f9bde329c14c2829565023fd24100d674 The nobility of business.
f844e7b93f375a4a51ed78b67d99e63575c7c500 Personal development.
e1769e54ba938ad33363610f82863adda57bb6c0 A high degree of moral satisfaction from their work.
084836ff354903fbcc5b5b3134ca8036d924ebde What can bring more joy than watching how the people you personally attracted become free, healthy and rich?
0a95c5697ac59ad38f8ee8559ad543f5b2e5a359 In MLM, as nowhere else, it is possible to find a huge number of friends who feel sincere gratitude and gratitude for their success to you.
3f6b601f0ca86f9cde0ec73a62ac79e3093abbba Communicating with a variety of people, successful and unsuccessful, poor and rich, happy and unhappy, you understand one thing: all people are different, but all as one want to have more than they have.
66a5bf14406b451ca1d1cdc266a2055162b2cbb7 There is nothing wrong with this desire.
1ec20d01481331f4002155e37b86231bef885047 After all, being wealthy is our right from birth.
3175bbdb8dd52ffc648040b91c1cb420b036232c A person who has enough money lives better himself and can bring more benefits to himself and others.
27020f7e5661e504b899a3b45dd66b9f6f52e55e The idea that you have to endure a lack of funds or even lead a miserable existence is one of the worst misconceptions of humanity.
de0cfea8a76495188eeec89c6cdd365b58acbb05 But most people live in this belief.
72ff12942b2fd42edb04ab99ccc0b20d02f2a4cf And they are sure that this is how it should be.
5006ee2d171544ac0a0940de7e86561bf469cc3d Some are changed by circumstances: poverty, crises at work and in personal life, unexpected changes.
1b4f247054fc4fc9b6b83a26553e42bc87f24620 And the others... they change themselves!
5afea534d6a2e5c0f3e113b3be5ee441bac04b18 Which is better?
42c8acd6c5f5b000428efb1ed36d27d1eb8f7526 Have you ever wondered why some people can fulfill their desires, and others canot?
f522b5e53b5c33c3d7b6b976917b32deb334b1eb Why do some people constantly fail, while others succeed?
60e2006e895968a4f47585763a54b6b440412602 What is behind this?
99614a011b279534e45d65122b29db2a78b16469 People hope for fate, a happy chance, believe that everything will change for the better one day by itself.
7a3ae4c5a4a593af381ad12ef5af25a2a54a22f3 But their attempts to break out of the vicious circle of failures are defeated, gradually people stop resisting, and, resigned, they say to themselves: "This is fate."
acb3eaf2ed665fc62f26e7c96e18d71af01b36f2 Well, our life scenario really exists, but it is not necessary to fulfill it, it is possible... rewrite it!
6c15486abcaa39072552fad80fc5bb186ec04b4c How often have you tried to change your life?
3bb53878596a16465bb58c609aaf1b38cb8d5efc How many times a year, a month, a week do you try to conquer the peak of well being?
95bd5fb7854beaabbce52d02984e5ff0bc55ba0e Start right now!
b47e3757d54d143f3aee0a621a5384b45b6e3f97 Take responsibility for your own future!
6ffa7113d938e4113fd408f7eaa2737e964b516f This is the most correct strategy on the way to wealth and success.
7028a419c785460e2f274a203f9c2c9ec3b62f85 Life is not a charity fund and your fate is in your hands.
f733a29865a91db991d9c3976241c284f5f353f1 Yes, voluntarily take responsibility for your material
ec1477cfc29c47257c3042a649cde9ea3406f7eb the situation is difficult.
c50abf12c92ec98721f432d93bfb3ff9cd0fcfd2 After all, now you will have no one to blame but yourself.
3bf4a08681f40e255295e955a1ca628e82c1255a To abandon the old, to go forward, to fall and rise again.
244bd46663958866fff1e3db6c5960253302e4ed After all, no one guarantees you a successful business.
ac5dd321f0c3298825c329bd40e225e002cc3846 But... what do you still choose: a bright, interesting life or a dull vegetating?
c4fcb14a53b758d10a68b40993d6607e9a894f2f Only one can make money, achieve success in life... upstart!
cb66511a673dfb9872f3c96ca18ed07513f88907 Donot be afraid of this word.
fd7c199f3f5ec56f7405a659121dfd1b688aeac1 Anyone who wants to have a lot cannot afford to be a gray mediocrity.
eb1a29a5cc389c578ac8b409914581119843c032 Only originality will bring you closer to success.
3bdce469ca0100fb2f4498c5d3e8b6216e8b7de2 The fate of mediocrity is the road to nowhere.
89f23d8ace3de33fd9478f8697321360cf610207 So what prevents you from succeeding?
f0df8579e9744b2be59b75e845a9470931f63039 Nothing but your emotions and notorious fears!
e5e837e724f45b765a42d87640e7424f006d578b Learn to overcome the barrier of your fear.
5f49a2cd90fea717a7d206726d88e51f18246ae8 Do not be afraid of defeats.
f37cfa1a32b5c6dd99ff978eea3bd6126a126e57 And you will not be equal!
f685c8dd1c7486907befba27d459fe4be271f3fe The fear has always grown with uncertainty, unwillingness to change anything, fear of leaving your comfort zone.
fa3bd5558095cf3994a058529483264df7411533 It is this kind of fear that slows down most people and does not allow them to earn money.
2ac82580716bd77a5dc4e5f5810127ef4d89978d But only those who have a desire to have something will overcome these fears succeed.
e3c223b2ae5ecd69684bb9e1fc191c4a2687a856 Are you afraid that you canot make radical changes?
5ccb072711afbf2bb5a37df13c99c91899b0010b But your dreams can only become reality through action.
a210048a622a894ef43fc1e0a362152fb13e6ad7 The main thing is to have the courage and take the first step towards a new future!
ce105607d9e9a502b1aa2b6f9b3cbc004bba22d8 Then it will be easier, because you will already try to act and realize that you have enough strength to go forward.
1f080a7a056b2a734736fe8e1c59a9b6c9f4ca87 The crucial point is that MLM companies are very seriously developing a person as a person.
2f1dfda74ae5f68fb1f6ec2448d530ae7dcae25c Helping him to understand the complex issues of interaction in society, between people, to study more seriously the services themselves that are promoted in the MLM company.
153cc4c9fb320453b7d5b059fe883171b32099d6 This is especially interesting where financial instruments are being promoted, such as banking services, the American stock market, personal finance management programs, and investing.
0d92d2476605b368e0b5724221e8edf3ec11efe9 Network marketing is not for everyone.
7c1fe11edbce30343aab1f78f65625aa978837c8 Think carefully and prepare yourself to make the right decision: whether it is worth dedicating yourself to network marketing and whether it is suitable for you.
d688135e98af66bc335d10dbc233b851279871ea Starting to consider this method of additional income on the Internet, first of all, you need to understand that Interset marketing is not just one day earnings, but a stable monthly income.
e97b39ed69e339dca460e7028be2875bfdc111da This is a JOB that needs to be given maximum effort and patience!
f6f2995887f6d314ec8f7a0e05d13a296130f6be And only after you are fully aware of the charms, prospects and opportunities of this business – you will be generously rewarded with monthly monetary rewards!
c5b7fc8bfdf48e7affd63a6dd676681cd4699b49 My monthly earnings in Interset Marketing range from $ 1,000 to $ 1,500 per month.
b7476886153c11b3fb7d9edf53c65e5a6000214b Moreover, this type of activity refers specifically to the creation of residual (passive) income.
f9cac60898b2d7fa7ae0d285633b4fe56867272e Surely you know what network marketing is?
937640a7638aef3c879f768889cd70be30815585 This is a way to promote a product from the manufacturer to the end consumer through a network of distributors.
7486f34eafc027b3127af994148c030d8e1a6603 And Interset marketing is all the same, only all actions take place through the Internet.
865080ec5d629035230592d12a374ea08415bcf7 And today you will learn how you can earn more than $ 1,000 a month without making any sales!
7bb92d9014d0fe01b66c91ec7551790b5700e69e Many people who are skeptical about the phrase "Network Marketing" simply do not know what it really is!
16eddc5768616a56883ef6068cbaf266c37ee3c6 Ask someone what network marketing is – and they will immediately answer that these are people who, like annoying flies, stick to everyone in a row and try to sell without understanding what.
19f154bde761d43f860bf679bd02e74e95e8c1e3 In fact, everything looks completely different!
4c99cae90858860900289d7a4937753e6fda45bd The possibility of retail sales in network companies is only a small subspecies of additional earnings.
c028c5a822f8921caedc875c63e2040b9cc8f4a6 That is, this is when you buy a product from a company at the manufacturer's price, and sell it at a retail, more inflated price, and for some reason many partners of various MLM companies place bets on this.
0fe1668b8c2dde5efabe6ef421fdfe8205ec9839 However, you canot do big business in this way!
dea32027817cc68b210483cbe1542a83b9a5a584 As you already understand – this approach to business repels potential customers more than it makes you richer.
646e1cf4da084a8359faf13b923d74057a6c1b4f And this is what many people are afraid of and therefore do not even want to hear about network marketing, and I repeat once again they simply do not know what it really is!!!
ce515014c91388a652640f68212a8bd2c61042fe Only by building a consumer structure can you achieve success in this business!
e21860bf37328b97ebb0ddd904694c78e4a7b382 How does it work?
5a9dfb4b28575ae682b701cb58422bff5f469584 Simply… You are a partner of the company, you independently use the company's products at a low price (and this is the key point).
a55b0da282a48a246f85ed9b0bd6e7dbb91ad8c0 You and your whole family... then you just RECOMMEND this business to people, DO NOT SELL them goods, but recommend the business.
1bbb3c40875bf15e8c1f3bf94315adbcc22f4d1e And all those people who will be in your organization will, first of all, bring profit to you, second of all, they will have the opportunity to earn extra money themselves, and third, they will strengthen and maintain their health with the company's products… BUT THE MOST IMPORTANT THING is that they will be GRATEFUL to YOU for the value that you will bring them.
a7dee96a080c5519efbe6a0081157773a53252f3 This, in fact, is the main task – to bring
00bc268fd7a4c9b8e6d5e130fe98d0baa6336349 the value from your activity and your whole life in general!
f9613d648e6ef9db2fa730c9754476a02722b7f9 Network marketing business How do you think it is possible to achieve success in business with the help of MLM?
65a8924265aa52316ff6e726f6c7139fe866e3c3 Read the ads for an invitation to a good salary.
93b57e44c88cf84ce271f276ba8f800346acf9c8 "A specialist in the field of economics with five years of experience in this field is required, the languages English and German are perfect, computer knowledge, age up to 35 years."
76dee5d8621b4020651d6c1ec31374c9d619be42 Firms prefer to take ready made highly educated employees.
3d5d9353ffa4105469aabec4f9d5ad3924d5dd7e And every day the requirements for invitees will grow.
1309428dafa35ace9840b944fd839cc2eda646fc There are many of us who want to work for a good salary, and there are fewer and fewer firms that need employees.
424d3d29f3aecdf5fe116a0cab4c0d93a0e95de5 And life has proved that if you work for hire, no one will be able to earn more than he was allocated.
990e1ca5d17381d7810ffef9bca1ef12c0235208 You will never achieve financial independence by working for someone else.
5fd17e5f3668cb39b39c6ec0c46ee102921ae51b Moreover, you are always dependent on your boss and his mood.
679cf15d992df46b15b4f6c7948c791182444b71 Only by creating your own business, you can achieve financial success.
909d8fdb048cfbc583e2cf1d41a63f856ed39665 But your own business, especially in our not very stable country, is associated with large investments and a huge number of risks.
8d32fc3f48e650b7586ecff846747c03b1b47bb5 A 1000 mile road starts with the first step.
0032d28b828eeadbb2ecf06d0686f2ebaadbfc5a There is a more accessible way that is suitable for literally everyone: join the MLM industry.
7c1bb2eb6969f1147f23eb2d93794060de6dca42 It is the MLM system, where the success of a manager directly depends on the work of his employees, where there are no restrictions on the amount of earnings, that allows everyone to get what they want.
8d8e0c43b4f843498bd851242335fd86df06e24f Only in this system can you hear from the head: "Dear colleague!
904260cc6be778bbd252545af09b6fc994488389 How can I help you to become even more successful in our business?
05e74861e0eab5aa1c8344b4e7075ec7169b5686 "It is in MLM: the more successful employees are, the wider the smile of their managers.
d656d18f47df8b06ec580317eca67c84c7c6843c Prospects for Russia More than 100 companies are actually working on this system in our country now.
14510c1478e2a2d1d6c57eb522daa764fc3e8705 Network Marketing participants (according to various estimates) number from 5 to 10 million people.
e1e8e93a44a02cd18fd8faf54803707e30f5e5fa And for many people, Network Marketing has become a profession and the only source of income.
849348eb7dc2ef55e822b467af1e8746ec266eb8 It is not for nothing that the Mayor of Moscow, Yuri Luzhkov, drew attention to this industry.
aae59fe9dffa9a993382b9f27eee370ff42a4909 A commission on Multi level Network marketing has been established under the Government of Moscow .
cc1fc9941f185a347ec1dd69036538bf1788538e The specialized magazine "MLM - Perspektiva" and the newspaper "Good News"are published in St. Petersburg.
1d40a0990d63a6a477042d550a973d200683ca31 SM specialists, such as the Akintsevs, Atlasovs, S. Vsekhsvyatsky, Yu.
62757067e9bc619803b28ca81b64e1ae522b47aa Shatsky, I. Sidorov and others, have created well structured training systems for achieving success, constantly conduct seminars, conferences and trainings in various parts of our country.
6be64795e0678da2d3b2d010270c762279002dd3 More and more Russian manufacturers are distributing their products and services through the Network Marketing system.
05379ec7901c0d54ac55b3f65fbdcce310a3a0c2 And what does the creation of domestic MLM companies give to Russians?
b9f1662a8cac88648d69e970a758ab0431d15352 A company operating on the principle of Network Marketing can "hire" any number of people.
5912d762ec71c8f49c51563ae2eabb6e9343ca7c For example, the Chinese company Sunrider, which has covered almost the entire world market for several years, has more than 5 million employees.
b6f7449d0e3d6d6a56320d0366e4515082ac24d4 Created by the Frenchman Fabrice in 1996 in Russia, the company "Vizien", for three years, had more than 500,000 people.
02556a9c31143204404f92b8650a4cca9e1127e9 And if Fabrice decided to run for deputy today, only 10% of his most active employees would bring millions of voters to the ballot boxes.
1ec10bcdbe06dff20112c2c96dd1ab3f0908bd4f And only because thanks to him they took place as individuals.
bcf4672b173e7277921eba256b00b7c85089a53e Because he proved by his actions that he can not only speak and promise, but also do and create.
d4fb847a66f7811a70ec773a777b9ef979917f9a But the most pleasant thing is that our Russian leaders are already successfully managing this company today.
e847b30c2f1bfe6e2b9f1be8cc1fc66300a52076 I would like to emphasize once again what the creation of Russian Network Marketing companies gives: 1.
f95c1ea722e54177b4b1bd7a568023f85479c8d0 Development of the Russian industry and the service sector.
d4bda40010315430b085dea0297037cd91c25efb Increase in sales of Russian products.
df3e014024b9c34752ec31917e3b5fce528c3603 2. Creation of new types of goods and services, new enterprises.
6d780d27664161395c212a601836d21e50df26ae Employment at these enterprises.
9fd2d7d02a60fcb4a5f35ec8e3595ef7400d069f 3. Effective implementation of the manufactured goods.
32a5cdaa1136afe75ab79d1ced006854e7112ee0 4. The possibility of improving the well being of citizens, participants of companies SEE 5.
a59b11254c9eed9deccda9a0aade5cf3a4213e4b Improving the educational level of participants in the field of psychology, motivation and management.
672b05d9c9931f5f91c65ebedb8848900d3f088a 6. Education of leaders specialists in management.
487425851aab74861d24f48f3f60b50353ae7a49 7. The opportunity to expand the circle of your acquaintances and make new friends.
9ccbdca7d600b45e275f2b6e576f9c72240ac1a2 8. Disclosure of positive personal qualities.
448d2acab46e605bcc278448c4ecd91e838c0246 9. Promotion of Russian goods to foreign markets.
b5ecfcf59dc4aaf9b0ea20c67b9c24cc242eeaa7 Attracting capital to Russia.
5691305fea0e8255485694e0a41a4940389228aa Attracting the votes of voters in the election campaign.
a56673b1eb12023ea5ee4a774b3a0c82df6de95f Cosmetics network marketing Network marketing at the current stage of economic development of Russia has great prospects.
fff05ad9b9aa5cb4356bb95a22e4c9032b974c52 It is built on the needs of people for additional earnings to ensure a normal standard of living.
cfc33d0f27c0d13d8459fd1fc0717a06d6822795 How can I increase sales without worrying about expanding the retail space and equipping retail locations?
cab5d0ab66f5a56d321feee5e3b7869795d65636 How to sell more without the cost of maintaining a whole staff of marketing department employees, do not conduct constant negotiations with intermediaries and sellers?
633856fb5ede7972e5ab7f34ada7175a494e6eac MLM this answer became obvious at the end of the XIX century.
5d1b9bb2944cc419f4978f58a7206cce6b7b8ddb MLM web MLM (multi level marketing) - a method of direct sales, the sale of goods directly to the consumer at home, at work or at special events - allows you to shorten the distribution chain, which means that you can reduce the manufacturer's distribution costs and reduce the retail price of products.
d690cde7670ebe09e964609cb19e547aaddc6f6b Direct sales are supported by independent distributors.
348a38fef89def404998c06f3ac82da22f55a73e And the increase in sales depends on their number and activity.
bf59715ee0011470fd0a0445c51decd36f0cf612 You no longer need to worry about attracting consumers and finding new markets.
3dd5da80f3ecb1ebcef4d5c8504e0df6514ab679 It is enough to interest as many distributors as possible, and they will take care of everything else.
b739da5969fc626e9f3526633e9e5d63c7f57ee9 Of course, a few traveling salesmen with battered suitcases are unlikely to lead the company to multimillion dollar profits.
7d8314f6caf35bfb053b5bbc8c488293e234c4f6 But here the MLM strategies come to the rescue, which, combined with the method of "direct sales", gave rise to such a phenomenon as network marketing in distribution perfume products.
4c728283ce439a27ab2529ab117729f136d1b1d4 In fact, the growth of turnover using the "direct sales" method is achieved by expanding the network of distributors.
e1920314b97ce301724cfc46bb050a09a395ae69 In order for a manufacturing company not to have to constantly engage in attracting new distributors on its own, it is necessary to interest them in attracting new consultants themselves.
ccb389b3f0ec17876e3b9f80c502384d596b7830 For this purpose, including cosmetic companies, a number of methods have been developed, the main one of which remains the sponsorship system.
eb641b6d4b8d7e557bc1a5edebd43469cf047c0c The usual profit of the consultant consists of the difference between the price of the goods indicated in the catalog and the price at which the company provides products to the consultant.
2ad02855d645f3f47875bebff0b4860006b4f6a9 The distributor can get additional profit by building his own distribution network.
4f9b72996f6e943e69d15c11bf46a5f65f748997 Then he begins to receive royalties commissions in the amount of, as a rule, three percent of the sales made by the consultants he attracted.
cd3e86cab0a9b10efd067d9363ff5875f234ecc7 The more the sponsor attracts new people, the more the network's sales turnover becomes, and the more the sponsor's income increases.
ee945abad6722603bd5e4e9b4d139baf31570622 Manufacturers are interested in making the network grow as wide as possible, so that it has as many levels as possible.
6029cea71682f385f3b31d025de312326b123158 For example, one distributor attracts five distributors, who in turn bring five more people to the network, and so on, and already at the fifth level there are 625 active sellers in his network, and a total of 780 people work in the network.
2dde3d9c2fed3e175f05e0df523d7d0cda61e125 Good market coverage!
078e5e6176df1bb3569108f69f02cf86ae232c05 It should be noted that the normal saturation of the market is the presence of five active consultants per thousand people.
0400503a63b4a4aa2cf53f91c76e15eacb26c802 In order for the network to grow, manufacturing companies, as a rule, pay royalties at the first two or three levels.
ad48a4d193c55f0657e5d27ffe5dac6e9a2bf432 Then all distributors of these levels are interested in attracting new sellers.
f967879f895943a776a34e590d5946df1b875ddb In addition to royalties, there are special incentive systems for sponsors who attract other consultants to the network, for example, evenings and awards for consultants.
d9588f252c456039ba9501f5adb82d21d2127816 Perhaps the most famous among the methods of encouraging consultants has acquired the automotive program MA KEY.
28d7ba9d48436061c4a4b829bd2e0f6a142ef346 For the first time, the top five candidates received a pink Cadillac in 1969.
511d52f74bf06d682beb92aa17d09475a8e6c442 Now the car that Elvis Presley once gave to his mother would hardly be considered by consultants as a pleasant encouragement.
ae523c8eb2b7163863db3f6f325d4cb93e4919d9 Therefore, in addition to the legendary "kady", the international fleet includes cars of other models.
3b2a30a01d8d05be9feaafc432cd45273d098b97 In Russia, national leaders of business groups are awarded with BMW cars, and other leaders have the opportunity to get behind the wheel of a RENAULT CLIO/SIMBOL or a NISSAN ALMERA.
42a75a69b28a10e5b54056e4b5b07cc8e231226f Attracting and training new consultants is certainly part of the" success plan " that cosmetic companies offer.
7185cb86553118878ec09281d868372d7273fc8e For example, for ORIFLAME consultants, there are three director degrees, three levels of hierarchy for the creators of their own trading teams - gold, sapphire and diamond levels, which give not only emotional satisfaction, but also tangible material advantages.
43fb5041a947c6ade52d5407221cf88f427ff59d Some MLM companies allow their distributors to operate only in the so called "warm" market, that is, among relatives and friends.
919e84e4c4dbca64e9ede4e7e4f9cd03e82144a0 But large and dynamically developing network companies are characterized by a wider coverage, they operate both on the "warm" and "cold" market.
234d6ad5524a3ccec2491c8ea32235aeeadf27b1 Recently, consultants of cosmetic companies are increasingly creating their own websites to attract more customers.
cfdeed0ff89147ef3bcfcb8569632139f7367c2a Manufacturing companies open special "hotlines", through which you can get information about consultants operating in the region, city, district.
a9afeab921d5a878fe0ca4f01c616855dff91d26 Often in cities you can see the signs of the "service" centers of some cosmetic companies, where you can buy products or become a distributor.
6e2bd1b2e889736445e9984aed8c465777cd9b05 Main players There are four cosmetic companies operating on the Russian market that use the direct sales method: AVON, MARY KEY, ORIFLAME and FABERLIC.
4e0546009923dc84d4da35c5509a1fd78388b03f This happened back in 1954, long before the creation of the other companies represented on the Russian market.
ee26b07bb2b607da33f37ec37535d2fa4f9f2c9e In the 80s, many consultants only worked part time at MARY KAY COSMETICS in their free time from their main work.
020f008a9faa088175bbbe3c64d09f9c6710f15b As a result, sales fell from $323 million in 1983 to $260 million in 1985.
99c1c85850db0bc21f716792966ebf4d96ae0b9d Drastic measures were needed to correct the situation.
601825681d4cc4e0adfaac28493ee14fa2549754 Mary Kay and her sons decided to take out a loan and buy out all the shares in order to save the company.
40a1ff93b612292e7e3197ea8c2209f0b60d9f61 Many analysts believed that it would be impossible to repay the loan to the company.
89c974de1d6ff6a5b73375aadbce8e206d831fd5 But Mary Kay's son Richard Rogers, who headed the revived family enterprise, directed the amounts previously paid in the form of dividends to further encourage the most diligent distributors with additional commissions and various bonuses.
66953afaa4904ba9da77a2823929616c9f0f99a9 As a result, the network of distributors grew: by 1991, the number of consultants reached 220 thousand people, and sales amounted to $487 million.
45fea8a164b9d23dbb3f5de6584e4592d5c4e915 In Russia, the products of MERRY KEY come mainly from factories located in China and Switzerland.
454ea2eb32c6471ffb696eb41811864c5a5dbcdd The staff of consultants consists of 40 thousand people.
23b5a5fcb40e1ede96ec18c9f47e8475fb7aa9fe If the average productivity indicator of one consultant ($56 per month), then the total sales volume for the year is about $26 million.
24abe1ae2a859455ba1807252c1468060458aba8 According to the company itself, 6 million units of MARY KEU cosmetic products were sold in Russia last year.
5540b656bea36eb3be296903a8d46ace69a57d61 The assortment consists of more than 200 items in seven categories: facial skin care, decorative cosmetics, nail care, body care, sunscreens, aromatic collections, perfumes for men.
75c7500a39218190ab620b6058ce8177c1e24402 At the same time, 90% of the products produced by the MERRY KEY Corporation are skin care products.
f01bedb0d653fef7187afcf14a5694e13b13b1e5 That is why the company has faced problems in the Russian market, as our women give their consumer preference to decorative cosmetics.
a84e982fa746b7a91c236cb2fb150b5f51ed832f In Russia forever!
f064979e00dbe4a5dca5760d433d2a2badb39731 ORIFLAME was founded in 1967 in Stockholm.
813d78010beb8685946be4b690a6b741217f37d4 Within a year and a half, the company's consultants were operating throughout Scandinavia.
4d3ec213733f1593664e28e27d87c40e1fc47409 Now ORIFLAME is represented in 60 countries, it employs about 1.5 million consultants.
4b54dcfc0063b9ad8fdf90aa4f218b2be5ce20a7 Production centers are located in Dublin, Warsaw and Delhi, which does not prevent the company from positioning itself as a manufacturer of real, environmentally friendly Swedish cosmetics.
559d9ba59de9c72f3752b3b8bfd31957047e5a44 ORIFLAME entered the Eastern European market in the early 90s.
769649c9d6f65974f10e137c1e7049d240111e81 Initially, ORIFLAME's business in Russia developed in line with wholesale sales of cosmetic products.
541262ca48a3c4f645f55499776dbbb54fad0e42 This cosmetics was distributed in many small and large stores and pharmacies.
cf3e2688d846c5efe1f8db82c8aca5190b3164b8 This not only ensured brand awareness, but also distanced the company from its direct sales counterparts in some way.
0108745badcb659231f1578210d6582c64cc72c7 And only in 1996, direct sales began in Russia.
9028ccb7f5be821144519ace00d0126bcfb0d869 Since the goods were cheaper for independent distributors, buyers naturally began to use their services.
faef783383b03c77bf8867423279624b5a9212be Stores lost profits and eventually refused to sell ORIFLAME products.
8274b6912d6dff77551bca42069c2c3f2633e425 Nevertheless, the necessary image was already developed, which greatly facilitated the distribution of cosmetics through direct sales.
c397e95ff6991cb19c85e6164a7d702d9780e8ba Now it is impossible to see the company's products at retail, but in many, even very small, cities you can easily find ORIFLAME "service" centers.
8fce406cb8b1f45da2b39b5b367f34e59e7ce979 Despite the fact that ORIFLAME began to develop the Russian market among the last, today it is one of the most recognizable brands in the domestic cosmetics market.
e2745c564dc96c6b5478d4f79d92123d27ae739f ORIFLAME immediately took into account the negative experience of its predecessors, who refused advertising campaigns.
95d231cd6c273ee8884e6dcbbc6ad3e44afcba4c Thanks to large scale advertising campaigns on TV and radio, a well defined image of the company has developed in the minds of consumers.
0113fa82115b8d52bf93778ca1dad0d6f007beff "Without advertising on television and radio, as well as without sponsorship projects such as The Field of Miracles, we would not have been able to become so popular," says Magnus Brannstrom, CEO of ORIFLAME in Russia and the Baltic States.
4911d72d1af3ce49ffcffa2fd5bf6d094984dd3b During the crisis, when most companies cut advertising costs to a minimum, ORIFLAME laid off 70% of full time employees, but continued the advertising campaign.
088480f031ae8ff089bd4d5c203309c3d63193c2 This helped not only to survive difficult times, but also to restore the level of sales faster.
3be64b7bfb6049e868a89f30afc3f3957472c1d0 The Russians are coming!
16756907ad675980376b02a51e7aaef5a884419c FABERLIC joint stock company was established in 1997 on the basis of the company "Russian Line".
34f1c7c64544ef4965ab157922f70de37020d1fb Along with the name, the brand also received a pro Western image.
e657b1d086ebc1855f6b21f074dd8f05b78846a7 FABERLIC products are manufactured using Russian technologies from European raw materials.
4f13b68012f976701b55b46e1458132abcfaaa40 The most famous is the company's oxygen cosmetics, created using the domestic technology "Aquaftem".
b7b05613055cb6aea54e2fd47503dfd06d8148b4 The FABERLIC range includes both mass market products and luxury cosmetics.
c1f4d101717e422d8a9eaeb3daa304ea34b10d44 In addition to skin care products, perfumes and cosmetics, the company produces biologically active additives.
9387b1a8267687afae2ce6f8f5c37ea7138be69f FABERLIC products include women's, men's and teen lines.
46120129f4a6191f7ef919e53272adef7c008433 In 2000, FABERLIC was awarded the gold medal as "the most dynamically developing company in the direct sales sector".
e845e9f97c1eadd628502ea1c7ff48a98d7a2da5 The company's" service " centers operate in 300 cities of Russia and the CIS.
14908a4057fa8bb7013fa55cbe0565bc16328bde Work is also underway with foreign countries - the first "service" center has been opened in Poland.
322db2da8e59f138161e09193029f440bcd639de It is not by chance that women's business Network marketing has become so widespread
00615dfcbc6d0cefd3f0727f4f9b56d21ec86462 it is among the manufacturers of cosmetics.
fa87a0a85bbd2999a744e3bc1832e4ba3d9d4320 AVON became the founder of the direct sales method.
154286add65c2a9010b399b06aac6837f6b535f5 Back in 1886, Mrs. Albee became the first distributor of the products of the California perfume company, which later became known as AVON.
f0255ba0406d28bfd29a5a5ca72bf756bd727051 She became a pioneer in the field of direct sales.
79d230883be9ca5d2f0257cd26fe4ccc4d782402 Network marketing has played a special role in cosmetics companies - it is a "purely female business".
5116a4d1668eb78bd604abed625e2ec2d7409ba9 It is easier for the weaker sex to demonstrate the advantages of cosmetics and at the same time it is more pleasant to buy cosmetics.
1ca1bb69272b46421b5218e15e384bb498adf051 Therefore, it was in this business that women first got the opportunity to earn money.
d5ab0cc2dd7cda8568f608f4609a205d40d01a10 The same can be seen in the positioning of the company MERRY KEY.
3a5dcb7c676a000220cfe9c3399ab46de2702446 For Mary Kay Ash herself, it was important to change the lives of women, open the way to success for them, give them the opportunity to run their own business.
080a6c514b6b191501976e854471d973e1854796 This has been a central element of the company's philosophy for 40 years now.
628f6321410064fc2c214de22e87e344ab95e8da This is the spirit of the AVON and MERRY KEY brands, and it has provided them with an advantage over their competitors for many years to come.
6450163104ec30a3e2d519318c073caadd35d3ad If you carefully look at the AVON advertising, you will notice that there are no men in this world...
5eca75ec4603c6d0a17021a8b7819cbe9bdf68f2 It should be noted that FABERLIC partly loses in positioning precisely because of the consideration of the male view of cosmetics, the role of a woman.
51796e58182556515d3f393edff0169ff38555ca Be only mine And it should be so ideally.
94760e0b07b523c59de4939fda1271b84b5356ca In fact, cosmetic companies operating on the Russian market face a serious problem.
4fa524c202c974997be32fdea2ef17cd4a5d88af In an effort to increase their earnings, distributors carry with them not one catalog, but presentations of several companies at the same time.
90483af1ab584df06eb1aa092900ef08c3c0322c It is quite difficult to say which of them will be demonstrated earlier.
4ea3ec0f8625d86c99d773e1ed7b10273ef3a085 Therefore, the main concern of companies is the loyalty of the distributor.
139dd213d61c2b1cd09a5607090c814033081be5 It is the distributors who become the main audience of the PR campaign.
a24e307841798cc4937b29e9d750f143242b6252 Various incentive systems play an important role in motivating consultants.
99d7224c6ea7ab2b025e05581b7f624859af3eee An interesting example was the competition among consultants held by FABERLIC this summer, the winners of which spent their holidays in Paris.
839e21582d3d53dcba88a1a8ccdc6353cbd6af8b Companies are constantly looking for new methods to increase the motivation of consultants.
6e4c04af119ad65c5e653d88c7db0821e7826983 One of these ways is to participate in the charity and social activities of the company within the framework of cause related marketing.
ccb3b5062d332a01f405aa32dc163c93edd81a1f Of course, the "loyalty" of the consumer is also important for network companies.
8951f348425d2d84905466a0d406eba7d9339917 Companies such as AVON and ORIFLAME annually bring to the market from 150 to 300 new products.
bb5cd1432787e7e5bb8db1446181ec53b0b9a5bc Domestic FABERLIC, despite the obvious success of its laboratory, is still significantly behind in this indicator, yielding to competitors by about 10 times.
ab5f2c6db3c142dbe7a4a924863d0cd13366ee7e Becoming a beauty consultant in a network business requires relatively small material costs.
fced84291e1c2ed008e4f75f254f2e01e29113cc At one time, Mary Kay Ash, to start her own business, it took only $5 thousand and two friends, who became the first beauty Consultants.
b8fc621b7ee54c8da596946100a09b843576d153 Now, to become a consultant for a company, you do not need special skills and a lot of money.
0681ce93418ebc5381dab08ad8efa481930c0341 Any Russian citizen with a passport and 80 euros can become a consultant.
eddd4deca677dc79d20a67edb60865eb168eb8da However, there are small differences: AVON recruits consultants over the age of 18, while ORIFLAME gives an opportunity to earn money to teenagers who have reached the age of 14.
7090d58fd03fb4cdeb6a51d32d910f7ace36cdf4 International norms prohibit companies from assigning a higher cost of a starter kit.
90c0fd5bcdeb8299a3736be266558cab93314774 Moreover, loans are offered for the purchase of starter demo kits.
e8afb71aebe0d9b0a602d38a30a2c2ac61057048 As a rule, people are brought into this business by relatives and friends who become both sponsors and mentors.
0ee48527a03f95f9b452190f63e1849427347361 However, you can also become a consultant yourself by contacting any "service" center of the company.
f5b5e5f87705e2c3853b2811d4ce470c5e59d071 To teach newcomers to demonstrate products, attract customers and place orders should be the leaders of their groups, sponsors who are financially (through royalties) interested in each of their subordinates being able to sell.
b9ce39ae21976ad877419257fd5d2854180d8f17 The companies also conduct training seminars for their consultants, who also receive new catalogs, magazines with descriptions of master classes and fashion trends, and other promotional materials on a monthly basis.
759d512519fdf6b265c1306f075d1931741672c2 Also on the website of any company there is a section for consultants through which you can place an order.
a8a8ddfd37f03a9fa087134cb5832402310b0be5 The consultant does not risk anything.
08b466faa9e7ed9dcc21118be6719c2f36a1daad If the product does not suit the customer with something, you can always issue a refund.
9c13836580a769a75921f82a37d26bd3a6677e78 This system is fixed by international standards and is supported by all companies.
f69b35ef85a7c1f2fa8c5a9b3d6b8ab5ede29151 Surprisingly, the number of returns, even if the manufacturer complies with all standards, is quite large.
509c3cc2e76607019bee9cffc0b9e95f8654c69d This may be due to the fact that consultants sometimes unscrupulously select the necessary care products for the buyer.
e61f8c528482c6e0ecdc44cb99b1cf72c9c77636 The secret of immortality Network marketing at the current stage of Russia's economic development has great prospects.
aa4336d6be5761bf93dce63fb8fcf4c81816103f That is why in the 90s it was one of the most dynamically developing markets in the country.
52941376157fc05cdb3e4eadab0d3e8863b74398 Network marketing allows you to bring products to the consumer with minimal transaction costs, which reduces the cost of developing the company, expanding the sales market.
ed73971f90e4accc0a36a46a6952ba2fca4a7b13 The released funds, as the experience of cosmetic companies shows, should be used for the development of new products, which allows us to retain consumers and prevent undesirable fluctuations in sales volumes.
90599599b77872378a4bdec803de7fd7ccc34195 Network marketing in Russia In Russia, the first network marketing company appeared in 1989.
5b698526e709862d71e2e21590de51ea4d2e9a6f It was called "Herbalife" and was engaged in the sale of dietary supplements and tea for weight loss.
0d05162c5460782a98f4fdb6436a8cab9a8a8aac The company's products quickly began to spread throughout the country.
87addbd557098227fed69c129f716127732f2cf2 But along with it, the negative image of network marketing began to spread.
7b0e980e321c2dd07dec6c08e1c19d5db06cecae People began to engage in business, in the essence of which they did not understand much.
11d0bb58f8960d09ff1928ed6d854ca33789605c There were practically no books on the philosophy or strategy of network business.
cde3dd508bcb139b075a219d685f5b0a3936f83e I had to learn all the nuances of the work in practice.
7fc2c08d09ec1abd7dc6d0b0f1608d4a6ad26e18 Many people in this situation were defeated and were forever disappointed in multi level marketing.
2fc3a4dfb08c44f4b2f8cfb6ba9f334ba4a4f017 The image of the network business was significantly damaged by the financial pyramids that flourished in Russia at that time.
fc06925d7e7caba1f65cdf06ec9f5c2637291384 The principle of their operation was very similar to multi level marketing, but the essence was completely different.
4a224f2cd166abc9ffabfa210f9ada9739cbb217 We will talk about the differences between network business and financial pyramids later.
2a800c33f43b2a7ab2b98748a759415b6fb0213d So, network marketing has come to Russia.
29e799ff12f291252057480ebe598d10b25c35b5 His start was not entirely successful, but over time he began to firmly conquer the market.
a6a8aa3647bdbc14f43dff03f853bdb6e50dd8f1 There were objective reasons for this.
310215b35501d1ea47e466a205e573c296bc4775 Those who did not give up and did not leave at the very beginning began to earn real money.
4d78b5e9c3775f7f319064b713217b2b1b278346 There was literature, training centers that told about how to conduct business correctly.
5f3694fcf9ee87cf5cf74eb7a08c18edd885fae2 The success of some became an incentive for the work of others.
91cdbc32deacf5534d5b72e31ba90d363dac29e8 The second large company that appeared on the Russian market was “Save Invest".
30bc045f4d9c880edd58ea3607dd69713b8ebba6 She was engaged in the sale of Swiss insurance policies.
3c9e02ad317e2ceec9d75350de856ae0cc472e69 Then the world famous companies selling cosmetics and tableware began to spread: AVON, Oriflame, MaryKay, Zepter.
ab8c49e52cccbede0a5861530c976121bbddb990 The famous American company Amway was registered.
779a0680b2113e86ab95ba5df12ac865f8cb6a5d The economic principle, which has been tested for years in the West, began to work in our country as well.
094ba8d83f99cec04b73b373e17c4911bce31d9e The first domestic companies working in the field of network marketing appeared.
caa0407ae7bded92626b7a08fcd22d297631570f The big breakthrough happened during the default.
1e1e3cfa4eb6f76bf90c6ab03df636ee5f77e20a Many people who lost their jobs began to seriously engage in the distribution of products of well known companies.
ad17a13e92bde866a70ca04ce2296f005f76b250 Many of them have succeeded.
6363fe7cc7e32b7a96d573e42375776abe1d94d1 In 1999, in Moscow alone, about a million people worked as distributors in network companies.
432d9a3201daf0841571086fa7a10f5cd6531ffa And there were about three million such employees throughout Russia.
c0f403b8f7c3dd7c787631ba3be4fdb3968ecda3 Today, network companies offer many products and services.
e70371b6038f440c47f7417c72f84b27aacc6306 They sell vitamins, food additives, dishes, cosmetics, insurance policies, Internet services and other useful products.
d6545a7f3df2c94d6a6ce5e8abf4c9a8cbbe112d A solid scientific and information base has also begun to appear in Russia.
656c26a5c35156634d28e82b26c41ed975482b78 Since 1997, the magazine about network marketing “MLM Perspective”has been published.
36b784cd8ca3c5456592593d488d9f5d7f1a74f3 Recently, the newspaper "Good News" saw the world, which tells about the success of network companies.
c7ab6a327b40d9ccbe00b46454018026cd730674 Books by famous American network businessmen — John Kalench, John Fogg, Jim Ron, Tom Schrider have been translated into Russian.
80d5a48fb888d567957bcc3437a83d10a3b7577e Some successful leaders of Russian companies have started publishing books about their own success.
55530096845f761c17da73cdbf2031c9bd296c14 Training companies organize training centers, field seminars and conferences.
be5cb232c7d10da41f393e656bec589144c71b5c The economics departments of universities, following the model of Western universities, began to teach the basics of network marketing to their students.
ef5ec8871ff5d71901f295c5d5fc87f2a097b622 Multilevel marketing has grown in Russia from a semi legal business into a fairly profitable business.
f223844bff5294b9c10d1a675ad0710879906ce4 Laws were issued regulating its activities.
b37e558a1025a67ab05ec1aeebafa1c5149a262e One day companies that only deceived their distributors have practically disappeared from the market.
53ba67861304c887af3ff509d419acffc1760d94 Financial pyramids have ceased to exist.
108696070b5575a926b2cdb1a37b35fac1e8acf1 How to invite to network marketing I have joined several network marketing companies, but never once through direct advertising.
530490e1b6f18c70885fd662e8e9042bbeb33dfb Such advertising is usually sent to us in the form of spam by e mail, or placed on bulletin boards and forums.
fa3da09f09a3328d5f2aaabfa5d7613f95faccf4 Advertising usually says that you are offered the most profitable business, and sometimes the entire marketing plan is immediately laid out.
bfb666949b1e999f4df0b2212515dfc64f7dd22a I usually did not reach the reading of the marketing plan, because I deleted the letter, and if the ad appeared on my forum, then I deleted it.
c438b31b8a19152baf28d34c0e77ec40ce03775c How did I manage to join several companies?
cac1f41ea21c3125cd81ff7093ddd34908b4d606 I joined one of the companies after reading about it in a well known MLM newspaper.
f94a96f9e6ee7b60d3fd7d75c692d9ad41005b7a The article was serious and did not seem to be advertising (the so called hidden advertising).
cb68ebff6a2ff25bb49a2e5bf4316745990f90f1 I contacted the author of the article and asked him to work in his serious company.
5f42652657b4ea22812a689fc8dff6af9e26eae6 The other time was different.
2f836404de8b764fac5a7c03c9b1d9ead6e196a8 One person sent me an idea for publication, which told me how to earn money by participating in one company.
0fdc4006187692155e827a98af9d7d752b25c456 Moreover, the earnings were not at all connected with the involvement of distributors, it was connected with the provision of communication services to the population.
eeea33b6a2f83f81ffaa8e9b9be0f6d019cd5a11 So I became interested in this company, and then I became its distributor.
2390f4d87a387bfb917a83e3d2c8c3d1ca75e22f I found my third company by the signature of one forumchanin on my forum.
09250bb6b37cbad8b72f2039705a026ade1af9b5 The signature was interesting.
93a0786b5f0544363abe046be4d56b957255b3e6 I contacted a forum participant and thus learned about his company.
3a50d1e5c98b8f8905b0f0a5781dacb8bc366aee GENERAL RULES FOR CONDUCTING A TELEPHONE CONVERSATION.
09c53af91568b286d766e53474703b596f514a31 Imagine an entrepreneur who persuades an applicant by phone to come to him for an interview, where a job offer for$1,500 is possible… All the people who should be with you will be with you!
e5f9df3b6e59995c95f3d1aa94fe55c80e81357e Donot hold on to people, respect yourself!
23d2e47b6f1c754f4a8c46cf475e829ff26e963e 1. Are you waiting for concrete results?
a8cbdb5509a289ac5149daf81bf4c77033bbba21 A telephone conversation should have a specific purpose, it should be planned.
283cd0c54ecc2845cd0afea4e57df6f1bb2d31fe Before your eyes, let there always be a written invitation template (from "hello" to the words "see you soon"), a notebook, a pen.
dc2c94093a07c29714f250863477af1947535a74 2. Do not make a presentation of a network marketing company over the phone.
a61f4b9595c2e89ddf22a93b560120b8ee37471f In such cases, it is better not to finish than to say too much, otherwise your friend will make a decision after your phone call, and this should be done after a meeting with the sponsor.
863cf04908768a3826e821ff3586d22b9c43fce5 Say so: “I need a person to join the team, I recommended you."
ec480cc42322ceecc79f0f99a81e158b8d91abf1 Or “ Advise me whether it is worth doing this or not.
28a7db633d9976978ed2203549ca6d75ac618225 I donot know much, they'll tell you everything there.”
a7c9b2126d1b462707822816f65e8dc2706f86f6 3. Do not make an appointment when it is convenient for your invitee.
478dc25ddf835f2f9aa7d73dee8dca0e72f82bb5 There are many acquaintances, but there is only one sponsor.
00d912022af9472da5bd810d46ef81c58c69ded5 Find out from the sponsor the most convenient time for meetings.
ddd8e5588c0c321eb90b9a2a21fae61d24daafa8 The sponsor knows how to save both your and his time.
70fadcb055af519b0746ee299b7cde193fb8f5ad If a friend canot come tomorrow at the specified time, then he will definitely come another time.
19e534d9940ec6f1546e5775c13c97e0bce95024 If you do not adhere to this rule, then in the future you will lose a lot of time, because the distributors of your structure in the network marketing company will do the same.
3b1321891ae0e1a3a0a4d370fe08bf79b2d4ea08 Imagine: someone will ask you to hold a meeting at 9 and 13 o'clock.
0e09f9a53493a4371bac5370272fceb6f88b7e23 And if the meetings do not take place?
318fcbecd6e36d72b22ecf26f977f72fe10b0e35 And this happens!
12a343da0e3bbd4bb3663c488870904e13beeb2e Conclusion: You will lose four hours.
9fd0ae75b6c2dc3f7cbf07e02d23c09438717e99 Yes, you know that this time can be occupied by reading the right book, yes, new information is always useful.
1f763a63b43f2b5c3de1980f9846d8b7ad920a8b But...you spent about three hours packing and traveling.
ce2bb599ebd8f364b3602c830fd378138586c8ad And all this is for the do you want to nervously flip through the pages after the first failed meeting, and finally forget everything you know after the failed second one?
5ee072337669c05bdfebeeafda665ed90341cfb1 Do you want to lose time check everything yourself.
a9a46a29c813dbd88916f0ac204356fb574d7c4f 4. Do not postpone calls for a long time.
8160bd9fbebd80df5aac412d2b1d0ed44a5a2c8c Start calling right now.
e4c3d9e8952302abe38da69838d68648ac6462c0 Otherwise, someone else will invite your friend to the network marketing business.
57f84af5a0ef00ce112e1d095c0c28da8537f172 Take 30 days to sort through the entire list.
15b991341b8399a9c1ad4512622d1a040fea82ba This is a magic number.
c9a601501517ad884d9f07d5c925da3c2e5a820c During this time, you should have an initial team formed.
90294ca4ce15658eeaf9156c2385232a2f4f690e And each of them will have their own list of acquaintances, so pay attention to writing your list of acquaintances.
7ad9c734b4c6032a201edbe31c799f5dc373c32e It should consist of at least 200 people "Plus one person" in your list will mean at least 200 more candidates for your MLM structure!
ab9026f81c3b1648be056d90321a10891fa13d90 5. We recommend using a voice recorder.
5ac160059236bd15525155c40a87dd1bd47119cd Discuss your invitation with the sponsor by phone.
c2aa8106aa4d80f5372d673e16014b4f5ded13c7 This will help to improve the quality of business negotiations and, accordingly, the statistics of people coming to the meeting.
d2feaec6b2d4388d69e913382a4ada47c15a098c 6. The effectiveness of telephone communication largely depends on your inner mood.
efc514671794e50af70ebfee01b2a9347d733d87 The interlocutor will definitely feel your smile and affection for him.
f31c944011f23475a178a9fbf6a5aae1fb2d5e5e In the same way, he will feel your mood.
78b22c87db9b3ee3f6858b43c711f0fb177d8804 If you are not confident in yourself, not sure of the success of your event, it is very unlikely that the outcome of your conversation will be positive.
ec0a8ee88a973becee6ce64f20f180f4be002d63 To create an internal mood for work, you can use auto suggestion formulas.
323923332c20744cbe3598b6ad0f31c77e30e4e4 We recommend making calls in a business suit.
9f75b047b7ca1e350d4811143e964ab6115bd10e This way you will feel more confident.
65876f4461d1554c6621b782f9b342ac4df20f26 In addition, when a clearly written invitation template is in front of your eyes, you will always know what to say and will not worry.
23a19c4e1d1d39698766cfe1596810ec6ba72162 7. Start of the conversation: greeting ("Good afternoon/ evening/ morning"," Hello").
763c557f1609e52bf93d4a9482d0f338b4c8f64d "Do you (you) have time to talk to me now?"
92661b01b4d8de3f2e72a69bf0cb307c8c2cc6da This is a very important moment of telephone communication, since your call can catch a person at the most unexpected moment for him.
bfa51b63cd305e4952bd360a6ef8daf443d8033d THE FUNDAMENTAL RULE OF AN INVITATION to a network marketing company: intrigue, promotion, a sense of loss 8.
77db17d0792e64971fbfef5b7f317404204212b3 Make a promotion: - offer, - information,
6e2b5a53f2287f3a014b90f520edc0ea271614fa 9. Use the "choice without choice" technique, the so called "fork".
bd65cc208d5651df2ec7c4b7136662f6dd566824 For example: "I can arrange a meeting at 14.00 or 16.00. Which time suits you better?"
8942171a72aa0fade61e953e87b3f6565e2d3af7 The person thinks that he chooses.
a8cf562e7ff9a08f36ebc93614f101f397ad3559 In fact, you choose based on the planning of your MLM or sponsor.
452a709225c81c91b85d3fde733c8bbe64665e13 End of the phone conversation.
28fe38022c2d3f95b1c6b7c7b770eeb14d1ed9c5 It is necessary to agree on the exact time.
17af0f6ae0737d334e8d4bc62a4e4f3db579a69f There must be specifics.
8041c382f96848990f2fef253a1ce92b6216af92 Poor statistics of the arrival of your invited guests to the meeting is not the ability to clearly "put an end" at the end of the conversation.
b95649ece57c9310eb111350a1be9f58e9a2cf44 For example: "just let's agree with you exactly, since we have all the time scheduled by the clock.
4933447e91a00002882b6d542044ac3128b07078 I'll introduce you to a serious person.
cf8e2b30471ae3d357c52b4e9d68a12dd6a9657c Donot let me down.
c7f40bf3c4d9a78c1ce1ba240b2b45dc5cd9024d Be 15 minutes earlier.
a32f0457bdbec5c09440237be7b7eaf2bf43497b It's important to you.
70e05df2e4c62d80ffa7f0ee4d5556bd52416bb4 " 11 Keep statistics, note how many calls you made, how many people said "yes", how many of them came to the meeting.
d69034562ffe47b8816fd3047ac2fd1d07cb80e3 This is necessary to see what really works in practice in recruiting in the network marketing business.
284e25d0f39ade8e713b704ac6a73c273e5da42a NEGOTIATION TACTICS.
90d6b1df0309498a49d05ee7e8b8e011224c817f Use words and phrases with a positive meaning.
f61d38cf24ce75892065e9809fe54e20f23d062a Speak simply and clearly.
064968a092aa8633f5eb75888464db14c192cdc8 Always listen to the interlocutor to the end, do not interrupt him.
24050125b27da798c23268b187beb60a8db405a0 The arguments and arguments of the interlocutor can and should be used for their own purposes.
0a9a52c25c9dff5bf2017274a23db99aaa536480 Therefore, write down everything that the interlocutor tells you.
e5a0fa3db999be8d1f6f1f8e1f272e489d0a385d And if in the course of the next conversation you are able to quote the statements of the interlocutor, it will have a very strong impact on him.
915bcf1b9b969d987e5ebbdb08112cb8a9911e47 Quoting the words of an opponent is the most powerful weapon in negotiations.
7222043b132217247c9e50d194240db193c1c748 Try to remain calm, even if the partner is rude and unrestrained.
c5b8d9a806ac187499f7d1042c2ab8812f9a3aa6 Perhaps, during the conversation, the reason for his irritation will become clear.
b675c2a8e8907d34a0ddccc2d77a479072b8c7bb If a person is irritated, he is more susceptible to influence.
1c079c73f7c808b65620a04761e01bd011ccc8b0 When talking on the phone, never make spontaneous decisions.
d1143c7b74aafc3d2c5c5f1db17cc1f9368fc513 Be sure to make notes in the list of friends, write down the result of important conversations.
468e2b2665db1df05cca3ff6e57c7a625cee3e07 So you will always know how to" finalize " the invited person before making a decision, when to call him back and what to say.
7fc00cf32b2c9d160f440c1f3b5f8ec3cfdd6a86 The dullest pencil, as you know, is better than the sharpest memory.
93ed2b05b26cd217b3424fce1c6ec188a2fcdee8 Always improve your skills of conducting telephone conversations in network marketing.
617e5d2ab010d9c3002010c55a95d51d062bf4df Remember: only maximum efforts bring maximum success.
a104d9da85c0efe24797807c2b8e3ebc5784cf08 MISTAKES MADE DURING NEGOTIATIONS in network marketing: - Inability to listen to a person.
0986444754f3e783142ab71c15c29fb1ffce3e68 - Lack of mastery of the technique of posing questions.
ed2bd373ebe7aa2746ad5885701d6dec5f061d51 - Wrong choice of words.
d092295efbf7f38d5ff54f35b8a80ffbeb1fef5f - Inability to briefly express your thoughts.
3949d9597faed7ca2f428c763500ccd7f7b601bc - Inability to proceed from the interests of a person (inability to determine the" Hot spot " of a person).
fe61dffd0c1e8934c46b07eeb82641f57cc7eb00 - Persuasion, ingratiation.
70eca22a18fd321765e738238f72bace0f4c0888 - Insincerity.
b505f091d75028c8c31722d7344204eaaa2c2376 - Inattention to small things.
f843b480449f080f5f49f27047302459aa4fef23 - Inattention to the doubts of a person and his objections.
9fc04603b966c011e42e6597907237382cfb1cf8 - Lack of reasonableness when working with objections.
94fb46ae3c284261ffcb5e8fb986324b2fdea745 There is no clear and thorough system of counterarguments.
808fb904a287a9871996906944e66eb859802636 - Ignorance of the advantages of your offer.
89c05dcbf263633bc06bbde23edf87ad136e0d26 - Inability to make a psychological portrait of your interlocutor.
c13efbc7a03ab1e79902b03b252d20c9d2c6c08c - The conversation was not planned in advance.
622c1b773ccd9a78b28db3f138a5700a9d1b744d The purpose of the conversation was not set. - Self doubt.
88372eaf6ffcdb6958a46ea213d6d9535a57f056 INVITATION TEMPLATES for network marketing.
ac2156145bdd3b3f34dbb0c33bb882101863d22c The templates that we offer you are a "skeleton", you will build up the" meat " yourself, based on your intuition, charisma.
f94ea1eb6382cbf77500d72319bf697dc6cabeab In any case, you know your friend better.
288243be32039067534f3c841183e2b355cba436 Surely, your friends have already been invited to this or that network company, so make your invitations non standard, improvise, on the other hand, adhere to general rules, techniques, use the experience gained by your sponsor.
ffcb9e4a1bd45d5f01d24fc5dfd46d2e4004e39a Remember that anyone wants to go after a strong, convinced person, and not for information!!!
c0d1c97acdff53769dedb2a54224ef71269b63aa People follow people.
54e3df84dd6b34d138950c5eebbdd1089d82d4fe All the people who should be with you will be with you!
195c264a9f77570f825803cc9400d18f2d7602a4 Donot hold on to people, respect yourself.
b467c1b107764329a97c435634cafde03bbad06b Rules: 1) never argue There is no winner in an argument.
013c88a6b183e82ed9db626e2f8648247f8ebcc6 Getting involved in an argument, you begin to impose your point of view.
a77c7799e6f178bcfcbc55ce01f3e8c5f245794b A person begins to defend himself, takes a tough position and there is no question of the result anymore; 2) donot make excuses
5ca2b70471410f9ee56a6167ca47ed3139db0c01 Uncertainty and excuses dramatically reduce the significance of the call in the eyes of the invited person.
1655e87f7a0919b63326b5e6f11be8e66c07a40e If you do not have confidence in the product and in the network marketing company, pride in your work, then what will you convey to the interlocutor?
4913b782411d32f002db98f3d9484153bbf5e034 Uncertainty.
3533c1325194bb940d23177efcfcf150a62f09ee Start with yourself.
06904a5e14e51e5123725666460d0def0332d0f4 Then you will not have to justify yourself to the interlocutor.
b455a3a8a32d0330330c13b9ec6ee343cfb1b773 The best remedy for uncertainty is practice; 3) do not shy away from communication.
588b5ce72057f060da1b65dcdfb2eb2774949db7 There is no need to avoid communicating with invitees who ask a lot of questions.
f8684281567251b1ab2dfa64637f9fd6f1079426 By pulling away, you create a veil from which opponents bounce off.
3efba7052b3fe77cdfa5e1dc985816f0ae332e08 An experienced partner will not persuade or appeal to common sense.
e93a243c967033e005cbb2c0c0c4078f9a536357 With the help of special questions and active listening, he will help the invited person to answer his own objections.
5981eb5adf10322e0b651fbba9425081a4444a48 New network marketing New network marketing, distributor, manager, consultant seller, dietary supplement (dietary supplement) today, most people are perceived almost as curses.
b7fef6c63a6cfc3df62a7a50cddcff25ea8e0e63 And people engaged in network marketing distributors, managers, consultants who distribute dietary supplements (biologically active additives) very often succumb to almost anathema or ostracism.
9c387f2b13395562d549f574904124bbf048ca70 But if you look around more closely, then without a new network marketing today you can only breathe in the air.
9e04baec9456df9ad2782918ec9e47f62411a993 Everything else one way or another, fits the definition of network marketing.
07884cc1b7e475574b743c41bcd282dc8eaf3eb4 Because almost every product lying in the pharmacy of a dietary supplement or a drug today has its own distributor or merchandiser.
fb94596a23f38a8ec9d6a600798967c85dc7cfb9 My great grandfather, Alexander Maksimovich Shafransky, was professionally engaged in herbal treatment, worked out working recipes of traditional medicine.
2eb6d3ca42d1773ecb817a66ad455b300b1c7613 The queues for the reception were constantly standing.
f71730f882de83092b062321071ab4189ae9fdc4 Although he did not advertise.
c0fb2eeb76c1881053ef811e27fced78b8dc93e6 In fact, he has been professionally engaged in network marketing since the 60s of the last century.
cf50181e132d9344cee45e02d9d2935df1562e10 And his ditributors or managers cured patients, transmitted information by word of mouth to everyone who needed treatment or recovery.
df4084b0efc151100be3841ce99be8383c9c3e5d And they bought collections of medicinal herbs (today dietary supplements), often with discounts.
3b665814e5db0202ab7c4612f8da3534970b68d1 What are the elements of network marketing not?
6988293060e178be0a347394f048f01060b663c9 Since it was a new, unfamiliar business, I had to use elements of network marketing in the form of distributing invitations to treatment and recovery with the help of herbs.
e787666aea1af4e313d92d2b872e7bda8949ba14 The so called "noodles".
be1814182123881c6cb349c3809c7cb2364c4a61 He attracted friends, relatives and friends as active distributors.
07317c0332978d73baa69609a4de09dee5e9dafe And the department of herbal medicine worked effectively, it was sufficiently filled with grateful patients!
9f40a55dbbb1a936720f5472d73b7b6be62a1cc9 People were treated at that time with medicinal herbs.
cc8c61fb2dc91d150b25c6b4b781ab32b8f25860 But neither the patients nor Dr. Boris Skachko had any idea that they were actually taking dietary supplements dietary supplements that are being persecuted today!
11ac58bd9ed8dc70442a887364eba009aedb132a But with great benefits for your health.
7c9903681bed4227e75634b537fc5e58620caf0d And naturally occurring exacerbations during treatment were perceived correctly!
80bf33df7fea5f179ea8b7c7270f0d96b47d021a If herbs (sorry – dietary supplements or dietary supplements) work correctly – an exacerbation is inevitable.
b96725818ad2882e894968b0dcad3e3d3ebda34b Only through an exacerbation can a real recovery of the body be carried out.
2cc98600c0244d63c8efe96ecc7444b9dfd09c1d After the department of phytotherapy in clinical hospital No.
f7b7c7ecbc01828a9f5fad90b13fd24b9572bc4c 24 (by modern standards - the department of dietary supplements), Boris Skachko went to work in the therapeutic department of the Central Hospital of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, where the author's fees (according to modern legislation – biologically active food additives) were also not only independently compiled, but infusions, decoctions, teas, and other dosage forms were prepared from them.
3216227f353310d2446676d0c2a4d366a9d2afb1 In the hospital, the level of distribution increased to the level of the heads of departments and the hospital , since they were sent centrally for herbal treatment.
8000a8e2c008bb7a150e7f2f2c7af31c5006773f In the 90s, it was a new type of business in Ukraine – network marketing.
f77cc420a94b982a24c807e717f50f7cd2c0ff20 Among them were companies offering mainly biologically active additives (dietary supplements).
676c6db7f4a547ca74c96f0f2c9c665a040b36fd It was easy for Boris Skachko to manage them, because by modern standards, at one time he was in charge of the first department of dietary supplements in the USSR and Ukraine, and not phytotherapy.
b8f1a0fdc86ba5f0636ded21d19cfbcd5819164f And he understands the essence of not only the process of treatment, but also the influence on the process of treatment and recovery of individual herbs as unchangeable components of dietary supplements.
8d45e276f09189db7e77be5027679cf908e740fe Among the foreign network companies was in vision( vizhin), neways( newways), dr nona( doctor Nona), coral club( coral club), nsp, tiens (tiens).
3e07ad9c849435ea8a27976ed44d5f5de05da720 I did not ignore the network companies that originated in the expanses of the former USSR: artlife, tentorium, health shop, life shop, happiness of life, Siberian health, worked in the support clubs, amrita.
a03e3eb0077c9e18d7c2bb0123f4d9159fc5f16d So are various cosmetic network companies: oriflame( Oriflame), faberlic( Faberlik), avon, (avon).
0a3bdc0510e3da0fa4a26e23d5c603c6f9468078 Explaining that the solution of cosmetic problems exclusively with external means is a waste of money and time.
59052a0b95506ee984d6e94bf97a4f7a3869d9af Many people understood this and cooperation with distributors of cosmetic companies was the most fruitful.
1fec2d76f95004765a7ed6ceebdf227ec56ecef7 I did not have time to work in such companies as herbalife (herbalife), edelstar (edelstar), amwey (amway).
eccee75e0e6c8f3bab4a843deaf3475dc16ec6f0 But he offered the same thing to all companies: let's launch a series of Ukrainian developments in the field of phytotherapy, dietetics, as the most acceptable for maintaining the foundations of a healthy lifestyle for residents of Ukraine and the CIS countries.
8157c8be95dc8f1bf6c8b2acce3e84ba81271478 Moreover, they are proven not only by time, but also in clinical conditions.
7ccee089809014b137dfc64f4dfad9aaf11a56d9 Some of the results of the treatment have been published in 20 books and brochures, dozens of scientific articles and hundreds of popular articles in various newspapers and magazines.
1bf3065faff03466877fc1be3dd72347892a0f87 In response, Boris Skachko received silence or
32eb5c575e1e38eaf1f970d1bbcbc82537334ebb vague promises.
df139f47c1507af53c1b7443e1ee8c2655305d30 The first series of phytopreparations of Dr. Boris Skachko in the midst of the global economic crisis was released in Ukraine in 2009 under the title "Dr. Skachko's Health Formula"!
ab123b1d0de646f779ea49f3132bf173bb200122 So far, these are only 4 formulas registered only in Ukraine as a biologically active additive (dietary supplement).
747c0d4c0f6f09e5a5938517e2047b8b0bdb2c9b But certification is underway in Russia and the EU countries.
98ec732b999b28d5e1d50491016f2885dcc33754 Given the realities of today, companies in the market behave differently.
02f466af30b5f85f7f7145831292591a7c43a23d Or they invest money in an advertising company, exposing the product at every step.
6b2dd8479ec07b32194ea4c0c7ff474c0e3c1e85 Or they launch the product through a new network marketing.
6fa484e0ef5c22c801b490db1fdd41f906d4a575 In this case, the main advertising medium is a distributor, manager or consultant of the company.
a8c02a3602800ba046bea2ddfb2b4d6fe2e889b1 A new network marketing launched in Ukraine with unique products, including biologically active additives (dietary supplements) under the general name "DR.
2e21a8a0120769b4c39174a61f51e3de03cf389d SKACHKO's HEALTH FORMULA" is being certified in Russia and the EU countries.
7324f8fbacef3a433b5367b935658641b0e5b03c Due to the expansion of the geography, employees are needed: a manager, a distributor, a consultant.
7e162e84e99cd89c1b3e0081e0b3cf3cff7c83ed Active cooperation with the author of a series of herbal medicines, DR.
b9bca6bff5495a1be90b9ffe8ac47b58baee099f BORIS SKACHKO, will allow you to realize your creative potential more effectively and earn money.
f6f286e34442b0a406a2d2b79ca3004a3603626d What can I, the recruitment manager Gleb Skachko, actively help you with?
c168564a8e9a828f97d08a9e5c7e9f91b4036fc7 In the information support of your business.
c31ff9c1449505697acc3f5ffa5ef7e8589e55b0 And the one who owns the information he owns the world.
6435dbcca986a929c572b24dcb14a91f6978182e The system of network marketing Forms of product promotion.
7097f439f52c801cd95e309eaf58c7fd77c91226 Why do well known companies with a worldwide reputation use multi level marketing to promote their products?
8df4cc120e0e8dc9cde1fabc390a2ce39416d2f1 What makes up the selling price of the manufacturer?
450c313b602230b72e04ed33952b98b8a1fcb6f8 Each manufacturer spends money on the production of products.
903e013a4b638ba4c42c34f8eb0b2e374cb23cde All production costs are the cost of the product.
8337dfd235ab176b32e03d52d1f8bb3d589cfcad Naturally, in order to develop production and make a profit, it is necessary to make a surcharge on the cost price – the selling price is obtained.
1fe0990ec1c81a315c980dacb8ef7e827432ab4c The next task that the manufacturer faces is to deliver the goods to the consumer.
3447c0db75feb7d6321c8f0a3b9f47c7dc41cb26 The manufacturer can do this in two ways.
6eca97abca20af5e1dbec9b688acc998fe7daa17 Two ways to promote products.
9485942cdd4d654ae0caf349d059c2319f4f1753 Scheme 1.
aa1d042b73ed1239f199e29d7292b91a2c3cb5d8 Retail trade is a classic way to promote a product to the consumer market.
d522d5021c8ecf318d5d8256f4d12a710eed591b How does the product reach the consumer in the classical way?
e144b6c90e2fb7cb8d7372a5760fe8ee5aee3e97 There are several intermediaries on the way of movement of the goods.
74a78a60c0594622f98a5c7f4c648ebe1930b0b8 Large wholesale intermediary
17694241e87ccb961af80258eeac1dea64bc25a1 Alexey Serikov November 2005.
bfda3ee0a79268e5ebe5d47f4ad8e55521a0bdfa To understand that an egg is rotten, you do not need to eat it to the end.
02330b37af8a53f1f67b867706b099485fa6e3dd (c) Mark Twain
e8aead74dfd945d16bc49bbcb2508a933a4ed538 Preface.
e1f70b3c9147024b240ed43350db1874804d3d0d On this page, I tried to express my opinion regarding such a strange social phenomenon as network marketing, aka multi level marketing, aka MLM (Multi Level Marketing), aka structural marketing.
44c4a34e62b2a97182677d1ad38d465830b77d54 Everything that is written here is my personal opinion.
3092796d5bd19f3fbe5943774580f8f7ad278761 I didnot set out to convince anyone of my rightness.
6de71650706f87c747d90b4867b38ff219909a49 I hoped to awaken the reader's desire to think a little with his own head.
a6f6e85d7db2f3f4bd3f293a15335c52c3ea1044 I do not hide my negative attitude to this phenomenon.
c94e855e54cd9a7ccbadd695335791061fdec071 Warning!
028796e4a910ac1776792d5e10e77dd649738da0 If you are an NPA (an Independent Entrepreneur of Amway) or a distributor of any other network company and you think that your business in network marketing is successful, or will be so in the near future, I sincerely do not recommend you to read further.
9bb414670bb247e8d6aa7ac3d697b6996d818650 Reading it can cause you moral suffering.
241a8a2e43a7b33ca432ab24b6be8c5ad8c18749 You may feel that you and your colleagues have been insulted.
60787e6458135388955a7f1da7b507cbdb453815 In this regard, I inform you: 1.
fcb79245c8a9c22fe759a05da3cd05664bcf31ab This page is my private resource.
9badfc3dc543d8f9add1334d87c36d185faaac2a 2. I honestly warned you that you might not like the content of the page.
1ce2a4ad5ccd5e280367629bffb03f183e7c8943 3. My personal opinion is expressed here, and no one forces you to share this opinion.
88e5ad46ca081af0d29767cfb21dd6456187d081 4. I didnot want to offend or offend anyone.
fbaab4c7f1f7184bf3aa71fdbada378f319d397a Nevertheless, this article uses expressions that may seem offensive or offensive to someone.
a2c10f2eed5a98d052a907bed8e9d8e1148f97ff Well, sorry...
18fd05dcabc76308461b186b570bfe9c5136bbe2 I have the right.
25d198df9934f9aac5791adcccad1ba7867e8716 5. If you have something to say, you can always write me an email.
df28fe8b41c2d35fc20dbdcc9ced20f3caf1a8cc My email address is listed at the bottom right of each page.
fb8f13ba0c482cdba9c8e4d45a5c3cf21147005d I will definitely respond to a meaningful letter.
0ccfdee7515a6be575b7162a5b0919e03cf88ce9 I will not respond to flood, chatter, insults.
446e2fb0bee0d17ccfd00e9191e95a8b2a23cb72 Content Lyrics Terminology Memories Internet Arithmetic Psychology Economics The legality of MLM in general and the Legality of MLM in the USA The legal status of NPAs Common Sense About pyramids, semi pyramids and network marketing.
63c1b5cb47185004a4f0a1e620d031291ce8aa3b About the "Product" About concentration Testing of Amway products About tricks with zlenka My testing of products for ovens.
fa14592960bdf030070b93409d9aa322effcf475 About prices and pricing Mythology of network Marketing Regional Office of the Amway Megacorporation.
937f14bc0351d9a7b63a67dbfb156c1631832bb2 Arguments in favor of network marketing the chapter was deleted by me due to its initial bias
1c75d8ddcf2d8397ed1d71d57952627c036d2009 Pearls and jokes.
b8c78df563435c5ef792f2bef0de31f7799d04e7 Other annealing MLM developers can be read here Quotes from books on network marketing.
da7731e6390028ba88ab5bc27ad70ced66327be4 (He began to spread it out little by little) Literature and links on the topic of the Discussion are here!
fc49c0319823dce1c244763c09f284825a3c948d About fraud on the Internet: MMM 2011.
b080705f8b8a7b9fd2d97617aa836f3505ee7a8c How many idiots are there in the world?
6001af6b6c91d6de60f0a54595cb8740dec0cfc7 MMM 2012.
8594a88640d193093a31065d32d39c4c95e767d6 The end or the continuation of the farce?
5ddabb0446b372ad859c88f2a9c3b6b8990d91d4 The financial apocalypse is in the pockets and heads.
8158db37d16c11f07bab6076afd62cf14bb9eceb MMM 2011/2012.
4cf7eba0e4f297964811357dd2be6f737dd6d021 How to return the money.
b54c3546cdb06a744a2d504edf6476408c647bfd Examples of court decisions.
7d612e7d6759d9ced416b1edeabd52f0ba19d241 Lessons MMM.
406f30255ccf26f79a7a4d04464fd9422e020e2f The NewPro computer program.
49e310c59aebb3fb9d2f507ed51e6bb7c5801f2d The arithmetic of Internet begging.
c7e9744addc28e9d5c8593b706a11e1ba1628925 Development of the topic of Internet begging the Money Train project.
fb15ce44ec51071525c3c9ece414b2acc4013d16 Another pyramid is Mybinar.
a50157e893a9d5af39209d9e232f350ca096d768 Continuation - the layout of income and expenses.
80555d824643471248838ebcc04ffee381993502 Canadian Diamond Traders Inc. (CDT).
c61987ce6f0f326615242433e2b239825eeea693 A financial pyramid with diamonds.
df7c1d990c633c1c870adcee6647308c2f0e78d1 Absolutely fantastic in terms of arrogance and savagery, the STEP BRAFING project.
9d0f20482476f9176b5fcdfe7a46143659340b76 Continuation of the topic STEP BRAFING the elitsoft/elitslub project.
0911ccef792345de49cf85de4ae6d64e18b82676 Autosurfing, website promotion, or how to bring something to the point of absurdity that did not make sense initially.
58708987f21b2072edfc1b194cfdb4af4c0f3860 Sometimes we have a concern... temporary.
ab0562a1cd76ba8e768aec491c7e46a510d04dc5 Lyricist Jeff Peters was ready to argue with me endlessly, as soon as we were talking about whether his profession could be considered honest...
1146d0f20299c270e85088e58f6cc84f58dcb6d8 (c) O. Henry
15a8cd6e247636161f682b82a814af0747808ae4 This long article was born out of a simple but sharp discussion, in which my interlocutor told me: "You've never made hasty statements...
ebfeeee2c954797fe391a44e49673dc91b8b0eb1 Why do you, without understanding the issue, make statements that defame many people!?".
d25028bd57654bc97bc37c5eaf5b7027e41ceb35 So I decided to look into the issue and formulate my conclusions.
045ef64c4fa8e69aee03a554d961d9cb9e88285a This question is called "MLM", aka multi level marketing, aka network marketing.
ca56993bb2d2f8a97f4e045ceb572a417719239d The discussion was, in fact, about whether network marketing is deception and fraud by definition, regardless of what is being sold (air, dietary supplements, insurance, cosmetics, washing powder), or in some cases it is a completely normal (honest) business aimed at distributing high quality products.
3c56c30686257b611177e83ad168a1569041e711 The products meant cosmetics and household chemicals of the Amway company.
663cc77275e35d4a8e5a279ab3f6888373b489b0 Brief information: The Amway company was created in 1959 by two young American entrepreneurs Rich DeVos and Jay Van Andel.
84418a5e96cb0a546e7327be1dc42546ef21b0be The first trademark of the company was the cleaning agent L. O. C.
961e383449f1ecc9daf1203c862b9fd1aa6ca946 In 1978, the partners bought the Pantlind Hotel and began to engage in the hotel business.
1d7c3917105b3ac388bcde8fb3f99b76433f79c8 Currently, there is a network of four star hotels The Amway Grand Plaza.
026c2fcebdf7ad3dce8da9c09aecf8e7b546c726 This business became known as Alticor in 2000.
48019bdf6034045606dab35e139d7cc4e7a241e5 In 1999, the Van Andel and DeVos families founded the Internet site Quixtar, which offered assistance in organizing a business to everyone.
cf94e29969d49c79856aa0a1a40a89f46fd15826 In 2000, changes were made again, and now there is the main company Alticor and its branches Access Business Group, Amway, Amway Grand Plaza Hotel and Quixtar.
85d96a71fdc159f8a9d1f2e0064ca337eebd4a5b Trademarks: Nutrilite Vitamins, Artistry Skin Care, eSpring System, Magna Bloc, Therapeutic
41126bfb31b9882efd71b6c5ef27f34d88fbb3ab Magnets and SA8 Laundry System.
0489aca580816e6e2288f0547fa6f488e2ffb4ea The company owns The ARTISTRY Beauty Institute (Michigan, USA), where it produces cosmetics for salons and spas.
92e1906e3122f19f62cfb85169ceae502aa9ce27 I will immediately warn you that there is neither time nor effort to consider all such companies, so I will try to link all the illustrations to the Amway company.
69360a2ea04affa7a359da69007ff7cc08bea3b6 I will also make a reservation that I will not discuss the quality of the products of Amway and other similar companies.
8d6b0fa418f851d0da6cc9bf8a7e2081b74d7a5f I am ready to admit that this company produces absolutely wonderful products that surpass similar products of the world's leading manufacturers in their qualities.
bd0fadc48ee53e2542785c73f673c082394fd85f During the discussions on the forums, I had to remember school chemistry.
c4beb202fe3a0336f983c1a00753ea990acaa2cc Some results show that Amway products are made of quite standard components.
087f7c2ce4c14e929b8f5e1ba9258de4d37b89d1 Detergents from other manufacturers also consist of exactly the same components.
180bc7ee402472758c37e5565b3b32c3bffa58fd Of course, specialists should understand this, but there are very few independent tests of the products of this and similar companies.
be9b69b29b4c2101924d4d0377006900693d9147 May 2006.
7c3f92a2e12acd17ab885939a80899eda1d541fc Terminology Man is a creature without feathers, bipedal, with flat nails...
eb8eb81b590881470bf271c1d8e078b782a6e214 (c) Plato
7a6006acc8c370e977fad82c2dbfd20968d43a1b An Earthman is an intelligent being who knows the password.
03aafd74d7c8343dfcf9ed110a466538510c542a An alien is an intelligent being who does not know the password.
19c0f26263d727a923b64dd275a1e667dde92767 (c) R. Sheckley
3e52c30f71f0c1c22ca6926ef729f065d839c351 It consists in establishing and supporting long term direct two way communications between the manufacturer or wholesaler and the consumer.
bba4e4253212b7b7c3153777e52c2716aa2d99e8 Examples include the following forms: a store on the couch (TV Shop), an online store (Shop On Line), mailing (spam), services of a traveling salesman (advertising, commercial agent).
c4fec09360bd6bb2d184980c2442370a2b0400c6 The product is pre selected from the catalog and, subsequently, ordered by phone, mail or via the Internet.
a160450db2dcd2016a41edef21ebdf04b5fba4cc That is, the buyer buys the goods directly from the manufacturer or the wholesaler.
a4d0c86ebb48a487f1d3e15a2c08b2b682e109d7 From me.
f1b86f590786cd6386ad297d48b333467dcf688d I do not know why, the concept of "direct sales" was monopolized by network operators.
0ad80cc3d2e537c8baa6684a130c7070e0760a4e In my opinion, direct sales are the sale of almost all services - car services, plumbing, hairdressers, cafes and restaurants.
752cd5e1d2a61dca1b4b5696b5f27d56a3f28fe1 We also receive telephone communication and the Internet directly from the operator.
1c7b6b8c2a92cfa9fa5e4f3df8c6a8c3a13133b2 Electricity in our homes comes directly from GorEnergo.
0d3276dfe72efc1c0dcb373f2657c9f4387f7f56 Public transport also carries us without intermediaries... but when MTS or Beeline sells its corporate cards to resellers, and they already distribute them by MLM, for some reason this is called "direct sales".
770abd5a7cfa0ada5053eb40c20444cdfa8168db Riddle...
09e47b18380c53f29aac02729146b42394b449a1 In comparison with advertising, it has special features: a) live direct communication, b) the possibility of establishing informal relationships.
92cbd3ed3826eaa6d2f18905d016e54aee8122de "Direct sales" does not exclude "personal sales".
518155db171f5538d540dbe7a82af0146ebb6720 Both of these methods can be applied simultaneously.
54cc05d0b95bd9de23e633ce2beaee1dfe396dd6 The method of personal sales is the only real method of work of system integrators.
91eb6a283f080695129418683b793e0fb05d5d07 A complex product of intellectual labor can probably be sold only in this way.
e9ca939ca518c2c5c3bc63f2dc8a7e00b858b341 At least, I am not aware of any cases of selling a complex automation system of the production process "in a box".
27dc95ec74f841ea335678ac77d6fc49d9e797f3 This sales method can only be used when selling a complex and expensive product.
597c9692a7ccabbfedd75cbed39db03aa90319f7 Its undoubted advantage is that the seller, being a specialist,
e3ae6fcff2a4a3fdcfcf5c1cbf9de3cfdebcd27b it can answer a lot of specific questions of a potential buyer, guarantee the completion of the product according to the requirements of the buyer, specify special terms of the transaction.
69af752b441f6a140df2ab39afd66364728f3e5e Network sales (Multilevel Marketing MLM) is a way of promoting a product on the market, when a distributor has an interest not just to sell as many goods as possible, but to attract new distributors to this business, for whom he will be the "top link", and, accordingly, receive remuneration depending on the volume of sales (in fact, purchases) of his "bottom line" and the entire structure or part of it that is below himself.
6d424acad28ace51613a04b9f884ce60df1f2089 Network marketing, in my opinion, cannot be considered a "sales method".
5f9009c80e5ff02dbf95099ae0262c1264278ef6 This is a method of distributing remuneration for marketing services within a network of distributors.
b386daa6560670838b8b4a8311ae3f211aab8357 As a rule, such a business has a pronounced multi level structure.
d89b21401836ee1077598fb170120a6ae5edb463 The definition is mine.
8830b2167fa39fc42e2e6b1523d98c6e37097817 It differs from the classical definition of a"prohibited financial pyramid".
2fda9cf8240c43347aac8f02d6f41ff28a970b19 The contribution is distributed in some way among the higher level links.
6fc587236ec3477fcd61cbeadacaeff87f18d383 Newly attracted participants, in turn, are also forced to attract (two or more) new participants to cover their costs.
5380709f727c0bbc206993c7249c949417a1ec15 Obviously, this is the simplest fraud.
73dc55b1f206dc079f5006e5de1f0ffdcdc40ec5 The creation of such a "business" is criminally punishable.
802e5ccb294e11f106ef0649efcc6c9bfa57c8a2 However, there are very few precedents of criminal prosecution of such structures.
69cb848e6fa38d23669e97ae0c0138b29f45a87f Usually, only the organizers of this fraud are subject to criminal prosecution, which is extremely difficult to find.
225372ac0f294aa5f69662c00b571df0240017f3 I am not aware of cases of criminal prosecution of "members" of such organizations.
796c03148e41ff5e7a61ddba194e3c79d86bd17e A typical example is MMM .
874c96426b7ce0cf5cd581f3786e06d5f3120232 Only S. Mavrodi is convicted and is sitting.
1578a4bdbba2c20e0605af45dea656ec519af68b And all those who helped him "build a business" are safely at large.
dd5323872d3ce643b40f382772cae2dc3eb4d0bc Distributor (in the MLM structure)
077cf7d1595b58088df027955c7708df1a977b47 - a person who has expressed a desire to distribute the goods of the specified company under the guidance of a specific "sponsor", as a rule, who has confirmed this desire with a certain material contribution.
87a6ceb600efd7c125d03ab7c6a90d862eb90e71 Its main functions are the sale of goods, in fact, to customers.
677c5b67fea98f6f6b7582b54be0c23542200da8 The distributor can himself, acting on behalf of the company, attract new distributors to the system, becoming their sponsor (recruitment).
5af5be021525b15c876409542de10e6e837ba897 As a rule, a distributor cannot change his sponsor.
6ddfb69085ab6a6f647403088c1cf1929ce89aff The points are used to accrue remuneration to the group.
accc8c7047eb8cf81719d7a08846eb326313ab3c At the same time, the cost of the point when calculating the remuneration is not equal to the cost of the point when buying.
1041bca293204b679084cb16710901377d240baa For example, for Amway, this difference is the amount of VAT (currently 18%).
061f3515b58627d2ce6237eb7fbaae9e4021b053 That is, a product worth 1 point when purchased will cost 47.2 rubles, and when calculating the reward - 1 point= 40 rubles.
b45eb87770494e0b97ba582fbf1f8c5e38c1d673 Everything that is written about the points above applies to products sold under their own brand.
fe5b4af649ad3c86f5aee160d66e769563fd487f The products of third party companies that Amway resells have a completely different price in points.
e6114232e4a839902e4089271693d974f4d0f8b3 In this case, the prices of the goods in points are 10-20 times lower, that is, they are within the wholesale discount of the manufacturer.
b70cbf0cf908830f715051119c74d870e2cb469b You canot get any other information from it.
94dc127690bff5f1d5e175d1e207a94f574daf20 There are several types of marketing plans: With a limited number of lower branches (legs).
218802523a237e87319967160dcccf7dfe218115 The degenerate case is the so - called "binar".
0c48fb288093a1c6274706098332a96679179972 With a limit on the number of up/down levels for which the reward is distributed.
d109014c996068f51573325139cff430bc2e0f77 Without limiting both.
51687080b370253cab5d9bb29f9326660b2b5741 Memories
095126adcbc12d3fa132163582afaba1fb082434 -- You're a freeloader, Lenka!
45b6160e01d384dc7fe78c5d17a9508d32ee57aa -- I'm not a freeloader!
0296b205d0256bd25cb34d8922912e32c77ca107 I am a Partner!
9844893c4b4703c8d51d8919c76ecd54e2c6c717 (c) Advertising MMM
a862cce3980dbe7685283935f371f4f7322f9c4b I remember the books I read as a child by the excellent popularizer of knowledge Ya.
b84bf9e2005bb833640b1141f2d8e634d86bee43 I. Perelman, such as" Entertaining Physics"," Entertaining Mathematics " and many others.
88e3adc8035f168570f58883be7c9de4e9b97e3d I remember that in one of them, to illustrate the geometric progression, several interesting examples were given, such as, for example, the legend about the inventor of chess.
087af4535f679015efdb9ea96b37da3475875af2 Example 1 When an Indian raja got acquainted with a great game of chess and was shocked by the variety of combinations in this game, he called the inventor of the game and asked what he wanted a reward for his invention.
3d9b360f3e95de4b059a0996a2e6f596d670d784 Gold?
97f39b8c5f38f9eeecb86979bf8516ea7b9744e0 Diamonds?
e2fbe02864d9f547750ff0847fc3b17a6cd2c8e5 Something else?
2436787e54aa45ccdc4b9f9d4ef119b11b82bf24 And the inventor asked to put one rice grain on the first square of the chessboard, two rice grains on the second, four on the third, and so on.
7faddd7a0631d66c685224d7f066f9b203a5028a The Raja got angry.
5ecc1736be05927711bdeb62ec9ac39a24342619 He ordered his vizier to pour this half wit his pathetic handful of rice and drive him with sticks.
b87ae5e12c011497a1c9568f0fb348fdffff65ee The vizier counted for a week how many grains to pour out to the inventor (we remember that there were no Arabic numerals and multiplication rules yet), and then told the raja that he did not have so much grain, moreover, even if the raja lived 1000 times for 1000 years, and the gods grant a bountiful harvest every year, it would still not be possible to collect so much rice for this million years.
5d1f39e09f2c0e987252fd3a94cea73a4c432aaf Every computer owner now has a calculator.
dfc855272d46967ff1b83ff5b5512ad90a5ff724 Everyone can raise 2 to the 64th power, subtract one and get the required number of grains equal to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615, and then divide it by about 10 and get the number of grams, and then divide it by another million and get the number of tons, approximately 1 844 674 407 371 - almost two trillion tons.
f490ffc51cb267f698f94517d63e1eb01e4e0153 If we assume that the car includes 50 tons, then this will be 36,893,488,147 cars.
54e98bf5cc86c0d4437d0f8f71cf0dce625dc824 Let the length of the car be 25 meters, then the length of the train will be almost one and a half billion kilometers, that is, about ten distances from the earth to the sun.
d5e0ffe577122185f0f4f4e0739faf9a609de3e0 Example 2 At one time, such a "game" called "bicycle for 10 rubles"was popular.
7b1e6b0e4e2a51179b4bbbbdf09cf52ec0d10596 Its essence is as follows.
8095ada33cbc4616a81abcbe1f5548724069c803 We believe that a bicycle costs 50 rubles (this is approximately in the prices of the 60s of the last century).
52b3d33c3fc026b0a62fd3d88aa0704f5059a073 You pay 10 rubles and get four tickets, worth 10 rubles each.
226f0c2e96d4b877d252df32cccb431d3b7fbe54 You sell these tickets to your friends for 10 rubles, and you have another 40 rubles in your hands, having handed them over to the organizer, you honestly get a bike.
2d8a6e8437a54ea5de6955627bde082bdac7bd50 Each of your friends, in turn, after presenting your ticket, receives 4 more, sells them to his friends, and buys a bicycle with the proceeds.
b21a8737ec168242001f83afbf986c5d23479537 And so on... does this scheme resemble anything?
abfc6f31c986dc805bc629dbb2aac0eb8d797760 And here is the modern implementation of this idea.
c1643fdf53b600d8b065a0256dab8650773540f6 Only instead of a bicycle - a top end mobile phone.
7d62ea84493b560ae83c2fcb88b4cbfad1d5d24a You pay $19 and get in line, for example, for a SonyEricsson k750i (the price is about $350).
513769ffe2cfe99e0c9d3bee5ae1e32b25df52a4 When there are 19 more suckers like you, there are 19 more people ($19*20=$380), you get the coveted mobile phone, and the remaining 19 people are waiting for the next 19*20=380 suckers.
43e91c6ed64fa04ca49db772593a55632e68b241 And on the next layer there will already be 380*20=77600 people.
40007ccd3d0dc3d83e25d3d5dc6ec6cd9c7347a4 And on the next one one and a half million.
9b5f5313a281a2c09a5e01587c6225672b068033 Canadian Diamond Traders is another implementation of this idea.
3d51f6e74cb2f4ca0f5f61e7d8c02dfc6973bd40 Instead of a bicycle - a diamond.
c8514e92dd60807547fea44cb88bf76019eda45c Pay 1/5 of the cost for a diamond, attract other participants (in accordance with the "marketing plan"), and then continue as usual... we are waiting for this sucker truck to close together with the money of "customers".
451868dcea1ad7507fba05164d84572bca454c0e Example 3 I donot know if the current Russians of the middle generation remember that the first business in the Soviet (then still) There was something very similar in the Union.
2fbbab9fecb7bcbc9e11758f0f6141d322b3d1ca Even before the thimblers and scammers on the streets, there were "firms" that" as if for fun "organized games under different names such as "shareholder", "businessman", and so on, who had enough imagination for what.
fb0aaafad90003ee8c886b3b855eb696358f7675 The first such structures appeared under the auspices of the district and city committees of the Komsomol.
c56f4969951fa61dff87dd41132021a666ccd72e The idea was as simple as a felt boot.
2211469d726074abd91c2c42dd1c37e4373d1d12 For 100 rubles, I buy 10 "shares", then "distribute" these "shares" to my friends.
39984fb60d9dfd205e1efeec0b3ed6c37f710444 A friend with this share goes to the office, hands it over, pays 100 rubles and receives 10 shares of the next level.
5b67e78eea7de750c6fc8436f66e4f53f4a0f238 Of the 100 rubles paid by him, half (50 rubles) goes to me, and the second half goes to higher levels.
0b5bc535f5c004c89b6fb095d9464ee72422a772 So, in the first step, I earn 10*100/2-100=400 rubles.
4414de032c0af49662835ab41b5f81323e1633d3 And my friends distribute their 10 "shares".
376970e4599dd002f7fe00a769c6b1a6498a0d23 If they are successful, 100 shares of 100 rubles each will be distributed.
77455e5a881e18371c3717124d72f4f932ab2353 Half of the amount will remain at the lower level for distributors, and the second half will go higher.
2c0590205ddc4c61d31e1f50001f999053d686c8 Of this second half, I get half, this is 100*100/4=2500 rubles.
c352ac1985deddb86e3a11c8ffa666c22620151c When the "third layer" is implemented, the amount will be absolutely fantastic.
1c7a8a7fd4bb3b79158fb421e238f28c4cdb5ac1 We are counting... there will already be shares on the third level 10*10*10=1,000, 1000*100=100,000 rubles will be earned for them, the" distributors " will have half, that is, 50,000 rubles, half of the remaining amount will go to the second level, this is 25,000 rubles, and the remaining 25,000 rubles are divided equally between me and the higher "sponsors".
987df4e64921bf972809bd53dd274f7426a53387 Thus, on the third iteration, I earn 25,000 / 2=12,500 rubles.
9bef62445da4ab4c5375dff9b4bd30dcf093e366 Those who wish can continue the calculations and estimate what rich people they will become, for example, after the distribution of the 5th issue of "shares".
1cf3ef442c0991db0d28df7245f67b59bde54434 It is clear that ideally, with each new issue of "shares", your income will grow 5 times, and the number of" shareholders " - 10 times.
516bfad10da4eed3d970d3222531b8b8204b0233 Well, what is not a marketing plan, even if it is the simplest?
bcfb642b2cda506d5efc12031b0f934efc4540d5 It was held under the mottos "You can become a leader!", " Prove that you can earn a million!", "For the young and enterprising" and other similar oak pathetics.
19bdc47b0fffd8b9c4b054f1c7e627fd8784b973 The most amazing thing is that I knew at least several people who claimed that they had already "earned" very decent sums, and most importantly, the money was just about to pour like a waterfall.
f6b620c94cd529bbb3b9de57d366c5c2a5e090c8 Simplicity is fascinating, isnot it?
1a7f2946b6a59238ed85af9d3e54737dbef9bcbb After all, all that is required of you is to sell only 10 (at the maximum)once (!) you can even sell only three or four shares.
9f8ae23c3c296f0e1b8a81aa047c5e1864237989 And that's it, you donot need to do anything else!
852622e7cdf0298e8f9ff40c4b39ed92ce9d56c2 Smoke bamboo, cut cabbage.
dc178fb97165965acc506ae3ff0a93197492c9a9 You donot even need to have a secondary special education to understand that in the "sixth iteration" there will not be enough residents of our city to continue this game.
4b6502d03fdd253960012d4617269343b1ed8539 Funny?
cb2461a8a238a841cdfa327be9f756cbdd40c469 Yes, indeed!
dbdff7c75d14f6f1a77f407ca428b06f9270e189 Only I perfectly remember the huge queues for these "shares" in the late 80's.
54162591493ee42bd3dda760d49a93b034726e46 And they also say that the notorious "White Tower" cut down the initial capital just like that.
203bb88f6dd8e68505bd6b3743c4189574a0e1bd Well, as in the previous example - a modern implementation of this idea.
fbfe4243244f96d4dc6af26340193db5bb46c503 Donot you believe it?
e7dd5dc171d53abe53ed82f3d419751bb199ad32 Read it!
db90c86f44b68b91cdfb739553f32f42b5c3905b Example 4 Cepteromania.
3b2f292cbe3f51a60033348a39ce03f048590e89 There is such a company Zepter, which produces (or has produced) very decent kitchen utensils.
c3174a02521d9ef77265a3029c0aa0a69399a2a4 Only now she chose a strange way to promote her products to the masses.
4473a46219b8bd297af75de1e98bdb456af262af These dishes were not sold in stores, but were sold only through friends.
6105370cbdd5663d7c84bb69c6a8bcf8a85804ee It cost absolutely fantastic money.
c0c43c18b2cb250010908929f558cdd48c8f81f1 An ordinary saucepan cost about $300, and a normal kitchen set went through the roof for $ 1,500.
450fde0ec0353e16bcc3d250fd194dd907cf1d2a Sales took place at "presentations" arranged by "distributors".
b004a20596ec01b65599f34f15d2725c2e462e70 Presentations took place, as a rule, at home.
5004f53dc8ee0de06cce983491fbd66dfa20ba98 I visited one of them.
dc00a0a1b26f4cee24861d70ac2e480ac2f0ef16 What can I say?
c881d1b8d828dd7b20b3a981d67461538e4ddc8e Tableware
27d05cede6ea8c792cd44c75651cf0261df72730 I liked it, even very much.
965195b78b54eefcb53976245f312778b4be998c If I didnot buy it, it's expensive.
d1773b5cdff30d1f40c8d0cd873f39c146e1f762 Now this idea has quietly faded, but it's a pity.
5fec16e9373309fdd0a87869d8bde553ae7aa741 The dishes are really good and I would love to buy it for reasonable money.
71de6e4e5cf8c5d7f3c8fad37b43e093616a26f1 The marketing mistake was an incorrect assessment of the financial capabilities of the Russian market.
ddc10056cb457e203771dfd9556e02447b36e131 A very interesting product, of good quality, good design, which at that time did not have any serious analogues.
0e3be2e9613cf54a9327d1e165845c666cb06ee6 But at the same time, the price of the product is raised so much that it is simply not affordable not only for an ordinary buyer, but also for a very well off layer.
c8ce07c2eed556772017ca5faf0dbfeb971946fa The involvement of new distributors in this business was not so aggressive.
d6b9232ac43f71ffb99335bfd1493a3352eebb9a Or maybe I just fell for decent people.
1c01f63116fa69aaf1a61939eb7e97a0de5b056f Friends, after all.
50946224f56cc4490ae0d58944a30799adef39e4 But the price of the product was clearly "network".
25b3bfdd413020adcf24d1e1d4177213bdeea6dc It seems that the company died, was exchanged for dietary supplements, shamanic medical devices, textiles, something else there.
ebaadaa5520c97b2cd9097307fb774df7f678613 The latest news on the site from 16.02.2003.
8d1d74124b894ebbc5b224108f6088d98fadda6b That is, the site has not been updated for three years.
1c84c8a9b8b6af6a7cae2005ad147e6d2f29f386 Example 5 Once, about 8-10 years ago, my friend's wife lured me to an "event"with friends.
0cb8450ae41fbdcda8c01d69ef3844d5ecfb36d5 I didnot write this word in quotation marks for nothing.
dde93fe0ebc65de127ffae303981be39c9687d65 She said that there we would be offered the opportunity to earn good money.
c85da2ae5cd9f7b507eba31169b1b51d5d123be4 The "event" took place in the assembly hall of the regional Council of the prof. Well dressed young men and women met a very diverse audience and escorted them to the hall.
1e2047926b7089390d965b6057d46376a285021a We cheekily took the first row and began to study the diagrams hanging in front of the stage.
f36d243cc9118d163b40ce1d16a03909c7d2bfe7 After a minute, it became clear that it would be about "network marketing".
76017080e29946f67b179a59d4d853ab5c036794 With that, binary network marketing.
3a054e35d4f338037bee22d89cf08b51e3365215 One thing remained unclear - what do they sell?
dd540c2f82bd3bf37d7c4d96fe6beb6856b4f131 At first, there were some clowns, strange people who told how well they earn in this office (the name of the office has long been out of my head), how well they live, having secured their freedom and material well being.
f5bda78b9338400946cb59b8dbd842a0339d80ed They were all different, but they smiled the same way and said the same memorized phrases.
922e2e6d17e00a62eb066af17731a877e7079cb5 The subject of sales became clear about forty minutes later, when the company's manager began to speak.
1a13e38ab578cb0564ab5a28f66e0c199e36489e In short, the office sells insurance services.
ea63532b660736def66ad426f9020b9154cf969a I have to insure myself and my family for a year or more.
101978d67d3a23371b01404eb31be15c1ac01b79 After that, I myself become a representative of this company and can conclude insurance contracts on its behalf and receive a bonus from this.
129ab3632062e9fdb3355ec8a94d656cf34d8a30 Moreover, I can attract two (no more) people insured by me to this business and receive a bonus already from contracts concluded by these people.
900014b375651ab367dd3949260754275cde3375 In general, this was the first and last time I heard the name of this office.
3dd1bf1e4d42dc4a01bd0f8661d502d86bb3c419 Example 6 The last time I encountered a similar office was about a year ago. These acted much more subtly.
1c0c2c054d22d87bc0065b105e1bf1ebeb4c4102 I didnot notice any obvious signs of "network marketing", although it was still something... the situation is about this.
dbd76913b54bff0ed3d0eb66372e361b92b3eb3a A girl calls me at work and informs me that she got information about me from a questionnaire that I filled out at the Informatics exhibition and I should have a spine from this questionnaire somewhere.
f782d4cf06bcbbe80c0e502bf12e87b595d1d663 This spine was really lying around at my house.
aeb6845e5c9db2a260ba1b587874aacffab45cdb The girl informed me that I had won a prize, which I would receive anyway.
0b964a46b106aa913e2e065aefbe99a3c7c279e5 I will receive one of three prizes - a trip to Spain, a car, a 42 inch plasma TV.
c078863ca5899179e2f5a55e7628bc8b909327d3 And so that I have no doubts, I can not take a penny of money with me and I will still leave with the prize.
ed2865ba3191c3674a24aad4022e758ed20fbb39 The only thing that is required of me is to devote 2 hours of my precious time to listen to information about the company.
fcb0f49745a3f830ac4760fffe6e117665839690 And one more condition - you must come with your wife.
27333fe655161bc35d2b4a2b5603ad8cb17e059d We were given a personal manager a girl Yulia, who tried very hard to promote us for a frank conversation.
cb228858912570a6ad1706a953c142064455f5cd I had a digital voice recorder with me, so if I searched, I could find a recording of all these conversations.
8469aca879b0f1bdce39e8e510ff66c2024fd675 The eldest of the organizers is a guy of about 30 years old, very quickly realized that the girl Yulia is not so charming that we completely switched to her, and that clearly, we are now
e173f59033444339bd9207adc723cc5ca6b32238 let's start asking "uncomfortable questions", the main one of which is " guys, where are the promised TVs and cars?!".
da918346f1ab19dc0efccc89ea141f4cf1cff052 He invited us to his nook and said that he really appreciates my precious time and does not dare to detain us any longer.
b944c19037016a01de57827516979db78e2bf1ff However, since we were promised a prize, he will give it to me now.
666069b82323594b22bc9f3a6de9d315a80bcfb6 And I issued a certificate for two round trip plane tickets to Spain, provided that I buy a ticket from their company within a year.
70e4d9e9337ac52086ef49d8a41d038f36495bbe That was the end of it.
9d68c28688716e3e920ed4e350fbb4ad3f4c1c19 I donot remember the name of the company, I donot know if it still exists.
c83e7731ecf10ab9e3d6fbab56d3723ea64d4f80 I think it doesnot exist.
670544f63e4004093a6a36e174d0b62c5db35dc3 However, I am 100% sure that that young man with attentive cold eyes and a great flair will safely organize a new business somewhere for hanging noodles on the ears of gullible suckers "clients".
6de9395edd6099290358ad366a9dd73bcf06f1d6 A little remark.
5639892a7f4ce2ce6b6ff4d3622f30086fee9981 When we left, I was already in the locker room, took out a dictaphone from my pocket and turned off the recording.
318a054979eb18738a007147fe31475591ba128d You should have seen the eyes of the guard who saw us off!
378d7d9c4b0826ca9b4ccfecce4f56d74cf43a23 The guy was clearly torn between rushing at me and trying to take away the recorder and the desire to run to the authorities and ask for help.
260755e38321331de56373c6cf6aa637d29ddcd2 PS.
bcc61d5ff429a8bb55db65993fee9f5f173d9be3 And the rest were bred to buy a share of real estate in the "best resort places in the world".
091d302887243841936254330605b4085b8e443c PPS.
8f2b02feda95fd45876637e35fafe4301325db3d I have given this example solely to illustrate a transaction in which"there is, as it were, a commodity".
199193e5b8683ad97c56744a2224488feadea07a In fact, there is no product there.
def2819bc7f1350da7bc3c1cbcd6e0aaeb3e8123 Example 7 And this is ordinary SPAM, coming to my mailbox in kilotons and megabytes.
1d228c3ad18a6b8448b72b8e65a3d9183d227112 I hope that no one, including inveterate networkers, will have any doubts that this letter is designed for complete idiots, that this is a blatant scam, and that a person who gets involved in this needs to have his head amputated for preventive purposes!
579c356da9c9b0f7cb1e44787b90b1f80329dfc0 However, most network companies repeat such posts almost word for word.
d3aba1bde405706d3453cb127835e02eedae816f That's what kills.
2e2278c9c0fdc2e2307b1d77e880b6f7e45b3360 I highly recommend that you carefully read (once) the vocabulary of networkers and the vocabulary of this letter.
974ab93d4cf6d07bc13cb4ccfa1311dc15b8b141 To evaluate the turns of speech, and most importantly the argumentation and algorithm of the described enrichment mechanism.
4b95ea7a6951ff1362c2de0a9d0f60eb17d1e08c I took the liberty to comment on this letter with quotes from the vocabulary of MLM network developers.
434963443b4202683e606808c973fdef81780a44 In order to avoid suspicion of fraud, I will try to give quotes from network operators as detailed as possible, indicating the URL from where it was taken.
85dfe3f09bcd247a4118a3e04843a70e2aa34656 The text of the original letter is given in black font, the texts of quotes from networkers are in brown.
17ee98005250b550efc315abb30c6a1aa348b808 The work went...
20e4d6a33d8d8c723f23b1c3ff11134a207c9f8b About all sorts of MMM, RDS, "Lords" and "Hopper investments" and I donot want to remember.
2c13e0ced6baf5046715e5dcbf69c4c8cffb56ee Millions of suckers, including my parents, took their money to them.
fcd3e453ac1c02c8d670573215a8660265700d64 This is probably the end of the memories.
4680ce73c5c16d426ec796d7519d0e1ce208d185 They are all sad ... an addition.
b707b36e9d0816cdd06e30bd45079ca9461668d2 March 2006.
7144024460baf63d0b0b83fd8707b6d28b7a701c I found a link to a website where wonderful math textbooks and popular books are published.
784f606e28f98b49b8e9a66ff8cd750f40f03667 With nostalgia and great pleasure, I reread the books of Ya.
24ff282fd57e1bd733130fa462dcac3f932f6dab I. Perelman.
1b693e1f29d0e6e42cec34d4b5c5fb6ecc595aa4 Since they are in the Deja Vu format and it will seem too time consuming for someone to download the plugin to the ekplorer, then read these books, I ran a few pages through FineReader, converted several stories from the book "Living Mathematics"to html.
cd0c31dd13fb15153599761e3fabe0daf42db62b All the stories, one way or another, relate to MLM.
3b02e1f6f9d79ba618202fa01ff42ff65b14d40e Please note that the first edition of this book was in 1927 (!). This is so that there are no misconceptions about the "business of the 21st century".
fd93c100ed76f09050463724c5ad6e6c22c29f47 This "business" existed back in the 19th century.
386ed4ab7f2516c1b0a152fc2e8201ad32574722 The theory of the spread of rumors.
24cdd1c6c6a7766b6f43047df4e49edd5388e4ff A complete analogy with the "advertising pyramid", which is another name for MLM.
5e7b03d80f3fd9a70cfc264a4e371c23e7138fa0 An avalanche of cheap bicycles.
287faaa57c36b3fb3609abe613726a23422a211e I have already described this example from memory earlier.
9f48cfaf2d50069d5351801f9288796b9a0f624a Here is an amazing quote written 80 years ago: Let's sum up what the company actually achieves with the avalanche device.
c57f756724baee4ac99f4c98ba47e69a978cbad7 It forces 4/5 of the population to pay for the goods purchased by the remaining 1/5 part
6fffb4cfd959fcd34d73194e0bf45049b593907f in other words, it forces four citizens to benefit the fifth.
0655700fa5cadf0e9f163a544f09135495ae9716 Completely free of charge, the company acquires, in addition, a large staff of diligent distributors of its goods.
7bbd13bbc82ea65caf43f4b082cb7556649fe551 One of our writers (I. I. Yasinsky)correctly described this scam as an "avalanche of mutual allegory".
4785342e490b882a2283239e0e9f09f097054b65 The numerical giant, invisibly hiding behind this venture, punishes those who do not know how to use arithmetic calculation to protect their own interests from the encroachment of scammers.
40d2aadb0458fcdc65390e10315cd3de45a93229 A great offer.
8c875a303cad0be1156d87e3caf34fe4c558130e An illustration of the growth rate of a binary network.
a404187574b3c4fe26e0efa3d570162edc57661c To the beginning of Marksman
0f1da9afb9be611941dd1d0102090fb709550cea Meteorology (from the Greek. μετωωρος, meterosros — atmospheric and celestial phenomena and-λογαα-science) is a scientifically applied field of knowledge about the structure and properties of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical and chemical processes taking place in it.
c61681cdbb94bc37e15a6eb498d6bdf620c335e9 The word "meteorology "is associated with the work of Aristotle called" Meteorology", a treatise on celestial phenomena.
99b569756b583dde382cc7f37acbe5d52517691b Aristotle named his work based on the Greek expression "that meteora" — objects in the air.
2f7d26c3ce009dab7ca750e2c83759b4ba4b1ac0 He counted rains and comets, hail and meteors, rainbows and auroras among them.
77b31dd9c09500feda31a0d00852db879c99a180 Meteorology as a science arose after the invention of the thermometer by Galileo Galilei and the barometer by Otto von Guericke in the XVII century.
b1adc014ceba1b7f0014fc7d6abfe88e0da5fd16 Weather is a set of values of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a certain point in time at a particular point in space.
7ee276cf5832743eb7eac29205b277d92fd4579c The concept of "Weather" refers to the current state of the atmosphere, as opposed to the concept of "Climate", which refers to the average state of the atmosphere over a long period of time.
51cf088cd005ccf87208ac8c607005084199d093 Weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere) and in the hydrosphere.
cb120a2b216c86035919622be216c844665368af The Duke of Tuscany, Leopoldo de ' Medici, commissioned the Accademia del Cimento in Florence, created by him, to organize the collection of information about weather conditions in Europe, and in 1654, the duke's secretary, the Jesuit Antinori, organized the collection of such information from nine weather stations (mainly in Italy, the farthest was in Warsaw).
e3ea626c03f1dd0936db8aed2c57ec75a7ba4286 This network worked until 1667, when the Accademia del Cimento was closed.
ae32d0681a8ef3b6ea777d2a0b6d72fb7e826204 In 1723, the secretary of the Royal Society of London, James Jurin, developed an instruction for observing the weather, which gave the form of a standard measurement table, a list of necessary instruments and a description of methods for measuring temperature, air pressure, wind strength and direction, which he sent to more than a hundred scientists in Europe
27b167542f49f98514295f66eca7d338c024ca89 Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich was the first to try to establish regular observations of the weather.
5a5680d620f5f69a3a020347a570fee415d1f4de At his behest, astronomical instruments and meteorological instruments were brought from Europe, including the invention of Evangelist Torricelli, a student of Galileo-the barometer.
427bdf385462814fe55077cbe037e5fdb55f0674 On April 10, 1722, by the decree of Peter the Great, systematic observations of the weather began in St. Petersburg.
292bb4fd6e582e4e1d3e68487c3d845904d0ae00 The records were kept by Vice Admiral Cornelius Kruis.
b57066c0fde1141a0df23ba3b7e3d86dd8c2121a In 1724, the first meteorological station in Russia was established, and since December 1725, observations using a barometer and a thermometer have been carried out at the Academy of Sciences.
38bb48c89663c895ac7c18eef63c844af7769cb9 In Russia, a network of weather observation stations appeared during the Great Northern Expedition.
468f0f93c993675827e42b43b1c4ed4cc17b1a57 During the period from 1733 to 1744, 24 weather stations were organized throughout Siberia.
9868ac25a39260b55195c3d95e532cd3ec1a5f75 Atmospheric pressure is the force with which air presses on the Earth's surface.
2086916ac8acb02babab3611b3c9b3f30996dccd Atmospheric pressure is created by the gravitational attraction of air to the Earth.
8f74b0035b03d9ecd8553f32ab0b475a95815a9e Normal atmospheric pressure is considered to be a pressure equal to the pressure of a column of mercury with a height of 760 mm at a temperature of 0 °C.
2ed6c0d07eeecf237d54f1aa5ea630c335e1b147 The air temperature is, obviously, the temperature of the gas layer surrounding us.
c1020098d6e566acb317e121c465d61f5d9cca5a Air humidity is the saturation of air with water vapor.
9492368f9f888afa9c04357a36aa4b3dfc7e41fa There is a concept of absolute and relative humidity of the air.
532416ed42cc73868b1a2fc7f5e5121891779b07 Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor contained in 1 m3 of air.
c944cdbf988126709057374e6f5c725cc84377ff It is expressed in grams.
59a3de889c3faf3304d8ba1231a98f1e6db040d0 Relative humidity is the ratio (as a percentage) of the actual water vapor content in 1 m3 of air to the amount of water vapor that can be contained in 1 m3 at a given temperature.
ab8a08c4c74fc50c66dc7a0e9ab0073acb5155e5 For example, if the radio during the transmission of the weather report reported that the relative humidity is 70%, it means that the air contains 70 % of the water vapor that it can hold at a given temperature.
b0df83eeb41bec4c04e5fbbd24ad1d18c6d5e333 Wind — the movement of air in a horizontal direction.
325d738b563ee3b76f63246094cfa1dc89278c29 In meteorology, the direction of the wind is the direction FROM WHICH the wind blows.
d3b9b0bd4ddb830e7999538e5acfbe00483e020d The wind direction is measured in degrees clockwise, i.e. the north wind is 0 degrees, the east wind is 90 degrees.
4ff8634538553a33af0fa13d6b67df9c0d1d5cac Wind speed is the speed at which air moves in a horizontal direction.
2db93018e67d1fcb3889e1c9f784cf8912ba22ce The Beaufort scale is used for visual assessment of wind speed.
0037c5841d0d902a56fdc3591f8c6154930fba00 The Beaufort scale is a twelve-point scale adopted by the World Meteorological Organization for approximate assessment of wind speed by its impact on land objects or by waves in the open sea.
71d5ae82963756f4988b5bef4425ccc905ab61af The average wind speed is indicated at a standard height of 10 m above an open flat surface.
ee8cd7033f72e9340b34e11c48cf4c657835b11d A meteorological forecast is the expected state of meteorological quantities or their fields, obtained on the basis of studying the laws of the atmosphere according to the methods used.
68d3a7007d742c3853064ed744b8c1a164945fe1 Short-term weather forecasts include weather forecasts with a lead time of up to 36 hours, long - term weather forecasts-more than 36 hours.
01805244590cc73c305ebf668bad363138310080 For example, general weather forecasts provide for clouds, precipitation, special events, wind and air temperature.
d07c7e3d1b2ebc10785e8c3cdeaf187326c74fb0 For the navy - the direction and speed of the wind, weather phenomena, visibility, air and water temperature.
e1c21cccfee123b24b5ed2b613280a90d3515f32 In aviation forecasts - the number and shape of clouds, taking into account all tiers, the lower and upper limit of clouds, cloudless layers, dangerous phenomena, wind direction and speed, air pressure and temperature.
ead03620421e5688e941478bf6470d1d275b27f3 So, a cyclone is an atmospheric vortex of a huge (from hundreds to several thousand kilometers) diameter with a reduced air pressure in the center.
fa0e976355ee9e593a8cb0a6c07522fec6b15a9d So, an anticyclone is an area of high atmospheric pressure in the troposphere with its gradual decrease from the central part to the periphery.
aae0d23c512a59363a241389a3f3de1377a2f6d4 Thus, the atmospheric front is a transition zone in the troposphere between adjacent air masses with different physical properties.
42d0ae19039c2d6a42cace6c96d84cd02691eb11 A warm front (1) is formed when warm air actively moves towards cold air.
0f1bbcfe18d676efd7ff173130f5411ad55d37a0 A cold front (2) is formed when cold air moves towards warm air.
e1492d1c222ecc6deeb8e02f89009ee833b2f1a1 The terms used in cloud forecasts are Clear, clear weather, low-cloud, low-cloud weather, light cloud cover, sunny weather - Up to 3 points of medium and/or lower-tier cloud cover or any amount of upper-tier cloud cover Variable (changing) cloud cover From 1-3 to 4-7 points of the lower and/or middle tier Cloudy with clarifications, cloudy weather with clarifications 4-7 points of clouds of the lower and/or middle tier or a combination of clouds of the middle and lower tier with a total of up to 7 points Cloudy, cloudy weather, significant cloudiness, cloudy, cloudy weather 8-10 points of clouds of the lower tier or dense, non-illuminating forms of clouds of the middle tier If a significant change in the amount of clouds is expected during half a day, it is allowed to use two characteristics from the terminology given in table 1, and also apply the words "decrease" or "increase".
b969b87271d1a01852b4aa65bc02d6c748b44d1f The terms used in wind forecasts In weather forecasts and storm warnings indicate the direction and speed of the wind.
66301005e35202faa54b860bff069d88cb71e835 The wind direction is indicated in the quarters of the horizon (from where the wind blows): northeast, south, southwest, etc.).
d1a43fe995c7d3e203638e358fd046b4d08edb63 If a change in the wind direction is expected within two adjacent quarters of the horizon during half a day, then two adjacent quarters are indicated; if a change in the wind direction is expected by more than two quarters of the horizon, then the term "with transition"is used.
5889a2c1d055726625ca53b77d5cc8003ebaf51f For example: 1.
f1797c702ae75f31c7f6a809b87b539242df00eb The wind is south-easterly, southerly.
7516517f0e76500b827e05985ec333ec643d28a6 2.The wind is southerly with a transition to the north-west.
a43153c851d5e119df546e6f26b7dc9a3ff95f77 Weather forecasts and storm warnings indicate the maximum wind speed with gusts in meters per second (hereinafter referred to as the maximum wind speed) or the maximum average wind speed if gusts are not expected.
191386fd2b217a9fbc975d9c047ba9f4bc9426f0 Terms used in weather forecasts Weather forecasts should include the following of the expected weather events: precipitation (rain, snow), thunderstorm, hail, squall, fog, ice, frost, sticking (deposition) of wet snow on wires (wires) and trees (trees), snow, blizzard, dust (sand) storm, as well as ice on the roads and snow drifts on the roads.
f68df4dfb6aa3aee4bfbd0aba2b71530d3b0c3d3 The terms used in air temperature forecasts In weather forecasts indicate the minimum air temperature at night and the maximum air temperature during the day, or the change in air temperature during an abnormal course of 5 or more in half a day.
3f1d5da6a5eb9e253df4235c8de4201d01796fc1 If the expected temperature distribution over the territory does not fit into the interval equal to 5, then it is recommended to apply additional temperature gradations, using a detailed temperature forecast for parts of the territory.
db9e8751eb563fc9325286de6d6b9bda2d79da1a At the same time, the forecast should indicate the areas where these air temperature deviations are expected (or the conditions under which they will be noted, for example ," when clearing").
9cfaa6f0a5e8c1d728c5980319ee907188a1568f A synoptic map (Greek: συνοπτικός, "visible at the same time") is a geographical map on which the results of observations of many weather stations are marked with conventional signs.
e807a468db77ea0800a1bb5cc03c564e6700b471 Such a map gives a visual representation of the current state of the weather.
5f5f33065eee072935327c26060a73fed31f4b58 With the sequential compilation of maps, the directions of the movement of air masses, the development of cyclones, the movement of fronts are found out.
745ec223f7053b1a8b83fdb0265f8816036cb2c2 It is possible to track changes in the state of the atmosphere, in particular, the movement and evolution of atmospheric disturbances, the movement, transformation and interaction of air masses, etc.
e00cabf5a31cf22ba09afaa1ff91f583fa68a90d The weather is experiencing continuous changes that can be very noticeable not only from one day to another, but also for even a few minutes.
d583cc69f438f4c8e0ed781ec2d91b3084039661 The most noticeable diurnal changes are directly at the earth's surface, due to the fact that the changes are associated with changes in the temperature of the earth's surface, and the rest of the meteorological elements are associated with the air temperature.
edccbee000ee26c5de76a84841b24da6e5acf9e3 The usual weather phenomena on Earth are wind, clouds, precipitation (rain, snow, hail, etc.), fogs, thunderstorms, dust storms and blizzards.
b666089708668c47cb1c4990affa74654b1474f3 Rarer events include natural disasters such as tornadoes and hurricanes.
eba46f0cffa3e3c6b307da8510049fb2f93bd938 Differences in the physical properties of air masses arise due to changes in the angle of incidence of sunlight depending on the latitude and distance of the region from the oceans.
45833b8634ab74fcc92c92abad3614de9e896a83 Since the Earth's axis is inclined relative to the plane of its orbit, the angle of incidence of the sun's rays depends on the time of year.
c541e24102039e0e373948b4f0bee45a8ff434b8 On average, the annual temperature on the Earth's surface varies within ±40 °C.
15dd27a64feba872be0d0e2ba9b99229600b4ca6 The difference in temperatures on the surface, in turn, causes a difference in the atmospheric pressure field.
4e4ffa6bae9004793710bce8d17706e4dd91ba11 The hot surface heats the air above it, expands it, lowering the pressure and density of the air.
486547ec1a486f6198ac67e5bc44a041c60af8e1 The resulting horizontal pressure gradient accelerates the air towards low pressure, creating wind.
2a1518a940d020ca9e0a457c388d39cd7e62b44f And due to the work of the Coriolis effect, when the Earth rotates, the flow twists.
6a24718e8a37c38f538c5a139e52c88d37f477e4 The atmosphere is a complex system, so minor changes in one part of it can have a big impact on the system as a whole.
969740e6b88c3cfd2aeb6f8c327d599dd4147fce Clouds consist of very small water droplets or ice crystals, which are so small that they only slowly descend under the influence of gravity.
c427e39788699ca92db95f7d5b99c982ac0c4de1 When they increase in size and become heavier, they fall faster and rain or snow falls out of the cloud.
ce0f7e2936381c85f5f86277ea04d31704f4d5ee In any cloud, water vapor is in a saturated state, that is, the largest amount of steam possible at a given temperature is contained within the cloud.
56eabd1bb2525d0cf04623377a7432db4311d5e2 Precipitation falls from clouds, which consist of a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals.
291e38630eb56086da02495d898495c2b3132f58 Due to the property of ice to attract water, the crystals gradually grow and turn into snowflakes.
99fc5e7a8bbe62154336cd87e5696f2d86ac9031 This explains not only the snowfall, but also the rain.
c8e2f8a471543177cb2fae8614a60c57b9fc9d54 In the troposphere, the air temperature decreases with altitude and it is always cold at an altitude of several kilometers.
75bfbc931703aefe0f4fc11fe4988f54b500668c Therefore, almost every summer rain begins as snow, and only when it gets into the lower warm layers, the snowflakes melt and turn into raindrops.
47ec6c1ca7571c7c17218cc179a30c2643077513 The air is in continuous motion, especially due to the activity of cyclones and anticyclones.
615dd513f078d4ebb2b0ba2e8c60804c1c256421 The warm air mass, which moves from warm areas to colder ones, causes an unexpected warming by its arrival.
a37fa3ce2bf002777b9095f0c48c8faa403d1608 The cooling of the warm air mass coming from below causes the condensation of water vapor in the lowest layers of the air, resulting in clouds and precipitation.
f873aa423865109d45c03dd9c0c448b94d28ebc2 These clouds are located low, often fall to the ground and cause fogs.
9d73663c3dad1a9e49925947e9b98c825850e707 In the lower layers of the warm air mass, it is quite warm and there are no ice crystals.
510eed960f8a31a3bb9c8de4067b3a1d5a5cc4c9 Therefore, they can not give heavy precipitation, only sometimes a fine, drizzling rain falls.
880a16b28b8392fb74d2389b463d331fc2dab253 Clouds of warm air mass cover the entire sky with a smooth cover (then they are called layered) or a slightly wavy layer (then they are called layered cumulus).
fd4d0d2fa077492c50810d3ac10f4ae5a6bec17c The cold air mass moves from cold areas to warmer ones and brings a cold snap.
3e60b07cca6108dd3d4df80b4c3c984bbecbbd9a Moving to a warmer earth's surface, it is continuously heated from below.
564e759df76b91f3c0967a08228b36f54cce339d When heated, not only does not condensation occur, but the existing clouds and fogs should evaporate, nevertheless, the sky does not become cloudless, just clouds are formed for completely different reasons.
29d5776432f1d5b81381d7c7e4c42ade7219049d When heated, all bodies heat up and their density decreases, so when the lowest layer of air heats up and expands, it becomes lighter and, as it were, floats up in the form of separate bubbles or jets and heavier cold air falls in its place.
51903239ac4c71881063449424988b40f726b802 Air, like any gas, heats up during compression, and cools down during expansion.
23f3777fbf636c476d1a53b9cff374a5c025d395 Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, so the air, rising, expands and cools by 1 degree for every 100 m of ascent, and as a result, condensation and cloud formation begins in it at a certain height.
9136110d1e0049c4cb1b26397f0ca14ab0249bf0 The descending air jets are heated by compression and not only does nothing condense in them, but even the remnants of clouds that fall into them evaporate.
3b3be4289925c57182ad78c240b44b8fc0507427 Therefore, the clouds of cold air masses are clouds piling up in height with gaps between them.
642c36d5521cd0f5db8d2e0f27cdcef42896fcbc Such clouds are called cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds.
baf5cde8fbbfd70bb8ea1a042af84774bee5840d They never descend to the ground and do not turn into fogs, and, as a rule, do not cover the entire visible sky.
55e40c2686187f594f0456b7105044cddb69517d In such clouds, ascending air flows drag water droplets into those layers where there are always ice crystals, while the cloud loses its characteristic "cauliflower" shape and the cloud turns into a cumulonimbus.
0e6352fb703de2dd9bcccc16e4b8a4c8c265cb3a From this moment, precipitation falls out of the cloud, although strong, but short-lived due to the small size of the clouds.
a62b9ea4d211fb3cc8d308b4615a50a2583bcee3 The boundary of contact of different air masses is called the atmospheric front.
e634384ba2a71f498d3f193f7986fc2da6ab0d31 On synoptic maps, this border is a line that meteorologists call the "front line".
5a21492ec43e11e168b07d001306972cf5e1bf8f The boundary between the warm and cold air mass is an almost horizontal surface, imperceptibly descending to the front line.
21246c054d91d3c66ca37919025b3aae1710021c Cold air is under this surface, and warm air is on top.
8f8ac9bee924973fb48c6eeacb8f503ea1097c23 Since the air masses are always in motion, the boundary between them is constantly shifting.
8091e49c47cb8b4ff85ae773d3c747cd7ce7fba0 An interesting feature: the front line necessarily passes through the center of the low-pressure area, and the front never passes through the centers of the high-pressure areas.
875ec6d018d55c5c77244b3a4fc011e4bd63e560 A warm front occurs when a warm air mass moves forward and a cold one retreats.
1249948af9dabb0310725a6ce647497594786aae The warm air, as a lighter one, creeps over the cold one.
dbbdadff314803fe42496b687912d5b8606cf356 A cold front is moving towards warm air.
ba954e55d78c8f4afdaa19df624fb9d8e3f54da8 At the same time, the cold air gets under the warm one.
0c7f95f665f925ab8848a390eb46d87ba7bb024d The lower part of the cold front lags behind the upper part due to friction against the earth's surface, so the front surface bulges forward.
bdeb6d7b7bdf554f3d4293259cb079b288fa58a8 The development and movement of cyclones and anticyclones leads to the transfer of air masses over considerable distances and corresponding non-periodic weather changes associated with a change in wind directions and speeds, with an increase or decrease in cloud cover.
dd955e475d19d9ecda709dea567e446f2cb8ef3c Weather plays a big, and sometimes even a decisive role in human history.
d6d14b7f26a3f65074c944b66298a696f37f581f In addition to climate changes that caused the gradual migration of peoples (for example, the desertification of the Middle East and the formation of land bridges between continents during ice ages), extreme weather events caused smaller-scale movements of peoples and were directly involved in historical events.
4b848a913ac35dce385ebf62a43426533b408f33 One of such cases is the rescue of Japan by Kamikaze winds from the invasion of the Mongol fleet of Kublai Khan in 1281.
27f24806dcb5043bb4bd349aa9ead389cf1405ca The French claim to Florida ended in 1565, when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, giving Spain the opportunity to conquer Fort Carolina.
61a365e90fb4d18090177031398954ddfa94405e Most recently, Hurricane Katrina forced more than one million people to relocate from the central coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the United States, creating the largest diaspora in the history of the United States.
6b765e5fb685e2037fa6e335986a8bb3542d8181 In addition to such a radical influence on people, the weather can affect a person in simpler ways.
1cbb0d92c72b931710225944460b7f60f353bdcb People do not tolerate extreme values of temperature, humidity, pressure and wind.
fbe258af0d59fe4d99d86e21f1d90ed5c654b91b The weather also affects mood and sleep.
cd26e65fae7680b46c981b414054e5d911e73324 The desire to influence meteorological phenomena can be traced throughout the history of mankind: from the oldest ritual rituals conducted in an attempt to summon rain to special military operations of our time, such as Operation Popeye of the American military forces during the Vietnam War (1965-1973), when attempts were made to prevent the supply of South Vietnamese guerrillas with weapons and food by extending the period of the Vietnamese monsoon.
f0bda6761866985051eb6a761f885493ff787821 The most successful attempts to influence the weather include cloud seeding, active influence on fogs and layered clouds in order to disperse them, used by large airports, techniques to increase snow precipitation over the mountains and reduce precipitation in the form of hail.
d57bd2548de83c7d6eb9edd106e5e6f97c3bad16 A recent example of the impact on hydrometeorological processes is the measures taken by China for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games.
83ae7a60cc16ca2dd4dd14958a4ae1dd0d70c5d1 1104 rockets were launched, with the help of which special reagents are seeded into the clouds.
be57577985dff4feff53515cd4f1509c12eaa6b8 Implemented by Beijing, they were intended to avoid rain during the opening ceremony of the Games on August 8.
a7a9927166bd30da959aed0ce882abc790b4afd5 The effects of unintended changes in weather conditions can pose a serious threat to many components of our civilization, including ecosystems, natural resources, economic development and human health.
e641e27e3fdf3ef442b6d07895a96b63750d4bb5 When the Milky Way is shining, there will be good weather. When it seems that the stars in it seem to be running, then there will be a wind.
883e68ddc0357283ea1764c781549c481fd8b645 When the month is born with its horns down (to the south), it will be a warm month in winter, and a hot month in summer; when the horns are up, it will be cold in winter, and windy in summer.
2a57dc0161db57838f2fee1c09fb31a240120d1f A dull month leads to sputum. Clear - to dry. In blue - to the rain; in red - to the wind, with ears - to the frost.
7ba6d001ba39f781ce0cb10cfd7220d22ad8de5c The sun sets with a red dawn, and rises with a light-to a bucket and a clear day.
ef6c542b96870319c893bd1af66173f88fee3f81 The sun turns into a cloud, a dark cloud sets-to rain. In the fog, too. It shines strongly at sunset-to a big wind.
f1dcaf52ccec5f0d8620077357c4c398848bb08d The rays of the rising sun are of different colors - for cloudy or rainy weather. It also foreshadows a yellow, white, or green sunrise.
04ec53fce6de510a14fdea93c17b6c4499485b44 The pig itches - for warmth; screams - for bad weather; drags straw-for a storm.
0f117eb323243b8ea4d3c86948a0dcfc67190591 The horse snores - to bad weather; snorts - to rain; shakes his head and throws it to the top - to bad weather.
8e2856d3d6552c4c7287ca66bc36ad4035f817f8 A sparrow bathes in a puddle - for warmth, and a crow-for rain and cold.
72b95a520ab5fa0c55e5a835081e3a3bcab805ac The cat licks-to bad weather. The cat washes, licks the paw-to the bucket; buries the muzzle - to frost, or-to bad weather; sits down in the stove - to frost, bad weather; scrapes the floor - to the wind and a blizzard; pulls the wall - to bad weather. It sleeps soundly-for warmth; it lies with its belly or snout up-for warmth.
c4c243bdefce4cb9c46d1af4165c0f1adf97427a If the clover folds the leaves, then this is a sign of an impending storm.
c01b67afbee2292d57c09bd48077519916e88d3c A dandelion has a feathery ball-for dry and warm weather, and a bundle pulled into a bundle-for bad weather.
b14e47168a3dc47deffd02d2c0bbe7f89b6a06dc In the evening, grasshoppers chirp strongly-for good weather.
1373f37c62ad9d78e74886435c5de04ad650df69 The visible movement of clouds against the wind is a sure sign of the onset of bad weather.
3dab4d3a7950ac59f56c3c530b39f289cf65fa05 A high and steep rainbow is for good weather, a low and gentle one is for bad weather.
12764be84fc6672a90d223c27154710d059f7ea7 If it's raining, and the chickens are walking around the yard, it means that the weather has deteriorated for a short time.
1595ddf66c0972927d82aa1d6b3495d9733f1d26 If the clouds are floating fast and high — a sure sign: be good weather.
d570a1c116582981e9d0331158f5b6eeea143164 The cuckoo is cuckooing — there will be good weather.
55c4b2d327da4d8c1f16afe7d02307d139db7f04 Home News Forecasts Actual data Climate Weather through other eyes Seas and oceans About the Hydrometeorological Center Contacts
d8f60ebf9f36b01386647e61659570f5739dd330 Terminology of weather forecasts
7e617125d80c5139a27e2dc401fa0b41dce6582f Weather and climate forecasts and their inherent limitations
6fc0d590b9ba50aaeed6269a1245143a2204aea7 Forecasts Terminology of weather forecasts
7fdea6f9ff8d90027ae33637c8c0784821da5050 Classification of the timing of meteorological forecasts 1.
4ec0bb7564d1dad655ff5a25457199b41e487db3 Current weather forecast Description of the current weather and forecast of meteorological parameters for a period of 0 to 2 hours.
83a63e86c253e282536b7c9803ea87c7b808eb79 2. Ultra short term weather forecast Forecast of meteorological parameters for a period of up to 12 hours.
d91c7a976e4df44c7e609eda213f2e96d23a9c43 3. Short term weather forecast Forecast of meteorological parameters for the period from 12 to 72 hours.
92a41e2a4ad2ab3a00c959a4f9621feda2f00334 (3 days)
997fe8ccadb4e366cb93b610f5a1d42d7f6cf671 4. Medium term weather forecast Forecast of meteorological parameters for the period from 72 (3 days) to 240 hours.
f2eec1ba61aae41adfb39fe4a5a98ee72c5e7c70 (10 days)
d7137c415b2b5964666c7a39eb65160fc9cc52ce 5. Weather forecast with extended term Forecast meteorological parameters for the period from 10 to 30 days, usually averaged and expressed in the form of deviations from the climatic variables for the period 6.
4c4f904d7fe5db1e017359a43e92a27c1063cb1c Long term forecast a forecast for the period from 30 days to 2 years 6.1 Monthly outlooks Description of averaged weather parameters expressed in the form of deviations (anomalies) from climate values for that month (not necessarily for the upcoming month) 6.2 3 months or 90 daily outlooks Description of averaged weather parameters expressed as a deviation from climate values for that 90 of the circadian period (not necessarily for the upcoming 90 the daily period) 6.3 Seasonal outlooks Description of averaged weather parameters expressed as a deviation from climate values for that season 7.
87c4be25095f3b24c1156d2ddbf4570d2a287e6e Climate forecasting For a period of more than 2 years 7.1 Forecasting climate variability Description of expected climate parameters associated with changes in interannual, decadal and intrasecual climate anomalies 7.2 Climate forecasting Description of the future climate taking into account the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors
d0ebf02e1024e4f16839d05dd11514f906e5ffed Notes: a) In some countries, long term forecasts are considered climate products;
29845d8e0761d092df023b795877c8e4c592b9fb b) The season is roughly defined as: winter December/January/February, spring March/ April/May, etc. in the Northern Hemisphere.
8162b9b742000f5082456d1ee93cb948a1157f02 In the tropical zone, the seasons may have different durations; approximate forecasts may be made covering several months.
38388d308f061c0ef5f4bae1a32be87f89d05290 (From the Manual on the Global Data Processing System.
eae5aaf7fd46da77a8c7b03187a60d15bb20fef8 WMO No. 485)
b6cab250384f74c19f86683edccdcbc2e4439cd3 Terminology used in general purpose short term weather forecasts and storm warnings (in accordance with the Guidance Document RD 52.27.724-2009 "Manual on general purpose short term weather forecasts")
0487d2e43a278eb979bf595172ebd2a7872a6033 The following meteorological values (elements)are indicated in short term general purpose weather forecasts: clouds, precipitation, wind direction and speed, minimum air temperature at night and maximum temperature during the day (in C), as well as weather phenomena.
e6d4cfc67e1fa1e2be5de35a14ea618b2e996620 In the table.
03de86a8f25c86f01bb17044c19e0c3b5051fe93 1-5 the terms used in forecasts for various meteorological quantities (elements), weather phenomena and their corresponding quantitative characteristics are given.
f11a63082b5ea0140eb138f73c3eb87d16d85847 To take into account the specifics of the expected synoptic process and/or the influence of regional features of the territory for which the forecast is made, if the predicted meteorological values and weather phenomena in certain parts of the territory will differ significantly, they are carried out by detailing the forecast, using additional gradations.
e0f4c04bea9a217df6206abb28fb2fa1bd0b92f8 To distinguish individual parts of the territory, use the characteristics of the geographical location (west, south, northern half, central areas, right bank, coastal areas, suburbs, etc.), as well as terrain features (low places, lowlands, valleys, foothills, passes, mountains, etc.).
63e5fba8aab2bc3d0d2b9e748fd599fa50558215 Detailing the forecast by territory or point using additional gradation and the terms "in certain areas" or "in places" is allowed, as a rule, if there is an influence (impact) of atmospheric processes (phenomena) of mesometeorological scale: - heavy precipitation, thunderstorms, hail, squall associated with the development of intense convection;
8d37680c3f24ced6b2d4518bdf34b7f44d7b0734 - fogs and air temperatures (including frosts in the air and on the ground) caused by the influence of terrain features or radiation factors (the influx of solar radiation into the atmosphere and on the Earth's surface, its absorption, scattering, reflection, own radiation of the earth's surface and atmosphere).
0655f4d57ef655ab08d0ba2433caf0dbfab98c30 In order to take into account the influence of radiation factors, it is allowed to detail the forecast of air temperature using additional gradation and the terms "when clearing", "when clouds flow".
40b491ddda1617bf850143936ba104db8080ab8f The use of the terms "in places" or "in certain areas (points)" in the weather forecast implies that the expected weather phenomenon or the value of a meteorological magnitude will be confirmed by the observation data of no more than 50% of the meteorological observation units located in the territory for which the forecast is made.
a180fd57ea207fc3001d6784acd427115ba9f0a4 The terms used in cloud forecasts are Clear, clear weather, low cloud, low cloud weather, light cloud cover, sunny weather - Up to 3 points of medium and/or lower tier cloud cover or any amount of upper tier cloud cover Variable (changing) cloud cover From 1-3 to 4-7 points of the lower and/or middle tier Cloudy with clarifications, cloudy weather with clarifications 4-7 points of clouds of the lower and/or middle tier or a combination of clouds of the middle and lower tier with a total of up to 7 points Cloudy, cloudy weather, significant cloudiness, cloudy, cloudy weather 8-10 points of clouds of the lower tier or dense, non illuminating forms of clouds of the middle tier If a significant change in the amount of clouds is expected during half a day, it is allowed to use two characteristics from the terminology given in table 1, and also apply the words "decrease" or "increase".
f823c9b1e9a1aa26947e9c949937687979f7606c For example: In the morning it is cloudy, in the afternoon the cloud cover increases to significant.
22a66e36c9f50965995af36e22c782ec15d6d714 Terms used in precipitation forecasts
27b84cdbc9754a5e6c48d604d05ca1c805cf7929 Weather forecasts and storm warnings use terms that characterize the fact of the absence or presence of precipitation, if there is precipitation - their type (phase state), amount, duration (recommended, but not mandatory).
e85844a937f8cfca9a074b9c535a5f78f1b1fe61 The terms and corresponding quantitative values for liquid and mixed precipitation are given in Table.
0faf85997900fcd1847ca91c09ba1cfed5823d4f 2a, for solid precipitation in Table 2b.
c132d00f1d6516867b399af6ae4a3de140395cd0 Table 2a
717b28682e7466184616eec646558cbf64c5b98b The term Quantity of precipitation, mm/12 h
8b4cdda45128461a4cc3b5aeb49961ec44cb63c3 No precipitation, dry weather -
37ab012d478ecf29c1c70e2b6e7285eefbb883b8 Light rain, light rain, drizzle, drizzling precipitation, light precipitation 0,0-2
d7e9341f5672472930ad2b5296898c963799a832 Rain, rainy weather, precipitation, sleet, rain with snow; snow turning into rain; rain turning into snow 3-14
5531220addad6f433aeb20e6573880bfe552c403 Heavy rain, heavy rain (downpour), heavy precipitation, heavy sleet, heavy rain with snow, heavy snow with rain
b723d9079b7633ca056ce809dba5d52f4382b5dd The same is true for mudslide prone areas
b25c562fbd97460922f46f452d83a6e19d6797cc The same is true for the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus 15-49
1d9b9d3d7dd8e5d063a313cbaa63469e21734166 15-29 30-79
4500f96739ffeea2b018edb49777bda3d07c74b7 Very heavy rain, very heavy precipitation (very heavy sleet, very heavy rain with snow, very heavy snow with rain)
5ebf9fd4642408ab280850302dc103b846db53f0 The same is true for the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus
4e69e39cc9435f0db20fca6f7f6c553835c1d1e0 Heavy downpour (heavy downpours)
3b981b3ae0de1627cdf6910f89df514e8eda957b The same is true for the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus ≥ 50
ec0fec7c0254ae9f7f8fb8666a4a72b7425f9731 ≥30 ≥80
ce9107eaa03b209c5d5c5a3af35d889b904940ae ≥30 mm for a period of ≤ 1 h
e91e53b66ba401de8c23b134468ec83c2d908e95 ≥50 mm for a period of ≤ 1 h
00695c2a47b96b85a48a64f4cbde6965f24ea514 Table 2b Term Quantity of precipitation, mm/12 h
df66f9e7d1c35f4933155bbc22a2b4dfc0a5f0ac Light snow, light snow 0,0-1
c9f3765325f4798cd5f3c4ab082b811480c36820 Snow, snowfall 2-5
0ab5a743eb7aa2e5b71bd05cb91b83860a1b4e83 Heavy snow, heavy snowfall 6-19
84fd1f19407acea1629aaad5d19950d3202e5d95 Very heavy snow, very heavy snowfall ≥ 20
6d34e195ee02e8b9da5161aefea436061b11f622 For a more detailed description of the expected distribution of precipitation over the territory, it is recommended to use additional (usually neighboring) gradations of precipitation in the forecast, it is also allowed to use the terms "in certain areas" and "in places".
5a0860239bf299a01576aaf704b05cf9d72251f9 For example: In the second half of the day, thunderstorms are expected in the region, sometimes heavy downpours.
712d57372d3f8914e92fb202a8e1d3c0b635b5e5 To characterize the type of precipitation (liquid, solid, mixed), the terms "rain", "snow", "precipitation"are used.
cd999d577f858c92075dde25687c7363cd6fd8ba The term "precipitation" can be used only with the mandatory addition of one of the terms given in Table 3.
d63f11214762ddf04f1fa2a6ca1556b7a3f1b5b8 Table 3 The term Characteristics of mixed precipitation
80bd8adb674ac97b8f34162f23ae3fd7c1c6198c Rain and snow Rain and snow at the same time, but rain prevails
4d5383aa389e91b4101847191b39c4022e5cf107 Sleet Snow and rain at the same time, but snow prevails; melting snow
f06b43a4dca8df61d2a44a01a950e1f58cd10fcf Snow turning into rain Snow is expected first, and then rain
59cc9f81c2599cba13d9fa7d9a365ceff032a89d Rain turning into snow Rain is expected first, and then snow
87aaaa9fd5da875f2bdd03aa2fcfd178d6cdd7b9 Snow with rain (rain with snow) Alternation of snow and rain with a predominance of snow (rain)
3a8291f688297a937c0d014b08f27ea140782427 For qualitative characteristics of the duration of precipitation, it is recommended to use the terms given in Table 4.
b9b9528e1974513a227f48e1772962bc2406364a Table 4, the term Total duration of precipitation, hour
52929cb7dea4d47b4508a8fbc1979d185e33dd84 Short term rain (snow, rain with snow, snow with rain, sleet), snow (sleet) with charges <3
4885f8d0f5508f80386ab28f568e1cb23181f768 Rain (snow, sleet, rain with snow, snow with rain), prolonged rain (snow, sleet, rain with snow, snow with rain), sometimes snow, sleet, rain with snow, snow with rain) >3
49eac100a3e78e0d48f33e5dc0a1035f69d7490e If the forecasts indicate "light clouds" or "low cloud weather", then the term "no precipitation" is allowed not to be used.
c06caa62fe79ca22121ecf3f6f665c4d5996a497 It is allowed to use the details of the forecast of wind characteristics (direction, speed) for parts of the territory.
3246c5bb4c0a6352f5ddba3600136e42a85104fa The wind is south easterly, southerly.
705abe11bf84bdb9988dc461d574c39852a19c78 2.The wind is southerly with a transition to the north west.
d078960a1d79c66afe6da5644e01415c71621958 Note: The maximum average wind speed is the highest average wind speed that is expected at any 10 minute time interval during the duration of the forecast period or storm warning.
4b9321f96038ad89ed7b50d2bc8fe80e10e95558 In weather forecasts and storm warnings, the wind speed is indicated in gradations with an interval of no more than 5 m/s.
be9fb766b9c32c3183af214ece44d0c889ff97d8 When there is a weak wind (speed < 5 m/s), it is allowed not to indicate the direction or use the term "weak, variable directions".
0dafc16469ffb36dd901f1122df865bae8d81b75 If the wind speed is expected to change significantly during half a day, then the indication of these changes is formulated using the terms "weakening" or "strengthening" with the addition of a characteristic of the time of day.
7bf009a7b944dc06c81e43bb27acff62fd8ec970 For example: A southerly wind of 3-8 m / s with an increase in the afternoon to 20 m/s (i.e. the maximum wind speed with gusts will reach 15-20 m / s).
99c4edbd838ac4d65010795e8279330dde38833e When predicting a squall, the wind direction is not indicated.
b1fbbd9c990d93b374661bb6983183129e9c93c5 It is recommended to use the terms "squally wind strengthening up to.... m/s" or "squall up to ... m/s" with an indication of the maximum wind speed.
14796fb799a2182e8323945ffc7d126945d331e5 For example: during a thunderstorm, a heavy wind gain of up to 20-25 m/s (or a squall of up to 25 m/s).
ecbf8d52904ed2e47cc116f938592034bdfa5470 In weather forecasts, in addition to the quantitative value of wind speed, a qualitative characteristic of it can be used in accordance with Table 5.
22b7fb97c7e5acfe7b9fe57570c90a15d63fc8c5 Table 5 Qualitative characteristics of wind speed Wind speed range, m/s
dc2e31f880f50482c3b987f0b5e122045ed23279 Weak 0-5
6a16a47a28a26c9e129fa0fbff43fb68b3d7803c Moderate 6-14
434ef9b24a4423296aa3714d153cfd28195718e5 Strong 15-24
207f9df91eee702615702516431742c7732e3dc7 Very strong 25-32
17705c51e79fc13798f3045ecc6a0b5d4f8ae772 Hurricane 33 and more
66c62d0213c709360810d1416d9b8852949ac59b If the predicted wind speed interval can be characterized by two qualitative characteristics, then the characteristic for the upper limit of the interval is used.
bf697887ab1b7f301cd091f9d7d5acfa6bd9e39a For example: a wind with a projected speed of 12-17 m / s has the qualitative characteristic "strong", since 17 m/s is included in the speed range of 15-24 m/s.
8320faf3d7b99daf4c736b58263aa9316bc839db In weather forecasts, the term "strong", and for precipitation "very strong" is used if it is expected that the phenomenon will reach the OYA criteria in intensity.
90f4910fbcdf1d0d6ff8e346542d3002826fb727 In other cases, the characteristics of the intensity of phenomena ("weak" or "moderate"), with the exception of the intensity of precipitation, are not allowed to be specified.
8d7faacb234320edbd5bf5c982370bb0c1e32adc When predicting a squall, the maximum wind speed is indicated.
486181bc0a1ae00e847da168389a05095dc0e78f In weather forecasts, if necessary, the terms "strengthening", "weakening", "termination" are used, indicating the time of day.
181796d276bad2163dd530b4382b94a0382cf8b8 The expected minimum and maximum air temperature is indicated by gradations in the interval for point 2, and for the territory – 5.
eb000971a75741e818ad660ca371530db5742152 In forecasts of air temperature for a point or for a separate part of the territory, it is allowed to indicate the air temperature in one number (for a point – using the preposition "about", and for a part of the territory using the preposition "to").
52bcefb39c6b704d1e0d66165171c13aa03ca893 In the first case, we mean the middle of the predicted temperature range for the point, in the second case, its maximum value for the specified part of the territory.
2a1eadce973f15357fcb55ce1efecdec6a92753a Temperatures of up to 20 were forecast for the west of the territory.
87093bdf3eb9bfc8140245781afd8451393a01de This means that a temperature of 15...20 is expected.
8f9adf6f135a6e43aeb3615914a479c074ed6877 2. The air temperature in the city is predicted to be about 20°.
d2e98f876ce8297421c67593d2088f07ba016a52 This means that the temperature in the city is expected to be 19 ...
c915ab57bab5ebc57fc08335b1d01231efc5d6b9 21°
843f796790d05d5cc304cf6ff8c629ba035b899b For example: The temperature at night is 1...6, when it clears (or in northern areas) to -2.
2743722720e8b3e96fde3fd9301759bda538ba1f If an abnormal course of air temperature is expected, then its highest (lowest) value is indicated with an indication of the time period of the day when it is predicted.
238278018b0960b5a0c6aea98f8435f3ae87ef78 For example: The temperature in the evening is -10...-12°, by the morning the temperature rises to -2°.
c8d564a40b9647f5845fd4ef046663f3f105a9ff When using the terms "increase" ("warming") or "decrease" ("cooling"), " strengthening ("weakening") frost (heat)" the predicted temperature value can be indicated by a single number with the preposition "to".
198f28c7dbd750ebd465939dcd164d66036a1332 If during the period of active vegetation of agricultural crops or harvesting, values below 0 fall into the predicted air temperature range, then negative air temperature values are indicated in the weather forecast with the addition of the term "frost".
dbea6e396b1381854fd445901d25366320efd3b8 The term "frost" is also used if temperatures below 0 are expected on the soil surface.
205293fc5f040eedc15b4790419763d8dfbd8270 If the expected air temperature at night is from -2 to +3, the temperature forecast is formulated as follows: the temperature is 0...3°, in places (in the east, in the north, in low places) frosts are up to -2°.
1c3cfe8726f8ce630a2b6760e150c06ba50592b7 2. When the expected air temperature is from 0 to 5° and the soil temperature is below 0°, the forecast is formulated as follows: the temperature is 0...5°, in places (in the east, in the north, in low places) on the ground freezing to -2°.
1a0b5d4b977286d3e4c47478da9cf3c710c44c9a If the value of the maximum (minimum) temperature is expected in the OJ gradations, then the term "severe heat" ("severe frost") is used in the forecast.
15225baac48fc3d689cb2b0f74b936eff4339ff7 Definitions
3f787ac756e5abbb6cc6dc19b843556c5cd4320f Dangerous meteorological phenomena (S): natural processes and phenomena occurring in the atmosphere and/or near the Earth's surface, which, by their intensity (strength), scale of distribution and duration, have or may have a damaging effect on people, farm animals and plants, economic objects and the environment.
14fd1cb4a10dc1d7491a69868cbcf26e08ca07d1 Folk signs for the weather
e4905d09cd1762e4300dfd89bc93ae1ff7a0e0ac Aphorisms Folk signs Proverbs Riddles Sayings Tongue twisters
4d11effa38b8b007fadf4bed816a90eeff77a84e Folk signs
749a30a7000a030af7fec80610ddba7df206eafc - august - April to warm, clear weather spring to wind to good weather - rooks - thunder and thunderstorms - geese - December by trees to rain to hot weather for the groom to frosts to marriage to drought winter by frost - july - June - summer cats by tree leaves - may - March by moon, month to frost for brides to bad weather - november - October autumn to thaw on the weather - birds - bees by rainbow by dew wedding - September - snow by the sun to warm weather - fog to the harvest to the cold - January
075e66a4e946e1f8afaeddad9bf5290bb0673bc9 Brief wisdom / / Folk signs // Folk signs for the weather
2c079472a3339a07957b22fc614aa89d356a5d20 Whitish clouds over the water, quickly disappearing at sunrise to clear weather.
7c6b9b54db5a436e8cfe9a1e437887df781f7783 Whitish clouds over the water, quickly disappearing at sunrise, lead to clear weather.
28da9d0bec42525dbc3b1ed5c9aa5325c8f92919 A big dew in the morning leads to good weather, no dew — to rain.
21040605067a41f5a3b719adcc9135de70d8e193 In December, there are seven weather conditions in the yard: it blows, blows, circles, tears and sweeps.
8e9f574db528799dde90ea5e7f0972a46adcaf62 Wind in stripes, gusts to calm weather.
eda71a3da141977e49c939a3b4aee6cf0d3d6921 The evening rainbow is for clear weather, the morning rainbow is for rainy weather.
02a88bf892ab1afb4187e2e01d016d98a55efe2a In the evening, grasshoppers chirp strongly for good weather.
fa331fc5bcf74311a60737b52af694db67d84a6f In March, the clouds float fast and high to good weather.
c56cc7723b759e246d53ca8f09df4cab111bfbc5 In the anthill, the passages are open and the brisk movement of ants on the pile is noticeable for good weather.
33f8100d36519661bab5661718bed4bbd410e643 There are a lot of ants around the anthill it means that the weather will be good.
d18400a28d2002a098f27715aad8603b8693dab1 In stable weather, the thorns of the leaves of the thistle corolla take a horizontal position, and in cloudy weather — vertical.
4903e91c1ba5da2fc6aedfd22829779633f6791e Rooks are playing — there will be good weather.
6040183e43e9c4277e68cf00322d84a0dbe903c5 A double (triple) rainbow is a sign of rainy weather.
cdc380e3728c146e42f0f6735c2fd5bdcea74f40 It is hot during the day, cool at night for good weather.
e06b5cc3a79b0bf64abc2a35e741fc296cf203a9 If a stork stands on both legs, shakes its wings and hides its long beak, it foreshadows a storm and bad weather.
80fd5bd25a8e21313c63aee1890ffdf8723791d3 If hares molt for a long time in the spring, wait for the cold weather to continue.
127f80a1654bc219fda8d9f2e9fc33e29391efba If there are a lot of ants around the anthill to good weather.
f38d24e67829591419307fb1964f86230b2c5a81 If there is constant weather in the first week of August, then the winter will be long and snowy.
478339d545f0992c89b8edd930cc262e770a7428 If the spider leaves the nest and makes a new web to the weather.
51ca2e449f98170380523bb5f849bda3c828092d If there are a lot of spiders in sight, it's good weather.
d1fd901032ed703c2cb87d0fbabda589fff8fe4e The spider is actively weaving nets for dry weather.
57243b03f2ff8e89cb5363a0c60904e4455d01dc If the cloudy weather decreases in the evening, the wind subsides, visibility improves to freeze.
16c67d294142fc636d6d6ab98f29d2910d88bfd8 If, in clear weather, distant objects are not clear, as if in a fog — it will rain.
bbd7c904e850deb97cd7adc709cfe8a3afd44c64 If the rainbow is visible in the evening, then there will be good weather, and in the morning — rain.
e2f0ccd29fc2916f704b8af9665030fb1f6f223f If February is rainy, then spring and summer will be the same, if it is rainy, then there will be a drought.
93e648369057905d2680d1995dff9717e77c7084 If a seagull has landed on the water, wait for good weather, and if it stays near the shore, then wait for changes not for the better.
20e5be0d1364fc5b4184770ff5bf21c78350cb0d The crane (at the well) creaks for a change in the weather.
ccb3aef6723bc5a753f7f8157a586ccecdbdb71b The stars are bright for good weather, dim - for rain or snow.
6b06438911f5d11246af89f5b247d8f80c599da0 Frost to dry and sunny weather, to a bucket, to heat.
d76cc7948a4a68d4409a61ce9ac3c4911e71d78b When the Milky Way is shining, there will be good weather.
db31353819dff8c07c0832a50c21d8c0c984fc63 When it seems that the stars in it seem to be running, then there will be a wind.
93b6766b3dc98636e4b8b555df18c30ad31659d4 The bark, which cracks in great numbers in the spring on birches and other trees, predicts long, good and dry weather for the future.
af7f03a7957679a1ba9465548a44cd0fedce76c7 Crake fights in the evening on the weather.
ec6912c70cc6710696b3077a2abda52bba25a592 The cat licks to bad weather.
fe2f10a54546dc8428d7940f358a26e5b5fa8478 The cat washes, licks the paw to the bucket;
af82cfd85134559cbd75d07463581b2b183a44d1 Buries the muzzle — to frost, or to bad weather; sits down in the oven — to frost, bad weather; scrapes the floor - to wind and snowstorms: pulls the wall - to bad weather.
6895de00c1592ecbb1d9dc1eaba10ca858cc1e2c He sleeps soundly for warmth: he lies with his belly or snout up for warmth.
e849863a5d1f2a9c917460a3f33dc1aaf5b77aee Red clouds for rain.
7e2680f853cb09db5900256f955e9fb0d4d21969 With a midday wind — to a gusty wind and bad weather.
5b4f097610d0d9c8900dfe4c0771753e0c9b7635 If the sun's rays darken at the same time, then expect a thunderstorm.
881cfc10b4d0872215cf7c868b4a3cca2bb5e13c Short term weather forecast A circle around the sun that does not split when it disappears — to good and dry weather.
a246a29cd80f54ce002d8ec777cdc156908456ba If the circle breaks, then there will be a wind from the side of the ring break.
e5875f27767d6d49f712c8447a22774f28b60457 If the circle is dark, in winter it portends cold, in summer — rain and wind.
f7e954199150f3778ffc39b345748f38b3641ce3 The circle is greenish or reddish before sunrise or sunset — rain or wind for several days.
bef61a975b44de215801fc47c4f520dae12d426d A pile of varnish with the rising sun - to variable weather.
11052cd9ec5752f03dc17adac2804eeb31483a8d The horse, grazing, tends to go out on the hillock all the time for a change in the weather.
b033cbf69daecb75dc4b2e4b2efe11295c41016c Few stars are visible to cloudy weather.
949285ae64b9061fa42ecf2edd4d5d15a0190f40 Few stars are visible to cloudy weather and rain; and where the rays of the stars will be long, there will be a wind from there.
7e4cc8c5c693cef42c0826a24c3373f66942e030 The woodlouse bloomed in the morning and remained open all day for good weather.
57bb58fe37332931f9f875b01cf036ec86350d3b Autumn frost to dry and sunny weather.
53dd1f35bbe77bebfbcb5baaa69ae944b9e2a577 Shepherds determine the approach of bad weather by the wool of sheep — it becomes wet before the rain.
248b2d9ac25c469f9794def0cb93f9d562b0a583 Spiders are weaving a web — it will be dry and cold weather.
7a7ed1fa83f3fafe17a8b322339cb19f9193b63e The roosters ' singing after sunset and until deep evening promises good stable weather for the next day.
4de4e0c11be56771f1df73c1dad0df27d5274bad Before the rain, the bees do not fly far from the hive, and before good weather they fly in flocks in the field.
bee2fa43456054d9702fcdd6caaaa61985b2e3c4 Before the onset of wet weather, leather things become flexible and soft, salt becomes wet, tobacco becomes damp.
098aee0edd3e36043d85df48115b7257ff6347d5 Birds are crested for bad weather.
1a9970b5a901f6e6a2a8bd755e4bf60d181f07e7 A rainbow across the river — there will be good weather, a rainbow along the river — there will be heavy rain.
91c6309183c46c4c2be81e7c551269ab7eb416a1 The rainbow stands from north to south - for rain, from east to west - for good weather.
6a17e5ff21fdfbbfbcd7be2966f94c72d7ff1776 The rays of the rising sun are of different colors — for cloudy or rainy weather.
2bb2fbd2e3774d5f658f6ab4b0a809be98d36edd It also foreshadows a yellow, white, or green sunrise.
853c89e45709716d159b8e6aa40f89c3027fee4b Northern winds in August bring dry weather.
d7fc2a0591d78d98f59517e1d70226754ff15f3e Strong draft in the oven — for frost, weak for wet weather, red fire — for frost, white for thaw.
5d3a8ec4f40d96cca6cf2ac83d0290d7e9c930ae The stars shine strongly in summer to the heat, in winter - to the frost.
50f8a356c6f7666bfc69379cfdb75b04dfe1feeb Darken - to variable weather, wind and thunderstorms.
15c54ed970bfbb6039d10af776c2b897c4994985 From what date in October will godina go (good clear weather, a bucket), from that date spring will open in April.
d5334c7583baa744ff122627461f20098275c890 In the morning, the woodlouse bloomed and remained open all day for good weather.
88829ebc1f06ee3cfb466aed4d0c1610cda88789 Dry branches from trees fall down in dry weather to rain.
9aa680a39f9e7dbb93a97f232438d9d2334d5259 Fog is spreading on the water early in the morning — there will be sunny weather.
2f922873ca0bccfde90214502755c32f9dcb6705 A dull month leads to wet weather.
16faabfdbc8aa5a416f15fe8f7d9458fbd3fdd80 Clear — to dry.
ab03a30b33da1bcd279f4f4061502e041fb1de67 In blue - to the rain; in red — to the wind, with ears - to the frost.
dfadc9392e451e6f8172184d8eaf4f93268cbd3d The decline of the river leads to rain, the profit - to the weather.
81e72664a55c53a31114aff11e900d4271edc269 A dandelion has a feathery ball for dry and warm weather, and a bundle pulled into a bundle for bad weather.
00b5b09c5dbffc381c1d491f17b1a15c146fb4fa In the morning, the fog rises, forming clouds to rain, and if it falls to the ground — to dry weather.
2e6cbff840f8d5d0210eccc6f603471efd2e7a37 In the morning, the fog is spreading on the water — there will be good weather.
05c4acae5356ab26e2cbcedfc80157ed4e82bbde The lapwing screams from the evening — to clear weather, flies low to a long dry one.
41aba27ebb7a5a7accb80d07ade5f15d13f88e56 Bright glow of fireflies for good weather.
eaa02116b6c475c5e9804ee14336c69adfbf4bf9 Folk signs for the weather.
e926ea05b0330872495139e494235fc75defbc8e The phrase of the day for your site:
b369b72ab7a4ec7020ac46b76a89f4267fa13327
352b698350c374ecfef17e7d2b5f4a1ac80e0052 no© 2010 – 2013 http://ShortWisdom.ru
dede2dd99c4c9dbc39020fcbf0757bb23d6da847 Meteorology
fbb7c88bc09a35eef03c43daeba089b61ed26bc2 The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on September 10, 2015; checks require 4 edits.
bea338d4cde6225163bcf0bd1e7752a34a8e0971 Meteorology (from the Greek. μετωωρος, meterosros — atmospheric and celestial phenomena and λογαα science) is a scientifically applied field of knowledge about the structure and properties of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical and chemical processes taking place in it.
c8a116787c3027f75a1ca946cab23e0f20ddeff5 Meteorologist of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States in Oklahoma at work
5d15f4b750200f2bd80fea2c53555ec6dc369ed0 In many countries, meteorology is called atmospheric physics, which is more consistent with its current meaning.
208c30db237a1a556423d36312323bbca791a10f A significant part of meteorologists are engaged in modeling weather forecasts, climate, atmospheric research (using radars, satellites, etc.).
6d8874a29d623975700e06804326bcb9a47659dc Others work in government and military organizations and private companies that provide forecasts for aviation, navigation, agriculture, construction, and also transmit them on radio and television.
78576366eec7723304044cd2646fd05cf1aacc7f Automatic weather station in Heidelberg
e14c7236364bf06f286b6e82853b230307378155 1 History of Science 1.1 History of meteorology in Russia and the USSR
c90c1bbb7bb2c0c810e456f4fa977755b7717d41 2 Sections of meteorology 3 Subjects of research 4 Technical means 5 See also 6 Literature 7 Notes 8 References
c0bac2b3bff8e695e827040767c5bf5211ac558f History of science[edit / edit wiki text]
b31859a014805fef1337bff2cccbfd7df8c86e3e In the XVII century, a hygrometer, a rain gauge, a weather vane and an anemometer were also invented.
f4dbd67a65171d9e1cba67dc588f78535579d1b1 The second network of weather stations in Europe existed until 1735.
e691ea13c4715f612ee1c46772634ebc79ef8d93 The instructions for the observers were written by Daniel Bernoulli.
85972f6c7eabfedd6369fffc56bd90e51b46e022 In 1781, the first meteorological society in the world was founded in Mannheim by the Academy of Sciences and Fine Literature of the Elector Palatinate[de].
3b6428148afa6a44928268319c9fd6e4fa587652 It supplied observers in different countries with the same devices, according to its program, 39 weather stations operated, from Cambridge in the USA to the Urals.
abd03106e6715375dae3a798839362b5cf3d0b87 They were asked to set four points of measurement per day — at 7, 11, 14 and 21 hours.
c04283d7254dcf5671da3de5ba0a277bc6689557 In 1802, independently of each other, Jean Baptiste Lamarck and Luc Howard proposed their own cloud classification systems.
cc5a11d68b675e0da0c14decca3e3474c5a3fc03 However, Lamarck's terminology did not enter scientific use, since he created it in French[1].
87faa1efe98c1eeedd876f373f83702df7ffa250 Howard, focusing on the nomenclature of the animal and plant world developed by Linnaeus, used the Latin language in his classification.
3981274d38d6d560779070c2c3b975e45e1493e3 It was Howard who gave the clouds their now generally accepted names, distinguishing three main types: "cumulus" (cumulus), "stratus" (layered), "cirrus" (cirrus)[2]. Combinations of the main types allowed us to characterize four more types of clouds: "cirro cumulus", "cirro stratus", "cumulostratus", "cumulo cirro stratus", or "nimbus" [2].
bc796dcf095444581a30b5d84588371044ffc565 After the conference of the main maritime powers in Brussels in 1853, at which the principles of meteorological observations at sea were discussed, the post of Meteorologist statistician was created in Great Britain under the Committee on Trade, to which Robert Fitzroy was appointed.
1c30bfdf757253953a0ec7d1adaa614d4f30be85 He was given several assistants.
4bd44f7fab4d037384a8577f249b566210f5f7e1 This was the beginning of the first ever state meteorological department — the weather service of Great Britain[en].
a800b1696043f5ff879968f59240a970af9fb3da During the Crimean War, on November 14, 1854, a storm broke 60 British and French ships.
0338268a8ec10b8bdcde3003406005f27746ba57 After that, at the end of November, the director of the Paris Observatory, Urbain Leverrier, asked familiar European scientists to send him reports on the state of the weather in the period from November 12 to 16.
3788a67506e77b6497344994502962382088b053 When the reports were received and the data was mapped, it became clear that the hurricane that sank the ships in the Black Sea could have been foreseen in advance.
09698596cf10c6178577d6eb83c905f56b7b2d1f In February 1855, Leverrier prepared a report to Napoleon III on the prospects for creating a centralized meteorological observation network with the transmission of information by telegraph.
bc3241466cb3875fb58caa1e06c6cad7d7743e57 Already on February 19, Leverrier compiled the first map of the weather situation, formed according to data obtained in real time.
182b947c73fb642619775dfa408f0ae075528eb3 In the UK, Fitzroy made it a duty for all captains of English ships to monitor the weather, note the temperature, wind strength and direction, take barometer readings and enter data into specially designed tables.
ca560c5e041ac176ca077feb2dc1a14c69e5d047 To do this, he sought to supply all ships with the necessary equipment.
89f26575894213fcb409a6686f9a706a125f2e32 24 meteorological stations were established on the coast of Great Britain, as well as in some European countries.
34a3ef4ffbbc8232e2b75bce8b61315adc3bd408 19 were in the UK, one in Copenhagen, one in the Netherlands, two in France (Brest and Bayen) and another in Lisbon.
bc1b68c70f7058f5d2499bd0967e232800391dc9 The stations were connected to the weather service center by the newly invented Morse telegraph.
7833fbdf263e76c6287c3830556a3f9a7af73d62 The weather information collected from these stations was analyzed in the weather service center and recommendations were made based on this analysis.
8fb905a6bb0b3752a28f6eb1d4a46ecea140709f Recommendations were sent to the station by telegraph.
6b792e7e5ffa3ab19d1054ab51d193ef74d19fca The first synoptic maps were released on the basis of which the weather forecast was made.
87f0ddcbc323012f96568a54954e0c240b54db19 The Times newspaper has started publishing the first weather forecasts.
764359879f43e550ec596f402fc5a1c50e5715d0 In 1873, the first international Meteorological Congress was held in Vienna, at which unified measurement dates and a unified telegraph code for transmitting meteorological data were developed.
4777d7e1f0809346da5881f8b9b293847f8409ea Synoptic map of Europe 1887
6ee4261242af608ec37be9742168e9f26089b487 In 1917, the Norwegian meteorologist Wilhelm Bjerknes proposed the concept of an atmospheric front.
1d8fd13206583bb98a95ee347b3305c4fdac5ba2 The principles of frontological analysis were the main scientific basis for weather forecasts until the late 1940s.
5ebbb1a06d6edf288153037307500d0861c5d651 Since 1930, radiosondes have been used to study the upper layers of the atmosphere.
37b496e5cd148ed82c47ab69c4d32b3c079515b4 However, it was possible to create a fairly frequent global network of aerological stations from which they were launched only after the Second World War.
fecd5c7ebf37cf5a4f552f27954bd171f73ae967 As a result, in 1946-53, the justifiability of weather forecasts increased dramatically.
92f937a8b0c76a63d606f84cb3bd9ef6f887ff52 The next sharp jump in the growth of the justifiability of weather forecasts occurred in 1961-67, when computers began to be used for making forecasts, meteorological satellites began to be used[3]
f491116a93409992d194e85a8e59eba0148ac7b4 The history of meteorology in Russia and the USSR[edit / edit wiki text]
e30251631eae154b6acb7eb23fdfe49becc44b77 Main article: Roshydromet
97165a4cec04a10e0404f0b3c555dd9a3622e9e8 At his behest, astronomical instruments and meteorological instruments were brought from Europe, including the invention of Evangelist Torricelli, a student of Galileo the barometer.
34ee7caea0e20f30fa0f4c1ea8088c5c2356574f However, Afanasy Matyushkin, the son of a deacon, appointed by the tsar to keep records of the weather, did not use tools and recorded mainly his own observations in the "Diary Notes": when the rain began, when it ended, when the Moscow River froze, when the ice opened[4].
990d04f7d813539f565e65d32f99e09d1861c43b the end of the XVII century.
6583d8546b97cb7596c103fcac18267bd115b52a (under Peter I) - constant monitoring of the weather began. 1715 — the first water measuring post in Russia, by order of Peter I on the Neva River near the Peter and Paul Fortress.
e1822ca4653943733bf9e446bc2d9cd0188e878d At first, the records were quite stingy with interesting information and looked something like this: "April, 22, Sunday.
1f6ead2a727830b2c524375ef140b49b2101ee74 In the morning, the wind is north west; the water is as high as mentioned above.
228288bddc7b542019c04b553662b543ed54d210 It is cloudy and frosty... at noon there is a small north west wind and rain in the afternoon.
f8fcb2106b5ab24c80b4f3b0f48deaceaf01b84a Quiet and red day until the evening."
df2448bbeca9400beee9aa700835b51ebae48e6a Later, the observations took on a more scientific character.
15a274fdea54d4892e7c44c836aa9017eb63b356 30s of the XVIII century.
e120b365fcb105288a2edc82bc4a69e9a2dd232a - a network of 20 weather stations has been created ("Great Northern Expedition").
25e23a38491316eaaf5dc5bcc1515fb91ad24b35 April 1, 1849 — the "Main Physical Observatory" (GFO) was established in St. Petersburg.
e57eed5c14cbf4298e273480d38b1874672a2733 (Now the "Main Geophysical Observatory" named after A. I. Voeykov (GGO)). 1868 ... 1895 director G. I. Wild 1896...?
2ffcad18ae8965ed2715b7acdd6c88778d54071f - director M.
20fa51a8a1868c8000218d25b39021863d6c9a46 A. Rykachev 1913-1916 director B. B. Golitsyn
d27c1a275c6ac2fbdee88406ff574cfa896d072e 70s of the XIX century.
2b76f3d73e977ea6334f6ecd2c5d9100f2e0979b - mass development of a network of points of hydrological observations on large rivers and lakes.
16e6fea9a48503e8f39fba553b3458193f5f3cad January 1, 1872 the GFO began to create daily synoptic maps of Europe and Siberia and to issue a meteorological bulletin (the date is considered to be the birthday of the weather service in Russia). 1892 the "Meteorological Monthly" began to be published.
ab2c7abc6cb00aefcd3856b6cb3d8bf04797874d June 21, 1921 V. I. Lenin signed the decree "On the organization of the meteorological service in the RSFSR".
b7dce4532b3157a32191ae11e198312a254a8b11 August 1929 resolution of the SNK of the USSR on the organization of a unified hydrometeorological service. the creator and head is A. F. Wangenheim, Chairman of the Hydrometeorological Committee under the SNK of the USSR.
e6a0209ae4475809b5d21fd11f88e754ddd0871c (In 1934, he was sentenced to 10 years of ITL)[5]
d28f6fd50531e362878e8f243fec73953a838334 January 1, 1930 the "Central Weather Bureau" began its work.
ee6babf734826f7398fb50b9a271898ec2718e42 Currently, a computer network is widely used for transmitting meteorological data, which has made it possible to improve the data compression algorithm used: instead of traditional alphanumeric codes, tabular oriented ones appear, the decoding of which is simpler[6].
985ff8b2874e1a832ce21db8f04a710ebc440af5 Sections of meteorology[edit / edit wiki text]
7d89fd5e72fd6d1688babb76ec5ef1e87a587d28 Physical meteorology (development of radar and space methods for studying atmospheric phenomena) Dynamic meteorology (study of the physical mechanisms of atmospheric processes) Synoptic meteorology (the science of the laws of weather changes).
925258337e11a828bc33fd1f2cc2521a645cfe70 Climatology Aerology (science that studies the upper layers of the atmosphere up to several tens of kilometers from the Earth's surface) Aeronomy (the science that studies the upper layers of the atmosphere up to several hundred thousand kilometers from the Earth's surface)
d28a55ba4ede63fe4646a7637d568e8a179db316 In addition, there are such application sections as:
dcd492f09c1b194e3cfd785c5c329d635877044b Aviation meteorology Agrometeorology Biometeorology (the science that studies the influence of atmospheric processes on humans and other living organisms) Nuclear meteorology (the science that studies natural and artificial radioactivity, the spread of radioactive impurities in the atmosphere, the influence of nuclear explosions) Radiometeorology (the science that studies the propagation of radio waves in the atmosphere)
7bcc045c56c9e7b947a8376eb8edf5627f4047f4 As well as smaller sections, such as forest (related to fires), transport, construction and others.[7]
307ff81f6cddc32d50a8fad3745e3bff6858076f Research subjects[edit / edit wiki text]
c0e332ed11082ed03a39343c23138f91fa168cce physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere composition of the atmosphere structure of the atmosphere thermal regime of the atmosphere moisture exchange in the atmosphere general circulation of the atmosphere electric fields optical and acoustic phenomena. cyclones anticyclones winds fronts climate weather clouds meteors
d025e7279ebc6f89c0c4687057eb877d29c40428 Technical means[edit / edit wiki text]
03d3436e9cd4650610cad5b9b8fd96f99224387a Weather Station Weather probe Meteorological rocket Remote sensing of the Earth
f216904ff9fad57a2c810f44d90a96566f8f08de World Meteorological Organization Weather Forecast Index cycle Micrometeorology Active impact on hydrometeorological processes Atmospheric optics
e6070299800fedb10ea875ae0bb9cd4a330fbe71 Khromov S. P. Meteorology and climatology for geographical faculties.
557138b2053c9e1515ef3f0d1d21c8b9b99cdef5 - L.: Hydrometeorological publishing house, 1964.
a70e17d7f2c5b92b3c65322d84ae529c534b69f3 - 500 p.
ed3c2ed62ee7bf6c36eb4cc84becf3dba964d164 Gorodetsky O.
f67091b0df6b2f3f82ca5ba4867ef54e76eda130 A., Guralnik I. I., Larin V. V. Meteorology, methods and technical means of observations.
79d533942164747d2670effa81fbc5d897084bb5 - L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1991.
7ffe4e794197aff169c075ca223cb8a9b303ccad 8 — - 336 p.
3a74b4f6ccc1aa89bb1a4806a2660a73a9f767ef — ISBN 5-268-00646-9.
e75780ff194a51dff3ebd4f03bd334c896df45da Khromov S. P., Petrosyants M.
862d02dcb2ad846af49a335e7035c2ffbe75abfb A. Meteorology and Climatology.
c54dfeb441ed0630c7192c500399f08b44eee6cf Textbook.
613a90f1390ee5fa267e65a918b9bbc26599fbd6 - Moscow: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2001.
3b8dd803733a840ae56aba1392a94f815c17a323 - 527 p.
b5f7c7cf71a4da0e7eea1889d84911c8f725b909 Pasetsky V. M. Meteorological Center of Russia.
b86ed9be34c051438b8b31a0ce4ae799c109e4d2 L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1978.
4cf12eae048bd8f4b4b00a7645e99d8a1e9d7e5f Selezneva E. S.
5e35b347e292067145f91d8c47836552e081e8b1 The first women geophysicists and meteorologists.
9be59f435655b0e94acf56338cdbc251283aa6ed L.: Hydrometeoizdat, 1989.
539456f2b059df1a13e330b12f6ec6226d34d360 -184 p.
61536798467ce27dacc473a464e79107254afae0 ↑ The Man Who Named the Clouds ↑ Go to: 1 2 RMetS ↑ A.Ugryumov. "According to the Hydrometeorological Center..."
5f6cd57483a5da29b02dcdb625a56b4d9190e687 ↑ And about the weather ↑ The missing Solovetsky stage, Vladimir Tolts, 25.08.07 on the website of Radio Liberty ↑ Gotyur I.
18837045b279316f857c778c23e6571559893d76 A., Kostromitinov A.V. Technology of description and decoding of meteorological data based on the algebraic approach.
efb7477c73aa3bdf2ca2bc0a0b61a3fcd335cdcc - Instrument Engineering magazine.
d0937547316975eaa469746a8182aa895eb8f6e9 - Issue #1.
da4a9e753fcdb6f41ad7fe0d16542295f5172d81 - Pp.
7fc2c57bfe754fae93712336efd53c0f357fd9ab 6-11 ↑ Kan S. I.
4e1767f25b7c8c6e8bf72d01f2a8aa09ca36f76f The ocean and the Atmosphere.
2909dad393d7279296f357ba2f7dfd967bc5d44f - Moscow: Nauka, 1982.
2aa470174102eca0b324fc2fe929cf0df4cdd3eb 71-72 — - (Man and the environment).
bb70573a7e995f95ddc2b637a5aeedd8cfaad9b6 Meteorology in Wiktionary?
14ac7f9a9fad8d20e9668ea95693883e74660ef5 Meteorology on Wikimedia Commons?
546d1ec29e45ae9ab20d5f6fa1505650b110ba89 Meteorology in Vikinovosti?
0968d27ec75353a1cba0519eb9c32b33bd95dff1 Meteorology and climatology article in the encyclopedia "Krugosvet" Russian State Hydrometeorological University (RSMU) Website of the Hydrometeorological Research Center of the Russian Federation Department of Meteorology and Climatology of the Moscow Center of the Russian Geographical Society Meteorological weather forecast in the cities of the Russian Federation How meteorologists predict the weather Pocket guide of an aviation navigator, METEOROLOGY Meteorological Dictionary of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences Meteorology and Climatology.
61e0f0121a2a39524f2fbf9a8ac20551a4bcdefa The course of lectures by Luke Howard and Cloud Names (English).
0c2b2e3d924cb43b3d52c1bb00083b052c6a43e6 Royal Meteorological Society.
6fb442c85d67c2948f49e14af7511bae7e616f49 Verified on October 24, 2015.
cd214fffe4470de46b8c40961adc2f08f5361896 Keith.
2134110ea57a81ba6f0ecca711f343b6fe9aee07 C. Heidorn.
4e0ee82f36c26141ca9047679c95730afcb1f458 Luke Howard: The Man Who Named The Clouds (1999).
1f36444e2b53c07096c0f8c5983ce2bbe4600d49 [hide] Meteorological instruments and instruments Actinometer * Albedometer · Anemometer · Balance Meter · Barograph · Barometer · Wind profiler (SODAR) · Wind Indicator · Heliograph · Hygrograph · Hygrometer · Lightning Detector · Disdrometer · Cloud Searchlight · Oblacomer · Icing Indicator · Whole Sky Camera · Lidar · Mareograph · Weather Balloon · Weather Booth · Weather Mast · Meteorological Rocket · Nephelometer · Nephoscope · Precipitation Meter · Pyranometer · Weather radar · Radar station · Radio theodolite · Radiosonde · Snow meter · Solarimeter · Thermograph · Thermometer · Transmissometer · Weather Vane · Evaporometer
8ec0cd118c129d5c54eb2ae1d6af1750fd038a1b Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meteorology&oldid=75465775"
9ba1db40eab3ab70465fbc811e4fe7336e590dd4 Categories: Meteorology Atmospheric sciences
fc3fc61a3ab9fb1e7c2c01462a2949e455c6663e Hidden categories: Articles with links to Wiktionary Articles with links to Wikinews
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a2a4cf216b371d43fe9a6fbe5e7b83c54ea1a53a Last modified on this page: 09: 37, January 2, 2016.
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9d24cd6c6da8d2ff2f10777f7e0d99d0f7cf24ae Weather signs by factors *
174721e92c7d6428c97604bdc5e39638fdc265eb Home > Tourism > Weather > Folk signs > Weather factors
1780cda04c21cf76a7684ce04e00df0b4ffd78ec Alphabetical list of pages: A | B | C | D | E (E) | W | W | I | Y | C | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U | F | H | C | H | W | S | E | Y | I | 0-9 | A Z (English)
faaa95ddc61ad9003c771e4e4720d2d571905533 Sections:
72d8318406dc7b5964b9e47dc3050a86d31da422 Weather forecast by stars Weather forecast by moon Forecast by dawn, sun and clouds Forecast by air phenomena Weather forecast by animals Weather forecast by plants
cf278df9e2f97e8254ba3918ded557daa0d53a23 Weather forecast by stars
c4d5019492b126d9ac66ed33400388acc0321c71 Black circles near the stars for rain.
d52dca8092734005d09583bdb734d1fde0805e22 White and red to the bucket.
8af255742e39e7f9e99ea8bcd3b2085836c17de7 Dark, green and pale [?] circles to the rain.
b8d92f857ba5278b5bff4204d9ad0ac3d7fedfd0 Moon weather forecast
5357b827639f2d9076985b7f8c4da89bae488554 The ring around the moon to the wind.
ff789cab26d38ea11694db3f70f0854dc5b61e3c If the wind is in three days, it will look around [?], then the whole month will be windy.
59299f04967e97428c09b14136dd86ac6a50a946 The horns are to the wind, but the lower one is steep, the upper one is sloping, then the first half of the month is cold in winter, windy in summer; if the upper horn is steeper, and the lower one is warmer, then the same sign is for the second half of the month.
6e0a1303dce6e758f561d30263a65942758ddfde The horns of the moon are sharp and bright to the bucket.
dcd48340bf28c6b31e5f89caf8e385ab507e6561 Steep - to frost, the slopes of the horn - to bad weather.
cec672ef689de5db9b43ba8bc2070602efaaa48e A dull month leads to sputum.
4b846bdc20360aadfccd46dfab92c9ff3c199236 Clear - to dry.
3a1603aa54be65e22e3054dff49809771502a839 In blue - to the rain; in red - to the wind, with ears - to the frost.
0317c4a51cfa09347a05a0e03823e9bd26afb59e A clear, roundish moon in winter to the cold.
002a27b39305d82b52e50e02c3111422d599e8cc In summer to the bucket.
b6c25eab803d7171b3cd2c02d1ed2afbc31f995d Forecast for the dawn, sun and clouds
234aa83210da408d20868ec96ae724eaafb34f88 The sun sets with a red dawn, and rises with a light to a bucket and a clear day.
f1c9d0059970f13e06b8f430535be94a8ffb9421 Dull and rare rays of the sun at sunset or sunrise to rain.
2bcac5f51b52d2fd84e134c77eb561c9b8737f19 The sun turns into a cloud, a dark cloud sets to rain.
7ab341296cf58cf4bdf87d7c4ba1a101eaa41625 In the fog, too.
fd72f08d53e49e581cf2d7a789c80d26ff9e125e It shines strongly at sunset to a big wind.
ea5ab41b2d2c184868acab080ee4fbbfa1a98fa1 Red evening dawn to the wind.
268f3ad1f8d6138af33d78251ad403c750b2e615 The red color of the sun at sunrise is to a big wind.
0c917c7352a37e784bec83769db9f12e4f08eb44 A bright cloud before sunrise is a good day.
94537b91f134390f04c08a5d5d77f85526739c2d Darkish - cloudy or rainy.
7cd843811100c1702aca40155bc1cf18e6aa3970 A bunch of clouds with the rising sun - to variable weather.
1faa35be9aed940f4540d361e34dc8b450e77889 The rays of the rising sun are of different colors - for cloudy or rainy weather.
5f8385a35c3ad13002e5c903d862b5272b0ffad7 The sun in the fog to the rain.
f31a9727d8483715c9c0fd8d09e9b842179ab2d5 The sun appears from a dark cloud with great heat to a thunderstorm.
e654fa40f032dcc098fd55806b05e223e1c70b48 The sun is soaring and silence in the air to a big thunderstorm and rain.
abc9c26ee73c706ca500722d2d3820c675733730 A circle near the sun that does not split when it disappears - to good and dry weather.
c55c104d9ec2d90539fd0c919a731eed69b00a01 If the circle is dark, in winter it portends cold, in summer - rain and wind.
7a449336e49081763daddb5cc073ea229263d93f The circle is greenish or reddish before sunrise or sunset - rain or wind for several days.
f88e541f21f5fc24b426ae626f951a876257c9c2 A color changing cloud leads to rain.
e9b277ffd6aafbcfdf125f9e312b8ef2a46625fa With a half day wind - to a gusty wind and bad weather.
9b79873585d46f0dd2686676910f165b31d78e41 Forecast for air phenomena
7f1b12fe60615427a4111abbb3303a13fcf015dc Early dew in summer, and frost in autumn to the bucket.
33f78ceb702f006337f90099dad129135f8278f5 Evening dew to the bucket.
d550296cd3c6558213bdf5475e8c5469a449d1fe Fluffy hoarfrost to the bucket.
20b6dbcd435e736513630f9cf03aced76280b081 Smoke in a column to the frost or to the bucket.
f2a286c56c731b99aa0533a52c1e9ebcec09853a Smoke without wind hits the ground: in summer to rain, in winter to snow.
fa39fbd10860a4dc3636a3b89ee8b40b2954a92c Fog falls (does not rise) - to the bucket, rises - to bad weather.
f15b61dbf182508abc966a015a83ce83fb77542d A high and round rainbow is for a bucket, a gentle and low one is for bad weather.
2dd5af5a21a3162d48c9990262cc094af72c17bf Large rain bubbles to inclement weather and heavy rain.
a323bd22ebd10164143df9a46464c3089f4a27fc Thunder in winter leads to strong winds.
6358a69fb0d79b707ea367a8056a8afff87d9120 Weather forecast for animals
6e67fa2b85d53abde4077514510a2a9b53fb3e28 Cattle lie down under the roof to bad weather, and in the yard - to a bucket.
5178eeeef0f5201d437fa97103f58fca1e713d48 The pig itches - for warmth; screams - for bad weather; drags straw for a storm.
c4489fe1aefe7e681950c1bf59104f13f82cefc2 The dog lies down to bad weather; eats grass - to rain.
5fd0cb1190d24339aef04719f200ca666e8e4137 The cat washes, licks the paw to the bucket; buries the muzzle - to frost, or to bad weather; sits down in the stove - to frost, bad weather; scrapes the floor - to the wind and a blizzard; pulls the wall - to bad weather.
1f0b4ca642b8f95995a7e51c5e1b8087d8b5c64b It sleeps soundly for warmth; it lies with its belly or snout up for warmth.
e6153b1af2ff316fd11420002d95a435da9e12f2 The yard bird is plucked to bad weather.
6dcbfe18c512e60cc7a4af9a0c20d4461ca97441 The hen puts the chickens under her to bad weather.
febbf5b7b99b22b5dee9d3f0f0edd7c15e89e3aa The chicken is standing on one leg - it's getting cold [it's already cold - does it feel a draft on the ground?].
4a89ac18c8c1ad0cbd2436f7c7adaa19fc5aa198 Swallows fly low - to the rain, and high to the bucket.
00eab726f5a780e46b72547fb4b30f85f5460526 Crows gather in a bunch to bad weather, swim too; they caw in a flock in summer - to bad weather; in winter - to frost.
48dadb883290b01a8391c407ba5cd171aa52041a A sparrow bathes in a puddle - for warmth, and a crow for rain and cold.
9aac208619b262d7fa7b1568b3ddbd95e8d13311 Sparrows bathe in the dust, or chirp for the rain.
4dbf0b089d2a1650a995979c76ae8c6deea51da1 Weather forecast by plants
5a1b7cd6fe6cc3d4bbcd6e4d442a0dc0b4fea0b1 If the forest is noisy in winter, it means that there will be a thaw soon.
f560bdf9c4d96d79eb506d783c0dd16c9c677e28 In summer, the forest is noisy without wind for rain, before a thunderstorm - it calms down.
c688750bc518e96316404be6d31377d65fdabe47 Flowers smell stronger before the rain.
23ff28b59e38505ddacf54b6b72ea939611103e4 In summer, before rainy days, the branches of coniferous trees fall.
5aa8f7395fd3cc33bf48850057d479d213e32564 Folk signs about the weather :
38b3eb9b82f9db09ae8882c79d9e697df99ee594 Spring | Summer | Autumn | Winter | All seasons |
718c35eb96812d9d6903e987f5682bed5a51a064 By factors | Alphabetically
ac95f9fb39ffdc71e6e6d051f0f6d21e4c2365c0 Useful: Planet Earth |
d3c73a548b090b4aee16f7ecaf92587b4e93793d Modern climate | Meteorology |
9444501818e6c638233f607a1008d6adffed491c Calendars
67e46b99869683e8de0e870961304ad5bad4a1d4 On the rights of advertising (see the terms and conditions):
6bb6b4671bcd544e984d8547efd29bc3d9de8e0b the dna of the Huns
2237951dc773cbea342a430f51684a2002d7d496 Keywords for finding information about weather factors:
624de7b2fed0b56f3f214ac9a559fbd5f5df1970 In Russian: groups of weather signs, factors of weather prediction, folk observation of natural phenomena;
b0e17733161b6e511a4bfe78c5d8d8830748fc39 In English: synoptic forecast factors.
5c3bc5705e9041578ae48b163d118800f65b6578 © "Igor Garshin's Website", 2002.
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38c4a4e15f41a8aad9a4cdd08f850b227a108903 The page was updated on 12.01.2016
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61cf2c6ff6220b2bebc019cedfadcc9edde7c013 Educational Weather Bureau Department of Theoretical Meteorology and Meteorological Forecasts of OGEkU
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0855684c1444ece44c79b3612a7f4cfac9ae6e2a Publications
046e61e363f790723deaf4d189cfbda1e3217259 Synoptic reviews
e78050d531fd0de66ee35d7aca40593df5de0d0d Useful links
ee0c7416d215c6ce22d20163e39de41cbd921d6b Lunar calendar of Odessa
28ffd15348103fd2e873c6c513f89da64a755a32 Determining the depth ...
544fc0eb5a7bc1e0162dc3a071f5b406b2d4ae55 Meteorol organization...
1160ecb29aa76b24bf25dbc830bb50991d5919bf Climatology of the Average...
b1d7079424153afaf17913afe70684c4b08c5187 Climatology of Ancient Greece...
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2f08396fd94ed6427999bdeee67b87efa952da5a Weather forecast
7e6e8b9fa303955354a65c34952543479f7fbafa According to the advance time, weather forecasts are divided into short term (KPP) and long term (DPP).
37ad2c442bb2001cd9963d62019e02266fc6cc39 Short term weather forecasts include weather forecasts with a lead time of up to 36 hours, long - term weather forecasts more than 36 hours.
9ca0abe93bb2ba9469e5afce764012b39686469a The PPC also includes ultra short term weather forecasts (these are most often aviation weather forecasts), weather forecasts for half a day, a day, sea forecasts, medical.
e7f56951b386f3b7884e1e928f966fd9027bab7f The materials that are necessary for the compilation of the checkpoint are synoptic maps (prognostic, diagnostic), vertical sections of the atmosphere, diagrams, meteorological radar data (MRL), satellite data, non analytical data.
6cabbe688b9d8bc39745997063d59265bb958e36 A variety of synoptic and meteorological information is used, which allows you to make a short term forecast as accurately as possible and with maximum advance time.
b39aca48fec890acb23e1034c87be3e126d1f8aa DPP includes short term forecasts (from 36 hours to 3 days), three - day forecasts for the natural synoptic period (PSP 3, 4, 5 days), pentad, decadal and monthly.
e06f1544d0f3b2508f0c99166b2bb5dd95da489b The DPP also includes ultra - long term forecasts for a season and a year, climatological forecasts - for an epoch, several years.
7349a55f245deafa985221d6e4e82efe3adbc8b5 Short term weather forecasts are divided into several types:
da5a20acd910fb7d0e07d93e1bd8a1d222c6dae5 - Weather forecasts for general use are compiled for a wide range of the population and some national economic organizations;
c46f6062995499bc01b943a0f607f4513f523f7a - Specialized weather forecasts or operational industry forecasts are compiled for certain sectors of the national economy, taking into account the specifics of the work of this industry.
65947f65188018f69fbd44b4f5c710bb534f7448 For example, aviation weather forecasts that take into account the impact of weather conditions on the operation of air transport.
dcbe026659b819b0a1d0eeeaf2820556d64f2a63 There are also marine weather forecasts, weather forecasts for agricultural areas, utilities, logging, work in the forest, medical weather forecasts, etc..
f60519447b7d11a27ed6878bb37f3128d1394f0f Forecasts for general use and forecasts for a number of organizations consist of a 12 hour interval separately per day and at night.
a806a0b372d656ff3da70ca280dfe44c342e061f Daily weather forecasts can be updated with forecasts for a shorter time.
fe47b0a0098aa22c5e16221b41d395707a6d9b8c The terminology of forecasts is regulated by the Management of the Forecast Service.
8628a3d7069c8de5d5e6290a66395cdaf36ef9d3 The weather forecast should be clear, concise, contain such terminology that excludes ambiguity of interpretation.
f0954477c083c262e15acf38afc1c972bffd3c19 The storm warning service is of great importance in the operational maintenance of the economy and the population.
7c19d82d80135602afcdb823d10a36c376576e48 Regardless of the weather forecast, if a dangerous (NYA) or natural hydrometeorological phenomena (OHS) is expected, then a storm warning (SHO) or a storm warning (SHP) is necessarily on a par with the weather forecast, which is given with the maximum possible advance.
888e2575215fe5ce97a95c32a02b89ca8a66942c Forecasts are made for a point, route, district, region, throughout the country, as well as for large territories (for example, throughout Europe.).
300cd24b82ba10e3022682280a765aefb9a8717f Weather forecasts for a large territory are called background forecasts.
224bc2d76fd00d235d893bc1f01febeb9a5f92f5 Weather forecasts for a smaller area are updated by introducing local or local amendments.
3ac857d1dba040d826524fe1acf6f3fb38cf50fa Depending on the branch of the national economy for which a particular weather forecast is compiled, it contains various information.
e0d6610a92baa16bde0d43ff9651550a7a602d25 Depending on the characteristics of the predicted values, weather forecasts are divided into quantitative and qualitative ones.
564b47bf04523b62e45782c096b56460aaf07b7f For example, the temperature is more often given by a number - a quantitative forecast, cloud cover - both qualitatively and quantitatively.
9d36b336aeb1af88dd136151e925341a8358d1bf Weather forecasts can have a categorical form, including probabilistic (alternative forecasts).
8e8f6d23ebf73d9e4e9622e7847525a0e447262b When making weather forecasts, both synchronous and asynchronous communications are used.
6edb1be7c22c70386a052696f93b21a4a4c18b10 Synchronous communication is the connection between meteorological quantities at the same time.
9f879de133e8d94753a18addb5083c9159e64163 When forming weather forecasts, it is necessary to remember that the process of making a forecast has a step by step nature: it is necessary to first make a background forecast, since the fields of meteorological quantities are multifactorial and interrelated.
a95aeb91cf002963a3db52024e6b0c380aa35535 Regarding the consideration of the relationship between various meteorological variables, the synoptic forecasting method has a number of advantages.
65b6ffefd9746c6ea02b2347945d08889bce90f2 This method is divided into several stages:
dca9e6e64c7b0add2638edc6397aa0c212e42845 1) based on the analysis of the current and future synoptic situation, a background forecast is made;
653116d0f2cf92ef7d592aee3376770b52f81778 2) the nature of advection is determined ("transfer" of weather conditions that have already been observed);
9c9e8fb5da516943c6049bdd01ad642d515ab2ce 3) corrections are introduced for the evolution of meteorological quantities (transformation);
e600307a2595a9254d95199edfab6ff80985f9b3 4) local amendments are taken into account, taking into account local features.
498cdfe49bd2444015279dfd505b92559e9a26af At this time, several methods of forecasting meteorological quantities are used in operational practice:
fe5dba403c48edd1e907844379821b3f6d2274a7 - The qualitative physical method of forecasting weather conditions is based on the forecast of the synoptic situation and related weather conditions.
99c5821c6273f7d4e64ccf28c57a62483669f0ca This connection is based on the characteristic patterns of the development of baric formations, that is, the background forecast consists of;
3a63ba84806568f3f291e6a8245c3d55b241da98 - The hydrodynamic method of forecasting is based on the establishment of a functional relationship between the trends of a meteorological value and the actual value of this parameter.
60aa490d416e23b8ca67112ede0382c8f89fef7b At this time, hydrodynamic methods are used to make forecasts of pressure fields, geopotential, then proceed to the forecast of wind at the earth's surface and at altitudes.
505e1df6398858309c7006a7b013e0dfb6d8ce4d These data are used to construct trajectories, temperature fields, advective phenomena, etc.;
79af2e20e09fbbe82ae2e8db3ccff494afa06c13 - Statistical (probabilistic) methods of forecasting.
2658e12cc5ab72620647e55f594fa653130dc419 They are based on the study of the relationship between the future value of meteorological variables (predictor) and a number of parameters (called predictor in statistics).
e92dd38f0f60cbd5a6199d05b9c319fa8b04a490 The predictive regression equations are composed.
a65aef29b35caf7175eed98ae4d08088353e45d4 It is very important to establish a connection between the predictor and the predictor, as well as to select the right number of predictors.
51ef26946d4a517a5cd1809bdb3f481251951c32 Prognostic connections are established in the diagnosis, and then, after testing on independent material, they can be used in the work.
e33876ac820256ae9e3c0578630e204747ce3f91 Along with weather forecasts, warnings about the occurrence of dangerous weather events, their intensity and duration, as well as consultations of heads of organizations about expected meteorological conditions, or those that have already developed, play an important role.
5916eafb7e4478ed3917010110c617bb221999b6 Consultations provide an opportunity to bring the dynamics of changes in weather conditions to the consumer more fully and in detail.
6a08ccdae05e3dbbaf8be1d85eee579b047895be The service of warnings about dangerous and natural hydrometeorological weather phenomena developed in our country along with the development of meteorological observations and the improvement of weather forecasting methods.
6a8f893d5f567faac2b3371ea078997c7b87030f However, its most rapid development has occurred in the last three decades.
3f09154ab57bd7bb234a53a83fc558c4132fd33a The Hydrometeorological Center (GMC), the Weather Bureau (GMB) and observatories carry out the main work on the prevention of NS and OHS.
d929478b9618de1c8bb8f955b315be797363fe50 When providing national economic organizations with warnings, the following are taken into account:
a13386f4b83c09a7a9ea605ffc610b51e96820af - The district (territory) for which a warning is drawn up for a national economic organization;
1b1ab93b3f27d44abc3a821d46fdd4c44a948e1e - A list of meteorological quantities, weather phenomena and their critical values that may cause a violation of the norms of the organization's activities;
f3a0d57c39fdb0e93024665af2646b1adf4bee1f - Ways to bring the warning to the organization that is being served;
00c0eaddaf099951f4c7079c8a533624e1ad4a4f - The necessary and desired advance warning of a particular meteorological magnitude or weather phenomenon;
a2b3fe9b5d35419efbb2e875dc53622d1e106644 - The procedure for canceling a storm warning.
c07b7ea390f64e53c0455f5915e395033c505c5b A special place is occupied by warnings about OHSS, which can lead to natural disasters.
15bd42d121f16b35c0391439e9516e93af242281 Natural hydrometeorological phenomena include such meteorological, agrometeorological, hydrological and marine hydrometeorological phenomena that, by their intensity, distribution areas and duration, can cause or have already caused damage to the national economy and the population and caused natural disasters.
c594c3495b3bd6b66d2b78e4bbd499a325ab2c2c One of the indicators of the efficiency of servicing national economic organizations is the justifiability of weather forecasts and storm warnings.
d5135803a26b6d5f82ec4fbd0181c47563b6c620 Despite the fact that not all forecasts and storm warnings are justified, they have a great economic effect.
1020f958d5d8e29ac8eab5cc9cf868737d8db75d Basic requirements for weather forecasting methods:
a0f974870bf4e8d5fa1a33b1b07aa26f68cd26c2 1) The initial data for the development of forecasts according to the method under consideration should have an accuracy that provides an acceptable forecast error.
13d0acbd3bd375b2d0f59bbd04f23f94ba15e112 It is better to use actual data for the forecast than predictive data.
1479aed57802836e5512ceab17ceea8a9bc5b4a2 2) The initial data for the development of the forecast should be available to forecasters when making the forecast.
d6600819617d55f6557ac6cbb7be8948203bdc88 3) The method must be objective.
aa32274f4f61616dff30b530b383d98815f9a1c7 4) The method should ensure the accuracy of the forecast of meteorological quantities or phenomena, which satisfies the majority of consumers.
681ae4f762960f692431aada56a355eed0235333 5) The method must be tested in advance on an independent material, that is, approved.
583af0a221abb573fd36e6b2ee87ed1e1bd41442 Published by Admin on 11.10.2014 · In the Training materials · 0 Comments · 775 Readings
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14021e137aae37daff866658d67b8fa75d684e01 Ratings
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cd1647c3d79095847dc26fa6353a3b921c8d701b Weather data provided by the Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Center and the Odessa State Ecological University
1f4bee3d7dc925c85ed0a283de1e4f8e8aed39a2 copyright © 2007-2016 Weather.
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6f02f6d18ba39dc7a0771198322d827b60a82ef3 The training started on November 5, 2015
5e8ddc2318a5249be37844fe0b0dc188b31752ff Results of the Kazakhstan Hang Gliding Championship 2015.
e0872ed098be80ff0a3826122a1b46a41978e38c September 8, 2015
ec14f2e1e072a9a75dfb1468f59ae6878578f945 Results of the Russian Hang Gliding Championship 2015.
fd885e33456db18d1089ce82ba7e9c603f7bf141 Topic #1: The main characteristics of the weather.
713d74e97dd1ba3d289746c189dd92251be08664 Main atmospheric phenomena
9b636094c1d0c29c6a6746bf2f5f81dc79a4e640 December 25, 2013 19: 00
1e4ec5fee089640804ec8f608cd8866daff05d41 The structure of the Earth's atmosphere
9d3faf94f7c043cf455bde5eb4c2744afdb55c45 First of all, we need to understand what the atmosphere and meteorology are.
99f166262e79cacb6b11f01f9279d22976094cfa The atmosphere is the gas envelope of a celestial body, held near it by gravity.
be63c308683209d1e40c03f5b76f5f0747936a38 Meteorology is the science of the structure and properties of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical processes taking place in it.
29bf45f3e76e1f94269eb48c66b569cfdbb16535 The lower boundary of the atmosphere coincides with the Earth's surface, since air penetrates into the smallest pores in the soil and is dissolved even in water.
5ff8e6a7d3ac9f872d6b7a709981dba108d688bc The upper boundary at an altitude of 2000-3000 km gradually passes into outer space.
ae06fc5a16c5ed50cabfe60e91501b90a69faa04 There are several layers in the atmosphere that differ in temperature and density (see the figure).
62344cd41c67866ab905a56e1ddf6491ef91e614 The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the thickness of which is 8-10 km above the poles, 10-12 km in temperate latitudes, and 16-18 km above the equator.
38efd574d324a12677bbfd43beb8cf7fc21b5b83 The air in the troposphere is heated from the Earth's surface, i.e. from land and water.
3df21336c0db53646661040e9c64446bbc94236e Therefore, the air temperature in this layer decreases with altitude by an average of 0.6 °C for every 100 m.
d3290834f563b4ea6481fe8ef654c5d3474841d1 At the upper boundary of the troposphere, it reaches -55 °C. At the same time, in the area of the equator at the upper border of the troposphere, the air temperature is -70 °C, and in the area of the North Pole -65 °C. About 80% of the atmospheric mass is concentrated in the troposphere, almost all water vapor is located, thunderstorms, storms, clouds and precipitation occur, as well as vertical (convection) and horizontal (wind) air movement occurs.
c538667649894afc03f3f5c7b6298e22e32eb675 We can say that the weather is mainly formed in the troposphere.
ed4ac42bcec81c43eb243e3eb0dd6d7e4401257e Stratosphere — the layer of the atmosphere located above the troposphere at an altitude of 8 to 50 km.
4f00276f2ea6373b747eacbd9a5e44dbacd7a5b9 The color of the sky in this layer seems to be purple, which is explained by the rarefaction of the air, because of which the sun's rays are almost not scattered.
fd9160eec4f0a3e7fa130815da03df3917c7447b 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated in the stratosphere.
d8ce5f54a2342afe0b665e07c7b9188eb07747de The air in this layer is rarefied, there is practically no water vapor, and therefore almost no clouds and precipitation are formed.
7cdffff7adedc89ff93439ab326ee561b4c513aa However, stable air currents are observed in the stratosphere, the speed of which reaches 300 km/h.
c24691d56fca8e3b33e89006ee090b112c8f0476 This layer contains ozone (the ozone shield, the ozonosphere), a layer that absorbs ultraviolet rays, preventing them from reaching the Earth and thereby protecting living organisms on our planet.
73fa63fcf72580373810517663594add0fb6756c Due to ozone, the air temperature at the upper boundary of the stratosphere is in the range from -50 to -55 °C.
d42f1589a91726bc68388e532db517bfd72f5485 Between the mesosphere and the stratosphere there is a transition zone — the stratopause.
daa5bd8a3056231ff9b904c810281d86f3faf037 The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 50-80 km.
3faf5e1b92b5ad19c0181b8a654d5f9439ae5bb8 The air density here is 200 times less than that of the Earth's surface.
5702c9286171736f73b234edb2c48da614d49012 The color of the sky in the mesosphere seems black, stars are visible during the day.
f3f315ac42ad99e79f9851dd050e94f2494e1768 The air temperature drops to -75 (-90)°C.
464c0b3cb50476e2cd41002a6f2e1391eed97283 At an altitude of 80 km, the thermosphere begins.
beed47a392b53da5afa9f5a8787c4fff84b07921 The air temperature in this layer rises sharply to a height of 250 m, and then becomes constant: at an altitude of 150 km, it reaches 220-240 °C; at an altitude of 500-600 km, it exceeds 1500 °C.
14a5f571b5d08eb096494cf0bcc18926f5baae43 In the mesosphere and thermosphere, under the influence of cosmic rays, gas molecules break up into charged (ionized) atomic particles, so this part of the atmosphere is called the ionosphere a layer of very rarefied air located at an altitude of 50 to 1000 km, consisting mainly of ionized oxygen atoms, nitrogen oxide molecules and free electrons.
cbf542c09f3b1347538b4ee8db3fef9b0092930b This layer is characterized by high electrification, and long and medium radio waves are reflected from it, like from a mirror.
965a2a2ef3476c4b4d6e44c644828eebeece6088 Auroras appear in the ionosphere — the glow of rarefied gases under the influence of electrically charged particles flying from the Sun — and sharp fluctuations in the magnetic field are observed.
aaaf005704fa72acbac2fd5121360273917ff872 The exosphere is the outer layer of the atmosphere located above 1000 km.
7edfe065a21aa2127ed6236df5cfe56259810471 This layer is also called the scattering sphere, since gas particles move here at high speed and can be scattered into outer space.
83dd3a0b14807d1b4f4f3ca701cf5ebe8741a8fe The main characteristics of the atmosphere: atmospheric pressure, air temperature, air humidity.
7e478af420bb7e9bebe5eee9d5b10c7b4b574ba2 As can be seen from the description of its structure, the atmosphere is characterized by several concepts: pressure, temperature and humidity.
181dfc53821bdddd5d207effb77faa74b00968bc The atmospheric pressure decreases as the altitude increases, since it is created only by the overlying layer of the atmosphere.
3cc847b8eebdf28dc641d54299f82468367492c3 At low altitudes, every 12 m of ascent, the atmospheric pressure is reduced by 1 mm Hg.
9c2f5f50170af1de99e43cd072d2f7e2ff32553f At high altitudes, this pattern is violated.
fc902265264e547f520d05609d527923fa243d01 With increasing altitude, the air temperature is constantly changing.
766c964657759ea80ec544a79ed2f8880157c0c2 This change is called the temperature gradient.
7f031ffeec306008d6f97845d304cfea391a3eac The temperature gradient is a vertical vector reflecting the change (difference) in temperature in the atmosphere with altitude (in degrees per 100 m).
a9e2984a85c6410e0fc81eabc3c81c3816d21ef6 In the troposphere, and it is this layer of air that interests us, the temperature drops by an average of 0.6°C for every 100 m.
d55e9a048c04e953a2d7094d6b23e8e1e9cdd80d By the way, the air temperature continues to decrease to the thermosphere, and only there it makes a sharp jump up: from -90°C to 1500°C.
3a426152c33847731f89ad1f2c96ee03d8b9d370 In addition, the temperature gradient (temperature change with increasing altitude) depends on the humidity of the air: in dry air, the temperature drops with an increase in altitude by about 1°C for every 100 m , in saturated water vapor - on average by 0.5°C.
566464f37e059bacae8fb418ed3200d5e7a99b84 For example, if they say "the absolute humidity is 15", it means that 1 m3 contains 15 g of water vapor.
6bef467fd7b24276e82f13c7b5ad963910621fd5 The main characteristics of the weather: wind direction and strength, cloudiness, precipitation, visibility.
fc7d08a6ad25cd7f79f3313e933e93c6211024cc Depending on the combinations of the above characteristics, we say that today is good or bad weather, flying or non flying.
25fe8a506c58fe8feea8df4abeef5d2c808dc9a2 High relative humidity can lead to precipitation, the formation of clouds and fog.
c872af2fd3cd8ca1fb11674d924c32c65b5e0468 And the difference in temperatures and pressures in different layers of air leads to the formation of wind.
68ed1e18b2d926540bc2fb2762cdbe795e46db70 So, let's start from the end of J
bc5dc0c381604fc185cd2f54e7dcd84faacc68f2 Wind.
4255cbf3fb44f4db7f148cf3b2466ddac141f2d3 The power of the wind.
e87fcafdc86e97bd7900f7d4aaf74fec1085d027 The Beaufort scale.
51c700a1b4e9ac67bcc88f2e222cbfc71cc762d6 Winds are usually classified according to the scale, direction, speed, types of forces that cause them, places of propagation and impact on the environment.
33a9a4e57a6de735abe3b34968e906e1f05e28ee The most important for us are the direction and speed of the wind.
d48342ce5249c44d883683ec5806238111d0a186 That is, the north wind blows from north to south.
42f5e82f6a45f804671bd8261d2c59d6a3ec605b The east wind blows from east to west.
796702700f647e1559701478e02f101459149493 The Beaufort scale is a twelve point scale adopted by the World Meteorological Organization for approximate assessment of wind speed by its impact on land objects or by waves in the open sea.
16a677ed9a981e630ea94a72b1ec7d61876b0861 The wave height in the scale is given for the open ocean, not the coastal zone.
ba64ab72cdffb655146b08320242e695b20024b6 Beaufort Points
b3c1a8b998442d52664c445c64f7014e9584f80a Verbal definition of wind power
18feca872643edfe7dd75492a4caa766c400e7f0 Average wind speed, m / s
34e998838a8a553d130ce580ed29859d565f32c5 Average wind speed, km/h
834f18eef0316e0d3827b15411dc0927c81c9d3e Wind action
ca6782813b68bf23c9f0d4d46132f96d2a3658ea on land
926f2d8afdf10da5bdeda89c2163f349c990b1db on the sea
7930bf9fc20b545aa145283a06acaf4ecb1a3e53 Calm
12fd1658d5446445ad8ad01515016f534f6ba881 0—0,2
0a2e09423e218a959e97ed63f4b2bd02acf6028c < 1
7b8a3dc7ffffc85aa090531a24d313fc66237527 No wind.
3d72ca1ddd1caf1b1244c2272ea9dbac1b5071e4 The smoke rises vertically, the leaves of the trees are motionless
c3b3d98cb785fcfe4821015ccddd88c91a14b129 The mirror smooth sea
fe73d79fdc84acfb3ac94fff0afe2eb232b1e40e Quiet
b34c3a5c142a7876845e69300ff689d95503fd35 0,3—1,5
83d9b7bbce26f2cd27cd42bee6a80a10921bf1c2 1—5
24e23a062fee4f4a59bafa67827dd95584e37ec1 The wind direction is noticeable by the smoke smell, but not by the weather vane
78281521246876a95ae1b8b6c895479ad00146cf There are no ripples, there is no foam on the crests of the waves.
92f502d208f050ec1144676a2af8f17353c867e5 Wave height up to 0.1 m
00f03137e1553b0354282415020698a20e955299 Easy
3610f6a80a308bf21fde77db99cc6c4264ffda2d 1,6—3,3
937102b89a007daeb46b3a6848578cbc01910c58 6—11
dbf9d2b1c71f9539774f6265d31ac87ec458b8f0 The movement of the wind is felt by the face, the leaves rustle, the weather vane is set in motion
7e5a5ad9301595f5c816bcdc445688d498da48be Short waves with a maximum height of up to 0.3 m, the crests do not tip over and appear glassy
8bfada821419f7b1c35da6470b04b8c1b0c72d91 Weak
05ce666fea1872d63f66f346bbfae8307df30bcd 3,4—5,4
f6ac6cc5675206fe7665a7e2379a4136c0d8b806 12—19
fda2bb2abe0197127e913a5504dc7bb7f3b85a27 The leaves and thin branches of the trees are constantly swaying, the wind is waving light flags
1ea4957a460e09d1f4ce80c39aa3c4a63783c0b1 Short, well defined waves.
8372e7c2967b2e5e82dd97443ef4ec00bda8a8c0 The ridges, tipping over, form a glassy foam.
bc8735f9b5274fce973ae901d36995fe39e82d46 Occasionally small lambs are formed.
02c4aa1ae5f2015913ab98b5f92678bd8ce70934 The average wave height is 0.6 m
ea8b09c2354b17c2a83673437d6380be0e7b8c73 Moderate
a757ed2706c13b7143e72872c5d1a9a74b67b4bf 5,5—7,9
23cbc0f85aef63ffd99f8567dbe8a129ae3d3080 20—28
e206a4f2e91d8d641cfa80a84be3965669f5a1ef The wind picks up dust and debris, sets in motion the thin branches of trees
d127f14ae46f098da19b20752046f6f11bd959ec The waves are elongated, the lambs are visible in many places.
e01b8bd63b8ce57252b62dbe38bd74c8fd7132e6 Maximum wave height up to 1.5 m
f65d3258c00dabad5c37b8eb74ce4ce4a3a9b10b Fresh
0a7f2720affe246f5ca70c542a0be0e745529d66 8,0—10,7
c89b1398afd5651f93d38ab708c908ec62843eb0 29—38
b1564dab7293c38f0487df6a4d593c5d5e162ebf Thin tree trunks are swaying, the movement of the wind is felt by the hand
7e733e86f2b6f31b25253a8e9229f87d033a9978 Well developed in length, but not large waves, the maximum wave height is 2.5 m, the average is 2 m.
101cb038ab3d71d3faaf460d3229cafda4e75e09 White sheep are visible everywhere (in some cases, splashes are formed)
cf846870537119b782030ae60e49b4c96e6c6ea5 Strong
5f2dd1271ec54877ff585088bbab3d8fc8807570 10,8—13,8
b33fb7e10b9940aa6309f8402020ef0ab906c115 39—49
e4c1016a74c3d4a0dba22d48aedd67c3eeb45115 Thick branches of trees are swaying, telegraph wires are humming
60cb444639a8948ade3311ea52964ba26a5926ed Large waves begin to form.
6ab19852ea6c7c895e83d77d11a60f1c19c3a4a7 White foamy ridges occupy significant areas, splashes are likely.
9aee60819cb6eb1d27f54abd914bae893c9dfd41 The maximum wave height is up to 4 m, the average is 3 m
c0cc8c6603bcc2a40b2448fae2592130827e60c7 13,9—17,1
9ca2049ecd803648efdf339ea6c5aa699537e98b 50—61
91b52484037dafd9c21cb3c9dd00902c34199f30 The tree trunks are swaying
7c7d3d2800c781e687dda54ec52df9224f01a33f The waves pile up, the crests of the waves break, the foam lies in strips on the wind.
a79d6bec0d958c199d93b4a89e4c320a789144b9 The maximum wave height is up to 5.5 m
ad36d65dd832968ad182ec09b01964d6c81efd60 Very strong
2795ebdace748d809a81a1f3eeecf45a96fa239b 17,2—20,7
36054b8adb686dc4c61aedb28a2bfe7bfb5ce054 62—74
0582ea81e45beba45f14973f973fea6de131bfd7 The wind breaks the branches of trees, it is very difficult to go against the wind
7ccad5f74aa50ee8d6f11b3647143091b58ae6a4 Moderately high long waves.
10400960ba32711139a034e778148afbe40c59dc Splashes begin to fly up along the edges of the ridges.
0e23ff89e95f9c7fd4f1906383bfc247bb712d87 The foam strips fall in rows in the direction of the wind.
4229590d6ba25ef1d873700de11507a3e479fb78 The maximum wave height is up to 7.5 m, the average is 5.5 m
3749c8439c7a7ed11b7cd056ffe6087f7fe71155 Storm
c7f263df0749db0322b03d8e1977180ed9c8042b 20,8—24,4
ac002ff1b4b80aa55037a59259edcfe2f527c4b7 75—88
92753b7dbb7f5e222157806fa0ecfea2bc0b8910 Minor damage, the wind begins to destroy the roofs of buildings
cf7d21b113118118ebd2397af007cf9b060048bf High waves (maximum height — 10 m, average 7 m).
9dcfb77d2d40fa2b70f021060cd53057c61ffef9 The foam lies in wide dense strips on the wind.
6f24ba3effebd9c0f7942e9f257f986254926283 The crests of the waves begin to tip over and crumble into splashes, which worsen visibility
d22b974712f7e6e056dd93c0187907581117256b A strong storm
2bd4b9e879f5e38695fd02956b2c5e10799a4f05 24,5—28,4
cb7f421c8e4622b005831f6b8e102a26f61ae664 89—102
b2d97fabc7f09afde5fd3554bffb59f1d84fcddc Significant destruction of buildings, the wind uproots trees
cff8696a73264621881e1f64c9f30d95bc5d233f Very high waves (maximum height — 12.5 m, average 9 m) with long crests curving downwards.
812452d26cdd601c24fa22e8b1117b7ed119597a The resulting foam is blown by the wind in large flakes in the form of thick white stripes.
142b8849d5e9851b2ad5c94c2e21851da62f652c The surface of the sea is white with foam.
63612b8966eeef037f5feb31acd5df428e1bb6f1 The strong roar of the waves is like blows
22d4e4b99a2b9cc2f6848eda238feeda90c43af7 A violent storm
84eaa9beb5083d6eced3c3953f2576b40c30ad7f 28,5—32,6
9b644118b37794fc515143dcea2e3a1f10885c23 103—117
21dbc16239617a1b4b1f88d36ec45cac6bc30a53 Large destruction over a significant area.
6a664c53df82356268f595b2fe2a6a901dedb2ca It is observed very rarely.
cc24b0e76afaebaed02de560bb2c71fbab29159f Visibility is poor.
8021538dc2c4f489cf00c5b1d2cebc98247063c6 Exceptionally high waves (maximum height up to 16 m, average 11.5 m).
a233c2fdc330972eeeb9e20bfeff4fddbb741dd3 Small and medium sized vessels sometimes disappear from view.
4d64e0bf81c8eb8dc7ce47cf361fbb6f70f92850 The sea is all covered with long white flakes of foam, located in the wind.
caffff25041fe7c7650517f89f50edef83d4e853 The edges of the waves are blown into foam everywhere
9abc035c968b46d6d0a0341bec41d9b16b7ec756 > 32,6
6d7fe63509e7cd10bec4437e79dd67c6ddd0a551 > 117
a141c8c9e9599741db0f31980b7cb594a92e5b9e Huge destruction, buildings, buildings and houses were seriously damaged, trees were uprooted, vegetation was destroyed.
4c065dd008748a5eca0c1dc67902e9a7cd37aed9 The case is very rare.
ad333ea4cb28e8c2169dcdaf5ce1192acf41c506 Exceptionally poor visibility.
2e262f85985c763ef750472e5869a7430ac515f7 The air is filled with foam and splashes.
6e9c4436805daba84a2f316017bbf70d2c2639e1 The sea is all covered with strips of foam
beb51fa1b9682698fbe3415d496c7dbc769ec7fc Long term observations of the direction and strength of the wind are depicted in the form of a graph wind roses.
2716b5fc0a4974b7788d42a3af60b0bb0d41c644 The wind rose is a vector diagram that characterizes the wind regime in a given place according to long term observations.
50de0637ced7aa04ad41c03b7043cb7e6b5bbe25 It looks like a polygon where the lengths of the rays diverging from the center of the diagram in different directions (the points of the horizon) are proportional to the repeatability of the winds of these directions ("from where" the wind blows).
64c34be549ac05b9f64f3f222fcd7bf10bea5431 Global causes of wind occurrence.
d5df615e18d519574ffc1f7f5d2802ecab843437 The main reason for the occurrence of wind is the difference in atmospheric pressure over parts of the Earth's surface.
1a3e376b7949da1a9026d8e44d085bd88d8389fb It is only necessary for the pressure to decrease or increase somewhere, as the air will be directed from the place of greater pressure towards a smaller one.
1bc661cebbf0ba30206b38936dbb087cb90cd0ad Due to the continuous change of pressure in time and space, the wind speed and direction are constantly changing.
6d65fb648fc9a1a40898107e0555f8bf0ceabf9e With altitude, the wind speed changes due to the decreasing friction force.
547ee41f16de77168d419ed56feb1007e4425b17 The distribution of atmospheric pressure over the earth's surface.
cadcc32e5bd6db923b6f6103b9b9a6c0006930ae As already mentioned above, different atmospheric pressure prevails over different parts of the Earth's surface.
62c780e5a4a76bea3687e6e2dcc4dc0e4cd9286f This is due to the peculiarities of heating and air movement.
f4d94e73c862d5c5c61841490bc0da3c64d88aab Above the equator, the air warms up well.
2cc1ee09325abbbba39be7a9a03d5a6baf7439b3 This makes it expand, become less dense, and therefore easier.
2f07ac4d55df4533281e437bf33b9c9890bc0634 The heated air rises up - there is an upward movement of air.
0570b52dde0fd332a2715fcd6a23efc07dd7ddb2 Therefore, a low pressure belt is established at the equator near the Earth's surface during the year.
b5e07cb90c626439b4cb24762468b9a7c3f7197b Over the poles, where temperatures are low throughout the year, the air cools, becomes denser and heavier.
a1e7828648d45d89fe3d8076c36dc4f3e25690f5 It descends - there is a downward movement of air and the pressure increases.
09137555db0b83e14bc201d8ff7863724033824c Therefore, high pressure belts were formed at the poles.
172a117fbbe684b2fc10ccf47e4bf2c3f4cdc027 The air that has risen above the equator spreads to the poles.
21f38cd6f28c1b1b3c9b4f10d4e6dfbaca375916 But before reaching them, it cools at altitude, becomes heavier and falls at parallels 30-350 in both hemispheres.
79bfeeae5e9a35231a74dd52baa88a022a9b41e9 As a result, belts of moderately high pressure are formed there.
aabb3275dabc4b3b4992ba25b202d9e2830c4f71 Local causes of wind occurrence.
741d174432dfe33a5827619b887456ff290cd7fc It should be understood that in each of the atmospheric pressure zones, this pressure itself is not a constant value.
289e44012b7ae39d725601fb0e60ec49741e07ed The air temperature, and, accordingly, the pressure that it exerts on the earth's surface depends on many factors: the time of day, season, features of light absorption of heated surfaces, relief, etc.
54321d1d48ab1daa8bc49730c8b2dde7abc031e5 All this is the local causes of the pressure difference on certain parts of the Earth's surface, and, accordingly, the causes of the wind.
fd5936292ae6cf0c10abba4b1ca44592b4956181 Thermal wind and coastal breeze.
d1aeed18db5e25573926fa0d1b6462025826f995 On a bright sunny day, the earth's surface is heated by the sun, and the heating occurs unevenly.
d5c29470d81139ae41deaafc94a20f2609d72045 Areas such as arable land, rocky or sandy soils are heated much faster than areas covered with water or dense vegetation.
c5d167b8deb6d5bc3f7f3ad4b516aa5ab76e67bf The air heated above the field goes up and is replaced by cold air, for example, a nearby lake.
3cbda9b0d3530d3de09664c238be793410ec47d0 At this moment, a light breeze will blow on the border of the field and the lake.
a5aa64c03e274e3a3b976e319bae18e113dd9a6f This is the thermal wind.
8f905e1a7e6ce56721f8bc73c7956951f70411d4 A similar picture is observed on the seashore.
395cc2d210653c7e9edf7f17606830aa92bd2988 During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea.
5c0b2423e407096acf2edd823033144c52ebe2ad The air heated above the earth's surface rises up and is replaced by cold air from the sea.
0ae3f531b65150f74512a4f34c3512b3fae85bfd The wind blows from the sea to the shore.
d8384e4047a56a77804b11eda08ab519165da9d7 At night, the earth's surface cools quickly, the sea becomes warmer than the land, and the wind begins to blow from the shore into the sea.
864f229a12080efb225d718223ab1b9f4097247b These winds are called coastal breezes.
c398e467b469a9c2c9c3b386744d03a5203fd23f Their speed can reach 10 m / s.
7c01d71e00e0d013566ee1d9824b1c4b4c015a39 See Figure 4.
a63b05ade088b74671d952bf8e8eb6411921b3a9 Mountain breeze.
94d1c67fdfe32aa5f70e578b44608c6a9100a5b2 Mountain breezes are the result of the fact that during the day the air located near the mountain slopes warms up more than the air located further from the surface.
9eb38427133df687ca5f6f6897699a86684cff85 Warm air rises along the slopes, creating a vacuum at the bottom of the valley.
af1ab93fb809f505065490383c9bfc9e750e49a8 Masses of cold air from the center of the valley rush into the rarefaction zone.
f78c88316631dd442c58a676164d0ab5f7a9ed9c A mountain rising breeze is formed.
caf5108f9f53e722ca77c78a2f26ab513a33f5df At night, the opposite phenomenon is observed.
8f5db0b92d22c3f35a2bad2fa136da6c450c1ec7 The air above the mountain peaks cools faster than the central column of air.
b722c3a3f358ead55a4682062f51f85cac70dac4 Cold air flows down the slopes, while a column of warm air in the center of the valley rises up.
f5a3ec95331c872002a926ddbbee4d39cb7f4b35 A mountain descending breeze is formed.
127849bb1cb7640789a737cca3f89c1600f5ca6a See Figure 5.
4d5d63c392c9fe76133fcbc03f6b035daa439d88 Local winds are winds characteristic of relatively small, limited area areas.
2f074f1fcc3252e7b4805570cbbbc979c4de78a8 The strength and direction of such winds is determined by the terrain features of a particular area.
1d40eddcc2d52d5450912a5f1fdb2f34a3708806 These include, for example, breeze, hair dryer and bora.
8db413d1586f25f1335dda374fa7e442ccf070bf We have already sorted out the breeze.
0471b473731c76c946d2c091db74a38a4677ebe6 This is a warm wind blowing from the shore to the sea at night and from the sea to the shore during the day; in the first case, it is called a coastal breeze, and in the second — a sea breeze.
95767a325c23e8de0d7d37a54c055fddd9df97dc A hair dryer is a strong warm and dry wind blowing from the mountains to the coast or valley.
b586b91d36aaa3b649217385deea894eff811f71 Hair dryers can be formed when the mountain system is occupied by an anticyclone, while there is a general lowering of air on both slopes of the mountain.
521c79c9cf036dfabcc2e718e9487d40a052199d The warmth and dryness of the hair dryers is due to the fact that the air meets an obstacle when it moves.
006bbac9dc558700093b1a80af1d7bdeec988bcb The air flow is slowed down and quickly heats up, the humidity decreases.
e2624f34992482a35c6bad4c3ffb4803ff171037 At the same time, cold air from the slopes tends to replace the warm air of the valley and flows down.
4016303eb58983af9038426c65993c34a743ee4e The hair dryer blows.
904093c07fa3fc9480357590c1ac633a8eadb593 This wind is most often characteristic of spring and summer.
d4c505b5fbdd1bcca9b88f0a5593f6a6a2ce3ba5 Bora is a cold, sharp wind blowing from the mountains to the coast or valley.
a24392cadb5a3f1675e9cf25e40c95d11038e02d It is formed more often in winter, when cold air quickly passes through low mountain ranges, and, without having time to warm up, falls down to the heated surface.
b27de25eedaf4fd64d885a679ec4c4f877fad08d It can reach hurricane strength.
5d7f024515a8490a2d20319b25b2b3a0cc194b09 The wind is near the ground.
e9437f39b232da82e4ea8fe868dc1c36d13f0ee7 Wind gradient.
cfa4fdbb9628a8600d5d5306f88ffdf21afb4aff As mentioned earlier, the wind gradient is a change in the speed and direction of the wind with height relative to the earth's surface.
3f5aae2fb8851992881b7c912e4b8c871e9a22c3 Due to the friction of moving air on the ground, the wind speed at the surface is less than at altitude.
a72ec2c004d9b5489d994e1eca7aa018dbc6f290 This layer of air is called the boundary layer.
4fca5c41ad3a8ae3e21aa9f8f6930cab8ab47548 The boundary layer is a friction layer: a thin layer of air near a streamlined surface, in which the effect of viscosity (resistance to the movement of one part of a liquid or gas relative to another) is manifested.
3e14f671047f8facc370f938a5b42f134257a1e6 By the way, the air layer near the surface of the aircraft is also borderline, because it has the same effects.
9df065ab2ddad0c0d23a5e9c5d6d8e06d452be68 It should also be noted that the terrain irregularities and thermal activity turbulate the surface layers of air and sometimes change the wind direction near the ground relative to the flow at altitude.
c787a251458bf261ab598d9f4a71be7980f9b955 See Figure 7.
64fe6fe28c5825f6954854c9cd2b59db6f6f3576 A noticeable increase in wind speed is observed up to heights of about 300-350 meters above the ground her.
399b455559619387b19509eaa03ae09eab001cb4 Gusts of wind.
b0d76c2f6a22650dccc23693c60c814bc97e00a2 A gust of wind is a short term increase in wind speed.
f4e88ff9010febbe26e25949168bfa31f245804e The rush does not last long, and it should not be evaluated in points on the Beaufort scale.
7067c63f6d1241fc2a97ca47f5cafbb358cfc9ce The influence of the streamlined surface on the air flow.
d541a420515c4ae754e61e66401d64bac6fd8769 For example, there is a local braking of the air flow when passing all sorts of obstacles: houses, slopes, trees.
74dc5a39afddaef7c0d28cae689da0cd9817dfa1 When flowing around these surfaces, the flow is turbolized, twists and either just a part of it suddenly begins to blow in the other direction, or suddenly "catches up" with the flowing air.
12ecdacf94e19b52cb3d74ce26a62c12f7c8de21 In addition, wind gusts are caused by thermal activity.
e551b6d327f9e722b8bb3f9269591b47c476e4f2 The wind, passing over the heated surface, tears off bubbles of even warmer air from it, which immediately tends to rise up.
bb2d7f433ca0a490e4592a5f2d664f7217fc08b7 At this moment, there is a kind of acceleration of the air mass, i.e. a gust of wind.
a575f189eec8e05af3d562fbf4a34548e5b7ede7 Global atmospheric phenomena.
5cfaa7e8d35855c76cc516e95c5cdb20c87ad631 Air masses
7d0d1c780597168225e7d9e5dd783fbf46237697 What I described above – the wind, and what I have not yet managed to describe clouds, fog, precipitation – all this is called atmospheric phenomena.
6ebdce01fe1d74106b58e4844d1a3231f27016e0 Atmospheric phenomena are a visible manifestation of complex physical and chemical processes occurring in the Earth's air envelope the atmosphere.
d542c92964425a5bcb24d4b822624bc069b26865 There is a classification of atmospheric phenomena:
bd3c450c445550184e8922411063504bc9d2f698 Hydrometeors — a set of water droplets or ice particles floating in the air (clouds, fogs), precipitation falling from the atmosphere (rain, drizzle, snow, hail, ice rain, ice grains, snow grains, snow grains), formed on the Earth's surface and objects located on it, ground hydrometeors (dew, frost, frost (crystalline and granular), hard plaque, ice, ice), raised by the wind from the earth's surface (blizzard, pozemok);
318f4badc1e441ec475f5b546bcd62635edf0ee1 Lithometeors are a set of solid (not water) particles that are lifted by the wind from the earth's surface and transported to a certain distance or float in the air (dust storm, dusty (sandy) snow);
686799dec62e92587ec64b5e2e6f932cba6adff3 Electrical phenomena — light and sound manifestations of atmospheric electricity (thunderstorm, lightning, St. Elmo's lights, ball lightning);
b64a72a771ba98a11394c4287881e7bf7ba1a9a3 Optical phenomena the consequences of refraction or diffraction of sunlight or moonlight in the atmosphere (rainbow, halo, mirage, circle around the Moon, crown around the Sun, crown around the Moon, solar column, dawn, gloria);
2bfd5569c40233c05c482bb94d99f716516a9e90 Unclassified — various meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere that are difficult to attribute to any of the above types (squall, Dust vortex, tornado, haze, dust haze, snow haze, ice needles).
c0294b609ea98713d60a68206d74812741f2035e All of the above phenomena are formed as a result of the movement and interaction of air masses.
20d530bff8c0338b249498d74c8cad0f732f8b25 Air masses are large volumes of air in the lower part of the Earth's atmosphere the troposphere, having horizontal dimensions of many hundreds or several thousand kilometers and vertical dimensions of several kilometers, characterized by approximate uniformity of temperature and moisture content horizontally.
ab66e9365e29a7f64bc8ae23e1085eac688a723e The uniformity of the properties of the air mass is achieved by forming it over a homogeneous underlying surface under similar conditions of thermal and radiation balance.
162b281630722254be7e3f6ca3a256a7889c0075 Air masses are classified, first of all, according to the centers of their formation, depending on their location in one of the latitudinal zones.
40770f6155198120fb3acbd39beac3244d6da8ca According to the geographical classification, air masses can be divided into the main geographical types according to the latitudinal zones in which their foci are located :
0cc73a0e4786e4c004ff387005d2941b90a3a1c9 Arctic or Antarctic air (AB),
074d528388125492addfcec6c883617d5ba05ca0 Moderate air (UV),
2e8b436faf2d3faabc22ec1c4976851b25e75d12 Tropical Air (TV),
cdaad2544010b89ab0b5337fe52f037bcc4bb688 Equatorial air (EV).
bfef5ae493b3bfb1bf94689ef8a1b478ba91274a These air masses, in addition, can be divided into oceanic (m) and continental (k).
9d43bc83efb384c41eba4e22f2fd70ea88150577 When moving, the air mass begins to change its properties — they will already depend not only on the properties of the formation center, but also on the properties of neighboring air masses, on the properties of the underlying surface over which the air mass passes, as well as on the length of time that has elapsed since the formation of the air mass.
9b59aea4dc60911d020f90778260e7404bd32fe7 These influences can cause changes in the moisture content in the air, as well as changes in the air temperature as a result of the release of latent heat or heat exchange with the underlying surface.
9b35ab80e6742e16769f0ef3481423670cd46c06 The process of changing the properties of the air mass is called transformation or evolution.
a1f088eb0ff0d361687a6a7d0265c122d597cfc9 The transformation associated with the movement of the air mass is called dynamic.
b161fbe13c9f9d828d4f1180354b5b0f12ac68bf The velocities of the air mass movement at different altitudes will be different, the presence of a velocity shift causes turbulent mixing.
1939ceca0e5b4d7c9f51b5c74ebee508cefe0487 If the lower layers of air are heated, then instability occurs and convective mixing develops (the air tends upwards).
b64853f549b2451df84fcadb4d8a8f7c24bd07b8 Usually, the process of transformation of the air mass lasts from 3 to 7 days.
9fef590c16e8b29c2bf3b7451e936160f55abb37 A sign of its end is the cessation of significant changes in air temperature from day to day, both near the earth's surface and at altitudes.
d4ddc4ae23f4a4384806814a1c5aaa8ca2fdcabd Fronts
242169446f7d28fb6582641ea1beba29c37ed058 Depending on the conditions of its occurrence, the air mass can be warm or cold.
d66e117616105060a8c133c831c345a0eab6615c An air mass moving over a warmer underlying surface is called cold; moving over a colder underlying surface is called warm; being in thermal equilibrium with the environment is called local.
aff10f81a6834a719cf5213e5df27effa26374f6 When air masses of different temperatures come into contact in the troposphere, transitional regions arise – atmospheric fronts, their length reaches 1000 km, and their height is several hundred meters.
793d79225b4d7b53d1674b42e25866bb0e9043ff Distinguish between:
8821089231b035192764a46e5e3746f95db300ef warm fronts;
cd55e3a44ac11adfe236fef6e6cd4714edf92323 cold fronts;
5a0573a6949865ca924bcd5de1eac14662440725 occlusion fronts;
b5a737f4e4135c84fa693265288caefcab803a85 stationary fronts.
fcd3ad814a6e4df8843696805c4b81947dd565b7 Then the light warm air flows into the retreating wedge of cold air and rises along the interface plane.
14198bd5c7df6c416e67dc1f0b5f9df339e833c2 When lifting, it cools down.
f1172358fb0174ae87417f5d0e454a47e0c67c7b This leads to the condensation of water vapor and the appearance of cirrus and layered rain clouds, and then to precipitation.
6d341a38d24fdcbcee2332613605ba8f93db56af When a warm front approaches, its harbingers appear during the day – cirrus clouds.
1239e5f8a8e4af2b39ebe60f3624323791dd0896 They float like feathers at an altitude of 7-10 km.
4efa255814961a315d3b09f5e7b258143e0b653b At this time, the atmospheric pressure decreases.
875dc5224ac7b8f716783dd0a00b70a582a0a114 The arrival of a warm front is usually associated with warming and the fall of cold, drizzling precipitation.
39a334438e0a8f99ae0243a9b3d49f4f138ef348 Cold air, as heavier, flows under the warm air and pushes it up.
21fc4bb3f611ba7147b7193a07e7865c42767584 At the same time, layered cumulus rain clouds arise, piling up like mountains or towers, and precipitation from them falls in the form of showers with squalls and thunderstorms.
1f65295ce99263ddb9019bd07ce8e1e4a64282da The passage of a cold front is associated with a cooling and strengthening of the wind.
027053988fe45610b2b5785259d329fc6af4b027 As you understand, it is the cold front that pleases the pilots.
6a5110a5bf6c99fac93db2477ce128f66c174922 Cyclones and anticyclones.
7aad8b4b5a672957e52a0df30923bae6329fb97c Wind movement in cyclones and anticyclones
1b9fb902268de8de594d610c58a068e39fd7831b Powerful air vortices are sometimes formed on the fronts, similar to whirlpools when two streams of water meet.
e10506e560bf973ce8142d176dcf71deaf9394b5 The dimensions of these air vortices can reach 2-3 thousand km across.
b31abb685294f8d208d11540fdb59d865805c8ed Cold air is heavier and tends to push warm air up, and warm air is lighter and tends to rise.
f30983821f536e0c947aa617934cfc8b0d9a42bd At the same time, the centrifugal force resulting from the rotation of the Earth twists the moving masses of air in a spiral.
cb8f454a5c146a886d9c2c108fbc376f14727571 When moving, the cold air begins to flow under the warm one and turns to the south, and the warm air turns to the north and flows into the cold one (the same spiral).
9a982de7dc9b4735b60571baf7cdfc402a626d40 In the areas where warm air flows, the air pressure decreases (the molecules of warm air move faster, its pressure is lower), and in the areas where cold air flows, the air pressure increases (the molecules move slower – the pressure is higher).
af4283337de9779d1e979e10432cebd0c94d7521 As a result of the movement of cold air to the south and its rotation to the east in the direction of lowering the pressure and the movement of warm air to the north with its rotation to the west, a vortex movement occurs, moving the air to an area with low pressure.
aaab81680b30ee0b7345c89d705109e97c81acf9 The area of this vortex movement is called a low pressure area, or a cyclone.
dcfa5a3a1e1802b10f3f0c37450b719244162234 In the central part of the cyclone, the air rises and spreads to its outskirts.
191db565632c413e3a247579ffcf684a27774ed5 During the ascent, the air expands, cools, water vapor condenses and clouds appear.
45e729562a74b1fe43420ebe43e5d698733715d3 During the passage of cyclones, cloudy weather usually occurs with rain in summer and snowfall in winter.
bfb7d6f2397ea4c4d60f26f20593237e5a2870ff The wind in the cyclone moves counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere, clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
517c1c250d645a31bfa68faf8f2e3fe1f420e7ac In the vertical section – from the center to the edges.
f0e53f8a330996503ab9b35a9bb679d69eb4acdb The speed of the cyclone in the direction of movement of warm air on average is 25-40 km.
7ccde82adda21ee80c33eb54032e4d73b1cd829f If, on the contrary, the pressure is increased in the center, then this vortex is called an anticyclone.
727de0e38f07c30a6aa56522cb0c439d1038c515 In anticyclones, air outflow (wind)at the surface of the Earth, it occurs from the center to the edges, heading clockwise.
0af3b2727beddfee033465ea5e167b6ce042bccc Simultaneously with the outflow of air from the anticyclone, air from the upper layers of the atmosphere enters its central part.
0fb26f47a41d6fcd4b6b020d05b3fd1d6754dc4c When it is lowered, it heats up, absorbing water vapor, and the clouds dissipate.
600d98bee9ea45c6c7e14b600227422d40dd663f Therefore, in areas where anticyclones appear, clear, cloudless weather is established with weak winds, hot in summer and cold in winter.
27f76db146db1106fda1060b66f078d53ed9e35e Anticyclones cover larger areas than cyclones.
1ab2e9ed4ffc4f065dcd26140438ebfdea6f6dd6 They are more stable, move at a lower speed, break down more slowly, often stay in one place for a long time.
f66fcffcb7eb66ae93cfeac525ec3fd55e8d5d46 With the approach of an anticyclone, the atmospheric pressure increases.
ab57a94a948aaa73252d393cdce9cd7d9680c852 This attribute should be used when predicting the weather.
d83ac17eb3ff1a15bed2cf44bb9303fcd6df292d In addition, there are a number of other signs of an anticyclone:
8e7546502748501a6e5a430914cd666f4f9d7129 Clear or low cloud weather
42bc2fb15ab6ef600f87fed6342f630de5689d7d No wind
322543b053a8d560266d88eb324710221bb06064 No precipitation
c1ced5b6c2c77f6f49b9cb9c0916a261b3ad7991 The stable nature of the weather (it does not change noticeably over time, as long as there is an anticyclone)
48045e1094e3e912feb7e41e91669e4a3712981b The barogram map.
686bf81ea590bee74464530712b2a04434d3a6ce The movement of fronts and the formation of cyclones and anticyclones can be traced on the barogram map (synoptic map) – a weather map compiled for a certain period of time.
158ee4b34a276c379bc955a7c6b07bc1111ba723 It is compiled several times a day based on data received from a network of meteorological stations.
72df6028328e8452829ec8987059d5cd9b694817 On this map, numbers and symbols show information about the weather – air pressure in millibars, air temperature, wind direction and speed, clouds, the position of warm and cold fronts, cyclones and anticyclones, the nature of precipitation.
8787bf83c7e5d7162de376d30abb0d3a568d1247 The name comes from the pressure measurement units bars.
896e7433025890c66b8d3988da90c29924a649c8 The frontal zone.
6281cc62d8ed6de78f8d6824a7ecb80d0b05ed69 Let's go back to our air masses again.
b5f8fba8f7446fc74e0e92ad1c93d59a2e267bc4 If the air masses were stationary, the surface of the atmospheric front would be horizontal, with cold air below and warm air above it, but since both masses are moving, it is located obliquely to the earth's surface.
9a275ca61fb267d06b5c0067597cdf4acf797b5f At the same time, the average angle of inclination is about 1° to the Earth's surface.
c13472f25fe7be31a0fc9c8385cf1848f5b62204 The cold front is inclined in the same direction in which it is moving, and the warm front is inclined in the opposite direction.
82be0d4fdbc4bc5f9ac8024c9872ccc993d3b4eb The zone of the atmospheric front is very narrow in comparison with the air masses separated by it, therefore, for the purposes of theoretical research, it is approximately considered as the interface of two air masses of different temperatures and called the frontal surface (frontal zone).
b4fde5787cb0739adc0b2bc6a616fd84d0008c15 For this reason, on synoptic maps, fronts are depicted as a line (front line).
926d0bf5a553864b4991d1e9e8ae23fd6ace4fc8 At the intersection with the earth's surface, the front zone has a width of about tens of kilometers, while the horizontal dimensions of the air masses themselves are about thousands of kilometers.
9cfdfd3da00c911e090db5571899cd6d9fe39ab4 So, the frontal zone is the zone of the atmospheric front.
5cec0d88a2055ae81291c53acffa52dab36e5f59 It is the frontal zone that interests us as a suitability or unsuitability for conducting flights.
9a61803270464be2685491c8f77e13deea023bef An unstable air mass is formed in this zone.
2e780204e20ca5ead859e4f1421a2078ff6fdf50 It is characterized by the fact that in its lower layers (approximately below 3 km), unstable stratification (distribution) of the atmosphere sphere is observed.
69f0aa7f2065a7651f53710a127670f26189d36a In case of unstable stratification, the vertical temperature gradient in the air mass before the condensation level is greater than the dry adiabatic gradient, and above the condensation level more than the wet adiabatic gradient.
3eb471469d744b0fffd5e7caf8d93dcd94997abd In an unstable air mass with sufficient humidity, convection develops (an upward movement of warm air) with the formation of vertical clouds, increased turbulence, strong gusty wind, showers, thunderstorms, squalls are observed.
d7171338d198d4573cfc50fe9c69833c83e4398c A cold air mass, moving to a warmer underlying surface and warming up from below, becomes, as a rule, an unstable, stuffy mass.
3026c0df9cc2408b9a5bb61f844e0a38b971e56f A cold unstable air mass is observed most often over the mainland in the summer in the afternoon hours in the rear part of the cyclone or in the front part of the anticyclone.
60a37553505c4ab9e2cdc115ec901105b1e30baf The work of weather prediction services
b77de74d75bca1d1088efa6fb3634d735b9e7d5c We can predict all these movements of air masses.
22cc399a54ad0b4a8aeb5947ebc34a3226a3342d For weather forecasting, maps (synoptic maps) are compared and changes in the position of warm and cold fronts, the displacement of cyclones and anticyclones and the nature of the weather in each of them are established.
98a0baa1049d5ec870010d064ed962506852a1cc Currently, space stations are widely used to refine weather predictions.
1bbae6ad398648099e512d4a1bf50d0273fdf69c We ourselves can also predict the onset of flying or non flying weather, based on our observations.
59a3f17d5d30b411fb2c78928f5d7bcf3576b51d Signs of stable and clear weather (flight weather)
124d8cb66173ee6eec78835d3e720cdfcbd5d580 The air pressure is high, almost does not change or rises slowly.
fb860237ed3eb8b2fa66cbcb131d2b14c5cdef37 The daily course of temperature is sharply expressed: it is hot during the day, cool at night.
e9c6652d7caa11992727ff17b48fd300a51fed55 The wind is weak, intensifies by noon, subsides in the evening.
b57a6ebe2f6e497c2854808b090e7b1858e2d81c The sky is cloudless all day or covered with cumulus clouds that disappear in the evening.
fbbc370924b80867aa81eba741902b1a0e75cede The relative humidity of the air decreases during the day and increases by night.
7fdda133221ea2ed1e08e927782c2b449d282d64 During the day, the sky is bright blue, the twilight is short, the stars twinkle faintly.
deedf154190a663d66bb6576e773c3ef2dc6f3d8 In the evening, the dawn is yellow or orange.
69693f4eddf7a3c0b935378662c27cb409cd5122 Heavy dew or frost at night.
e619dfb819e3ff0d3329f3e3693994a4aff75cbe Fogs over the lowlands, increasing at night and disappearing during the day.
79449aad3c10aa09ac3a943a2fa52089a957d9e6 At night, it is warmer in the forest than in the field.
bc16813d83ccf5900d202e662058e07051738148 Smoke from chimneys and bonfires rises up.
dd0e15ca6bbd895a7c6366cb1fa5b26dcc5ca4d6 Swallows fly high.
dcfd3d32757d8fcc48f7d9e65208880c393a26c1 Signs of unstable inclement weather
38070be9622452d132d587285cc9715da6c0d81c The pressure fluctuates sharply or continuously decreases.
fa294f8a4ac34f735062379add1e70a59236aabb The daily temperature course is weakly expressed or with a violation of the general course (for example, the temperature rises at night).
ea95e0d6db804cfb3864dd20889def4266c9ee06 The wind increases, sharply changes its direction, the movement of the lower layers of clouds does not coincide with the movement of the upper ones.
4e6f1f5e4241b5b466974c8a8caf6afbec37d9a3 The cloud cover is increasing.
cd1a1c0f78c24df899df26619e64379b085da58a On the western or southwestern side of the horizon, cirrus layered clouds appear, which spread throughout the entire sky.
ea87f88dc47fbae4fa35bd20fdb93cbb7b400749 They are replaced by highly layered and layered rain clouds.
a32d29bc07b53c7c22f192b45c63e834ce22614d It's stuffy in the morning.
98c585189342a28554c2a0549ff1734c03796915 Cumulus clouds grow up, turning into cumulonimbus clouds to a thunderstorm.
ed05b5a8a801e86edbdcb18b99571203a6787cfc The morning and evening dawns are red.
45868e74a819a6423a6daa8e241efd5ef6c3f720 By nightfall, the wind does not subside, but increases.
c79d12838e946103b42a2d6ac09a2ec9253d5993 Light circles (halos) appear around the Sun and the Moon in cirrus layered clouds.
d3940e7aec0fa04d72ff6361abaff6f0095e72a0 There are crowns in the clouds of the middle tier.
4040897dc2a2b91fecefd70f11eeccaad3756da4 There is no morning dew.
0636d9bef52fac5922ca802813db850e26b54921 Swallows fly low.
525d490b45ed95ea615ab267c2650c3e16e4396d Ants hide in anthills.
921ef0bae2791f29048e3d19d85034d132c1b9b8 Cloud cover.
13cbca0cc8d87b2868a960601ffb22691b051934 Cloud formation.
60d5e73a36df9652ed0a53df409206bac212b950 Precipitation
e09e68bbd32c0cef9f02bee9ce415b5304810c06 The air of the atmosphere always contains a certain amount of water vapor, which is formed as a result of evaporation from the surface of the land and ocean.
7770633f62048286214f1d3dce641c195d1eb394 The rate of evaporation depends primarily on temperature and wind.
7f3367b2312fb2aa36c50dda0d04093911a5e21e The higher the temperature and the larger the steam capacity, the stronger the evaporation.
6dee4a6127e97e46a7b3b5a356229dd5d9113036 The amount of water that can evaporate from a particular surface is called evaporation.
e54707384c3996210549903085f331104814bd9f The evaporation rate depends on the air temperature and the amount of water vapor in it.
90b2c1ab590709f315c0f506a73dc87b952f1970 The higher the air temperature and the less water vapor it contains, the higher the evaporation rate.
3d798678053da95d5c5ca1301395f1095107f1d4 The air can accept water vapor up to a certain limit, until it becomes saturated.
6d978653699ca9787c546db4d0fb1982b18f4c1e If the saturated air is heated, it will again acquire the ability to accept water vapor, i.e. it will again become unsaturated.
8b8d30b8cd69857f0698cc1891be7a1b82f5fe6a When the unsaturated air cools, it approaches saturation.
e6177849bd0d17d2de8c8d853f7717ad31c92d51 Thus, the ability of air to contain more or less water vapor depends on the temperature
690790ffd6221970c16d88fd172093052a9fe626 The amount of water vapor that is contained in the air at the moment (in g per 1 m3) is called absolute humidity.
6edd1db103ce20fd998d26df09dbe55af84ccdc0 The ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air at a given moment to the amount that it can hold at a given temperature is called relative humidity and is measured as a percentage.
491636922dbf2b245a2802e3fd5f459e33cf9f4e The moment of transition of air from an unsaturated state to a saturated one is called the dew point.
bd7edb3d450841b3ef917f8a3c3b1f3574e80ffb The lower the air temperature, the less it can contain water vapor and the higher the relative humidity.
57b1846bf93f258abb702a9f20d36022eb0c9df2 This means that when the air is cold, the dew point occurs faster.
1647bd082c1481e39fc0248265f6be48d1a84ebd When the dew point occurs, i.e. when the air is completely saturated with water vapor, when the relative humidity approaches 100 %, water vapor condensation occurs – the transition of water from a gaseous state to a liquid state.
ee14d2d04f1dc0417058b1664ff2bfb70c0b1707 Thus, the process of condensation of water vapor occurs either with strong evaporation of moisture and saturation of the air with water vapor, or with a decrease in air temperature and relative humidity.
ff1d8a2d7f0e7dfff366dfdec06a882456239023 At negative temperatures, water vapor, bypassing the liquid state, turns into solid crystals of ice and snow.
45992c0cc103e0b90f9694fdac0c7231824156ac This process is called water vapor sublimation.
8c1682b40b0772d36b03bd24ed48a07e0a97f8a9 Condensation and sublimation of water vapor determine the formation of precipitation.
c9db15b1cae85bf6f6054fc201f351062eb93dc5 When water vapor condenses in the atmosphere at an altitude of several tens to hundreds of meters and even kilometers, clouds form.
babb0cbbfb237603b9796ed0efb645fb98c55c55 This occurs as a result of the evaporation of water vapor from the Earth's surface and its rise by ascending streams of warm air.
75b0599017fbb912d0c3233d5e6ac470c3f4f5bd Depending on their temperature, clouds consist of water droplets or ice and snow crystals.
793d60e3973f9a59afd778eed563c73480037d7c These droplets and crystals are so small that even weak updrafts keep them in the atmosphere.
924615a5e921049aa786a3a2f70ef6ec7311882f The shape of clouds is very diverse and depends on many factors: altitude, wind speed, humidity, etc. At the same time, it is possible to distinguish groups of clouds that are similar in shape and height.
972ff8ea2c3f17fb522d9478e33f4c65a527020e The most famous of them are cumulus, cirrus and layered, as well as their varieties: layered cumulus, pinnately layered, layered rain, etc. Clouds that are oversaturated with water vapor, having a dark purple or almost black hue, are called clouds.
da5429f5aa48970ad7ce4f382db8e6bb29a46a78 The degree of cloud coverage of the sky, expressed in points (from 1 to 10), is called cloud cover.
2acc409deddd8adf55decda388a07f18f8933907 A high degree of cloud cover usually portends precipitation.
74589ca59019bf6b2b7930623a9f5b4e74932e31 Their precipitation is most likely from highly layered, cumulonimbus and layered rain clouds.
3597a7e4b78ffe57178cf7447b6f9376dda154ad Water that has fallen in a solid or liquid state in the form of rain, snow, hail or condensed on the surface of various bodies in the form of dew, frost, is called atmospheric precipitation.
cd709a1625672a3b6e656f597618ff4a41d320c2 Rain is formed when the smallest droplets of moisture contained in the cloud merge into larger ones and, thus, overcome reflecting the force of the ascending air flows, they fall to the Ground under the influence of gravity.
9b51f4e8c2def5fb37b23cf20ff0fb9d4c384d3f If the smallest particles of solids, such as dust, are in the cloud, the condensation process is accelerated, since dust particles play the role of condensation nuclei.
3abf1092e9f685ff31e30be45e345e3bae7d8ae6 In desert areas with low relative humidity, condensation of water vapor is possible only at high altitude, where the temperature is lower, but raindrops, not reaching the ground, evaporate in the air.
9dbfa402fa7acc4522491652b34851cd1dc4f957 This phenomenon is called dry rains.
38d61e4ac3fc155339f793706bdca8855060e43e If the condensation of water vapor in the cloud occurs at subzero temperatures, precipitation in the form of snow is formed.
bfa7c32e9122df7db08deb94c3f071be72e43d36 Sometimes snowflakes from the upper layers of the cloud fall into the lower part of it, where the temperature is higher and there is a huge amount of supercooled water droplets held in the cloud by ascending air currents.
54074c7d293081e695d70b10e395e52c1a90990d Connecting with water droplets, snowflakes lose their shape, their weight increases, and they fall to the ground in the form of a snow blizzard – spherical snow lumps with a diameter of 2-3 mm.
aa3192c1abcc531e9e5880193cb825d2140fc670 A necessary condition for the formation of hail is the presence of a vertical development cloud, the lower edge of which is located in the zone of positive temperatures, and the upper one is in the zone of negative temperatures.
519ace8a1f772c3018bd1417585924754a039e39 Under these conditions, the formed snow blizzard rises in ascending streams to the zone of negative temperatures, where it turns into a ball – shaped ice floe a hailstone.
9b28b54397cda24359f12741f0d45268522c2d80 The process of raising and lowering a hailstone can occur repeatedly and be accompanied by an increase in its mass and size.
b3c69e97c591eec28a60ae6d0029299062aa17a2 Finally, the hailstone, overcoming the resistance of the ascending air currents, falls to the ground.
15a3922ed89b4508f9d135b3fd144c2cdc11398c Precipitation such as dew, frost, fog, frost, ice, are formed not in the upper layers of the atmosphere, but in its surface layer.
4642972d73b0979aaf358dfca4b012da77a0f66c Cooling from the surface of the Earth, the air can no longer hold water vapor, it condenses and settles on the surrounding objects.
2783e31dc53fbeb5b43fb6c65abdd9b93978f42e This is how dew is formed.
3eeead74e09a28534064fd1988b4b56abc517daf When the temperature of objects located near the Earth's surface is below 0 °C, frost is formed.
70e6f69f4f0eece429dbe8d9ba038964ff64e917 When warmer air comes into contact with cold objects (most often wires, tree branches), frost falls – a coating of loose ice and snow crystals.
989eb69f5295c26301596ef4bb1b601ad7d71c50 Classification of clouds
02b9ab3669421331f948babb02257df1b9c5e3cd Let's linger a little on the clouds.
0ad51b0aafb637474bb4a8868b0446162567719b As I have already said, clouds come in different shapes and sizes depending on many factors: altitude, wind speed, humidity, etc.
451b952c63e770305bb1b54a82023665a59b8fbd The lowest and heaviest clouds are layered.
8fdb3ee896c95f0235bd6cae4b35b98701b2eb77 They are located at an altitude of 2 km from the earth's surface.
3162d62a64fba44542fcf62239ab2bce4e410251 At an altitude of 2 to 8 km, you can observe more picturesque cumulus clouds (and that's exactly what we need).
9bed59f70af077d8c0f644d5019e27e627152a93 The highest and lightest are cirrus clouds.
4b2a2af2f6b4a18387184bd0ce535ccdbf1a14ea They are located at an altitude of 8 to 18 km above the Earth's surface.
37e616d40565679bf7b7ff9bd9781fc5e133080a Families
6b66a82fb918afe4a58689acad843a122325fe3d Genera of clouds
41def7a0febe741da87c5b79ce78ce27b83f3ae7 Appearance
2b5694026ed47dafa0a65dae787fe1ea6619d3b9 A. Clouds of the upper tier above 6 km
98efd56de7a1b50ee639957a6a46804d24b40840 I. Pinnate
d737b224e6f0de376ebdae5664e0a45140fd4904 Filamentous, fibrous, white
a95efdb9b885db1023a7d4848e4768b2f7ad05f3 II. Cirrus cumulus
520705cf6043a570cd5356243dc7c65f0b0f7176 Layers and ridges of small flakes and curls, white
a4182d48eddcbfb67e3338bdf5d7e4d371bcd368 III. Pinnately layered
6cd05031976b6151fbb3c38ec60603539569d90a Transparent whitish veil
6b9195aa843601b03eb80445246ae891fa3e811e B. Clouds of the middle tier above 2 km
a3231caca1e6df9de0563e483135935d641b741e IV. High beam
f5c578695ebc54dee98b3cc051283ab48ea76291 Layers and ridges of white and gray color
19df0cb26c59974ff23df65ea578bc7d9e314b7a V. Highly layered
b8b6a614b9daeb48e6610b7398dd8a825785e3b0 A smooth veil of milky gray color
08802229c22ef26a134f2d576f5b83ca57fb94cc B. Clouds of the lower tier up to 2 km
df5217a6c2f4d25139698e00caff58a19f218bee VI. Layered rain
077c53ea7782b6c564da2e5738ad132b293890cc A solid shapeless gray layer
0dff61d53ed567fa089f036c62e08d3eb83cd43a VII. Layered cumulus
237c65718a763e576d681eb9b6fc7d65c1ae5b60 Non illuminated layers and ridges of gray color
272697b24fff9b88956aa51821e1181dba759137 VIII. Layered
024f93ac523cff7c8dac081838a6f77f07be9c2f An impenetrable shroud of gray color
b4298960685f2c46dfd142fc0902047818fe560a G. Vertical development clouds - from the lower to the upper tier
4edddea559b67625b098d3f3ab247095d9fd3c3f IX. Cumulus
8eb2a46957b0de4f5c56956f845fd7d9b63440f6 The clubs and domes are bright white in color, with torn edges in the wind
3cba8f8e4e81086974f31e055c604e40d3635953 X. Cumulonimbus
6052135656d92a5f4fa748132c62cd329f5dfdc7 Powerful cumulus like masses of dark lead color
7d9ff4f0de398581c4640bcbb6e536c355a391be Visibility
6a6f250054a7ab74e85490c33b83d44df430e854 As I said earlier, clouds are formed as a result of condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere at a high altitude.
88de2a632b80f5631d0565607f8910373f1f941f However, condensation can also occur at lower layers.
d8a1b6b9e3a39cf14ab63c17f9f1c027ddeaedf4 When water vapor is concentrated in the surface layer of the atmosphere, fog is formed.
986c3d12ac694f5c2545f7d7993ec53a85448aba Fogs are especially frequent in large industrial centers, where water droplets, merging with dust and gases, form a poisonous mixture – smog.
15f19e9b9f5894945be2aff0f8207071d0cfb91b When fog is formed, visibility is significantly reduced.
8ffdfa749b20dbb07bb1ddeb46fd3f4f544ad851 Visibility is the maximum distance at which a person with normal vision can distinguish objects in daylight.
8c9e500bce442874896d6c7b9776b809c28747df Visibility can be divided into poor (less than 3 km), normal (from 3 to 10 km) and good (over 10 km).
6a1d998274f6b29c0be791eb1dd91d5b4a58c181 If the pilot from the launch site is not able to observe the site planned for landing and what is happening in the air, this significantly complicates the flight.
745eceac5ad1d7764d281e49aeaa6d46eac9ffe1 Therefore, for the production of flights, good visibility is necessary (over 10 km).
6cd71597caf86f31b323a3fdda89ec90a3766e49 Flying in fog and clouds is prohibited.
f669bc3c3ed8a4073510303751f02e045b0efb54 Download the lecture in Word format Go back to the "Lectures" section"
7b16455e1cc5d90bc2a68bb64a5483c15a58fe2b Tags: Lectures Meteorology
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2ef058299d15305d6464547938a7ebfad15bad49 Weather at 31km
d0bfb67fc2a45ca6b93d473a03caada5ed197c0d Ushkonyr
469b4c1fe786783fcb2c41a32b9ed149209b60be 31km
7e6550a3447f1e27bc46e8980e24fdfd83b41b32 Kazakhstan Mount Ushkonyr (GFS 27 km 23.01. 00 UTC) Powered by WINDGURU
70a2fcb34e9e5a67721ee5803d28710604c77dec Sat 23.
0b449cf14decd8c24b4f02b1d51e073f80b4614d Sun 24.
0ecbf0361ebc442916b05bb01fd4c2596963e6f5 Mon 25.
8aa62a7090363159a59e2148a0525f4b487f2d11 PN 25.
8e2d184ef2af8dc04f7b0f65e7a8541eb465d8a1 W 26.
ba7ce71d05774a83bc41cfc40c33977ffa1d779e 09h 12h 15h 18h 09h 12h 15h 18h 09h 12h 15h 18h 09h wind Speed (m/s) 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 wind Direction Temperature (°C) -12 -2 -2 -13 -9 -1 -1 -9 -8 -1 -1 -10 -8 Cloud (%) 12 29 68 73 33 26 - - - - 30 Precipitation (mm/3h) Assessment WindGURU Lat: 43.1269, Lon: 76.4681 time zone: all almt (UTC+6) 08:21 - 17:50
70a78beb988459b7a84d0d752f03026c16e9fbd6 Kazakhstan Deltadrom 31km (GFS 27 km 23.01. 00 UTC) Powered by WINDGURU
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01688349e1141c6bb2534224431fe912cd9548a0 The geography of the Earth.rf geographical internet portal
d047f789e53262a4c3edd60f5a2b626d2a3bf3ce Atmosphere Climate
5b8030a658f291bd3583c77e84eccb669bed1bac Biosphere Animal world Plant world
0a8f07b68f75b374333ae2658f1603ce5b9b6c59 Geology Sections of geology The structure of the earth
bb85c1f279be30c2d483a5ed913cd41bebceb20f Hydrology Oceanology Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Arctic Ocean Land Hydrology
6239a6f577f15e000a93213923cb4da8a6bf29da Continents Australia Australia and Oceania America Antarctica Africa Eurasia Oceania
ec6b7fa94be2005fba9a2609363c5c98a0657485 Landscape Types of tourism Geography of tourism Recreational resources More Nations Tourism Ethnicity South America Orientation Weather Religions
f9dc707e223708ce6f3bfc534b95dfd00838fda0 Geography of the planet Earth Atmosphere Weather.
2bfc18726fe259da365345e4344f0154a9fa977c What is the weather?
69163a43cc66c60b73f2f02bdb4c33556f0bbfa5 General information
6c14becb11149e7eca02cda17a2dc3728114ad23 Weather.
18bd9dbb98394621c44174d6486a1e989ba5d64e geolog March 20th, 2014 Atmosphere
5764bb06530682205ae35ce7db63e791ab614340 If there are no clarifications, then the term "Weather" means the weather on Earth.
8c11c2248b1f5c8eb8322f40082ed2e57c014982 The weather can be described by the pressure, temperature and humidity of the air, the strength and direction of the wind, clouds, precipitation, visibility range, atmospheric phenomena (fogs, blizzards, thunderstorms) and other meteorological elements.
a5a9448ba4e73ac628540e5f14c6f71c14d57117 Weather changes are periodic and non periodic.
0b536ca635f9a738f14e47d52f7239861bed1519 Periodic changes are those changes that are periodic in nature, because they are associated with the rotation of the Earth around its axis (daily changes) or around the Sun (annual changes).
c471ab76b691f598217e0bd2446b1be9eea4451e Annual changes are expressed in the change of seasons.
6270e5ceb3cfd26251f82153f1a41bbb7a04a95b Non periodic changes, especially significant in extratropical latitudes, are caused by the transfer of air masses.
1e07880e2b56621f78f6143b66a0979cad5de984 The discrepancy between the phase of periodic changes and the nature of non periodic changes leads to the most abrupt changes in the weather.
aaa7128d4bfcfd98368f303832c9a29aef8bfb4e When air masses are transferred from one area of the Earth to another, they bring with them their own weather characteristics that differ from those that previously existed in this area, which change in this place in accordance with where the new air mass comes from and what properties it has in this regard.
36c15462ca3130ee0b1836e5e1765dffc3750396 With altitude, the intensity of non periodic weather changes generally decreases.
7ebc9c43ff0b08a61a0e342d3611701f3d3a537b For aviation, it is important to take into account sharp increases in wind and turbulence, which are associated with jet currents.
c3bf84287c91e2a0df827f177099377fcbaae509 Reasons
614fa8a2e9dc9d37b4808bba3f75a6838afca74e Almost all weather events occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere).
c76a56a02160277dbcc597cd0ca42f23675d61a4 The large temperature difference between the Arctic and tropical air is the reason for the presence of high altitude jet currents.
17e1d35df63ab572bac2bf66d32940501e4972ce Baric formations in the middle latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are formed during the development of waves in the zone of high altitude jet flow.
7bf05ad7d309b268971a12d917377ae4b876637c For hundreds of thousands of years, changes in the Earth's orbit affect the amount and distribution of solar energy on the planet, determining the long term climate.
ff895f49468efa258c82fb04c33f5b09a0e24ab9 An example of a simple weather system is coastal breezes, and a complex one is the Hadley cell.
bcc9b28a53549e2a1b9fb11bb2df1c61c891d5c6 In the history of mankind, there have been constant attempts to control the weather.
13ba3984a5ae1746909d6a39e1b5e07a59144264 It has been proven that human activities, such as agriculture and industry, can influence the weather to some extent.
a69bcf5704ab9ee92a90cfa3c05f56dbe7ebdaaa Precipitation formation
4453f14d5a8ae539c02c9325b40cd79a22f0cc8e If this were not the case, the droplets that make up the cloud would evaporate and the cloud would melt.
6ebb7836d802b12d9a9a90a08b8f443df88eacff At the same time, from contact with the colder earth's surface, the moving air mass cools from below and the air layers adjacent to the ground may be even colder than the upper layers.
1b420c14ad55de470c988c9812a546f1e63357db From this moment, precipitation falls out of the cloud, although strong, but short lived due to the small size of the clouds.
8784fc1f5a40650df46436987e28f1c7e2e79083 Therefore, the weather of cold air masses is very unstable.
f6463abb410a7d3585cd4154c7356d79f6d752b9 Atmospheric front
dfe1633b6a62a384db1a1d50a4e5488fd36c46b2 An interesting feature: the front line necessarily passes through the center of the low pressure area, and the front never passes through the centers of the high pressure areas.
d49d30dfcf10773de05490ae315c54a527893113 Due to the fact that the rise of air leads to its cooling, clouds form above the surface of the front.
bae216c6844d60c76eb6d48a11b1160e62ee283c Warm air climbs up quite slowly, so the cloud cover of the warm front is a smooth veil of pinnately layered and highly layered clouds, which has a width of several hundred meters and sometimes thousands of kilometers in length.
bf41a4366310f239246b36964cdce79df9e0d6b1 The further ahead of the front line there are clouds, the higher and thinner they are.
71fd2ca0c82c736b32d8518bb62bccef44ce1b80 The development and movement of cyclones and anticyclones leads to the transfer of air masses over considerable distances and corresponding non periodic weather changes associated with a change in wind directions and speeds, with an increase or decrease in cloud cover.
105bcf69f28fc341f1084f06115641b89240414d Small scale vortices (tornadoes, blood clots, tornadoes) are also important for the weather.
0dcdbf798d574ac1a221d00f1747116a25933bf7 A cyclone is an atmospheric vortex of a huge (from hundreds to several thousand kilometers) diameter with a reduced air pressure in the center.
dc1893d652f2981c7b64f7701eb72b615a7b0f87 There are extratropical and tropical cyclones.
b2f8583a6e99d3a8d65b4e11edfe5c8a8c25ba6b The latter have special properties and occur much less often.
2ed181723dc457664ecdea83f9562cec73e44463 Tropical cyclones are formed in tropical latitudes and have smaller sizes (hundreds, rarely more than a thousand kilometers), but large baric gradients and wind speeds reaching hurricane ones.
1fbe052ea45e28885b936d032c6f0dc6014fe707 Such cyclones are characterized by the "eye of the storm" — a central region with a diameter of 20-30 km with relatively clear and windless weather.
5ca3c0ab0dd3c95e5a05fc6a3dca9a1e895690f7 Tropical cyclones can turn into extratropical ones in the course of their development.
b293daeebeb20cd8a28767678eab8bd7a5f10ece A cyclone is not just the opposite of an anticyclone, they have a different mechanism of occurrence.
ffbd72c24127ccb93e5d098a3c066d13f10a85dc Cyclones constantly and naturally appear due to the rotation of the Earth, thanks to the Coriolis force.
c35b830d354a9e40e61189e425f0c85ba1ab3176 Studying the weather
6f865973f4a148c389e8294ce078396382ffe29d "Meteorology (from the Greek metéros — raised up, celestial, metéra — atmospheric and celestial phenomena and ... logy), the science of the atmosphere and the processes occurring in it."
26e8b53439cfe2feee6090aa8a733da22bb5b318 atmospheric physics is the main branch of meteorology that studies physical phenomena and processes in the atmosphere. synoptic meteorology is the science of weather and methods of its prediction.
03891ce3ca7ffdf21299f831525eb5abf74f645d Weather forecast — "a scientifically based assumption about the upcoming weather changes, based on the analysis of the development of large scale atmospheric processes".
2c933af3bc402b8f05e9db6ff08b197ac562ec66 Atmospheric chemistry studies the chemical processes in the atmosphere.
7a98e643eb91a7fcbc230449b9260e56b0940135 Dynamic meteorology studies atmospheric processes by theoretical methods of hydroaeromechanics.
eab09667a2a48fa12e353439f77b1931e7598dab Biometeorology studies the influence of atmospheric factors on biological processes.
c063d917e73c54cab04d331141fb8fd9314675ee The World Meteorological Organization coordinates the activities of the meteorological services of various countries.
ef53081ffa5c840d9dbecad23c1ddde1a0e72a9f Meteorological information
fbdde7fb4eb4786efc5fc7a168fb0a0e5e86e778 There are two types of meteorological information:
c53bbfb0d7911919b07c1ec84f1bc40c543db851 the primary information about the current weather obtained as a result of meteorological observations. weather information in the form of various summaries, synoptic maps, aerological charts, vertical sections, cloud maps, etc.
97aa0027b7bc1aa10cf4338a1f564739ab63eab1 The success of the developed weather forecasts largely depends on the quality of the primary meteorological information.
5b96a91b4b8822de0c01527c0f5eabf8bcb0d85f The main consumers of meteorological information are aviation and the navy.
67bd83c725ece6ff143c612cecaa9e8dd41f193e Agriculture is also highly dependent on weather conditions and climate.
229084d281b96de6b7d47917beb4f29182d1977d The productivity is greatly influenced by the humidity of the soil and air, the amount of precipitation, light, and heat.
ae9f8516c456ef50faacbffc9f6e35322e7715f7 At the end of the XIX century, an independent branch of meteorology was formed — agrometeorology.
e149b31c76ae165d834bf761feb78069a3e11114 Climate information is widely used in the design and operation of various structures — buildings, airfields, railways, power lines, etc.
04395b9c72cb83130b6a73c48e5f5c1b8dfcc2ec Organization of meteorological observations
7875ccb8fa0c2cab41c15f05203537efef37fde8 In Russia, there is an extensive network of meteorological stations (of various categories with different observation programs), meteorological and hydrological posts.
cb5cdd8fdc30f0187a0782d3d4932275a92dace8 A significant role is played by observations made by means of meteorological radars (spatial images of cloud layers and the intensity of precipitation and thunderstorms within a radius of up to 250 km from the location of the locator) and meteorological artificial Earth satellites (television images of clouds in various wavelength ranges, vertical profiles of temperature and humidity in the atmosphere).
40cd8a2d1127adfba0f157045e1811db91063377 Aerological observations are carried out on a network of special aerological stations with the help of radiosondes, sometimes with the help of meteorological and geophysical rockets.
62f33021fb07ff3dc9d030959e5554d311682fe9 Observations on the seas and oceans from specially equipped vessels.
94f9bd41bd8e45b7da138f8962f8e36a4619562c The ground based meteorological network in the USSR reached its maximum development by the mid 1980s.
c0db1000d93491b596cd6fac6e3b444f6dd7f062 The economic crisis processes that began in the late 1980s caused a significant reduction in the meteorological network.
5403a45111c9b41f92026fc61834c59454eff3bf From 1987 to 1989, the number of weather stations in the USSR decreased by 15 %, at the beginning of 1995, the decrease in the number of weather stations in the Russian Federation was 22 %. In the future, it is also possible to reduce weather stations due to the development of other methods of obtaining weather information (satellite and radar).
a9731611a376fb9adf9617797d9638ab98af83eb Synoptic maps
f154483681b524b41118e2a2c7f5593f810df027 The analysis of synoptic maps allows you to anticipate changes in the weather.
cb9081f92f1a8cf41378e2782e7c01a14540b2ab Since the mid 20th century, ground level synoptic information has been supplemented by the results of aerological observations, on the basis of which maps of the state of the free atmosphere are regularly built — the so called maps of baric topography.
531159c809419403a0bc6e3fd201c0f446433fbf Since the end of the 20th century, satellite information on the state of the oceans and parts of the land where there are no weather stations has also been widely used.
d830e42f4d88f3aec5a45b2fd9a08de9365c7d13 Photographing cloud systems from satellites allows you to detect the origin of tropical cyclones over the oceans.
468fed59e5f36e722f34a5f786fe83e54dcce27e Studying the weather on other planets
aff35c20e0cd09b2586b6d4ec71e91a414f458d8 Weather exists not only on Earth, but also on other celestial bodies (planets and their satellites) that have an atmosphere.
c078af3a5f24de4609e464ed0d9f039ff413ebf2 Studying the weather on other planets has become useful for understanding the principles of weather changes on Earth.
b0112bf18640d0b893f61642e7fdea9a8105b92f A well known research object in the Solar System — the Great Red Spot of Jupiter, is an anticyclonic storm that has existed for at least 300 years.
ec691331a710ba31cd6034f8569c7393a9334dda However, the weather is not limited to planetary bodies.
4c5f9b1e3c0d063e29c39c6865a5e06b1b2b3ac6 The Sun's corona is constantly being lost into space, creating essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System.
b6061136e6f1aa11c6962d18b9ec51b6fba77339 The movement of particles emitted by the Sun is called the solar wind.
42387255b9ccc96a983ea865eb9cdbd07955d210 Meteorological elements
3e8c999069689b4b825efff250d129d45dc7a63d Atmospheric phenomena are a visible manifestation of complex physical and chemical processes occurring in the Earth's air envelope the atmosphere:
c95ee5efbc96d332d796fe9c14ef6a0799fa80ac precipitation (rain, snow, hail) fog blizzard thunderstorm tornado, etc.
a81b62e448c5507bec6ce05cdcc6056573910853 Values that determine the "equivalent comfortable temperature":
35d3f60f257f7a07fc8accbd1885b847559d9168 atmospheric pressure air temperature air humidity wind speed and direction
0d5864a0e96d5a1b12ef9c3803ca35e3ecbe6375 Values important for transport and agriculture:
175bd74a9a22c55174c0b23593cf048c1abf3b36 visibility range atmospheric turbulence possibility of icing solar radiation cloudiness, duration of sunshine possibility of a storm (at sea, large lake)
43d133fc600a0a9c710e2aec7dd4bdf57ee40686 Weather forecasts
c449cf6065bff04ae5e56e8ff9a1783bcf8f9fea A weather forecast is a scientifically and technically sound assumption about the future state of the atmosphere in a certain place.
e9c012c15c8847b17c6fc6a6babf5178df1d73c2 People have been trying to predict the weather for thousands of years, but official forecasts appeared in the nineteenth century.
bc3c5cd495fa27742b115b7832a54c259607234f To make a weather forecast, quantitative data on the current state of the atmosphere is collected, and with the help of a scientific understanding of atmospheric processes, it is projected how the state of the atmosphere will change.
9f881aaa58763ab73b88cb2937b329859df6dfcd If earlier forecasts were based mainly on changes in atmospheric pressure, current weather conditions and the state of the sky, now forecasting models are used to determine future weather.
8fe1c88dffd29cf1c882ff462cb27b100531e8c4 Human participation is necessary to select the most appropriate forecasting model, on which the forecast will be based in the future.
31f6b3403e1713abbc1aad5d82424914d0a61a3a This includes the ability to choose a model template, taking into account the relationship of remote events, knowledge of the principles of operation and features of the selected model.
a970193d6ed37f7fc25d8e2d64f30108101d48b2 The complex nature of the atmosphere, the need for powerful computer technology to solve equations describing the atmosphere, the presence of errors in measuring the initial conditions and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that the accuracy of the forecast is reduced.
c376adf3a7155744a21e242ac29fde59b24f022d The greater the difference between the present time and the time for which the forecast is made (the forecast range), the lower the accuracy.
5931a3154eea565dcdc19c23da9f23654ebfa3be Using several models and bringing them to a single result helps to reduce the error and get the most likely result.
9d3748940527fca8f071b3d9d610f24b3c9ff4c7 Many people use weather forecasts.
eb4ce9e6ee01703bf37297ebd3cbbb14a61338d6 Storm warnings are important forecasts, as they are used to protect life and property.
c3770edf143a6fbb5e29ab31cdb1dbc2dd47b843 Forecasts of temperature and precipitation are important for agriculture and, therefore, even for traders in the stock markets.
0ef46b71cf66f0c0b2a1db2bab69063eade924a3 Moreover, there are even so called derivative financial instruments for the weather.
0534a03e414d66a2e6a312345ec6df30c471a2b2 Thermal networks also need temperature forecasts to assess the heat energy needed in the coming days.
e413832a5050f6c62c22e673aa3acdb4a4744699 Every day, people use the weather forecast to decide what to wear on this day.
456d60607b4c6d740732ff1d8a7d515a08093eb6 Forecasts of rain, snow and strong winds are used for planning work and outdoor recreation.
ca16344fd8a2f4903d341f1cdf67d2ccf9216d7b Currently there is a grid project ClimatePrediction.net the purpose of which is to find the most adequate model of climate change and build a forecast for the next 50 years on its basis.
477746e477743346a9dc0a82740a70dea04b78f7 Influence on people
e30db7940f196cc172bdbc2fdb61a4bcdd56d042 In addition to climate changes that caused the gradual migration of peoples (for example, the desertification of the Middle East and the formation of land bridges between continents during ice ages), extreme weather events caused smaller scale movements of peoples and were directly involved in historical events.
e5082500029e3c2f3b40623d1e4d1fd3ff10505e A recent example of the impact on hydrometeorological processes is the measures taken by China for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. 1104 rockets were launched, with the help of which special reagents are seeded into the clouds.
590bb997e2e9658064b600a54fba65bc5c90a459 Hu Guo, head of the Beijing City Meteorological Bureau, confirmed the success of the operation
e36d5a0b9df6d0f5dc9c48ce5d4e58af760f97e6 While the effectiveness of such methods of influencing the weather has not yet been definitively proven, there is convincing evidence that agriculture and industry have an impact on the weather:
d62d1c44b29cd5f60dbd64ca8d89cf2ef3352452 Acid rain caused by the entry of sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere has a detrimental effect on lakes, plants, and buildings.
aa61cc279e01cd9c95ddd2320a64a691d29ae908 Industrial waste (English: Human impact on the environment) worsens the quality of the air and its visibility.
bdef50b7851280906b3bd7c9e08689613f02fb46 Climate change caused by processes that lead to the release of greenhouse gases into the air is believed to affect the frequency of occurrence of such adverse events (Eng. Extreme weather) such as droughts, extreme temperatures, floods, storm winds and storms.
d64480eea0e82ca3e2361b5b0264c22bb1998553 The amount of heat produced by large urban conglomerates immediately affects the weather in the region, even at distances of 1,000 miles.
1bcce19a693b3b70219777bfb3a678d7170cc93b Small scale meteorology
67602dcd6ce507334811992b2aebcf51f4781d62 Micrometeorology, which considers meteorological phenomena of small and ultra small scales, both in time and in space, deals with atmospheric phenomena less than one kilometer, that is, those that are no longer considered by medium scale meteorology (English Mesoscale meteorology).
497195765835edfc4bfa3406bdbbbff50f4867ad These two branches of meteorology are sometimes combined together, and they include the study of objects whose scales are smaller than those considered by Synoptic scale meteorology and cannot be reflected on a synoptic map.
3b98fb8bb0353fa9f3a16645ceffa5b959bd3382 This may include small and usually wandering clouds and similar objects.
f5cf8bf3c9bcb46d818344fa0bed7da7633dafb2 Weather on other planets
4c195aeffa7cd5188bfc3bdda6d903f27665dffd Studying the weather features on other planets contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes occurring on Earth.
21fbe98a91798fca205490e30e5ce8a9cb35af0a On other planets, weather conditions obey many of the physical laws inherent in the weather on Earth, but they occur on a different scale and in atmospheres different from the earth's chemical composition.
1c8cb450ea7c6004d7b5331098cd7016e4fe628e The Cassini Huygens mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane on the satellite, which produce rain consisting of liquid methane and other organic components.
b3b439b59bca8c594143f61bde4644ea8762b4ee The Earth's atmosphere consists of six zones of circulation in latitude, three in each hemisphere.
45acaaa03e22da3858a8c0d6ee46c92c012e7d0d Unlike Earth, Jupiter is surrounded by many such zones.
fff5b8a073d158245509b170656781dc384f7154 Titan has only one stream near the 50th parallel of north latitude and one near the equator.
dcbe55f4d068fdcd017beebe0371c664ddf690e2 Weather records
b594d64af526c68d8ddf3ef2fe48d738dd98da81 Weather records are extreme meteorological indicators that have been officially registered on the Earth's surface.
71e4689fce4216523702af8c826b49b46ab5967f The lowest temperature in history was recorded on July 21, 1983 at Vostok Station, Antarctica -89.2 °C.
1b66ed287de7ed92a532ad610943e8746890972e The warmest recorded on September 13, 1922 in Alazizayi, Libya.
8849fa86252eff8d73b0181fc997dae90de82ff1 Then the thermometer rose to 58 °C; the value, however, is disputed.
3567266e1b2efb665461a8f1daff8c4672ff09cc Main categories
11ff6467f25bda456694b73e65e359366afed2fc Atmosphere Biosphere Geology Hydrology Continents Landscape Tourism Ethnos
96df2f2f304eff4de3a34c6ebeaa6f7c029ff813 Australia Oceania America Antarctica Africa Eurasia
4632beb6bcc47c1d79f7a90e3939dea92422af5c Hydrology
566af970c28c0f2cddfe39d578ca6c194629fbde Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Arctic Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanology Hydrology of the land
e4409ff12d7c64d8997d116c7814f7982e397401 www.география land.rf geographical internet portal
8312dd230c5aca230e31375d488f9596c40dc9e3 Solomon (al. - Heb .ללֹמֹה, Shlomo; Greek. ΣαλωμνΝ, ΣολωμώΝ in the Septuagint; Lat. Salomon in the Vulgate; Arabic: Suleiman in the Koran) is the third Jewish king, the legendary ruler of the united kingdom of Israel in 965-928 BC, during its highest heyday.
48f8e9ea17ecf3bf1d1d00b6278ecddd65477770 Son of King David and Bathsheba (Bat Sheba), his co-ruler in 967-965 BC.
556da53a51d464022dde2d9bb3ab96f53a5f3b0f During the reign of Solomon, the Jerusalem Temple was built in Jerusalem — the main shrine of Judaism.
944810403a54e90d430cb403a95d1b2fbef591a9 Traditionally, he is considered the author of the Book of Ecclesiastes, the book of the Song of Solomon, the Book of Proverbs of Solomon, as well as some psalms[1].
59cfd83e933883d190ab91e900d7b3a5d9b46260 The name Shlomo (Solomon) in Hebrew comes from the root "ללום "(shalom — "peace", meaning "not war"), as well as" שלם "(shalem — "perfect","whole").
fe26d8465eaa14ced329414eeffd48c5dde96ce9 Solomon is also mentioned in the Bible under a number of other names.
c7cc0b3eae1763006ac5711efa370e582509af91 For example, he is called Jedidiah ("beloved of God or friend of God") — a symbolic name given to Solomon as a sign of God's favor to his father David after his deep repentance regarding his adultery with Bathsheba[2].
6384a1e69f8157ad26bbe8d76f7c73abeeecd63b In the Haggadah, the names Agur, Bin, Yake, Lemuel, Itiel and Ukal are also attributed to King Solomon. [3]
90e723cb3d472993bcfbf12de759f0306e41e205 The Bible is the main source that is used to substantiate the historicity of the existence of Solomon as a real person.
d333d021ecd8761266d51ac93223541a301b020b In addition, his name is mentioned in the works of some authors of antiquity, as Josephus wrote[4].
b95083d84fe0faedff6d61a2139cf8934d9879a4 Minus the biblical stories recorded after more than 400 years[5][to clarify] after the death of Solomon, no historical evidence of his existence has been found.
592ed133d5b21d32d6de09bed38d1ec867dd82e6 Nevertheless, he is considered to be a historical figure[6].
5cafd49254e0a78e071128d50ee029bbc175a00f For this rule, the Bible has a particularly detailed factual history with many personal names and numbers.
8a1709f7ebc21a5a9bbd75f8141898c1142e23a6 The name of Solomon is associated mainly with the construction of the Jerusalem temple, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II and several cities, the construction of which was also associated with his name[7]
25e31286c1419857b249b3662eff6d4dd24f4a00 At the same time, a completely plausible historical outline is adjacent to obvious exaggerations[8][9].
6ee18092ef3b68ed517094a92bd4fbded175add6 For the later periods of Jewish history, the reign of Solomon represented a kind of"golden age".
1973e53be1af829aa8317bd932a29195bc27b3cf As happens in such cases, all the benefits of the world were attributed to the "sun-like" king — wealth, women, a remarkable mind[10][11].
4b8b20e9042cfcd750c2e4c3ae2e0c67dc9f510a David promised the throne to the son of his beloved wife Bathsheba - Solomon, and the prophet Nathan (Nathan) already at the birth of Solomon singled him out among the other sons of David and considered him worthy of the mercy of God.
ddd73e144d1ad86733ec8bda79532a4cfbbc8374 David's eldest son, Adonijah, knowing about this promise of David, tried to seize power during his father's lifetime, but his plan was not fulfilled, since the prophet Nathan and Bathsheba convinced David to hurry up with the anointing of Solomon to the kingdom.
3c06cec05c49255a4544bd601b6ca61ae10556da King David did not punish Adonijah and took an oath from Solomon that he would not do anything bad to his brother, provided that he would not claim the throne of Solomon.
bbd1377758f780ea3931e5af745e3feeebed81fc After David's death, Adonijah turned to Bathsheba with a request to marry Abishag (a servant of King David at the end of his life).
2778f5d1b787ae731874167dc998d944f4fe5d61 Solomon saw in this Adonijah's claim to his throne, since, according to custom, the right to the throne belongs to the one who gets the king's wife or concubine, and ordered Adonijah to be killed.
ba20299ff7074a91fbf02b64b6d95e7acf6268a3 King Solomon was famous for his wisdom, animals, birds and spirits obeyed him.
179fa0eaaf6968b6e9027c1e47ca2a341483dfe5 One night, God appeared to Solomon in a dream and promised to fulfill his every wish.
519401831cc845907f5490982f2a2be35de712c2 Solomon asks: "Give Your servant a reasonable heart, so that He can judge Your people and distinguish between what is good and what is evil."
629653317804af39370f5bfad8de9a9802587b81 King Solomon was a peaceful ruler and during his reign (he ruled for 40 years) there was not a single big war.
249fc86a574fbe7645a65277e72bee28967973b5 He inherited a large and strong state and he had to support and strengthen it.
5624ff7d88c43057ac5e61426b7a975cdfd6f6ef At the beginning of his reign, he married the daughter of an Egyptian pharaoh, thereby strengthening the southern borders of his state.
3ecc31d84d60794fa7a2a2cbd479d4cb4441124a Subsequently, he repeatedly married women of other nations to maintain good-neighborly relations with neighboring states (Solomon's harem numbered 700 wives and 300 concubines).
9f69c1e440534dc088a54fb5e142222a67704ae3 King Solomon was a good diplomat, builder and merchant.
7631fdb7b65e641cccca94acaf07e97500794a21 He turned an agricultural country into a strong, economically developed state that had a great influence on the international arena.
11c93af2ee2e3cc6922a0ac3825616c996dd4a72 He rebuilt and fortified Jerusalem and other cities of his kingdom, erected the First Jerusalem Temple, introduced cavalry and chariots into the Jewish army for the first time, built a merchant fleet, developed crafts and supported trade with other countries in every possible way.
2b9084b3e4bccec6509b648358c28abd84e9c848 Solomon surrounded his reign with luxury and wealth "and the king made silver in Jerusalem equal to simple stones."
b20fa7a92f210df0e6c856fa2688007822b93c1f Ambassadors from various countries came to Jerusalem to conclude peace and trade agreements with Israel and brought rich gifts.
1c1a130f3ef9020ddabd4fc1454c1e791439d931 But during his reign, Solomon also made mistakes that led to the collapse of the state after his death.
b9ae6ac827bee516f4e77c911501e8f8eef07620 Grandiose construction and rapid economic development required labor " and King Solomon imposed a duty on all Israel; the duty consisted of thirty thousand people."
96310bc4cbf08044119985c70b8e8d3bac22213d Solomon divided the country into 12 tax districts, obliging them to maintain the royal court and the army.
0199cdab557bfbbcd76b2d7282c38b430c79f216 The tribe of Judah, from which Solomon and David came, was exempt from taxes, which caused discontent among the representatives of the other tribes of Israel.
efe5b5773ae5fc1b6f526ad9a7ec66682ab0baf4 Solomon's extravagance and desire for luxury led to the fact that he could not pay off King Hiram, with whom he signed a contract during the construction of the Temple, and was forced to give him several of his cities on account of the debt.
79bd501e70332f79f2893d61ee83d574862daf0f King Solomon had many wives of different races and religions, they brought their own deities with them.
fbf86187fdf1674671d2a07669c6abd1a3abe705 Solomon built temples for them, where they could worship their gods, and at the end of his life he himself began to participate in pagan cults.
8a8abbf480b9785e3d35c426e1632e899d66a03a In the Midrash (Oral Torah) it is said that when King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the archangel Gabriel descended from heaven and stuck a pole into the depths of the sea, around which an island was formed, on which Rome was later built, which conquered Jerusalem.
019aab025b9ad7303fbbdfa676dd9dc99022684a After the death of King Solomon, his kingdom split into two weak states, Israel and Judea, leading constant internecine wars.
5ac19944944f563944a25e1aa8eed944ed203153 The name of King Solomon is associated with many myths and legends, let's look at some of them.
248fa67a3cbb59d8cd582edd0a5a7b0f173b332c Once two women came to the tsar for trial, who could not divide the baby between them - both said that it was her child.
9eaa3fa4817ff50e3d9b2ecc34f82f5f189f5cd3 Solomon, without hesitation, ordered the baby to be cut in half, so that each woman would get a piece.
974ba744aa715a3d905e193ae45fe8fb62a68538 The first said: "Cut it down, and let no one get it," to which the second exclaimed: "Give it to her, but just don't kill him!".
5f77dc49f6ba4a728b2b6ee9edca288c59b76792 Solomon decided the court in favor of the second woman, giving the child to her, because she was his mother.
c45c6d519bd3d4434b9e533ae6468ae0c738e210 The Ring of Solomon
d7e97d03a6957bfb264ac48113edb6210eecb501 Despite his wisdom, the life of King Solomon was not calm.
34378ace0a25ba16660affe8fcd0c1030c482750 And one day King Solomon turned to the court sage for advice with a request:
5ac602f6953d9a1a1056ad176fc59dc724c04cef "Help me — a lot of things in this life can make me lose my temper.
c9ebd3e2b5ae93a28dab2115f7949259ab42a521 I am very prone to passions, and this hinders me!"
2793eaaa2aab80e0d28345842e2571dc10f5481b To which the sage replied: "I know how to help you.
c3452635e286765d8f4d4efe5c572596e23f042f Put on this ring — the phrase "It will pass" is carved on it.
c0e84ad6a76a2eaf618cb7c4fc066687c259bb86 When there is a strong anger or a strong joy, look at this inscription, and it will sober you up.
a0d8abaa78b1a10c24064c8e688f1bc8db7c76d8 In this you will find salvation from the passions!"
0cbba02a9e422f21e1a2e3e1a22bdd87acd49557 Solomon followed the sage's advice and found peace.
775fa95eee97285a8474062f1bbaa885fa448735 But there came a moment when, looking at the ring, as usual, he did not calm down, but on the contrary, he lost his temper even more.
4f65b7639373a9f1b9879ba64db9813a8be803cf He tore the ring off his finger and wanted to throw it away into the pond, but suddenly noticed that there was some kind of inscription on the inside of the ring.
d88a0974f7829852a3bfdedd0955d878803b5dc3 He looked closely and read: "And that will pass, too."
78414755352069873f8a30129f88f7571fd252a6 Another version of the legend:
7fbe7024702f53cd738498bf23186307f9a9a04d One day King Solomon was sitting in his palace and saw a man walking down the street dressed from head to toe in golden robes.
ee540229e53cffcef97d3ff0d8a21c42c90d7776 Solomon called this man to him and asked: "Aren't you a robber?".
baebd7f153bd6fdd2184e6d238a6f8cdd903a845 To which he replied that he was a jeweler: "And Jerusalem is a famous city, many wealthy people, kings and princes come here."
7839c9c3b92c8c52e6abc89d9e597f3ae74e445c Then the king asked how much does the jeweler earn by this?
182a9741bb436934aeba38467ef8465c00ebaca0 And he proudly replied that a lot.
925025bdebf64cf81d8a4cbbb0de04d259f2b576 Then the king grinned and said that if this jeweler is so smart, then let him make a ring that makes the sad ones happy, and the merry ones sad.
36eb10b52bc84cee1fb78181743c6dd9fdcce7f6 And if the ring is not ready in three days, he orders the jeweler to be executed.
07c23700529ecc087b5ae67e4fcefc8bd24be59d No matter how talented the jeweler was, but on the third day he went to the king with fear with a ring for him.
728129ff74c4896641e6fbaa53ca8149d23bc0f9 At the threshold of the palace, he met Rahavam, the son of Solomon, and thought: "The son of a wise man is half of a wise man"[4].
465d5dc19d0bbbee94f9e2b732baa3e776c238e7 And he told Rahavam about his trouble.
160799eaf04f1fac02f450a935dd81b5d9fc6b35 To which he grinned, took a nail and scratched three Hebrew letters on three sides of the ring — gimel, zain and Yud.
4e92931769209055f760811dbd1fede7fba7a4e4 And he said that with this you can safely go to the king.
dd2e035b141a6270b168c3b5d6819d0098fdc2d2 Solomon turned the ring around and immediately understood the meaning of the letters on the three sides of the ring in his own way — and their meaning is the abbreviation "And this will also pass".
f50346bef5294a6cf6f3b0f4a0bd84bfa3d29f9e And as the ring turns, and all the time different letters come up, so the world turns, and the fate of a person turns in the same way.
287f75de0ee858466605a8a32bb24e984a238e64 And thinking that now he is sitting on a high throne, surrounded by all the splendors, and this will pass, he immediately became sad.
adeb74867952756017bf397e71aae47415df05eb And when Ashmodai threw him to the end of the world and Solomon had to wander for three years, looking at the ring, he understood that this would also pass, and he became cheerful.
d29337e15ff2a8e4195eb6dd5108a2174ac3c1d2 The third version of the legend:
d36920ff9093154c55f5dc01cedb7777673e2959 In his youth, King Solomon was given a ring with the words that when it was very difficult for him, whether it was sad or scary, let him remember the ring and hold it in his hands.
7dd59578463d216df9c3c0c9f9ed63abffccabee The riches of Solomon were not lost, another ring-will it greatly increase them?
11f29964b0048fd7422406d9df6e09291b966859 Once there was a crop failure in the kingdom of Solomon.
da34840b9bb5fe7ca0062086b6d6ecbecfa46bc4 There was pestilence and famine: not only children and women died, even the soldiers were exhausted.
82f471f1d3eea3b109e3f09230fca18f146a304f The king opened all his bins.
e3764fb642762aad49d00de375606bfed3814212 He sent merchants to sell valuables from his treasury to buy bread and feed the people.
fab313df3e1c1ac0f0ea6a4bfa1b844ddcfbbdab Solomon was in a state of confusion — and suddenly he remembered about the ring.
c8ba566e16d8b0f4f158c8f40d278e8970fd3679 The king took out the ring, held it in his hands…
419666113dff1ab40dc4e39fe2f3b8664e5147f7 Suddenly he noticed that there was an inscription on the ring.
6c21e2da11716083827d7b5522c95d754d5fdb3a "EVERYTHING PASSES," he read.
9bce43c2ed7cb21b05928faae16c37bceb95ace7 Many years have passed.
7a7e2a6419ecda6d71aaa792c7244da065e3a2f7 King Solomon became known as a wise ruler.
bdc2c2af90e865e6b644104f7f411e9409ea2438 He got married and lived happily.
2ca41f5ac5c44f864f8cbebfbaeea7ea83ff8f94 His wife became his most sensitive and close assistant and adviser.
52c6be2894857bed5a6a347c2198731f9d0db4ad And suddenly she died.
f2bccbde45f8d90b1b61865e807e3d1207c0657e Grief and anguish seized the king.
642d722864f18afeea23c923d64c55db42de1403 Neither dancers and singers, nor wrestling competitions amused him…
84bc0c150f1aaf84a5633e0276d5df592105ab40 He took the ring: "Everything passes"?
01879a8161b19e164d9e99b18e791cc9b622a7ee The tsar did not want to put up with these words: out of frustration, he threw the ring, it rolled — and something flashed on the inner surface.
fd79b3bbedaa2ddb77014e3b39ce7f8cb301181e The king picked up the ring, held it in his hands.
8becfaa4e114584417d3d1cbbd03ab5a0a4cf097 For some reason he had never seen such an inscription before: "THIS WILL ALSO PASS."
d775b35cc0f6df60ba024483ea6cf068938dd86f Many more years have passed.
866867e7735ba0b330f8af68c9e958be5635e25c Solomon turned into an ancient elder.
f0e0454750da362df9320e185559059307376c3f "Everything passes, ""This will also pass," he remembered, grinned: that's all gone.
a857098c5209e258d38916815305cee99a639826 Now the king did not part with the ring.
963ef692b40436cb71f98ff76f842c6699273437 It has already worn out, the previous inscriptions have disappeared.
12899ed96dd94bdf86067ac423d6b6e3c8724d9f With weakening eyes, he noticed that something had appeared on the edge of the ring. What is it, some letters again?
8057e301fcb12acfebb36e1c924ec1482b0d786d The king exposed the edge of the ring to the setting rays of the sun — the letters on the edge flashed: "NOTHING PASSES" - Solomon read…
eb8cb22db088fa869c378d0003aa733561516ca4 King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba
2e61589d11f2e916bab72b97a4eecd31ba896c7e One day, rumors about the wisdom and greatness of the Jewish ruler reached the imperious and strong queen of Sheba, Balkis, who ruled the country of the Sabeans, called by the ancients "Happy Arabia".
5b4a477300e399c134abae49c50966b7d56c6237 Majestic temples rose on her lands, the richest cities flourished, luxurious gardens were green and roads were built, and the people did not cease to glorify their wise queen.
866fa5b6364616d18632a446920237bd50411258 Blakida claimed that her country was the richest in the world, and she was the wisest ruler.
08c12a4b71a1828ac4b1fdedd8f1471354fbb1b6 The queen decided to see with her own eyes Solomon, who surpassed her in everything, and personally see his amazing mind and divine wisdom.
6bd8c131429ea41ae4b1757b9817ba857b55c71d She set out on her journey, accompanied by several thousand servants who led camels loaded with gifts to the king of Israel: precious stones, exotic plants, the rarest mahogany and fragrant oils.
d6c4b20e9d7679c129fecb1722db241d145011bb According to legend, Solomon met a foreign guest, sitting on a golden throne and dressed in golden clothes.
4d003275264e6f53651da113eb572fdc1e49e721 When the queen saw the ruler of Israel, it seemed to her that a golden statue appeared before her.
6d2168abbc640fea4d1d8ec5610fac0dc8fbc2de The great Solomon got up, went to the beautiful Balkis and, taking her by the arm, led her to his throne.
613415388dd766b5c5ce761bfbd729e19f7cfe4f It was said that he immediately fell in love with a stranger and, admiring her beauty, spent all his days with her, talking about countries, the universe, God.
3ba949d8f1b80a4ea6cbe98e5c332bfa71171792 He took Balkis around Jerusalem, showed the buildings and temples built by him, and the queen did not cease to be surprised at the scope and generosity of the famous Israeli.
6aff40e672c744b82be9080411ecce925d8d2be5 Finally, she finally admitted that she was inferior in everything to Solomon and no longer denied his superiority.
34d77841c13ad5cfbfbe46b5211da5aa580d0d25 At the same time, the queen of Sheba made three riddles to the ruler of Israel, to which the king allegedly received an answer in advance from the priest of Sheba bribed by him and, without hesitation, immediately answered the queen.
983dbe7f42b151dadb5de36e8bd08dcabddc9b30 The woman was even more amazed at the wisdom of the famous Solomon.
cbec94cf2c05d8aae16fc934649abf19de6fb465 She, always proud and adamant, even agreed when he asked Balkis to become his wife.
e74cda6e10c5fdcf6b45d286c39543b5c582ae0b However, before that, Solomon wanted to reveal the secret of the queen and thereby refute the terrible rumors about Balkis.
f57db8c9514890de43a3205f178edf586caa3d40 It was said about the Queen of Sheba that she was beautiful in appearance and amazingly wise.
e7f97a5e32f3865de6fa90266d4c400df829cf2a However, it was said that for all the virtues of the lady of the Saveys, she had inhuman, goat-like legs, and instead of feet, she had webbed, like a goose, paws.
76dda97a138fb7ef2ec39d1bc946e8f69891b30f The king in love wanted to see for himself whether this was the case or not.
89877bde83fb54d7462d2b9496c5e65530904149 To do this, the wise ruler of Israel ordered to make a transparent crystal floor in one of his rooms.
5eff7e1370c3adbaaee7fbd6e8bd00cacfebaad9 A pool was built under it, where the purest water was poured and fish were launched.
06febb37a01eb5f841e73bc36b1dcf9be6f689b9 All this resembled a real lake, and it was possible to distinguish it only by getting closer.
5fa3f84aca40874db9c857fa4924da2def3b4df8 Therefore, when Solomon led the queen into the prepared room, she, seeing the amazing pool, suddenly lifted her skirts so as not to wet them.
905079d69781a6ef5d11e8e572d1b9c3940a448f For a few seconds, her legs appeared from under her lower clothes, and the king of Israel saw real, human legs, only too crooked and ugly.
a4ef0d418996c37bba77a489f863fff8e9278078 The offended queen gathered all the servants in one night and left Jerusalem without saying goodbye to Solomon, who had inflicted a cruel insult on the lady of the Sabeans.
0d8d23cfa3ad30fe172a00296cdc8e787bbfb372 The king quickly forgot the foreign guest and again enjoyed the concubines gathered in the royal harem from all over the world.
717104679efc52bc3a3bf5d46a284f59059d2095 "A woman is sweeter than life and more bitter than death," Solomon said of his beloved.
cca41576e0de00823b5505f9887606409637d5df He continued to build cities, strengthen the navy and build temples.
7b1c084497735c2135e4b02c87b8048faae44fea However, his entourage became increasingly dissatisfied with the wasteful policy of the ruler.
78b6e65531cb1e69ecf67b0f0c84b9bffa84f9fe immediately after the death of the "wisest of kings", there was an uprising against the David dynasty and Israel was divided into two territories: Israel and Judea.
c26eaf6dbf960bc807b8b314d1f33ab17caffa10 The latter was ruled for some time by Solomon's son Rehoboam.
aac7e07a5276ea1d7327fdccdbfa7396563b1de5 About the project | Site map
3b9312de1454398ac383487a2bf3ff4d622fe426 How to build relationships Everyday historyhistories of Lovesexternal culture
0d3568606622d1bf90d65ca344276dad14f47d34 Psychology of relationships / Love Stories / Ancient World
28f4f12dec72ef0b35719568e4fba0778901d557 King Solomon, who was given the name Jedidiah at birth, which meant "Beloved of God", ruled the state of Israel for forty years.
afa02b0b188cab8549c74087b18aa9c45898f2c5 Most often, the years of his reign are called 972-932 BC, and this time is marked by relative calm and peace in Israel.
98b5f10e60f377925e6e157097a43014770f611a No wonder the royal name of this ruler was the name Solomon (from the Hebrew word "Shlomo" - peace).
2e9b2bcc9e981e33f4828f9d46fa9c8cde63c91f He came to the throne when he was barely twenty years old, but already in the first years of his reign, the young ruler proved to the Israelites his wisdom, organizational skills and strength.
c7b6b1fd05d6de46fcf1efb56e231597a039d173 He immediately fortified Jerusalem, built a fleet, allocated large funds for the development of trade with neighboring states, erected a great temple, and also encouraged the development of science and literature.
196e232643529340f7fd60602f258c6fa87952b8 Solomon was distinguished by his love for women.
15a53e51f3009d15aa86c09ca92f7a20ebd58656 Some sources claim that he had about 700 wives and more than 300 concubines.
2674dc9a49602edd23cbf25ae679b06be66721d4 The oldest wife of the king of Israel was an Egyptian woman, who supposedly bore the name of Bethia.
798763150e7d526d36f571e3f6a6441f4edec12e So the king has not yet received a single guest.
4e7a82873b88d96ef942adbdaf71e37c7699a51e She was even credited with supernatural abilities, often called the "queen of the jinn" and "demon".
70481fd52fa81afc1964d81c16d1c8b2027f7347 However, it was said that for all the virtues of the lady of the Saveys, she had inhuman, goat like legs, and instead of feet, she had webbed, like a goose, paws.
0d965a23d8ae6a020a21ced9e87d9ce0ee664a80 However, his entourage became increasingly dissatisfied with the wasteful policy of the ruler. immediately after the death of the "wisest of kings", there was an uprising against the David dynasty and Israel was divided into two territories: Israel and Judea.
7fa041447494a98c3ee243c6bd34909cb752af1c Read in the section "The Ancient World":
34757e5eacb7a252022922f87d36454f009481a5 Octavian Augustus and Livia DrusillaSamson and DalilaParis and ElenaSenenmut and HatshepsuTzar Nin and SemiramidaAlkei and Sapphopericles and Aspasia Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Cleopatra
1bdad5bad19268f84716df513b98bab6484163bc / King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba
44e8d683230916b8b12ef3cc4b8862e654fd27c4 Categories of the section
4525ae160cadaed8a92a51f49e9081293bb8278e The ancient world The Middle Ages The Renaissance XVII century XVIII century XIX century XX century
6130c3cb52d2acec76e0b5675d0e9a41460bc785 The best by views
52adf2257c585eb738a2c85735bed1a7a3fe468c About the most intimate
be022b3808d0be6875799d0ef9644a2a79ea8d21 Clitoridectomy
ae54b1fb89a607686485e07e37854f843523ec9c The wedding night
fbffb169d4539ad05d4edc96fd35f09d793c14ba Tobias ' nights
a2644db74006d306142660b94dcdaf7e7a73e5cf Nudity
26d7964dbfe4c4ea030d619e62a64c31800b6df0 LoveStuff.ru -Love affairs.
734312e33e83ec8d9dca9aad80e438db1cef484f Psychology of Relationships, 2010-2015 About the project | Site map
92556992591c4977539a0b5405b04920d906b036 Solomon
1a5af0de6f55b159833db6ccebfe88f6dc008416 This article is about the legendary biblical king, see also Solomon (name).
8eb2f4d0c59d86e40a4379aade7d84a2e65447b1 This term has other meanings, see Solomon (meanings).
e771160e2c73bef338587fd5ba876d303b646967 others Heb .ללֹמֹה, Shlomo
749d34879fb8740d1720079da6969027d6626f61 King Solomon is in old age.
eae305f51cf0e6c39f2c580e8cf58cec571a5bcc Engraving by Gustave Dore
23c942ef1cbe11d81320ba9583baf0b8129bfbdd 3rd King of the united Kingdom of Israel
f0b88e744a154639525ff5fd05d0b58d4927be5f 965-928 BC Predecessor: David Successor: Rehoboam and Jeroboam I (as King of the Northern Kingdom of Israel)
ea0a5922017d44c41fb45c46d20220346145f143 Religion: Judaism Birth: 1011 BC
5363ad0efcb28525f31f4235239e05c84167b6ad Jerusalem Death: 928 BC (-928)
63b1e8087cdef99fd85131d2fe2dbd0f15d33342 Jerusalem Birth: dynasty of David Father: King David Mother: Bathsheba Spouse: Naama Children: Rehoboam
ee9cf40926eabe23b5664f6c27eeb3bb160345ab Menelik
80beeac0eb9fc5f3f489603a6a0820374080ea80 Solomon on Wikimedia Commons
41004d3a459494c077c43a1ec6d8b4f75e9c07ba Son of King David and Bathsheba (Bat Sheba), his co ruler in 967-965 BC.
26d3ce39c0fff15be502d430fd4480cbac74397b 1 The names of Solomon 2 The Biblical Narrative 2.1 Coming to Power 2.2 Foreign policy 2.3 The end of the reign
e7e5ac487d1b0169e8cb8d63010dcc24c59b2e69 3 Solomon in Islam 4 Symbolism 5 Image in art 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 References
c63ce202d52663144140bb74b1ab2e9f3def70bf Names of Solomon[edit / edit wiki text]
d5bb0046561afc74d198dc5ebd75739238bec39b In the Haggadah, the names Agur, Bin, Yake, Lemuel, Itiel and Ukal are also attributed to King Solomon.
f1e31df9806ce94c5bdbbfff9608324930f4d3f1 [3]
45680dff4c30c85e5a9b602084b3f3ff969bc6d8 The Biblical narrative[edit / edit wiki text]
4b83d28bfd26a6983e956a1c68bb750acb2f36c7 King Solomon.
3f7faa6a82909a0a17ddf9dabb780312f6622a76 Armenian miniature, Bible, 1269
a78f61469c3811420b83d3b18ea045e68dc60f4a The name of Solomon is associated mainly with the construction of the Jerusalem temple, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II and several cities, the construction of which was also associated with his name[7] At the same time, a completely plausible historical outline is adjacent to obvious exaggerations[8][9]. For the later periods of Jewish history, the reign of Solomon represented a kind of"golden age".
02ad58ac43c69a3a6845d1d3cbdd414ee22796d4 As happens in such cases, all the benefits of the world were attributed to the "sun like" king — wealth, women, a remarkable mind[10][11].
5aca2222279937b0958a5a420b15b6044a7d3e63 Coming to power[edit / edit wiki text]
a59a8645f4e30e72343cfa06a32d5c4e84a0f1c4 King David intended to transfer the throne to Solomon, although he was one of his younger sons.
02ad6d0f1b9c3e4bae78d9b6186561b3cfe3230c When David became senile, his other son, Adonijah, tried to usurp power.
bb338feb266db8bf9291780245d358476af13ae4 He entered into a conspiracy with the high priest Abiathar and the commander of the troops Joab, and, taking advantage of David's weakness, announced himself as the successor to the throne, appointing a magnificent coronation.
3786d465fe9b9728390d51372cf83da328bdf708 Solomon's mother, Bathsheba, as well as the prophet Nathan (Nathan) notified David about this.[12] Adonijah fled and hid in the Tabernacle, grasping "the horns of the altar" (3 Samuel 1:51), after his repentance, Solomon had mercy on him.
8187b2d63dc4679867652e64db30793305e5dd2f [13] After coming to power, Solomon dealt with other participants in the conspiracy.
374bf019663613e4f3ab658f5e3938bcf0edc430 Thus, Solomon temporarily removed Abiathar from the priesthood and executed Joab, who tried to hide on the run.
18e58e4377849ea71a143d29f91d21cf16f97bc9 The executor of both executions, Benaiah, was appointed by Solomon as the new commander of the troops.
45e2492f610ec4245a919e60480abbfd512ac78a God gave Solomon the kingdom on the condition that he would not deviate from the service of God.
7bcfca4ba9f60905ca9b937cb75e950ef05e188d In exchange for this promise, God gave Solomon unprecedented wisdom and patience.
0aeedc5365736a74f45af0466f3fe03e25302224 Government of Solomon
af6bc23d0780d2aa535dbb6208c8c49faf2c1f10 The composition of the Government formed by Solomon:
8f3cd1ee18e607a04de900e03d0b862a13c78060 High Priests Zadok, Abiathar, Azariah;
8fb052046cc2f7e97992a59ce8af2e6c81a7a709 The commander of the troops — Vanya;
e0aa56918755d3cf329bb71bca81293896c84c6d Minister of Taxation Adoniram;
b8f5514d28f5ae483382a4fcdeb7fb1b12fd115c The court chronicler is Jehoshaphat; also the scribes are Elichoreth and Ahiyah;
ed70c2320202417d2a8b64eb3b7075ef87503f1c Akhisar head of the royal administration;
3e022f70a8253dc0c7a7eecd976ee7f308e2ec92 Head Teacher;
7eff80a2df0f220fae6f6997d00be54c5ebc7a4a Azaria — chief of the governors;
ca5de33f690e4a2019e84484dba6f03106f47959 12 governors: Ben Hur, Ben Decker, Ben Chesed, Ben Abinadab, Baana, the son of Ahilud, Ben Geber, Ahinadab, Ahimaas, Baana, the son of Hushai, Jehoshaphat, Shimei, Geber.
ad5d6e44f7f5c361148b9c1ee0cd203a0ed7d5cd Solomon and the Queen of Sheba in a fresco by Piero della Francesca from the Basilica of San Francesco
989c0f4a9ec0ae06997772eabdba68cd382eb9f4 The basis of Solomon's prosperity was the trade route from Egypt to Damascus that passed through his possessions[10].
5e14221bafee4e36dad5fe46be3eb6401027d4bb He was not a militant ruler, although the states of Israel and Judea united under his rule occupied a significant territory.
84d6f6ccf7487c542e0bb05c43beb82428c4a876 Solomon maintained friendly relations with the Phoenician king Hiram.
2931271b7e3fb84841e1d8005b902a0ac17525b6 Great construction projects left him in debt to Hiram[10].
6fe0fb840dd2cd05bc862f3215af1a17f9f7b273 To pay off the debt, Solomon was forced to cede to him the villages in the south of his lands.
0d897bbcc3a39c35f094df912e09283e56ab6ed1 According to the biblical narrative, after learning about the wisdom and glory of Solomon, the ruler of the Sabean kingdom came to Solomon "to test him with riddles."
5d23ee1fe33e778cc7c94f0dbc09e052ad9d5b06 In response, Solomon also gave the queen a gift, giving "everything that she desired and asked for."
f2d8698371f6eae9ae4ac14de8bac40de6057346 After this visit, according to the Bible, unprecedented prosperity began in Israel.
7c5559a5a5ec266f89b89b3c3b8697fe3ba0a6f3 In a year, 666 talents of gold came to King Solomon.
6b26f6216fff1feea14af03eb0f1f6f851a8c4a9 Subsequently, the story of the Queen of Sheba was overgrown with numerous legends, up to the assumptions about her love affair with Solomon.
7552b9c0d53fb548cc603b316f082ad42932408e The Christian rulers of Ethiopia considered themselves descended from this connection (see Solomon's Dynasty).
8de52b015bc2f534b17c9c6238c9df4f57ab8b10 It is believed that Solomon ended the half thousand year old enmity between the Jews and the Egyptians by taking the daughter of the Egyptian pharaoh as his first wife.
062877d93cd7632d916b23d4f19a56769a84895e The end of the reign[edit / edit wiki text]
2fb55168eb331826771f946f7db77527be1da45b According to the Bible, Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines (3 Samuel 11: 3), among whom there were also foreigners.
881d9e3e06d14d87c04ca89a7d17a9b48e302603 One of them, who by that time had become his beloved wife and had a great influence on the king, convinced Solomon to build a pagan altar and worship the deities of her native land.
c78890a3a74b174128e05824140697bd0dd335aa For this, God was angry with him and promised many hardships to the people of Israel, but after the end of the reign of Solomon (because David was promised the prosperity of the country and under his son).
4bfd0acd4b700696cebe4f16d81592f8d8dc008f Thus, the entire reign of Solomon passed quite calmly.
a0873fcbb24e79fd8cf53d60e69d9b2e1e3428b6 Solomon died in the fortieth year of his reign.
0dc64a8d885a852b98ca23050fae0ec311c66144 According to legend, this happened at the time when he was overseeing the construction of a new altar.
e5f1c1e46bd715b525fc16edc5cffa58a560ab13 To avoid a mistake (assuming that it could be a lethargic dream), his entourage did not bury him until the worms began to sharpen his staff.
5de6de59052cecd6f066d756a8742849431f063c Only then was he officially declared dead and buried.
1ffda9175cbf5fe6d3ea0e30479b1b295cbf988b The huge costs of building the temple and the palace (the latter was built twice as long as the temple) exhausted the state treasury.
889a64cc238a8cb108975252681a98ac9573c00b Construction duty was served not only by prisoners and slaves, but also by ordinary subjects of the tsar[10].
15f605a226f44de4244ed22c4bac99fee99b8ad1 Even during the life of Solomon, rebellions of the conquered peoples (Edomites, Arameans) began; immediately after his death, an uprising broke out, as a result of which the single state split into two kingdoms (Israel and Judea).
9642a24f241b20514f61829b37f955d7a8578c8d Solomon in Islam[edit / edit wiki text]
b052f27459237bbb5ff699f145492f4df270c427 Main article: Suleiman
6652379347cab9a2ebb6a3c32d160778991edc66 According to the Quran, Suleiman (Suleiman) he was the son of the prophet David.
c6d309f7869bc639dcd7ea206ed0fda5c0adf5f5 From his father, he learned a lot of knowledge and was chosen by Allah as a prophet, and he was given mystical power over many beings, including the jinn.
af75353dd5f1d3c2b6afa275d9b86ff182984989 He ruled a vast kingdom that stretched to Yemen in the south.
44497ccb6542dd17a0799dc8782ef621b5f409a7 In the Islamic tradition, Suleiman is known for his wisdom and justice.
81bd9b647bc393d0d16f9252258a927b231ea9f2 He is considered a model ruler.
4d61371d6ad394b6c0e7399a52da8d1266366521 It is no coincidence that many Muslim monarchs bore his name.
d54ccb794d4c25aff18f4098765f6635e3b04f85 The Islamic tradition has some parallels with the Haggadah, where Solomon is represented as "the wisest of men, who could speak to animals, and they obeyed him"[14].
20a7dfcb7b819b7a9dd151c8599125fccfe1ee87 In the Jewish tradition, there is a motif of humility of this proud king.
7e21f0a076377f9bd422b3d1d816caf04d3657f5 Main articles: Star of David, Seal of King Solomon
82cb56833979fce9e59c154d53c8885d52feef5b The Star of Solomon
6eb6c513a625bf11dc50efb4591b0ae0a8251e9c According to legend, under Solomon, the sign of his father David became the state seal.
e3326f64bad59677fec226119c479a15479522d4 In Islam, the six pointed star is called the star of Solomon.
8c78ba10f6bdf5c602f65664d70ddb40c73ad7b0 At the same time, medieval mystics called the pentagram (a five pointed star) the seal of Solomon.
e36e3bcd8ac56cca044d011fb2d8c085ef9110a7 It is believed that the star of Solomon formed the basis of the Maltese cross of the Knights of St. John.
1384b3747979eb77c8c7394ade2605eeb39ce323 In occultism, the pentacle with the name "Star of Solomon" is considered to be the 12th and final star.
b69cbb44bfc864e22936cfe7f9e05b99898507fe Due to the larger number of rays, a circle is formed in the center of the star.
677ac0c778a28932ec7e5b6c9a3560a9a7605d4f Often a symbol was inscribed in it, thanks to which the pentacle helped in intellectual work and strengthened talents.
7da0d9b42e1415390ff4d2eb4c59d4a25dcd9421 These signs were widely used in magic, alchemy, Kabbalah and other mystical teachings.
88bce1203d45910cc85457e7b912358abcb3c786 The image of king Solomon has inspired many poets and artists: for example, German poet of the XVIII century.
6369322add234a1408ea72e841994daa2ec9430f F.-G. Klopstock dedicated his tragedy in verse, the artist Rubens painted "the judgement of Solomon", Handel dedicated his oratorio, and Gounod Opera.
66108d6a009dd5c783f2e47105c9796a0b76cbde A. I. Kuprin used the image of king Solomon and the tune of "song of Songs" in his novel "Sulamith" (1908).
ca80b7a2cc164c6508565896c37b3d1cf2968db2 In explanation of appropriate legends were removed peplum "Solomon and Sheba" (1959).
dd7b6ff8b0be54ca64d22a0ba40ca8d192409c60 Solomon's Dynasty The Book of Proverbs of Solomon The Song of Solomon's Songs The Psalms of Solomon The Book of Wisdom of Solomon The Seal of King Solomon The Ring of King Solomon Solomon's Seal
04fe6a5402f6fed9b4d39553a92d2c41fd5f6032 These texts are in the mainstream of the ancient Eastern literature of wisdom (en) and have correspondences in ancient Egypt.
f7e8bdddc73c15607f807f9d8546f60d0a0bc245 Probably, scribes who knew foreign languages and were familiar with the literary traditions of neighboring peoples took part in the creation of these texts.
593366c2b5959e207be0c10422d3f3b614be0ad6 ↑ 2Car.
56db177daa5593f73b557ab640351309b45be6af 12:24,25 ↑ Mishlei 30, 1;
c429bf0e80daecfd359e01e038b20dc66e98ad01 31, 1.
5dd6aacbf1c779cad8729b3a9594b49b7482f2ac They are explained in Shir a shirim Rabba, 1, 1.
802dbe6ce8409c642a43cdd7b7fd8bfe53857edb [1].
467066f8aa036f788beae93bc0e268416e3d80b8 See also en: Agur ↑ Josephus.
b584d68239adaa99af5651d001e6eabdee616d85 About the antiquity of the Jewish people.
511ef3ec7249b2a3b30f8a9b81a4d63941d62248 Against Apion.
a433fb5c9600463757078f42793778e51677af9e ↑ The Age of Solomon: Scholarship at the Turn of the Millenium (ed. Lowell K. Handy).
e43859d00a0aa237509a30e8c704daaaa56fbc24 Brill Academic Publishers, 1997.
1a3a71aa99f00069ff13084c086ef970f4e0cd25 ISBN 9789004104761.
863c40e96613b9616d2aebc6e1ed78562910419a Page 49.
943c725ce4ae5ee95e7a41ed7471d1aaebb50001 Sol Solomon (king of Israel) — English).
23c0049d8f0f601176e2972440a4e02e51726c24 - article from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
8a619aa3265cfe91f0e908072645a8f6781a0190 ↑ . In the middle of the XX century, excavations in several cities of Israel found fragments of structures that began to be associated with the name of Solomon.
5450b44bc0a49268ebdbadc4fad3462b0de9bd18 However, at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries, this connection was refuted.
21abf665165828628645c1bab6025971c442ce82 ↑ Roger S. Nam.
f24a3e553b9263ae471724dfc1eeb48361c70a94 Portrayals of Economic Exchange in the Book of Kings.
13390f244fbfc1a1ef8552bb7c41ef2efa8c0433 Brill Academic Publishers, 2012.
d077561faa52c2556274eb31c595f4b5595e93b4 ISBN 9789004223936.
106f98a0f159c6aad8d59fff32a50e95bca9550b Page 133.
8df95aedaaddde1c6f9c648a2fce9add1f6e034a ↑ Megan Bishop Moore, Brad E. Kelle.
dcee14969cf71d2456d36d08288ba384f2001fb1 Biblical History and Israel's Past.
304cd18c1f95e100db885b9462b19b18b823ab30 ISBN 9780802862600.
229bd1a8753eac7dfa51354dc536b83759f0e66b Page 248.
70dfe22464fb27468c6775379496791a1ca57c40 ↑ 1 2 3 4 BBC Radio 4 - In Our Time, King Solomon ↑ "Modern biblical criticism tend to see in the biblical description of the days of Solomon elements of idealization of this period Deuteronomistic editors, in whose eyes the reign of Solomon was the heyday of the Jewish Kingdom under the rule of the house of David" (Jewish encyclopedia, article "Solomon").
4f57bea594066dd6317310548fe2f0989be73234 ↑ 3Car.
a1f8af1aec1956ab891e6d28fc8599ec7f9449ca 1:10-22 ↑ However, Adonijah later broke the contract and was executed.
25291ed247fba3064d2f414bbfade3e37a29e56f Соломо Solomon an article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia
5908eaf3494481c9434e3c906265d00a4e2fb761 Beyer R. King Solomon.
f47db4cc6baf9b46704845a59b27895e2149889e - Rostov on Don: Phoenix, 1998.
bb7662159b2ca469e352d3296f91d612a05a608d — (A trace in history). — ISBN 5-222-00693 X. Lukimson P. Tsar Solomon.
1b042dc43f6a50659514880ba30c6c363bfb4717 - M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 2012 — - 336 p — - (The life of remarkable people).
446cd5eba7aaf30d72a8000c2fb515fc9611151c — ISBN 978-5-235-03545-4.
ca0ab1f100d4e1073e859c15e7b2ae26174a7288 Tieberger F. King Solomon.
2d58f1c3d9d36985f1fc6e182bff084e916c63f1 The wisest of the wise.
f541f8baa9adc4e932f7c525310f7ee0242ec7db - Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.
98f3d10a0a7c1bc8e8d4739236c196c65fe6c3e0 - 366 p — - (Nomen est Omen).
a0a384d194e10042b7d68fa0914bbc8604a93c6d — ISBN 5-9524-1582-2.
5628955fdf20d1176b6753cd64f26ef023c8f9e2 Shterenshis M. Solomon.
5995c350c3af19ec16e0d64ed6bac1a3f009c8a0 - Rostov on Don: Phoenix, ISRADON/IsraDon, 2012.
4ece5a95aa44d79b8563dac6d4c680cff1f730d4 — (A trace in history). — ISBN 978-5-222-19227-6, 978-5-94467-089-2.
a6fe8b8cd989a5ed0372c7b84889a365ee7cfa38 Is Solomon in Wikicitatnik?
47b2081d8b675b269495510b49da0abc6ca344af Is Solomon in Wikitek?
3d4479db4d8ad85800dfb72a3e1f6f519b6aa9ac Is Solomon on Wikimedia Commons?
0e61b9a00cc646033dccedb112013da6c5c308f4 Solomon an article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia King Solomon The image of Solomon as a "man of peace" in the context of biblical ideas about peacemaking The Third book of Kings is the life of Solomon in the Bible.
a2f5520d0bf835091af7d5e0c5a81d33b084161b David the King of Israel
29b0c43fad17be998363657e7222f941dd82d051 EEE 968-928 BC
58cb7593b64c77b9566733e6c15eaa1c5b480976 Jewish Encycl.
f19b809e98cda48fd7918c2f89c2e3a01d417aba 1017-978 BC
38a55324c85380faa302bb1283f4beb2d9830f28 Ehrlichman 972-932 BC
ff70220114c505b9a8b9c07b0a8e08fdc4c487b9 Successor:
8b9b58794c7320baa4754db55ef6209ec0ece7b0 Jeroboam I
d9ff28bef401efe2702d184d7c4d048c4535085d Jerob'am the Jewish King Successor:
eaf793fae41e5dfe7c751576110b68029c476ed2 Rehoboam
bd412b1172b95adc550c87f4074d53f9a55ce73f Rehov'am
99c6864c72a36454d9246d4b302a531474612dbd Solomon Family and Famous Relationships David · Queen of Sheba · Pharaoh's Daughter · Naama · Rehoboam · Menelik I Built The Temple of Solomon · Reservoirs of Solomon * Shamir of Solomon In Other Traditions Suleiman Writings The Book of Wisdom of Solomon · Odes of Solomon · Key of Solomon (Small · Large) * The Psalms of Solomon · The Testament of Solomon · Song of Songs · The Book of Proverbs of Solomon Related Articles The Judgment of Solomon · Solomon's Column · The Seal of King Solomon · Solomon's Knot · The Kingdom of Israel · The family of David · The Solomon Dynasty
55f0212a26e3f58dbb5f4f80fc6230ea8f432da8 Kings of Israel and Judah Genealogy of the Kings of Israel and Judah Pre Dynastic period Abimelech United Monarchy Saul · Jeboshei · David · Solomon · Rehoboam Israel (Northern Kingdom) Jeroboam I * Nadav · Baasa · Ila · Zambri · Ambri · Ahab (and Jezebel) · Ahaziah * Joram · Jehu · Joahaz · Joash · Jeroboam II · Zechariah · Shalum · Menachem · Phakiah · Phakah · Hosea of Judah (Southern Kingdom)
2c7b69fcf75906adc011f100815a2aca6e87bbb2 (House of David) Rehoboam · Abijah · Asa · Jehoshaphat · Joram · Ohozia · Gofolia · Joash · Amaziah · Uzziah · Jotham · Ahaz · Hezekiah · Manasseh · Amon · Josiah · Joahaz · Joachim · Jechoniah · Zedekiah Hasmonean Dynasty Simon Hasmoneus · John Hyrcanus I · Aristobulus I · Alexander Yannai · Salome Alexandra · Hyrcanus II · Aristobulus II · Hyrcanus II * Antigonus II Herod Dynasty Antipater the Edomite · Herod I the Great * Archelaus · Antipas · Herod Philip II * Salome · Herod Agrippa I · Agrippa II italics denote disputed kings or rulers who did not bear the royal title
16829b8b769b92f42ce6d783239d3502c85d7b84 The Biblical Prophets
2bbb1146890a284ad61690dbbb0d612eaf977def Noah
68479b3b0f81b8d18d9003ef7e335392c0766a9c Noah Ever
dfbfee73a0a5798ba15d5db5bce190185f3dae98 Ever Valaam
2901d51842024c65d284ae99af1c9999b27fb9da Adam Job
a74b8982e232c926a6dd4623220f029fe378161d Iyov Avraham
7216039fcaa1455b8f44185aa2caab009c41c340 Abraham Sarah
e4a42aa8b06f3863ab6d9d58ae5fbeb36bc62d5e Sarah Isaac
0fc5ba4bff18b210c31bb557c07f4c8fc8ef6874 Yitzhak Jacob
8ec2684c0c4c587a58765e31631af87bcac07526 Yaakov Moses
3b5707dddcd5df5fa412565a9b08aba623f2b086 Moshe Aaron
ac0fac5c1e433af0cefa8d6a5e9557268904fa17 Aaron Miriam
b60035d08f41b7b50a37f041f265c4f0a21a50c9 Miriam Joshua
edbb9dc24d51d09c916dccab0f63e32a7c7a83e5 Yehoshua bin Nun Phineas
0f199c72b36440b7d15e6981924f6122091f8ee0 Pinchas
4af8c663f2171d1ba4cecbe00b3e8de73bbef7c7 Devora
4316b4fafc50c999b6365ebc16f9f8339b291e48 Dvora Ili
4f70df300f0706d82c2b8b853764e7af0046e15b Ali Anna
7b123e55d44ee24514a8e96ffc35ee1a338e3645 Hannah Samuel
4c8e55b9e7bf4053edb6460c71a2939c1101ba81 Shmuel David
83ccdbb020087b7a5cd64820bddc250af35e0b19 David Solomon
ba3dc003ee4c5c9189a8ce48fd7b80c8d394e310 Shlomo Gad
002ab1239e6a4318839f40dc4e54c9a22357871d Gad Nathan
7abf194ca5418e6246c935f186c660981a15dbf2 Nathan Ahiya the Silomlyan
d61e1f99bdaa00826771c6ed8050dd7267d62216 Ahiya ha Shiloni
9996fbc19d027879b8273b6bad6c5effac1990a2 The Great Prophets: Ezekiel
d0d8e8446e15e1c956f407ab0af5e52480d615c2 Yehezkel Jeremiah
08e0f1cde58b70e9ed98e83428ae9f2844b432f3 Yirmeyahu Isaiah
370ebec287e69abcc6e09bb6ef2dce884ca775b3 Yesayahu Daniel
f805f9c8df7523046108c7aed7d78309b12308d8 Daniel The Lesser Prophets: Habakkuk
408f2346016e8e17dd4169be4b6dd97d26fbc177 Havakkuk Avdiy
997694697c1a89260706f7f6a76336929bee379d Ovadya Aggey
d00ecaf2cf734980f87a562730709ddb0ea3ac5f Haggai Amos
6ec0bfc4a1a9beb2d06014f2e6244dc74f261676 Amos Zachariah
e03c0ee5a121a320ecd7f590141da22e5836ce0b Zharya Joel
79bbc955bba362a11c0cbe16a7e92d521feba5f6 Yoel Jonah
ef648ecbcb6658db05de8343cd8f7b693f2fec6c Jonah Malachi
12278647fa1a47963f1d2eb75b1b37135ed25661 Malachi Micah
e99174ae61baae2395f1adbec3f8f7598143c8cb Micha Naum
fc2db66ef529db693e72fd75c67c8206dbc76fdc Nahum Hosea
7f93ded33cbf1e7f36c1d3dcb6dad5079fe91218 Hoshea Sophonia
0195284bb96e26be2f24d4e3c693b1103b4220ff Tsfanya
b5dc7fc0eba20cd1ef745b3cc8dad8b14cd7f81a Samey
3c5df91acb7d95ce3a78e4087478c68bffe92434 Shmaya Ilia
4a0e7e0116347dce0b69eed0eee62619c63b6255 Eliyahu Elisha
e1c877121086f3cc36783b42463fbf4688a76f5a Elisha Oldama
6405a089e50ecc2b39b6b38c135287f93ad4cde0 Hulda
64f5777b8d9ee57b139266b8e9c8b11bb5082159 The Song of Songs of Solomon Main characters Solomon * Sulamita Reference characters Manaim • David Translators and interpreters Origen • Philo of Carpathia • Gregory of Nyssa • Hippolytus of Rome • Methodius • Francis Skarina • Konstantin the Philosopher * Mardary Khonikov • Abram Efros • Igor Diakonov • Boris Kamyanov (Baruch Avni) Toponyms Jerusalem * Tirzah (Tirzah) • The Kingdom of Israel • Lebanon • Zion • Gilead • Hermon • Carmel Architectural structures The Pillar of David • The Tower of Lebanon Related articles The Family of David • Solomon's Dynasty • Books of the Bible • Old Testament • Ktuvim • Tanakh
801f095377198cadff9088a976920da89a9f5a10 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solomon&oldid=75232539"
59f6f23d1468a89ef753810da6d3a1ff74aa4e16 Categories: Born in 1011 BC Born in Jerusalem Died in 928 BC Died in Jerusalem Personalities alphabetically Kings of Israel Kings of Judah Tanakh:Monarchs Prophets of the Old Testament King Solomon The Book of Kings The Book of Kings Judaistic mythology
68a89ddbe77f6667e2d7737bb9d13b82c19d4a28 Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Articles that require clarification of the sources of Articles with links to Wikicitatnik
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16a1c76d8b596e70ce0fffc7846b2aa2fc9667aa Unanswered Messages | Active Topics
caa7c869e6e9e690b3fd86b3b9a23c6e913e65b8 Legends about King Solomon
8658fc5bbb7f3fff630c630028db69ee0e4958d5 Moderators: Olmaz, Moderators
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9ed6f66dc11dcd85accfaaf3c322442b0e819ff8 Author of the Message
f070e2d4a3701e291d392f2afa8b07fe6afe4b3f Hamdir
a500a3228fb2b608c8b85df024bcf9079150041b The title of the message: The legends of King Solomon
99ee67ad1b1edc92f9b3a2e5bfbaa81858ea3bb8 Added: 05 Aug 2011, 17: 14
ae36a27aaaf6a52b3e2afbe57e6c5b83655fc9bb Wanderer
8171842c8d642a8a9d7473acdad77aa2c2eecf1f Registered: 04 Dec 2010, 22: 22 Previous visit: 22 Dec 2015, 12:48 Posts: 2977 Zodiac Sign:
67b90040ec7745c05bbb8c71ad59eb47113414ee From: Canada
e2bac725fbf70ac84de8df81c1c4ecd1f9ae5a03 Solomon (al. - Heb .ללֹמֹה, Shlomo; Greek. ΣαλωμνΝ, ΣολωμώΝ in the Septuagint; Lat. Solomon in the Vulgate; Arabic: Sulaiman in the Koran) is the third Jewish king, the legendary ruler of the united kingdom of Israel in 965-928 BC, during its highest heyday.
6e532e1e94eb3926dd1174ebc7c82d9b67fc48f2 The son of King David and Bathsheba (Bat Sheba), his co ruler in 967-965 BC is considered the author of the Book of Ecclesiastes, the book of the Song of Solomon, the Book of Proverbs of Solomon, as well as some psalms.
abcc259548e539dcda16d2790262e3e985bf8ffc Legends of Solomon
865fb91baef7e0a51ca31b54bc68d8cbe58e2a7f The Trial of King Solomon
fb7482caf494dc259adb151d8d2ad8a3feea8d76 Solomon showed his wisdom first of all at the trial.
5c052cfd74261116475f22bb35b151a0e8e94f5e Soon after his accession, two women came to him for judgment.
3ccdea258b40c5c759db616438b2db154c2b836a They lived in the same house,and each had a baby.
d41a9030b3f0327d8d25e076867029cc52c848d9 At night, one of them crushed her baby and put it to another woman, and took the live one for herself.
1f231a607ebf49f10878c3e73c8e970a4c445578 In the morning, the women began to argue:" the living child is mine, and the dead one is yours, " each said.
bef76775a1890e5f85722996e96a871862de5d9d So they argued before the king.
43cf4ef639b00fcc34ba0a4dc8fefe1f597556ba After listening to them, Solomon ordered: "Bring the sword."
a241e8eb0fca13b782e5490d6791f8c7a5ccdea7 And they brought the sword to the king.
69cf453df46c985d19f159492448bd4308b01921 Solomon said, " Cut the living child in half and give half to one and half to the other."
5fe11fbd34f026e4a4bb53760b0361abfa88e3be One of the women at these words exclaimed: "It is better to give her the baby, but do not kill him!"
aa201e66a5f2db8b5dc047121d002d1084e739da The other, on the contrary, said: "cut it down, let it not get either to her or to me."
cfde3e979723327a760399965cff9de2c1eb0ffc Then Solomon said, " Do not kill the child, but give it to the first woman: she is his mother."
6981819e20e80f3bfb77a137def7969a6f885641 The people heard about this and began to fear the king, because they all saw what wisdom God had given him.
e05118e1c7bbb4948ad3fcd1281d2fb6b08980a9 The Ring of Solomon Despite his wisdom, the life of King Solomon was not calm.
03ed578322df9554ad71b33bb0fb1f9963f361a2 And one day King Solomon turned to the court sage for advice with a request: "Help me — a lot of things in this life can make me lose my temper.
529c770e8c88e6ea31103c2050996258188b0ab7 Another version of the legend: One day King Solomon was sitting in his palace and saw a man walking down the street dressed from head to toe in golden robes.
1aae9e164030932108dcfb45240432c3c8e812d1 Solomon called this man to him and asked: "Arenot you a robber?".
dce3381e4770b202dc029094caff96872de5ee96 The third version of the legend: In his youth, King Solomon was given a ring with the words that when it was very difficult for him, whether it was sad or scary, let him remember the ring and hold it in his hands.
3dc394582d8aff0f73efc54b04cbbba1376857c7 The riches of Solomon were not lost, another ring will it greatly increase them?
6f24203338ea317ee4607b47ddcc7e4bf79d00df The king took out the ring, held it in his hands… Suddenly he noticed that there was an inscription on the ring.
9beb4238f300ad95e0617b6dfefe630f2c5496b9 Ancient signs....
9e77a7cbc9c5ef7aa90a659e5160356da89d2e1f Solomon knew this forgotten language.
b682588b6230ef9829d92c35182c934755523d2a Neither dancers and singers, nor wrestling competitions amused him… Sadness and loneliness.
0489ca6258cd88423b8dc107ffdc7ac2aeaf229e Approaching old age.
2d55d488671e1a5286dee1acf0457209cfe1f168 How to live with it?
039696aa93287ad071daa6d4d86cdb18393c2499 The tsar understood that his days were numbered and while there were still some forces, he needed to give the last orders, have time to say goodbye to everyone, bless his successors and children.
63754021b44195bcdfd43011bc8ca441c6f4b62f With weakening eyes, he noticed that something had appeared on the edge of the ring.
c2ff4cb1aadb10008de38db88188182a715eba63 What is it, some letters again?
42508e6321b34560156af2f88e4cefcdc5358370 And here is an interesting ring I found on the Internet, maybe a fake or maybe there is something in them, I will not judge, but as an option...
3f86fe119ef62439b3091d189de628e384b1e859 Here they are and what they write about them in the online store
7877cf5de40aff45354b9f3d2e560bbde7e4143c This is one of the Rings of Solomon, developed by Fr. Baltasar, which is designed to protect the magician from the influence of spirits and demons summoned by him, as well as to subordinate them to his will.
07b4279c1ad7651b9cfaeb3c3b88336336668eeb In ordinary life, the Ring of Solomon gives its owner great power and power over the world of spirits that materialize any human desires.
2ddc4c96790c22e64b71c1cef8658841396f411b Metal: gold, other stone.
30b32cd7544eb09cfa93f78eee33c9f36fe259ab Handmade work.
6b43e1a8102bac714955ca4e4f0275ba093308c0 All variants of the ring of Solomon that you can find on the Internet are the author's development of Fr. Baltasar, who has been practicing the magic of Solomon for 20 years and is the author of the book "Solomonika".
5523c4e9d62307900d2386bf7bbeac2ded90199c In the book "Solomonika" he described his magical rituals according to the method of King Solomon.
cd0270307f21ce5a7b4ce726de7511a086f7d551 Only he knows how to make the ring of Solomon, what symbols need to be applied.
e05a7bb271036a04905eca3b354db0d204618975 The sketches do not show all the symbols and signs, so its independent production will not be crowned with success.
6848861eb1c2662f6a046aff7792574b5d3971a5 Go back to the beginning
3e1b26f64f4cf6cd7d9c0cbc9d66adcbc5b75e34 Malik
d2cbda3871f2bda8a9a46e45e485a07da84e37d2 Message title: Re: Legends of King Solomon
b2fdbc502599211c5bd9719886451b089a567a0c Added: 05 Aug 2011, 17: 21
0457921c4b8db36597493c5723687e657d82fd3d Erzherzog
8a71534c1fbc47d53350c6a2e6b5145e1e441bf3 Registered: 01 Nov 2010, 12: 55 Previous visit: 10 Jun 2015, 11: 35 Posts: 3025 From: ΓέΕννα
1faa36f14ba0d3624228b6832fcc219367ca97a2 Gogi, after this topic, I really wonder if you are going to open an online store here?
d5722cecb31bd2ac0142308b724457b44ce44892 These are all things from online stores
0a3fcbdf6fa2f35f62638990e82a26980fa9585b _________________ Holding hands in a Circle, the Animals began the Game.
c1a086fcdad6ce50fb67edd9ba76752b996939c0 Seven will go into One.
a75c5275955efd658be7cc4d435f49f7893f0726 A Ring separates them, and each of them is wearing seven Rings.
44a2cd670c9b8cf9ecf6bce2d29e57b808b3bdb5 They are divided in half, they walk around the planet somewhere
d5cb658708a8bb97bd21d7abebc1b6f505cb9f56 Added: 05 Aug 2011, 17: 35
eb2d9c1907dcc5ed91a58040a5d2e73cce2ac724 Malik wrote: Gogi, after this topic I really wonder if you are going to open an online store here?
05285a90ca5ef229b49ca5861c246eb69d78e761 A larger conspiracy theory?
88fb1fb2e651c3371f41d18506db2749093eedbf Malik after I bought an amulet with a settler for 950 UAH, which lies in my salt at home, and has not yet decided what to do with it, or beat the settler, or subdue him, or even sell it to someone as a black option.
1fe8a463028e713e2c24637d3127b0c40e58e558 Since then, I've been cutting out everything myself, cutting my fingers and then with my pale, but I know what's there, who did it, and that it will work too.
39de06f824d171a73c4d6fd02e902c6014db6849 Let it not be so beautiful... but it works!
175720b33c16d96a1f8baa5e8edc67df61d9056b And I advise others to do the same, well, or at least know that it will be necessary to clean and configure and charge the amulet for themselves.
89b29631fc50f2785bc2e6b9ba21a96fd38baf9f Or look for a magician who will make it just for you, and not at the beginning will make it and then just sell it to anyone.
d6422fa78bd50191d8a9b30af8f48d17d1a07ceb Added: 05 Aug 2011, 17: 44
34f1f6249655a242b314790e978e64ba097a21fc Quote: And I advise others to do the same
99b58320668d5279d960ad5291d99d5265ce4323 Well, what can I say.. good girl
239bcd5c7b9e440acbecd3d4331d1fcdd9654d82 I just donot understand why you posted such a topic with pictures from underground passages..
553ac7ff19439af7ee698710424fe7669eb4bed1 After all, you yourself understand that this is nonsense.
b5b0541f2486fd3aca55e98da1d4e538e20bbef3 Over any amulet, you need to think about how to do it correctly, you need to know how to do it.
20eb4438cf67ef30dbf3d9dc39629b584f3c075b What kind of egregor, simolika, what to write and how it will be correct..
f5e630ec268a8905ef63e4a8361a29cc76add22a And if it is a Kabbalistic amulet, so there is generally a very careful need..
bca4c612c1a40997f3869e5c64e950309b9d2932 Added: 05 Aug 2011, 19: 30
b9ac2132f92c69d0b15050ebe2bb22de3ff24aa1 Runes should also be done carefully
87f7b3678cbddd84eda36130355cb83b54ba0342 Although in my opinion they are more lenient to the careless, but they can also make a very good joke...
764cb70f88e6fc6f852577ad9f38e352d115c240 How one woman encoded her husband from alcoholism, and made him a complete drunk, for example...
2b231b7af2eacfccd3a8fb8d683a75f02ff1d4d5 First you need this:
93a64a6daf19c8f6c40b1f24bee43c3fb15e3192 To choose everything that is necessary, to talk to the right tree, is also a kind of ritual.
e0a6176638b4a27c0396d7dfd7ac82cd3635ca33 Make a blank.
6dbd83995223ba7e92696d530f68bfb0befe1f90 The initial ritual.
0369da4ee80d843d87a8a22fea23b32e4af42c82 A runic circle and everything you need...
9ea597c1a4ff3a565df6aa2ade025d2b397c4c75 The ritual itself, apply runes, communicate with the gods, etc., etc..
91073496207334e39826cf90001e7f735ea9830f The final ritual.
7683540b8ec2ff8e0290cd46e6fe6891e45936dc And then the amulet is ready
4b53a6024ccb5a436977603679e753e71593030a Of course, there are still many different things you need to know, but here's about how it looks...
e91065b4bd05485284d7ac1a25a66bce5a0a402a Oh, yes, you also need to choose the day of the week for the right deity and preferably the right phase of the moon
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0756013ca285b0592fc399c8c4eba039e09227de King Solomon ( Shlomo) is the son of King David and Bathsheba (Bat Sheba), the third king of Judah.
9bd15d7045ee2ee9835a1581b94280ceda37ffe4 The period of his reign (approximately 967-928 BC) is considered the period of the greatest dawn and prosperity of the united kingdom of Israel.
41b914541e992f6861dc3ac68da48d691758786d In 967-965 BC, Solomon apparently ruled together with King David and after his death became the sole ruler.
9f2dd1b2dcd3b9e90fd3294f37fc7ee6f60791b1 "And God said to him, Because you asked for this, and did not ask for a long life, did not ask for riches, did not ask for the souls of your enemies, but asked for understanding, so that you could judge, behold, I will do according to your word: behold, I give you a wise and reasonable heart, so that there was no one like you before you, and after you, no one like you will arise; and what you did not ask, I give you, both wealth and glory, so that there will be no one like you among kings all your days; and if you walk in my way, keeping my statutes and my commandments, as your father David walked, I will also continue your days."
392ae81c883b7ecb25c9c8f3d2c02b31efbcd905 (The Book of Kings).
87be96cc0a8c503b2dce37e9c7ef72aa06c918e7 Subsequently, he repeatedly married women of other nations to maintain good neighborly relations with neighboring states (Solomon's harem numbered 700 wives and 300 concubines).
100201c7d967543f9580c08ae7d01caee8a396dd The priests also had reasons for discontent.
31ed8e737523de4d7810e217c3b312be894fb1b6 At the end of his life, God appeared to Solomon and said: "Because this is what is being done with you, and you have not kept my covenant and My statutes, which I have commanded you, I will tear the kingdom away from you and give it to your servant; but in your days I will not do this for the sake of David your father;
41aaf54de99a54fe0b945378dc42a3a8eb3b513a I will tear it out of the hand of your son" (The Book of Kings).
4ed4143ddd6b3ded11e19dbf0c2415ce95c4f335 The Queen of Sheba.
c6c2c25a6655df93ec22663667411783dd94a5f3 Having heard about the wisdom and fabulous wealth of King Solomon, the legendary Queen of Sheba visited him to test his wisdom and make sure of his wealth (according to other sources, Solomon himself ordered her to come to him, having heard about the wonderful and rich country of Saba).
d5d8382a9b3d041c796993d877875acde3cf684e The queen brought with her numerous gifts.
cc6cd96c4aa00d2b68d1f19c2223718a5e494f3d The state of Saba really existed on the Arabian Peninsula (there are references to it in Assyrian manuscripts of the 8th century BC).
ddc345b8951cfce74e9efec226e228f2ea77373a It flourished due to the cultivation and trade of spices and incense.
519f3b4d9245752769091541011d32c7ce9bd638 At that time, spices were valued at their weight in gold and Saba successfully traded them with many states.
9fe7ca2a13535a10e367907b74058b77aeeebbe9 Trade routes passed through the territory of the Kingdom of Solomon and the passage of caravans depended on the will and location of the king.
deb291c9b762a377cad47ceaee84022a311bab1a This was the real reason for the visit of the Queen of Sheba.
eaa5d9cfb0135dee4755d68535570f827b6c0aba There is an opinion that she was only a "delegate", "ambassador" of the country and was not a dynastic queen.
495a3567242c96c328cf873d759f15c43823a715 But only an equal in status could speak to the king, so the envoys were "given" a temporary status for conducting negotiations.
c1892ae2dfc86a53e3bbd69f9a61018202010251 In later Muslim legends, the name of the queen is revealed - Bilkis.
af7ac2ffeb37aeec0b9342158cfa86413b463c0b Folk legends gave a romantic coloring to this visit.
13f023e3a23b78fb7651551ee0dca8ad134ffd52 King Solomon, struck by the beauty of Bilkis, became infatuated with her, she reciprocated him, all questions about the progress of the caravans were settled and, upon returning home, in due time Bilkis gave birth to a boy named Menelik.
e007c1e6e3ebde86d5b2ff3bb3a0f102962375a4 The Ethiopians claim that their imperial dynasty originates from him.
0c96d4c4425a922e204e452c311b7a93c38f9b30 I will mention another legend.
ca1f8f4bf8f814b63931c65f5b294359cf9c63b0 King Solomon had heard that the Queen of Sheba has goat hooves, that is, the devil is hiding under the image of a beautiful woman.
c79eea5b69da48b9c8c39e5807a4bc097b0d2854 To do this, he built a palace, the floor of which he made transparent, and launched fish there.
a2c7d865243d887bd8b63def34f0263bb30829d7 When he invited the queen to enter, she instinctively lifted the hem of her dress, afraid of getting it wet, thereby showing the king her feet.
30e8f0c15e1e900753084b553584069270a252b2 She had no hooves, but her legs were covered with thick hair.
2057998438c2e20172e53b26424647d95c2fcddd Solomon said, " Your beauty is the beauty of a woman, and your hair is the hair of a man.
407514eebab88f9a5428fac9a51b6705a478d2b9 It is beautiful for a man, but it is considered a flaw for a woman."
bd4e0938c55b9183ccaedc6caeb863270ac99f06 The ring of King Solomon.
a3db4159b7ed16b6461d1977db3e0748d13bdb78 This is one of the variants of the parable about the ring of Solomon.
537040ad565e2360316e3b32f52c2ff6f9bbc7eb And once King Solomon turned to the court sage for advice with a request: "Help me - a lot of things in this life can make me lose my temper.
58bb7b4a9541df34e620e23293297dcc61f21caa I am very prone to passions, and this hinders me!
ca791abc36f75205ffd57d4bb022c73e03f57ca3 " To which the sage replied:" I know how to help you.
49b3492e9be931bc36acbc3b2bac85cfe8bfb73f Put on this ring - the phrase is carved on it: "It will pass!"
f24cd19d0055623fb786533c36dd45477e01b219 He looked closely and read: "And this will also pass…"
6810f932429d76e68c094d0d8f37094f9a5077b4 King Solomon's Mines.
48709298184500c84ab0f67efa26bff677374e79 After the publication of Henry Rider Haggard's book "King Solomon's Mines" in 1885, many adventurers lost their peace and went on a treasure hunt.
9c8d945416fcdc5658781fb5bbc32c313a1dc731 Haggard believed that King Solomon owned diamond and gold mines.
3bc84fe0e09e12e4450e9867d567c3b756593752 We know from the Old Testament that King Solomon possessed enormous wealth.
0c4e42e386414d0918593ee65c2a8d5f8d9390e8 It is said that every three years he sailed to the country of Ophir and brought back gold, mahogany, precious stones, monkeys and peacocks.
84159457ef475461573fe6a34c0fbd21da721c61 Scientists have tried to find out what Solomon took to Ophir in exchange for these riches and where this country is located.
bdb58bd9c2adf8d1853474743d3e034004d0652e The location of the mysterious country has not yet been clarified.
53fce0817bf9a290dd54c92b07605bf5f677a0ab It is assumed that it may be India, Madagascar, Somalia.
6b317aa05244724a1a2f9e959756cede3eea3140 Most archaeologists are sure that King Solomon mined copper ore in his mines.
5cfc738f741cf20b78fdecf293860f78a828aaa2 "The real mines of King Solomon" periodically appeared in different places.
14e12c922f98296336eba3fbd27c2b0114b5c60f In the 30s of the last century, it was suggested that the Solomon mines are located in southern Jordan.
f8c721b0a69455b7be340545dee5a0e3b828e3d2 And only at the beginning of our century, archaeologists found evidence that, indeed, the copper mines discovered in the territory of Jordan in the town of Khirbat en Nahase, may be the legendary mines of King Solomon.
f1f6801f41b63d8b7d878d02ef6c8d297914accd Obviously, Solomon had a monopoly on the production of copper, which gave him the opportunity to make huge profits.
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1a25a880f4a8ad05c72813e1a34e6e72785ecb88 Articles / History / History of the Great King of Israel - Solomon
2051d874fc2d9fddc5de86c893477cb1b3b22f2f The Story of the Great King of Israel - Solomon
bcf88d76cffe2e96b892aadeacadc54c1f7dc8a8 THE STORY OF THE GREAT KING OF ISRAEL - SOLOMON
d6a655f3a6a939c760dbce1f08d0ba152f852f7c The Appearance of Solomon
5e00ea74d14d679ababa60dede2bfedeb7b211ba The legendary ruler of the united kingdom of Israel was born from King David and his beloved wife Bathsheba (Bat Sheba).
146534d85c899c6ec783a7ab20028e70c75138cf The future king was named Shlomo (Solomon), which in Hebrew means " peacemaker "("shalom" — "peace"," not war", and" Shalem " — "perfect","whole").
d210331111e72169ebce38d2a0bcefdd91c0cd48 The reign of Solomon from 965 to 928 BC is called the era of the heyday of the monarchy and Jewish power.
d0a549444d95ac94e8ccc867981d90d7eddf326e During his 40 year reign, Solomon became famous as the wisest and most dispassionate ruler in the whole world, there are many legends and fairy tales about his talent for foresight and sensitivity.
ab6dbf0beb62cca1f420c28603f5d85443481dec It was Solomon who built the main shrine of Judaism – the Jerusalem Temple on Mount Zion, which his father David had planned to build during his lifetime.
2e8602f99ca788ff2b67b668adbbe31a7902e099 Solomon and David are also known as righteous, loyal kings who, by their devotion and innate wisdom, deserved to be the favorites of the Most High.
56c1076d945990014700099a4b63c88b79de9915 When Solomon was a little less than a year old, the king's confidant, the prophet Nathan, gave him the name Yedidya ("God's favorite" - Shmuel I 12, 25).
68583ca43dddba44682f4cde107b36fe984eb0e5 After that, some are convinced that "Solomon" was just a nickname.
9207814e8fb07476f9adcd2bf11c6c721dd5c3de Meanwhile, Solomon was the youngest son of David.
0a47ce43d43e0cd355df1c2d80987f703556ab8b Two brothers, Amnon and Avshalom, died before reaching adulthood, and the eldest was the 4th son, Adonijah, and therefore formalities required that he should become the successor to the Israeli throne.
38756d613f954658b698c64e70a59c1d92b2ae23 David promised Bathsheba that he would make Solomon his successor, who would continue his dynasty and rule the entire state.
e8a481795d4b5f686ee99679610b469ae611c78e Saddened by his father's injustice, Adonijah found support in the person of the military commander Yoab and the high priest Evyatar, who also believed that Adonijah had a greater right to the throne than Solomon.
96a6f3edec56bac382cde40a0374e68145900e15 At the same time, Solomon's supporters argued that Adonijah was not the firstborn son of David, and therefore the king had the power to judge his sons according to his own will.
d060441c41d83409a7c62f192ab833fc981485f1 Without waiting for David's death, the brothers joined the fight.
1abce74ed0a0cebc877f6befa7e9b72618a2fafd Adonijah, wishing to attract the people with a royal magnificent feast, surrounded himself with a large retinue of horsemen, started chariots and fifty runners.
ccbaa820fc089a1c0c7465f4a1d9e2dde53380ab On the appointed day and hour, he gathered his entourage and arranged a bright celebration outside the city in honor of proclaiming himself the new king of the state of Israel.
a2e069fd03180beafbb4ec349599f6a21708c955 Solomon's mother found out about this and, with the help of the prophet Nathan, she managed to convince David not to delay and on the same day appoint Solomon as his successor.
794d5a3448d472df36bdcc836e509203c8170efc Together with the priest Zadok, the prophet Nathan, B'nayagu and a large detachment of the royal bodyguards, they all went to the Gihon spring, where the priest anointed Solomon as king.
d137dde74fc7019bd6634958ce65f666e0c46e5f After the rite was performed, the sounds of a horn were heard, the people shouted: "Long live the Tsar!".
a24970342b88e62604f4426ce82f307b71bd8b4d Everyone who was present at the ceremony, or at least knew about it, perceived the will of the dying David as the will of the Almighty, and therefore hurried to escort the new king Solomon to the palace with music and cheering shouts.
fef18a687fe570672835aad9fdee5e4f96c97729 Having learned about the anointing of his brother, Adonijah was afraid of Solomon's revenge and took refuge in the sanctuary, " grabbing the horns of the altar."
383581e6c21b83ac2b968e0f4f6861173bc28892 Solomon came to him and promised that he would not touch him if he behaved with dignity from now on.
72eeff2859fcb0721689f9305cab0b97774e5398 After David's death, Solomon did not delay in order to justify and strengthen his authority – every action of the king caused only admiration for his intelligence and foresight.
92140f7b447fc413d7e38e288c25a6930db34a8d Meanwhile, Adonijah tried to get his way: he asked the queen's mother for a blessing to marry Abishag, Solomon's concubine.
c4c9fa3559101fc136ee3064a611e302ec4e78d9 In the popular consciousness, such a gesture could become a reasonable basis for proclaiming him king, since Adonijah was not only the brother and confidant of Solomon, but also possessed his woman.
c0c088e0deb33a2d184f57fb1c5ab4a19a782501 Without any passion or jealousy, and, as he himself believed, keeping his promise to execute his brother in case of bad behavior, Solomon ordered Adonia to be hanged.
6db36ca148cfed03c8237163d26583fbafa777f8 After this execution, Solomon decided to get rid of the remaining "well – wishers" once and for all a follower of Adonijah Yoav and a long time enemy of the Davidic dynasty Shimi, a relative of Shauliai.
6002caa6f9385baca36fedf628010084050918d0 Yoava immediately tried to hide in the sanctuary, but B'nayagu quickly found and killed him.
0cc384b800a87e7a7ce6fba5243dc8315a0db72b The new composition of the government of King Solomon consisted of three high priests, the commander of the troops, the Minister of taxation, the head of the royal administration and the head of the 12 governors, as well as several court chroniclers.
9ff14863ff8071c4ab44ee063da5f04e3896527a As already mentioned, Solomon was not subject to a blind thirst for revenge, and there are practically no documents in history confirming the use of the death penalty by the king.
ed114a488a39bb42fba0862aa40ac420b77419f3 In relation to Yoab and Shimi, Solomon only fulfilled David's will.
fb6e124e020fd0848044cb30111d9ad2e7add81a Solomon made B'nayaga the new commander of the troops, after which, feeling completely confident, he began to solve strategic tasks.
bbae3ce23767acce6e9545915f98f6f2a26381f5 The united Kingdom of Israel (Israel and Judea) occupied a fairly large territory, being a significant and influential state of Asia.
62d7f88daa1759cadcbb4b26a23b3a679322b820 Solomon decided to start the development strategy of the state by establishing and strengthening friendly relations with neighbors.
9f49437c0702da6fa5ea50363298790a109160d7 Thus, the powerful Egypt could promise to secure the Southern border of Israel.
f3637947796bc632d963a56dd36b6b950a6da8bd By marrying the daughter of the Egyptian pharaoh, Solomon not only ended the half thousand year old enmity between the Jews and the Egyptians, but also received from the pharaoh as a dowry the Canaanite Gezer that he had previously conquered.
1fc68ab58f5caf6a9a1f6c8dbbc75d6037b94e66 Then Solomon took up the resumption of relations with David's long - time friend, the Phoenician king Hiram the northern neighbor of the kingdom of Israel.
5cd7a7c068d74eaaf8f92bff96f3cff705cf619a It was rumored that it was in order to get closer to neighboring peoples and strengthen his power that Solomon took Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian and Hittite women, who belonged to the noble families of these peoples, to wife.
1d2e9eff8cf9ad09a0804e9104c1e80069419dd8 Kings of different countries brought gifts of gold, silver, clothing, weapons and cattle to Solomon.
4a308a5f22a41da787cf079ea31291285a4446a0 Solomon's wealth was so great that "he made silver equal to stones in Jerusalem, and made cedars equal to sycamores" (Mlachim I 2: 10, 27).
2126d3037bc92ba10c7b1d48ebadc9bf2a692619 But most of all the king loved horses, he even introduced cavalry and chariots into the Jewish army – the first in the history of the state.
a61fcebd82557d4a7f8a30600ae773199ad5330d Despite the improvement in foreign policy, the population of the Kingdom of Israel remained dissatisfied with Solomon's polygamy, mainly because women introduced the pagan cultures of their states into the royal house, and the king, they say, was tolerant of this.
9fbfebe165812fb6f3bbe8de310ae9f80a7424e8 For example, when Solomon built a temple on the Mount of Olives for the Moabite god Kmosh and the Ammonite god Moloch, rumors began to circulate among the prophets and people loyal to the God of Israel, that the king was getting old, allowing idolatry in his state.
f58713bf23f3908c1e14cb69a8889e6770f29103 It was also said that luxury and an idle lifestyle corrupted the heart of Solomon, and he went on about his concubines.
d6a59dfbddaefc500ba3e88370cc3e3e58ad3c14 The king is doubly condemned for distancing himself from the Israelite God because, according to the Torah, the Most High honored Solomon with divine revelation as many as twice.
d88fd83565aa4c6385f9efe39e5052f5df8033e3 The first time, even before the construction of the Temple, on the night before the sacrifice ceremony in Givon, God appeared to Solomon in a dream and offered to ask him what his heart pleases.
a8d28d3cc33232955090fcfb8c1ff5ef9eddc046 Solomon could have taken the opportunity to ask for at least longevity or victory over enemies, not to mention wealth, but he only asked for wisdom and the ability to manage his people.
7509c702f06cc997eb1288087ee065709a9c0077 The generous God promised him wisdom, wealth and glory, and if he keeps the commandments, then longevity.
4ebcb49e13d10b620cbd09d6f57d68ba8f3ec16c After the construction of the Temple was completed, God visited Solomon again, saying that He had heeded his prayer for the lighting of the Temple, and that he would protect the dynasty of David only if all His sons remained faithful to Him.
2de710b8320cc5ca31e0d9b99239c2cd7b7bad40 Otherwise, the Temple will be rejected, and the people will be expelled from the country.
ac4843124c1b4eb95892979b912c4331945132df When Solomon, besotted with his numerous wives, distanced himself from the Most High and "set foot on the path of idolatry," God took away the king's son's power over Israel, leaving him only power over Judea.
53130be2af3a21369c84a89c1d97bde8b8485abc A just and wise king
b782059cf6dfb9c12fdabd8136df371dcec6cb27 Many still consider Solomon to be the personification of wisdom, that there is even a saying: "He who sees Solomon in a dream can hope to become wise" (Brachot 57 b).
de8af6c005095abf5da899e49093a30d916cc727 When resolving any issues, the tsar did not need to interrogate witnesses, since at one glance at the conflicting parties he understood who was right and who was wrong.
2987cf4dd3b10945e208c197a8a53dc0c0fb610f His wisdom was also manifested in the fact that Solomon, wanting to spread the Torah throughout the country, built synagogues and schools.
0cf9f50b84a6af7f595bfc43144583e4ae8e7354 However, the king was not distinguished by arrogance either: when it was necessary to determine a leap year, he invited 7 learned elders to him, "in whose presence he kept silent" (Shmot Rabbah, 15, 20).
813aa3f9bf3e3aa25dae72e7606f99e83c92a2ad The well known legends about Solomon also serve as an indicator of his perspicacity and intelligence.
30e5c3b6a764a53532dcdacdb72f4ed007e1d376 The first said: "Cut it down, and let no one get it," to which the second exclaimed: "Give it to her, but just donot kill him!".
fcd74e57e71ed1eda9ce92e6e23040b2f68c1edf The equally well known legend about the ring of Solomon is interpreted in different ways.
ee9470d7ea770225ee9824b73f4181a7ee60afa8 Once the king turned to the court sage for help.
39fa4b5261cfd9aeb2f9c9ce75da60adc809a9bb Solomon complained that his life is restless, the passions boiling around distract from politics, he lacks composure, and wisdom does not always help to cope with anger and annoyance.
17f83b4838f4727d605992da81fe8364f2aa94bc The court sage gave the king a ring on which the phrase "It will pass" was engraved, and said that the next time he felt an uncontrollable influx of emotions, he would look at the ring, and it would become easier for him.
36f4af6aefaeef99a7cfe6e8f07e4a58c52dfdd5 The tsar was delighted with the philosophical gift, but soon the day came when, after reading the inscription "Everything will pass", he could not calm down.
60d947ee3eba6d91eac426aa677e0584ec5c1f03 The ruler took the ring off his finger and was about to throw it away, but then on the back of the ring he saw another inscription "This will also pass".
dd1b1125bb25cdbab71c947bfb3e9ce420d604ce In the second version of the legend, it is told that one day Solomon, sitting in his palace, saw a man dressed from head to toe in gold on the street.
1542bccd072861da35daa36c44f72784c6c873b8 The king called him to him and asked him what he was doing and how he could afford such chic clothes.
617050dd500ba1c2728d163a9854577e1b1730cf The man proudly replied that he was a jeweler, and he earns quite well in his craft.
04aad561d75cdf7f280c5a35b359793cd3705079 The king grinned and gave the jeweler a task: that in three days he would forge a gold ring for him, which would bring joy to sad people, and sadness to joyful people.
6313c2b78d601f3a2f45534b157f4209105bce5d And if he does not complete the tasks, he will be executed.
6b3116e7ff471c4480b0a375d0a39ef1765e4036 Three days later, the young jeweler, shaking with fear, entered the palace of Solomon and met the king's son Rahavam.
bfed93054f781b669a46b70e2ba78320561430cb The jeweler thought, "The son of a sage is half a sage," and dared to ask Rahavam for advice.
c678b853d6086fb701c268232ab6c674bcf05869 Rahavam just grinned, took a nail and scratched three Hebrew letters on three sides of the ring: "gimel", "zain"and " yud".
5759673d6fff84ceb1afaf96fd8bd53a9043d9fb After turning the ring, Solomon immediately understood the meaning of the letters, the abbreviation גם זוו יווורר is interpreted as "This too will pass".
7a2f22d7db05b4c5e73825c55e1ba8809b251557 The king imagined that now he was sitting in his palace, surrounded by all the benefits that one could wish for, and tomorrow everything could change.
9c73ec36ac74156dba344f5d78d5e6ca2470d3b2 The thought made Solomon sad.
67faa44db85b520770f669f74b468c5e27414696 When Ashmodai threw him to the end of the world, and Solomon had to wander for three years, looking at the ring, he understood that this would also pass, and this understanding gave him strength.
0abb3088c1a6dede3e0205c5347a379fddee06f9 The greatness and splendor of the reign of Solomon
54b97d200d4663ed9546de6ca4dcdd6387092b44 Legends say that during the entire reign of David's son Shlomo, the disk of the moon in the sky did not decrease, so that good always surpassed evil.
0a5b1a795e27deececce273e26abcfc4f8bd81d6 Solomon was so smart, powerful and great that he managed to subdue all animals, birds, angels and demons.
d2631068ae1e6ce41932b94f7bd947818fa66185 The precious stones were delivered to Solomon's palace by demons, and angels guarded them.
d3f0fca1eca71e0b495b461336a2ce4f67472280 With the help of a magic ring, on which the name of the God of Israel was engraved, Solomon learned many secrets about the world from the angels.
3765cc4946f0bf943ae5a6680e8293596cdb6317 Solomon also knew the language of beasts and animals: they all obeyed his authority.
e0e8ab1e2d4441b39c34aa334763dbfc6c7491f9 Peacocks and various exotic birds freely walked around the palace.
e597a24c1b6953469071ff0e493745e8e5dba6e1 The throne of King Solomon deserves special attention.
ca174108425f1d77c1a7bf391c435ea9ff744012 In the Second Targum to the book of Esther (1. p.), it is said that 12 golden lions and the same number of golden eagles sat opposite each other on the steps of the throne of the king of Israel.
a3924c8bc3a810c90e1487e1ac6e85adc1ccc57a On the top of the throne is a golden image of a dove with a dovecote in its claws as a symbol of Israel's superiority over the Gentiles.
aa76d1efb67b751d6e706fb268dcf3f69a8b376c There was also a golden candlestick with fourteen candle cups, seven of which were engraved with the names of saints: Adam, Noah, Shem, Abraham, Yitzhak, Yaakov and Job, and seven others - the names of Levi, Keat, Amram, Moshe, Aaron, Eldad and Hur.
186a72182e715571b548e47256ebca36aefdfff8 Twenty four vines attached above the throne created a shadow over Solomon's head.
66d2ca346c61166748dc22d6d41e07bd31b387de As it is said in the Targum, when the king ascended to the throne, the lions stretched out their paws with the help of a mechanical device so that Solomon could lean on them.
2682e258d45c84de66fa76e186801ea4339782b8 In addition, the throne itself was moved at the request of the king.
6b1ea3c6620eb53b60d9afb6cb7a7c68e7a98a8d When Solomon, ascending to the throne, reached the last step, the eagles lifted him up and sat him on a chair.
dbf877538de59968bf1067f4360034d166375ffa Solomon was helped in all his affairs by angels, demons, animals, birds, and the Almighty himself.
0b43513089e03b72b15c7a2d658ed89227bc58be He was never alone, and he could always rely not only on his wisdom, but also on otherworldly forces.
6bb59b9579176841fce4e81a1a0877a4bd006b81 For example, angels helped the king during the construction of the Temple legends tell how miraculously heavy stones themselves rose up and lay down in the right place.
f8c9f3009cca7d7f9d43727e05e6ff9aa039bd5c According to most sources, Solomon reigned for about 37 years and died at the age of 52, overseeing the construction of a new altar.
f9f7301ebae77c944287a580f3450c8ca238fe5d The tsar's entourage did not immediately bury him in the hope that the ruler simply fell into a lethargic sleep.
2f92293b4fcf4aa9c84b1c451c4c71e3f6062256 When the worms began to sharpen the king's staff, Solomon was finally declared dead and buried with all honors.
8acecf90b7ea0392b85c2dbd9b09de92c60a0873 Even during his lifetime, the God of Israel was angry with Solomon for being involved in pagan cultures and identifying idolatry with the Most High, promising his people many troubles and hardships.
6827eb12ae22c44e321b5ae0c7652ce3c0fbc1e2 After the death of the king, some of the conquered peoples organized a violent uprising, as a result of which the unified Israeli state broke up into 2 parts - the Israeli and Jewish kingdoms.
cbe3b98ef738efc7726b3c2e4577990d708100bf Author: Anna Zhila
66edec59bb021a9b583349c8fd2d2680ba520ffd Swords of Heroes:
513827339254b604384bcf39367ff6a6868e614a The Sword of King Solomon
bf4c9443d8d857a783bf0a44b4ab8bb4f5ab7937 ICQ:
300334b52c680f11f87c3408ea9a7ee53e1321aa e mail:
f6fea651eebef1f7fddd2dc5cfe97ddc9d38dec6 firma levsha@mail.ru
3875426e56148cb55fc83936e4c00b7c700447cf Telephone:
cc49c8132e50fe75ae6f9697e5359aaefe8b54bd 8 (495) 210-45-02
47d112fc2e6b6b710f215a815a9d208213c3c125 , the accent in the surname Д Deakonov V. Electrician collected 271 paintings by Pablo Picasso / / Kommersant Online.
15b3470f597d7ec9b336608ee9a7d2aa839aab18 - 2010.
c6d47fbd5b27281753feda7abee6ce35ce4642cd - November 29.
cb3938b5d374160806886bb889b24f0eccceff5a ↑ Named the most expensive artists of 2008 bigmir) net ↑ A Picasso painting has set another record value ↑ Artem Filipenok.
fabd5aa1e19c9d92c761cb2808ef2a97e8a69451 A painting by Pablo Picasso was sold in New York for a record $179 million (rus.).
3df6eda24edf452b9c8453c29887e06849e83824 "RosBusinessConsulting" (RBC) (May 12, 2015). Verified on October 25, 2015.
2612e377969621b4751b478c33a5b521d336d9cc ↑ A rating of the best artists in the world has been compiled bigmir) net ↑ EL MUNDO | Suplemento cronica 655 — El pueblo donde ser Picasso es muy común ↑ Pablo Picasso's Early Life ↑ Eric Sati, Yuri Hanon.
d44f855cf96624b0220ca127144d63c62a771d14 Memories in hindsight.
d7bcf7817815280a516f3faa6e3a401b47dd2c19 - St. Petersburg: Center of Middle Music & Faces of Russia, 2010.
3e75ae2c6e8a02958a5c8902f5a004cbc4912d68 345-346 — - 682 p.
ed9e97a4f4e635ecc88c91b3a79b90b01bffa659 - ISBN 978-5-87417-338-8.
3b4fbc733ea10ec9664428f2323eec2c29585c57 ↑ 1 2 3 4 Eric Sati, Yuri Hanon.
14dcee5bcbe423412c74da975b1859f8114ce364 323-325 — - 682 p.
6c65fd4d2c6628c6516b76890c2c42ccc09119c9 — ISBN 978-5-87417-338-8.
43034fd19599ae92e10db2909423c975fe830db4 Александр Alexander Kazakevich Pablo Picasso: a good master, but a bad person?.
db7999e3adc61149d13bf9194bd9134519affd6b ↑ Pablo Picasso - Photos - With Sylvette David, 1954 year. pablo ruiz picasso.net. Verified on March 20, 2015.
2475e74957a1adfb698b8c8b1fa0491304c8f787 (English) ↑ Sylvette David. picassolive.ru. Verified on March 20, 2015.
1d2b0121babfa1c8d2c127236231bc0564e65f42 ↑ The British actor told about a Picasso drawing worth about $ 75 million that was thrown away as a child.
1e6c03ab7170334075f42d4d5838fb93427b615a TJournal.
8f7f9e3703f78ee5917ca3fab1b7918e27a3d303 Verified on November 9, 2015.
66363e6e3e03b6288ebf5bb6ba4d4179d0bd13e0 ↑ Brian Blessed: 'Picasso gave me a £50m picture.
1e8352f8fc3997c031c830e68f2a69a7b253351a I threw it away'.
6d867d51f9a5fe693c57ac5191f6b69cec919040 Telegraph.co.uk. Verified on November 9, 2015.
cf21af4234c3ea5cd5cdbbdf9b13efada19ed032 Prokofiev V. N. Picasso.
07e35a961b95cfed694be0efc39dae81a600a3af The years of formation / / From the history of classical art of the West.
e3c69c6cf3336fe1d52bae4b9e36368b88a1ee3d Moscow, 1980.
f8ebfca079eff63b27c7390c8581da84457d5d8c Prokofiev V. N.
f36eb6710b6a892da2f8731e34b3bc01c5b693de The phenomenon of Picasso / Prokofiev V. N. About art and art history.
853f88e745cc88c032926fcf5fe875a80e25d24f Articles of different years.
6f507545556780fbf61eb41162607d15f23af182 M., 1985 by Pablo Picasso.
44528e74b8a478e9b170bb0a41377bf7e17a6d3f M., Text, 2008.
65411f5653d386d7a35d456818fa6c69f443016b Marina Picasso.
ebced74e4a03702a1a9579a2deaa6bd3d3885b84 Grandfather: memoirs.
3db1fde7df39a1c10776495b6d71f5c3b96b3d07 M., Text, 2006.
a1030d92109b1932721dc8f7120d39ef2b989ead Nadezhdin N. Ya.
80ad628caf658887e2c0bf6ffba9107aeb6d9ee2 - ISBN 978-5-98551-171-0 Herman M. Yu.
97e6df01f7437122c22f32a35a47a41e26f5e35e The path to triumph" / / Moscow: Iskusstvo 21 vek. 2013 Rykov A.V. Picasso and politics.
6f29583d7a25cf9cfede81daa665610229341804 Pablo Picasso in Wikicitatnik?
1e2e61e9a5cfc6855f9d181dfb778619e16265a4 Pablo Picasso on Wikimedia Commons?
17bdae9c00422ec03c48c32f04f07139cba55942 Pablo Picasso in the Open Directory Project (dmoz) reference directory. (English) picasso.fr -official website of the Picasso Administration (fr.) fundacionpicasso.malaga.eu -official website of the Picasso Foundation (Spanish) Works of Pablo Picasso State Hermitage Works of Pablo Picasso Gallery of Art of Europe and America of the XIX XX centuries, Department of the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts
6e6353c8db1ca03e903db8136b978b4d5d17ca12 Notable Names Database · RKDartists
61414c1ffe2273e0aa4b8aecfb6f903759299b1b Regulatory Control BAV: ADV10229580 · BIBSYS: x90058585 · BNC: A10443824 · BNE: XX1637941 · BNF: 11919660r · EGAXA: 002657273 · GND: 118594206 · ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\051221 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2275 5381 · LCCN: n78086005 · NDL: 00452768 · NKC: jn19990006541 · NLA: 35422161 · NTA: 068447809 · PTBNP: 9658 · LIBRIS: 211453 · SUDOC: 027071790 · VIAF: 15873 · ULAN: 500009666
6a02443ee51cfa602c73eb881df630f5c59dff2f Works by Pablo Picasso
3a1023646434a45f62153aabae128a5cd3a16671 Portrait of Sabartes · A woman with a bun of hair · An Old Jew with a boy · A boy with a pipe · A girl on a balloon · Avignon girls * Nude, green leaves and a bust · Guernica · Dora Maar with a cat · Picasso's dove · A knight, a page and a monk · Algerian women
81dee603b9bdda7204f3bdfe3513bba3ac84a99a Painting Spain France
d4b8b6ae38e97dd954a4551e21a3d8ce95c084d2 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Picasso, _Pablo&oldid=76666245"
d2d303b71fda9c25f40bde53569561252fdadfe0 Categories: Born on October 25, Born in 1881, Alphabetical personalities Born in Malaga, Died on April 8, Died in 1973, Died in Mougins, Winners of the International Lenin Prize" For Strengthening Peace between Peoples " Artists by alphabet Pablo Picasso Artists of Spain Sculptors of Spain Masters of still life of France Socialists Who immigrated to France from Spain Members of the French Communist Party French artists of the XX century Winners of the International Peace Prize Personalities:Cubism Artists Ceramists of Spain Artists ceramists of France Buried in the department of Bouches du Rhone Surrealists Post Impressionism
750141ea1235cb03fb34b5c7406e0ac18dc1b0ac Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with sources from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with sections without links to sources from May 2011 Wikipedia:No sources since October 2013 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:No sources since March 2011 Wikipedia:Articles without footnotes Wikipedia:Articles without links to sources
d0cb671a163ac4e9b51866c209f46e766b5f2864 Afrikaans Alemannisch Ar Aragonés العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Aymar aru Azərbaycanca Bashortsa Boarisch Žemaitėška Bikol Central Belarusian Belarusian (tarashkevitsa) Blgarski भोजपुरी বাংলা གཟུགས་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Català buryad nohchiyn کوردیی ناوەندی Cushla Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Võro Français Frysk Føroyskt Gaeilge Galego 贛語 Avañe'ẽ 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Hawai'i עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Basa Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit of Adygebze Kazakh Kalaallisut ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Kernowek Latina Ladino L kurtzebuergesch Limburgs Lumbaart Lietuviū Latviešu Malagasy Olyk mari Māori Baso Minangkabau Macedonian മലയാളം Mongol Kyryk Mary मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ مازِرونی Dorerin Naoero Nāhuatl Plattdüütsch नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangasinan Kapampangan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Română Runa Simi Rosinsky Sakha Sicilianu Scots Sámegiella Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenscina Soomaaliga Shqip Srpski / Seeltersk srpski Basa Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Took ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Tatarcha/tatarça Ukrainian اردو O'zbekcha/Becca Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West Vlams Winaray Volapük Vahcuengh მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 中文 Bân lâm gú 粵語 IsiZulu
010d6552adf7f41b3f5cff30f8838af172cd1ac1 Last modified on this page: 08: 59, February 23, 2016.
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1fe8eeda5c1b84938a07acf97c25336b64f9cf1c Picturesartclub News Artbiographyforuminteractive
1e8c85ee0609d4c6ce7d93fd5cdf4424363858e5 Gallery ➝
fc16a8266f8bfb8143317a4e952e70ebe7bde04d Albums: 6
ed82cd52046c448a6295c36d346d5b8eb5c6587e Pablo Picasso
5dca477752fc50226595c6a93528eaf3297dbcf8 624
27947fa67e7ad09b65db572453a56be0b3190168 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1889-1907
945335a6aaa02e8642218d06ddbb9073cb1e3d69 529
bffb875e0216e7ff3ecae2a7ab9edfe07f3cf020 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1908-1918
80cc9feae5756e54abd79a88f8a4e233160b5674 609
510374bf21ae721dd28283f73b12755347b9ecdf Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1919-1930
7c33876368ece2e1b804a2d191df26be063e42d9 577
17464e887b8bdcfc088dc225df4682ce89da13e3 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1931-1942
ed29c0d8b33574e6b27cb730300cda87fcb2c619 592
2ea85da9779238571ad84dd85ccd5428a79fb332 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1943-1961
e30e49d63907db14c48c5ad063ff7577b7ab5248 656
93b23d7ecde46874792730ff385e671bd3167687 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Period: 1962-1973
192d153574aac488f39d715ee21fa8a4487cfccc Picasso
ca5d53653d9e9c07aa3f62df88fc2394ac591967 The famous paintings of Picasso are an unusual tandem of traditional painting and original art. He was so devoted to his works that he did not notice his stylistic impermanence.
6d19db23635af93f09073582f0e8ed4ee47d5d2c Here the artist's canvases are truly shocking with a variety of quirks and extraordinary fantasies It is worth remembering at least "The Girl in Front of the Mirror" (1932).
c69ebae9bd2271acf69cce5261704177fe50e96d The lines and colors used once again prove the well known fact that Pablo Picasso did not like women very much.
a452234d8c1cb83ab2e0d52f34c1765d46ccff1d Dissected and bloated bodies, a shattered profile, strange hats burlesque forms were the favorite for the famous artist.
5b48d4a63c797752a5581b8b19d70d8b8ec22be3 Ksenia Kors
4a189697511e466ade6ac5b9aadf186cc082fde3 Pablo Picasso is a genius of modern art
246139ad53903d21121e50412b7c9484656aa7ba Besides pigeons, he was very fond of art. When Pablo was ten years old, his father often took him to college, where he worked as an art teacher.
ae22a3f28c37f2b48c6af3403060146c9d18bdcf Since then, paints and brushes have become Pablo's life.
d568de340ae3b348e7852589090af3584b9ad777 It was obvious that he was a genius.
3f2d1720fc760277cd73e0325fb23354e37f4179 But, to the disappointment of many, his art was not classical.
763e387cf002e71bef5ac57a6d4424b4d3537324 He always broke the rules and canons of traditional art and shocked with his strange, but such energetically powerful paintings.
0501baeaae7e6fd8b44480c90aaff0df35abc147 Most of all, he was known for paintings in the style of "cubism" - painting using simple geometric shapes.
6115689d4bdd5b08380b85af99f935c555ea777a For example, he depicted people with triangles and squares, drawing body parts and facial features in completely different places where they should be.
9379d8a8d70054d6960036d9298dad8b0199a866 His works have changed people's perception of contemporary art. Now it is associated with the name of Pablo Picasso.
37b296f8dc15ff02838441bf2c4a0cc3ed554ac9 One of the masterpieces of modern art is his painting "Guernica", painted in 1937, in which the artist captured the bombing of a small town during the Spanish Civil War.
fa1fdab7be417bfe33dc344e8e539b2a655e3e6b In total, Picasso created more than 6,000 paintings, drawings and sculptures.
e1f6632d16ffc1405702705878cb10d1d7dbd05d Today, his works are worth several million dollars.
1a8174c68237ed8e57c054533b04870fecdcab2d Once, when the French minister was visiting Picasso, the artist accidentally spilled some paint on his pants.
7560e892d0cec2a2bda3cb29b9a966c36216a9bc Pablo apologized and offered to pay the bill for cleaning his trousers, but the minister said: "No way!
58a9a92459d92b4ec860e8c458cef5784e3098be You just signed my pants!"
6275fd6a759a7973c146b412af28cc1bd6f63afa Pablo Picasso passed away due to heart failure after suffering from the flu in 1973.
9379baf0299cfb89b002f2f28d9ffc023922eefa Pablo Picasso: All epochs in one artist
42653300a00ba74b2478c1fb230aaa1e25d7e2fb Today, Pablo Picasso is rightfully considered one of the most expensive artists according to the results of modern auctions.
dafe2ea7c1009b7ba0281bfcb67e05dbb9d50f3d The non trivial Spanish artist created his first works at the dawn of the 20th century, and in total he has several tens of thousands of canvases and sculptures on his account.
afe5be328c371ee2f1450a57b6cc34cef508e6ca He was not "fixated" on any one style, but was looking for ways and types of self expression in different artistic directions.
51e41c4d342226640131092322cbce075eef035d It is impossible to judge about the works of Picasso by one or two works: he transferred his rich inner world to the language of colors, in each picture doing it in a different way from the previous one.
247b08aa6cd43946b691c994f80eef04fed26e55 The impressive almost century old century of his work is usually divided into many periods:
9b97a854f77b1248add5d1da976fe7e273a7d8db The early period, when there was a brush test, a search for moods and bold experiments.
c72e3a8f18d8bbbb196c1737c4a147120ed20fe4 At this time, he lives in Barcelona, then leaves for Madrid to study art, and later – again to Barcelona.
b903c22eb747d07a0fd0034aaaa2aa3191781450 The "blue" period.
375510707d5f080de1257054afedac387a0c2800 Moving to Paris and getting acquainted with the Impressionists deeply contributed to the formation and cutting of the Spaniard's talent.
6a0501ecfba5804bc3d931ec094ccc8738b4e27e In the paintings of 1900-1903, he perpetuated various manifestations of sadness, sadness, melancholy.
5efa7f71ba1670c3fc662d42939aa3e49129f2ad The "pink" period was marked by new characters in his masterpieces: artists, circus performers.
0152db43995a26626525499c5537fc19fcfa320a The "Girl on the Ball" from the Pushkin Museum also belongs to this period.
740c08d4cd5c460c12d1a704fc8e95340482328d The atmosphere of sadness in Pablo's work is diluted with lighter, romantic moods.
9bff046b354ccc093bd8b4988016a2ec72c77b5e The "African" period was the first messenger of the author's transition to Cubism proper.
9119ed279636bd152276fd3540a7001b467eb18c Picasso began to scrupulously disassemble everything that he depicted in his paintings into large and small geometric shapes.
da620d66ea78a0de41fb5991490c8bb96c356718 Portraits painted in this technique look especially interesting and innovative.
ef5bba87123f70e42b243e4360ff68cbfea3f42f The classical period.
0c7683ca7701afcc9b2fc36433f4bdee076b89ad Acquaintance with the Russian ballet and with his first wife, a ballerina, brings some rethinking to the work of Picasso, who turned to the dogmas of art in the very early 20s and creates paintings that are sharply different from his usual Cubism.
4635ec0b563a05933b7e8d7b21233bdcb7331552 One of his first works in the classical style is "Portrait of Olga in an armchair", where the artist captured his wife in love.
4005cc13ac1b9adb71ca071675fcfe7de68c77e4 Surrealism.
c172792b34b81f39cca440d11ed62769424dcf7c Since 1925, the author has been experiencing great creative experiences that are guessed in his paintings – the characters are unreal monstrous, the artist makes a challenge, flirts with the viewer's imagination, turning to surrealism.
15833e5aeb535f273c57ae1006536a43480c6a2f One of the most famous surreal paintings is "Dream" from 1932.
db615a4f8fd532f9e2584ccf335ea79bef3ce1f1 The military theme came into his creative life with the civil war that engulfed Spain, and then the whole of Europe.
acf221a080fe6858f0b228d89c692c3018a196a8 Along with the gloomy social background, the artist's life atmosphere is also influenced by new personal experiences: a new woman appears in his life.
e45c60c280c9a119a7ba025ec827f3ff9052d2be After the war, he creates the world famous "Dove of Peace" and becomes a communist.
fa3159ab59450c1c1f34bcf94fd9b00d030d288f This period of his artistic activity reflects his happy years of life.
6359fce8a6dfa9d6f10fd6554578689372e97edf During this period, he also actively realized himself as a ceramist.
9dbca353b705cd8868ef162e566e311df2e3674b Since the 50s, it is difficult to attribute his paintings to one genre and style – he implements all the unsaid in different manners and techniques.
621826853ab7d9f8160795654f6c94007c34d4d2 He also interprets the famous paintings of other artists, writing them out in his own perception.
90495d5aea350db02790a5b684cde5951d658917 Picasso's paintings of different periods are leading the art market today, breaking all imaginable price records.
6c354ae416e43f7b9ab2534c95a96ba0c9f418c4 For example, the sum of 104 million dollars was paid in 2004 for his painting "Boy with a Pipe" in 1905, and in 2010 his painting "Nude, Green Leaves and Bust", painted by him in 1932, was sold for 106 million.
a974462a90566a697e1f3c51892fb51c3868213d Today, you can buy Picasso's paintings at open auctions, but the most famous masterpieces of his work have already taken their places of honor in private collections and the best museums in the world.
c02d004cb73aacedc123b10deb493920e14e02cc Paintings by Pablo Picasso in other albums
18e1338b94d0c73b4347218c3aac221fbf7fc6bd Tips from Pablo Picasso
c0ff21d7bc13b36ffe6c4d298e688f55465a2b1d Pablo Picasso is a brilliant man with an unusual mindset.
94c2ef32cf316908144eb5d91f7aac60d9319457 He has achieved a lot from life.
5818ca1c077e4dd31205a8c32451922f96a767ac It makes sense to find out what he advises other people to make life more interesting and fruitful.
5735f664931b22768c580ebb39b21ed8959348be Advice is especially important for creative people.
c127d79e25392bf1a1866ef6e94745b3fa71722b And all people on earth can be considered creative people, people create their own lives.
de87da5af4c48f4fb017d8ffc86e5df456e7e02c This is a kind of creativity.
978857a2ce0ed9d084d97f2bb9145c353ac14c5b You can live your life boring, reluctantly fulfilling your duties, or you can follow the knowledge of a great genius, and color your everyday life with bright feelings and interesting thoughts.
b80653925cd1cf971d5d584be3a27542ed4abd47 The age of possibilities does not apply
3885a201ed316a7bdcc81d7e6003d4b7d35ed9ac The first thought, which is better to start sticking to as soon as you find out about it, is nothing.
0b7badfbbaaf712e601a3eefbb75b93aa5cb0445 Age can not prevent you from developing and doing something unusual.
5a9a5883462166fd3632937dbbabf3aacb4145bc At any time in your life, you can start learning what you want.
e2f8096ae7dc224a2269c3ca2de2dbbebc6a48d3 Usually people believe that it is the privilege of the young to do unusual things, or to do what they want.
9e87c9a73fee328a9004db5d1d5c8e1cbd8e8a30 But Picasso has gone far away from such a thing as age.
5b8afaeb8b760d48a9a9e31ac94e7dd4cfac5fbc Age is only useful.
5efe25712bf10709df59f2483a3fe4dc58287712 In a sense, a person understands himself with age, determines what he really wants.
089fdf02c6adfb89edcfb17907eb4cb17a96b8f9 But by the time people come close to their desires and understand what they want, for some reason they decide that it's too late.
e964c9d1de8701ac82863a28535ca234963fb9a4 And it's not too late!
12dce66f6e193a851d243467eabcc7252582ccd7 Just the right time.
1ebf291491468a503df93bd749cbf4c631cda057 If the desire is determined, you need to start implementing it, regardless of whether it is 10 years or 50.
c31c68af37b6621ba1b448c271acb55ad5fcd800 The chances are equal.
028aed6f23350eec22209686086a3cc06d14e380 Only the ossified brain interferes.
8fc241bb78155950ee44e8148447cf2dd56c73bb But flexibility can also always be developed.
0a9b82d73b0f6a36f074becdbd4f23d87c4b4f10 The main thing is to act slowly.
4873981c8b43226b3af390065c41688fee89e5a2 And the flexibility of the brain will return, as in the youngest years.
97c89a4d6630adeb18fa12ba9976a31413fe293e Action
1497ffadda45cd63da292608aaffb096fac95fd4 The main thing is to act.
9a6c721de22a7f88c78041684147074993441eb2 As long as there is just a plan, it will not give anything.
255e999f40a5a536d72a454495770317937cf3e4 Action is life.
28caab85b2ded1a8de336f6ae717e101a20f09bf Action is an experience.
c5016aca376a72d1f1183cee242178ac9d0a3482 An action is a result.
7fd267fe5a78decc745b5fa6e8f8e56191d3de61 And it doesnot matter whether it's good or bad.
5fcb6d33c2e929e40cb06c2ac5c64c0e9956feaf If it does not work, you need to try it not once, otherwise nothing will happen.
6f3cd616b61a565a1e1a31a402d6faa7b0707415 No result (bad or good) this is a small death.
b1e98a3345543dfa3141b04707ac74ff1cb6a8a9 As long as people do not act, they do not develop.
2b7e9c460047b7961139511ce465b77091cbdf91 Actions and development are two vital keys that do not allow you to stand still.
042add8b23cc67fffc5f32ea16582d00ba2d0845 Therefore, in order to get results and experience, you need to get up and start acting.
7963c7f4d4081b9dc36e1d3cc0af69ca428479bb This was the opinion of Pablo Picasso.
79a5416f5e0c52e2341ecd510b69501b6bbf3b4f New skills
e12a050b95b1bef896ac3b9435a41d706662ee24 New skills do not allow your brain to get rough.
6e4b55980d71ed1e89ca7dd3baaf3cba8adf3462 Creative people always learn what they donot know how to do yet.
6e390e62c3cd626ed0cea9b36a3462ab0bc47bd7 Creativity comes from studying the unknown.
b1d16739daba5c7c201c4234c8ab385c91793dcd Learning the unknown, getting new skills — actions that always accompany people who are used to thinking outside the box.
bbfc19decc84eeb6055396dc6165a9d03ee41b37 An important point: Pablo Picasso advises to concentrate on a new action at the moment of engagement as accurately as possible.
60e48ecc78b7521943c6802314a67c9778ef1d3d Thus, a person will not think about what exactly he may not succeed.
c495b38dd4c2b2253742f8bd2d4bb1aae14d58ec And the brain will not let someone be afraid.
03616c289a6f64e5840993604609f014b600f63a And fear slows down learning quite seriously.
4118d816222c864ae0c1c986469962bdc3995658 You can wait for inspiration all your life
d22f133215ab677efa140e6971b0309e926acaa0 And I canot wait.
096ab1dad2071333c37bb870f92305ce4de7e2ec Inspiration is like an appetite.
2f9cfc136d793059ef76a58571c084967eafd96c It comes during creativity.
2fa58e5cfa1e94e8669ff9880b6949f470744516 There are a lot of things that are quietly performed without inspiration.
8b010af2a4f5a3dde13ab21c4f98ebf53496c468 They are simple.
43a69962ec237600422af5778ac1dc28d49c4956 They are boring to make.
322ecc571b4939e1b7675098baf2f04c267c26b6 But thanks to such actions, inspiration suddenly comes.
e246bf20dd5084933016ac6af1701e17fd077db5 But when a person is inactive, inspiration will most likely get lost somewhere along the way and find someone more hardworking.
449af8faa00cb96a343de0e5ebea406a8dc0c959 So, in order for inspiration to come, you need to reread the part about the action and apply it in practice.
15580580523a3ea15fd30df6ebdcb07144b11555 Confidence is an important point
b7e6999a4fe14e196a15b0ec977581b2e03f670f Starting learning some skills, or just a new business, the general mood is important.
fa156b31a2cbdebd0af083c933fe8ffe77b2b633 The brain is arranged in such a way: if a person thinks that he will not succeed, the brain remembers it.
4813a3ba5cceeb541a94c7dc1d14b033f6b37008 And then, in the right places, it begins to help the body perform the program, that is, it turns on fear, and makes a person nervous.
86fc8e851e0d0799a0f7941115888a6800aaf775 Which confuses and leads to an error.
d41053a0c458d12fdff9356c4effac3730d0a3a5 This is how the classic "failed" looks like.
70198498aeaab7989e92dbe6cfd60d3f56f9bd36 Therefore, if you believe in what you are doing — there are more chances of success.
a4311ba3a2b2bba4228786d1b4f3ec6cd1e40a76 You need to extract the correct information from everything
624e518e98419cad49fe6e7e813eaae55cae789f Because of the way people ask questions, it is clear that they want to know.
7230f95793ac7090c8fd9029c5031b14d7539e44 The task of a person is to get as much positive knowledge as possible.
98f638f2047f693865a1df444ece1dd3f30b0a72 Knowledge about something good.
f55bd3561b67f1ea84e4199d67fe3b9d56063672 It follows from this that if something did not work out, you can look for useful skills that a person has acquired from an unsuccessful experience.
b1a318903c171096d770207080f819eeca923b7f For example, I didnot learn how to ride a roller board, you can ask yourself, what did I learn new?
5d96fa41f09085fb2003dede17f3c360b15e1cb3 The structure of the board, the materials from which it is made.
2ee82dfc3ec8959e076eea4dbf471befc3b52514 Perhaps now you can help your friends with the choice of a device, although it did not work out to learn how to ride, but there is experience in choosing a board, it will help other people.
cb6b22623bd120cbe4786cfb9ffa290167472e0d Always learn
670781f58997c4e917b75ea8951b6d12286e3766 New knowledge pushes the boundaries of the brain.
9ea8b3684f400929be6de1e0a4edd8973e6ff97a This is again another step towards a non standard way of thinking.
cd30edc17802aa1d6308a71aa9633b70021a5493 A non standard course of thought helps to find the most profitable ways out of different situations.
fd1cf680c6882a2f11bf25b8a0c76972f8fcc3ff A person cannot be able to do everything.
1fb7607ab8b0beb221f927f8426e5db525d5cca7 Therefore, it is necessary to og sit around and explore what is most interesting.
f49f2f209bcfcb012d3ce47c540fc2bf3cada884 Go to cutting and sewing lessons.
c79768e55f7a6db95f92556ee4501fdfec53510c Learn new financial instruments.
5366d6f4a1f38b69597e58bf6cf7e8fa2a304eb8 Moreover, it is better to choose skills that are not related to the usual everyday affairs in any way.
013b242191f33fd759bec8d69c7a8a6728a8ea60 The more unexpected the choice, the more interesting and useful it will be for the brain.
8f122649f36408144dba2cf1c8003fc351e86bb4 Search by artist's last name:
b2deb9592ad47066dad220eda36e9a77f8f2bbc1 Write comments in the album Last from the top
83c54acb8dafa4e2ce735f8a9902888969d29b2c 1) 25/08/2014 Atonh:
a8fae325bd86d529d0077cf07f95195623147605 An inimitable daub, at first conscious and cunning, and at the end of his career just a daub.
c394132172b5de93dd3cd60f0508e07e8f213e42 If there was no "Girl on the Ball", it could also be considered incompetence.
ac7cda3e3b80d0e8074b2bd35fa91658a773b091 ←→
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27cc60a8c972fefcaaff2c3049d76d888667b6e7 Home page: Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Portrait of Olga in an armchair" Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Portrait of Olga in an armchair"
cdd75565ebe87b10737b1e1a7a0abc4652be87b1 Jan 06 2016
2bcb7d7df6891932159522db66fd9e3736881a65 Critics condemned the painter for his excessive realism and betrayal of his style.
88454f9d503248b7f5a0561799a06a8fc005dacd Although the same people had previously criticized Picasso for his Cubism.
93c27d84ae68b08ef4b240e58b83aab73e11cd57 Such a change of style is characterized by the spiritual harmony of the artist, although there is a certain similarity and limitation of the creative flight.
2e56877eb1bcad3ffe434c2d18fec508f20aa176 Successful among women P.Picasso surprised everyone with his choice.
a27854959e8c7cd84956c5d97aa5441b6617f606 Their marriage lasted more than ten years.
e09aebdaac96d82236f22f824c1384e3e9a99f25 For Olga, along with the end of her marriage, the end of her life came.
241d82c6825571e3ccff89644b2d345955dd92b2 In the modern understanding of beauty, the wife of P. Picasso can not be called ugly.
4fdf738e64743ba4a2bdb56783065803d56800bb (No Ratings Yet)
6fe089f0e31ac6842c4961dac7463cc2c4a7f4b4 Other canvases: Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Portrait of Olga Picasso"
598e1cfb36a82c7a02191fbd38a5627cd64b1ca1 Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Portrait of Gertrude Stein"
11ecdc91b3f2aa1f653dd74a828b6e62cba38959 Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "The Woman in the chair I"
9c8dfe8a50d7adce1000bde3f0dc2df40908c369 Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Portrait of Ambroise Vollard"
7d89aaad83da7a83fea05b25cd90da784bc6b6f7 Description of the painting by Pablo Picasso "Mediterranean landscape"
b74d119a847aa37c53a47f6f4f037be63b2d1ecc →Description of Mikhail Sokolov's painting "At Home" Description of Benvenuto Cellini's sculpture "Perseus" →
df70f860feaf3264d10c8c1d3232ae877560bf03 Recent entries Description of the painting by Nikolai Feshin "Portrait of Varya Adoratskaya" Description of the painting by Konstantin Trutovsky "On the masonry" Description of the painting by Jan van Eyck "Portrait of the Arnolfini couple" Description of the painting by Alexander Murashko "Winter" Description of the painting by Valentin Serov "Portrait of Princess Orlova"
a6522655a3622f909ecd7773864878a64a5f5da2 Picture Descriptions | Feedback.
f3a8c0347be0a17ffbe55fc2bb79add1bd8e11fc Creative Periods Graphics Sculpture Ceramics Collage Themes Muses Museums Biography Blog Quotes Photos Videos Monuments Search Buy Posters
d1fa396063417bb35c07c792a45230c795330af5 12 works of different years
61b076bc4d68325a142c6af72ab20808d81817db 8 last comments on March 01, Valery, Russia: Who would not say: like, not like Picasso, and when you see in the Hermitage "Woman in blue", I realize that ...
c27b04e37c3df3c631cf5a6b344e8870ebd9717a February 24, Lika, Berlin : Apparently, this sad period of the artist's life ended with a move to Paris, the capital of the arts. ...
fb10569f415a05643d554fb3f4730bd5a73af343 February 11, Max : Elusive look absolutely ...
a6214455a0ea1fbcf8cfa09897fafd1f207439a3 February 11, Max, the mediator can see!)) ...
f54efa4d23e1b333ef7afd33ec18ba698f29f204 February 11, IECM, when he cubism in all its glory ...
a9c404dfa4369b4ed7f3be387084f94e6ff5acea February 11, Max : Like I want to learn)) ...
199468299731d9e38e5fd87f61f0345715a6ad4d February 11, Buyanto, Ulan Ude and it is amazing to pass on the canvas of human experiences ...
5f4e62ead7951aea34cbb34b8ec76c614b9d514a 08 February, kareoke, weeke: do not forget about Andersen, and his naked king. a masterpiece is the Birth of Venus or the Night Watch, or the Trial of Paris Cranach, ...
9a91dc1940a4a9382b2f0280c99ed9542be1cb16 12 photos from different years
349fa4453f0b74fe6841e93c41976a44821dda02 Blog 30/01 - About Impressionism 21/01 Scientists found Picasso's fingerprints 31/12 - About the painting "The Family of Comedians" (1905) 25/12 - Cut the picture into 150 thousand pieces or give it to the museum?
2cc5ead5a9f444fd550923674095b3f398086f5d 14/12 The Raventos family and Picasso's youth
7a8cfaf499e8a7814bec90f811609ed736688bb6 1. Childhood and years of study (1881-1900)
34a94175f3eeb2e019c6d50ede2eae8470680c91 Pablo Picasso was born on October 25, 1881 in the city of Malaga, the Anadalusian province of Spain.
418d6bd720e93cd5bf6f4008e13d13834124342d At his baptism, Picasso received the full name of Pablo Diego Jose Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Maria de los Remedios Crispin Crispignano de la Santisima Trinidad Ruiz and Picasso - which, according to Spanish custom, was a series of names of revered saints and relatives of the family.
49ab17006ab1abd1a9fd096a2f9f881591cc4a5c Picasso is his mother's surname, which Pablo took, because his father's surname seemed too ordinary to him, besides, Picasso's father, Jose Ruiz, was an artist himself.
e89a6bd2822f69467d5d221d14574aa3b502ca36 Pablo showed an early talent for drawing.
96943aaf76ef844755557f2ca6daf9debdb70eb6 Already from the age of 7, he studied drawing techniques from his father, who first instructed him to add pigeon paws to his paintings.
862b7c21afdd39b21960ece6336e7efbb6d9f89b But one day, entrusting the thirteen year old Pablo to finish a rather large still life, he was so impressed by his son's technique that, according to legend, he gave up painting himself.
08a1356ed0b41b32bab1bd517e5fb510b10be75b At the age of 13, Pablo Picasso brilliantly entered the Barcelona Academy of Fine Arts.
e0355a7d5671ce6ea77f47a0add55d12ef7e47df It took Picasso a week to prepare for the exam, which usually took students a month.
d43b453daee07b30ff70a6d86c4cbee07ba67486 He impressed the commission with his skill and was accepted into the Academy despite his young age.
207189edb7a86754200d3ce1606717b942b6ec19 Picasso's father, together with his uncle, decided to send Pablo to the San Fernando Academy in Madrid, which was considered at that time the most advanced art School in all of Spain.
3e26831cb34fe2a6893adf22625fe2384b7d4636 So, Pablo came to Madrid in 1897 at the age of 16.
f5e4d91aa55afcfa5ca4da366a4f78399e02e88f However, classes at the Art School did not last long, less than a year, and Pablo was captured by all the other delights of Madrid life, as well as studying the works of artists who impressed him at that time - Diego Velasquez, Francisco Goya, and especially El Greco.
89e38b438bf6741de7b3d52f0a8c72e4ba7860b9 A collection of early works by Picasso is located in Barcelona, in the Picasso Museum.
0072cdb2d181fd61a9edb7bf3d57a470f2c4d8bd The most famous of them: the First communion (1896) - large painting depicting Picasso's sister, Lola, "self Portrait" (1896), "Portrait of mother" (1896).
5f0ad2ceed91d0f09dcbc047d003fab593b9d814 As an adult, and while visiting the exhibition of children's drawings, Picasso said, "At that age I drew like Raphael, but it took me a lifetime to learn to draw like them."
30ed6c07f5f6918146fb6b3970f3ec43ae786bf9 While studying in Madrid, Picasso made his first tour to Paris - the then recognized European capital of art. There, for several months, he visited all museums without exception, studying the paintings of great masters: Delacroix, Toulouse Lautrec, Van Gogh, Gauguin and many others.
e146feda8e83fd111ae5718d951948c6a7cd22bb He was also interested in the art of the Phoenicians and Egyptians, Gothic sculpture, Japanese engraving.
30b4726ef84b04da190b4c4beed41141add0d4ea Pablo was interested in absolutely everything.
030d081867a0f3a22c217eb2ed119035f3ce0864 At the same time, in the first years of his life in Paris, he met the collector and dealer of paintings Ambroise Vollard, poets Max Jacob and Guillaume Apollinaire and many others.
7247b38d1598c538f0ecc1f2b84ec9e60d6a6bb0 He visited Paris again in 1901 and in 1902 and finally moved there by 1904.
9a569a273dc4ad4c248cdff1fe1dc7cb3fcb4392 2. The "Blue" period (1901-1904)
9b5065109865838bf746f8b3931a57b9a94b2ae7 The" blue " period includes works created between 1901 and 1904.
bfe9c1c2ef3f21d1aa7f30d50a2d8ddc387aa91c Gray blue and blue green are deep cold colors, the colors of sadness and despondency, are constantly present in them.
e1ceffda887c9e6379d806abaab0f83ed99c4a07 Picasso called blue "the color of all colors".
a4fb044a3241b302bce4e9b3901637037edd1fef The frequent subjects of these paintings are emaciated mothers with children, tramps, beggars, blind people.
e23dfdd0bc28d67fbb3f20852c5ba2d7189f934f The most famous works of this period: "Life" (1903), "the Breakfast of a blind man" (1903), "Lean meal" (1904), "the absinthe drinker" (1901), "Date" (1902), "Mother and child" (1903), "the old Beggar with a boy"
bf02494938cb54964f22a43dc8b07290255e2f9f (1903, "The Old Ironing Woman" (1904), "Two" (1904).
c95d562cf4c3f1411019ed47f0fcbc6f6d03118c 3. The "Pink" period (1904-1906)
76e8e56d8563c38d0d1fdcc0fcc1c5ac3065bdc5 The "Pink period" is characterized by more cheerful tones - ochre and pink, as well as stable themes of images - harlequins, wandering actors, acrobats
79f86692d54b2ebacaf3e9e56797876197357eba ("The Family of Comedians" (1905), "The Acrobat and the Young Harlequin" (1905), "The Fool" (1905).
48a30e410364051dc59129a4f732473cc693a227 Fascinated by the comedians who became models of his paintings, he often visited the Medrano circus; at this time, the harlequin is a favorite character of Picasso.
e24343d64c5623e4f8747c48c977808e5551d7d9 In 1904, in Picasso, he met the model Fernande Olivier, who inspired him to create many significant works of this period.
ead50d87252391de1bec0de9ef0319d7f23be246 They lived in the center of bohemian Parisian life and the mecca of the Parisian artists Bateau Lavoir.
5b5b7ef62fb25ab20aa72f3303cfb6e4db6afb2a This strange dilapidated building with dark staircases and winding corridors was the home of a very diverse company: artists, poets, merchants, janitors...
182ea26801cb8f773904297de97589f84a4f8a2d Here, in utter poverty on the verge of poverty and indescribable creative disorder, Picasso constantly painted his Fernando and searched for his way.
102bacd9f105addd0b5a56ec9b9b08cb1bb10c15 The famous " Girl on the Ball "(1905) is attributed to the transitional paintings between the "blue" and" pink " periods.
21b45d2ff4db5a3342490e9aae88f045aa16fec9 The artist plays on the contrast and balance of forms or lines, gravity and lightness, stability of instability.
254d735944c0420e7d40e17b9c24f6314850fb1f Also at the end of the "pink period" appeared "antique" paintings - "A boy leading a horse" (1906), "A Girl with a goat" (1906) and others.
15896006bf9942f05fbdff3211a7fcc572f20b1f 4. The "African" period (1907-1909)
70cf8510aa8c30a208f3df18636180d5fda4ff87 In 1906, Picasso worked on a portrait of Gertrude Stein.
e730c492dd6a25bffa31b3bfba5922a71f36feb2 He rewrote it about eighty times and, according to the memoirs of Gertrude Stein herself, as a result, Picasso said to her in a rage: "I stopped seeing you when I look at you." and he left work on the portrait.
0ad4eff6c405c69c7e5aa22dd5732fda9f68e881 This was a turning point in his work and from here began the path of Picasso from the image of specific people to the image of a person as such and to the form as an independent structure.
7d3de38b96e87e975062bc8ec140cc2a45d25ad7 Picasso needed confirmation of his path in the general development of world art and new impressions to gain new creative energy, and the discovery of a whole layer of African culture by science at that time served as an impetus for the artist's creativity.
e19146ec0936866056470273a1a4d3b751b898e2 He was especially interested in African sculpture and masks, he considered them endowed with magical power and found in them a sensual simplicity of forms.
001de3d7d866d55853a6211d60203ccea81e6dcd Most likely, it was these "African influences" that determined the final version of the portrait .
187291641533da55caac50144a0446c74f64c0ee In 1907, the famous "Avignon girls" appeared.
4d80875aa3aff133ac68af6b6e4a240901f27143 The artist worked on them for more than a year for a long time and carefully, as he had not worked on his other paintings before.
d739b91e02df111bc1009c4c80b85712668e4442 The first reaction of the public is shock.
53a556a8afd9a3b3074c9b325e1fb89ad604d1b2 Matisse was furious.
e49db87fc1124e0883005a2e046d32b1f095a653 Even most of my friends didnot accept this job.
8dd73e9274b10778cac325ddb0ca7392ef1c8c62 "It feels like you wanted to feed us with tow or give us gasoline to drink," said the artist Georges Braque, a new friend of Picasso.
55a0e9bc3e21071f24416cae7c97495c92ff4ee9 The scandalous painting, the name of which was given by the poet A. Salmon, was the first step of painting on the way to Cubism, and many art critics consider it the starting point of modern art.
70e056d99b78ff5a6213347679363a2d6b8f5ad2 5. Cubism (1909-1917)
2713f663f628b41c6ffb2370b05a6fa99ff72c2d In "cubic" period Picasso distinguish several stages.
f66a0113e57041716add0fb2fea09c48cfa3b796 "Cezanne" cubism, represented in the works "Cans and bowls" (1908), "the Three women" (1908), "Woman with a fan" (1909) and the other is characterized by the "Cezanne" tones of ochre, green, brown, but more blurry, muddy and the use of simple geometric forms which is used to build the image.
a818fedc659720a210eea8cafe03f1870e4e6ef0 "Analytical" cubism: the object is divided into small parts that are clearly separated from each other, the object form seems to blur on the canvas.
0fde9891e73d3f95b4ecdd017a61c37a94a0cbc9 "Portrait of Ambroise Vollard" (1910), "The Factory in Horta de San Juan" (1909), "Portrait of Fernande Olivier" (1909), "Portrait of Kahnweiler" (1910).
a1ccf28889cae04c17228c6f6bca347a41dabae7 At the stage of "synthetic" Cubism, Picasso's works take on a decorative and contrasting character.
265a61ee81464642277b07e4cc30d0f7a9bce3dc The paintings mostly depict still lifes with various objects: musical instruments, sheet music, bottles of wine, smoking pipes, cutlery, posters ...
e9a48379cf99be83f00b7d7cc7f6dc84ee1648b8 Also, fearing the transformation of Cubism into purely abstract aesthetic exercises understandable only to a narrow circle, Picasso and Braque used real objects in their works: wallpaper, sand, ropes, etc. Works of the "synthetic" period: "Still Life with a wicker chair" (1911-1912), A Bottle of Pernod (a table in a cafe)" (1912) "Violin and guitar" (1913).
4804cc300be0291442bdf493ad82bb699651e16f Despite the rejection of Cubism by the majority, Picasso's paintings are very well bought.
d058109a5020322f06d4d48908e3c5b582b808e8 Finally, the impoverished existence ends, and in September 1909, Pablo and Fernanda moved to a spacious and bright workshop at 11 Clichy.
7bd20d054132da612fe2ad716fd42285138af328 Of course, Picasso did not forget to move his obligatory mess: fancy bottles and vases, guitars, an old carpet, paintings by famous artists - Matisse, Cezanne, Rousseau, a collection of African masks...
e63e05595ec984a337165f2ab9c499b7074a4e2f He always said that he was terrified of harmony and good taste.
2551b3365d9cb6c61afe09eb470154d9f3b2a3e6 He bought things that he liked, not caring about how they looked together.
d7c24bb2954a8ae9ab3f241f9bd4a0507fb3fbc8 In the autumn of 1911, Picasso broke up with Fernanda.
cb09a08f9f3078fa8a999282989705a236c4cd66 His new muse was Eva (Marcel Umber), with whom he lived and created his cubical e works in Montparnasse and Avignon.
95d0e7a17e2f4a82f1d13d4612b231b6a6f15a28 One of the works dedicated to Eve is "Naked, I love Eve" (1912).
07332c06e7ea4a2440b21af9f0c9320f9df9ffb6 Then came the sad years: the war, mobilization and parting with many friends, an unexpected illness and the tragic death of Eve.
e20b617060e53e790097a03ad54a0301a4cee25f 6. Neoclassicism (1918-1925)
ce43d70e875de769f67e8d6b260b2677aa1ce835 In the spring of 1917, the poet Jean Cocteau, who collaborated with Sergei Diaghilev, invited Picasso to make sketches of costumes and scenery for the future ballet.
13ca08b37dca61377322f337ec98f88d55fa5cf9 The artist went to work in Rome, where he fell in love with one of the dancers of the Diaghilev troupe - Olga Khokhlova.
bd7f07dff2679ecf59a22633a385dab430cae38c They married in 1918, and in 1921 they had a son, Paul.
58c98d376b1ba01506e512ddf97cf0fd4de17cf1 At this time, his canvases are very far from Cubism; they have clear and understandable forms, light colors, regular faces.
dd4efd1ff4b514a78db0d6c5a3df6dc3562aa5b0 The most expressive picture of these years is "Portrait of Olga in an Armchair" (1917).
3028c6895c01610eb651ef24f338540f3cac1ce9 Picasso was actively criticized for changing the style, as before he was criticized for Cubism.
2436821f06844c728b973d1e0daf8f02f9d3aadb He responded to these accusations in an interview: "Whenever I want to say something, I speak in the manner in which, in my opinion, it should be said."
157242c49b6155d963116cf4d3dc091fdddd8dc6 Other paintings of the "realistic" period: "Bathers" (1918), "Women running on the beach" (1922), "A Child's Portrait of Paul Picasso" (1923).
8ff454a7789d39b6216f3486bfb789d010a35a0e 7. Surrealism (1925-1936)
5bda1676337dd253630b91caf193c0dc13c4b30e "Beauty will be convulsive, or it will not be," said Andre Breton, the founder of Surrealism, a trend in art that set itself the task of comprehending the true depths of artistic creativity through penetration into the world of dreams and the unconscious.
1b2dff6de9aefccb1cb3690ece3e337fc6020dde In 1925, Picasso painted the painting "Dance".
6dba0045d5aed33c37bb5af677bf55f995ca8638 Aggressive, painful, with deformed figures, it reflects a difficult period in the artist's family life and at the same time proclaims a new turning point in his work.
a0d842371a8fa23da480bcaf4b8965c6e9fb5716 Picasso is close to the Surrealists, but he always has his own way.
c5da9dabdfc610f66b81082824f0523683583c0b Works of this period: "A Bather opening a booth" (1928), "Figures on the Beach" (1931), "A Woman with a Flower" (1932), etc.
09caeae0ec087894d4cb6a2a5599162fa63fec29 On a cold January day in 1927, Picasso met seventeen year old Maria Theresa Walter.
137016f9ef71c3f985ddc14951f30b8b2a5c9171 He bought the Chateau Boisgelou for her and there she became his only model and the heroine of several of his famous works, for example, "The Mirror" (1932, private collection), "The Girl in front of the Mirror" (1932, Museum of Modern Art, New York); the sculpture "Woman with a Vase" was also made from her (now it stands on the artist's grave)).
dbf17d437a7c1c4cc515d37d0da3bbae087b7261 In 1935, Maria Teresa gave birth to a daughter, Maya, but by 1936, Picasso had separated from both women, although he was not officially divorced from Olga Khokhlova until her death in 1955.
8a7d08250b191e13ec55f24b43dff1091bd13502 In 1930-1934, Picasso was fond of sculpture and created a number of sculptural works in the spirit of surrealism: "A Woman Lying Down" (1932), "A Man with a Bouquet" (1934), as well as with the help of his Spanish friend, the sculptor Julio Gonzalez, builds various abstract metal structures.
4ec33be6e337bf920e03ab0d35a300f270e27088 In the same 30s, he created a number of engravings of illustrations for Ovid's Metamorphoses (1930) and the works of Aristophanes (1934), indicating that the classics have always been a strong source of inspiration for him.
5d8e89cbcd8d65fc76e92bb9d5a17adea9302d9b 8. The war in Spain.
c8424aa1c7d0af487757f578ad4373f77f746f10 Guernica.
160ac821a508741db3b22852a946a77dd4f08436 World War II (1937-1945)
07e029d9045037c012e1da1e29033dca71628af6 Since the 1930s, such a key theme and image as the bull, the Minotaur, has appeared in Picasso's work.
2d47e89eb6452d2c8140cfcad52e93f8b307132e The artist creates a number of works with this character ("Minotauromachia", 1935), while Picasso interprets the myth of the Minotaur in his own way.
e0ca8d5b007692379f6036b90777b4368c5a505f For Picasso, the bull, the Minotaur are destructive forces, war and death.
1a7cabad0ef4cd80fecbeae9185e68caf0373645 The apogee of the development of this topic was the famous Picasso painting "Guernica" (1937).
5570aa5a9e70e1885cd9bf40e0bfc1bb1c03de82 Guernica is a small Basque town in northern Spain, almost wiped off the face of the earth by German aviation on May 1, 1937.
f738178a88611caf3658cbe3618531486df35659 This huge (almost eight meters in length and three and a half in height) monochrome (black, white, gray) painting was first exhibited in the republican pavilion of Spain at the World Exhibition in Paris.
ee9dbd7390a35463112d8c6fb71278c1614b2556 Once the Gestapo raided Picasso's house.
48d1cde370242962d1a61863ba74042b9b039252 A Nazi officer, seeing a photo of Guernica on the table, asked: "Did you do this?".
f9a2a1eced9990d6b4cfce2073c31a2f98733463 "No," the artist replied, " you did it."
1daa27310be8196d210dcc43621bc8e4261c2fcf During the same period, the series of monsters "Dreams and Lies of General Franco" (1937) was created (in 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, Picasso supported the Republicans and opposed the supporters of General Franco) and a number of other paintings on similar topics: "Night Fishing in Antibes" (1939), "The Crying Woman" (1937) (he painted the last picture with Dora Maar, a Yugoslav woman photographer whom Picasso met in 1936; she became famous for capturing the stages of Picasso's work on "Guernica").
1887a062a9416941767022e2dde39f0a449aaaaf During the Second World War, Picasso lived in France, where he became close to the Communist Resistance members (in 1944, Picasso even joined the French Communist Party).
2d17fb39acad0c773f5d4354a18ba28b4caf1a36 At this time, he created such paintings with the same leitmotif of the bull, war and death: "Still Life with a Bull's skull" (1942), "Morning Serenade" (1942, Nats. the Museum of Modern Art, Pompidou Center, Paris), " The Slaughterhouse "(1944-1945, the Museum of Modern Art, New York) and the sculpture" The Man with the Lamb " (1944), which was subsequently installed in front of the old Romanesque cathedral on the shopping square of the city of Vallauris in the south of France.
522bb35397b2169348434deb92550649197b02b9 9. Post war period (1945-1960e)
61f9f3aee2ac0a1fc381832043cb100e7aca797b Already in peacetime, in 1946, Picasso made a picturesque ensemble of 27 panels and paintings for the castle of the princely Grimaldi family in Antibes a resort town on the Mediterranean coast of France.
9fe7635844db21fd8fa87b441a26ef4fb1dbd676 The panel in the first hall is called "The Joy of Being" and the whole series is designed in the same spirit of harmony with nature and being images of fauns, naked girls, centaurs, fairy tale creatures…
b1cfde38a88f29db00eff671b35e42ba2770d632 In 1946, Picasso met a young artist Francoise Gilot and moved with her to the Grimaldi Castle.
7281136dce2f9e951f42d2e88372dd313f4ff318 Francoise soon gives him a son, Claude, and a daughter, Paloma.
17ca22e332a22987debf67f20973b0a44ed1bf4c The painting "Flower Woman"is dedicated to Francoise.
3450a8edc337872137e1f6edb6e17a61688d922e (In 1953, Francoise ran away from Picasso with two children because of his complex nature and constant infidelities, the artist was hard going through this separation, which was reflected in a number of his works of that time - for example, in a series of ink drawings depicting a disgusting old dwarf buffoonishly contrasting with a young and beautiful girl).
b88f3c6848ccfb635457663456f7e446563dd687 In 1949, Picasso painted his famous "Dove of Peace" on the poster of the World Congress of Peace Supporters in Paris, and in 1951 he created a political picture "The Massacre in Korea" (Picasso Museum, Paris).
475dce2bcedfba9ef83023480beb5c4a7b760523 Since 1947, Picasso has lived in the south of France, in the city of Vallauris, where in 1952 he painted the walls of the old chapel with allegorical symbols of war and peace and himself calls it all "The Temple of Peace".
e2734227aaa0f6b6ec464a18a50c660bb97bc411 In Vallauris, Picasso took up ceramics.
cee876e67006d1b8f21721be4ee4061470a57f3d He creates his favorite characters centaurs, fauns, bulls, pigeons, women, makes anthropomorphic jugs.
f7137c24b630a0acf6a1eb5368853bd4a1c8a6e1 Until now, in this town in the south of France, the so called "ceramic workshops" have been preserved, which continue to keep the "Picasso" brand and replicate products invented by the artist.
16e50b918714638a356546453b66fb2f3c2e5c40 In 1958, the already recognized and famous artist created a monumental composition "The Fall of Icarus"for the UNESCO building in Paris.
5c8a1b6d507d0dfe667ec36aef3e668a825d4293 In 1961, almost 80 year old Picasso marries 34 year old beauty Jacqueline Rock.
9629371fdf78e4973a9028bb1ed48660c328163c She inspires him to create a series of portraits in which you can see her chiseled profile of the sphinx.
6c236abbbe2fde24385f86cd4ec477512970d324 He buys a villa in Cannes for her and himself.
a6d28be9176fad7d283c564010df109bb28d0849 In the 1950s, Picasso painted various variations on the themes of famous masters Velasquez, Goya, Manet in a free scandalous Cubist manner: "Girls on the banks of the Seine.
e1aa90db3d8aea56104d4ef6bdafc4e10bc4c7a8 According to Courbet" (1950, Art Museum, Basel), " Algerian women.
24ecbf1d76817878a8e78d62051e5a69a7ec43aa According to Delacroix" (1955), " Menin.
acd89faeda0078ed1b8c7b92beab4844d6397174 According to Velasquez" (1957), " Breakfast on the grass.
e85c54ea20725e969ffd3bcb4b33a10133747913 The last years (late 60s 1973)
2687cc2c96183219b564c4dd1c6fc28bae9f333d In his later work, the artist often turns to a female portrait (portraits of Jacqueline Rock).
67d1f21a7b1704b89af2866c68254e8a172913b3 Picasso died on April 8, 1973 at the age of 92, a multi millionaire, in the city of Mougins in France and is buried near the Vauvenargues castle that belonged to him.
03481ec657905c29f1560020ca6a27d12755ece2 During the artist's lifetime, the Picasso Museum in Barcelona was opened in 1970 (the paintings for this museum were given by Picasso himself), and in 1985, through the efforts of the artist's heirs, the Picasso Museum in Paris was already created, with more than 200 paintings, more than 150 sculptures and several thousand drawings, collages, prints, documents.
af09f152fd66341e63579fe38b87ad696f079cf8 The work of Picasso radically influenced the course of the development of art and culture throughout the XX century.
c8c5c0aacbc07211bfbe9f235962a95670dbd66b And at world auctions, more and more new, still little known works of the famous master from his vast heritage are still being found and put up for sale.
de14cfcbbf25c1c693511c4d626bdd62df730a43 Copying of the article in part or in full is allowed only if there is a direct link to this site
13db832828789cf2913331730333c0c316d89b0a TOP 5 according to the site statistics
faa718f9e2e73dc04b195fbc8d1fa9e2c3e89260 A girl on a balloon, 1905
10ea8f49ff3e01532ac2b2067ca984a59efc2410 Guernica, 1937
e9427cd6a71810b65ab9f98a015965a5ed90d52a The absinthe lover, 1901
19166717c5f5f84ec7ac6f5f8442f3a0bfae12ad The Maidens of Avignon, 1907
a7a75d8b50f1a3384c9139bd9efd0f8f7c350512 Portrait of the artist's mother, 1896
e3f31eb8659c56f4fc65dd6b59f0da64f191c928 All illustrations, photos, texts and other materials on the site www.pablo ruiz picasso.ru intended for non commercial use only.
8887741a390074c660bf43d146460e0fd8546691 Copying of texts is prohibited.
8bb25d8e9e2ba7854f030f5bd1e6b76fee2bd876 All rights are protected by law.
3263dac8e9890ca5d80dae50297db9e6626c37cb Noah's Ark (in the Bible, Hebrew תֵּבַת נֹח, tevat Hóax; from Hebrewהה, teva box, chest) - according to the Bible, a ship built by Noah at the behest of God to save his family and several individuals of each animal species from the Flood (Gen. 6: 13 Gen. 8: 19).
0e4e3afefc414e14162c4d9568b371856268016b The story of the Flood is contained in the first book of the Bible, Gen. 6 — 9.
2baa3a0e9e4c89510f21b87e151c1a0a44252495 According to the Bible, at that time there was a great moral fall of man:
752e2ad9027ed54a707d4d7c822b646b45b19d31 And the Lord saw that the corruption of men was great on the earth, and that all the thoughts and thoughts of their hearts were evil at all times; and the LORD repented that he had created man on the earth, and was grieved in his heart
763db71f0103d51bd033ab06bf49fdd168ac5df7 But there lived in those days a righteous man and blameless in his kind, pleasing to the Lord, and his name was Noah.
b5c26833c4ae79dbcf4b2d36bc836ad65391327c And [the Lord]said God said to Noah: The end of all flesh has come before me, for the earth is filled with evil deeds from them; and, behold, I will destroy them from the earth.
35d94fd116f27ce02b316a9ed810b6db60f64659 Make for yourself an ark of gopher wood; make compartments in the ark and tar it with pitch inside and outside.
66a5792b462344caa489713197f5d0abe12419b7 And make it this way: the length of the ark is three hundred cubits, its width is fifty cubits, and its height is thirty cubits.
1c8189e2b3549f9b4af7bb1aeb20accacd20c353 And you shall make an opening in the ark, and you shall bring it up to a cubit at the top, and you shall make a door to the ark on its side; you shall make a lower, second and third dwelling in it.
172be69899265814b9042e238d6091ea22a3ab33 Noah did everything as God commanded him.
af3caeceed0eacfe1f21bd4e6e2e4a3bea751bed When the construction was finished, God told Noah to enter the ark with his sons and his wife, and with the wives of his sons, and also to bring into the ark two of all the animals, so that they would remain alive.
3a49b5952722f3a26a22963d4615a88d6aa5cbb5 And take for yourself all the food that is necessary for yourself and for the animals.
84770268add3eeab6b9f4c7dc41ce940b22ab8e6 After that, the ark was closed by God.
45d1047cf1d12787bcbb014439b78e4b9dfe855e After seven days (in the second month, on the seventeenth day), rain poured out on the earth, and the flood continued on the earth for forty days and forty nights, and the water multiplied, and lifted up the ark, and it rose above the earth and floated on the surface of the waters.
9844807e1f6239081b7b903a292768f3a54d9abb "And the waters of the earth increased exceedingly, so that all the high mountains that are under the whole heaven were covered" (Gen. 7: 19)
29e3d517975d3e2e772d130869b79e7f986b4477 And every creature that was on the surface of the earth lost its life, only Noah and what was with him in the ark remained.
f2625ae6d073a77ff2e546a745e6576b7db72a23 The water increased on the earth for one hundred and fifty days, after which it began to decrease.
9b41bca5fab524602cb6858f48e36015d41862db "And the ark stopped in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the mountains of Ararat.
e799be294df5372604f87aaeecdf1b7a08e25f3c The water was constantly decreasing until the tenth month; on the first day of the tenth month, the tops of the mountains appeared. " (Gen. 8: 4,5)
adb18700edfd504b8d222fa26e62ddcac7a62fb3 On the first day of the following year, the water on the earth dried up; and Noah opened the roof of the ark, and in the second month, on the twenty-seventh day, the earth dried up.
343e7fcc33da66cf381251e2202f3358414591ef And God said to Noah, "Come out of the ark, you and your wife, and your sons, and your sons' wives with you; bring out all the animals with you
8cc12791f6ed3bde284caaf494f390c8f2f2c8c0 <...> And I will no longer amaze everyone who lives <...>
f65c6a8c91874c9cfb456972f4d208a1477d9115 And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth…
95b0846ff57c6afc3e35b2f6dead28af0117172a God ordered that the length of the ark should be 300 cubits( 133.5 m); the width 50 cubits (22.25 m), and the height 30 cubits (13.35 m).
eab5eeaefb830d1542a8a5ccddc0f53a4a4aae23 He also ordered Noah to make a hole in the ark, and to bring it down to the top by a cubit (52 cm), and to make a door to the ark from the side; to arrange three compartments in it.
78c0a17b5a8fe11b3efd38c378a7013bb1f51dad These compartments were supposed to be one above the other.
a477594e667f1fb50bc9e0417b15cbb9d67b3432 The ark itself was to be made of "gopher" wood and tarred with resin, and the compartments in it inside and outside.
6520a2f2e2e042c952a42f42a0416f069783278e Nothing more is said about the structure of the ark.
c1af7d133db7f17406a390eb8f16cafeddd466a7 By the time the construction was completed, Noah was 600 years old.
93fc076a4c869390381cf11bbf45d38ee7802b0f The Bible is silent about when exactly Noah started working on the ark, but the sixth chapter of Genesis with the description of the command to build the Ark follows after the 500th anniversary of Noah Gen. 5:32.
019f97e0a6515fe7aeea435b4d5175f2d9cd1046 According to the Masoretic (Jewish) text, Noah was born in 1056 (according to the Septuagint-in 1663) from the Creation of the world.
ce5e95f50cc8cd72bf8e354474988dcdbb66b3de His age, like other antediluvian patriarchs, is calculated in hundreds of years: by the time the construction of the Ark began, Noah was 500 years old and Noah already had three sons, by the beginning of the flood — 600, but all the years of Noah's life were 950.
d30a9cfa3611c53bdaf3b3952dd22df7016af70b According to Jewish tradition, all dates in the Bible correspond to the lunar months of the Jewish calendar.
da225d86fff4136e40f66f87e8207d9e99be4d46 Thus, the flood lasted 11 days longer than the lunar year, which corresponds to an entire solar year[1].
b21c5b8bd8b4a8043fba451b5342a90e3dafeae5 The Ark in the legends of other peoples
48369619c51a828ffb8f574e41e68e357a58f69e Legends about the flood are found in the mythology of other Middle Eastern peoples, but almost no descriptions of the ships on which the characters of these legends were saved have reached us.
84c8833bdaa6b61864da20cc648620cead51091a In 2010, researcher Irving Finkel from the British Museum discovered a cuneiform tablet with a description of the legend of Atrahasis, which, among other things, reported about the shape of the ship.
8f3b956fd6a20282e35944d874b853702ae53424 The tablet dates back to about 1700 BC.
cd990186ce61173eb5b378b36d4e0c8e66e74c98 According to the text, the ship on which Atrahasis was saved was round and made of reeds, nothing is said about the size of the ark.
263d9e86ce59411630b7dcf496d2fdf75ea45ffb According to the story, the God who informed Atrahasis about the coming flood told him to destroy his dwelling and make a round ship out of reeds, the length and width of which would be equal ("leave your property and save your life!").
b5814aaa1ab5040f669168232aac96df8b6308ff After the construction, Atrahasis went inside and ordered the servant who remained outside to seal the entrance, thus managing to escape from the flood[5].
86b0b56152682edfe8dd3f7f19743b729b4d1b79 What arguments do the supporters of the version that Noah's Ark existed and is a historical artifact have in their arsenal?
5a9fc5cc0e2a0a7ea0e9d7152494a68a0aca1040 275 BC . A Babylonian historian, whose testimony is preserved in the works of later Greek authors, wrote that the ark of Xisutros, this Babylonian Noah, can still be seen in the Kurdish mountains of Armenia and "people tear off the resin to use it as an antidote or amulet."
9b1485e656149a52a9948c7426c28c87c2242a27 In the cathedral of the monastery in Etchmiadzin, the residence of the Armenian Catholicos, there is a small piece of wood — a relic brought from an expedition undertaken by a monk during the time of St. Gregory the Illuminator.
d7ffb003f6fdedc5e9e3f7f1d5ded49ce5b61fcc It is said that he made several attempts to climb the mountain, but each time he climbed to a certain height, he fell asleep in a strange way, and when he woke up, he found himself already in the monastery below.
3325bee400d773fb7ad0538bd54027ea85c77345 In the end, a voice from above informed him that the top of Ararat, where the ark lies, is a forbidden territory.
fa365d421d4f4988f79f5f4592ba2415739bfd2e But at the same time, as a reward for his perseverance, he was promised a small piece of wood from which the ark was built.
c81e491eb8c8ce2696a18821661f05f815d544e3 This piece, which he subsequently received, is today the main relic of the monastery in Etchmiadzin.
e71946ea6f8c449bbc5aeeb55c92ef9321ae4a4f In 1829, the Frenchman Friedrich Parrott climbed Mount Ararat.
5c1362af23edc81c369b0518eb6d07de03936e9f He did not look for the ark and did not find it, but he left his mark on science, called "arkology", breaking an old taboo that forbade local residents to climb the mountain, thereby opening the way for further research.
b759bce66883e676afd00af74211ddcf35c824b2 In 1840, a Turkish expedition, which was equipped to study snow slides on Ararat, discovered a giant frame of almost black wood sticking out of the glacier.
fb1ac7829a705aec223f41d7fc2a457ba908ac31 Having got inside the ship, the members of the expedition stated that it was arranged for the transportation of livestock and consisted of several compartments.
774c23be0fe7699dec1186cac10e8ddf3d8814c6 The inhabitants of the settlements closest to Ararat reported that they had known about the existence of this structure for 6 years, but did not dare to approach it, because they saw some kind of terrible spirit there, which appeared in the upper window.
eaf5f37a7defc895f91748ab8a21991c52973cf6 Lord Bryce cut himself a small piece as a souvenir.
4dac77993835aa9a2e9134bebb57eac7f69722a8 1887 Prince of Persia and Archbishop John Joseph Nuri reported that he had found the remains of the ark on Ararat.
b30758eaa19272476aa8ee0b77a9629df87c8655 As the magazine "English Mechanic" wrote on November 14, 1892, Nuri with a sinking heart went around the "big wooden ship", which five or six of his companions also had the opportunity to observe.
73cbc809b829c590ee4c0867106935e3f4d35d1e The magazine continues: "He was almost ecstatic with the feelings that overwhelmed him.
cdba5e19a3db2a52af5cd3293c5a362a96f3d628 According to Nuri, the sight of the ark filled him with joy and gratitude to the Almighty: after all, the truth of the Holy Scripture was confirmed, which he did not doubt, but which needed confirmation to convince the unbelievers."
7aba9465b9928e35dd42667ba94dbf37fdf2ee79 Six years later, he tried to organize an expedition to disassemble the ark and deliver it to the World's Fair in Chicago, but did not receive permission from the Turkish government.
7c7627764dfad6f3bb43207f7e9753ff0c307c00 1905 The writer Charles Berlitz in his book "The Lost Ship of Noah" cites the testimony of the Armenian George Hagopyan.
b772d2d3ce80a43df92f8e8381e56d9c85d1d69b He said that in 1905, as an 8-year-old boy, he climbed Mount Ararat together with his grandfather.
d77b735ba10f289ce427938202aa07331d6b1284 I found the ark and visited it inside.
8fe3d12608b43510ad6f000426b88647bb91b91d On the upper deck, I saw a superstructure with many windows.
53c1eff8045820bf0e7189778b6ab2cbcf6aa591 The body of the ark was huge and hard as a stone.
4b4ac3736d3d851f8f458e5992f8d4d97cdf847e In 1916, during a reconnaissance flight over Turkish territory, a pilot of the Russian tsarist army, Lieutenant Roskovitsky, allegedly discovered the ark.
caf1050d9487dda5cb8e80d46e883d6b9156baef After the report to Tsar Nicholas II, an expedition consisting of 150 people was equipped.
7b761b1e1a00dade46f5b545bd7046c1aaaba499 In two weeks they reached the ark.
9cc6840e82d22ee2287fa2b826fdff8fe9449ce7 According to Roskovitsky, the ship looked like a giant barge and a freight car at the same time.
f20a49b575b96e04f0b5255108b33548d595908b There were many rooms inside, large and small.
319bbf381a6f8b0aa91c94c8177c3a9993ebbe33 Moreover, the small ones were covered with a metal mesh.
c2034e9624ecdb36967c06b10fe3bbe90b3e59d5 1940s In the Middle East, an amateur historian Leonard Simmons (Leonard Simmons) discovered a Babylonian clay tablet with about 60 lines of cuneiform, the age of which is estimated at about 3700 years.
68daaf8c523d80bb508279a828746f36a8a58a27 Researcher Irving Finkel from the British Museum was able to read on this plate a description of a ship that was fleeing from the flood
0c2318bfbf5528b4b7401e24f2a6874733c7a5b4 There are several dozen cuneiform tablets that tell the story of the flood, which apparently served as the basis for the biblical legend.
c36d1b993d63343ee7b6a0944a364d2d486ccddd However, this is the first one that describes the appearance of the vessel.
2f6208a2c4061859ce0add31cdebb01658d5a661 In this account of the Akkadian flood myth, God tells King Atrahasis to destroy his house and build a boat, as well as to neglect property in order to save his life.
c0aad38e49db1a40f0e393a47c17031b92126dbf The boat, according to God, should have walls made of reeds and be round: its width and length should be the same.
f530967d4bef986ef368deed078eecb7eb9fe79e Further in the plate, it is recommended to use palm fibers bonded with bitumen for water resistance for the construction of the vessel.
0e1c60bed2ff9b98fc02ca33519acb615318b727 The text ends with the words of Atrahasis, said to the builder of the ark, who had to stay overboard and die: the hero of the myth orders him to seal the entrance to the boat after he himself enters inside.
803b69ae696ac25ad49a16c995f6a6ed4c881e63 Finkel noted that the ship, which wanted to escape from the flood, did not need to swim anywhere at all, but simply stay on the surface of the water.
7ea679ada4381ae0b20f2b13942b4759990d0c7e According to him, such round boats are still used in Iraq and Iran.
02bff775191d68247b40b3e20c1110551b46698f 1949 On August 31, the French newspaper "France Soir" published a sensational message under the headline: "We have seen Noah's Ark... but not on Mount Ar Arat."
a88ece725f75fc25ba2df68adbea7e50608337b0 The article was about Mount Judy, where a very impressive size (500 feet long, 80 feet wide and 50 feet high) was found, along with the bones of marine animals and the grave of Noah nearby.
29304803080f1bb540f70df7ab5e42635ee37773 This story belongs to two Turkish journalists, who also mentioned a local legend that says that from time to time the ark appears in the local area in the form of a ghost ship covered with a layer of dirt.
03ad9145ad3eb77da82748565236876cf2b76e0f It is not entirely clear from the newspaper's report whether the journalists saw the actual ark or its ghost.
23d8b1cb4a68cef4912b067de680e40eae18f487 In the summer of 1953, six very clear photos of the ark were taken from a helicopter that flew at an altitude of about a hundred feet above Mount Ararat.
2edf335878c86e2711b8de6d2a46210822535f2c The pilot was an American oilman George Jefferson Green.
1d4e69310a8af9e670427fbbe3405fd8b9503f85 The photo clearly shows the outlines of what seemed to be Noah's Ark, half sunk into the rocks and ice that covered the edge of the mountain ledge.
749282348bb162207038c70cab3a228f225c9df5 After this flight and receiving photos, Green tried to assemble an expedition to Ararat, but his plan failed.
d55e3d85f201ff3cae2e6904e4d87c073563a920 After his death in 1962, the photos disappeared.
e7e9d32b3fbe90d1ec0753a09dba99c97a18ead0 On July 6, 1955, French mountaineer Fernand Navarre and his 15-year-old son Gabriel found Noah's Ark and made this discovery the property of the whole world.
842e0abafbd237bf450019f07ec8ade19b76d833 From under the glacier and from under the ice of the frozen lake on the top of Ararat, he extracted several planks of the ship's skin and a bar carved in the shape of the letter "G".
3745668b5c124d40aaa528a1458b6e363686d0e8 The radioactive method was used to analyze a meter-long piece of wood (the ship's frame) brought by Fernand Navarre.
909edbf5ab8378b9fb4e0f29099df84b4836be8a Studies have shown that the tree (oak) is 5 thousand years old. The tests were carried out in two laboratories: in Cairo and in Madrid.
352860ddc2db06fd29bf393c9e1f6979c3d5abbb 1959 Turkish lieutenant Kurtis captured the remains of a huge ship on the slope of Ararat from an airplane
0ce71a86877f1d468eb6953183f8691e30421e8c In 1969, Fernand Navarre led another expedition, the funds for which were collected by the American organization "Serch"; as a result, several more boards were discovered, samples of which the expedition took with them.
b005ca6b125e52f6ad4ae56384f2cf271f0ba6bc 1974 Before the Turkish authorities closed this area as a strategic one in 1974, at least eight expeditions in search of the ark took place at once in the summer of the same year.
05387fbb6df881deeba28c2d380c9faee520ef24 One of the leaders of the rival expeditions is Tom Krotser. a veteran of four previous ascents of Ararat, he stated the following: "The dates of this tree are seventy thousand tons, I swear on my head" (San Francisco Examiner, June 29, 1974).
e85906d3b97873077edce193fa4d81195ca23395 According to him, the age of the wood already found varies between four and five thousand years, as evidenced by the data obtained using the radiocarbon method of research.
e974caeae6e9bdd39afd32b39c779e0f27177235 1989 American astronaut James Irwin (James Irwin) during an expedition to Ararat filmed a brown object on videotape, which many experts took for the wreckage of an ancient ship.
e86cca84004797019493cf12494d1cd1fca6d15b In 1995, the US CIA released images of the so-called "Ararat anomaly".
fb40bce1b6de6db173131459d49626da7fb88d73 Moreover, it was stated that these pictures were taken back in 1949 from an airplane.
488c0f121864d62c3a0514e1a561057fe83746c1 In 2000, very fuzzy images of the artifact were obtained from the Icon satellite.
e0618694908c1580b365d0fe44b1dd1520a9149d In the summer of 2003, images of a significant part of the artifact on Mount Ararat were taken from the Quick Bird commercial satellite launched by Space Global Imadging.
556d934a47a8e8f9b6d379e3e89f30aaad2f9a84 April 2004 At a press conference held on April 26, 2004 in Washington, Dr. Daniel McGivern announced that when studying photographs of Mount Ararat taken by a space satellite, it was absolutely proved that a known anomaly on the slopes of the mountain, at an altitude of 4725 meters above sea level, having a length of about 183 meters, is"the creation of human hands".
f906727c009356c537a0957841d8c4fa9eb29e20 "There is no doubt about this," the doctor says, " and now we have started negotiations with the Turkish government to allow us to conduct excavations here in the summer.
11176de87ae044aef69dd8a711bd8e8c9fd4b7b5 Then we will be able to say for sure whether this is the legendary ark on which the pious Noah and his relatives survived the Great Flood, as described in the Bible."
1b93f8582ed28caf79101150dfc39f7f1cde052b In 2007, American scientists announced that they had discovered an object similar to Noah's Ark in the Elburs Caspian Mountains in northwestern Iran.
d92f17096fab5e52282f30eae9450c2f4276032b God called Noah to himself, told him to build a wooden ark and tar it thoroughly.
09ae37f1904233e6dfdd4ab7934bc307ddd091b3 He gave the specific dimensions of the structure.
fdd1cf3d23f818f58a8609df4e2f8d3c226e41b5 The length is 300 cubits, the width is 50 cubits and the height is 30 cubits.
fafff2a571c3570f0fdeb47bab23f6617f70a60c The elbow is approximately 46 cm.
33faf92c6857b1c834a89067cfa7a2a4065e9269 So, the length was about 138 meters, the width, respectively, was 23 meters and the height was 14 meters.
2c968547f0152a14d9b8f2107312a7c4f74f45f9 This corresponds to a 5-storey building with small-sized apartments.
c523f90ecd41b908d4c10b19c793c1061b50ab5b It still remains a mystery: how could Noah and his sons build such a huge ship without having the practice of building an ordinary boat?
033f2a9257a4fead8f405b6bd0755dcea3286482 Could Noah really have built a ship sufficient to escape in it from the waters of the flood?
e302d863e512af38cb4774833c4837479c3ec97d Could the ark finally contain all the number of animals that needed to be taken?
b0d00f3d5f71af31ebd9f0514aedbc79688e0507 Indeed, if we assume that Noah took animals with him only from his own area, then they could fit freely in the ark.
0b913e151c7ff87ac62e94d9cb7dc776250deb04 However, according to the same Bible, God insists on the destruction of all flesh:
500df144b4e34c024ad564df459f0acfd0ebf535 "And behold, I (God the author) will bring a flood of water on the earth, to destroy all flesh in which there is the spirit of life, under the heavens; everything that is on the earth will lose its life" (Genesis, chapter 6, verse 17).
a8d38d7200696d701016a779cc37c8ef381de657 So, if you literally follow the instructions from above, the ark should have given shelter to two to four million animals on land.
5aeadfa0a506e9049bab2b4546d2564f540370dc Moreover, these dimensions raise Noah's Ark to the rank of one of the greatest achievements of engineering, but they also mark the beginning of human exploration of the water element.
a68b9dca3c69ecf0b089bd374819a789c7af6771 Is it possible that such a vessel was actually ever built and launched?
9b04c8cf00082ffab9c1fc583ea91e56d171695f And how was it possible to find enough material to build Noah's Ark?
5cdd9788c3abf41637630e866893d506c2db2130 For the construction of another famous supership, the "Great Michael" (launched in Scotland in 1511; its length was 240 feet, width – 35 feet), according to contemporaries, it took "all the forests of Fife".
2e4e7c894c2a7aa0e71bd554b718ff5dd8daf69d Fife is a county in Scotland, which is famous for its shipbuilding.
da3ec24b5409eec25efe1f8aa0e9130aae8d50fc Wood for the construction of the "Great Michael" had to be bought and transported not only from other parts of Scotland, but also from France, from the Baltic Sea, and even from Norway.
efe17a3fe85534428b95a619100ae4017e6251d5 However, the length of the "Great Michael" was only 73 meters, i.e. it was half the size of Noah's Ark.
0e4ef057a49a3e52dbe9178bc111c31153a8eef0 Obviously, it took many times more wood to build a ship twice as long as the Great Michael, and larger in all other respects.
6858fe7d66765b6e6cb57810b8fc90efb4fc2432 HOME FOR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS LINKS SITE MAP
248365d3bb3aff3c85397107d4655ce7b3dc98bd HOME "PREHISTORIC WORLD" NOAH'S ARK: MYTH OR REALITY?
75b9af96bbd5da6bfd125f74563a9f86fbf456a2 Noah's Ark: Myth or reality?
eedba2de8284fc3daa5a486388fa56da1764c1fd Noah's Ark is a legendary biblical ship, allegedly built by a descendant of Adam in the ninth generation by Noah at the command of God to save his family and animals from the Flood sent by God on depraved people.
c04676d17c516f7b3f0d0afbfd341b42772cd411 You can read more about the construction of the Ark, the flood and all the details of the journey that lasted 200 days in the article "The Flood", the purpose of our article is to listen to the opinions of all parties, both those who believe that Noah's Ark existed, and those who believe that this is another fairy tale...
f4bf749b658f5e8035653bc10d2cf30731f33841 So, let's recall the dimensions of this ancient ship:
7d4c85404a4f09ed82bb5ec56db73499be567722 * length 160 m.;
b35287604e00781df93454c8525ede58b6723961 * width - 25 m.;
ee0245f1984fd56bb4164e365a51af19847d173e * height 15 m.
304e209d1412363363ee93c70739ab1f9e6b7070 What arguments do the supporters of the version that Noah's Ark existed and is a historical artifact have in their arsenal? 275 BC .
1cafe2506ee31cd3be30af139a4b000dbb4dde79 A Babylonian historian, whose testimony is preserved in the works of later Greek authors, wrote that the ark of Xisutros, this Babylonian Noah, can still be seen in the Kurdish mountains of Armenia and "people tear off the resin to use it as an antidote or amulet."
4f0be959133b13173607913b3dcfca1b1b80f2d3 In 1876, Lord Bryce discovered on a mountain ledge at an altitude of 13 thousand feet a piece of processed wood about 4 feet long
745e184b87423a1c01b56554dce9785c709fc015 (perhaps it was the same pine or spruce tree from which Noah built his ark.
1dd489edaedfd65e144ad2c87ae4363cbff6d419 Lord Bryce cut himself a small piece as a souvenir. 1887 Prince of Persia and Archbishop John Joseph Nuri reported that he had found the remains of the ark on Ararat.
7c95a42122f994f4f86269ddad016f05c818ce7f Six years later, he tried to organize an expedition to disassemble the ark and deliver it to the World's Fair in Chicago, but did not receive permission from the Turkish government. 1905 The writer Charles Berlitz in his book "The Lost Ship of Noah" cites the testimony of the Armenian George Hagopyan.
3bdd464b99e2f0d9baf16540e32ce140dc05aa5a He said that in 1905, as an 8 year old boy, he climbed Mount Ararat together with his grandfather.
ba2cdc1c0f225b34e5b3e9ac231b88c7d3838ee5 Researcher Irving Finkel from the British Museum was able to read on this plate a description of a ship that was fleeing from the flood There are several dozen cuneiform tablets that tell the story of the flood, which apparently served as the basis for the biblical legend.
f4cdcc1457ad87048a1be9c0e1d4ad3d9fbce9f6 According to him, such round boats are still used in Iraq and Iran. 1949 On August 31, the French newspaper "France Soir" published a sensational message under the headline: "We have seen Noah's Ark... but not on Mount Ar Arat."
6b0aeafc1555912bd493b620e7d106d9398344ab On July 6, 1955, French mountaineer Fernand Navarre and his 15 year old son Gabriel found Noah's Ark and made this discovery the property of the whole world.
13184f6a2f5be0f260e366be8fb09e976f8ea114 The radioactive method was used to analyze a meter long piece of wood (the ship's frame) brought by Fernand Navarre.
08875ff105008f4a7aad3254f8fa05676762c1c1 Studies have shown that the tree (oak) is 5 thousand years old.
8e904bf7be8d060fc05b22cc30f3938a205b7fbf The tests were carried out in two laboratories: in Cairo and in Madrid. 1959 Turkish lieutenant Kurtis captured the remains of a huge ship on the slope of Ararat from an airplane In 1969, Fernand Navarre led another expedition, the funds for which were collected by the American organization "Serch"; as a result, several more boards were discovered, samples of which the expedition took with them. 1974 Before the Turkish authorities closed this area as a strategic one in 1974, at least eight expeditions in search of the ark took place at once in the summer of the same year.
8caf01a05a7397a3d33708667bbfcea1b4fa53a6 According to him, the age of the wood already found varies between four and five thousand years, as evidenced by the data obtained using the radiocarbon method of research. 1989 American astronaut James Irwin (James Irwin) during an expedition to Ararat filmed a brown object on videotape, which many experts took for the wreckage of an ancient ship.
182efceef7ec3fdbb60599f70f8904423bc4c589 In 1995, the US CIA released images of the so called "Ararat anomaly".
316ace3e513e491b9bae7d0b65ab49b6fe2d0c0a The opponents of the Noah's Ark theory have their own arguments, for example, such as those of Sergei Ponomarev: "Of course, you can make up anything.
4fb4e56e5ccc8e07aa4f1aae2c65dc47d2f1bce2 That it rained for forty days in a row and the icebergs melted (apparently, they had global warming in the Ancient World?).
0269377698dc9a00b9103acb7e0c131c0b9a691f That Noah conceived his first child at 500 years old, and only lived for 950 years (and why are gerontologists now struggling so hard over the problem of longevity, and pharmacologists are inventing "Viagra"?).
c29c97a4d00bc93be292d0f43d065fee7b481898 And that in the process of the flood, this activist of sex for the elderly shoved "every creature in a pair" into his ark, and everyone who did not get into this watercraft was washed away
7deb20702d8a3af79408f9a1ae0f042d3dae1126 (I wonder if bacteria and microbes as representatives of the living world were also located in pairs in the ark?)...
4cfa8a8d9cb61fae9c9bfec273e0240fa59bab89 This is from what kind of hangover you need to be in order to continue searching for the remains of the ark on the basis of such "scientific data"?!
e9f58e8bda82521b957cfed9a05951fc5b61fd0a So I imagine: another 300-400 years will pass, and the descendant of the enthusiast, having studied the manuscript called "The Lord of the Rings", will organize an expedition in the footsteps of hobbits, elves and goblins.
ec5e5eeb33df03f522b094a1027dd9eedcc90926 And what, druids are also made of wood.
96392c6ed977e7c3584a3a28456ba470d3598139 Like Noah's ark...".
08cfad53df58830ae782bc9caf6caf5d45f592f5 And then what about all the statements that allegedly Noah's Ark was seen on Mount Ararat?
672543e1ae2207ba1e712ae5d91f32a9aec65f34 Think about the fact that these statements are so mysterious that no one has been able to verify them for hundreds of years.
d62379651a189df55ae1350a0a4074faf9f894bf Charles Fort responded to Archdeacon Nuri's ascent to Ararat and the subsequent discovery of the ark with the following comment: "I admit that anyone who is convinced that there are relics on the top of Mount Ararat should only climb the mountain to find exactly what can be said: here are the remains of Noah's Ark, even if they are fossilized.
51809fe9679cf10d6e5e82aec815e74c610b2501 If someone else is convinced that a mistake was made here and it was necessary to climb another mountain, say Pikes Peak, then he only needs to climb it and say that this most virtuous of all lands was once the holy land."4
fc4c130a0170a3f5b5b2b80bbee74657f418f82d As for the photos taken from satellites, skeptics, as usual, believe that in this case we are talking about the play of light and shadow, which creates "out of nothing" strange outlines.
f864abc84a1c86dd5db2c7700d58df174415fb29 According to Vadim Chernobrov, the head of the Kosmopoisk group, who has repeatedly explored the slopes of Ararat, all the samples previously found there have nothing to do with Noah's Ark and are natural formations.
11b11a774bc8798f9112f05f77c46802e2c5c756 There is not and cannot be a giant ship on Ararat.
0229d5e9f26523b5a4c1936870c4aaf326e46d7c Even if it had been preserved, the fossilized remains of the ship were burned to the ground during the eruption of the volcano in 1840...
f0b5814581e718971f0d1d5c3cf7e975edbb516f It should be noted that the Bible speaks about the mountains of Ararat, and in the Old Testament times the term "Ararat" did not mean mountains, but an area corresponding to the territory of Armenia.
fd0982a9630dc24380bb3cdfd18261d3befa024f And only traditional interpretations of later times connected the location of Noah's ark with Mount Ararat...
4c7172952b3f7de60ecc6d8227cac07fcabe3143 So, if we assume that Noah's Ark really existed, then how could it have survived to this day and where is it still located?
36c5206755f26cf06d623f4470a5480d20b1c5b0 Sources of information:
02df1680d12d0607620e1c31a4d369885518f806 1. Wikipedia website
972e748537dd48c0850176d78c03edd627deba44 2. Lyashevsky S. "The Bible and the science of the creation of the world"
9aa1986e650ba1872741559c79abbf9c7694ab52 3. The results of Ron Wyatt's research
30f591dae22ad14887f9b7ed1e41c474ce650d97 4. Michell, Rickard "The phenomena of the Book of Miracles"
d3fccb20da39a29126cc428b878dd3f77d6dbac9 Comments on the article:
739726af1d81370a4d64c0e94e568e85ad9b17eb SQLite not install on server
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46b51890a583563db2c1ab4b1fc27aa4b0744321 The Ark of the Covenant The Grail The Spear of fate The Shroud of Turin Opus Dei Templars The History of the Papacy The Illuminati Ancient Essene manuscripts Biblical executions Executions in the Ancient World The scroll of "War" and "the end of the world"
f27585269a7eeb911a55c58f39a02641a9a12975 Noah's Ark truth or fiction
bc32206f4d111a1b18047c954012edaf49a53bd7 Noah's Ark and its background
e69964075b6337fd1b10ef529b5a925afa3e599e The story of Noah's Ark is told in the first book of Moses, Genesis.
f4242c38ab892beea5a635ca702d554ca5635efd Chapters 6, 7 and 8 are dedicated to Him.
6241def446e2730cfbd0b2daedd64e3fa2d2b37f The ark is named after Noah, the son of Lamech.
ac577384bdb1cb7eece82e4bb03d0fbbb09ae405 These people were direct descendants of Adam and Eve.
8234bf787cc072909352c1e0cbdb9a2f7071414e Moreover, they were distinguished by an amazing longevity.
df310bd7e7fe064f01940007e66d9a7ca48dcbe4 Adam himself lived for 930 years, and Lamech stayed on earth for 777 years.
561200b5f3511810b54ce981dbbd4604a69f70e2 Noah had children when he turned 500 years old.
2f84057dd1ea8168b4c3cdad19a425a0aa9bb3d6 However, if we assume that in the " Old Testament "the word" years "means" months", then human life acquires a completely normal duration.
b794d51db6fb0fddfdc3523b0cc42cf9e0d0dd2c When Noah turned 600 years old, God planned to destroy the human race, since it had morally and morally decomposed and ceased to please the Creator with the purity of his thoughts and the righteousness of his deeds.
d90c08e9686d2e24df86ba45ba1a3197d8aa35ea But the son of Lamech fell out of the general series of degraded personalities.
c4bc68a7907aa056cda4b5ad292d0cf2bf60c404 And then it was decided to save his life and start all over again.
da65aad7994ff41d483338ee621c4d383134c7e0 This corresponds to a 5 storey building with small sized apartments.
68bd1b8c24811b364972e013267cf42fc52f94e7 The design is quite impressive.
f3b78254489f0443ad1c80203c639169ccc99a58 When everything was ready, the Creator ordered Noah to enter the ark with his family, and also to take with him seven pairs of clean cattle, and two pairs of unclean ones.
2f7abcb284b1e39b565991a3958e1517c4e65269 7 days were allotted for everything about everything.
0012db5049d0dfe767716e8875ba0d0974a44e20 Noah coped with the task.
8a9dfe49452454aef06e6b1eecd3971bf7548c2b As soon as the last earthly creature stepped on board the ark, the flood began.
4f59e8bee0333517700ae6a6a291813466711cbe It happened in the 600th year of our hero's life, in the second month and on the 17th day.
2905936aa21a0926293e7e709fc8587bf89d3e64 The flood lasted for 150 days.
8078aa673ccacd9e3bde7f1790e72952238ac794 All this time, Noah's ark was floating on raging waters.
4b9692d6570a4038aa10b058fd5f18bf82c968fe The whole earth was flooded.
dd7a3e42cc776fdea04128e1b97d8dc1bfe0fe52 The water level rose above the highest mountains by 7 meters, and all living things died.
35741da0542ca3bbaea63c2c90707e161d3ab87d Then the flood ended.
6afc7764efaca9e19770b3d088d4ab8c0ddc143a The water level began to slowly fall.
cce33e709c2e64a77205d6bac5d89bf22c715d62 On the 7th month after the start of the journey, the ark ended up on the Ararat Mountains.
66f0f6955d87a758c9d9158e17f3781e4018c652 But only on the 10th month, mountain peaks appeared out of the water.
2658cb24aa67be62bdcf1babdd94c09f2d3c7491 After that, the huge ship touched the bottom and froze in place.
cb58d5a4c2e21bc468fa82ac0ba7bbb574e6c423 In total, a year passed before people and animals set foot on earth again.
71ad2992bad59ad40d5d543834e011e9a88ebd24 After the natural cataclysm, Noah lived for another 350 years.
4ad8573778ec76ba5900b70fb7ec3f37af50dbad The total duration of his life was 950 years.
e3fe9fb07b097b4f0b1fa795ca0c66bf90e6990f Did Noah's Ark really exist?
20c3b968e562d8c977f326f58ed63c9fd392c386 Findings and assumptions
d4319bf41b5e75e6ad8f8aa253cd50ccba0039e0 Opinions differ about the existence of Noah's Ark.
349c6abe90cb3b9a64b3f4acf8b9de625e8e7c9a Some people believe that such a fact really took place 4400 years ago. Others categorically deny the biblical information, calling it a beautiful fairy tale.
39476a8b411beb2b67036f11bec97706a328eef5 But any child knows that there is always some truth in a fairy tale.
6c0017568e3fe9c8afa328f3e5ca4d447a43c204 This opinion was held and is held by many researchers.
6c51ed453f3f05a9c312dd1a2087ac417e9f080f The point of view here is unambiguous, in order to prove the authenticity of the facts set out in the "Old Testament", it is necessary to find the remains of a huge wooden ship.
0a32d7de64fc78a75a0fa4c1dcd1b47a668e1c82 But the matter is complicated by the fact that the area of the Ararat mountain system reaches 1300 square kilometers.
a919e1114e6cb6b6d47cedad13602f0e98a00068 This is a huge area located in the eastern part of Turkey.
015402d7cbc4638002cee62dc6d7f57b849791e9 Taking into account the past 44 centuries, as well as volcanic eruptions, it is extremely difficult to find any objects left from the ark.
ca406f1cf27b4d931250f49cea1212ffe9a76d9f Mount Ararat.
c7134bc67d9b0bf1c4b0d34f3edbab086cf38a97 It is somewhere on it that Noah's Ark lies
cf6b1fdde391a59fb97c8b9f7db0fa8f20d0adf3 It should also be taken into account the fact that the Bible explicitly says that Noah's ark ended up on the Ararat Mountains.
b19c1991b586588445e7962fa86a51877ddca364 But was it the mountainous area in the east of modern Turkey that was meant?
e1462b122d0e9f21d9cab744b17b9cf2a0892047 Perhaps the ancient chroniclers spoke of completely different mountains.
717c5f10bc3d90ac4e3416fd6aa175fe2bbb6da4 There is no doubt that Noah built a huge ship in Mesopotamia.
ebd30bbefa66d7208300028242adc49e74028756 Information about the flood is directly related to the Sumerians.
4cb11da129dff2159e07708ff2118c3d8ee5cc73 And those, as you know, lived in the eastern regions of Mesopotamia.
917b2736e49dbceaaeb4089d71710f8d5ba19113 Those who wrote the Bible drew their knowledge from the Babylonian chronicles, created on the basis of Sumerian legends.
3f2b606c7133a15c0885a6a00249bfbe062a8980 But did the priests of the ancient country know about Mount Ararat?
b0217e661f3684045630dbf06ddd4915d9d20022 Rather, they might have been referring to the Cordien Mountains.
32fd2051fa55e4e720a1ea6f5b74999d98db43eb They are located on the border of Turkey and Syria, that is, in a more southern area.
aa436efc4ae026d1ff05bd0ec7ae23d93aaad822 And, consequently, the search area increases significantly.
e9105c66ac16789fce32027c8d740c870afc13fe But researchers are inclined to believe that it was on the inaccessible volcanic peak that the huge ship found its haven, since it is the highest.
e86b22aed68988b436276bdbaeb704d720eb35f7 It was Mount Ararat that became the land on which the exhausted wanderers set foot after a year of ordeal on raging waters.
3df7677021456fd1fd25e2a6d4e0b768457af360 Since the middle of the XIX century, several expeditions have visited this area.
35a5f6acbf370a4ee5016c989bc7ad6d5c8cfc55 All the researchers claimed to have seen something similar to the remains of the ark.
3622b1965d3977742aed5a5388bafdc2a0fffc1a The situation worsened when people came up with aviation, and after it, reconnaissance aircraft.
365c9291e64f94c67f279b225f1b0facb54117a6 During the Cold War, they constantly flew over these areas and photographed the area, since it was a strategically important object.
24a68b338b8dc325ac1a26e0c11d6c68e4f98e64 Thanks to these pictures, we managed to see a strange object that resembles a boat in its shape.
d194719cb7b444c5e1d653626f30cfaf693c39b1 It is located in the northwestern part of the mountain at an altitude of 2700 meters above sea level.
e37b39f0b01b948e22d4c004d823eb5e53ebbbf7 There is a similar formation south of Mount Ararat.
e1969756867e984567fd9401c21ac8883e72caf1 This is the area of the Tendyurek volcano.
c5c3ac49834d309c1c1821c18ef660c57be62031 There is also a peculiar object there, which can be described as the skeleton of a large ship.
c216070cc57b8f6a05956807359b4f1273300a0d It was to him that the American amateur archaeologist Ronald Wyatt made several expeditions.
c02e1cad4572639bb01b62033b32d306dae3ecde His findings did not cause a stir in scientific circles, but the researcher is still convinced that he found Noah's Ark.
041df8c90de704109b0aa6b416609bfb2672552c In the foreground, a fossil is clearly visible, resembling a sea vessel in its shape
3b3941ec4c6a95badc8c21675a0f8d38781ec0c3 What is the formation located near Tenderyuk?
4a06b1def901a278166ca6de5b5d3558507c221e This is a fossil that, in its appearance and dimensions, corresponds to the dimensions of the ark specified in the "Old Testament".
6183265339cac45726cd9b9b691b8c67570c9f53 We can assume that once there was a huge man made creation made of wood in this place.
f47817711cd82323acc943252c14f57fb69dc538 Under the influence of volcanic eruptions, the wood was petrified.
52e4ae0c6a3e494dc76f19ed8824d7f45d161326 Lignin and cellulose disintegrated, and organic substances were replaced by minerals.
4667f419f7cf51ecd7d6e4a1a1028453102c286f It turned out to be chalcedony, opal, quartz.
15f67bf62ad3de7ab494ebd190a11298d831fd53 But the shape of the huge vessel has been preserved.
133fbadd4d579e8e25d7a23f0e744b920db45ecd Only after the passage of centuries, the ark turned from a wooden one into a stone one.
e08ff9a56beb1b28d91191155692c9636ebde622 Samples of this stone were examined by scientists.
932aa147c10e08956e948bdc7da39018045c7433 But even without chemical analysis, it became clear that this is not petrified wood, but volcanic lava.
4c2f6198c6a1f14816a455ecde9ffcdcff21a237 The fact is that if you take the same quartz and hold it on the glass, then a well distinguishable scratch will remain on the smooth surface.
240bcd6f54fb6ecaea2efbf9a75a65d052efd6e6 A piece of stone, which was allegedly part of a huge ship, did not leave anything on the glass.
0e65d232969f260e9159e035bca14af59805b548 It turned out to be much softer than a mineral, that is, it could not be a petrified tree.
a5ee3818fffdacb3962196df8dd5e21887768e9e But was it possible for Noah, using the technologies of that distant time, to build a ship with such dimensions as are given in the Bible?
bf4b2b6e119f2a42d1e886811e71857fc7ee3ff8 There is a stable scientific point of view on this issue, which we will now get acquainted with.
ee6beefebf267e7ac3e85f0ab74b22536d59d443 Could Noah have built a huge ark and sailed on it to Mount Ararat?
bf34b5d13ca4d55f38077ee292c5b8af7111c733 Let's start with the size of the ship.
2e8369765b43430a41c29a95ab4284da92862e99 Its length was 138 meters.
3cfedf296e5940645072b27a3f134f2fcb26b736 The value is very decent.
24004a946793bda04d2e79cdb378085f1ba44612 Humanity did not build anything like this out of wood later.
8d88f843f1a1ec1e846c82ca6bd65daa45752e9f And not just made of wood, but from solid trunks split into boards.
2c5e71c548510d682c96a091fbcab0dfac47e2eb The longest all wood vessel made of Canadian pine was built in 1909 on the northeastern coast of the United States in Maine.
3463e35d4b4471cc5ce9d2b115cb442ed8ff09eb This is a two deck schooner "Wyoming".
7880029283feefc9cba56f8ea5722cc8ac63bc7e Its length was 100.4 meters.
64bc5f7800f2d1a972f7da3fbee6ba494758c006 If we take the length taking into account the bowsprit (a spar tree that protrudes forward on the bow of the vessel to improve maneuverability), then we get a value of 124.8 meters.
5b564b4759d5500c7c6875d17041632d1876a898 The schooner sailed all her life in coastal waters and never went out into the open ocean.
703628c26f32ab1c77f2a77c7c957f090a9a505e But in 1924, the Wyoming was in open waters, got into a strong storm and sank very quickly.
b1f512d92cde3b72fde61f6cef5c13af0adbc158 What is the cause of death?
b57e195ad81828dbdd99ceb931ca803edfc13b4c A long board bends under the influence of sea waves
8fd2438b9b8a87b08b736a0eb0beb31f2c8f6a3c The planks that made up the schooner's hull parted.
a7beacd6fc7f43b908b0babe229098487c452831 Water gushed into the holes formed, and the ship sank to the bottom.
2d5e75adc679bd11ca1abb8dcb91bb313197af2d The fact is that a long board under the influence of the water element begins to bend.
a0e1ece9284073b4bf27e73e9f21f1ba84096c5d Its edges then rise up, then fall down.
c6b3852d446d152083f8090bcd1d8c95b74dd855 This completely destroys the tightness of the seams, which leads to the death of a long wooden ship.
01b8642e222491cd00a916a7e9bfe916884d3a07 Now, armed with the necessary knowledge, let's look at Noah's Ark.
5034b0654989d3b7eb9313c351e4724e47199476 It was 38 meters longer than the Wyoming.
5cee73f02d55d48008754bbb6d9af7c72569030f And where did Noah get such long trunks, and even managed to split them into boards?
490fd8458bb94780ab27f0145f29b437ab4e0e64 At that time, he could only use a tool made of soft copper.
5a08c92680aa3fa4907d088c9bfef4e0080377ef There was no such thing as a sawmill, of course.
ba1af014b24c9c7f48067cce056e679e037d1d3c Apparently, the man hammered wedges and thus split the trunks, which significantly exceeded the length of modern trees.
f86602977c4e21ec003ee8cda1e1610d71e27d71 At the expense of the size of the forest, there is a version that before the flood, nature on Earth was completely different.
c784b7f8356cc292868bb83d178459450fedd367 The vegetation was much larger than in our days, and the trees were 2-3 times higher in height than modern ones.
20f87d051573d3d9f4636e52c4971415b7b6f6a8 Noah's Ark is depicted in the section There were three decks in total.
8a11b4b9fc380a99b733818f24cbe1c0b3645191 In the side compartments there was water and food The middle part of the ship was occupied by rooms for people and animals
b4151f1ad01227360f5aeca475998b1ad0c68606 Let it be so.
1ac7decb6e985544882248f3f085cc8e1c66fadc Our hero cut down huge trees, split them into boards.
3786a9e2126945a2a8584a6e71f539f08abdf34e I made ropes from twisted teak branches, which are not inferior in strength to steel ropes.
b5227ef2e80cac10be3305fa529d348e1c7f1429 He tied the boards with them, and sealed the grooves between them with moss and beeswax.
4e7e85e659b2015150f31d352e29dd374f09dc80 It turned out to be a huge, wooden, absolutely sealed structure.
02f52305fb7c30a05a1847f7e1b6b5cb414551d6 After that, people and creatures of the earth entered the ark.
78db375b0bc7e9803a6a86e0d72863d533d0f99f They met the flood in a safe shelter.
7a6bd8737b95a6591a8d2f9985e5059f2a4c06d7 The waters lifted the ship and whirled it in endless whirlpools.
9920ed84b126febf798af32bf302c67cf78dac60 The ark turned out to be on the most real ocean expanses.
7ad44939fddbf1a46aa7a85192cb81c97458b8d9 Wind, huge waves.
cb03c5ffed981541a75187e354273a24f55dc8ee All this mercilessly shook the ship.
53b111b27b39403aff46a9db52d7641925a12527 And then the tragedy began.
4e8831a18551b787dbf72f2c5e98bbbd7c186496 The boards began to diverge for the same reason as the "Wyoming".
624dcbe3794209b68e1118959ed485b6d722091b The tightness was broken.
94bf333f8560d2fa1889a662faa0ccdd4a3ef0f8 Water began to fill the wooden structure.
40a5fd2bcdef38d3af6b9ade3308755bf8efb631 Taking into account the fact that the flood completely covered the Earth, all the passengers of the huge swimming vehicle died.
d18133729bad022805c68e95fa266527695e020b But let's assume that the tightness was at the highest level.
b7517503629c7cdd0650d11a9475035ead12dc63 The water did not get inside the vessel.
806f0e270d7f597cf78138898b5c3531957a791f However, it should be taken into account that the ark did not have any control.
6e3d9f2dbac943dbfff2be75ab2cd4a6746c2286 When an uncontrolled ship turns sideways to a huge wave, what happens?
c823782597ee1b68fba5f2978632f87372542d9d That's right, it turns over.
41f109400de220e171c6402b21198594dd84bb89 That is, the creation of Noah's hands had to lift its keel up and sink.
8710e3474163cae0198fd6295d94b6a5570c713b But there is a theory here that completely refutes such a sad interpretation of events.
59d02f9ddb05267c74adb7359bef05fdd1f8873f The fact is that researchers found basalt plates near the so called ark.
aabd971b2ccd4ece8c8790dc93aeeb52c3deaf9c Some of them had holes in them.
d179b12a0b4eabc7f157ccf9992d808c05d73b24 We can assume that they were made either by nature or by human hands.
75a3c92ff13aca6da238f8ded530e9a719efefc1 But why did a person need to chisel a stone?
21dac106d6af18d904f1825b04a26c0ef493fb61 One of the basalt plates found near a fossil similar to Noah's Ark
bd66d31edcdbd9925f4fb46fbc8de3bdb21e33e9 The researchers explain this as follows: the plates, if placed underwater along the sides of the ship, will serve as stabilizers, and the floating vehicle will not capsize when exposed to large ocean waves.
9beedafa74926048d08b25b8c464661ed51113cd Such basalt products hang in the water on ropes that are tightly attached to the sides.
10794f752229510480658c3994773b2f6cb89168 They evenly distribute the weight of the floating vehicle and give it additional stability.
05f4d9ee4d2275fb8a6b642a801a8abd9aa014c8 This t eoria is good for everyone.
837d328087ede0e982d66d72994cbeb6c0bde943 But there is one caveat.
4fba7d067c4bef090119a1c326e32967e50ec5f1 If we assume that Noah's ark was built in Mesopotamia, then such statements lose all meaning.
620846d8ff7bc9232d9c1e595d6b40e971da9672 The bottom line is that there is no basalt in the Mesopotamia.
0d9ef0849fadf36f609c6beba9993f0b20cfb585 Our hero could not take it anywhere with all his desire.
31b37c2dd874538ad6267926fe9e4f4d226600fa Another version of saving people and animals during the flood
eacf57a15c173572667f21e78fc86de99ca692bd The great flood is written not only in the Bible.
5a5c17e99f2838b0e91ce8a0e0577b4a78321bdd The priests of Babylon, who lived 500 years before Moses, told about the terrible cataclysm.
dddf866b281c8d036f6d2e4f87d650e26f90d544 This information is reflected on ancient clay tablets.
2f8148b02700284728ad3976cab6e30ee3c4b384 The approximate time of the disaster is also named – 9 thousand years ago.
bb395952a6d7696c843ff6a9b88b5cb9de01f2d3 It is also said about the saved.
d6fd31630efe49afce4783f9b842e73bd5d5b214 Moreover, it is explicitly stated that people sailed on a ship that had a round shape.
2fd859c529b0bdf30d373fbfdcad04023367790c Round fishing boats have been very popular for many thousands of years in many parts of the world.
db54abc40f1c02c081344d09e5ab024257600b2c If such a boat is made very large, then both people and livestock can fit in it.
cafd8542ed2588d04a2783fa20965dd30f8b7ad7 Round Fishing Boat
5a8ca6a67c6f1459805b46cc172c1ffae7243ad3 So maybe there was no Noah's Ark, although it sounds blasphemous.
3a8a04878ca6622098bfaed25d12a0d8ad86eadf A long time ago, a flood began in Mesopotamia.
d2a4e4b384272c08f1244ef3805a11b5809ae1df People saved themselves and livestock in round boats.
2b524d3881b9aeef4bf293d3519927110b89a583 They were in every family, as the people settled near the rivers and were engaged in fishing.
efd0816ee17f649fddaa763e5fdefdb8ca37cec4 The huge flotilla floated on the waves for some time, until it landed on an undisturbed mountainous area.
b62306c9eded5d5af682a720044af5be2760a96d On the tops of mountains and hills, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia waited out the natural cataclysm.
ae792211321e617c27007a9233c13ea221800cc7 Then the water left, and people returned to normal life.
97f1f7c3fe8a4e329f8d2b7188b5e7874ba0ab21 Memories of the tragedy are preserved in legends.
ea506c417bcb49cb2eb96cb00195233058d21798 Over time, they transformed into a beautiful legend that Moses heard.
4f6963ef8c0f791f221d22a9641f103341df1196 After all, he lived in Egypt, was brought up at the court of the pharaoh and, of course, communicated with representatives of the priestly caste.
5d7659ea02c17f3406576af7610d9f0f5a19e511 Hence the Noah's Ark appeared.
f037a69001f3d42a082504e0120c8574538a86d7 This beautiful and romantic story was recorded in the"Old Testament".
1f5519056ff02a13b384f2b6e24779673c5f82be He has survived to our times and has given rise to many versions and assumptions.
6931faade29eab99e63aea8efdc1140f39c7bd91 But all of the above is not at all true in the last instance.
28fe9de2789ba2a53031eefb237b944d9bb987f5 No one can say how everything really happened.
7c8bcf9bc7b7c9709b6d2d2c6dc2b32fc28dd7e2 And if so, then people will continue to look for a mysterious wooden ship, thanks to which all living things that existed on our Earth at that time were saved.
3e5e0514c4a61039abeb37693f1ab8e3a252b317 Igor Tomshin
1bb5625f0c398b3db6c654bc5ad6a2d7d11bbc87 In the section: Riddles of history
eefb65ae9f828b56858f8322b4d116f7e5e26572 The resource is protected by copyright
6f15f62f4de818b8cc902c9d7ff7ca4e54862ff5 When using the materials of the pages and sections, a direct link to the site is required
258e280fa85d7699febc082847fb2ebfaed5f95f The site was created in 2010 © copyright Google+
fda47766e6cfe1fb7be753473514265839f8ba91 Home Mythological Disasters
5888ab01ab3cbdbe592c28457eb3511f0bca1064 Is Noah's Ark a fiction or a miracle of ancient engineering?
01b352e4f81a9e7248e62f4d27275011bc5bb2a5 04.08.2012
b571f0f9c516132ff8fe4ffeebd7aadd29bb3b89 Production techniques Questions and conclusions Photo Gallery Video
9f57b1882511789e1c029bfacdc9682afb462fbc The mystery of Noah's Ark is one of the oldest mysteries in the history of mankind.
ad843c0f9586f9e2fb788ffdb3774737d810c304 Legend has it that a giant wooden ship during the flood transported the family of the Old Testament Patriarch Noah and "every creature in a pair" to a safe place, which allowed to revive life on earth.
bfc3d229e3b66d9c3f616c83b84acacb8e6146d8 Noah's ark was at sea for five months, after which it stood on the mountain, protecting its numerous inhabitants for more than one year.
049535180321d87b1eca5bb77a0a20b3ecc3d44f Noah and Utnapishtim
c2f162f72fdf9bcbb39fa6b616252d31c9911875 At first glance, it is obvious that it is almost impossible to write seriously about Noah's Ark and at the same time avoid being accused of an attempt on Christianity.
c6a540eb42674112d31cc30a8d73eb8d980d6b36 However, this is not the case; most Christians, if we do not take into account their interfaith differences, will agree that the story of Noah and his ark should not be taken literally.
408545cf8d28b99dfd1317932e451749b9eed2cc And, as has been noted many times, the Bible is far from the only sacred text that contains a mention of the flood and the miraculous salvation of the righteous.
b403b3eab814630860e270175c92bd2ac0c94ca4 Various versions of the story of Noah can be found in other sacred texts, the most famous of which, of course, is the Epic of Gilgamesh.
f46a363b842e7ecce384dd17c434d1257db4ddbd In it, one of the many Babylonian gods called the righteous Utnapishtim (in Sumerian mythology, Ziusudra corresponds to him) and ordered him to build an ark to escape from the universal flood sent by the gods to the human race as a punishment for disobedience and impiety.
8a6ca5cc7801ce0cbe746d94cfe122bb2bca61fa On the advice of God, Utnapishtim built a large ark, loaded a couple of all living things on earth on it, and together with his family he boarded the ship himself.
fc1647ebfcefe46f57236e2b046f9d3b03c2c04e The elements raged for seven days, all living things died, but the reliable ship of Utnapishtim was washed up on Mount Nazir, and all who were on it survived the flood.
32fe737999c4363e95f9d9d3585967d80e6b8ea9 The gods regretted what had happened and left Utnapishtim and the inhabitants of the ark alone, life was saved and reborn again on earth.
19a3d0904583cf6042f4960ce2b29337748366fa The parallels in the stories about Noena - the ambiguous but sympathetic patriarch and Utnapishtim are obvious; they coincide in all the main details and in most small things.
b45abe75ee8221c0aa611555d622c714d3b9b185 It is likely that all such stories are based on a real event, the details of which are lost to history, but which we can judge from the ancient stories we know about the ark and the flood.
1a04370693ae901e6b0ee74334da30e9434e1bf7 It is interesting how possible the construction of Noah's Ark is from a technical, engineering point of view.
9143e31d80e8581722291d397070acdb7edf9a3f Was it possible to build an ark
e5833c958c45be22d9dc3ce184f180645c2deecd As far as can be judged, Noah's ark was a large rectangular box made of gopher wood, or perhaps a combination of several types of wood, which at that time was colloquially called gopher wood.
cbe76ed171ad8b45f467fb92b9e2080de7a9d42f Dimensions of Noah's ark: length 133.5 meters; width 22.25 meters; height 13.35 meters.
2c19629b4a128ec5f65de3942aadb331fcccb3ea This is a very, very large box; it would be the longest wooden ship ever built by man.
843a520d827b33c7100aa83baa93b93497c6d2a0 The sources do not clearly indicate where exactly Noah's Ark was built, but, according to historians, it must have happened somewhere in Mesopotamia, probably on the banks of the Tigris or Euphrates.
d4dc5690e118dff0e6ca571b09635c1050516d31 Currently, these territories belong to Iraq, which has never been famous for the abundance of shipbuilding wood.
c160fc6012511cc2ba6a6ba04ad78110af6af711 In 2003, Jose Solis, a doctoral student at the Georgia Institute of Technology, recreated an engineering model of Noah's Ark using proven methods of naval architecture.
a634532513dad500ba8c40773d4ab5880599a4de He assumed that the ship's own weight – the weight of the wooden structure itself, minus the cargo and ballast is equal to 3,676 tons.
347a51c59dbfa63533cad14609dd8f2ba2c77e40 In a fully loaded state, such a vessel was able to hold 13,000 tons.
67662aa5294dc62c790b59181d4f38479dd7c9d0 For comparison :the "Great Michael", the construction of which took "all the wood of Fife", could carry only 1000 tons.
43553885616dda1523e1538342db2369ee5be77e Where would Noah get the wood to build the ark?
cf629e1bc293b282801a955f674e2667e08a01ec In his model, Solis simply did not consider this issue; he only assumed that in terms of American dollars, the wood would cost 16.472 million.
d1a67c1b4e08bd35cd24911255fff49ea3ad96eb It turns out that tens of thousands of huge trees with the highest quality wood had to be transported to the territory of modern Iraq.
56d384dcfebd1473d2b0f083819b5f6832ae8436 Did Noah have the opportunity to "import" wood from France, Norway or other countries?
e1e78574d863b0ff48d0c340152fbdec6988e363 Hardly.
eab44c93a1e2828b5be628f8b99ff10a4664d79e Read more → Production equipment
b782269574463481e85fbbfda94b4eebc029e001 The myth of the flood – the most ancient versions of Where Noah's Ark is located: it has already been found so many times… Evidence of the Flood – Science on the guard of religion Noah is an ambiguous but sympathetic patriarch
f444333a482a2419607b7a9aaf2041f4ee6c5dd5 Article tags: the World Flood
8f9d8857b729290c641d80ae1797e70e16be38b5 The number of the beast: is it worth cursing sixes?
590e45438d55dfb693a558ea5275cfa130853d08 Planet " X " and the end of the world in 2012
f3a53efa28a64a91acdf287767ec974a8e945fbf Thank you for your sound thinking, mathematicians are beginning to consider what size it was, And it was not the size for the preservation of all living things, but for the continuation of the life of mankind: domestic animals and what we would take for further life after the flood.
33209bb85ca9c1eb25b4c0317b151f2447a0ffe7 Fiction is only what a modern person, who is not properly educated, invents and interweaves.
2923467d599f52599e56186915c49462e842cf70 As a result, the gossip grows more and more incredible "contours".
d8771f8304fe70bbdc73e4addc70754b6b450be4 And there was actually a" Great Flood", even FIVE times already.
a16a1e277a8231568f3c077f0564f38d711bdfba And the "ark" was real, not fabulous, "made of wood brought from France."
850e911474d714599331ca5b6ef5b792cfd1afab And not at all like it was inflated, and it was the most ordinary floating vehicle as long as it kept on the water.
e5b0ff035a7e9ab69ae6ebecd272da2c3eaec3ca In order to understand the very serious things described in the so called "mythology", it was not necessary to turn the original texts into a fairy tale, but to translate them as it should be.
cdb03d55d1b84060fe65f540f780c43d6b9abe7e And the second. a person must know the physical foundations of the material world in which he lives.
2ba287a730daac3cb06f374bfd119c95e33f5e9c And he, thanks to the "prestigious education", does not know anything real.
8e3044ab67b2c63e4b58c502d1b2c6e30692e65c So he wonders, and is surprised by all sorts of invented "miracles".
5befe3ccbb77747b3b3521949e43e3eaf5173fdc And there are no miracles in nature.
9a0ec388c7bedca994751aaf1d12bb8d9f1526ee There is only nothing, even after graduating from "prestigious" universities...
04c3151f60588693afe5ccf0f5562211ae150e54 I believe that oil and coal are the work of the world flood, large round stones on the planet, the death of mammoths is also the work of the world flood and many other secrets of the planet earth that scientists around the world do not even think about
e7e4a69a6c2ffdc145ec97326503859b01266319 Yes, it still remains a mystery, lost in time...
8d2878db3581652f35fda34a790e631d5a60f0f4 Magic and Magic
a882f143d6c53ffe9108554f617f716e0119580d yandex
a5d4e295aae5017d98ddd17b568e16cde41ee8aa rambler
759730a97e4373f3a0ee12805db065e3a4a649a5 google
38293e2574948388b5fc123327d400265fa3f079 Fortresses of Kerch
35d5b1cb5c4668109ca26a99d721c03c73fc0f0b P )
ab6b5e4906e08a427239bb78ca2a017826368694 The secret of Noah's Ark is revealed.
497bce86dfd7bb0c78cd7f36ab5b8cea942d84d5 MOVIES IN THE SUBJECT.
cb7a58f4def46bb424d7c3c6ee758e648d6159e1 The library of the New York Insurance Society has a rich archive.
ebc7fa54fe83d0f9be66533bae0d58ff367c4efb They claim that it allegedly contains data on ships and shipwrecks of all times and peoples.
cd5d217b5af6ae56fd9d6d0943c0fc61acf081ec It is known, for example, that recently the servants of the archive provided detailed information about Noah's Ark and the circumstances of its death: "Noah's Ark, built in 2488 BC, wooden, soaked with resin on the outside… The owners are Noah and his son.
0ceecfd26eff9e5ad8be67cbf268662c043e54fe I was shipwrecked when I ran into Mount Ararat...".
a08ee168c5b87f187fb2588a0da1dde7d2f96b2a The Bible gives the following dimensions of this structure: "the length of the ark is three hundred cubits; its breadth is fifty cubits, and its height is thirty cubits" (Genesis, chapter 6, verse 15).
9e9ab0e66c6436a19d9d94263683f84d079c47b0 "A cubit" is an ancient measure of length, approximately equal to half a meter.
15f88037c9ba2b15150548ba9c35ea194616aac7 So, the ark was of the following dimensions: 140 meters long, 23 meters wide and 14 meters high (the size of a modern tanker!).
28d2b5c63d6922f06b6020d682cfa218cff88eb7 Now let's try to figure out how many days it was necessary for Noah to travel through the waters of the Great Flood, how many and what animals and birds he needed to take with him.
d0746a4a335e02cd801e0614bde3fe941e56af27 So it was said to Noah: "... and you will enter into the ark, and your sons, and your wife, and your sons ' wives with you.
1ea7caaf411e37f031a4eb8a68b29ac6d20ac12b And you shall also bring into the ark two pairs of all animals and of all flesh, so that they may live with you: male and female, let them be.
c3372656abb6390fe0e0bfab0c6b8025f4a70f03 Of the birds according to their kind, and of all the reptiles on the earth according to their kind, of all two will come to you, so that they will remain alive.
92d3a8eb237eb05389568f7c0020dce94842e5a0 But you take for yourself all the food that they eat, gather it for yourself; and it will be food for you and for them" (Genesis, chapter 6, verses 18-21).
8b884b524730517a4331f68391301999f69805a6 It is clear from the text that God commanded Noah to take with him into the ark "a pair from each creature".
8a5e5c1a04fcafde9170cac1b804e329d38a03dd Read on.
72e5415331750db975414847888af9492310063d "And the Lord said to Noah ... and you shall take seven of every clean animal, male and female, and two of the unclean cattle, male and female...
88c5b2a582e9a5939ade5182872041c92b639432 "(Genesis, chapter 7, verse 2). Here are those times, so in pairs or in "seven pairs"?
077763e71b052b38cdd769b8af2880869526e72e "And Noah, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him, entered into the ark from the waters of the flood.
d4170a85279a35b837104d7dcd7c5f6e654ab86d And of the clean cattle, and of the unclean cattle, and of all the creeping things on the earth, two by two, male and female...
a87591cb50169ed0dfcd2c07f0a7c03cf0d413d7 "(Genesis, chapter 7, verses 7-9).
ef3d6da08982ecb5fbd713901c1633452b8dccfe So could Noah "take" with him all the animals and birds that he was told to take?
dc835efa39618bb141b331f5ce2543e56dc450d9 According to the conclusions of individual experts, Noah did not face the problem of placing all the "specimens" of animals and birds in the ark.
8195e1c696cd0c7c391b48dc22da96ff9b907587 Based on the fact that Noah took "a pair of each creature" with him, the experts made some calculations.
06b2dae3986d8ff7a5e7d07d24acfa397340c40d In particular, it is estimated that in ancient Mesopotamia (the area where Noah the author lived), there were about 575 species of birds and animals in sizes from a field mouse to a sheep, and 290 species in" parameters " from a sheep to a camel.
4abd6be19e538171aa94c77ecae16c77f45fb183 And if we assume that half of the ark was filled with food, then on the other half the animals taken by Noah could occupy a space of 4800 cubic meters.
3b18efc549ae3b8269d484d7492b1229875e2837 If we take 365 cubic meters as the average value for one animal, then each instance had enough space!
d004a8f5cb7e57bcaf6b37bcc59548dbb5229ebb However, according to the same Bible, God insists on the destruction of all flesh: "And behold, I (God the author) will bring a flood of water on the earth, to destroy all flesh in which there is the spirit of life, under the heavens; everything that is on the earth will lose its life" (Genesis, chapter 6, verse 17).
39cad9e4441be6afda31a6a2c1b5dfc2f35c1552 In other words, each animal in the ark would have had 0.23 cubic meters (the volume of a small "diplomat")!..
46c1a1ce3572e51d161054ce3e7f7ec6f8a71192 Quite eloquently, and at the same time contradictory, the Great Flood itself is described in the Bible.
26495274a733a5ca6d42bb590b9fdcc28f13cc60 "After seven days, the waters of the flood came to the earth....
542650c256cb55a89d95b70e056198b25de6cfe4 And the rain fell on the earth for forty days and forty nights... and the water multiplied, and lifted up the ark, and it was lifted up above the earth.
9c9484f8806601fd59c2c9b774b886c98bb14ccf But the waters increased and multiplied greatly on the earth; and the ark floated on the surface of the waters.
80b2bf4b3fdc3f6881a7411aa73b2759f54e7c6f And the water on the earth became extremely strong, so that all the high mountains that are under the whole sky were covered.
ce07aaff5c72887adf091c40107e6a5ad40b0559 The water rose fifteen cubits above them, and the mountains were covered" (Genesis, chapter 7, verses 10-20).
c3e5711652e2563052a7cb8803ef6a916b1da2dc Again, if we assume that the flood really happened on the territory of the Two Rivers, then it is easy to imagine this picture literally – the water covers "all the high mountains".
72cff914a7e1c19d648e39cc86e11cb23c635c48 The valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is flat as a pancake, and rare local hills can be called "mountains" only with a fair share of imagination.
84e4fb17e6b9b5c0b12d51da49fef3956907acdc One violent downpour, lasting for several days, and the entire valley will be flooded.
541a5985dc5169e49061af6b6a7ea190d7a4a24d On the other hand, if we take the biblical description of the flood literally and assume that the water really covered the entire land this is the point of view of orthodox Bible worshippers - it turns out that the level of the World's oceans should have risen by more than
f05178b2a3e543b436ef829960bffc37c739228e 8 kilometers, for example, to cover the highest mountain range of the Himalayas, and this would require 3.5 times more water than it is generally contained on the planet…
4911d52cb534fe3c1da775d845813213cfc43033 It is not known for certain how long the Great Flood lasted on earth?
dec4152c6c71ac652912f7064999120216075d8d "And the rain fell on the earth for forty days and forty nights" (Genesis, chapter 7, verse 12).
ec035a12216c9f05d3464b516bdbd7fb2c9d71e4 2. "And the water increased on the earth for one hundred and fifty days" (Ibid., verse 24).
1e70c18522b021699eed36a6d6650f73c4109271 3. About a year (Genesis, chapter 8, verses 3-13).
fb29582ba3cec8929f858f0731c34dd0b6ead3e7 "And God remembered Noah, and all the beasts, and all the cattle that were with him in the ark; and God brought the wind to the earth, and the waters stopped (So God simply forgot about the inhabitants of the ark? - the author)" (Genesis, chapter 8, verse 1).
89dfbd8171902351ec073a6b16838d4d81d86d72 "And the ark stopped in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the peas of Ararat...
e791fb38e30698296527b3c8067ed4d9eb972062 "(Genesis, chapter 8, verse 4)
2550c5ff468836682ef13120bcf2cab846a0aa96 How the ark sailed about 800 kilometers and ended up in the area of Ararat.
49b12f201f5eceabc32c4687a121d53fefd8e896 This is a mountain range, where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers originate.
7d050fe9f22206de204d3053c8d07a3bc263fc55 Now Ararat rises in Eastern Turkey.
5cff06e209af38a2b67e0e83169fb534a7fbbbf0 In the heyday of Assyria, there was a rich country called Urartu, and it is easy to guess where the word "Ararat"came from.
27d0dd3f747b797ad6b4a3ac87554d9aeb67b23c However, despite the fact that the word "Urartu" (Ararat) denoted both a state and a mountainous country, the opinion has long been rooted that Ararat is the name of a separate mountain, namely the summit of Big Ararat, which rose to 5165 meters above sea level.
f3edaa8314f172555c84160aa101cb2bd0078a97 From time to time, interesting reports appear in the press about mysterious wooden objects allegedly found on the swampy slopes of the massif.
93b60201ffff8e26b3aa1608aa7594016e74cac5 However, none of the publications, does not stand up to any serious verification, even the fact that so far no one has yet managed to decipher the mysterious Hebrew word "gopher",
6605f77f36cfb3542ea6a96a5b324c90fa13e7df found only in the Bible, the tree from which the ark was allegedly built.
bb05f20d05854313a6a608d3d1b8d0ce096039f3 To this day, we do not have a hint of what kind of tree it was....
1af191e858974a135d315f458f87d12f2050a559 It is also not clear why God ordered Noah to build an ark (a box, a chest – the author), and let's say not a boat or a ship.
cb2e6e77fb4b87acbabfb2a07359f3f03417bad0 It seems that the authors of the story about the Great Flood are not at all aware of these means of navigation.
2fa29d1734c124391a0a48251da6a8d4422ee0b1 To be fair, it must be said that it has not yet been established exactly why the author of the biblical story about the Great Flood chose Ararat (Urartu) as the final destination of Noah's water journey.
bae43e09150175336ff8bafd7ce4d14cf4ff5801 There is no denying the fact that to this day there is a city called Naksuana or Nakhichivan at the foot of Mount Ararat, a name that means: "Noah settled here", and in which his grave is allegedly located…
fb056ea3aec2b1dcf1051a70f87bfe00b414b7e0 Is the biblical account of the flood the only message known to people?
3ff88283e120b72b59210fe456db1fc6a4c74fdb Of course not.
ad573bf30c901b19b96bb88fa0549bba44f36aca Similar legends are found not only among the ancient Jews, but also among the Greeks and Indians, Australians and Melanesians, Polynesians and Mexicans, the English and the Incas of Peru…
77591acdc2df8ec6b0f534038f99a1d8c852f69e The most attractive, in my opinion, is the Polynesian "testimony" about the flood.
27289ccbdc9ac8cb019fff8898f64041946a70f0 Obeying the order of the god Kane, the Polynesian Nuu built a large boat with a house in it, where he, his wife and six other people safely survived the flood.
b675895371bde22ea50ff9a46d538e96f8902dec When the water came off, the ship was on one of the mountain peaks in Hawaii.
9dc710dba13c749d2aa59fc2146bb9609a5e2acf Nu was ordered to leave the ark and settle with his family in a cave.
efeb36fad4bd9b74b269bb0223b58935fd67b749 Leaving the ark, Nuu offered a sacrifice to god – these were fruits and several slaughtered animals.
c92f5dc20013a012a4cf6bb18182cbad70202ec3 When he saw the moon, he took it for the face of the god Kane and offered a sacrifice to her.
1bfe7687a5703e8fa077e1fe141ef37a18e5240a Enraged, Kane became angry and descended from the sky to punish Nuu.
06e0e0cdc02c02363316763956b87973a50f72c8 The rainbow served as a path, and after the misunderstanding was found out, Kane returned to the sky, the rainbow in
411d40421f05f1d88b4e0a0b20d1ac047aac0cc4 a sign of reconciliation...
11e1aed5e84b543f562573a82d2e796e0ee1af22 (A similar sign of reconciliation between God and man is given to Noah and Jehovah, after the end of the flood).
7649c6bafdb01aab127348b2cc94b1cad10e4b05 Agree, it is difficult to deny the parallel with the biblical flood in this plot.
b00ae6286958e1b433b2d9f1de6520ed29f72a81 But this legend arose long before the biblical one…
23588122afb56f3832fc9b2861937cd323070194 Although the legends about the great flood are almost certainly legends, it is still quite possible and even probable that many of them contain a grain of truth under a mythical shell.
a75a6069af8ffc77d67ca31edde1aa0d4520be47 Perhaps they hide the memories of floods that really took place in some places, but, transmitted by the people's memory from generation to generation, they eventually assumed the grandiose dimensions of a global catastrophe.
6d4a19e8c9bca7cd6a4e55106592883df4c42cf7 Today, based on the results of the latest geology, we can say with sufficient confidence that the earth has not experienced any such cataclysm since people have lived on it.
6bcd91941996b04ae3741a3aa5f0e7fdd8e36ac2 And more.
26a41ee61b8607ddf1c9a31c5beced473c3173f8 Noah's Ark could not "get stuck" in the mountains of Ararat for one simple reason: "... not only Mount Ararat, but the entire Transcaucasia has not been covered by the sea for the last million years.
d4ef98d1a84ad239b708e61f2943cc881be3a319 In the area of Mount Ararat, marine deposits with an age of at least 20 million years are known, formed when Mount Ararat did not yet exist.
287e3fea795f8bc9f9b9451cf6d3c62ad33ab7c9 Since it is obvious that the sea did not even approach Ararat in the historical period, there is no reason to look for Noah's Ark there", -
230ceb522baf9df993c635c36e67a263e82e19de so said the scientist Ryazanov at the time (http://www.kyrgyz.ru/?page=279)
f2b6bf923f9eafced8ef2d3dd5f829cf84734099 Maybe some more time will pass and the riddles of Noah's Ark will be solved....
fa496cc6750cd46ab52b4ede9a61794b379250a0 In the meantime, we all have to "be content" with only the knowledge that we have today.
60ed95592686f6bfef7f27551cae7695f3b3b874 Appendix No.
ba4ac2d936031e394dfc41b08d8a2a4c9e9761e2 :: In the world of history, ethnography and Archeology ::
b6d7a92cd56982f99fbe2a5a518a5e793cec44c8 No Noah's Ark was found on Mount Ararat
c4043af8261441151ff06c51dc389b3e8daf9794 There is no legendary Noah's Ark on Ararat: everything that was previously taken for the remains of a giant ship lying on this mountain is natural formations.
13271da9d5acb8ebf072d5f202625448e4054e38 This statement was made at a press conference in Interfax on Friday by the participants of the expedition to Mount Big Ararat (Turkey), organized by the public research center "Kosmopoisk" and the company "Unknown Planet".
a9dd10424309e1d863e68d15bad27c000d74603f "Everything that we have seen, all the samples that we have collected, indicate that there is no Noah's ark on the western slope of Ararat.
8a30a473ab10fd2936c86ba2c9849385b25f4349 At least, after the eruption of 1840, which destroyed everything, including a petrified tree, no ship could survive there, " said Vadim Chernobrov, the head of Kosmopoisk.
9014469c4f0d342a7a68ad1b0dc37b8d37eb6fcb The expedition led by Chernobrov in the second half of 2004 climbed the previously unexplored western slope of Mount Ararat, filmed and brought to Moscow samples of materials found there.
48e90a96f222c11dea658d86174417a4a0a3dd9e The researchers ' conclusion is unambiguous: none of the objects on Ararat, which were considered as a possible place of the last resting place of the "Noah's Ark", are the remains of a ship.
bb6590ac8ee626ee9ce58ff1a3b04bd12217a86c All these are bizarre natural formations, the result of volcanic activity, geological anomalies.
15e193c2bfa5f2c8996701d3cda110a043f2dd83 As Chernobrov explained, the western slope of Ararat was chosen for research because people have already visited all the other slopes repeatedly - Turkish military facilities are located on the Northern Slope, and the Eastern and Southern ones are open to climbers and tourists.
31bca25439ca427a5c218f293c03e657fd0fa861 In addition, it was on the western slope of the mountain, covered with lava as a result of the last eruption on Ararat in 1840, that American satellites recorded the so called "Ararat anomaly", which in the pictures from above resembles a ship lying on its side.
d14bf762135beda9eac9559e3299d77c545c4fe8 The researcher also noted that the expedition, guided by previously published data, actually found four objects resembling an ark at different levels of the slope - three of them turned out to be natural formations and one was an ordinary destroyed sheep pen.
cfd3a08bbe5b8ea9de0ba952d92a6ac1f6d0d8a6 However, the researchers do not consider the topic of Noah's Ark closed, believing that its study should take a different direction.
4d928aae53eab05453f566ffca52efac950df8da According to them, this is also indicated by the shrine kept in the Etchmiadzin monastery in Armenia - a piece of petrified wood with a cross laid out on it, which according to legend is a fragment of the lining of the legendary ark.
df068a74155b0321877c23ee009f112c3444c75a The researchers do not exclude that scientists interpret the word "ark" too directly, which, translated from Arabic, has several meanings and is probably an allegory, a symbol of salvation.
4e816fe9931586804d0803814df8e740b8e4459d In addition, Chernobrov admits that the ark is still being searched for in the wrong place.
d65854094685ba0143717bb5316230405ac352d8 According to him, there are six Ararat islands in the world, one of which is located in the Krasnodar Territory on the Black Sea coast.
dd5cf777a07daaf98764ec8d984e62e33c43dda6 www.mignews.ru
418187dcb459ad05f4930ca54af81164377faa7b Appendix No.2.
082ed3e78e9310864681857b49c2f862a9e870f9 Foreign events
5ffb95112e7c7606ee75655ba5cd14254d43bd65 Russian events
87f55070ccf899602427e8350bf19c405520cb4c Riddles of nature
915f47ce72726b53bd91d5e9677d976edb7628b1 Riddles of Man
b4767a6342186ed9c199cfdd56fe42a05bdaa9a5 Riddles of the Universe
a3e0ae0fd6664b358202fe02eb24a05250bda08e Popular science books
88c50a198f92b6ad24eb266a3feb1429dd4a9556 Articles and hypotheses
b16f81e319a3f59b10b26cfd830da5caa72f862f Thematic fos that
f70cceb4c11cd9abeff0a202eb3f92e0bf47c065 New products
dfbc0ea648f9f0424e1cddd217186534e03bd2bc Thematic links
40fed50c21b299fefabc9a75f7219c5383ac7de3 Interesting links
bc3046a0cd94ff189b2eca3458bf33f286cabafd Noah's Ark
d977309c0280c21abc9974def25c7ed1e71c7e67 In eastern Turkey, on the Anatolian coast, near the borders with Iran and Armenia, a mountain covered with eternal snow rises.
08d6c4f6534258ff4f6c6224f4306fae36ae9c4e Its height above sea level is only 5165 meters, which does not allow it to be among the highest mountains in the world, but it is one of the most famous peaks of the Earth.
b773a47249882f81b1ad74d57e7eccd37df0ebfe The name of this mountain is Ararat.
c4f887f227761c5871d82784e83dfeeb3db803f4 In the clear air of the early morning, before the clouds closed the top and in the twilight when the clouds go away, opening a mountain, arising on the background of evening pink or purple heaven before the eyes of people looking at a high on the mountain shape of a huge ship...
98664801638dc469eefbccfbe61836b57217c35d Mount Ararat, on top of which needs to be Noah's ark is mentioned in the religious legends of Babylon and Sumerian state, in which instead of Noah was given the name Ut Napishtim.
ffb45459a1664002f8322e0573881e8801ddd7eb In Islamic legends, Noah (in Arabic, Nuh) and his huge ark ship are also immortalized, but again, without at least indicating its parking place in the mountains, which is called Aljud (peaks) here, they mean both Ararat and two other mountains in the Middle East.
4c65fcb7a6bb0ba046db24a2a980bebcfbb11f8a The Bible gives us approximate information about the location of the ark: "...the ark stopped on the Ararat mountains."
aa8108eb521945a6e8efeb3328fdf6a075be2861 Travelers who have been making voyages with caravans to Central Asia or back for centuries have repeatedly passed near Ararat and then told that they saw an ark near the top of the mountain, or mysteriously hinted at their intentions to find this ark ship.
0998551508b246c907601b09356a8eb9ee503902 They even claimed that amulets were made from the wreckage of the ark to protect against illnesses, misfortunes, poisons and unrequited love.
fcbbd7f461df629b13c6aac57dde59c201ebd0c9 . Starting around 1800, groups of mountain climbers with quadrants, altimeters, and later with cameras climbed Ararat.
54e142ca8914c754cb21beeef3e3f21ec9005cd4 These expeditions did not find the true remains of the huge Noah's Ark, but they found huge ship - like traces in the glaciers and near the very top of the mountain, they noticed massive columnar formations covered with ice, similar to wooden beams hewn by human hands.
2c383b181db8baa3759f734fe862b9c5ef1f5081 At the same time, the opinion was increasingly confirmed that the ark gradually slid down the mountainside and fell apart into numerous fragments, which are now probably frozen into one of the glaciers covering Ararat.
5d86803dd17481bff24fa6a6a2491bd5b3ce66a9 If we consider Ararat from the surrounding valleys and foothills, then, having a good imagination, it is not difficult to see the hull of a huge ship in the folds of the mountain relief, and to notice some elongated oval object in the depths of the gorge or a not quite clear dark rectangular spot in the ice of glaciers.
10c7988e67643138ff2926f064375771fc12d008 However, many researchers who claimed, especially in the last two centuries, that they had seen a ship on Ararat, in some cases climbed high into the mountains and found themselves, as they claimed, in the immediate vicinity of the ark, most of which is buried under the ice.
4572190e529795a02aa0a98755d514da81bcc533 Legends about an unusually large wooden ship that have survived entire civilizations over the millennia do not seem absolutely plausible to many.
e2c89ae8083199064095e99333fb224d94dafbbf After all, wood, iron, copper, bricks and other building materials, with the exception of huge blocks of rock, are destroyed over time, and how in this case can a wooden ship be preserved on top?
f82a8d245fa64a739efaa27127934b4cf6fe8974 This question can be answered, apparently, only in this way: because this ship was frozen in the ice of a glacier.
b2cd384f70a6fd5b0c9ccce5043538f0a90ba1bd On the top of Ararat, in the glacier between the two peaks of the mountain, it is cold enough to preserve a ship built of thick logs, which, as mentioned in reports that came from the depths of thousands of years, "were thoroughly tarred outside and inside."
f88e806a5a12981db6537c0d4cdffe90e92c4983 In the reports of mountain climbers and airplane pilots about their visual observations of a ship like object that they noticed on Ararat, it is always mentioned about parts of the ship covered with a solid shell of ice, or about traces within the glacier that resemble the outlines of a ship corresponding to the dimensions of the ark given in the Bible: "three hundred cubits long, fifty cubits wide and thirty cubits high."
b0ff22adbc1a38ee8a2a77fc83245b2645148d8c Thus, it can be argued that the preservation of the ark mainly depends on climatic conditions.
ca88fa3795a6fdd4f8afb4a1570aa46db9f8039b Approximately every twenty years, exceptionally warm periods took place on the Ararat mountain range.
994a97cd5ac1e967153a5adce5b582b106050743 In addition, every year in August and early September it is very hot, and it is during these periods that reports appear about the traces of a large ship found on the mountain.
3c45dcf1d00a262518806569a21819d2462c0c4c So, when a ship is covered with ice, it cannot be subjected to weathering and rotting, like a number of specimens of extinct animals known to scientists: Siberian mammoths or saber toothed tigers and other mammals from the Pleistocene epoch found in Alaska and northern Canada.
0db8c66d09cff9793d1e69749954f977d146724a When they were extracted from the ice captivity, they were completely safe, even in the stomachs there was still undigested food.
713f389f4757ffc15053a25d02f0937564f6794b Since certain areas of the surface of Ararat are covered with snow and ice for a whole year, the seekers of the remains of a large ship could not notice them.
1ff13c972aa9e70ca0147e8c62289b274f6f8b35 If this ship on the mountain is covered with snow and ice all the time, extensive special research is needed.
d76d2477bac8b3e650a7a09845ee993f38c20102 But it is very difficult to hold them, because the mountain peak is fraught, according to the residents of the surrounding villages, with a danger for mountain climbers, which consists in the fact that supernatural forces protect Ararat from people's attempts to find Noah's Ark.
4909f9391e16431a7cf97eb07e25472fab513cb4 This "protection" is manifested in various natural disasters: avalanches, sudden rockfalls, the strongest hurricanes in the immediate vicinity of the summit.
2560cca1c764b2684451d8ba8f4668d97651c8fc Unexpected fogs deprive climbers of the opportunity to navigate, so that among snow and ice fields and deep gorges, they often find their graves in icy, snow covered bottomless cracks.
6b0e55c516295afeeb3060bebd81806cd1171e62 There are many poisonous snakes in the foothills, wolf packs are often found, very dangerous wild dogs, bears inhabiting large and small caves, in which climbers often try to make a halt, and, moreover, from time to time, Kurdish robber gangs reappear.
1c046389d5a9f82bf29d2ea6b8ede8bd763b0549 In addition, according to the decision of the Turkish authorities, the approaches to the mountain were guarded for a long time by gendarmerie detachments.
b560c0874889948fe547d4a8783bebd0d1f516d6 Many historical evidences that something similar to a ship was noticed on Ararat belonged to those who visited nearby settlements and cities and admired Ararat from there.
0dedfac649238fda2c7d557c05d2b117aac079ed Other observations belong to those who, traveling with caravans to Persia, passed through the Anatolian Plateau.
942301d4f2f31042d439bf83b8f040149c6adbd9 Despite the fact that many of the evidence dates back to ancient times and the Middle Ages, some of them contained details that were noticed much later by modern researchers.
8712ae29845b21f0e64f957ed8689eb05ed237fc Beroes, the Babylonian chronicler, wrote in 275 BC:"...the ship that sank to the ground in Armenia", and, in addition, mentioned: "... the resin was scraped off the ship and amulets were made from it."
f2b3816e9233327871fbe4bd039c397872f7e713 Exactly the same information is given by the Jewish chronicler Josephus, who wrote his works in the first century after the conquest of Judea by the Romans.
65bd7f6ea5dd9c3c038f248671e5716f287f797a He presented a detailed narrative about Noah and the flood and, in particular, wrote: "One part of the ship can still be found today in Armenia... there people collect resin for making amulets."
ab0179395d455904050eaafe350399881f91526e In the late Middle Ages, one of the legends says that the resin was ground into a powder, dissolved in a liquid and drank this drug to protect against poisoning with poisons.
e60c22d671c08ff47a75f97f51eb201520ddc360 The indications of these and other ancient writers on this ship's resin are interesting not only because they clearly correspond to certain places in the book of Genesis, but also because this huge ship turned out to be quite accessible centuries after the flood, and because it gives a fairly real explanation that the wooden pillars and beams from which the ship was built were well preserved under a layer of eternal ice high on the mountain.
ee22d8a37b8f87554d233e516abeb208f6ce7e7a Josephus in his" History of the Jewish War "makes such an interesting remark:" The Armenians call this place a "pier", where the ark remained lying forever, and show the parts of it that have survived to this day."
1e17038793a6c8c198104adc5def766d32c2bc7e Nicholas from Damascus, who wrote the Chronicles of the World in the 1st century after the Birth of Christ, called Mount Baris: "... in Armenia there is a high mountain called Baris, on which many fugitives from the flood found salvation.
59963b9105e6ce0ff671a09182c46947064c550f There, on the top of this mountain, a man stopped there, who sailed in an ark, the fragments of which were preserved there for a long time."
a936533e6a343158056e0a771ad39b9f75a75fd4 Baris was another name for Mount Ararat, which in Armenia was also called Masis.
fb605ed75a9b99ad9a56aba86f789df8c45867ab One of the most famous travelers of the past, Marco Polo, passed near Ararat on his way to China in the last third of the XV century.
f1a35b48872236ab801d23e0ed34875c4314e52c In his book "The Travels of the Venetian Marco Polo" there is a stunning message about the ark:"...
39a95c20dcaa8f3ff82cb7a495d17daaf78d1293 You should know that in this country of Armenia, Noah's Ark rests on the top of a high mountain, covered with eternal snow, and no one can climb there, to the top, especially since the snow never melts, and new snowfalls complement the thickness of the snow cover.
e00e5cce36e6f49e8baebc222aedd96c05a7d7d5 However, the lower layers of it melt and the resulting streams and rivers, flowing into the valley, thoroughly moisten the surrounding area, on which a thick grass cover grows, attracting numerous herds of herbivorous large and small animals from all around in summer."
80252c30fee07a2e559dc9af0ad57c1504a397b3 This description of Mount Ararat remains relevant to this day, except for the statement that no one can climb the mountain.
59062fc98fca944ccddd052d60fe044cd544fb97 His most interesting observation is that snow and ice melt the ground and water flows out from under the glacial ice.
34c6714271f1ff6b9b980b503878fc86a203b1dc It is especially important to note that modern researchers have found wooden blocks processed by human hands in glacial cracks alki and racks.
829c69fbded976f83f762d30f5dc8cd12ee776c4 The German traveler Adam Olearius visited Ararat at the beginning of the XVI century and in his book "Journey to Muscovy and Persia" wrote: "The Armenians and Persians believe that there are still fragments of the ark on the mentioned mountain, which over time have become hard and strong as a stone."
7cbaf03662e61137441bc1fd2d1f10011bd47368 Olearius ' remark about the petrification of wood refers to beams^D which were found above the border of the forest zone and are now located in the Etchmiadzin monastery; they are also similar to individual parts of the ark that were found in our time by the French mountaineer and explorer" Fernand Navarre and other travelers.
26c594dec44f513288729f37d648e762fb59260f Franciscan friar Oderic, which is about his travels were reported to the Pope in Avignon in 1316, saw mount Ararat and wrote about this: "the People who live there, told us that no one climbed the mountain, as it probably could not please God..."
8b8505a7545dcc832eef3f3a9de5e8e381cc2c53 The legend that God does not allow people to climb Ararat is still living.
60d84462493fdc69d9f7f5c5002d2e43804c1109 This taboo was broken only in 1829 by the Frenchman J. F. Parrault, who undertook the first ascent to the top of the mountain.
4fd975be2056b4258dec59219f5259db01f39a15 A glacier on the northwestern slopes of the mountain is named after him.
0ac7503507a1051903637189aa4e6fff75ed07ea Half a century later, a competition began, in essence, for the right to be the first to find the remains of Noah's ship.
3315af655c66be638e0defcfde984c190c265c8e In 1856, "three godless foreigners" hired two guides in Armenia and set off on a journey with the aim of "refuting the existence of the biblical ark".
1b0a75dce6a3f80741ca0555e7d5b5903170a506 Only decades later, before his death, one of the guides admitted that "to their surprise, they discovered the ark."
a2239237620706c39384bebab324ac5f9dc5e5f7 At first they tried to destroy it, but it didnot work out, lo, because it was too big.
70aac71efb13d22328583013c420cd2f09375d01 Then they swore that they would not tell anyone about their discovery, and they forced their escorts to do the same...
9723bb569bdf91f4e621aa478ff537a53e7b9d80 In 1876, Lord Bryce at an altitude of 13 thousand feet (4.3 kilometers) discovered and took a sample from a piece of processed log 4 feet (1.3 meters) long.
0a2a478fbf84d2c0e10ba3b422a94f94463b98e9 In 1892, Archdeacon Nuri, along with five escorts, observed a "large wooden vessel" near the summit.
d71f5a801410a526aaef8fa523772af91b7d9266 However, "' his testimony remained unconfirmed.
480f3196db429a69d318e2ad51f9d659c4a8d09c "In 1916, during the First World War, the Russian pilot V. Roskovitsky reported in a report that he had observed a "lying large ship"on the slopes of Ararat from an airplane.
4950edf26e9bebd5dfc30b49ebb6cee6804b052d Equipped by the Russian government, despite the war, the expedition began to search.
87f872e8e9fb05d8fd94a8c368fd224dd5cb150d Subsequently, the direct participants claimed that the goal was achieved by them, photographed in detail and examined.
90495d2b32a71c66916fd786bc76df2b54326b58 Apparently, this was the first and last official expedition to the ark.
81a7bb418391c80b01e6343327dabdad48e5ed22 But, unfortunately, its results were lost in Petrograd in 1917, and the territory of Greater Ararat was captured by Turkish troops...
6c2182a7651fb6fe83ffaff1b9f7db815b4b4a88 In the summer of 1949, two groups of researchers went to the ark at once.
c7fe288ff3e79951226d9589a205cac88a791e4b The first, consisting of four people led by a retired North Carolina doctor Smith, observed only one strange "vision"at the top.
0c26e019c4e13b9c84790163089043460f0c5231 But the second, consisting of Frenchmen, reported that " they saw Noah's Ark... but not on Mount Ararat, " but on the neighboring peak of Jubel Judi.
407f2ffd1b941966ff6d25c83c5b9b162947c765 There, two Turkish journalists later allegedly saw a vessel measuring 500x80x50 feet (165x25x15 meters) with the bones of marine animals.
75ce64620c0ec573c8797b45dc133c780b3e7af8 But three years later, the Riker expedition did not find anything like this.
b20f3175819d73edef8279bfc9250dccc8213b56 In 1955, Fernand Navarre managed to find an ancient ship among the ice, from under the ice he extracted an L shaped beam and several planks of the skin.
20af556934ea80e8bbddc66353cabeeae6a0c684 After 14 years, he repeated his attempt with the help of the American organization "Serch" and brought several more boards.
8ef118c62d4d79121757d85a912a7796c5cf7f16 In the USA, the radiocarbon method showed the age of the tree at 1400 years, in Bordeaux and Madrid the result was different 5000 years!
62b2db9cd387979c3c32c0ac12eb310b5b49f793 ! John Libi from San Francisco followed Navarro to Ararat
4cd54318cdf097ea109e304e307ecb0bd12b1980 This term has other meanings, see Noah's Ark (meanings).
b925e6159270752230002a5f8fbc051fa4b879ae Edward Hicks.
546b6cf62574e385e2e30fd1029260aeaa9b9ee4 "Noah's Ark"
69fb9807d8e5824da23ebd52883008565235d1ec 1 The Biblical narrative 1.1 The duration of the construction of the ark
6daba01c268f2a5f6467743500a663f2d1048b0b 2 References in ancient and medieval sources 3 The Ark in the legends of other peoples 4 The Search for Noah's Ark 4.1 Criticism of the search for the ark on Ararat 4.2 Opponents of the search for the ark
534462af413c802fc0aa2a026494c6396d7d90d7 5 The Ark in literature and art 5.1 In literature 5.2 In painting 5.3 In Music 5.4 In cinema 5.5 In computer games 5.6 Documentaries 5.7 In heraldry
9122ca8ef364f04cff0e3d8750f303420155ba9c 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 References
fa804c13a7e8be41e1c7806460a7dd2c2d16639b Main article: The World Flood
9ebc0bc3c2a3aea0cdb53fb94c7c13227acb3017 According to the Bible, at that time there was a great moral fall of man: And the Lord saw that the corruption of men was great on the earth, and that all the thoughts and thoughts of their hearts were evil at all times; and the LORD repented that he had created man on the earth, and was grieved in his heart But there lived in those days a righteous man and blameless in his kind, pleasing to the Lord, and his name was Noah.
1b119ae96e1e373cee9ff227133e2acd4fd23db2 (Gen. 6:13-16)
632838bdf8d6fcb86d42d5902d8137c1859c9d22 Noah's Ark; illustration by Gustave Dore
5e2afb67a9dd46ef23934518ac0e79d0f6f999b5 "And the waters of the earth increased exceedingly, so that all the high mountains that are under the whole heaven were covered" (Gen. 7: 19) And every creature that was on the surface of the earth lost its life, only Noah and what was with him in the ark remained.
d1a047a884b760893a0ac99d2291c61bf744d2ae The water was constantly decreasing until the tenth month; on the first day of the tenth month, the tops of the mountains appeared.
aa6df43c700d6ee551e22ea23f49b1cd5b746f88 " (Gen. 8: 4,5) On the first day of the following year, the water on the earth dried up; and Noah opened the roof of the ark, and in the second month, on the twenty seventh day, the earth dried up.
aad719f0ca8752b51a8867ff6ea74a34e8c65466 And God said to Noah, "Come out of the ark, you and your wife, and your sons, and your sons' wives with you; bring out all the animals with you <...> And I will no longer amaze everyone who lives <...> And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth… God ordered that the length of the ark should be 300 cubits( 133.5 m); the width 50 cubits (22.25 m), and the height 30 cubits (13.35 m).
4bb4ba019f1a2add689b838eadbeaa74da5a8261 The duration of the construction of the ark[edit / edit wiki text]
538cc8b6ed2f3ad6186b2e6549cbaf663f89d3b9 By the age of 500, Noah had three sons: Shem, Ham and Japhet.
a674ae43a1111521e722cc532960c9db2d249767 According to the Masoretic (Jewish) text, Noah was born in 1056 (according to the Septuagint in 1663) from the Creation of the world.
364099c6d8a329bdedd080805cff83f7c52c593c References in ancient and medieval sources[edit / edit wiki text]
697dc018d2fb73216b90c2f6c87a6d27952bd954 Noah's Ark is mentioned by Josephus (I c. AD) and Marco Polo (XIII c.).
7b0257ce75add65485cb879a8ababbebc2270b68 Quotes
47dd851d67a555471a1dbe7132e140ae41073fa6 After the Lord God had warned the people, He sent rain, and for forty days torrents of water poured continuously, so that it covered the earth fifty cubits high.
8d1d74ec17fba1f284d851fbd6a914150a104f0c This was the reason that in general no one else (except Noah and his family) was saved, since there was no means of retreat and escape.
a18fb861a575596f5e8021f8b424d3a3a129d11e Only one hundred and fifty days after the rain stopped pouring, it was on the seventh day of the seventh month that the water began to gradually sell off.
c9336329428921aa764497a2ebf790c128afec4e Then, when the ark stopped on the top of a mountain in Armenia, and Noah noticed this, the latter opened it and, seeing some land near the ark, began to hope for the best and calmed down.
48e67eaf6dcd9d062654680da13b8d4efe8d1f1e A few days later, when the water had subsided even more, he released the raven, wanting to find out if there was still land free of water and already available for landing.
eb719950ac0cbe8024b0117ca6d42ca57c565110 However, he returned to Noah, finding that everything was still covered with water.
e7855f3d7d36aecfec568067a27c91f2bb9fa1f5 Seven days later, Noah released a dove for the same purpose.
083d28c019a0676bba5399b8a7cb4c98946a245e But when the latter returned to him, soiled and carrying an olive leaf, Noah saw that the earth was freed from water, and after waiting another seven days, he released the animals from the ark and went out himself with his household.
6147545e66093c1c5bb3f04c52b821d9452451d2 After offering a sacrifice to the Lord God, he and his relatives arranged a sacrificial feast.
47a1aeeb1ad3c0198f2708cf901898498b17d3f2 The Armenians call this place "the landing place", and the natives still show the remains of the ark there.
5c4ae068547da93223a7f9e89b969a94a4c82119 This flood and the ark are also mentioned by all those who wrote the history of the Gentiles.
b17e903b7ba8a53453fc043e18f3f7f48e3c3a4b Among them is the Chaldean Berosus.
d12255888d4870308386b8d839de7e31d6a56f78 In one place [of his essay], he speaks as follows about the flood: they say that a remnant of this ark is still preserved in Armenia on Mount Kordu, and that some take resin from it, using it in most cases as a remedy for diseases.
ec4b5b1f6f2265ebe52680e1fc6905c8af1de96e This is also mentioned by the Egyptian Jerome, who wrote the most ancient history of Phoenicia, Mnasei and some others.
0da8bd1353d46fa62289f843ba80f7f0f43b3ddb Similarly, Nicholas of Damascus, telling about this in the ninety sixth book, reports the following: above the area of Miniada there is a high mountain named Baris in Armenia, on which, according to legend, many people sought refuge and found salvation during the flood.
65383f635af8d5e59763d78b4e8935f5a2df317e It is also reported that someone in the ark stopped at its top and that for a long time the remains of this ship were preserved [here].
246ea81cc9fd38d6beec0606e23b221213f55aeb Perhaps this is the same person about whom Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, also wrote.
6ecccb3bae17d5db926bb468c21c6f24bc6d48c5 - Josephus, I century[2]
4813d7d0e596003d57a48763f0cff1337dbb2ee0 In Great Armenia, I will tell you again, on a high mountain — Noah's Ark.
797fa033ab2f37ede88cd756414a5389faf392cb - Marco Polo, XIII century[3]
5c642ad18d860af201cb20107bd7ddd821dedf53 In the central part of Armeina stands an exceedingly large mountain, upon which, it is said, the ark of Noah rested, and for this reason it is termed the mountain of the ark.
a73864d95a82e782757b1a4b555d5f4967e3e2da - Marco Polo, XIII century[4]
61bff74fc15a16e2c0944c44bfadda55473e54ea The Ark in the legends of other peoples[edit / edit wiki text]
f1f8fa8327cb24ff0cb2466129cf2fa8c7b1393d The Search for Noah's Ark[edit / edit wiki text]
bba97a16d7ef6f04a1f684bd5a3f98f6df67b86b A photo of a Durupinar taken by a Turkish pilot in 1957.
6a1d7b56f7d7fa215bf195062332b27ea6ebe962 The supposed remains of Noah's Ark near Mount Ararat in Turkey.
5df8eb3b8e795eb68ad8b67568d6b72c443ae7f8 According to the Armenian historiography[the source is not specified 1110 days], one of the saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church — Hakob Mtsbnetsi, who wanted to find the ark, made many attempts to climb Ararat.
7debb1b6fc385aaf7382b4a785b0aa515982cf09 But every time, according to legend, he fell asleep halfway and woke up at the bottom.
c668f6df533a7ee2b585ffea931606d8e1834795 The story tells how one day, during another attempt, an angel allegedly appears to him in a dream and asks him not to try to find the ark anymore, but promises to give him a piece of the wooden hull of the ship.
641eadc5808c31a000cf5ddad1b5de9e1d68174b Legend has it that, having woken up, St. Hakob discovers a fragment of the ark nearby and brings it to the Etchmiadzin Cathedral, where this fragment is kept to this day.
ff6624bb99d6c37288b5ec55aaba2a3727400ffa At the place where, according to legend, the fragment was discovered, the monastery of St. Nicholas was later erected.
da595f7319d069b2785e7ee3ad4cc34b7b602148 Akopa, and the Akhor gorge (Vihk Maseats or Akori) on the north eastern slope of the mountain also became known as the gorge of St. Hakob.
7643e82c321bf049ab32d5197750e9ab94410e49 This legend is an adaptation of an earlier legend, which featured Mount Judi (see Ararat#St. James and the inaccessibility of the summit of Ararat).
32faa33b9ae314c0c312ec8efd34f31544ece295 Since about the beginning of the IV century[the source is not specified 1305 days], attempts have been made from time to time to find the remains of Noah's ark in the area of Mount Ararat — where, according to one of the traditions, the ark landed on the earth after the flood.
83be19de88a4519cfde92d0de455b03aec1c10b4 In the XIX and XX centuries, several expeditions visited those places, and although none of them found the ark, many of the researchers claimed to have seen something identified as its remains.
b91641dc51d534c4437d9c2c6b88812dc394c355 In 1887, John Joseph, who calls himself Prince Nuri and Archbishop of Babylon, reported that he had found the remains of the ark on Ararat.
c4335fe271874aa91c3cc50e3f77e9d19843c677 Six years later, he tried to organize an expedition to disassemble the Ark and deliver it to the World's Fair in Chicago.
4ffe2a537cc686565eaee48113662dc2c04f4e2e He was able to get funding, but the Turkish government did not give permission for transportation in case the Ark was found.
97b280f3dcac334b209627055a3878943c538c1f Nuri's report is considered extremely dubious due to the identity of Nuri, who uses unconfirmed titles and spent some time in a hospital for the insane in California[6].
e1d382ca027b8b96a1359c1513f616b6854877ed The Russian language press has a popular story about a Russian military pilot, Lieutenant Vladimir Roskovitsky, who emigrated to America, who during the First World War in 1916, flying over the city of Ararat, saw what he called a "lying big ship" and assumed that it was Noah's Ark.
b8ad1db4625abc8acb8c65dcc6532cf505fd7296 The pilot sketched what he saw and wrote a report.
15765564cc25d504712b07085bfb3dd3b8ee89b7 A year later, the air forces of the Russian Empire allegedly sent an expedition of 150 people with Roskovitsky to Armenia on the city of Ararat, which found the Ark[7][not in the source] and took many photos of it, but during the revolution, the report allegedly disappeared without a trace, Turkey by that time was actively fighting against Russia and Armenia, and Mount Ararat was occupied.
f6af5694dc3aa5ad4b3568d67bad0cfca2cbf4cb Documentary evidence of the discovery, as well as the existence of a pilot with such a surname, except for the article of a person calling himself the son of this pilot, in the magazine "Technique - youth", was not found.
275900bfce0357881482bf17739befd87601a66a In 1955, the French industrialist and explorer Fernand Navarre [8] undertook an expedition to Ararat, from which he brought the remains of a board, broken off, according to him, from a wooden skeleton, presumably being an Ark.
a38749750bb07a08d2daf398721dde95130b6ff5 Some of the studies conducted partially confirmed the age of the tree at 5,000 years, but all of them were very subjective and variable.
d27055fd83d75ae19452fdeddffe7c53160651a0 In particular, the researchers disagreed about what kind of oak it was, and one of the laboratories basically refused to consider the option that it could be a species with a lower density of wood, which would show a younger age.
c7deb3ee7df79b084af71ce9bea3981c30898f4d As a result, radiocarbon analysis data obtained from five laboratories dated the remains of the tree to the second half of the 1st millennium AD[9].
c0b6252604fe08922172405c4e2f7fe0bb707887 Currently, one of the main places where, according to the seekers, the ark rests is the Ararat Anomaly[10].
3e719b626bf84740865c6662505ac00eae9a545d The anomaly is an object of unknown nature protruding from the snow on the northwestern slope of Mount Ararat, 2200 meters from the top.
d7af328dec25765827885b84727a6580339348a6 Scientists who have access to the images explain the formation by natural causes.
4dec5c4cab4205d355d2d5cc3007520a3ba13476 On site research is difficult because the area located near the Armenian Turkish border is a military closed zone, and access to it is limited.
f21a2e048b4baa6f7caafd4b88a8c8bc90c4418a Another potential location of the ark is Tendyurek, an area about 30 kilometers south of Ararat (39°26'26" s. w. 44°14 ' 04 " vd / 39.44056° s. w. 44.23444° vd / 39.44056; 44.23444 (G) (O)).
596718047ad11b0ecc12dab8c46b8ce276034b54 In 1957, the American magazine "Life" published photos taken in this area from an airplane.
94eab353dadd0fc7a5b512ce118b0c376f25d0a9 The captain of the Turkish army, Ilham Durupinar, looking through aerial photographs, found interesting formations that resembled a ship in shape, and sent them to the magazine.
65028db72dc0bd7e17ee28ba922a8e92ec0b07aa The article caught the eye of Ron Wyatt, an American anesthesiologist who decided to study this phenomenon.
592c5d7919eca40baa18769159d763b19ebbb927 After several expeditions, he came to the conclusion that this formation is nothing but Noah's Ark[11].
8842bc96cf69535a94559caa1e7de429d9e89813 As in the case of the Ararat Anomaly, professional archaeologists do not take these statements seriously.
3a2a85d2e6068d3482ad956a753bab2e141b3f2c Nevertheless, in 1987, together with the district administration, a small tourist center was built in this place.
c8c05ff0e1ed5d6288bcdbd22793d3b67bfec420 [12].
20bdf8501794d578befb2ce62e3bd22cb27db4a5 There are several other areas that various organizations involved in the search for the ark consider to be its potential location.
2c11135dc39c74797d83bd34ea9e26653d762f59 Thus, the Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute (BASE), a fundamentalist American organization, believes that the remains of the ark should be searched in Iran.
5526f7962934d208a279d7d62ae2700323c12112 On her return, an expedition to the Elbursi Mountains, equipped by her in July 2006, stated that she had seen an object at an altitude of about 4,500 meters, the dimensions of which coincided with those indicated in the Bible.
08e776e13913f78097889afa49f6ee7df9a46143 None of the members of the expedition is a professional geologist or archaeologist.
6201c8dfb094d18e2a524b7927cd95a4a7d96076 In October 2009, scientists visited inside and filmed, as they claim, the remains of the legendary Noah's Ark on Mount Ararat.
5ae8c0f10e5c1faf0b88968fe80b409a1d626c77 The archaeological find was made during a joint expedition of scientists from Turkey and Hong Kong.
94b809c6a29808272300ca7a486e545cefebd640 All photos and videos are available on the official website of the research group noahsarksearch.com.
f6a33bc64fb9d19ff7f66794ab60f06984300f28 The participants of the expedition periodically give lectures in different countries of the world, sharing their thoughts and impressions.
7c149b14ee20e7c54cea832ad74a357b9f5368a5 Criticism of the search for the ark on Ararat[edit / edit wiki text]
0a519e9d064e55df8414d22b12821c6558e7e0c6 According to modern ideas, the name "mountains of Ararat" in the Bible does not refer to Ararat itself, but to the mountains in Urartu an area in the north of Assyria and, at other times, a state north of Assyria.
16770a5f173bd1bbdbfab17a4c59870428fbbf45 According to the Brockhaus Bible Encyclopedia, there is nothing to indicate that the ark landed precisely on the modern Mount Ararat[13].
41a868f30dc9dd2f1747ff2370db5515d58f52d5 The famous Soviet orientalist I. Sh.
aaeae63da76c8c88df8e02c5baa5ac9f3ade8f2a Shifman writes that "the announcement of "Ararat" is late, first attested in the Septuagint.
b6950ebde52358edb0a6ed656a2fdbbc423b449e However, the Qumran manuscripts chronologically close to it also preserved the 'wrrt' variant, suggesting the announcement of 'Urarat' " [14].
cd42d38fd935a070e0f1bc7b3838584cad380f03 In the scientific translation of the Pentateuch made by Shifman, the corresponding passage (Gen. 8:4) reads as follows: "And the ark stopped in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, near the mountains of Urartu"[15].
55a9ea4f9fc2d6ae5a2f5c79601bc24be3ca01c8 Opponents of the Ark search[edit / edit wiki text]
18859258a2909bf714adac68eb2b86a4f5b1d8dc In the Middle Ages, people did not dare to look for the ark, because some chronicles said that the day when the remains of the ark were found, the end of the world could come (there are many people who are convinced of this today).
cae3968b74b8bc9fdee203c1536ab0c47b668bc4 In medieval Armenia itself, the search for the ark was condemned, however, not for this reason at all: Mount Ararat was considered holy, and searching for the ark there was tantamount to sacrilege[source not specified 1110 days].
5b9668d6547528c7c004f4f5b89163c1767a1cd8 The Ark in literature and art[edit / edit wiki text]
7d3f11d636828ac16f938e29081400b95d5ed2b6 In the literature[edit / edit wiki text]
e1fdea2153465a739ab45d10d522169b1da16da9 See also Noah
3822c5e5c3930fea97616f730492f6297b6174d2 Kobo Abe.
84b0872962d69ed7501f06e8ca34a78b289f8fd9 "The Sakura Ark".
98a7f4bc9b76a082eee2fbae0318787a0519b52c (1984) A novel about the earth after a nuclear war.
a813e5002e1c24419a6783c726f33534c9a71da7 Vladimir Mayakovsky, "Mystery Buff".
0a788e2593a51ccdd88b5d4397b77866a277cb03 The Ark is one of the places of action, along with heaven, hell and the promised land.
ce6829f8903090a62478d01f2bbc62455b29d5fa Andrey Platonov.
eb598a5322588ba55970ee1bb92c139d2bfece00 "Noah's Ark".
20cfcd0a4febcac4817d2a508e2289eb94a3caf0 (1951) The unfinished play mystery.
1a77ced9c45ba8d663d6a93df16d2aac6638e5ad Gerald Durrell.
1cdb09eb3c83fd93fcf49d91af62360fbe084abb "New Noah", "The overloaded Ark", "The Ark on the island".
a35f34fd35df1824bcc8d745ab785518eb70eef3 A well known naturalist uses the name of the patriarch and the theme of the ark for the titles of books about collecting animals.
f4ab3f18e078cd4af1dc688e07d43a8fb54bb3e1 Noah's Ark on the state emblem of Armenia
fabc2f27f9a2fe45df28772efa62b4cd57a52fe9 Noah's Ark (top left) in the coat of arms of the city of Nakhichevan (founded, according to legend, by Noah) of the Georgian Imereti province, 1843
e51d0db0dc11a31a351bc54270d3833a456f2828 In painting[edit / edit wiki text]
b9ce2e888ae18ecfb2f2adea5872acd569c4289e The Ballymote Book
de828190dbb272a2444e1085d8e2cd424054da0a In music[edit / edit wiki text]
37051a78f2b20132dadd7d1b2382b97e49ab4700 Britten, Benjamin (opera "Noah's Ark" (1958), for children) The video for the song "Forever Not Yours" by the Norwegian pop group a ha shows the near future and the construction of a similar Ark.
f345da6d618710ae3bf947af5d1a1301aa441794 Noah's Ark (1928) "The Bible" (1966) "Stowaways on Noah's Ark" (cartoon, 1988) Noah's Ark (1999) The Heavenly Captain and the world of the future " Noah's Ark "(VOX Film / VOX Video 2007) Evan the Almighty 2012 Noah (2014) Oops ...
58ddaaeb7ee5ef8dac12c4bcce9cbd9d0508f657 Noah sailed away!
b1b0bf4207b369625a673b9921083f3f1a1a13f5 (cartoon, 2015)
6cafe38fd44479b96bd3aee25287d7c627d7e763 In computer games[edit / edit wiki text]
23dd52155d9dc288f226e876091a869209647f4f In ANNO 2070, the Arks are huge (the size of a small island) ships that move under water and are used to populate new islands that covered the Earth after the melting of glaciers.[significance of the fact?]
fae34dcda8170e28a2201012bef7180360e964f2 Noah's Ark The True Story / Noah's Ark — The Real Story (BBC / 2004) Riddles of the Bible: In search of Noah / Riddles of the Bible: Search of Noah (National Geographic / 2006) In search of an answer.
0213d12a24318274cd6349f9a62103b042049dae Noah's Ark (Astro TV / 2012)
a2cb4e28463070d045ee1fbb90cf8fa11cbb146b In heraldry[edit / edit wiki text]
104ef747ba91dbc8204e7c7ef60c4378c92032cb Noah's Ark is depicted on the state emblem of Armenia; on the coats of arms of the Armenian region[16] and the Georgian Imereti province[16][17]
f387cf460c57201eafd8a61d4e145d2b324db79d The Russian Empire, as well as cities that were part of the Armenian region[16] and the Georgian Imereti province[16] (the upper part of the shield).
c6194772a7ae614eb2aa9d5f32a8a4aee4d63676 Matsya
7669b0d31131d0c0ee4a8584ca487b0b72ce393d Rashi's comment with reference to Bereshit Rab 33: "The rains began on the seventeenth day of the second month (7: 11).
b8f5fc8c33fc426ae78aa7cbc4db930db4ef296b These are eleven days for which the solar year is longer than the lunar one, because the punishment of the flood generation lasted for a whole solar year."
e798bb0ce198ce4c6ad7595e03d307d5231e685c Иуд Jewish antiquities, book.
e743507800ee5245d7bf01a3dfb6c9253ad70268 I, ch .
2c7e8216b8717edbd438103eb0794f2f30dc1d0d III ↑ A book about the diversity of the world, book.
eaacc318308c47cf2570cd554ac1321bc4d38704 XXII ↑ The Travels of Marco Polo, book.
2318f64528a19abe19b2193fdc577186635dc8a6 IV ↑ Noah's Ark turned out to be round Ren Rene Noorbergen.
486488ee95629d36a8c59a92ec93a1166416b08e The Ark File.
255bf5d21624a0bbf27ad183b89050ae297ad5aa USA, 2004, ISBN 978-1-57258-266-8 ↑ Ooparts & Ancient High Technology Flood of Noah?
292f87244640dcbdd53c4f5fb08478fd33aa513b Archpriest Stefan Lyashevsky, The Bible and the science of creation.
289cd50953b5fe49b3d913d7ce492028f25686f7 Part four.
94d8a09b0e97474f10e09afa09ed7323eac1e26d The history of the search for Noah's Ark.
179c0839405548fc58b975c72beafdf91f9acc05 ↑ Index to Creationist Claims: CH504.2. Navarra retrieved hand hewn wood from high on Ararat.
7314e7a02580a24c5b519e82a552621fb84ae53f Ара The Ararat Anomaly: images from space, 2006 ↑ A detailed description of Ron Wyatt's research ↑ Noah's Ark (1995) Ри Rineker F., Mayer G. Ararat / / Brockhaus Bible Encyclopedia.
6594cbbe580e0f668a0e8c9cf2db36aa19ca1d94 - Christliche Verlagsbuchhandlung Paderborn, 1999.
27374fdcfe5bb06b66ade856e89aecd14d339f27 - 1226 p.
8511ffb4ca4dae00af0490e1d32b8ab8118421ab Уч Teaching.
96645151deb00ba1020e48273d18e2c14a969195 The Five Books of Moiseyevo / Trans., introduction and commentary by I. Sh.
104b61d302348107021a49b6eb2393761896b64e Shifman.
20dec8683a11ed746780e199db7da6e95c38775c - M.: Republic, 1993.
60483d288a854b99f357a7b4c2eb0520a750da68 - p. 273 — - 335 p.
9b29166b4e507ab71239194d8006d81bab04a8b8 — ISBN 5-250-00781-3.
8c39975ac7ff0edce2b1c11868580e0344f2d839 Шиф Shifman, p .
983ef82520d6d9460f7e617059549eeb37ca3eac 63 ↑ 1 2 3 4 P. P. von Winkler.
4b35bca2eb88bc8c428edefd483ab4854c93e45e Coats of arms of cities, provinces, regions and townships of the Russian Empire, included in the Complete Collection of Laws from 1649 to 1900.
d152d17ed8b0eaf24e13419dad59f4f014c89456 - Edition of the bookseller Iv.
f8c139d83c0e48a2f3be1bdc4fae6dd523dd841e Iv.
688f0f3b322152d4fabdfefefe6818ed3598c120 Ivanov — - St. Petersburg, 1899 — - 312 p.
40ec8a54e05c8230e228487439c93b858b885354 Полное The complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire
88dc0dacfbda6be25193500934b553bb5db08766 Olga Sudnikovich How many arks are there on Ararat?
4d918d49f7097162e11cb917b9d5ca1d13a51a07 Part 3.
99916a44f90807c2e42c2868f889bc2a8da7910c Land expeditions and the Second Ark / / The Great Epoch, 21.07.2012.
038083d897483b98f7fc0a950d062cf3ff1a9513 Noah's Ark on Wikimedia Commons?
8e80168f28a3e9858667c82045c468330b329ebb Noah's Ark article from the Electronic Jewish Encyclopedia The Ararat Anomaly from the satellite (WikiMapia)
d82804f87bf854981fe72eb6c9f1faa0f3d502dc The Story of Noah The characters of Noah
532912bfa1a9d6fbaa2ba9a7eac4bf8dc7228340 Events Flood | Covenant with humanity | Settlement of peoples Basic concepts Noah's Ark | Ararat | Dove of Peace | Seven Laws of the descendants of Noah | Bnei Noah ("Sons of Noah") In various sources Nuh Children of Noah Shem | Japhet | Ham
3d50a7d41a39a3e2e2e118e3427001c4040ab7a6 Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Noah's Ark&oldid=74953532"
1de6c7911df9ad13f50f125e8ace6e14d324a903 Categories: Biblical archeology Ships and ships in religion and mythology Old Testament stories Noah's ark The Book of Genesis
63dbaf7104993651268884c459d9413b3162edb1 Hidden categories: Wikipedia:No sources since December 2012 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:No sources since May 2012 Articles with statements not found in the specified source Articles with statements without significance
2c692f1a66be1f405f89ca635c08f871102f208e Afrikaans አማርኛ العربية বাংলা Bosanski / Bulgarian تۆرکجه Mìng ngṳ dĕng Català Corsu Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Furlan Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego עברית Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Italiano 日本語 ქართული 한국어 Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski Simple English Slovenčina Srpski Slovenscina / srpski Svenska Kiswahili தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Ukrainian اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 Winaray Bân lâm gú 粵語
76317473a0679c986d92579f4c4caf393eccb2c6 Last modified on this page: 20: 01, December 6, 2015.
bca086ed213bbbfa9277b8663808b35ccec243ec The history of the CSKA football club began in 1911, when a football section was organized in the Society of Skiing Enthusiasts (OLS).
e2f036618a9887924a0a1b57488900a3a99ec01b On the basis of this football section, three teams were formed, which in the same year for the first time took part in the Moscow championship in the "B"class.
456078d3d49b4e6862a6dea4f050e98892197fe1 On August 14 (27), 1911, the first official match of the OLS team with the Vega club was played.
76a0db189008b5beaa6a6f855b04c4906853586d The match ended with the victory of the OLS players with the score 6: 2.
6b64d43a58d4841648a432eb6f7bee40c748e816 In 1916, the team won first place in the Kazan League (the championship of teams located in suburban areas along the Kazan Railway) and entered the class " A " of the Moscow championship, where it played until 1922.
4ac5823a27bab007ae1d059f26a742fcab2feeec The year of birth of the current CSKA team is considered to be April 29, 1923, when the army team of the OPPV was formed on the basis of the OLS (the Vsevobuch Experimental Demonstration Site, and a little later, the Voenved Experimental Demonstration Site).
15e32e3b5c39ff521d31723a00eeb5af01bc89fe In 1926, the Moscow championship in class "A" was won, in 1928 the name was changed to CDKA.
28606272d2213b47d6920423880a6e6c9681d1dc In 1935, the team again became the champion of Moscow and played a friendly match with the USSR national team, in which it lost 1: 3.
0afaa9674c47035224181e5ff5b24cfe0de1dfd6 In 1936, the first union football championship was held, the Moscow Army men as champions of Moscow, got into class A, and took 4th place in that championship, Moscow and Leningrad teams played in that championship, as well as Dynamo Kiev.
11241ef59deb8396c337d7a0fea65800abe80098 In 1938 and 1939, FC CSKA (Moscow) won silver and bronze championships, and after the war in 1945 won the USSR Cup.
abe8726ee5ccf50bb28061a3c28d6357cba693fa In 1950, CSKA became the champion, the success was repeated the following year, but the team was already called CDSA.
c8a60fcaef2c9bb9ca1e67504db95c241e58ab82 For most fans of army sports, the concept of CSKA is primarily associated with hockey and football teams.
96790ae117fef73d09cab37649ffae1aad0c6055 It is no coincidence that the birthday of the Central Sports Club of the Army is considered to be April 29, 1923, when players with a new emblem ran out onto the football field in Sokolniki.
5b87a5c2a7ab32bad783cf8c29cf6ec69621f394 The best football players of the year were the army men-Albert Shesternev (1970), Vladimir Astapovsky (1976), Igor Korneev (1991).
50a936cc08ab6b46d3bcd0b0fd05f5f864904b44 The greatest number of matches for the club were played: in the USSR championships - Vladimir Fedotov (381 for 15 seasons), in the Russian championships - Valery Minko (more than 170 matches for 7 seasons).
8270444366a2780c723317aec5029dbe25d4ac72 Top scorer: in the USSR championships - Grigory Fedotov (124 goals).
7a21dfd6eb3bde72f04e040e46e93db26a433f8b Record holders for the season: in the USSR championships - Vsevolod Bobrov, in the Russian championships - Alexander Grishin.
01252f6aed5be3e474624560145a07a1a100b56a The professional football club of the Central Sports Club of the Army, or simply CSKA, is one of the most popular Russian professional clubs based in Moscow.
d18b1fa8c13e4776062182ec0c16d4508459ba45 As for international success, the victory in the 2005 UEFA Cup is certainly the most striking here.
e5564548297f675a25dda5f6dec1ddb3e031633c Although CSKA won its last league title in 2006, the club, nevertheless, remains one of the most successful in the history of domestic football.
742ea38f3187f5b5c6a0d28aff2568f5fc7ee318 CSKA has left a big mark in the history of both Soviet and Russian football.
613aa2bd5a973853d6d7020c09780179b5861370 CSKA won the Soviet Union championship seven times(1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1970, 1991), he became a silver medalist four times, and took bronze six more times.
993949ffcc089c4988b912df82bd8c65cff45c97 Five times the USSR Cup was in the hands of CSKA players(1945, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1991).
d91eec0b84202f626b1d335ff35b1cb7ba7453e8 The army team remained specialists in cup matches even after the collapse of the Soviet Union – the team won it six times (2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009 and 2011).
f5bae88a521552bd490b6b7b504720f4858280aa PFC CSKA (Professional Football Club CSKA) is a Russian football club from Moscow, formerly part of the Central Sports Club of the Army.
0cbfe44f54d819ed1e302049c867f73845f67916 One of the oldest and most titled[1] clubs in the post-Soviet history of Russian football, leading its history from the OLS (Society of Ski Lovers) team, founded in 1911.
7a38e01c16067920a93eda416f938a11eb28304a Seven-time champion of the USSR[2], five-time winner of the USSR Cup[2], five-time champion of Russia[2], seven-time winner of the Russian Cup[3] and six-time winner of the Russian Super Cup.
f314a8fc4e7e70008dbd0f8ad184c9fd3161bc11 The first Russian club to win the European club tournament (UEFA Cup 2004/05) [2].
e3760420edf625e89b9520b2d9ceae9a71f8f206 In 2013, for the first time, he won the national championship held under the "autumn spring" system (2012/2013 season)[3].
949fcd3a8888d723ba98d5bc6c8059286f935ca6 In 2014, the club won the championship for the fifth time, and thus, CSKA became the first club in Russian history to collect the originals of all the trophies[4].
61cc4984c8a81bdf8a327cd1f9f1125e4365390e The history of the CSKA football club began in 1911, when a football section was organized in the Society of Ski Enthusiasts (OLS).
5f22621f3975b1e5dec160ea0127643521c085db After the 1917 season, part of the second team of the OLS moved to the first.
3650dc651e531d8d385afb1f9eaf0a6d1b7133cf In 1921, in the autumn championship of Moscow (the Fulda Cup), the champion was determined in the "golden match", in which the teams of OLS and KFS took part.
58672fd68303c1748ab4bc4c0cb049f247e7045e In the 1922 season, the OLS football players won the Moscow spring championship[7] and took second place in the autumn.
91903475935d9fc427072b444f78c0bda8c30fc5 In the same year, OLS won the "KFS-Kolomyaga Cup", in the final of which, according to the rules, the winners of the first and second leagues of the Moscow championship met, and the" Cup of Capitals", in which the champions of Moscow and Petrograd met.
1a3a1e19ad83b92266eeebf5dadc78b5095d21ea As part of the sponsorship, the symbolism of the football club was added to one of the Aeroflot Sukhoi Superjet 100 (RA 89010) aircraft[300].
d4ea9b22491776d9ea744ace37ab17ffa4e3ff2b In the 1926 season, the army managed to win the championship of Moscow in the "A" class (this was the name of the new league).
4bf801e62c6d0f1c8cd2eb18b835ce8af4089aa0 Moreover, in fact, the championship was not completed — due to the expansion of the class to 14 teams and a bad calendar, all the matches were not played by November, but the winner was declared the leading at that time OPPV.
a20edc6a9cb1df04448fa6a44e437e77905527c8 On February 23, 1928, the day of the decade of the Red Army, the Frunze Central House of the Red Army was opened in Moscow, where the sports department was organized.
8c44e43d3476a488e8d0be45edc533376f75eaf4 In the same year, all the sports forces of the OPPV were transferred to the Central House of the Red Army.
fe32f4e6c8cfb2d41015c2d7a5bae6fc8321e284 That year, the championship of the capital was played between 6 clubs: "Trekhgorka", "Dynamo", CDKA, "Pishcheviki", RKIMA and COR.
78a51d71286f2896d68b30387c3996081f1bf943 CDKA was considered one of the favorites, but in the end it shared only 4-6 places.
1d016196f294df4e9ceb2a8a0e111f4a8462176b Nevertheless, the army men performed quite successfully in long-distance and international meetings.
eb5dbc9ad8963811bbbd57e5dc8e982dda7835f4 For example, the Muscovites played with the best team of Azerbaijan — "Progress" — in Baku and won with a score of 5: 1, they drew 2: 2 with a working Finnish team that played at the Spartakiad in Moscow, and next year they beat the national team of Kiev (3: 2) and the national team of the Kiev garrison (4:1).
9ac076fe98cd020bee9fc38021f6639475e9e2cf In the autumn of 1935, the CDKA won the Moscow championship.
36eb2b4eab3b945eacc2df3bb560696f8f382157 In 1936, the USSR Football Championship was held for the first time.
976ab3545bf4abc02062205c4a5a0bac4c9a3170 CDKA played in class " A " together with the capital "Dynamo", "Spartak" and "Locomotive", the Leningrad "Dynamo" and "Krasnaya Zarya", as well as the Kiev "Dynamo".
6015a471416c60f4297a67b18671cf19eede52ae The Army team won their first match in the championship against Krasnaya Zarya with a score of 6: 2, this victory was the first major win in the history of the USSR championships.
17d2573c290775c93fe17e6f53c817912dbe421d On May 29, 1936, the army team won, with a score of 3: 0, the first victory in the USSR championship over its principal rival-Spartak Moscow.
37c496400d1f1b5894c4c9b92de9d1eb3db0b574 However, further performances of the army men began to develop not so successfully, and as a result, the CDKA finished the spring championship in 4th place.
01b109045a15ed97f1ca78c6ab76f9008fcd21ec In the autumn championship of 1936, the club took the last (eighth) place at all and, according to the principle of rotation, for the next season it was supposed to go a league lower — to the "B"class.
7ef91af56e11dba9503853207abd96c5de6427d2 But the highest military ranks intervened in the matter, and although the CDKA started the championship in the lower league, the class " A " was expanded, and the army men finished the championship in the strongest division.
0fcc98204f8838f16701df2f9cf5092e3f3dd0e3 This measure did not help — in the 1937 season, the CDKA again took the last (this time ninth) place.
c99bd782ae1332f73253f53a13359696a58476e9 However, that year another reform of the supreme union league took place, which has now been expanded to 26 teams.
e9d7935b9da13735ade65a1efadf8344711d1c4a Also, for the first time, a "draft" policy was used to strengthen the squad — promising and strong players from other teams were called up for military service and enlisted in the team.
f3fdad63587f479d296e8245a5ab871365c86852 One of the first in the ranks of the "called up" players was the right extreme of the Moscow "Metallurg" Grigory Fedotov.
3aa4bf22ce367cd14504c0e64425248e438779ff In the first season with Fedotov, the Army team took second place in the championship, losing the first place to Spartak.
125d90c5a97231e6e774d5ef6ad90eeba7acdf14 In the championships that remained before the war, the CDKA took 3rd and 4th places, and the team was replenished with right insider Valentin Nikolaev and forward Alexey Grinin.
f60903ff70e2211638b2283e91faadd0d0a42018 On June 22, 1941, the army team had to play an away match in Kiev against Dynamo.
c7b892fca12ec08e1924f013311be0287e9d4ecb But the match did not take place: the city was bombed early in the morning.
ab095e2477014b91462fb8ebda5d86350c1e96c3 The Great Patriotic War began.
6de1762368cfaec3399708a0b1366f5df0663016 During the war, many CDKA players sent reports with a request to send them to the front.
277ee8931e3ea8ed7119fb3a662e23142bebb26e But the management wanted to preserve the best football personnel of the country, and the team continued to train, although during the bombing of Moscow, football players were involved in protecting the administrative buildings of the NGO and the General Staff.
d281c01cc072a93dd718ed4457703cd1ba9f4cb5 In March 1942, the players of the CDKA, who had a secondary education, were sent for short-term training to the military faculty of the Institute of Physical Education.
2af4f3d3f6c6de81d8955fd404c9e0343e6be05f After its completion, 16 players received the rank of second lieutenant, as a result of which the post-war CDKA was called the "team of lieutenants".
7cfef938537dfe28c1cd4725b9ee9c121c378c08 During the war, the city championship was played in the capital, and in 1943 the army men became the winners of this championship.
dc2f3a50d3934c3ccb8996212874d4f67f78dccc In 1944, the USSR Cup was resumed, and the CDKA reached the final, where in a stubborn struggle it lost to Zenit Leningrad with a score of 1: 2.
4f5515de3f72d7a76071e0e143331c7d36711808 The first post-war season was marked by a confrontation between the CDKA and the capital Dynamo.
8814eea61dbc76cb9403586348133d59310b15f1 Dynamo won the championship, and the army team was stronger in the cup final.
cf5c5ac2ba93462c2ee488d713b4c6b19282ea3d That season, another CDKA player, Vsevolod Bobrov, clearly showed himself.
575e76c00b37f7bb90cbfdf7416cc2c009a42c1c This year was the first for the "team of lieutenants".
4a4bb7e192d3bf274a248ea054ad1e308eed5842 The army team won the 1946 championship without any problems, and in 1947 the fight unfolded.
7991d54e4495dad8992f35d68a52f654b4934da6 Almost the entire season, Dynamo Moscow was in the lead.
86a489cf15e37b822dfc2eb50bf8b19128a2454d The blue and white team gave out a winning streak of 12 consecutive victories and came up to a face-to-face meeting with the Army pursuers in the rank of the favorite.
5da912ee586d6f04c5893c362183b671bb5a3505 The sworn enemy of the army fans are the Spartacists, and the allies are the fans of Dynamo Moscow and SKA Rostov.
14838246f4687b17e182dbb11ccc4f1eb91541b9 In a hard fight at the Dynamo stadium, the Army team snatched the victory.
53379b5e7f52eef7d40247e1bc6bbbc24dc5da2b However, this match, although it was important, was not the most decisive.
ab3459b4445002f632206541ff435f614da86881 At the end of the championship, the "team of lieutenants" had to play in Tbilisi with the local "Dynamo".
8e16acaf6b51dc496c018c885cca081784e641be The curator of the Dynamo sports club in those years was Lavrenty Beria, and there was no doubt that the Tbilisi football players would try to help the" departmental " Moscow team.
82a5764958e916ca18d2ffe12a389eae28825652 In that championship, there was a regulation that when points were equal, the ratio of goals scored to goals conceded was taken into account.
f7c50808b5352c1da86d2db3b457d3a2cafaf856 The CDKA really needed a victory.
826bc7f85c987b1f4e69b9bd05479613fa971a8b A draw with a score of 0: 0 or 1: 1 would complicate the situation of the team.
8a20e61e3cd5cc366d885b29c9cc48e9579204d0 A draw with a score of 2: 2 or more would make further struggle for the championship almost impossible.
fa4a25e8535dc858179df5709f9379bd8a9083ee Dinamo Tbilisi twice led in the score, but the CDKA by Bobrov's forces twice compared the score.
6f868b4a37bf5d8cf65e3aa1b53600ee8372717f As a result, the match ended in a draw, and the chances of the army team for the championship became quite illusory: in the match of the last round, the CDKA had to beat the Stalingrad Tractor, and score 5 goals and not miss a single one.
7b1cb26651c2b8352423da4a4786aa75a803e676 As a result, the ratio of goals scored to conceded at the CDKA was 0.125 better than at Dynamo.
1b792e34e5840301d6b21d71da427acf64d8230e In 1948, the situation was almost completely repeated.
2b5d3ab065107b43a01e81c010944e2b651b52bc The entire championship was led by Dynamo, and the CDKA, having given out 11 winning matches in a row in the second round, came to the last round — a face — to-face meeting with the leader-having 1 point less.
3c6d87260de0e1fc91d390b0d40a17d155265a48 Losing 1: 2 without their injured leader Grigory Fedotov, the Army team snatched the victory.
570de981d2d12a99853ef1779e737604b02d257d Bobrov's decisive goal, 3: 2 — and CDKA became the champion for the third time in a row.
f2103c617da1acc511d653a241bca32e289390b3 In the same year, 1948, the army team made their first "golden double", winning the national cup.
007dd7c46ae254d848f281e849205673c8828fe4 In the semifinals, as a result of a replay, the CDKA snatched victory from the same Dynamo Moscow, and in the final it defeated the winner of the 1947 cup, Spartak Moscow.
8a5a47289b08d926f019e27ae0bcdf47f680f96b CDSA was absent from the best teams in the country for only two seasons.
3ef07614daf05e55345263144ad12b2f79a5b4ef In the spring of 1953, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, I. V. Stalin, died, after some time, the First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, L. P. Beria, was shot.
1af10e21f068829a1c722c841558cda496a62ca6 In the autumn of the same year, the Minister of Defense N. A. Bulganin signed an order on the re-establishment of football teams at the district houses of officers, including the CDSA.
59ebeea2552e3cd4bce127a4afde831ba097c066 Grigory Pinaichev was appointed the senior coach of the team, Konstantin Lyaskovsky and Grigory Fedotov were appointed assistants.
3b2bab8fcde1fc267fbed9bb67ec82bc717a12dc There were some problems with the recruitment of the squad — many of the stars of the "team of lieutenants" had already either finished their careers or were at a solid age for football players.
c42251b9502c98faa729800a2a0f4f40e300b962 The first match of the revived CDSA team was held on April 5, 1954 in Kiev with Torpedo from Gorky.
6610340d1866715d8a91672b5ed1334585c37adf The match ended with the score 1: 1, Vasily Buzunov scored a goal for the army team.
4ab92b496a71fe417209514e6ddb22523b0e7c5e The team, criticized in the press for an unimpressive game, finished the season in 6th place (out of 13) with 24 points.
cae6597b9110210c5db82fa97ee3835a94831c4a Nevertheless, the team was sometimes able to fight on equal terms with the leaders.
830a788485cf4b640b1bc0a484cf0040c025caaa So, with a score of 2:1 that season, Spartak Moscow was beaten (goals were scored by Korshunov and Buzunov).
06ee941bbd96b16ad2e5127856b31653ed0c8205 On February 21, 2001, the change of ownership of the army club was announced.
bf71ec273b62c552ab2138078af74eb623116ed3 The new shareholders were the company "AVO Capital" — 51 % of the shares[108][109], the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation and the English firm Blue Castle Enterprises Limited, and the Russian entrepreneur Evgeny Lennorovich Giner became the president of the club.
316321d3a0fcdb2272aad3aac8063f1dd2bd0c8a By this time, a number of players who were considered the main ones last season had left the team: Khomukha, Bychkov, Okroshidze and Shishkin.
a07c09f513c9a34c44ac80bb748da34e6e2e199d Despite the unsuccessful start, the Army team finished the first round in fifth place, scoring 25 points.
a1756ddc08a6b475c2928db5904187ae3144a027 Such a solid reinforcement allowed us to consider CSKA as one of the contenders for medals.
d04af53bcd8363802068f2c0fcb5b350caf758ce However, in the second round, the team was hit by a series of adversities.
bcd8102fa2e3eb064797ffee3b0fb6231ca9f8d4 As a result, the team finished the season only in seventh place, scoring 47 points.
f90e0564f69fd4fb1bafc9a2199c5ad37cc11519 After the end of the season, the club's management invited Valery Gazzaev to the coaching position.
a7c4d5602809b8e56b04d3540fbb0f9a87c65c80 In the 2002 season, the Army team lost their first points only in the sixth round, having drawn with the Elista "Ural" (3: 3).
32070e6e61b194d03201171e965424647ef737f1 In the 2004 season, Sibneft became the main sponsor of CSKA.
286001b9854eaeda48ae8dce18bfb53b6e1f0b97 Due to the financial contributions of the sponsor, several football players were acquired.
148bc1a29bf0762bd4bc670bcb3a9f2195752631 However, despite all the acquisitions, things were going badly in the championship, by the end of the first round the team was in fifth place with 20 points.
505dfc5a29e4cb0d18244033b86525f2840fe5f1 In this regard, George was dismissed, and Valery Gazzaev took his place again.
c4649a88792f70706ef678fd5530dd67099c48b9 In the summer, Brazilian striker Wagner Love and Serbian Milos Krasic were acquired.
fd99a48973fd4582572f40c597200c698e9ef93e Gazzaev managed to improve the team's standings, and two rounds before the finish, CSKA took first place.
aa7b437521f12ff8a82e0861767d4f8d1eac5898 However, in the next round, the Army team stumbled, drawing with Dynamo, and passed ahead of Lokomotiv.
9e66d6622bf9b266d576ada255ad733bd37b396b As a result, CSKA took second place, only one point behind the champion — Lokomotiv Moscow.
d1eada1d70a86a7f9fdcdae0a61805ac2c10bd89 In their Champions League group, CSKA managed to take third place, which allowed the Army to take part in the UEFA Cup in the spring of 2005.[126]
3648cb867c899e12e7989c1b2db5660ef0ec8cfd The 2005 season for the Army team began with a home match with the Portuguese Benfica in the 1/16 UEFA Cup, which ended with a 2-0 victory for CSKA, in the away match the Army team played a 1-1 draw.
3e83b961ae563fb982d4a105ba4e3954eadf5459 The next opponent of CSKA was the Serbian club Partizan, the guest match in Belgrade ended with a score of 1:1, and the home match in Krasnodar-2: 0 in favor of the red and blue.
43914d35612642357eb3dc7158d32230f1a61a10 In the next round, the Army team defeated the French Auxerre 4:0. [128] Despite losing 2-0 away, CSKA was able to continue playing in the European Cup.
b72671230d2acd44748d2c21f53908d71afca59f In the semifinals, CSKA faced the Italian "Parma", beating which (0:0, 3:0), Muscovites reached the final.
e4c710ed1060b77e19c27fa433b7773041867fbd The opponent in the UEFA Cup final was the Portuguese club Sporting.
6372fa109f9563e75bee0a38d63189e346d63450 The final match was held in Lisbon at the Jose Alvalade Stadium, the home of the Portuguese team, on May 18, 2005.
6258da408707c8cd72c5f5281280cb7bae8a1417 The 2005 season is still considered the most successful in the history of the army club.
a5339edfb67876bc13e9424a3accdb143ff4f1ca So, CSKA of the sample of 2005 was recognized by the jury of the competition "The Russian Football Championship 20 years" as the best team of the Russian championships of 1992-2012.
af3af221e23cf137d656798f11bca3aabee9dac4 Due to the EURO 2008, the Russian championship was interrupted after the 11th round.
65b428fad59efc7930b63ea74e3f0ed66a832b65 Five CSKA players went to the European Championship as part of the national team: Akinfeev, V. Berezutsky, A. Berezutsky, Ignashevich, Zhirkov.
17f283195c2949f24082f542ecf7ce4a757d2a08 According to the results of the competition, the Russian national team won bronze medals, and Yuri Zhirkov entered the symbolic team of the tournament.
d0365a0a75badc87c2d648bc4a20dc6fe1d58979 In the summer off-season, the Brazilian striker Jo left the team, who moved to the English club Manchester City for 18 million pounds.
cc7a1042fabe863b80b5efa54ec72307677728d6 On July 8, CSKA president Yevgeny Giner announced the departure of the head coach of the army team Valery Gazzaev at the end of the season.
0a28d416550c39d990ec2a8c10885d52bd98e300 At the end of the season, PFC CSKA won the silver medals of the Russian championship and secured entry into the group stage of the Champions League, 4 points behind the champion — Rubin Kazan.
664f523c1bf49e250203880ef62790e4519dc385 At the end of December 2008, the team got an official symbol-a horse.
7d0de981f5dfea13379f6e9a1ba3bd0bb91d6302 Thus, CSKA became the first club in Russia to have its own character.
6eeb035bc56b1757f2db2673cb41657ce2cec613 The club started the 2015/16 season with four consecutive wins without conceding goals in the Russian Championship.
091198d1a522e61bbebd6aacadf445f54ec7eb2d November and December turned out to be a failure for the team — not a single victory in 4 games in the Russian championship and in three in the Champions League: as a result, before the winter break, the team had only 3 points advantage over the second-placed Rostov and was eliminated from the Champions League draw.
0b87cc4658de93a757eaa791399b9281eebc904c In September 2010, the club's president, Yevgeny Giner, said that all problems had been resolved and the stadium was scheduled to open in 2015.
cd934111f5f8d5035dfaf316f8024d8dbfb5181c In 2010, the club's management officially assigned number 12 to the fans.
c72671f2f1849f71ce3cadb10c1af9af2f24d924 Now, at all home matches, the announcer announces the fans on a par with the team.
866bf003bfe150c23ceed04f74cd3990236934ea Football, the main thing
22b2b4fcb494e1649e68d61418f7e6cca26f8fa7 - APL.
07df82479d0cb5aeb9c53ed139f3168b6e492f9c Manchester City saved a draw in the match with West Ham in the Premier League.
b4be5718cf50773c03ce735df97e52a070cac7c4 "Leicester " and" Tottenham "win," MU " suffers defeat and other matches of the Example.
87b76fe63e0d015140e1f96fb35c497c4d254ae5 "Barcelona" beat "Malaga" of the Premier League.
90ae90b60d5aefa6223f3afad9ab09d40346d43e Liverpool beat Norwich"
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e4b3f5ce95280f7722bb6e45a789dcfb3f494201 CSKA Moscow Home Results Squad News Upcoming Matches Guestbook
a8d3bb2baa481774e5d09c49a1deec6f732859e7 Primera Division.
87cb4830ef9bc5fcf341cf5165e6361a6cfcde13 Spain Monday 25.01.16 22: 30 Levante Las Palmas
5009bd7515a24e0ef2ea791b06669aa48384e4ad History of the football club / CSKA Moscow
da34a963e88cc1877c0670671b9f6a143ef4f261 To date, CSKA is officially a professional club and, therefore, has nothing to do with the army (although the nickname "army men" has stuck firmly to the team's players), however, the Russian Ministry of Defense is a shareholder of the CSKA football club, and the central club approves them as its own.
210cbc09a60c83204fd99eb90ed1df49dd7832a4 CSKA won the Russian Football Championship three times – in 2003, 2005 and 2006.
83e5287bcc988189879b68704bc99e19d3a4844f The team took the second step of the podium five more times, the third one twice, and also won the Russian Super Cup four times.
de0ecb707c2ea9445609ab65478a87e2414344d3 This is the history of CSKA's success in the domestic arena.
9c993583dc7959dbcfb39d5d60ce957072a45cf2 Under the guidance of coach Valery Gazzaev, the team reached the final of the UEFA Cup, where it effectively defeated Sporting Lisbon with a score of 3:1 and, thus, became the first Russian club to win any European cup.
79cc320339210e87f2dc2cc187fad6287f1a0fef In the 2009/10 season, CSKA managed to reach the quarterfinals of the Champions League – to date, this is the best achievement of the team in the most prestigious club tournament on the planet.
f4410875b90d56ce3faf599957e86ce7e3722e25 In addition to the official nicknames "army men" and "red and blue", another nickname of CSKA football players and fans is very popular in Russia - "horses".
525b568ee48faad97f6728e63068d5593d64c53f Presumably, the nickname appeared due to the fact that the first semblance of the club's training base was located in a building that was previously the stables of Prince Yusupov.
44943691cfc6e1fc750e5ef735ec39f3503b53c7 At first, the nickname was considered offensive, but today they are used to it and it is used even in the media.
3790ab81cb2eb2c28259d70cbc889531c98c206c The club has changed its name several times throughout its history.
26985dc9cb6eb75bd50560c10900e89f8579b7f5 In 1911, it was founded under the abbreviation OLS, which stood for the Society of Ski Enthusiasts.
96a6e0824570bcd563275374111517825dcd86f9 Two years later, the team became known as the OPPV (Experimental Demonstration Site of Universal Education), and already in 1928, the team was named the Sports Club of the Central House of the Red Army, or simply the CDKA.
bc63db8682c83875567c7af808d61dda109f89b6 In the 1950s, the team was called CDSA and CSK MO for some time, and in 1960 it acquired its current name CSKA.
dead7bbca605d68d8baa542d274d9e1e43412113 The team's record holder for the number of matches played for CSKA is Vladimir Fedotov – he played 381 matches in the army jersey.
38e8ac0e754cb62d24fe1c8c6d451958076e3660 He is followed by Vladimir Polikarpov and Dmitry Bagrich.
646cc01d49b8e4c155b8f2575461ccd236a58eca Among modern football players, the record holder is Lithuanian Deivydas Schemberas.
97eec8945e9253a00c610b33cef452a948c08220 The best scorer in the history of the club is Grigory Fedotov, among modern football players is the Brazilian Wagner Love.
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93bf0cad8f3889c9fe3343ca3cc41fadded0eb2e Sports RSS CSKA Football Club: the history of the team.
7f4c94e479a4f39dc913439d2d4b884a5b3bebb3 Reference Topic: The match of the Russian football championship CSKA - Spartak (23)
5994e28f490c33f90385bd2f97c6d770bb4bdd1b 10: 53.01.11.2008 (updated: 10: 58 01.11.2008)64530 The CSKA - Spartak match, one of the most fundamental confrontations in the history of domestic football, will be held on Saturday as part of the 27th round of the Russian championship.
3ea45fdc49cf9e3ea3bded299eb291156c77e04b The CSKA - Spartak match, one of the most fundamental confrontations in the history of Russian football, will be held on Saturday as part of the 27th round of the Russian championship.
c9a0f2bd5892c0ef09b1436c76673b9ad4d052f0 The central event of the sports festival dedicated to the opening of the OPPV was the official football meeting for the championship of the capital, when players with a new logo for Muscovites - "OPPV" - ran out on the football field of the Sokolniki stadium for the first time.
73aa0614ba79cb576ccbb7c556e59c93c275e21f This memorable date was approved by the order of the Minister of Defense of the USSR on June 23, 1963 as the birthday of the Central Sports Club of the Army.
3fb9e55e291444ffda4d3a120773aba88c7f2c23 In 1928, the OPPV team was renamed the CDKA team (Central House of the Red Army), in 1951 the name was changed to the Sports Club of the Central House of the Soviet Army (CDSA).
fa8e80a293d43d34df0e99a8bb008637b30c6a01 In Soviet times, the first major success of the team was the victory in the USSR championship in 1946.
9b2dd30ae571ca86ae8a3b83b7216328f1723e0e The CDSA was the leader of domestic football until 1952, when the country's sports leadership decided to take part in the Summer Olympics in Helsinki.
20876a886bc16925df663262313d61bf29864e90 The absolute majority of the players of the USSR national football team represented the CDSA.
f4c17396ebd90ee2366e425d8e8a705ee47bf558 At the Olympics, the team did not leave the group, the CDSA club was disbanded, and the head coach Boris Arkadiev was removed from his post.
47a41d2e65a5367bcd2c0833bf0cc19e671aa4dd The decision to revive the team was made in 1954.
43785b9e04e5aeef13444284d5c5833f920a3933 In 1957, the club became known as CSK MO (Central Sports Club of the Ministry of Defense), and in 1960 it received its current name CSKA (Central Sports Club of the Army).
b2b8c5317fed69a9b07fa4296713d2cebf69da86 In total, during the Soviet period, the team won seven championships and five cups of the USSR, including the last draws of both trophies in 1991.
fd8cb5dbe309101662d913155a78538f80109c45 The success of CSKA in the Russian period of the club's history is associated with the name of the head coach Valery Gazzaev, who led the team before the start of the 2002 championship.
fc8e137c3b1b68338d8c77d847858ab5a468f3e8 Since then, CSKA has won three national championships (2003, 2005 and 2006) and three national cups (2002, 2005 and 2006).
81dd0536380ac58fe779b69fd1f4579392b95b73 The main achievement of CSKA is the victory in the UEFA Cup of the 2004/2005 season (the first European Cup of Russian clubs in history).
c66942cd32f8ae8186a2fb971c887256deb1f32e Club achievements:
c523205628537a4be808f7e4a8f470737f144644 Champion of the USSR - 1946 , 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1970, 1991 years.
3817d0e3df17efaf44afe8abcf565abb6f542951 Silver medalist of the USSR Championship - 1938, 1945, 1949, 1990.
109f0127330bd86491557f49ef087df491d41373 Bronze medalist of the USSR Championship- 1939, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1964, 1965 years.
173494b27467bfeb72eac6da81c9979d1c2d2512 Winner of the USSR Cup- 1945, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1991 years.
22d965f9ac47d7a2bb9856230e86bacd578c428e Finalist of the USSR Cup - 1944, 1967, 1992 Champion of Russia in 2003, 2005, 2006.
876932d1a7bda23d6e41206ceaa6047517d42328 Silver medalist of the Russian Championship 1998, 2002, 2004.
2119264ca5d1b06631d0b7cdfae41f7baaa30e9f Bronze medalist of the Russian Championship 1999.
c73e1de72574f3b0cd457a458f70944a6726d215 Winner of the Russian Cup 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008.
c6bb467d77bfb9df4181f4fa1f202cbfb37d38b8 Finalist of the Russian Cup 1993, 1994 Winner of the UEFA Cup 2005 (UEFA cup champions - 2005) Finalist of the UEFA Super Cup 2005 (UEFA Super Cup 2005) Winner of the Russian Super Cup in football 2004, 2006, 2007 Winner of the Channel One Cup in football 2007 Bronze medalist of the Russian Championship 2007
790bec99ff86fd19b59b84617d63e1e0e8b3d793 Player achievements:
f6a88b3d3f80a35506562b9d7fbef7ff0bd5a18d The best players of the season were recognized: 1970 Albert Shesternev 1976 Vladimir Astapovsky 1991 — Igor Korneev 2005 — Daniel Carvalho
80a5467ac439b76d76e4913d89266f98156131b3 Top scorers of the season: 1938 Grigory Fedotov (19) 1939 — Grigory Fedotov (21) 1945 Vsevolod Bobrov (24) 1947 Vsevolod Bobrov, Valentin Nikolaev (14) 1957 — Vasily Buzunov (16) 1964 — Vladimir Fedotov (16) 2002 Roland Gusev, Dmitry Kirichenko (15)
2cdbb1bc3cc1e3dc2028c23219397cf312735364 The best goalkeepers of the season (The "Goalkeeper of the Year" award of the Ogonyok magazine): 1968 Yuri Pshenichnikov 1976 Vladimir Astapovsky 2004-2006 — Igor Akinfeev
58f0aa8b401ff703a1a4a6a939cc4ac65f2a7cd4 The record holder of CSKA in the number of matches played is Vladimir Fedotov (382 matches), followed by Vladimir Polikarpov (318) and Dmitry Bagrich (311).
cfc3df530d42567065eadfe0eb4b17a1f8d680db The most productive player is Grigory Fedotov (132 goals).
1db1ed7df08a5740ad8dbbddda512e1d1a101c5e Vsevolod Bobrov scored the most goals in one season (1945-24 goals).
4d6d494d8252c4a0ca01f7c91f662df5e0cd25cc Club colors
1dbe9eda777b7312ba69826f99bdda54dd46275e In the 2007-2008 seasons, the team plays home matches in red T shirts and dark blue underpants, and a combination of gold gaiters and a T shirt with dark blue underpants is mainly used as a reserve uniform.
f86ac7b5acb9f4062422677ee7cc6bd5fc72e034 Stadium
5f695c96a8e6c3e2b8edfd5566b0d7a4950f4228 The football club does not have its own stadium yet.
9e23ded4961600f8602bf79b7d10b31407aee087 On May 19, 2007, the groundbreaking ceremony of the new PFC CSKA stadium, which will be built in 2010, took place.
d3ba3878bb4f2d4634c89fba474950d5abc14791 At the moment, CSKA holds its home meetings at the Dynamo stadium.
73d38dbf7c5ddc1dc8d4eb13ac7513a3f066372c Fans
a45dbd7b411c46497879f3883b82faebf2069608 CSKA fans are united in various organizations.
77b557c63480394a64fb12de603a5feba7d1714c In addition to the official fan club ("CSKA Sports Fans Club"), unofficial movements of army fans (CSKA Ultras, Red blue Warriors, Red blue Net and others) have also been created.
eac33142b1ff77f5bfa061ac600228a0ffc3def9 CSKA Football Club: the history of the team.
9ebddee611f49a23ec671a2cb2e29ef34bc6a1e3 Reference 10: 53 01/11/2008 The CSKA - Spartak match, one of the most fundamental confrontations in the history of domestic football, will be held on Saturday as part of the 27th round of the Russian championship.
36c911b992482790f44ea51f35ae1994e9ec3e61 We recommend the brightest photos of the week: yoga in the cold, samba and the debate of the monks 12:56 22.01.2016 The movement of joining 19:46 22.01.2016 Restless swimming 17:19 21.01.2016 To make a fairy tale come true 13:23 21.01.2016 The pipe calls 15:33 22.01.2016 According to Soviet drawings: a copy of the unique five towered T 3516:17 22.01.2016 The Melting of the Arctic ice 14:39 21.01.2016 The armored personnel carrier helped to pull a truck stuck on the road out of the snow in Kurske18:20 21.01.2016 Amur, Timur and their new neighbor15:56 22.01.2016
899719e222d1fa0d150dbb52960d79f8c0553283 Topic: The match of the Russian football championship CSKA - Spartak"
cf9d84cfbcf7a927e10ffd977658c63fd157e9c1 Agent History stva
d151a4ecfedbc6fdedc28469144400033781b85c Share 30
5f7e0517a11b7bc88efd42bfb1203d07e84ed4d7 Football news Football terms
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38bae1270a2a9cbcb946e024ca5b555af68ac903 History of football clubs
d69aa59cf1f66ac84b38c2bb3de6e99ebb881729 Football clubs of Russia Football clubs of England Football clubs of Germany Football clubs of Spain Football clubs of Italy Football clubs of France Football clubs of Ukraine Football clubs of Holland Football clubs of Portugal Football clubs of Bulgaria Football clubs of Greece
6688f6d3436bb30e919ae4e2556f96f6aa74b8bd Football clubs in Russia
1f6684cad3ea0b1e15048aad734559ca16585ecb CSKA (Moscow)
35505c5a872d1d852366224fce483936517de404 Football Club
f2574d40d94d3355df64f36ebb7fb958b7dffaec CSKA Football Club (Moscow)
37213401bf1cabb735b09ede356b6a52b6c5d505 Founded 1911 Stadium currently holds home matches at the Khimki Stadium Capacity 13450 seats Official website pfc cska.com
a6f0a43fad70dbb852ba29601fac2b95aa57b126 Achievements of CSKA
e91e0548e237501f96139b9c23fb848d560f6d40 National tournaments:
dfccc5f04f8646cc07f115a200731d8ba70d509a Champion of the USSR: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1970, 1991 years
a0bbec72a52a836b8d1627ad84a4723fe4922050 Silver medalist of the USSR Championship: 1938, 1945, 1949, 1990
cd3eff64d02319b63f718a82b15425a9469c9f1b Bronze medalist of the USSR Championship: 1939, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1964, 1965 years
bedc34d99d8c7fbb0ee3e907b1f562266b44a17a Winner of the USSR Cup: 1945, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1991 years
23e71be1e2e82da9f9e3f3d474f54cffd249177c USSR Cup finalist: 1944, 1967, 1992
90d2539f074e10bbb3fbdc8a2c70e17189246255 Champion of Russia: 2003, 2005, 2006, 2012/2013, 2013/14 years
33fcbb0276f0f6dbefb6786f9e25a618f89ed8d8 Silver medalist of the Russian Championship: 1998, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2014/15 years
2d13fc0a05704cac05e3f8fd0d62ab7e8f964fe6 Bronze medalist of the Russian Championship: 1999, 2007, 2011/12
ecfe728ab8d6833144d40cee85f19b053eeef25e Winner of the Cup of Russia: 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013 years
c91ad065eb41f9cb26d41e13af9ce4cc761ba95f USSR Cup finalist: 1993, 1994, 2000
ce2836007a7d1b0ef8bde619a43fe970e822f682 Winner of the Russian Super Cup: 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2013 years
a094db65b102efeac008ee667a1b7f1506da54ed Russian Super Cup finalist: 2003, 2010, 2011
3f396f13c37906bc64fe42f958a58dd7fd1a184f International tournaments:
83a0d9c78e1429040a3bc4736ea29684b012383c UEFA Cup winner: 2004/05
b6a46b5aa60a0ba6d1e4cd218b18a371d0340f99 UEFA Super Cup Finalist: 2005
d7114090b3ed8269812085a82aedc303139bed8a History of CSKA (Moscow)
a821c0be77e2e37a7627ff3ba3bbc1e79f0bb10f The foundation of CSKA (Moscow)
3d048d2cd79175c7c5e545b05d5f0153883ffd07 The football club CSKA (Moscow) was founded in 1911, the society of skiing enthusiasts (OLS) became the base for it, a football section was assembled there, on the basis of which 3 teams were created, all of them played in the class "B" of the Moscow championship.
f38ba34b314d048a37fc0fd65f5b0c0efb3d34f4 The first official match of OLS was a duel against the club "Vega", OLS won with a score of 6:2.
2dfc147c97901b9e84a05385473377a704a8598c In 1916, the team moved to the class " A " of the Moscow championship and played there from 1918 to 1922.
55fcc45f831d1534a5da29b54055f7a804535b76 That year, the football players played under their own name for the last time, since all sports societies were closed in the USSR since 1923, departmental teams appeared instead of them, the OLS football players moved to the OPPV under the aegis of the Red Army.
231c429832b6c0418611f5334e824cd92ceef0d3 In 1952, the country's leadership decided that Soviet athletes should take part in the Olympic Games in Helsinki.
065fa310722bf4c61f57569c3b8fef1fac61abdf The football team at that Olympics was represented mainly by CDSA players, but the players did not overcome the group stage, and upon their return the army team was disbanded, coach Boris Arkadiev was dismissed.
977286c12233cb783b51b727be40f31e517f0d51 In 1954, CSKA (Moscow) decided to restore, Grigory Pinaichev became the coach.
5498ae4921d1f35375025cd9fff68f3f84701111 It was not easy to gather players for a new team, but it held its first match on April 5, it was held in Kiev, against the Grozny Torpedo and ended with a draw 1:1, in that championship the army took the 6th place.
c3c26aaa53ccc5afadb7539dff0bc8c68346d409 In 1955, the CDSA beat Dynamo Moscow, and won the national cup, it was the first trophy after the revival, the next 2 years, the army men became bronze medalists of the championship.
4a9c1b198cb027bd8b085166f5352d7c878369d0 In 1957, the club became known as CSK MO, and in 1960 it acquired its current name.
b5d2d285b6d32c90850d1b330691d0339a82280f In 1961, Konstantin Beskov became the coach, but at that time he could not win medals, the Moscow army men held unsuccessful games in France, after which Beskov was dismissed.
35031fd3a56fe998f8a12749ccd5783feb701ccd In 1964, FC CSKA (Moscow) again became the third in the championship, at the same time the Army team won the largest victory in history, beating Shinnik 10:2.
ee4f5fc398a70b013ab5e949ce2fa488bd988e01 In 1965, the team won bronze again, for the entire championship, the players received only one yellow card and received a prize for fair play
31c9c3cc4c3ff7d31a579a22d38bc74c4ac167d1 In 1970, FC CSKA (Moscow) and Dynamo scored an equal number of points, a golden match was held, the first meeting ended in a zero draw, and in the second match the Army team won 4: 3 and became national champions for the first time in 19 years.
a32cffb41b8f3e00e7f01cd36f23dade62364eed Valentin Nikolaev became the honored coach of the country, Albert Shesterev was named the best football player, he entered the top ten players in Europe.
52b481a6e1a346752f2cb86fe3ddc310a859e686 In the 70s, CSKA did not play very successfully, there was no stability in the team, coaches often changed, it was not possible to win medals.
18ff95828ba397c2d694cf3510b1ac193862904a In the 1984 season, FC CSKA (Moscow) leaves the Top Division, returning back to 1986..
b06eb46f1174f673fc625f1f7cb210b910993d78 Good times returned together with Pavel Sadyrin, he joined the club in 1988, in 1990 CSKA became the second in the championship, and the following season they managed to make a golden double, the army team won the last championship and the National Cup.
36cf7cb23435e4dd554aa81d5608ad5277e4c36e In total, during the Soviet era, the team became a seven time champion and a five time Cup winner.
6f0f6d345451f3a39d45374a02088b5414a6fb42 Football club CSKA (Moscow) in the Russian period
07fe84c84882635016860e9ef1364f5c3944ae58 20 teams participated in the top league of the first Russian championship, including CSKA Moscow, but before the start of the first Russian season, many of its leaders left the team and moved to foreign clubs, but Sadyrin introduced young players to the team and the club finished the season in a worthy fifth place.
a8e13902218f3c2afeb246126218dc899e745c0d In the same season, Sadyrin left for the national team, and Gennady Kostylev replaced him at the club.
7a123c41c04057af39f8356d84342b3da68d6fd7 In 1992, the Army team took part in the European Champions Cup for the first time, where they were able to make it to the group stage, beating the current winner of the tournament, the Spanish Barcelona, but took the last place in the group.
8a2cce80a07eaac606d7b98470410b07f1fcd069 The team won the first Russian medals in 1998, Oleg Dolmatov replaced Pavel Sadyrin that season during the championship, the team won a series of victories and rose from 14 at once to second place, the following year CSKA took third place, but unsuccessfully performed in the Champions League.
571894c87f9e1a0b041609d14cf820ed48ad4757 In 2000, there was a recession, and only the 8th place was occupied.
00bc06fdaef160f8179c8cae503a8287151132a8 In 2001 the club's owner changed, entrepreneur Yevgeny Giner became president, modern infrastructure began to be created in the club, and in 2007 the construction of the stadium began.
7823e839e55e2c9874b925e9ce5d185027869287 The team's composition was also greatly updated, in the 2001 season under the leadership of Valery Gazaev, the team became the second in the championship and won the national cup.
5d86ef90a9b4e728e1e03ee9922562bd485a1638 In 2002, CSKA (Moscow) became the national champion.
8f7d1e26e2a0515f939dd23d8505ff3b08050e5d The following season, Gazayev was replaced by the Portuguese Artur Jorge, but the team's game worsened, and the Army finished the first round of the 2003 championship fifth.
928c807226c43f5e1d026bd1801293bbb4d5ec3d Jorge was fired, Gazaev returned and the team was able to finish that season in second place, the Army team took third place in the Champions League group, and got the right to participate in the UEFA Cup.
a55a56689dea42bb83599108d6376403624f45e0 That season, the leaders left the team, but despite this, CSKA beat several strong rivals, and on May 18, 2005, Sporting won on the opponent's field, in Lisbon, winning the UEFA Cup for the first time in history, that season the army team became champions and holders of the national cup.
c417a9f5d66a0dc9d7da35f0133d7822be3a47fd The following year, CSKA repeated its success and became the only club that won two major Russian trophies 2 years in a row.
dea8b2eb4b6cb5cefb38cd2c0c2de2b7697636b1 In 2007, the club became the third in the championship and failed to make it to the playoffs of the Champions League.
2133b19d941f52445428adc1c79f848d53e5ba52 In 2008, the army team won the National Cup for the fourth time, and CSKA took second place in the championship that year.
dd9dac4bde20a14c93660fe8e9d5f98987ffb416 At the end of the season, Gazaev left the club, the legendary Zico became the new coach, under his leadership the team won the Cup and the Super Cup of Russia, but things were not going so well in the championship and the Champions League, and six months later Zico left the team.
a11add9b76b3a0e88b63d2e9b1eb9a5c211451da In his place came the Spanish specialist Juande Ramos, who won the Europa League with Sevilla, but he stayed in office for only a month and a half, he was replaced by Leonid Slutsky, that season the club took second place in the championship, and in 2011 it was again won the national cup.
c211f82ac2ff264e6177517ba88f5b7d300e8562 In the 2012-13 season, the Army team secured the championship title a round before the end of the championship.
f2a9889aa1f5c86afa68250ab808b6b607092734 In the Russian Cup, the victory also went to the army men, Anzhi Makhachkala was beaten in the final.
842aa7a66c1cb402df5f855af0ca5206d37be37b The 2013/14 season again brings gold medals to the Football Club CSKA (Moscow).
c99fde7980c79016779e1229c9972bfa5c6dd743 The winner was not known until the last round, and in the 30th round, we can say that the golden match against Lokomotiv Moscow took place.
4ce35d296ee6a97933287659460f8b0b78c5260e The army team won, securing the 1st place.
e1040fb4f1461187f22f6004b7d83a1016685f0a In the National Cup, the team reached the semifinals, where FC Krasnodar could not pass.
f68084948fdcef3e6c15222d2cba252ad74c3731 The performance in the Champions League for the team can be called a failure.
886951897b284f1ab48642382a6cbbc51a914f4f In the group, the army team took the last place, having won only 1 victory and lost 5 times to their rivals.
ba4e72261283258434788542ba397135c10f39d8 Forward
82701af2b7c27c42f2bd66a2701b20813abacb77 All about betting
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d72b25cc21abfa4b79f527bd544cd1d83554461b CSKA (football club, Moscow)
a330a2b4f060994db9b331ab7330c93d28444424 This is the stable version, tested on January 14, 2016.
4b77ce418dcf0f9cac3c01a7cadd85160090378a PFC CSKA
8f4c4dc042e663469ca327cbfd0d59e68cdf19f6 the name of CJSC "Professional football club CSKA" Nicknames are Red and blue
29ed16888c8beb19c7a0740a95b969d2562314a4 Horses
63ae8a6bc1c0a9244845e4ee6ff768993da413a4 The Army was founded on August 27, 1911 (104 years old) CSKA Stadium Capacity 30,000 President Evgeny Giner General Director Roman Babaev Coach Leonid Slutsky Captain Igor Akinfeev Rating 35th place UEFA
ab1760c2f727900f17419385939a3635ec7ceb7e 67th place IFFHS Budget $ 70 million Sponsored by ROSSETI PFC website cska.com RFPL Competition 2014/15 Season Vice Champion
5080fd62c27826c4bad11cdabea225200a35a04c shape
de7222b16521f93c37cf20c6d7df9b37cf7d42b0 Current season
604c3f2f5b91fea5a5f6b9f1057c110fb045412b European competitions
281c379d3e9cdeeb2d807c4690f3582d9169d740 This term has other meanings, see CSKA (football club).
a8839c27c44757371d5e488c6bf0af39e3e71fb5 This term has other meanings, see CSKA (meanings).
f2cd960d43f9d76c63918ecb60ab4118b2e84955 One of the oldest and most titled[1] clubs in the post Soviet history of Russian football, leading its history from the OLS (Society of Ski Lovers) team, founded in 1911.
7237aa7b0c02933f57c0e04a12f5c9b27788e1b3 Seven time champion of the USSR[2], five time winner of the USSR Cup[2], five time champion of Russia[2], seven time winner of the Russian Cup[3] and six time winner of the Russian Super Cup.
f3b65e32551b614074045f443c4fa5103f7f8dfc The first Russian club to win the European club tournament (UEFA Cup 2004/05) [2]. In 2013, for the first time, he won the national championship held under the "autumn spring" system (2012/2013 season)[3]. In 2014, the club won the championship for the fifth time, and thus, CSKA became the first club in Russian history to collect the originals of all the trophies[4].
a567111e33c69d327fbbba63cedbdf8c3a2f45e7 1 Names 2 Club history 2.1 1911-1935 2.2 1936-1952 2.3 1953-1970 2.4 1971-1991 2.5 1992-2000 2.6 2001-2008 2.7 Since 2009
ad06cafb44e29773131410e39e900cb89b30f3b9 3 Club colors and uniforms 3.1 Equipment
5c4a1991236157b5c49f720946a000abcc96aa6c 4 Performance statistics 5 Fans 5.1 Famous fans
7d39bcde6e3865b1a9a6a4bd662a4194b2471429 6 The origin of the nickname 7 Stadium 7.1 Laying the first stone 7.2 General information 7.3 Technical Characteristics
fc7b4578aa1b376e73dc719e24960e951ab309c3 8 Budget 8.1 Sponsors
347fa15d2ccea974d93f8ba3fcf39b3fa080b3a7 9 Players at major international tournaments 10 Achievements 10.1 National Championships 10.2 European Cups 10.3 Other tournaments 10.4 Regional and Early competitions 10.5 Achievements of players and coaches 10.6 Team prizes 10.7 State Awards
dfd01b415e49886629d57cc95e63548a5e96a7e6 11 Head Coaches and Presidents 12 Club Management 12.1 Senior Staff 12.2 Coaching Staff
e05bf445a6a8f9435ef21020b631b05b397c8a15 13 Current squad 13.1 Main squad 13.1.1 Assigned numbers
83b71b617a008022ece44c9e5e3ca5d926bf30a3 13.2 Youth team 13.2.1 Players on loan
5be6c04e4be1790a7a3cfc586b84ac617ef85d96 14 Transfers 2015/2016 14.1 Summer 2015 14.1.1 Came 14.1.2 Left
bbed660b17f0c4b63eff7eaadb5fbb8cb6471723 14.2 Winter 2016 14.2.1 Came 14.2.2 Left
bc78f793764d52d91047f6c2b83b91a5605044cf 15 Guards of the Club 16 Affiliated clubs 17 See also 18 Notes 19 Sources 20 Literature 21 References
8e74c5b8b0b10c2991a63aa22254d51b2068bf29 Titles[edit / edit wiki text]
3ccd78b5c8ff4df0fc73130d2be41f19ae532149 1911-1923 year — the Society of skiing sports (OLLS).
a6285b0a7dbc124469629d05e67cdc0974dd55c0 1923-1928 — year Experienced exponential Playground vsevobuch (OPV).
3ca46a2d2230813783a4c592d45d07cb67eafa2d 1928-1951 year — the Central house of red army (CDKA).
b47c338ea0d816dcda3618e244bd2ae06c79286c 1951-1957 year — the Central house of the Soviet army (CDSA).
4698f2550b4a11c21fc9071ad4cc16af8aef133f 1957-1960 year — the Central sports club of Ministry of defense (CSK MO).
cf4539e05a3f0afc401bd8bde48bf1687b206e2c 1960-1994 year — the Central sports club of army (CSKA).
0197befc7708bf120ac9ba2d5b79fc5a84833042 Since 1994 — Professional football club CSKA (PFC CSKA).
5d25232c8d5ad48ffe2ad4043b40e2e033208315 Club history[edit / edit wiki text]
58988cd1c9ae2b17ae34e0d45ce6e50fd6e07820 1911-1935[edit / edit wiki text]
fce166054a77c61d6048ff571b9dd7358907d249 The ALLS logo
660c75218071040feedd12e84c1ccd83fd7f940f Group photo of the OLS football players
d4e0c27cbcbf04c9675b800b24ca0817728008f7 The match ended with the victory of the OLS players with a score of 6: 2.[5] In 1917, the team won first place in the Kazan League (the championship of teams located in suburban areas along the Kazan Railway) and entered the class "A" of the Moscow championship, where it played until 1922.[6]
9ddc448656eeac20166ed2424fc7759f8614bce6 In the same year, OLS won the "KFS Kolomyaga Cup", in the final of which, according to the rules, the winners of the first and second leagues of the Moscow championship met, and the" Cup of Capitals", in which the champions of Moscow and Petrograd met.
f48214b901cc9bacb6c7dab1ed837cf170c12340 8]
d00ac672c573fe409204b1618f3fb28d4bc57991 The 1922 season was the last in which the team played under the name OLS.[8]
664fc668028fcf31b415255e416b206bd8610fe9 The logo of the OPPV
8d417d857ba83364b55f5e09ef48722e1dc62b01 OPPV football players at the training camp in Batumi in 1928
af15b1234a53d90ba6ad22bdd5170ae4a57ae359 In the 1923 season, changes came to Soviet sports.
eb76cb85c45db7d13c9ba0fb431bead41b030b39 They decided to put "bourgeois" sports on socialist rails.
6cfd5b423e2f6e3436df50369c2e772c9951defb All the old sports societies were closed or disbanded, and departmental teams were formed on their basis.
63a4fd8d651ed69b908452a986d165240b9f9df5 All members of the " old " teams were enrolled in the relevant departments, and property (including stadiums and sports grounds) were transferred to the new teams.[9] ALLS athletes joined the newly created community of the Vsevobuch Experimental Demonstration Site (OPPV), created under the wing of the Red Army.
ca1d925f320fdcf8eca9187103dade27fdaa8bec Among the main goals of the OPPV were the work on general and military training of pre conscripts and the physical recovery of pre conscripts and Red Army soldiers.[10]
79badc67842837f39831d724be164dc2b4f5574d The Moscow Football League was also dissolved.
0d45857a772281e0950923c649c2b4e0d408565a Instead, a championship of 8 departmental teams was created, which was called in the newspapers of that time "the newly created league under the Dynamo society".
c7b3618e08d35c09f7929af923f9e8071bdd6257 Nevertheless, the army men performed quite successfully in long distance and international meetings.
24f1496d5fbd53783dcb70e029b46348215c4290 However, Dynamo and Spartak played in weakened squads: the best players were at the disposal of the USSR national team.[12]
d43721b9e02ce22939493bad1e601f55e12321ab 1936-1952[edit / edit wiki text]
aa6c66936e9c8bf8656e01f0d309bc1330597651 On May 29, 1936, the army team won, with a score of 3: 0, the first victory in the USSR championship over its principal rival Spartak Moscow.
066a3e3cc5de8a252c41fa981e0c33a6d562b708 In March 1942, the players of the CDKA, who had a secondary education, were sent for short term training to the military faculty of the Institute of Physical Education.
284f1178a2a539250440c4bc795abbca862e466c After its completion, 16 players received the rank of second lieutenant, as a result of which the post war CDKA was called the "team of lieutenants".
fb682cf102f4e3a98314c260cc4e78a5c8ed433b The first post war season was marked by a confrontation between the CDKA and the capital Dynamo.
12d7b5b19dea146fdaef19e6a4261ab81e072854 The blue and white team gave out a winning streak of 12 consecutive victories and came up to a face to face meeting with the Army pursuers in the rank of the favorite.
bdb33093cda036f2ecf9024d520d3a6113289b21 The decisive blow was the midfielder of the CDKA Vyacheslav Solovyov.
5ff68ec0955dfa2d802823f776c9dde15e75d082 The entire championship was led by Dynamo, and the CDKA, having given out 11 winning matches in a row in the second round, came to the last round — a face — to face meeting with the leader having 1 point less.
bc36a3b9bef8f65e4f1aa866e0a59e71239aab43 Thus, only a victory could bring the CDKA the championship title.
6066de2a87d37debbbeadd49a28c4a57bf5f08dd This achievement will be submitted only in two decades to another team Dynamo Kyiv.[24] In the same year, 1948, the army team made their first "golden double", winning the national cup.
609d471774709c9ac49bc87f24798e58d4fff3b2 The 1949 season was the last championship for Fedotov.
76ed1449ebac3dc71d5e44b3a7d553b7231ca4eb Having become the top scorer of the championship, the forward, who received a number of injuries, switched to coaching.
610871615f37e3d8125844274da3c610472ff514 Bobrov, however, yielded to the insistent requests of the commander of the Air Force of the Moscow Military District, V. I. Stalin, and left for the Air Force team he was creating.
5a162641a5066c12cc65eefd4fbffb3da08588ef CDKA finished the championship in 2nd place.[24]
c1bf009637ec0669efb88d48f8a80fedb41d93b6 The logo of the CDSA
2a17850a4f93fd8a1f7e84587f72f2c6607c1c86 The ceremony of awarding gold medals to the players of the CDKA in 1950
59c7c206ab08653588d2e3a44f6c1ee187705d24 In 1950, the army men were again the first, and in 1951, acting under the new name of the Central House of the Soviet Army, they made a "golden double", winning both the championship and the cup.[25]
7a6724e51389125857c1a667a5303ec600fb026a In 1952, the USSR leadership decided for the first time to send a team to the Olympic Games.
2b3e8e5460790cb201b8918aee090bb3c376646d For the first time since 1912, the delegation also included a football squad, assembled on the basis of the CDSA and headed by an army coach Boris Arkadiev.
008b486fbecc3e6599976c616769ccbae077c34c The football tournament was not easy.
3de034fdf0463931c332dbfffa75b4dda97e7021 In the 1/16 final, the Soviet football players barely beat Bulgaria (2: 1) and went to Yugoslavia.
4d9c7b40fe76dc2937472e9f44c96fbdbae4ee15 By that time, the two socialist states were on bad terms, since the leader of Yugoslavia, Tito, had withdrawn his country from the commonwealth of socialist states, and the game was more political than sporting.
391c2e48bdd78097edc41cd1ab30aeb2f10ff031 By the middle of the 2nd half, the Soviet national team was losing with a crushing score of 1: 5, however, it managed to reduce the match to a draw, but in the replay, despite the fact that Bobrov opened the score, the USSR national team lost with a score of 1:3.[26]
2a669e7872b7fd818b9449903f064d8d7ded37bb The punishment from the political leadership of the country was not long in coming: after the first three rounds of the championship, in which the army team won, on the day of the game with Dynamo Kyiv, the bus did not come for the team, and the team chief Vasily Zaitsev was called to the Sports Committee, where order No. 793 on the disbandment of the team was read.
71f5a1aeedc27904b8fe00fae9dcb36ce285a364 The results of the army team played in the 1952 championship were annulled, and the players were distributed to other teams.
6f09fe3750f8dad17966e2810f6ca065c9787f63 So the "team of lieutenants" ended its existence.[27]
431973ef2e98eb3856942c74ed6893b852ef156f There is a conspiracy theory that Lavrenty Beria, who allegedly supervised Dynamo, had a hand in this case in order to eliminate the main competitors.[28]
f6c78b2b5cd5c9ce7fdf9dccb7ffb2966c022e9f 1953-1970[edit / edit wiki text]
7c0b9a973a01a6d195222ad6b90b12a46752cb4d Yuri Nyrkov (left) and Viktor Chistokhvalov (right with the ball)
730b444324b3dbc5b1420b4565cb4c88dd188ac8 In the autumn of the same year, the Minister of Defense N.
5164e78c5c562c6c24f441fff283f823a80e319f A. Bulganin signed an order on the re establishment of football teams at the district houses of officers, including the CDSA.
5e16f208b7247aa52f939a7b71f82100b5b46c73 Nevertheless, the revived team included goalkeepers Vladimir Nikanorov, Boris Razinsky, defenders Anatoly Bashashkin, Yuri Nyrkov, Anatoly Porkhunov, Anatoly Krutikov (came from Khimik), midfielder Alexander Petrov, forwards Vladimir Demin, Valentin Emyshev, Vasily Buzunov (moved from the Sverdlovsk DO team), Viktor Fedorov, Sergey Korshunov (both from the disbanded Air Force team of the disgraced Vasily Stalin).[29][30]
82501db2e3c526ebabd96e97956b26d1318d40c9 A week later, the CDSA lost to the local Dynamo there.
c0ddbbfe90ad5b93fa7d9d4fe5eaecd0915065f6 So, with a score of 2:1 that season, Spartak Moscow was beaten (goals were scored by Korshunov and Buzunov). oris Kuznetsov, Viktor Kolyadko, Alexander Tarkhanov and Valery Glushakov.
8a54fded1554ae15813c3b9c3c4ff359ef521cbf At the same time, Morozov accepted 13 young football players into the army team: midfielder Valdas Ivanauskas, forwards Valery Shmarov, Vladimir Tatarchuk, as well as some other players.
3fae528111b1339464575a234a96242dd71af3df CSKA took the third place in the zone "West" of the preliminary tournament of the first league and in the final part, taking second place, went to the transitional tournament, in which the team could not win the right to play in the higher league.[67][68]
abc34c1275cc8e1a7e4fc8aa805c00b9cea51386 In the 1986 season, CSKA performed more successfully.
35dd6317bbf0393527fd0d3164bb8a4910b362d8 According to the results of the championship, the club shared the first place with the Georgian team "Guria".
7689ef4ef84095548bf3b6419286dd548a4404b2 The golden match, which took place in Uzhgorod, CSKA won with a score of 2:0.
bf79f8568771b6f236109ede8467770f20038acc [69]
839f6cc07a26b4b717b0d2aa7cce42588a40a160 At the beginning of the 1987 season, CSKA striker Sergei Berezin suffered a severe traumatic brain injury in a match against Zalgiris.
e925025682e174b8dc26aeaf8877afe7cc9997cd He spent several months in a coma, six months later, thanks to the efforts of doctors, he recovered, but he was not destined to return to his club as a football player.
dc4448093eeab224576a5738d5e72343298f07ef CSKA performed poorly in the championship, having won only six victories by the 29th round.
e70c74d1a813602e2a236769d84e25750dd8f1fe CSKA played the match of the 29th round with Zenit Leningrad, the game ended with a score of 1: 1.
e4068c6c4171827a146c496c598b14609fa697f4 This draw turned out to be over the limit and did not allow the Army team to stay in the top league.
f509f331dff1c4b7cf9782cf5026affb94dbec4f Morozov was removed from the post of head coach.
4262b2526144d9072278d2a4c6cba3764667a775 Sergey Shaposhnikov was appointed in his place.[70]
e0c02bc147a8557ac5d39c134789ce4cd0483f8c In 1988, CSKA started the season in the First League for the third time in its history.
b9a3f034db4dcb46e8cddc95690ab0da53b6dd76 In general, the composition of the army team has hardly changed compared to last season.
2671ab20b6346506ecaf4ff7ae364d3daa5dc17d Goalkeeper Mikhail Eremin left for the Spartak reserve team, Sergey Savchenko moved to the Zarya club in Balti.
861f6f5cf55d0346d1a79e54708aa5370f4e2b56 The team was replenished with defenders Andrey Mokh, who returned from SKA Lviv, and Valery Glushakov, who transferred from the SKA Rostov team.
4e795342668d1267b5e9cf40c69cda392681bd63 The team spent the season successfully, but the defeat at the end of the championship from Rostselmash did not allow CSKA to advance to the top league.
97a5f2238804ea81cad2062db6b75ae718cf4a10 As a result, CSKA took the 3rd place, 1 point behind the nearest rival "Rotor".
54c7d9b010f52e0ef40f306ee397b5d68a02fd16 At the end of the season, Shaposhnikov resigned.
bbee3c288b1b8dcbf57eaa2fc4dbd56d558825cf Pavel Sadyrin became the new head coach.[71]
b82cd0d46ae27f8c9714d883711d852fa1074023 Before the last season in the first league, the composition of CSKA practically did not change.
b30852248a5a3dc0e61e840ac15ca06522815f32 Mikhail Eremin has returned from Spartak Moscow, striker Oleg Sergeev has arrived from Rotor.
9c8a9297bc8c8083490d53c12e396dbf93e273a7 The Army team finished the championship in the first place, having won 27 victories, including 18 major ones and scoring 113 goals.
45b8017600abbf3f15927fa5fefeff19d063b214 The best scorer of the championship was the forward of CSKA Valery Masalitin.[71]
68a7b62505676c317793e1d0174ea4721acb51ca In the off season of 1990, the team was left by striker Valery Popovich, who moved to Spartak Moscow, defender Dmitry Gradilenko, who joined the SKA Lviv squad, as well as several young players.
fe5bd67d716a0d13c334d45fb3cb37f12d30f06d CSKA has been strengthened by several players, including goalkeepers Andrey Novosadov and Alexander Guteev, midfielder Yuri Bavykin, striker Ilshat Fayzulin, defenders Alexey Gushchin and Mikhail Sinev.
9e63682bd96795812174154c4992d6112aac4134 In the first round of the championship, Sergey Krutov and Valery Masalitin, who were interning at the Dutch club Vitesse, were absent from the team.[72] In exchange for the lease of Krutov and Masalitin, Vitesse paid for a 12 day army training camp in the Netherlands and undertook to find a sponsor for CSKA.[72] Before the trip to the Netherlands, CSKA played six test matches in the United States.[72] The team started the season with a home defeat of Shakhtar Donetsk, the match ended with a score of 4: 0 in favor of the army.[72] In the first round, CSKA scored 17 points out of 24 possible.
4476fcc6779833362feca7c8ebeb001302dc3603 In the USSR Cup, things were also going well for CSKA: after beating Sokol Saratov, Dnipro Dnepropetrovsk and Rotor Volgograd, the Army team reached the semifinals, where they met Dynamo Kiev.
2963f48194c316142bcf484b27a776aaae22fc29 The semifinal match ended with a score of 4: 2 in favor of Kiev.
ca8d42c1e6f875fd4510302f15c5db2a82739a4c In the second round, Masalitin and Krutov returned from Vitesse.
ea2dab454542a9ea2955e818121c67106126362e In the second half of the championship, CSKA performed arrhythmically, victories alternated with defeats.
bf7b3703d165067741b7bd158f5687df51be4741 On September 1, 1990, CSKA lost heavily to Ararat Yerevan with a score of 4: 0, which allowed Dynamo Kiev to catch up with the Army team.[72] However, five days later, in the match with "Rotor", the Army managed to rehabilitate themselves by scoring seven goals against Volgograd, five of them were scored by striker Valery Masalitin, thereby repeating the record for the number of goals scored by one player in a match.[72] CSKA lost the second round match with Dynamo Kyiv with a score of 1: 4, this defeat did not allow the Army team to take the first place, the Army team finished the 1990 season on the second line of the standings.[73]
59961e34c1a1267e594b8abe74fe8f9b5eede280 Mikhail Eremin
53a998baec8b6cafe3dd48d669a78fd0e361c7ec In the off season of 1991, striker Sergei Dmitriev left the team and moved to the Spanish club Jerez, the team was replenished with young football players, midfielders Vasily Ivanov and Dmitry Karsakov, as well as striker Lev Matveev.
0dadd5b2746a12b9b424fa65128ec674eb0aac57 The season for CSKA began with a match of the 1/4 USSR Cup against Dynamo Minsk, which ended with a score of 1: 4 in favor of the army team.
ac744402842349475be0834a7aa3df04cac072f3 In the first round of the USSR championship, which took place on March 10, 1991, Metalist Kharkiv was beaten with a crushing score of 4:0.
1e5cfe662f97fec3ef77ebed91c0e5ed7e8c5b88 In the next 5 rounds of the championship, CSKA won 5 victories, with a goal difference of 14-4.
aa86ca511a3246b1d88cda3ad54555f83ba38607 In the semifinals of the USSR Cup, CSKA, with a score of 3:0, defeated Lokomotiv Moscow.
d54fccc89c6efa1f629811387cf20302950fd0bf In the Final of the USSR Cup, which was held on June 23, 1991 at the Luzhniki Big sports arena, CSKA played against Torpedo.
2da20513675eeefe55590b4b263894da734737ff The score in the match, at the 43rd minute, was opened by the forward of "Torpedo" Yuri Tishkov, at the 45th minute the army men were able to win back, Igor Korneev scored.
13d104dc134f81e4cf606e1c25636e0c31a1b5bc After the break, in the 67th minute, Korneev scored a double and put his team ahead.
8a48cf044aca70c118cbf4f0ff2945448d634a3d In the 75th minute, Tishkov equalized the score.
dcd0601275613ba0faa1f44bdb8be5d1b0bdbfbb However, after five minutes, the army team took the lead again, Korneev passed Sergei Dmitriev, who had recently returned from Spain, who, having broken through on the flank, made a shot into the penalty area of the Torpedo team, and Oleg Sergeev, who ran up, closed the transfer the score was 3:2.
9387667b3dc030cc0cce4d5a7483f75a597e5d0a CSKA won the national Cup for the fifth time.[74] The next day, on June 24, 1991, on the Leningrad Highway, the goalkeeper of CSKA Moscow, Mikhail Eremin, was involved in a car accident.
c6cd85e2e0c87cae1521fd267385778bc646ad04 On June 30, at the age of 23, he died from numerous injuries.
9b7fae7abf55859c5a304c73d6a085aa0af2ba53 On July 2, he was buried at the Zelenograd cemetery.
c594cd97bc502bcc04b4f20e2995d6ba5cfeb1d1 At the funeral, the CSKA players vowed to win the national championship in memory of Mikhail.[75] On September 18, 1991, as part of the Cup of Cups draw, CSKA met with the Italian club "Roma".
563754f3794900b7223071f5210417abe016ea6c The match began with sharp attacks by the hosts, but the army team could not hit the visitors ' goal, the first half ended in a zero draw.
0e2e31edb70ed4954649d9cb95543b00c05209c5 At the very beginning of the second half, in the 46th minute, CSKA defender Sergei Fokin played unsuccessfully in the penalty area and cut the ball into his own goal.
6a5f3812824649c8005a4072ae91c13afc185c2f The Army team was able to equalize the score already in the 52nd minute of the match, after a strong blow from Vladimir Tatarchuk, the ball bounced to Sergeyev and he was able to send it to the Romans ' goal.
708f30c5d69520eb48719553105427090d872cf0 In the 73rd minute, taking advantage of a mistake by the army defenders, Roma striker Rizzitelli went one on one with CSKA goalkeeper Dmitry Harin and outplayed him and scored a goal, putting an end to the match.
37351268b40e701734cd2a4efee1ceca2b533a3e The second leg took place in Rome on October 2, 1991.
f33863a66a70720889ccd55d15328493669f6935 Already on the 13th minute, the Army team took the lead, after an accurate pass from Mikhail Kolesnikov, the Moscow striker Dmitriev opened the score in the match with a head kick.
05d5212ba1b7aaa5a256a59460372aa5563a05cb Later, the defender of the guests Fokin, after giving a corner, scored another goal, but the referee Forstinger canceled it, as he considered that Valery Massalitin had violated the rules before the strike.
425d9f49960e9b5fa019cfc9d439318e229a49c6 As a result, CSKA, according to the sum of two matches, could not break into the 1/8 Cup of Cups.
5b8c77923c74216af4537a4ddc0cf4cbc7060c38 On October 27, 1991, CSKA beat Dynamo Moscow with a score of 1: 0, ahead of schedule, for the round before the end of the national championship, won the gold medals of the championship, thereby completing the last "golden double" of the USSR championships.[76]
37610ab4761d43126678644eeb9cfb7fe4939604 1992-2000[edit / edit wiki text]
04e4e92160d703a6e491f33689c36a935ee5aaf2 Pavel Sadyrin
a3b946492ac1a0a886805e6d2d00c73c55b0d189 After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the former republics that were part of the USSR began to hold their own independent football competitions.
4451f21ee755c7b4fda23f9632fafc2df6d939eb The Highest league of the Russian championship was created almost from scratch.
f1d129c9a9194b1427c0c61780e37d0d7616d84d To participate in the Top League, 20 clubs were gathered, including CSKA.[77]
009e2ccdedc3043ea552c29e5574317b6edc950f Before the 1992 season, a number of experienced players left the team.
8bd7143e630705f93af5bf06db76ba773e28d0d9 Among them were Igor Korneev, Dmitry Galyamin and Dmitry Kuznetsov, who moved to Espanyol ,Sergey Dmitriev, who signed a contract with the Spanish club "Jerez", Valery Broshin, who left for the Finnish club "Kuopion Palloseura", Vladimir Tatarchuk, who moved to Slavia Prague, as well as some other players.
4267e1ca94cd752bd3c83d4f96882a9e100ca149 Sadyrin made up for this loss with several young football players.
aba4889d09089bd1dd49ddc0b5b759b2d09ed37f As a result, CSKA started the season with a rejuvenated squad of players.[78][79]
fa04df3d0a092b6abb28437e9ddaed543553c1f1 The Russian Championship in 1992 was played in two stages.
a4db055652cd3829ed988b5284d396a7731a1e63 In the first stage, 20 clubs of the Top Division, divided into two groups, identified the 4 strongest teams in the group, and then in the second stage of the competition they fought for the championship title, the remaining teams played for places from 9th to 20th.[77][79]
9b18a1e40ea8d7d03fc6e9e980c276f246dce221 The army team started the first Russian championship with a guest match against Spartak Vladikavkaz.
9cfbbf020c17dcbb997827e90cdb45ee948200bd The match took place on March 29, 1992.
18375838f598c4677a4c82fc2872015caf717ef3 Already in the 9th minute of the game, midfielder Mirjalol Kassymov put Spartak ahead, and at the very end of the match, the home team's striker Igor Shkvyrin scored the second goal, thereby setting the final score in the match — 2: 0.
5a74a862d09e89e0a05ad388bb603b861dd50b27 Despite the defeat in the first match, CSKA managed to win three victories in a row — over Dynamo Stavropol ,over Tekstilshchik and over Fakel.
8cb396c6554b973cf12d8de5d832b3690c803d75 By the end of the first stage of the national championship, the army team scored 23 points and, taking 4th place, made their way to the final bullet.
7cb27b461297a513252ada1168238473631d1c9f In the second stage of the championship, CSKA scored 14 points and took only 5th place.[78][79]
ae511a3f9dab0375050157bb3fd8ddd3342462a9 In the Cup, CSKA performed with great success.
32609d4827071ad90ce571238aaa2331ae1f072d The tournament, which began as the USSR Cup, was completed under the auspices of the CIS after the collapse of the Union.
fb37bdb3d1f0bd575afa4834de74c0385deb021f In the semifinals, the Army team defeated the Tajik club "Pamir" Dushanbe, and in the Cup final the army men were supposed to meet with Spartak Moscow.
8413e65279c1712c1ba6366ea3c71ba816db457c The final was held on May 10, 1992, at the Luzhniki Stadium, in the presence of 42,000 spectators.
0bc784b3df717e1bada9c0efe9ad7ec2976be597 In the 20th minute of the game, Vladimir Beschastnykh opened the score in the match, he also doubled the score in the 35th minute.
400f4930b15309ff436ae1659fd1aa3e10a613f4 At the end of the first half, the CSKA players had the opportunity to recoup after the penalty awarded by the referee, but CSKA goalkeeper Harin failed to beat his counterpart Cherchesov and sent the ball above the goal.
9a0df0d21646be421bde9eb7498d2d309fc11ed9 The match ended with a score of 2: 0, and the Cup remained with the red and white forever.[80][81]
e2ddf6e62fe232cb03bbe32b5fcca9f61822941a During the season, the club changed the head coach, instead of Pavel Sadyrin, who was appointed head coach of the Russian national team, Gennady Kostylev took the helm of the team.[82]
c7bfcfce2fd93add8ecd10bf8b9b7bb99229b57b In September 1992, CSKA started in the Champions League.
f400e68e385518561b9e43bb1048bc32e7c28040 In the first match, the army team played against the Icelandic club Vikingur, the first match ended with a score of 1: 0, and the second 4: 2 in favor of the Muscovites.[80] And in the next match, the Army team met with the current at that time winner of the Champions Cup — Barcelona.
a631bb3f46b9091c554573c2c871b656cd4098b7 The first match was held on October 21, 1992 in the presence of 40,000 spectators and ended with a score of 1:1.
cbe45df46bdaa57a3be14d068ee269a582d4f2be Alexander Grishin distinguished himself among the army men, and Begiristain among the Spaniards.[83] The second match was held on November 4, 1992, at the famous home stadium of Barcelona Camp Nou, in the presence of 80,000 fans.
d0f6a5e0afbbd2ee7a12026b2515793a1ae5961e The hosts opened the score in the match already in the 12th minute of the game, Nadal scored, and in the 31st minute Begiristain doubled the score in the match.
fe2e564344cd5579f3f4d0dd0acfa06198e765ef A few minutes before the end of the first half, Yevgeny Bushmanov managed to beat Barca goalkeeper Subisarreta and narrowed the gap in the score.
43e8faa7c82da2715d9278fade5080f5698a95e0 After the break, in the 57th minute, Denis Mashkarin equalized the score.
bdb4ec16591205f7cde5f169a0a0e27711cb7803 And 4 minutes later, Dmitry Karsakov, after a pass from Ilshat Fayzulin, set the final score in the match 2:3.
54f94a3a830dabe59273239bc9928d26cbe568b5 [84] After this victory, CSKA entered the group stage.
15ac737ec2b5ac5d4eb33cae47623cc77045b235 Despite the victory over Barcelona, CSKA took the last place in its group and finished its performance in European competitions.[85]
1443536aeacb90531ee96791fd139f65d050cc51 Before the 1993 season, the team's composition underwent a number of changes.
5bc81f2a893fd4c8192f7bf06f9d0635af9e8113 Goalkeeper Yevgeny Plotnikov came from Kuban, defender Sergey Mamchur came from Dnipro, midfielder Yuri Antonovich came from Dynamo Minsk, and the team was also replenished with other players.
00fb90b13b2af99535de7b8c06647550dd241987 During the season, defenders Sergey Kolotovkin and Oleg Malyukov left the team and moved to the Israeli clubs Beitar and Hapoel (Ironi Rishon), Sergey Krutov moved to Dynamo Moscow, and Valery Broshin signed a contract with the club Hapoel (Kfar Saba).[85] In the championship, CSKA performed unevenly, victories were followed by defeats, as a result, only 30 points and 9th place out of 18 possible in the standings.
1d1e58d84e3860591c376a32deff9bc0aeab75fc Things were going better in the cup, the Army team managed to make it to the final, where they had to meet with Torpedo Moscow.
b66ac0d85ec3420850c2a94cff6614313173d09d Two days before the match with Torpedo, the team's coach, Gennady Kostylev, was fired, as a result, he went to the final match of the CSKA cup without a head coach.
bd4cd2e470f700c81d652c7353d4cbd490f0b705 The match, in regular and extra time, ended with a score of 1: 1, and the Torpedo players scored a better penalty, 5: 3.
a4a7106e5c20f01de2b97ccd430fd0c9641a608d Boris Kopeikin was appointed to the post of head coach instead of Kostylev.[86]
f06c3294bf016b4db988f5e7de7930feb352918c Sergey Semak is one of the symbols of CSKA, he joined the team in 1994.
3238faf7241136d4789b3b34bd8147f191d35f0e At the beginning of season 94, the following changes occurred in the club's composition: CSKA striker Valery Masalitin moved to Spartak Moscow, Dmitry Karsakov continued his career at Torpedo, Vladimir Tatarchuk returned from Slavia Prague, and in the summer a young Sergey Semak joined the team.
f6ad1fef3dc288f42957d9db1568f708dd0ea86c The start of the championship turned out to be unsuccessful, after seven rounds the team with six points occupied the tenth line of the standings, and by the end of the first round the army team scored only seven goals, and soon the head coach of CSKA Kopeikin resigned.
3d05eff52aa49bdcde4d0e776127e303a3aad0fa His place was taken by Alexander Tarkhanov, however, despite the change of coach, the army team took only 10th place in the championship.[87]
9eaee30b549ad35de774b42bcc81237901df3904 Things were going better in the cup, just like last season, the team managed to reach the final, where the army team had to play against the champion Spartak Moscow.
e996d8bf6d8ef674b476f504a8d98b786340e06c In the main and extra time, the match ended with a score of 2:2, and the red and white scored a better penalty 2:4.
99bd1616d1189284046ac48fc8c8e430616ced55 [88]
84d12bc9db00f38c31d53641ccf4da6bd973ce2a The following season, Tarkhanov continued to form a new team, refusing the services of many players: Broshin and Bystrov left for Zenit St. Petersburg, Ivanov left to play at Maccabi (Herzliya), Semenov, Grishin, Kolotovkin moved to Dynamo Moscow, and Sinev and Demchenko left to play in Europe: the first — to Ajax Amsterdam), and the second to Spain.
a122cadb22a7a662689d685356e6f934fcf247a8 They were replaced by a new generation of football players, from which the trio that formed the backbone of the team in the center of the field stood out: Sergey Semak, Dmitry Khokhlov and Vladislav Radimov.[89] The defense was made up of the team captain Bushmanov, Valery Minko, Mamchur, Mashkarin and Gradilenko.
9436c709756fbd302458398f7adc77c6fce993c8 The first goalkeeper at the beginning of the season was Andrey Novosadov, and from the second round — Plotnikov.
746a36b550cf2bbdd5c78411b2c24ea66d0fe7e2 In the attack — Swan and Faizulin.
3ee741bf26dc9e5d93f6321700e65733ba71d9c4 As a result, a fairly young front line doubled the team's performance compared to the previous season.
211512fd9892a120c2fa9a36ed4f2ce66eedf6a2 CSKA finished the 1995 championship in sixth place.
8c1f881bb39820086cae1e718dc793934346d919 Young football players of the army club were actively involved in the national teams of the country: Semak, Radimov and Khokhlov played both for the youth and for the youth.
5a42cee72df27588d2e8f157d73f17b8ad96710f Mashkarin, Lebed, Faizulin and Gerasimov also played in the "youth team".
e02cfc8c3a5619105d0f942011cc4516624d2ef8 And in the main team in the qualifying games for the European Championship, Lebed and Radimov played one match each.
0592eed2fd02c1199737eaf08087231691694a7d The latter, together with Bushmanov, entered the list of "33 best"at the end of the year.[90]
45315d407d6821231fd80ec6c2e6878e31ceda3d In 1996, active selection continued.
b2589e7b3fc2b519012438c8e3f424ba33beb2b9 The team was joined by goalkeeper Tyapushkin, striker Movsesyan and defender A. Ivanov.
23dd5177ed7673ed695a6815d44a4a84f182f02b In the summer, the first foreign legionnaires appeared in CSKA, two Brazilians: defender Leandro Samaroni and attacking midfielder Leonidas, as well as Lithuanian striker Edgaras Jankauskas.[91] As a result, the performance increased and from the 25th round the team gave out a seven match winning streak, consistently beating KAMAZ, Dynamo Moscow, Torpedo Luzhniki, Rostselmash, Zenit, Zhemchuzhina and Alania.
464e363b6297977737058bd3a71baf0e44c47ae8 Three rounds before the finish, CSKA was in third place, but the Army team failed to finish, losing first away to Baltika 1: 2, and then in Selyatin near Moscow in a nominal home match (due to the reconstruction of Luzhniki, all Moscow teams that played that round at home did not have enough capital stadiums) to Novorossiysk Chernomorets 1:3.
f260d39db1196af9d5d66df6766594755d6de839 The victory in the last round over the capital "Locomotive"did not brighten up the impression either.
ddfba0137e1544c7d6113e1e33bf25d596485429 As a result, the team took the fifth place.
33c393c189df1d58436f58d7efdfc678c600f00f The weak ending gave the big CSKA a reason to break the contract with Tarkhanov.
e02fb165824f185f8541982d7ae01b47d543ca1a Nevertheless, the army team repeated their best achievement in the Russian championships.
e0305a4011dd7e99a9028bef19a65ed58f58f294 Bushmanov, Minko and Khokhlov were included in the list of the "33 best", and Tyapushkin, having defended 14 matches to zero, set a new club achievement in this component.
a1c7ee33325a1482a1b3ab9174266d3c2d464aaf As for the cup, the Army team lost to "Rotor" in 1/4 with a score of 0: 2 and were eliminated from further competition.[92]
994200afe9bac430a47d0debe0023f3b53a824bf In August, CSKA joined the fight for the UEFA Cup.
514b19ab4f48ae6ac4aa57d5c86fbcb7c0358f0b In the qualification, the Icelandic club "Akranes" was beaten twice" (2:0, 4:1), but then the army men went to Feyenoord.
c9fb479aff3b2fb4a2ceed65bd88671d1ab01d4f In Moscow, the Army team lost with a minimum score, and in the return game they drew 1: 1.
a7533a0d602712ef13be01e30ad39675bf8f9e06 [93]
6e5ef5aad44b0a150c165f3f066ee646a6cf56fe That year, the European Championship was held, and CSKA was represented by Bushmanov, Radimov and Khokhlov in the Russian national team.
4451b0096068e9909b71a058574d36f37b5e6c92 Minko also played one friendly match for the national team.[92]
188ade21e1b49dff5b1043133ac34ccb0b99f54d In the off season, the conflict between the leadership of the football club and the leadership of the CSKA sports society finally escalated.
fbaf3f319d0cf75e4af2656b3fe66f49a765ec22 As a result, the team was divided into two: the first was headed by Tarkhanov, and the second by Pavel Sadyrin, appointed by the leadership of the CSKA sports society.[94]
8bc5601ba89e66197542b4f4e995702b18bdd9cb Tarkhanov was able to attract the main team of CSKA, and Sadyrin was forced to build his team mainly from understudies and players of youth teams.
36f8dfbc8e6d4a43cad65a8a1ee535b399067414 In the off season, Tarkhanov agreed to lead Torpedo Luzhniki and took Mashkarin, Gashkin, Bushmanov, Samaroni, Leonidas, Yankauskas, Minko, Khokhlov with him.[94] As a result, Minko still remained in CSKA.
9a6f1c875c4429f72b2b84870b469a589f35e306 The team's losses did not end there: A. Ivanov left for Austria, Tyapushkin signed a contract with Dynamo (Moscow), Lebed moved to Zenit St. Petersburg, Pestryakov left for Rostselmash Rostov.
f876b15a3c3f84de821f97f14ea38972e9d22453 The replenishment was not so strong: Sidelnikov from Ilva Chunma, Lobzhanidze from Dynamo (Tbilisi), Bokov, Kulik and Khomukha from Zenit, Ulyanov and Shustikov returned from Spain, A. Grishin moved from the capital Dynamo, and A. Nikolaev from Torpedo.
314eacc6fa84998ef460806ede985668ec3576c2 Most of the newcomers appeared in the team only before the first matches, so the team began to play and look for their optimal tactics only during the championship.
359473ca0d0e02ca4c9549f22609f263c57221ae Yakovenko, Lobzhanidze and Sidelnikov soon left the club, after the first round Ulyanov left for Israel again, lost his place in the Nikolaev and Shutov team, Tsaplin moved to the Saratov Sokol, Demchenko moved to the Dutch Ajax.[94] In December, the defender Sergei Mamchur died.[95]
4920afff861baef4299e8d3100419bb8a6d62cd4 In the summer off season, goalkeeper Kutepov moved to CSKA, Gaisumov, Kuznetsov, Karsakov, Petrosyants returned to the team.
0e43d435dc4005e518b3a92fa3a302b32df10c52 After the first round, the team took the 13th place in the table and was on the verge of relegation.
dc2b321b461ad3b2cee351fcd8269dd6e2e85ffd But, having scored 11 points in the last five games, the Army team was able to move to 12th place.
b81333778db9c1df9e951a8fbbff3bbb5f7b52c6 The top scorer was Vladimir Kulik, who scored 9 goals.[96]
78c72f914a1719fb46e361b28048c7657f1b348f In 1998, Oleg Dolmatov led CSKA to the first silver medals of the Russian championship
d9f2ac360cfd9cd6f06717105b3ffd641516590a In the 1998 season, the composition was greatly changed, 7 new players came to the team, among them were Oleg Kornaukhov, Evgeny Varlamov, Dmitry Sennikov, Sergey Filippenkov, at the same time a whole group of players left the army, including Alexey Gerasimov, Igor Semshov, Sergey Armishev, Dmitry Karsakov, Andrey Movsesyan.[97] The beginning of the championship, the players of CSKA played poorly, by the end of the first round, the team took 14 places oh, having scored only 14 points.
cc9bbb6decc30d4ee76276027857bf52b99cdfd7 The head coach of the army team Pavel Sadyrin was dismissed, and Oleg Dolmatov was invited to take his place.
c73c08613429777760636135e28d2be2568939f1 There were also changes in the top management of the club, in July a Chechen businessman Shahrudi Dadakhanov took the position of general director, and in August he became the president of PFC CSKA.[98] The team played its first match after the summer break against Chernomorets Novorossiysk, beating it with a score of 4: 1, two rounds later the team made a breakthrough — seven dry wins in a row, with a goal difference of 18: 0, [99] five matches before the final, CSKA came in second place in the standings.
1c5a935216b074e3b886284103043beb5dcb971d On September 26, 1998, the army team met with Spartak Moscow, which occupies the first place.
f3f1766c923fed5291fca0d38512d7c1e79a332c The defending champion was defeated with a score of 4:1.
2d9e69f8ebbd29877dbf4a0b82cb2f606014bee6 That season, CSKA took the second place 3 points behind Spartak, which took the first place.
4899d9fe3a039ce1646f9f686d954482075aed43 In the second round, the Army team won 14 matches out of 15, six with a large score.
65dfb0cc9f0eaf6227b9eeca477a55a72a0fdc83 In the 1998 season, the team set a new record for the number of consecutive wins (12).
f7ab6b50acbe7f15faa8da48b98a4f48620a49dd [100] At the end of the season, eight CSKA players entered the list of the "33 best": Semak, Varlamov, Bokov, Minko, Khomukha, Kulik, Kornaukhov, Novosadov.[101] In the 1/4 draw of the 1997-1998 Russian Cup, the Army team lost to the Volgograd "Rotor" with a score of 3:5.
bd08ee43d7bef8718d91649d900e38939d6f8be2 In the autumn stage of the Russian Cup 1998-1999, the team, having beaten Amur Energia 2: 0 and Tom 2: 1, reached the 1/4 finals.[101]
ca655d0df54886043dacff2b5d5949457bb3fcdf Before the start of the 1999 season, there were minor changes in the team, the team left players who did not have a solid place in the base, their place was taken by young players from the lower divisions of Russia.[102] By the end of the first round, the Army team was in third place, 5 points behind the leader of Spartak Moscow, by the end of the championship the situation had not changed and CSKA won bronze.
3fc68811dbf3624cee869d2a90e4caa460d7048e In the 1998-1999 Russian Cup, the team lost to Zenit St. Petersburg in the semifinals, with a minimum score.
6402cf45bb8ff7f60feb7fbffec7fe0c540d92fb In the second qualifying round of the Champions League, CSKA met with the Norwegian club Molde.
8cae81b0e96c828b5b38fc21657694bffa6a40fa In the home match, the Moscow club managed to win a confident victory 2:0, Shishkin and Khomukha scored goals, but they suffered a humiliating defeat in the second leg 4:0.[103][104]
c192bd855767ed59ba7c705263b395c107b74821 At the beginning of the 2000 season, there was a massive rotation of players in the team, 9 players came to the team at once, among them were Yuri Okroshidze and Rustem Bulatov.
f5e1812333b4b5073dbc869bb915018c5412dba0 CSKA failed to start the championship, the first goal in the national championship was scored only in the seventh round.
c04ee10056bad61798e4927477d54fe5af9a9917 After ten rounds, Oleg Dolmatov resigned, Pavel Sadyrin took his place.
7a01ef914a1b297bd46aff46a7d6fd27eecebb36 The change of the head coach helped the team to improve its tournament position, as a result, CSKA took the eighth place.
628b17db7297ba858ba7222e0f2a0ee0c08c5f9e In the Russian Cup 1999-2000 was doing more successfully 1/4 of the tournament CSKA beat on penalties Anji 5:3,[105] then, in the semifinals, beat Spartak Moscow 3:1.
2728043d9486f4c2e3ba7cbf731418555a011398 In the final, CSKA met with the Moscow "Locomotive", in the opening match, on the 12th minute of the game for a professional foul was removed defender of CSKA's Maxim Bokov, despite this, the army opened the scoring in the match the goal was scored Sergei Semak, at the end of the first half Evseev to level the scores.
aae83231a2df7b800e8a1b591c84ce8eb18734b3 In the 66th minute, Loskov received the 2nd yellow card.
f804a967366d5e5340e10078fb70c931fef8f7ec In extra time, Bulykin went one on one with CSKA goalkeeper Okroshidze, brought the ball into the net with a powerful blow, and in the 113th minute after Tsymbalar's strike, the score in the match becomes 3:1, despite all efforts, the CSKA players were able to win back only one ball, in the last, 120th minute, Oleg Kornaukhov scored a goal against Lokomotiv.[106] In the UEFA Cup 2000-01, CSKA lost, on the sum of two meetings, to the Danish club Viborg" (0:0, 1:0) and was eliminated after the first round of the tournament.[107]
4f1f15837210a779727b449285881c488c5762b6 2001-2008[edit / edit wiki text]
f6fd0db06e004925820da251e842e04ffc18ed2a Before the transfer window closed, the new management managed to acquire three players who really strengthened the army team [109]: first, striker Denis Popov was bought from Chornomorets Novorossiysk, then goalkeeper Sergei Perkhun was purchased from the Pridnestrovian club Sheriff, and the third newcomer was midfielder Juris Layzan, who transferred from the Riga club Skonto.
0de8431849ba17dda34b16a318a7913b65840665 In the first two rounds, CSKA suffered two defeats, first in an away match with Chernomorets 2: 0, then in a home match against the Samara club Krylia Sovetov 3: 0.
1986986e08c6428a78fccb69bca042644a93d0b3 In the third round, CSKA met with Spartak Moscow, the match ended with a score of 1: 0 in favor of Spartak, but this match went down in the history of Russian football for other reasons.
36409143161f000d39ffb7e340c8da955f88b84b A few hours before the derby, there were mass fights between fans of the teams.
22cdfa962f9b68ff8ae0e4a35534e494acd75215 Already at the very beginning of the match, smoke bombs flew from the army sectors to the treadmills, the field was covered with clouds of smoke[110], plastic chairs flew at the policemen, after a while a mass fight between red and white fans and riot police began in the Spartak sectors, the fights continued throughout the match.
14acfe7ce365c452b15078981d61a2789f16fab4 According to the police department, 1,436 seats were torn out during the match, 660 people were detained, and another 27 were hospitalized.
f1d80a8dab5ced1b1315dcde64b20090235cb411 During the summer season, the Army acquired eleven football players, among them were: Alexey Berezutsky, Igor Yanovsky, Andrey Solomatin, Elver Rakhimich, Predrag Rangelovich, Veniamin Mandrykin, Roman Monarev, Vladimir Kuzmichev, Alexander Berketov and Spartak Gogniev.[111]
2cede7a8b3c70cb1b0e3aa030b146ef8ae0b76fb The fatal collision with B. Budunov
1b7c9188e5f2f67c13b1624faf968a6c841e9b93 On August 18, in an away match with Anzhi Makhachkala, Sergei Perkhun suffered a serious head injury when he collided with striker Budun Budunov.
a671a5fa3901f9e75eb34383289eeec621c75f66 At first, the injury seemed to be of moderate severity, Sergey was conscious until the end of the match.
d8b8cf73251f7798516fed749dee6da22d273614 But on the way to the airport, he fell into a coma, which resulted in clinical death.
1d2337f51f89710d909bf6b6821c44274d9bc32a Despite all the efforts of doctors, at 5 o'clock in the morning on August 28, the football player died.[112] Later it became known about the fatal illness of Pavel Sadyrin.
e99c4d80594cc48ee55df2ae2d369f9882aeb5a4 In the last rounds of the 2001 championship, the team was led by Alexander Kuznetsov instead of him.
e30842110524f80585e39666cfc1d59d37d6430a On December 1, Sadyrin died.[113] As a result, the team finished the season only in seventh place, scoring 47 points.
a5979aa76fa718af2441c57ddf21ce7873e1691c After the end of the season, the club's management invited Valery Gazzaev to the coaching position. 109] On November 22, 2001, the names of newcomers who will join the team in the off season became known: Vasily Berezutsky, Deivydas Shemberas, Vyacheslav Daev, Dmitry Kirichenko and Roland Gusev.[109], two football players left the team Stanislav Lysenko and Oleg Kornaukhov.
41de3a34baa19a0a900c52af9017d6b76b2212cb The match with Spartak Moscow ended with a confident victory of CSKA 3:0, for the entire match the red and white could not get on target, Valery Gazzaev joked at the post match press conference:
f1f4d70022446c7a69989226d98ec3d72f0105b4 Today, CSKA showed a very good level of football.
13ecd18ae44b893be501cbc487f586b4fdd5c49c The only omission is that we allowed our opponents to approach our penalty area several times.[113]
7648ad0a7b057599f2e4b5c46c2101409c4acd62 Valery Gazzaev is the coach whose name is associated with the majority of CSKA's victories in the recent history of the club.
46352646c97b5bd5dce7cf830b03c531187a6ba3 After the first round, the team took 2nd place, 3 points behind the championship leader, Lokomotiv Moscow, and having two games in front of it (the match of the army team of the 12th round was postponed to August, and Lokomotiv already played the match of the 25th round [114] on May 12).
7293a4780cf606255dcf8cf8b32e4ae0b0d0339e In 2002, CSKA met Zenit St. Petersburg in the final of the Russian Cup, the first goal in the match was scored by Andrey Solomatin in the 27th minute of the match, and in the 52nd minute Igor Yanovsky set the final score 2: 0.
54d91783ecdb7b59ae248b2b2645fead814c1187 [115] This was the first trophy in the recent history of the club.
864636896adf1ad7cd26206903a4ee3d7df1a602 In the autumn of 2002, the club began playing in the UEFA Cup, but failed to defeat the Italian club Parma in the first round.
1ae33904f1ddabc9cbf6b1dab02bd4e62011332f By the end of the championship, CSKA scored the same number of points with the Moscow "Locomotive", is clearly ahead of its additional indicators: the number of victories — 21 vs 19; the difference of goals scored and conceded — 34 vs. 32; the number of goals is 60 to 46.[116] nevertheless, in force at the time the system was designated a "Golden match", it took place on 21 November at the stadium "Dynamo".
3e7a98eae25d9001a98e2fd82b53e332fa1a14ac 7 minutes into the game, the midfielder of "Locomotive" Dmitry Loskov scored the only goal in the match.
f34550b474f8ca12761a8edaeda6afc4d40e35b6 Thus, CSKA won only silver in the 2002 season.
e33227af7bef8d25ef10204a9765eb0658e4c65b This season, the top scorers of the championship were Roland Gusev and Dmitry Kirichenko.[117]
5f83a84362f8d3179d1724ba05a3e14d1e3a915d In the winter off season, midfielder Jiri Yaroshik joined the team.
9a1e5ac98c379583b57342a4d0690a08921e94fb The team finished the first round of the 2003 championship, taking the first place, the closest pursuer Saturn near Moscow was 6 points behind.[118] During the summer break, CSKA acquired Croatian striker Ivica Olic.
da7685525466b0a6b0cb8b98661d8725081d3b51 In August, in the Champions League qualification, CSKA suffered the most humiliating defeat in the history of Russian clubs ' performances in European competitions.[119] The club lost to the Macedonian "Vardar", which occupied the 238th place in the UEFA club ranking.
93bcfa7838ec6510c65d8fb79ac5947f14e1a4be Despite some decline in the fall, the army team was able to win the Russian championship for the first time in its history.
f1beb6b639baa8a8ab7e7bc0a6d545c429abb990 In November 2003, there were changes in the club management, instead of Valery Gazzaev, a Portuguese specialist Artur Jorge took the helm of the team, under the leadership of the new coach, the team won a convincing victory — 3:1 in the match for the Russian Super Cup against Spartak Moscow.
91869b5c0da605368bd2abeeb616833b802c3313 Defender Sergey Ignashevich moved from Lokomotiv Moscow, Evgeny Aldonin joined the team from Rotor Volgograd, Osmar Ferreira came from the Argentine club River Plate, Daniel Carvalho, Yuri Zhirkov and Chidi Odia were also acquired.[121] However, despite all the acquisitions, things were going badly in the championship, by the end of the first round the team was in fifth place with 20 points.
1c1e22c82f2c500397fd6b77c9c607704590650c CSKA football players winners of the UEFA Cup of the 2004/2005 season
b1ff963692f737b9bbc63255c31a177137ae6301 In the 2005 off season, Sergey Semak, who moved to PSG, Dmitry Kirichenko, who ended up in Moscow, and Jiri Yaroshik, who moved to Chelsea, left the team, and the Brazilian midfielder Dudu joined the team.
fb8e2c8729e6fb6f9fb91e53b965ad4ffa158810 The next opponent of CSKA was the Serbian club Partizan, the guest match in Belgrade ended with a score of 1:1, and the home match in Krasnodar 2: 0 in favor of the red and blue.
1d9f9ba68d7e0668b84e7c5e6a4ed7a2238576d3 In the next round, the Army team defeated the French Auxerre 4:0.
071a55969df5234fa314440b10f246c5ff1c79d5 [128] Despite losing 2-0 away, CSKA was able to continue playing in the European Cup.
87086f12a44ad9a5007274882e1c595b6b249d4f The first goal of the match, in the 29th minute, was scored by Sporting midfielder Rogerio.
78b94d97abdc3459c910571830bc0b0418358377 In the 56th minute of the game, Alexey Berezutsky leveled the score after Carvalho's submission, in the 65th minute, Armee Yuri Zhirkov put the Muscovites ahead, and in the 75th minute of the meeting, Wagner Love set the final score in the match— 3:1.[129][130]
240689d909ddea0654495043f35c5159e17e0ee9 For the first time in the history of the Russian club won the European Cup.[131] On May 29, 2005, in the final of the Russian Cup, CSKA beat Khimki near Moscow with a score of 1: 0, Yuri Zhirkov scored the only goal.[132] In the national championship, in the 29th round, ahead of schedule, having beaten Dynamo Moscow, the army team became champions for the second time in their history.[133] The 2005 season is still considered the most successful in the history of the army club.
f2107f8633e15974381ae73fde7fd12cdc535f19 So, CSKA of the sample of 2005 was recognized by the jury of the competition "The Russian Football Championship 20 years" as the best team of the Russian championships of 1992-2012. 134]
5d2a742ed85b67f1e1f4cc0bc1ee2d4b8482c0de In the 2006 off season, a number of young players left the team, the Brazilian striker Jo was acquired instead.
a0ea28a62c2833bba2d16f2059fd3e4aac2ec289 [135] On March 5, in the first official match — 1/8 of the Russian Cup — with Spartak from Kostroma, he opened the account by scoring the first goal for CSKA[136], and a week later, on March 11, in the match for the Super Cup with Spartak Moscow, Jo scored the winning goal.
9b334b0f45889afb5b1a8927edf8c57ef852b356 In the Championship, the newcomer opened the scoring in the second round in the match against Yaroslavl "Shinnik", scoring four goals.[137] The team suffered its first defeat in the 5th round of the championship, losing to Lokomotiv 3:2.
a36596957f74b57de083b5063d574ffbee07ef1c [138] After the first round, the Army team shared the first place with Spartak Moscow with 31 points scored.[139] In the Russian Cup, the army men who beat Zenit St. Petersburg in the semifinals" (1:0, 3:0), there was a meeting with the Spartak Moscow club.
da38951004c8b10bb0934015b5d9f7111e96bf6a Having won a convincing victory with the score 3: 0, CSKA became the owner of the trophy for the third time.[140] In the second round of the championship, CSKA did not lose its leading positions, and, in Vladivostok, a round before the end of the championship, defeating the local club "Luch Energia" with a score of 4:0, won gold medals,[141][142] thus making two "golden doubles" in a row, this achievement became an absolute record of the Russian championship.[143] In the Champions League, the army club performed confidently, taking second place two rounds before the finish, but a home defeat from FC Porto (0:2), and a guest defeat from the outsider Hamburg, did not allow the army to leave the group.
bf5cffda57daa9ceed11cef0a21f4e2936370199 Wagner Love — the best scorer of the Russian Championship of the 2008 season
51a6aac113fe5343feb1c7414db4bdf3aebae3c8 Before the 2007 season, the Croatian striker Ivica Olic left the team, who moved to the German club Hamburg, as well as several young players, including Alexander Salugin, Kirill Kochubey and Vladimir Gabulov.
7d16804bf33bf56cf7e16209e4cb47c2829a9075 Instead, two young midfielders were acquired — the Turk Erkin Janer and the Brazilian Ramon.
e87c604c7634a7a3d0c077bc0e3f61129092fd5e [144] In January 2007, CSKA took part in the Channel One Cup draw.
fc3ed04d83c9228540cb3bb4a38ebf484b3bf017 In their group, CSKA, having beaten Hapoel Tel Aviv (4: 1) and Shakhtar Donetsk (0: 2), reached the final.
769a886205b85e6d986236d7a4bd71d22ebdf4c1 The cup final was held in Tel Aviv at the Blumfeld Stadium, [145] CSKA faced Spartak Moscow.
d15fe73d6a9e7d6f4a0731dd052760bacba4de52 The score in the match, in the 52nd minute of the game, was opened by CSKA midfielder Dudu, after 6 minutes Roman Pavlyuchenko equalized the score, and in the 67th minute, Army rookie Ramon opened his goal account for CSKA.[145] At the end of the second half, Spartak striker Pavlyuchenko closed the canopy from the flank and brought the ball into the net of Igor Akinfeev's goal with his chest.
a5340af18203bb385fedcf77dbad55f2b5c2effd In overtime, at the last, 120th minute of the game, the Armenian Jo brought his team forward with a head kick, Spartak could not win back.
77b87de0dd617ef58921c1c6cb78ec83ae8e4902 [145] In February, within the framework of the UEFA Cup, CSKA met with the Israeli club Maccabi, in the first meeting, held in Vladikavkaz, the match ended with a score of 0:0,[146] and in the away match, the Army team was defeated with a minimum score.[147] In the first seven matches of the 16th Russian championship, CSKA had four wins, two draws and one defeat with a goal difference of 13: 6,[148] but soon the Army team was expecting a serious loss: on May 6, 2007, in the match of the 8th round of the Russian championship against Rostov, CSKA goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev was injured.
3fe2312edc6f3456fb8c030caeed6fc45f0a75ad Fighting for a riding ball in the penalty area, he landed unsuccessfully and tore the cruciate ligaments of his knee.
4349f2abd4b971d905517a956a342a090c7914bf According to doctors, the goalkeeper could hardly return to big football before the end of the season.[149] After the injury of the main goalkeeper of the team, a number of unsuccessful matches followed, this led to the fact that at the end of the first round, the team took 5th place.[150] In the summer off season, new players joined the team: striker David Yanchik, defender Eduardo Ratino, midfielder Pavel Mamaev and goalkeeper Yevgeny Pomazan.[151] In the second half of the season, the team was able to somewhat improve its position in the standings and finished the championship in third place.[152]
fed807b9c99867eac3932bb91538627bb4d7940d CSKA Players with the Russian Cup
aa301d648c9a9665b8d8c4dae13a42976a75ab91 On January 11, 2008, CSKA went to Dubai for the first training camp in the UAE.
3b93c098cfb8459744fba70fc1c3f2cf42f22c01 The training camp was held until January 23, 23 players of the team participated in the first training camp.[153] The first match in the new year was played by CSKA on January 20, 2008 at the training camp held in the UAE, against the local second division club Ajman, the match ended with a score of 5: 0 in favor of the army.[154] On January 23, 2008, CSKA joined the Association of European Clubs, a football organization that replaced G 14.[155] On January 27-30, the club participated in the Channel One Cup draw.
c3f250f2e684f9ab6761055f1d40cb17d1e9d64f The first match against Shakhtar Donetsk ended with a score of 3: 1 in favor of the miners, Sergei Ignashevich scored the only goal for the Army team after a free kick.
a287760638473a2cc61c0d3a119c79bd4fb011cc [156] The match against the local Beitar also ended with a defeat of CSKA, this time with a score of 1: 0.[157] On May 17, the team won the Russian Cup, beating Amkar Perm.
14ec81137413e2b8213fce31f9de846ffae96627 During the match, Amkar led 2-0, but CSKA was able to win back and win on penalties.[158]
144563899f616a0ca0ab3e4a42a1f52b8dff2dee In the summer off season, the Brazilian striker Jo left the team, who moved to the English club Manchester City for 18 million pounds. 160] Jo spent a total of 77 matches in two and a half seasons at CSKA, in which he scored 44 goals.[161]
c64a9aad8b63f9da87ce09ae577e9055fbb0046b On July 8, CSKA president Yevgeny Giner announced the departure of the head coach of the army team Valery Gazzaev at the end of the season. 162]
c86ec20c8272126f8b4fc93628b82e902ed5514b CSKA fans before the derby with Spartak.
c098ef880f485d5683cb99f916d64567f53c6ac4 July 12, 2008.
5fc828fccb92b535120f46ddbf4042a6faca1b9e On July 12, CSKA, in the framework of the 13th round of the Russian Championship, won a convincing victory with a score of 5:1 over Spartak Moscow in the most important match.
e95eb8bc45133e255eb637340f67bfa542e3eb10 The score in the match was opened in the 15th minute of the game by the Army forward Wagner Love, who scored a goal after drawing a free kick.
c5f666b897976bf703d63c667320e87b889833f6 In the 34th minute, after a cross from Alan Dzagoev, the Brazilian doubled the score in the match, and in the 44th minute, Wagner realized a one on one exit and scored a hat trick.
cea78fb803f1f784ce415a5a7806e21d8a38fb1e After the break, CSKA continued to attack the opponent's goal, in the 54th minute of the match Dzagoev made a pass to Milos Krasic, who irresistibly shot into the lower corner of the Pletikosa goal.
720fd4e2d2e29706cc3c5288d465cb673e3137f8 Spartak players were able to win back one goal in the 68th minute of the meeting — Nikita Bazhenov, who came on as a substitute, made the score of the match 4:1 with a shot to the nine, and in the 77th minute Erkin Janer set the final score in the match — 5:1 with a free kick.[163] This defeat for Spartak was the largest in the Russian championships.[164] According to the expert of the newspaper "Sport Express", the army also won the "banner war".[165] At the end of the first round of the competition, the team took 7th place, which is the worst result in recent years.
33ac262d98c1643b7cccb40700e9ba0135036c8d After the victory over Spartak, a series of unsuccessful matches followed, in which the Army team suffered one defeat and drew four matches, with three matches ending with a score of 0:0.
65d943d96d2b9d4b9b4f397eae6a5fc0d53a72ef The goalless streak was interrupted in the 1/16 of the 2008-2009 Russian Cup, in an away match against Torpedo Vladimir, which ended with a score of 1: 4.[166]
b96090e568605e989d16c586dea1b94cbce48154 In the 22nd round of the championship, CSKA beat the reigning champion Zenit St. Petersburg in an away match with a score of 3: 1.
7162a6a3026bef0cf518054db100096872b5dc5c The score, in the third minute of the match, was opened by the young midfielder of the army team Alan Dzagoev after an accurate pass by Wagner Love.
f914d8d510f632205bd783d8cf1e3ecce118ba1d In the 57th minute of the match, Sebastian Puigrenier brought down Krasic in his penalty area.
96ff8114ec3bf734e150ab5887f372a6601eefc8 The penalty was realized by Wagner.
a3841a976d08bd94d4b2331967d7685e13e87067 And in the 65th minute, after a shot by Yuri Zhirkov, Dzagoev scored a double.
57589d1b45af6ac38f3d9a5b889d71517d2b0ff8 The Petersburgers were able to win back only in the 88th minute.
c497ae6e8816b2b232a82ac17fdc58e12879df7b Pavel Pogrebnyak scored a goal against the Muscovites.
b54755569ce0339a60ac4b2e228badd1ac0d61bc Already in added time, CSKA defender Anton Grigoriev received a second yellow card and was removed from the field.[167] The victory over Zenit was the 250th for Muscovites in the Russian championships.[168]
a7b275681428e612a2bc1458f7a868b78526d355 In the 27th round of the Russian championship, the Army team hosted FC Spartak Moscow in Luzhniki.
292353b4366845a60915877a283b7b0b17915161 In this match, the Army team lost to the red and white for the first time in seven and a half years — 0:1.
75442361e1dc3b44f8b2fb3e4a8470a6419590e2 Nikita Bazhenov scored a goal against Igor Akinfeev in the 56th minute.
1446def2e7ab5e59706ddc0f0d448c7e293bc8f0 At the 86th minute, Yuri Zhirkov received a yellow card, and later, for arguing with the referee, a red card.
6544148943eb02ca18c35aae60418b32dae90a9b In the 29th round of the Russian championship, the army team hosted Rubin Kazan in Luzhniki, which prematurely registered its championship in 2008.
aa438b0096b98c81ae23fde812c5fc33aea17d15 The game ended with a score of 4: 0 in favor of the red and blue.
359654fc4a28d9947f5d49cf6be1525afc8f45ec After the first half, the teams went to the break with the score 0: 0.
78fd8073f01584394bbf93b34549f75e0935265a In the second half, Wagner Love scored a hat trick, and Yuri Zhirkov set the final score.
bc9640bfb0280100ffef02e971e8f7239f50b634 At the end of the season, PFC CSKA won the silver medals of the Russian championship and secured entry into the group stage of the Champions League, 4 points behind the champion — Rubin Kazan. 169]
e6f18693125fe9dc8e7d7d618ced744a52aeac10 The symbol of CSKA
8d0746e4a984ccc7f72bc9d0666a25afecb62e9a The European Cup autumn for CSKA began on September 18, 2008 with a guest match of the first round of the UEFA Cup against the Croatian club Slaven, the game ended with a score of 1: 2 in favor of the army [170], in the return match, which was held on September 30 in Moscow, CSKA won with a score of 1: 0, the author of the only goal in the game was Alexey Berezutsky.[171] According to the results of the draw, CSKA got into group "H" of the group round of the cup, along with the French club "Nancy", the Spanish "Deportivo", the Dutch "Feyenoord", as well as the Polish "Lech".[172] In the first match of the group round against Deportivo, CSKA won 3-0, goals were scored by Alan Dzagoev (9', 12') and Wagner Love (61').[173] The second match took place on November 6, 2008 in Rotterdam against Feyenoord.
7dfdaa0c2aadb5dd508bc211ce26a4264f817185 Despite the dubious refereeing and rudeness of the opponent, CSKA won with a score of 1:3.[174] In the next qualifying match of the UEFA Cup, which took place on November 27, 2008, the army team beat the Polish club "Lech" with a score of 2: 1, goals for the red and blue were scored by Dzagoev and Zhirkov, and for the Poles Stilich.
acdc9aa531882195330567b73e62dcf65bb534a1 This victory guaranteed the Russians a way out of the group.[175] In the final game of the group stage, which was held on December 5, 2008 in Nancy against the club of the same name, CSKA also won.
06a4e17fa81c23a3958e6eba12f358c036a2ca65 The match began with powerful attacks by the hosts, who were able to score a quick goal already in the 4th minute, but after 19 minutes CSKA striker Wagner Love managed to equalize the match, and ten minutes later army midfielder Ramon led his team ahead after a shot by Yuri Zhirkov.
15f257201647008a267b94e3d76918aabbdc290e At the 46th minute of the meeting, there was a scuffle between the players of both teams, which ended with yellow cards for Schemberas and Luis.
e5a51c96a733edcff2180e4ea173a7fc73958d21 After the break, both teams, despite the pouring rain, continued to attack the opponent's goal.
1e44bfc9acc79cfab3ea568f27f000eaac8a7c71 In the 62nd minute, Wagner scored a double.
1366cf4fb1c233b49804f7afadf8ad8bd06d5c92 After 10 minutes, the French closed the gap in the score, and five minutes later they equalized it.
113a392571371be4cc8d96205e5cb4829c744d87 Two minutes before the end, Wagner, having beaten the defenders of Nancy, scored a hat trick, setting the final score of the game — 3: 4.[176] Thus, CSKA won four matches in the group stage of the 2008-2009 UEFA Cup with a goal difference of 12-5.
13c12df41b4c486b7591510becb544303f5bab18 [172] At the post match press conference, CSKA head coach Valery Gazzaev announced his resignation from the post of head coach of CSKA.[177]
d8e96a60fb3100f3330109bc61c5dc48e551d7f6 According to the results of the 2008 season, seven army men entered the 33 best football players of the Russian championship: Akinfeev, Ignashevich, Zhirkov, Wagner and Krasich at No.
fbc1fee56a8b4fee41619765dcc92b5568430db1 1, A. Berezutsky at No.
cc2c767a6c4ae5246c03938d8dbef894c770d8a7 2, V. Berezutsky and Dzagoev at No.
732749c3b26f5328bbf16548414f921f3c6bdc1f 3, in addition, Yuri Zhirkov was recognized as the best football player in Russia.[178]
79dbd94edf877f9c94ac9e6b2e9e800604e7b8dc "Moscow" —CSKA
61ada5c222699458b01ebf41829885e6d38eb20b At the end of December 2008, the team got an official symbol a horse.
f0f76fea7131a081685e2d8a959aac0011d63d67 Thus, CSKA became the first club in Russia to have its own character. 179][180]
f42abe5c99e8522059cddcd192a3fb22609949f5 Since 2009[edit / edit wiki text]
4079cf2eea700343f3a0070e5c162fcf4885943c See also: History of PFC CSKA (2009-2011)
081c2f5c6ab7296033d12f1bba985a2e877120cf Ziko is the head coach of CSKA at the beginning of the 2009 season.
3593579b9ccf56d0aea75ac4133eaaecfb500de6 On January 9, instead of the retired Gazzaev, CSKA was headed by the Brazilian specialist Zico, [181] under whose leadership the team began preparing for the spring European Cup matches at the training camps in Israel[182] and Turkey.[183] On February 18, CSKA drew 1-1 with Birmingham Aston Villa in the first match of the 1/16 UEFA Cup final.[184] In the second leg, the army team was stronger, the result of the match was 2: 0 in favor of the Muscovites.[185] CSKA held the next European Tour at home with the future winner of the tournament — Shakhtar Donetsk.
822ce0e3bf190335aab3f3b0920fc2610776994c The match was held with an equal game between both teams, but CSKA won with a score of 1:0, due to a penalty shot by Wagner.
bc581e84660cee5d78356ddabf1ec29db05644d3 [186] In the second game, CSKA lost with a score of 0: 2 and was eliminated from the cup draw.
3112f8bef3716b942bfb396766922f3117689cfa The army team started the 2009 season in Russia with a victory.
5858fe0aaef587122b1271fbe3c0e7ffdb43464f In the framework of the Russian Super Cup, Rubin Kazan was defeated with a score of 2:1.
54a799ecd20e62e4b9e6baf69d3663eb65826672 CSKA spent the first half of the eighteenth Russian championship unevenly, in fifteen matches the team won seven victories and suffered five defeats, three more matches were drawn.
4bcaff9997c25fcee4fbd9f9c603a87c229f843b Of the seven victories, three were won with a large score, and most of the lost matches ended with a minimal difference.[187]
f732d0f98144f1e212ddca6c17b0710163065c10 In the 2008/09 Russian Cup, CSKA performed more successfully.
3d28fe63d5aa3784cfde2a9f0ad634d66df4f56d In the quarterfinals, Lokomotiv Moscow was beaten, and in the semifinals, on penalties, Dynamo.
d906c28ce2d649bf9fab27ce5f4cd8fbaf4a8af4 In the final of the tournament, the "red and blue" met with "Rubin", which they beat with a minimum score, the only goal in the meeting was scored by Evgeny Aldonin.
96d032d529350a11d95169e978e34ab293348588 Thus, CSKA won its fifth cup in seven years, and the trophy remained with CSKA forever.[188]
25a43766cc268f91631c6cf140cea5224b815b1b In the summer off season, a number of leaders left the team.
b470053d148dda68c71cb11d0fd110fd376ba35e Yuri Zhirkov's transfer to Chelsea[189] and the top scorer of last season — Wagner Love, who was loaned to the Brazilian club Palmeiras for a year, significantly weakened the team, which, having suffered three defeats in the next six matches, almost lost the chances of taking first place at the end of the season.
b1efe3d152a4d1cd8f4fc0e608eda80d40f1b716 On September 10, 2009, Juande Ramos replaced Zico as the head coach of CSKA, [190] who worked in the team for only a month and a half.
0b2ec4170787f44a590c17e6f83f279568726f62 Under his leadership, the club played very unstable, alternating major victories with defeats.
2ca4d7574fd5a699d2ef5991e1794fe96f0f0685 On October 26, the club terminated the contract with Ramos.
fd6777987a5ab526f4b4143e371f771e0607bd62 Leonid Slutsky was appointed the new head coach of CSKA.[191] The first match with Leonid Slutsky was played by CSKA against Terek, the Army team won with a score of 1: 0.
ad5cbfdebcb54d5e8452c998f2ac19d192839de3 On November 21, CSKA met with Spartak.
bf3d5519ea6651c7d479cbff550d7a3328e7b64f For both teams, from the point of view of the tournament position, this game was extremely important.
61a81bfe7b140046158ce141b24a0dbc51f019df The red and white, in case of their victory, kept the chances of winning the gold medals of the championship, and the red and blue needed points to get into the European Cup zone.
ed0b771d023a9dadd70d571e3fdea6dadf6e2154 Already in the debut of the match, the Spartak players managed to open an account in the match.
dbe916d40596475f91069d270d38f9a2f7a62460 At the 6th minute of the match, the referee Yuri Baskakov awarded a penalty to the army team, which Alex confidently realized.
229b4be5650636bb9e2d5f821971ac5a5ba485b0 Later, at a meeting of the expert judging commission, the penalty was found to be erroneous.[192] CSKA managed to win back at the end of the first half — after Krasic's cross, Dzagoev equalized the score.
b2fd2af0d821a3142c9a188560a3ada1ca8a89f5 In the 49th minute of the second half, Netsid's strike put the Army team in the lead, but Wellington soon equalized the score.
2164fb232a185c401f730568983a61f4378d7b9e A minute before the end of the regular time of the match, Tomas Netsid shot from outside the penalty area and brought his team a victory 2:3, thereby depriving the red and white of hope for the championship.[193]
43050631655203d5e45239736b0f5d760d84e62b Leonid Slutsky has been the head coach of CSKA since October 26, 2009.
d3038a702befe701a4abe3fe951c564d2346207d In the final round, CSKA beat Saturn near Moscow with a score of 3: 0 and took the fifth place at the end of the season,[194] which is the worst performance of the team since 2001.
17b60d348a6dc839a482abba951c3122bc5ff22f In the Champions League, where CSKA was tasked with reaching the 1/8 finals, things were also not the best - the Army team lost to Wolfsburg (1: 3) and Manchester United (0: 1), and even taking into account the victory over Besiktas (2:1), exit from the group became extremely unlikely.
04bb9a378b69d67d7917207aeece8db5237fe485 Nevertheless, the subsequent games under the leadership of the new coach of CSKA — Leonid Slutsky: a draw with Manchester (3:3) and a victory over Wolfsburg 2:1 made the chances of reaching the playoffs more tangible, and, as a result, having won an away victory over Besiktas with a score of 1:2, CSKA reached the 1/8 finals of the Champions League, thanks to the victory of Manchester over Wolfsburg with a score of 3:1 (the Army needed to score more points with "Besiktas", than "Wolfsburg" will get with MU)[195]
514a47380e59ff32f971de0d3b2841dfc0eb1e01 Thus, in the autumn of 2009, PFC CSKA withdrew from the group round of the Champions League for the first time in its history.[196] According to the results of the draw for the 1/8 final of the 2009/10 Champions League, held in December 2009 in Nyon, Switzerland, the Spanish "Sevilla"became the opponent of the army at this stage.
a2ac9132395b1e877f263c846c268866c4cf2edf During the winter off season, the team underwent changes, it was joined by goalkeeper Chepchugov, defenders Nababkin and Vasyanovich, as well as midfielder Honda, who became the first Japanese in the Russian Football League.
0b6377aabad25d4aed601eea2e7c22678dc02cab In addition, the changes affected some of the CSKA players who, for one reason or another, did not pass into the squad or had problems with adaptation, most of them were sent on loan, and Nikita Burmistrov and Ganyu Oseni were sold, respectively, to Amkar Perm and the Tunisian club Esperance.
c045e5ef417cdd9140cb7eb3d2249379a63457c7 Milos Krasic during his five seasons at CSKA, he played 229 matches, in which he scored 33 goals.
b8d139aab0856cd646705b097e54c22f0083074d The first official match of the season was held on February 24 in Luzhniki.
e33b0bca4b79ab9d0649a16c2f5cbc23976ef066 As part of the 1/8 final of the Champions League, CSKA hosted the Spanish "Seville".
04e48a24ed8d1b76758179159f783b2e16031aa4 The match ended in a draw with the score 1: 1, Mark Gonzalez scored for CSKA in the 66th minute with a long range shot.[197] On March 16, the club played the second leg of the 1/8 final of the Champions League draw against Sevilla .
972f982a2bc7b95b12bea44f2ddff1578af2f68f The first goal was scored by Tomas Necid at the end of the first half in the 39th minute, and a few minutes later Perotti pushed the ball into the goal past Akinfeev.
2203e27158ce30774c89fc68078fb673577beeec However, in the 55th minute, Keisuke Honda scored the winning goal from a free kick.
08e28336bffffed5377c60817dbea7cec8a9d142 Thus, for the first time in its history, CSKA got into the 1/4 finals of the Champions League draw.
94a67175054563587c5300bb2d61d5bccd2af362 Before that, only one Russian club — Spartak Moscow managed to achieve a similar result in the 1995/96 season.
1aeff014c562e671774b636965721f09f7980a5f It is worth noting that the red and white directly got into the quarterfinals, since at that time there was no stage of the 1/8 finals, which the army team overcame.[198] CSKA's opponent in the 1/4 final of the Champions League was the Italian Inter.
3bb28f7d8b09448883a97983d918916732cbed39 Both matches ended with the score 1: 0 in favor of Inter.
daac0e5a0b5d86e50bc548e301834e794565b020 In the match for the Russian Super Cup, CSKA met with Rubin Kazan for the second year in a row.
e68e6906647299f59e9b2464135796232ab8c72d Despite the game advantage, the Army team lost, the only goal was scored by Alexander Bukharov.[199] Before the break for the World Cup, the Army team played eleven matches, in which they won seven victories and suffered two defeats from Rostov and Zenit, two more matches, against Dynamo and Lokomotiv, the team played a draw.
6252e712d2b7480ad429a7567559fef291599237 The team showed the most meaningful game in the match of the eleventh round against Rubin Kazan, which it beat with a score of 1:0.[200]
1621948763b0524d8be3307a3baaacb83200d74c In the summer off season, CSKA was strengthened by three players: strikers Seydou Doumbia, whose contract was signed in the winter, Wagner, who returned from a one year lease, and midfielder Zoran Tosic[201] Seven players left the team, including Brazilian Guilherme, who returned to Dynamo Kiev, and Serbian Milos Krasic, who moved to Juventus in Turin for 15 million euros.
315eba5c0ef7548a4ce53216a1195cfe6ed3b738 [202]
e0b00778ecda26d7b075661ad96b79e142e0d811 On July 10, the Russian championship started again.
81c06768724408dd5a577ac51ab82f38aa4dc442 In the first match of CSKA met with Moscow "Saturn", which played a draw (1:1).
28e670687c93a1e2c81de9b3c84b2f56cf82ec53 July 14, CSKA played the match of the 1/16 finals of the Cup of Russia with the Moscow club torpedo and defeated it with the score 2:0.[203] the First round of the army made a guest victory in the capital Derby against Spartak Moscow.
670693f9add8de34d80a5196bca782993a07000e In the starting line up of CSKA, two newcomers Seydou Doumbia and Zoran Tosic, as well as Wagner Love, who returned from a loan, entered the field.
2ca9df2031e8a4a3896b727e876e9a6d7f3e615e The match ended with the victory of the red and blue with the score 1: 2.[204]
0aac0326a202ac8cd312c5535d082f8b6759807d Seydou Doumbya.
60f54145b768e113ffad7fcf3b7f7ac9ea800b8f The Ivorian striker's game was one of the main openings of the Russian Championship 2010.
b696e8f89312c1f3864d91a535eaf54c5d558d46 The team spent the second round of the championship very confidently, having suffered only one defeat, and had a good chance to overtake Zenit in the championship race, but draws with Rubin, Saturn, Dynamo and Spartak Nalchik deprived the army team of chances for gold medals.
c3b8f49cd92f838a8fed26d664bae291e08688bc On November 20, 2010, CSKA prematurely became the silver medalist of the Russian championship, outplaying Spartak Moscow with a score of 3:1 in the minority on its own field.[205] During the championship, in the match against "Tom", Wagner Love scored his 100th goal for the army, thereby setting an absolute record for performance among foreign players in Russia.
516eaf06fd77c2e840064facf85cb812e5bf6860 CSKA started its way in the Europa League with a victory in the playoff round over Anorthosis Cyprus (4: 0 at home and 2: 1 away).[206] After the draw, CSKA was in the "group F", and its opponents in the group tournament were the Italian "Palermo", the Czech "Sparta" and the Swiss "Lausanne".
62f84af0e12fdf162c8b797b4e2264eec69033dd The first three matches of the tournament ended with the same score 3: 0 in favor of CSKA.
e5c4574198a994a1f9ea30f5d84d074e1be9a085 For the first time, the Army team conceded a goal in a home match against Palermo, but in the second half they were able to tip the scales in their favor, the final score in the match was 3:1.
a9c192b9c206409753b79af7cd2f3e68128c0d56 In the home game with Lausanne, which ended with a score of 5:1, the Army team made an early exit from the first place to the spring stage of the tournament.
bd416a35704d871a6865d82c6e4e83966701685f [207] In the last match of the group tournament, which no longer meant anything for both teams, CSKA drew 1-1 with Sparta.[208]
2b3d737e13781fe71eaf5b1473b81a6bd96511fe In the off season, there were no serious changes in CSKA: the team was replenished with defender Viktor Vasin (who was soon out of action for 6 months), Stepan Ryabokon and Latvian Alexander Tsaunya.
7701ee882b97cc78766d4c0b1451273fbf1ad7f3 Seven second team players were loaned out, and Anton Grigoriev was sold to Alania .
c5c0803ed09c97ba9934df87c92f7684ffbfc305 On February 18, 2011, the Army team played their first official match in the Europa League, playing away from the Greek PAOK (1: 0).
92206809b8622b9f64db24804e50f8d90f1d10d3 At home, the team achieved a draw 1:1.
61f12591b76d9ccd2e31d866215eca1f284fba11 In the 1/8 finals with Porto, CSKA lost twice 0: 1 and 1: 2.
b9d365f9a772e8617a9f51767f8a7e1c820cbcef Winners of the Russian Cup 2010-2014
063fa990d3706cfd62c07f683a59b8380e44e6c1 In the resumed Cup of Russia, Shinnik was beaten (1:0).
dfda0bc956f3a95ffe4a9a77605e085bbce2ad29 In the 1/4 final, Zenit was defeated with a score of 2:0.
e58de70903471c3a750873f5e53df0845ef1aaf1 Sergey Ignashevich scored in both matches.
d74cbc8bf1a8ace2c865dcba983bd198f61093c1 On May 22, CSKA won the 6th Russian Cup in its history, becoming the sole leader in this indicator.
b4deb704493479f112151c66905fa001aafe569d In the final, the Army team beat Alania Vladikavkaz (2: 1).
8b666cac2d04dd1ce72e5e4823d55dd085d740f3 The double was made by Seydou Doumbia.
e9c5f13bf803e3117cc0fe116d9722240bc17d84 Thus, CSKA won the only remaining trophy, played in the year of the club's centenary.
bdd4ecf5934a7156f44f2c523bda48ca3e09474a In the match for the 2011 Super Cup against Zenit, the Army team did not realize many chances, and in the 73rd minute Alexey Ionov hit Akinfeev's goal, so the Army team could not win the Super Cup again.
be274961691302881a4da45f45fd5af28cfd9a31 The army team started the 2011/2012 Russian Championship with a confident victory over Amkar (2: 0) and after the first round of the championship they took the first place in the standings, having suffered only one defeat from Spartak Moscow.
cb1b5bf123abb2b9cb763d5c5a2e5b8b7ba41041 By the beginning of the second round, CSKA was a clear favorite in the fight for the championship, but defeats from Zenit (0:2) and Dynamo (0:4), as well as regular injuries (Tomas Netsid, Mark Gonzalez, Georgy Schennikov, Keisuke Honda, Sekou Olise, Kirill Nababkin, Zoran Tosic visited the club's infirmary) complicated the team's task.
bc645d5d4dcb142594c73d9218b857d68a5720d6 On August 28, in the "derby" with Spartak, the main goalkeeper of CSKA Igor Akinfeev was seriously injured, his place in the goal was taken by the leased Vladimir Gabulov, who had previously played for CSKA.
78d05b4bc2eae1cd3e9186ffca58bd5efd102ddc In the new cup season, CSKA were eliminated from the tournament already in the 1/16 finals, where the Army team was opposed by Volgar Gazprom: 0: 1.
0f648c360c871be7d105415ad3e942a73f1d2190 At the beginning of the group stage of the Champions League, the army faced the French "Lille".
b2547ec9ceb8b77c2cc3c364fa0ef4a418e8e081 In general, the game was dictated by the French and during the meeting, Lille led with the score 2: 0, but at the end of the second half, CSKA managed to take the advantage and equalize the score thanks to Doumbia's double.
4ac7842f3d2e5623069324b7a90f22f78ff24987 In the second round match against Inter, the Army team, having the advantage, was defeated 2:3.
01e8ae6184509f06b1025732415c96fcffc4f301 The Army team won the first victory in the tournament over the Turkish "Trabzonspor" (3: 0), which allowed them to continue the fight for the playoffs.
3044642b3a68f5dcd2767474bd1e62f8f6626a73 In this match, Alexander Tsaunya scored his first goal for CSKA.
5557fa5d0dedfd8f0708e257fc3b99acfa6ff96e However, the second leg ended with a score of 0: 0, and Seydou Doumbia received a red card.
9d628a316626fe371619bc3151c33dcc70950249 In the return match with Lille, the Army team suffered 0:2 defeats and almost lost their chances to get into the playoffs.
e9a69728d24855fc40b192f4a6aab8327333f546 However, a 2-1 away win over Inter, as well as a draw between Lille and Trabzonspor (0:0), took CSKA to 1/8 of the Champions League.
1dd902474b6fbda06fd66f5d34a1fdeec8c84807 In the playoffs, the Army team drew lots with Real Madrid .
cbf25dd03dcbba0f9d287f057c557a01e804d943 In the winter transfer window, CSKA was strengthened by the Nigerian striker Ahmed Musa, midfielders Pontus Wernbloom of Sweden and Kim In Son of Korea.
40dcb6fd363cbac6c117b713166e2886122605a3 At the same time, striker Wagner Love was sold to Flamengo, and the contract with defender Chidi Odia was terminated.
c15f9703362b39450a3b63991bb3a403b143395d On February 21, 2012, the first match of the 1/8 Champions League against Real Madrid ended with a score of 1:1.
f7caf10b04b1f255eac6e5e6a52d3f0c04b77292 In the second leg, CSKA lost with a score of 1: 4, without realizing several chances, and left the tournament.
6cd9d6c2aae3a845976f9cd91edb6499b3a39345 In the spring part of the championship, CSKA performed poorly, winning only three matches (two against Spartak and one against Lokomotiv) out of twelve, taking third place at the end of the championship and not getting into the Champions League.
df4ba7e9d14beaece6da35c3c3751a0fb72fb0f8 The striker of the "army" Seydou Doumbia became the top scorer of the championship, scoring 28 goals.
322396bb53377b0f11e8af042e8a2f0e1ff04004 In the summer off season, Serder Serderov and veteran Deivydas Schemberas left the team, and another veteran Evgeny Aldonin was loaned to Mordovia .
9c42bfd4ccc330939017222f1042631290939592 The team was also replenished with defender Mario Fernandez and midfielder Rasmus Elm.
06407c946d52b2b0577ac476838c3784baa3bfca On August 19, 2012, in a match with Mordovia, after Zoran Tosic's goal, NTV Plus commentator Roman Gutzeit uttered a phrase that became a famous football meme: "We can recall one interesting statistical detail: the fact is that this season CSKA, if it scores and does not concede, then it certainly wins."
5ace5242b719a51caaacbd8abfb22f191ca0dec1 On August 23, 2012, the Army team won the first match against the AIK club with a score of 1:0[209], but in the next match they sensationally lost 0: 2, having an advantage throughout the match[210].
e88bdb09a391b7cb848fa31cbb5b8b732f5d3a5f In the first round of the championship, the Army team suffered only four defeats[211].
4a6e9f230fc4aeec031dd1ac805e8f1fe3b499a9 In the winter transfer window, due to the financial difficulties of Flamengo, striker Wagner Love, who played for the army club from 2004 to 2011, returned to the team.
512bf39590273c182a65981c446673bf1db03442 On January 16, 2013, he signed a 3.5 year contract[212].
4311bebc3fa97daba578054af2b6101d6d814f03 Also, the midfielder Sekou Olise was loaned to PAOK[213].
dc006c1d5b1c40eb979ae71ceb22093892d1d87b Ahmed Musa is one of the leading players of CSKA in the 2012/2013 championship season
05fa52fd08a2ae43d050cf3318e1fddae8481961 On May 18, 2013, CSKA hosted Krasnodar Kuban on its field.
14bc3d38df28a8924500ce766c865ed1bec9df54 The match ended with a score of 0: 0, and CSKA ahead of schedule took the fourth championship in the Russian championship[214].
cb3dd97bab97050493cb2c140b6e9bf81f6fc4e2 On June 1, 2013, CSKA made a golden double in Grozny, beating Anzhi in the final match for the Russian Cup.
a59bd90a8e01acf3dab28f9a87b13cc4ad776092 After the main and extra time, the score was 1: 1, the victory came after a penalty shootout.
1036c6605abc7bd44e0345fb96ab60bb6f26143f This is the seventh cup trophy of the team for the Russian period of history[215].
eca2be824970913cb1a98e75ee902f7a89b288d6 In July 2013, CSKA bought the best Bulgarian football player of 2012 — Georgi Milanov for 2.7 million euros from Litex[216][217]. Also, a five year contract was signed by the Swiss football player Steven Zuber, a former player of the Grasshopper club.
695fd00bfd0fb42a1d75fe2cd22d4e4000e027bf The Swiss cost the army 3.2 million euros[218][219]. And on the last day of the transfer window, the Army acquired the Brazilian striker "Botafogo" Vitinho, who spent a good period in Brazil.
dbcef4f5c0b03d3c44967c90edfb0f769e844956 During this time, a number of football players left the club who could not prove themselves or get into the main cage — mostly they became leases or transfers to clubs that are significantly inferior to the army men in the class.
f121a7f15070c5225d4581412ad3d6b3247a7b45 Wagner Love also left the club, moving to the Chinese "Shandong Luneng" [220].
2e292528e11cf0f55c5370f661ab5a6439e000e0 On July 13, in the match for the Russian Super Cup, the Army team confidently won against Zenit with a score of 3: 0.
c8750aabd4b93b39907acb9f246484f28191523f Keisuke Honda (double) and Sergey Ignashevich scored goals[221].
98df13814683fbf79f5113394bb62ac9e3d9fa33 CSKA started the new championship actively and led in 6-8 rounds, but then the results worsened.
11f0b0258dfad3c5cf25e563e31927b6bf8433bf Before the winter break, CSKA took 5th place with a solid gap from the leaders and was eliminated from the Champions League draw, taking the last place in Group D after games with Bayern, Manchester City and Victoria[222].
977391665a31f72ad1c6b7b3852f9d57719bd927 During the winter transfer window, not a single player was acquired and Keisuke Honda left for Milan in Italy on a free transfer.
aac689ebbf5e0004c84149875f4e374cf140d411 The club started the spring stage of the 2013/14 championship with a 2:4 defeat against Dynamo, although the Army team scored two goals first.
badcae06ed566a007c64a4d988f53a5d1082757e This was followed by a 10 match winning streak [223], which ended with a match with Lokomotiv Moscow, in which the fate of the championship was decided.
399e95202d9bce54e847139697d81b5ce857f28d The match ended with a score of 1: 0 and CSKA became the champion of Russia for the fifth time[224], and for the 12th time the champion of the country (taking into account victories in the USSR championships), surpassing Dynamo (Moscow) in this indicator and second only to Spartak.
c40174da557adaf6684b0ab67f3bb881bb83e905 Seydou Doumbia became the best scorer of the team (20 goals in all competitions) and the tournament (18 goals scored), was recognized as the player of the season according to the coaches of the RFPL teams[225], and Igor Akinfeev surpassed the legendary Lev Yashin in the number of "dry matches" — there were 204 [226]
d5b2a34d5ac6c87e3a02cce301b1938e72a7e0f1 The 2014/15 season began for CSKA with a victory in the Russian Super Cup — the winner of the Russian Cup "Rostov" was beaten with a score (3:1)[227]. CSKA won the first three games of the new championship - against Torpedo (4: 1), Mordovia (1: 0) and Terek
deb99e28bb1dbda84a19d6c9457dadf5a13bc7d5 (1: 0 — - and thereby set a new record for the Russian championships, having won 13 consecutive victories (taking into account last season)[228], improving their own record of the 1998 season, when the team won 12 consecutive games[229].
1ff8ba855c398ded45448a493e8245837dc0345f In the summer transfer window, the team was joined by striker Kirill Panchenko, who transferred from Tomi, as well as midfielders Bibras Natkho and Roman Eremenko, who transferred from PAOK and Rubin, respectively.
72379edc411f0faacfaef338107c53870242b455 In the next Champions League draw, CSKA got into the "group of death" and again played with Bayern Munich and Manchester City, as well as with Roma[230] — the club again finished the tournament at the group stage, but was able to draw at home (2:2) and win away (1:2) against Manchester City.
613ecc7b252e06a65baf08379a4593b9bf67a4bb During the winter transfer window, Seydou Doumbia left the team (he moved to Roma), contracts with Tomas Necid, Rasmus Elm and Marc Gonzalez were terminated, and Vitinho and Bazelyuk were loaned to Internacional and Torpedo, respectively.
7028b8f92d991d4f982b9a0f8a8c5a3ca1007afd The team was joined by young players of Swedish origin — Alibek Aliyev from Elfsborg and Carlos Strandberg from Hecken.
8f7bb94e29967533838d197707e3396f1e593770 March 2015 turned out to be successful for the team — 3 wins in the championship and reaching the semifinals of the Russian Cup, but already in April there was a failure — 3 losses in a row (including opponents for a place in the top three — Zenit and Dynamo), a draw with Krasnodar in the competition for second place in the championship and a loss to Kuban for a place in the final of the Cup of the country.
7f221bd52427c8ebed2c951c75118a0fb63545d6 In the third round of the Champions League qualification, CSKA passed Sparta Prague" (2:2; 3:2).
f2689af7e38fbad532cc6c3f341fa61ff3a99686 7 In August 2015, CSKA coach Leonid Slutsky took over the post of coach of the Russian national team, continuing to work with the club.
bfe631eff25b2f11111cd600e2993d0091257b84 Slutsky became the sixth coach of the army, who headed the national team of the country[231].
8dfbee6e54c34f84c4bf10e73ad7940c98b47580 Having returned Seydou Doumbia to the club on loan, CSKA was able to advance to the group stage of the Champions League[232], beating Sporting by the results of two masts (1: 2; 3: 1) and won 7 consecutive victories at the start of the season in the RFPL (including beating Spartak (2:1) on someone else's field)[233], the total series without defeats in the new season was 14 matches.
e74161a13633de0512f5112cd8819f42bf63a5f6 The draw for the Champions League again brought CSKA together with Manchester United and Wolfsburg, as in the Champions League in the 2009/10 season, and PSV became the fourth team of the group[234].
209e737f92f354c3572493fc3dc14fc5a420a8d1 November and December turned out to be a failure for the team — not a single victory in 4 games in the Russian championship and in three in the Champions League: as a result, before the winter break, the team had only 3 points advantage over the second placed Rostov and was eliminated from the Champions League draw.
2528c4018f2754d6b6730378a7b8995cdd68fed4 Club colors and uniforms[edit / edit wiki text]
c2421f0de27d51c605f28cbfbfa348ddc265d54e The form of CSKA in 2011
d0894634c920a9c2c4d41f2a41b3c7375213cf53 In the first official match, which was held on August 14 (27), 1911 against the Vega team, the OLS players played in dark blue T shirts and white underpants.[235] From that time until 1938, this color scheme was the official color of the team.
81a59920a9512875563b2045bd4e3d521052b0df In the 1939 season, the club's official colors changed to red and blue, which have not changed since.
0937a5e76057f3768e23c80cb0d0f284918b2f95 The red color denoted that the football club belonged to the Soviet army.[235] Nothing is known about the appearance of blue on the uniform of the army, however, this color was widely distributed in the football and near — football attributes of the army on football uniforms, on emblems, flags.
9d14867975dd36b26162fae135dba59d1ff812e7 So on the emblem of the OPPV, a red star is located in the center of a blue background.
caf99f0a37cb26c442bc17a5a0434d58ce1d0858 Since that time, the classic version of the uniform of the army club football players has become a red T shirt with the logo at the heart and blue underpants.[235]
09dfa1502e3254357a5d3343a1b2ac1171ad1d41 In the future, the team did not always adhere to the basic colors.
bbb1a624ff713b83a9cec5de66dc448fb8cf5179 Under Beskov (1961-1962), the team often played in white colors, and in the mid 1960s it played several matches in black uniforms.
a70e3ae776b890165eceadc8a605914931401bee After the club was headed by Vsevolod Bobrov in 1977, the uniform again became red and blue.[235]
17d9ef7e0916e4046488071e2ad57149fcdf480b From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, CSKA players played mainly in red and white colors.[235]
f0d84fc18ff42a5d2ba595409e580de504b6a733 Since the late 1980s, due to lack of money, the team did not have a standard uniform.
f7e362af5e859fc7d47ec7963397293cc64a2f2a This situation lasted for a whole decade.
af7fdbd4124aad39ef05db904b9821c0c34281b5 At one time, the players borrowed a set of uniforms from their handball teammates.[235]
ea341ab0b737460520760877c24bb40a26ca30fd At the end of the millennium, the team began to play in a uniform with red and blue vertical stripes and blue underpants.
dc8f7cec409d9968bc02815cd71bf4bf4c425218 The guest uniform became completely white, later with a single red and blue vertical stripe in the center or on the left side of the T shirt.
234241b205081ddb79c27820a47c26a4af64a859 The army men performed in this form up to and including 2003.
b09a311933572a92ccbb7706963c00e2bc001673 The following season, the club introduced a new uniform — a red T shirt and dark blue underpants, which has been preserved to this day.
ab9d3a42ec6682e667062d03c3519400be0d99f4 As a guest uniform, CSKA players use white, gold and black uniforms, however, the last two were used a few times.
33ca9f6d40e043ba06e3734f2eded69f63835113 In the 2007-2008 seasons, the team played home matches in red T shirts and dark blue underpants, and as a reserve uniform, it mainly used a combination of gold leggings and a T shirt with dark blue underpants.
94da4a48a65a44953360d59620c62b3a6e49cef1 In the 2009 season, CSKA played in a new uniform from Reebok — traditional blue shorts and red T shirts, and the guest and reserve uniforms were added by a red and blue stripe from the left shoulder back to the right front.[236]
46735f705e06a86426c491b5f0201af0deec765f In the 2010 season, the team played in a Reebok uniform with five red and blue vertical stripes and blue underpants.
0179ef0714750966c8d9cbd43f074298ff57ec5f The guest uniform was made in white, also with five vertical stripes, light gray.
2d4dc20d656df865ac378f94730b624fc2ea31b7 The backup set is in black, with five dark gray vertical stripes.[237] In June 2012, CSKA announced the signing of a contract with a new technical sponsor, Adidas.
ea2a0aa3e0e394eccf6feb987f2b8e3d66bc042e Equipment[edit / edit wiki text]
e954f29fad26077603a09168d0133b3aedc19ca9 Years of sponsorship Equipment supplier 1980-1990 Adidas 1991-1994 Umbro 1995-1996 Nike 1997-1999 Adidas 2000-2008 Umbro 2009-2012 Reebok 2012 present Adidas
c3753f3c5e00f93ed592206ee866638ab9f71670 Performance statistics[edit / edit wiki text]
1dc546e4519fd5d54b0f2dbe2c591b0b4cd70814 Main article: List of seasons of PFC CSKA Moscow
516595a37261915be31e00f00c8f13150514d4b1 Fans[edit / edit wiki text]
6b6a52884678f2e0b25c02da21d8b00a0e114498 Performance of CSKA fans during the final match of the Russian Cup 2007-2008
5729773f3097423435b3c304a857d99486001008 According to VTsIOM data for 2006, CSKA ranked second in Russia in terms of the number of fans after Spartak Moscow[238].
48aa96032dd8dfc5a943e08a9e8563afad0f47af According to the estimates of the German agency "Sport+Markt", in the spring of 2008, CSKA took the 15th place in popularity in Europe, losing, in particular, to two Russian clubs: Zenit (10th place) and Spartak (11th place).[239]
4cbdaac0c51fe75ba87ac6d1c283685a587073bb According to a new study by the agency "Sport+Markt" , as of February 2009, CSKA with 11.1 million fans ranks eleventh in popularity in Europe[240].
ac8251d0fe5dfc31204878ece2cb8437fedeb3b0 In September 2010, the agency "Sport+Markt" conducted a new study, according to which 10.5 million people support CSKA, thus, in terms of the number of fans, CSKA ranks 12th in Europe and second in Russia[241].
6ad794482646818da8bfd7ad2ff9a6fc80f2e32c The official fan club is the "CSKA Sports Lovers Club" (KLS), organized in the late 1980s.
709a480c44037b787ec1a1d97f77a45f90096c11 The KLS organizes and conducts various competitions, sports tournaments, meetings with players and coaches of the team, provides financial assistance to members of the KLS — disabled people of the 1st and 2nd groups.
28c681ce2fd052932264017f20c6949ae79215e3 Membership in the KLS gives various discounts[242].
f8dc2db35e64e9d0166d5fbb2f15fd9fae17bb73 In the 2000s, bright performances began to be organized: fire shows, flash mobs, giant canvases, choral singing of charges.
11ff1ba9a5b9c05baa1e51bf0ec4b6b543e5404f Foreign friends of CSKA fans include fans of Partizan Belgrade, as well as fans of Polish Vidzev from the city of Lodz.
5c3bf1b673c1d835871316d3bb1c6857872db7a0 The traditional nickname of the army is "horses", once it was offensive, now it does not cause negative emotions among the carriers.[243] At the end of 2008, the club presented an official image of the horse, which became one of the main elements of the attributes.
83d3e219f4bb1b39efb9aebad12972f2b043c966 At the end of each season, CSKA fans award their idols with the Golden Horseshoe Award[244].
aae7e63e2434bb6ccc4e2f970af8bccc4d4a2ee9 Famous fans[edit / edit wiki text]
26fe665a16b0728c5c5342ba2413f79b0162d50f Alexander Babakov[246] Matvey Blunter[247] Alexey Buldakov[248] Igor Butman[249] Vladimir Vysotsky[250] Oleg Gazmanov[251] Andrey Grechko[252] Mikhail Grushevsky[253] Vladimir Zeldin[254] Sergey Ivanov[255] Andrey Kaikov[256] Konstantin Kinchev[257] Leonid Kuravlev[258] Otar Kushanashvili[259] Denis Lebedev[260] Egor Letov[261] Andrey Malyukov[262] Alexander Maslyakov Jr.[263] Alexey Merinov[264] Maya Plisetskaya[265] Maxim Potashev[266] Alexander Porokhovshchikov[267] Natalia Selezneva[268] Mikhail Tanich[269] Semyon Farada[270] Maxim Shevchenko[271][272]
b0cad527a205fe725d1eb6cc98cbf1b90aee765b [273] Olga Shelest[274] Mikhail Yuzhny[275] Sergey Yastrzhembsky[255] Oleg Menshikov[276]
37fd775141be300553702765edc68dffb08cff1a The origin of the nickname[edit / edit wiki text]
2abab144fdf74d9957acdd9c1da8e99b34de697a There are several versions about the origin of the team's nickname, according to one of them, the team owes its nickname, "horses", to the fact that earlier the stables of the Moscow hippodrome were located on the site of the Sandy stadium.[277] According to another version, the nickname appeared due to the fact that the team's base was located on the site of the former stable of the Princes Yusupovs.[278]
63f911204d9377ec843e3340f3e24969cc39106d Stadium[edit / edit wiki text]
afbf4fd17b116e5cb4f70ce90c8ac546c43352fa Main article: Stadium on the Third Sandy Street
eccaad8cba790aba7c89cf2e846d30ba3b5701ed Laying the first stone[edit / edit wiki text]
59bbcbec68d1cee3fab2908afe41ae7ed814cda4 On May 19, 2007, the groundbreaking ceremony of the new PFC CSKA stadium took place.
a8e2730a10f164e01482e898e713ab289025c108 The first stone was laid on the site of the old CSKA stadium.
8ae1f800bdfd4691c82c26f1fd77787c1a9c039e The ceremony of laying the stone was attended by the Mayor of Moscow Yuri Luzhkov and the president of the club Evgeny Giner.
fdfa680153f659b103fc8826f51c3030db64a90e Construction of the stadium began on December 9, 2007.
5593031d421c0cd823ed041e263d828a82aafd2e Initially, the completion date was set for 2008, [279] however, due to the fact that it took a lot of time to prepare the construction documentation, the deadline for the completion of the stadium was postponed to May 2010.[280] Later, due to problems with the documentation for the land, the construction of the stadium was temporarily suspended.[281] In September 2010, the club's president, Yevgeny Giner, said that all problems had been resolved and the stadium was scheduled to open in 2015. 282]
1d3c213cfb150648b45623dccb0daf3f5a3d92f3 Stadium layout
39b3689d093b90a6810bd044ed8ab49c81712122 An elite football stadium of a modern level will be built on the site of the laid stone, which will meet all the requirements of modern football.
ecb4335e3ed839e24839cf20d0261f2a3f184a17 The rectangular shape of the sports arena will practically eliminate the "dead" spectator zones.
2c4857ebca54af40080e38ba82cae0a556f4cb7e A children's and youth sports school will be built near the stadium, as well as a hotel, a museum of PFC CSKA and a business center.
6b33e00877145a06298008e0e850725423342079 The arena will be similar to the UEFA Cup won in 2005.
a4604fd977a0dc0076eb3b6dcb0289d1695f6375 The construction is planned to be completed in 2015.
5e28bc2fb12513ed9d66d4eaed9045a2bb295ef1 The amount of investment for the construction of the stadium is about 200 million euros.
83160fce487076ff9da837fd4475093d2fb31037 [283][284]
a0efb5ae1dcc4b691e42167cf60bb53c19ea06bc Stadium address: Moscow, 3 ya Peschanaya str., possession 2.
4233f53e97af2295e9797f7f4216ec2fed8a6ee3 Technical specifications[edit / edit wiki text]
0d187a838b82adab220f24c27d0bd82e7074aadb The area of the allocated plots is 8.7 hectares The area of the additional plots is 1.12323 hectares The stadium capacity is 30,000 seats The total area of the complex is 174100 square meters meters The total area of the stadium is 78,000 sq. m.
7452fd7ff1dba2b26de257648e0a1bdd4754eb39 The total area of hotels and administrative premises is 70,000 square meters. meters The total area of multi level parking is 26,100 sq. m. meters Parking capacity 1400 parking spaces
fc24b53c4c4acbce236e2078e8514bf2afb82795 Budget[edit / edit wiki text]
47d71b8b114d2aea42f4a7f46cd37ee5fcefb671 The budget of PFC CSKA for 2007 amounted to 51.4 million US dollars.
9adc913112262f50e518c88d15b4fbcb2994ac1a At the same time, the share of self sufficiency is 97 %. A little less than half of the budget is spent on wages (24.7 million).[285] [286] The 2007 financial year of CJSC PFC CSKA ended with a positive balance, the net profit of the club amounted to 82.5 million rubles.[287]
be8c8f1c29401edc29fb7fc9db23be0ef570cdfb The Army's budget for 2008 was $ 49,596,000, the expenses were $ 49,982,000, excluding the costs associated with the construction of the stadium.[288]
d129855bce342cb1c80b0ea8d50e6f9f46343c77 In 2009, the budget of CSKA amounted to $ 49,976,000, expenses were estimated at 61,348,000, thus, a budget deficit was formed, which was covered at the expense of the club's shareholders.
936b0de3444d656b1dc4812f99997ff71168a032 [289]
3f0a9ab6f7a3d8302859d2f9a2f7512bf69681f8 In 2010, the budget of CSKA compared to the previous year was increased and amounted to $ 64 million, and the club's shareholders expected to receive a surplus at the end of the season, which was supposed to be $ 168 thousand.[290]
43fd389c84fb7c863e2a46dfa47b8bcb8102669c In 2011, the budget of CSKA was again increased compared to 2010 and amounted to $ 75,652,000.
632b60e1f27691c7582289bf3c3634d20f3afb7c The surplus at the end of the season was $ 1,964,000.[291]
4b0cfc7af558de4bfa313b145a94fb1901986ed5 Sponsors[edit / edit wiki text]
4c49b8894c2bd4148c2bafed80ec92000763d9a5 In the entire history of CSKA, the team had five general sponsors, the first in early 2004 was the company "Konti" [292], but later the contract was terminated.
0e862ef0ff55dadbc589590624e78819204fad15 In March 2004, CSKA signed a sponsorship contract with Sibneft, under which the company pledged to pay the club $ 54 million.
35ccad79494c0c380a530bc4e884623fe4e14497 The contract term was calculated until the end of 2006[293] At the end of 2005, the contract was terminated on the initiative of Sibneft.[294] From 2006 to the end of 2008, VTB Bank was the general sponsor of the team.
6efcb6a6002a412015dfe01c1301745a1cc6be43 [295] In the winter of 2008, VTB Bank refused to renew the contract.
afa6be740477dfb31e7420b23cc8675c470ea173 On July 24, 2009, CSKA had a new title sponsor.
2b368a49c965d380488820d3611bf0ca69c8db0d It became the largest Russian airline — Aeroflot.
dd7740b3f92311e0130fe8836f54a71a8bf487cc In T shirts with the symbols of the new sponsor, the Army team played for the first time in Sunday's derby with Spartak.[296]
40d6931b80ce1ff3b6b8b54081df296aeacc4137 On February 18, 2010, PFC CSKA signed an agreement with a new general sponsor — the Bashneft oil company.
c5edec26917e445c9e160acad7530e5ab25738db The agreement was signed for one season with the possibility of further prolongation.
dbe485ba1e9aefa5ee75c4413efbea45f1a83798 For the first time in T shirts with the symbols of Bashneft, the team played in a home match with Sevilla.[297][298]
b938dd8631d9e02cfbf8e1749f8464b9aae062a5 On July 11, 2012, Aeroflot became the title sponsor of CSKA.
aa3e04e1f174c02ca2ea7e0a062c8cd0ff25befa The airline replaced Bashneft, whose contract expired at the end of last season.
2bb8e2b33cc44f1616b2d0a8f28f475079321b3a The sponsorship will cost Aeroflot $ 9 million a year and should help with the promotion of the airline in Europe.
bb65ab1af7df4c0c720d02fb958ed7643856e110 Aeroflot will become the general sponsor of CSKA until the end of July.
f2da113fc887e0787a4fa7eb9c6f23188baef097 This is confirmed by the friendly meeting of the army team with Bursaspor on Monday, to which the players came out in T shirts with the inscription "Aeroflot" as the title sponsor.[299]
75e306d23709f34f1a9c034537663f1712fc6d95 In June 2013, the Russian Networks company signed a sponsorship contract with CSKA in the amount of 4,185 billion rubles (about $130 million) for "advertising services and the provision of non exclusive rights to use the results of intellectual activity and means of individualization"[301].
d0bb4b45a962f147a6fa62c7e427bf3b0208777e Years of sponsorship Title sponsor 1911-2003 Without sponsor 2004 Konti 2004-2005 Sibneft 2006-2008 VTB 2009 Aeroflot 2010-2012 Bashneft 2012-2013 Aeroflot 2013 present Russian Networks
063a33e5fa99ec893fef7a56424c231baa6d161e Players at major international tournaments[edit / edit wiki text]
06674450efd24840059d7b43de03734535b9fbb1 Tournament Participants Olympic Games 1952 Anatoly Bashashkin
be759b561e720d9cd89ec3086d7977ff661e1da4 Vladimir Nikanorov
3e634c08bf1f7ee8885e64df0b57e889bacd210a Valentin Nikolaev
773e43d853911670d86b494b2403dd5fd92e657b Yuri Nyrkov
9aefa5277c2517fe3552ec07b07ff9abf5218dfc Alexander Petrov Olympic Games 1956 Anatoly Bashashkin
0ea59a9de2efde6247de3c3b5376ed411c032ec4 Yuri Belyaev
0841cc5ab1ce878daa865526ceebea08d564b378 Jozef Betsa
5903fcff1667f12f7effe5963372f8f2f0be4c70 Anatoly Porkhunov
1bf35206f25bdcb15ecc3f45a17d684818bff49f Boris Razinsky World Championship 1958 German Apukhtin European Championship 1960 German Apukhtin World Championship 1962 Eduard Dubinsky
430201b54e1576c7fe477f31e7436ab6b9007459 Alexey Mamykin
9edcdf4bc7e50781d3060dd353a5662c36e9619e Albert Shesternev European Championship 1964 Albert Shesternev World Championship 1966 Eduard Dubinsky
0f569fa6004abaead32418a94eedc6b052c77be1 Vladimir Ponomarev
a280aa7debc062573019b07852ef7c49efa17249 Albert Shesternev European Championship 1968 Valentin Afonin
dd0893f7c4464f860405c046263f9470f56ed79c Yuri Istomin
9bf544e8e3980cdd2d2bcf379ecbf1137a08e38e Vladimir Kaplichny
c70a97811eddbcaaacfc9ce5b4ad155c6e97bb8a Yuri Pshenichnikov
d55ad3f92c9251156d493fc7855532e327b7b49e Albert Shesternev World Championship 1970 Valentin Afonin
6e1eeb8495b7fa3d02dad2da5ee7ee987781f913 Albert Shesternev
54ce5facde9acb94487d02a3482de5d78bd40df0 Leonid Shmuts European Championship 1972 Yuri Istomin
c789e3c8d828b6bf3157ee186834f8662557e33a Vladimir Kaplichny Olympic Games 1972 Yuri Istomin
c830472b6c89f4324ae861691871f9bedc02689b Vladimir Kaplichny Olympic Games 1976 Vladimir Astapovsky
292220e69c191fe67cfeac08d16f9b742a6057e8 Leonid Nazarenko World Championship 1982 Vagiz Hidiyatullin Olympic Games 1988 Vladimir Tatarchuk
1a7bfd075f3c1bc6c5262bfba74fbec76b88b1ce Sergey Fokin World Championship 1990 Valery Broshin
a60c023eba8489b38f36afd3653cbafc485deba9 Sergey Fokin European Championship 1992 Dmitry Kharin European Championship 1996 Evgeny Bushmanov
c6ebd2684acf299a089670517aa5d9e8ade501ac Vladislav Radimov
1da15d07a5903fed02be0e419c3ead6fa471c660 Dmitry Khokhlov World Cup 2002 Vyacheslav Daev
27abc3d9d82f564cd2520fe48d48f2d2db67ef7b Sergey Semak
dfa5620dce87f67f68417176c7bf7391832917ce Andrey Solomatin European Championship 2004 Igor Akinfeev
6017a468e70db5351bb5334cdf27dca4d5551e96 Evgeny Aldonin
6ea1aeae0a6e855c93b48cb4cb39fc8c22fea1b7 Rolan Gusev
608cf144410bb9b6fbc6a311dfb1c49c2c86fe0b Dmitry Kirichenko
fca1f79077c2f51f28d37b5c2b86eb7a2fc7373f Juris Layzan
cf25ed57dc19bbc7befa5135fc45c1c191982f57 Ivica Olic Asian Cup 2004 Alexander Heinrich Olympic Games 2004 Milos Krasic African Cup of Nations 2006 Chidi Odia World Cup 2006 Ivica Olic America's Cup 2007 Wagner Love European Championship 2008 Igor Akinfeev
c13c29ff07266919b7e003dbba92ca3b684a2cb5 Alexey Berezutsky
2b2866e31bf975cafa7e26a4bd10ad01fe123f9a Vasily Berezutsky
26487a1de5c73519e8b3e08f72840f1c97cd0738 Yuri Zhirkov
8d469e92113ec27d0d1730b066bd3c59275fd87a Sergey Ignashevich Africa Cup of Nations 2010 Chidi Odia World Cup 2010 Mark Gonzalez
b4acce7c2fa3d0382cacf4b9b24db7ae4242c3f1 Seydou Doumbia
bc83dd7b160e3ca3f2394d43a6142ef0000701ed Milos Krasic
203d95f97cf2e6903b7f0702407111a6d2d76f13 Chidi Odia
1ebaa3c42229610b4af9ea428f613d48d4d9da14 Keisuke Honda Asian Cup 2011 Keisuke Honda African Cup of Nations 2012 Seydou Doumbia
8db061abe6735c760ef9595882387840ad3a34b4 Ouvo Moussa Maazou European Championship 2012 Igor Akinfeev
a26354c764e67645afa8cf0cac844c3f85e52a5b Pontus Wernbloom
73babe04ba9bcd232b3c0cc1678e2ecfd48064d9 Alan Dzagoev
763b3b1066524ee83c83c58296a4c6021c344c72 Sergey Ignashevich
2d4c9fc149def3bc146ca2d88845893408b25e1c Kirill Nababkin
765d110a270d9cda679daa1abf045151f9c138f1 Tomas Netsid Africa Cup of Nations 2013 Ahmed Musa Confederations Cup 2013 Ahmed Musa
683a13ef5147e5e922130b052ff1fb95c974cb2b Keisuke Honda World Championship 2014 Igor Akinfeev
381b9ba46b50bdf9472250f192e2a11cef3a55f9 Georgy Schennikov
0ae6157064d765461c1eb0fb5499ebccaca24120 Ahmed Musa Africa Cup of Nations 2015 Seydou Doumbia
21b6a3ea2e53b27eb59e231646e4aa0d2fa9e805 Main article: List of achievements of PFC CSKA Moscow and its players
57f264a8b7c8c1fc6ca3efaa8eac6b0e27aec7bf National championships[edit / edit wiki text]
d894ea74ad8aa82a4cce906c84e5f8b7e792a3a0 USSR Football Championship / Russian Football Championship
ebb8409f9ef5ef80ec257ba2b5ec0c1af7958d19 Champion (12): 1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951 1970, 1991, / 2003, 2005, 2006 2013, 2014.
49b7f08de4f8a24d7e11bc10bdd213edcd3ac705 Silver medalist (10): 1938, 1945, 1949, 1990, / 1998, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2015.
e0294906ae28509d0b6e076c3fd8b90a7df050aa Bronze medalist (9): 1939, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1964, 1965, / 1999, 2007, 2012.
828eacf75a20e8129cd8d6324467dd6c39f28488 USSR Cup / Russian Cup
3417fb55630b1e22bc8e9a885e769b8bfd710612 The owner (12): 1945, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1991, / 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013.
a43589547abd09681b5ddd9c7df8287d3416473d Finalist (6): 1944, 1967, 1992, / 1993, 1994, 2000.
adcb6ecdf03c65df5f30994f04153861b197d52a Super Cup of the USSR / Super Cup of Russia
60c4e444f7affd839339fa632b4ff305f0219529 Winner (6, record): 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2013, 2014.
50032dbf02aa58faf428044dc6d6f68b91f61f17 Finalist (3): 2003, 2010, 2011.
c64cc727556ebb7c398d2e8724d84a6bb01e582f Prize of the All Union Committee
122a632533a73207cfccebdb36f762ddde76af27 Winner (1): 1952.
def9638a7a2da44b06d132d0d83f684dc57138ef The First League of the USSR
f4a3acffb0ee772c8c7e5db48ac2fceddbe3a819 Champion (2): 1986, 1989.
29f25aa5b31f8bcf48bc198af10ec9d533fa00c7 Silver medalist (1): 1985.
05fa3e2407452748ae703dbfd7204bbaa461fbfc Bronze medalist (1): 1988.
2df6a7a4dd1a5ea4c9ce6b53e47ae82238293d6d Tournament of reserve players of the USSR championship / Tournament of reserve players of the RFPL / Youth Championship of the RFPL
ca8511e86d1c97da36839c2deefbe80d03f4e789 Champion (8): 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1960, 1976, 1979, / 2005.
929db69351eded7be93708b12b185345d373dfd1 Silver medalist (10): 1949, 1954, 1959, 1963, 1978, 1983, / 2004, 2006, 2007, / 2014.
b92ac70dc74d25346c6d150796556c3aac996cf8 Bronze medalist (11): 1955, 1957, 1964, 1965, 1970, 1971, 1973, / 2003, / 2008, 2012, 2013.
1e78b43b197d8fd370bd7505cbb09852b1168541 European Cups[edit / edit wiki text]
c781b802dd2b07e915e4d0e8e887dd8b250f172d Main article: PFC CSKA Moscow in the draws of international tournaments
79725dfda5d021ba98d77dce5687ef90329596cc UEFA Cup
5bf842dd2bd0203a0e12fce3059fac1e7553e8cb Winner (1): 2005.
05e1fc6e7a22553fab7fa102220995b42b5ebb91 UEFA Super Cup
9d08da6815cfa81c5644dd66f49f23fd1792c5a7 Finalist (1): 2005.
e2e9eb32060ac9b7b4b83376049b3c16985bebea UEFA Champions League
b316c66bd8a9bf2b9a67832bb7b7a3d3e4fdbc49 Quarterfinalist (2): 1993, 2010.
b7c0bd8bc96d900b3aff6ffdc464e3b083058a72 Other tournaments[edit / edit wiki text]
639909c911de6e3388d49892686e48a5fb9a3100 Trofeo Villa de Gijon
786ac91d73ee54f6d6e0bf167763d30c76e404e7 Winner (1): 1994.
b159365a0cbb9641a0119ce68764b48f9879ca68 Channel One Cup
22a8ff2b67e7b2f555d262705b751a67dc546cac Winner (1): 2007.
6cb17cfd885da270f9fae09d23612429204f1bc4 Copa del Sol
612a6054a8a1ade7e2430ba570d09c6caa3ff59d Winner (1): 2010.
9364ff6456decfbd2b33a61006b399fc444105bc La Manga Cup
2f0888ccb348c9d935e609049a6ce7769ee98e32 Winner (1): 2013.
7d6e5a5ac9e9cbf5b494b7e55d159929aa603ab0 Regional and early competitions[edit / edit wiki text]
8305f8b5eee43985f2bc263a6d6a88dce6e910bc Moscow Championship
cb72dde3ec5f69fcec194731a0b2d67f2efdca49 Winner (4): 1922 (spring), 1926, 1935 (Autumn), 1943.
94ad65f13f532472ffd3b0854b69b5f458b00362 Second prize winner (6): 1921 (autumn), 1922 (autumn), 1924, 1927 (spring), 1930, 1944.
ef0cc9ecd929b6f18ff43b24e2064d039cc557bd Second prize winner among clubs (2): 1927 (autumn), 1930 (autumn).
abd02037539af197446a6ae1c9531d1451ef0175 Third prize winner (2): 1918 (autumn), 1920 (autumn).
ba4833d249e82e1123eb7f15e9573b2d74c04aaa Third prize winner among clubs (3): 1926, 1927 (spring), 1929 (autumn).
5e93908897bf3685b88288213b85f6c8d6666de3 The Cup of "KFS Kolomyagi"
1df7ebd94fed5d59eef1a697daeef8ee71c1dfc6 Owner (1): 1922.
a26c374d2aadbdaedc516c8dbeb3caa5ccfa97d8 Tosman Cup
f3a87547b8703028c0ee6a55d62887070ab64284 Achievements of players and coaches[edit / edit wiki text]
9fa3648a7bd43412b410a1d99243b436593ba199 Footballer of the Year:
cf256a70821f5b5581ed2cd6447a2ab87873f84c 1970 Albert Shesternev (according to the weekly "Football").
0e0aef8d2742f1188121231bd8fd00dab07db107 1976 Vladimir Astapovsky (according to the weekly "Football").
45ce26f61a1ed48849c4c4a9fe355b25bd548cf6 1991 Igor Korneev (according to the newspaper "Sport Express").
9ae6b79ffd7241631dc43570266f486c6af95149 2005 Daniel Carvalho (according to the versions of the weekly "Football" and the newspaper "Sport Express").
7c603e1453bb573dca587eeb58a0c62bb9a39895 2008 Yuri Zhirkov (according to the weekly "Football").
d5c41d3b84fc1c9942c3ce522978660376d87c31 2008 Wagner Love (according to the newspaper "Sport Express").
142f14c3ba84bf29e1aef45a81e8b8d3cd3d7dd7 2010 Wagner Love (according to Radio Sport).
1ba4b26ffe835871372c236ae623cfb8b477fe1a 2011 Seydou Doumbia (according to the versions of the weekly "Football", the newspaper "Sport Express" and the ASN "R Sport").
7e1264ed99ebdd983cace30c187b303ade80062b 2013 Igor Akinfeev (according to the RFU version).
682c4faf2d5b11d0116f309202d19da739fc8be1 2014 Seydou Doumbia (according to the versions of the RFU and the weekly "Football").
442c33e389f4e8fae2359ad9d20697809d847c3c Legionnaire of the Year:
70aae0ca47f6824d3604d709a2aacb030d4b42fe 2014 Seydou Doumbia (according to the newspaper "Sport Express").
a436b38529128cd08e8543a9be58632a67b89bd7 Top scorers of the season:
bea1d7ed50c08b290b8020bcaf9accd3678e0dc2 1938 Grigory Fedotov (19).
afed44079001d1778b777938634c4254cd8930c3 1939 Grigory Fedotov (21).
6f67ddecdbc470169d79700f9b9710f97a184e33 1945 Vsevolod Bobrov (24).
916fdd1f76527e7493b96cd62d181b749bffb697 1947 Vsevolod Bobrov, Valentin Nikolaev (14).
4cba9e721b0e5b416a3c74fc02413c85d7b481c8 1957 Vasily Buzunov (16).
66402795a73b52e852a186180236115bd347ef6a 1964 Vladimir Fedotov (16).
0cfec4ef7a81469f4e631b9d340512373b546218 2002 Roland Gusev, Dmitry Kirichenko (15).
ef18ab6de6a1dfd41767a5e6bdcbf914dc122f2c 2008 Wagner Love (20).
cc39482faec4328237ec6d4c7012f26115399a16 2011/12 Seydou Doumbia (28).
26bb8535f7b1c3005217bba94445ce6d3b707bfc 2013/14 Seydou Doumbia (18).
66a848b67ec49f068774cc6484be44a8c01cbe95 Top scorers of the UEFA Cup:
6a0b2b9dc17340fd4a3791210cbfbe4bc570d054 2008/09 Wagner Love (11).
4f8095a101fa2acd4c21bb557b895684c4063d75 Top scorers of the Russian Cup:
5205c7aebca84544462a130a6336e8a90163365f 2006 Jo (5).
c22bdd3da3c202f85c41c74f5d908f3f756737d0 2011 Seydou Doumbia (4).
cd4b6e06f9679a1df631fedbf2d612441d3f7bea 2013 Ahmed Musa (4).
d38f80e6c2afb8ec75e7477bc453697c6050d4a9 The best goalkeepers of the season (The "Goalkeeper of the Year" award of the Ogonyok magazine):
db5579cd78caa4931c0bf7fd2f338b7f17408fd8 1968 Yuri Pshenichnikov.
40fe22439e8aa0a1209dba9dfa025b9ac5d0db83 1976 Vladimir Astapovsky.
3128d431711b2423ed7644a6b9d143c6ee94e1ab 2004-2006, 2008-2010, 2012/2013, 2013/2014 Igor Akinfeev.
1a317355095710a8cacd4ebb0243f317bdf99ec7 Best Young Player ("Top Five"prize):
aa32265ae1e682397fb0dfdf67a2dd0b708ddbcf 2005 Igor Akinfeev.
8f81a66bcdb89e227c775d08c95a34f37601a09e 2008 Alan Dzagoev.
91309dd82181bdf938f972d20ae33c3013bc728d 2009 Georgy Schennikov.
deb197a1fbd6024152f4c0ec7e414845f9a54e9b 2013 Konstantin Bazelyuk.
dd623f2e6f85232855a12a6b2204a5ebb3d24358 The best football player of the CIS and Baltic countries (The "Star" prize):
d15cee33f17cb845d40c628bc5787eaca7c1dcc6 2006 Igor Akinfeev.
69c75c5fb8ae31252b1cca80753fe9384bab02b0 Gentleman of the Year Award:
cc58b7fcf3fcefafb4ea1e5301e48859a2023ec2 2002 Sergey Semak.
99f015322886eccce56dc09b50ff6ac444029c34 UEFA Coach of the Year:
6efbd54c0369f4a347a44709815d2fa6d05b1bc4 2005 Valery Gazzaev.
2cd8703dfbfc896494248c6929439d735719489c The best coach of the year according to the RFU:
478872d7850cf42c84303e8e5c18b3228c614467 2006 Valery Gazzaev.
e6193557247a5985e941d922775760caa0ebe5f7 2013 — Leonid Slutsky.
6f6f2dc93144741b24ff91bfca13b2da327f1a3c 2014 — Leonid Slutsky.
5d6382b8ffbf16bee4c043efcfe1a1dca71c6675 Coach of the Year in all sports according to the newspaper "Sport Express":
76b2c786b66f8a83d46e96e45964d960120ff0ef Top scorers of the European Championship:
61261eab80b6c3a1ffd6215585fb652cc22e557c 2012 Alan Dzagoev (3).
b5c32cfcb94dacb33398c069ee8e679b6fa0c650 The best player of the Asian Cup:
46fc04f1b2bf0c54c51ddb04e3996d57c4c26946 2011 Keisuke Honda
e5bc32fb3d4730731afd309edf21cfe1c8312ef7 Footballer of the Year in Latvia:
923b9d7e601e3b348e935629290c0d72f205bdc3 2002 Juris Lizans.
d82a96c77a8c7b043e1cc77b01f95bab086263ec 2011 Alexander Tsaunya.
a9c4b7b2fbe559443d2800c102c892cfad2c9592 2012 Alexander Tsaunya.
2c3d07b032948f844470779d16ab3b843abd0774 Footballer of the Year in Lithuania:
c0865bc82c43115c8b3c3bace833a174d0f6ffba 2005 Deivydas Schemberas.
a45828d19a69a766a9735879392566a473986cff Footballer of the Year in Serbia:
46ee35c71a84974eb2321ea69cbc09197d6d6d1c 2009 Milos Krasic.
a691f613092a62fb20a65d493164bc71b949494a 2014 Zoran Tosic.
aa7ec2a892c87509443a05d6a8aee75e4e341d37 Footballer of the Year in Japan:
57c98f1ffe2d84798cab144069b1528e6df745e9 2010 Keisuke Honda.
72d0ef06d8edb3aa486fb70a4cc3a4b455d53da2 Team prizes[edit / edit wiki text]
8efc2d676613d21833da2b27aabc8358e3226639 "The first height": 1991.
4dffa48497c5d03f204a528e857183181836f4c7 "Big score": 1998.
1fca19a9ce0d3ba92b5219492a3b45cdac156b16 "The ball without spots": 2009.
5379587c87f69e2472fa25e9ddab10a19dcf8f15 State awards[edit / edit wiki text]
4c8e9525dc9d704bcd59ebfe7f7e949f15e4040e Order of Lenin: 1973 (awarded to the CSKA Sports Society in honor of the 50th anniversary).
3e51f4aedbc187dbdbccbd892ebc07640f3b84b9 A letter of thanks from the President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev and awarding state awards to players and coaches in honor of the 100th anniversary of the club.
7835b51d9fc0fa4ae2d1fbc5555e84f08dab210d Head coaches and Presidents[edit / edit wiki text]
f8f225e5380e038719d9121efb044712a1603e56 Coach Citizenship Beginning End Pavel Khalkiopov USSR 1936 1936 Mikhail Ruschinsky USSR 1937 1939 Sergey Bukhteev USSR 1940 1941 Peter Yezhov USSR 1941 1941 Evgeny Nikishin USSR 1942 1944 Boris Arkadiev USSR 1944 1952 Grigory Pinachiev USSR 1954 1957 Boris Arkadiev USSR 1958 1959 Grigory Pinachiev USSR 1959 1960 Konstantin Beskov USSR 1961 1962 Vyacheslav Solovyov USSR 1963 1964 Valentin Nikolaev USSR 1964 1965 Sergey Shaposhnikov USSR 1966 1967 Vsevolod Bobrov USSR 1967 1969 Valentin Nikolaev USSR 1969 1973 Vladimir Agapov USSR 1974 1974 Anatoly Tarasov USSR 1975 1975 Alexey Mamykin USSR 1976 1977 Vsevolod Bobrov USSR 1977 1978 Sergey Shaposhnikov USSR 1979 1979 Oleg Basilevich USSR 1980 1982 Albert Shesternev USSR 1982 1983 Sergey Shaposhnikov USSR 1983 1983 Yuri Morozov USSR 1984 1987 Sergey Shaposhnikov USSR 1987 1988 Pavel Sadyrin USSR
30dcb496239bdf31253d01f648a56e02c0e68d9c Russia 1989 1992 Gennady Kostylev Russia 1992 August 1993 Boris Kopeikin Russia August 1993 May 1994 Alexander Tarkhanov Russia June 1994 January 1997 Pavel Sadyrin Russia December 1996 July 2, 1998 Oleg Dolmatov Russia July 4, 1998 May 29, 2000 Pavel Sadyrin Russia June 4, 2000 October 2, 2001 Alexander Kuznetsov (acting) Russia October 2, 2001 November 8, 2001 Valery Gazzaev Russia November 10, 2001 November 13, 2003 Artur Jorge Portugal November 23, 2003 July 12, 2004 Valery Gazzaev Russia July 14, 2004 December 4, 2008 Zico Brazil January 9, 2009 September 10, 2009 Juande Ramos Spain September 10, 2009 October 26, 2009 Leonid Slutsky Russia since October 26, 2009
7b358e10d4da727a9264f2a4021fe8a9b959cab0 President Citizenship Period Alexander Tarkhanov Russia 1996 Shakhrudi Dadakhanov Russia August 1998 February 2001 Evgeny Giner Russia since February 2001 present
30c9fe7faf31990acd1002373f33b5f30679c556 Roo kovodstvo club[edit / edit wiki text]
4ba8658b0544c8559c516b8bf28829be93fee6a5 Management team[edit / edit wiki text]
448833d20c19e1a95570c316ca6046f634a7c914 Evgeny Giner — President Roman Babaev — General Director Andrey Zarubyan Commercial Director Dmitry Egorov Executive Director Sergey Aksenov Director of Public Relations and Information Policy Irina Yakovleva — Financial Director Ilya Kedrin Deputy General Director for Legal Affairs Oleg Yarovinsky - Head of the Breeding Department
badc43d7921f3d6b2ed604e39bc0fbcf43b34177 Coaching staff[edit / edit wiki text]
ab782cb0d26d298032741634322aa3baee472c9a The main structure
53ed2858b6a21d695db6b035ddddf8fde1181dd9 Leonid Slutsky — head coach Viktor Goncharenko senior coach Sergey Ovchinnikov goalkeeping coach Sergey Yakunchikov — team chief Viktor Onopko coach Paulino Granero — physical training coach
3fa0f1fa696ddbc6a62d45faadcaa17962877ef8 Youth team
613595f1853d7dee142f9e8f56fac5e0acb8dfb9 Alexander Grishin senior coach Vyacheslav Chanov goalkeeping coach Valery Minko coach Andrey Shiryaev coach Igor Aksenov — physical training coach
07170ce47b962fb56d926794fe241740334c35bb DYuSSh
f97b4e775f9facaae3db84192da65b45db70ae45 Maxim Bokov coach Elvir Rakhimich coach Yuri Adjem coach Evgeny Varlamov coach Oleg Kornaukhov coach
00cae89e285c313473674828c1e5304732182423 Current team composition[edit / edit wiki text]
905603a4d2ef4964d011da6a1f611a07bbd11903 Akinfeev
59f4e8c70760a122572ea85a83d25baff630dcbd Nababkin
18f229bb9accaca3227d6141dec5f9a5062266cb Berezutsky
ebf3fb041b0872c5b3b5f326468d68287ddd1b78 Ignashevich
89f001d972e2fa6607cd6a3773abf0a1e5c67958 Fernandez
823f615144ef02ccc7df09cfc6b831f50b60c79a Wernbloom
a83f50b6aa8a65ec314f2734afe862ba6a66e8a4 Dzagoev
4e8f48b322428aac3e4d45904cebe0e2878c87be Eremenko
6b0ea2ef34463b1825cacc9dd6b8a1960f0775c8 Tosic
1971f69913688b8829614a5751f7efbe887ffd36 Milanov
9f4bbfdf50fcb0691a2c284f4730eeec6c2a74d0 Musa
f88d9d97503ba796ba84775bce73d5030886487e Starting line up for the 2015/2016 season
84b703f56aecfdfc3231dc24bddb2e3d42286f06 Main article: PFC CSKA Moscow in the 2015/2016 season
490c41df73bba9822981842858bb0324942d008a The main composition[edit / edit wiki text]
5fa1fc1d317d88c1dc7e13e743a2293c11afb36b As of January 13, 2016.
e63d5fb02c47c7a0f629fe8f45ca651bff56e0a1 No Position Name Year of birth 1 Vr Sergey Chepchugov 1985 35 Vr Igor Akinfeev 1986
02f0000c70618a51690dba13e7a2a7a5b6d110ab 2 Defenses Mario Fernandez 1990 4 Defenses Sergey Ignashevich 1979 5 Defenses Viktor Vasin 1988 6 Defenses Alexey Berezutsky 1982 14 Defenses Kirill Nababkin 1986 24 Defenses Vasily Berezutsky 1982 42 Defenses Georgy Schennikov 1991 91 Defenses Nikita Chernov 1996
1ba3fca09d9be054b5d227a23b597cc30659d507 3 PZ Pontus Wernbloom 1986
e9d9aa75a8124cea0140c0c821aefdeee3f4c6e9 Position Name Year of Birth 7 PZ Zoran Tosic 1987 10 PZ Alan Dzagoev 1990 17 PZ Sergey Tkachev 1989 19 PZ Alexander Tsaunya 1988 20 PZ Amir Natkho 1996 23 PZ Georgy Milanov 1992 25 PZ Roman Eremenko 1987 60 PZ Alexander Golovin 1996 66 PZ Bibras Natkho 1988
d0f8a9960afa6a55237d64f431d94412cd020663 8 Nap Kirill Panchenko 1989 18 Nap Ahmed Musa 1992
d0cda51135c443ecd707bb4a93776952d29fc0e7 Pinned numbers[edit / edit wiki text]
e9af355c58e5923f60da0a59ada84356acd875bd 12 is assigned to the fans of the club.
443d545a797d35c8e9d77d26dd7040309311a88b 16 is assigned to Sergey Perkhun.
0c5cc33cf04828d3245d2847ad94322bf2dff400 Youth composition[edit / edit wiki text]
b9789e915b5ca9d9fec377b15a4a5af53a8166a3 Position Name Year of birth 45 Bp Ilya Pomazun 1996 84 Bp Pavel Ovchinnikov 1998
a889f8087736d178aa13ec5b0e490897ba7ff470 37 Zashch Denis Masyutin 1995 64 Zashch Mutalip Alibekov 1997
072fb786899db1520e8855139b507d9d2c5cdaab 49 PZ Nikita Titov 1996 52 PZ Igor Drykov 1997
ae193aac786b7ecca1b9a2695352c46dc9be200e Position Name Year of birth 72 PZ Astemir Gordyushenko 1997 73 PZ Dmitry Sokolov 1997 85 PZ Gael Bella Ondua 1995 99 PZ Maxim Martusevich 1995
ae9d401ffe38f91ec0df81e69372a332463e5aa0 43 Nap Alexander Makarov 1996 75 Nap Timur Zhamaletdinov 1997
f5f69fc7ddeb73fd72d01df03850268040730b86 Players on loan[edit / edit wiki text]
743a8c209217fabd3f75a187e4fec685127a2294 Position Name Year of birth 11 Nap Vitinho (in Internacional until 31.12.2016) 1993 15 PZ Dmitry Efremov (in Slovan until 1.07.2016) 1995 17 Nap Alibek Aliyev (in Yaro until 1.07.2016) 1996 39 Zap Vyacheslav Karavaev (in Baumit until 1.07.2016) 1995 71 Zap Konstantin Bazelyuk (in SKA Energiya until 1.07.2016) 1993 92 Zap Peter Ten (in Tomi until 1.07.2016) 1992
459a83ac5c0e6d4af55f72d76ee4c35384a01961 Transfers 2015/2016[edit / edit wiki text]
c49b1c2d709d55656ffcce8a42817dc93c7b37f4 Summer 2015[edit / edit wiki text]
0595fa43142579c6e50332bc09c1b781614c9bc6 Came[edit / edit wiki text]
2cf6f099e71ec50e54644be87d6238251535a44d Pos.
bb03d9ff38feddc9e8a56656db23dcf37da08aef Player Former club: Viktor Vasin** Mordovia Pz Amir Natho Barcelona Nap Seydou Doumbia* Roma
d85e6e9f4f797d428cd077d16d0a6c8c8d347819 Gone[edit / edit wiki text]
c84b695eb6121f98d7e7e46589032781620e8bfc Position Player New Club Vr Sergey Revyakin Torpedo (Armavir) Zach Vyacheslav Karavaev* Baumit Zach Peter Ten* Tom Pz Sekou Olise*** Al Garafa Pz Dmitry Efremov* Slovan Nap Konstantin Bazelyuk* SKA Energia Nap Carlos Strandberg* Ural Nap Alibek Aliev* Yaro
8c2e04ecb911c9d440061a3b6905e9836aacb653 Winter 2016[edit / edit wiki text]
0a5ad8fe699e1e04e50a8ce7a13bcd9ea591669b Player Former club Nap Carlos Strandberg** Ural PZ Sergey Tkachev** * Kuban
f090f2d55887816f5c84e973c520e3b145a3cb3c Position Player New Club Nap Seydou Doumbia* * Roma
d248019271e501a192185157681d2c0c3d9c0d11 * For rent
3441bddffd4b718c4c033ba4f301acdc8eb903cb ** From the rental
952a1e6e2fe366d2ab5d64958e18e083cf27c048 *** Free Agent
b52f27fd15039d596d9b43486fa493c3ef269226 The Guards of the club[edit / edit wiki text]
fca228a592ec4c2700a5e0d40481de7d4e468d0b Main article: List of the most important players of PFC CSKA Moscow
30934f047aa3d71e010912920a745e668630383e See also: Category:Players of FC CSKA Moscow
4af61902249bbe23871dfe2957cb49b31f165eee A list of players who have played 100 or more matches for the club.
ebd463bbe4a78fcd9eceb1b97440ab5d2f23776c Only matches of official tournaments are counted
15e2dbceab5a7ff182ed2cab5c091f859f49a8b2 (USSR Championship, USSR Cup, Russian Championship, Russian Cup, USSR Football Federation Cup, All Union Committee Prize, Premier League Cup, Russian Super Cup, UEFA Champions Cup, UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup, UEFA Europa League, UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, Intertoto Cup).
d4ce22d2d75caff1c1ea3c839cb0ede70670bc5b Yuri Adjem Igor Akinfeev Evgeny Aldonin Vladimir Astapovsky Dmitry Bagrich Anatoly Bashashkin Yuri Belyaev Alexey Berezutsky Vasily Berezutsky Vsevolod Bobrov Maxim Bokov Valery Broshin Vasily Buzunov Evgeny Bushmanov Dmitry Bystrov Evgeny Varlamov Pontus Vernbloom Alexander Vinogradov Alexey Vodyagin Dmitry Galyamin Alexey Grinin Roland Gusev Vladimir Demin Alan Dzagoev Viktor Dorodnykh Vladimir Dorofeev
26ddd6e6a835efe9e2b23ffb5a3c6124dafcbb1e Eduard Dubinsky Vladimir Dudarenko Dudu Seydou Doumbia Evgeny Dulyk Denis Evsikov Mikhail Eremin Konstantin Zhiboyedov Yuri Zhirkov Sergey Ignashevich Yuri Istomin Vladimir Kaplichny Daniel Carvalho Mikhail Kolesnikov Sergey Kolotovkin Viktor Kolyadko Boris Kopeikin Oleg Kornaukhov Igor Korneev Ivan Kochetkov Milos Krasich Vladimir Kulik Dmitry Kuznetsov Wagner Love Juris Liz Nikolai Linyaev
b63e3a3c1e3f2b4158a0f1047a0744a13aba25eb Konstantin Lyaskovsky Oleg Malyukov Pavel Mamaev Sergey Mamchur Alexey Mamykin Valery Masalitin Anatoly Maslyaev Valery Minko Sergey Morozov Ahmed Musa Kirill Nababkin Tomash Netsid Valentin Nikolaev Leonid Nikolaenko Vladimir Nikanorov Evgeny Nikishin Valery Novikov Andrey Novosadov Yuri Nyrkov Chidi Odia Ivitsa Olich Sergey Olshansky Alexander Petrov Maryan Plakhetko Vladimir Polikarpov Vladimir Ponomarev
ae66fd745598bcc29cf1c19852dc27a9a27dd486 Yuri Pshenichnikov Boris Razinsky Elver Rakhimich Sergey Savchenko Viktor Samokhin Sergey Semak Vyacheslav Solovyov Alexander Tarkhanov Vladimir Tatarchuk Zoran Tosic Valentin Utkin Ilshat Faizulin Vladimir Fedotov Mario Fernandez Sergey Filippenkov Sergey Fokin Keisuke Honda Yuri Chesnokov Viktor Chistokhvalov Vasily Shvetsov Deivydas Shemberas Albert Shesternev Yuri Shishkin Gennady Shromberger Georgy Schennikov Peter Shcherbatenko
2f19ff9497f941c93bcd8b9cdf89a7800f3843b4 Affiliated clubs[edit / edit wiki text]
806d855e0334b9c05f61c90a7455647dc1dbd5ae This mark was set on August 31, 2014.
f2cc61c9a2621f2f7613df77e91c2f3f4fa013d3 Partizan, Belgrade
0e0b42d6f41c8af62fcc82389a9b950e515d6a75 CSKA, Sofia
94a372ee64d9a7afb30f616563e15f08bf9fef3b PAOK, Thessaloniki
ba57950e8840363068b8d23a9e7c31d96b59b9e7 Vidzev, Lodz
e8c81c84e87c0bfca27de17b415bb48e79017c86 CSKA 2
5e3353cf2af14785b6e1744d1a3a1534374aa74f ↑ CSKA: The 13th Title!.
9a4d5cb5e128656a20ca42e3e490cd07b62ef833 Sport express.ru. Checked on December 9, 2011.
8946739d5a0c8a673d44e80d291d4abb77ec9808 Archived from the original source on January 22, 2012.
97a97ed1b888277030f6673dc9caf6f0fa3bc19c ↑ 1 2 3 4 CSKA (Moscow)(unavailable link history, copy)
9e21b766c811431e19f26ed364bb062eb031187a ↑ 1 2 CSKA won its second trophy of the season — the Cup of Russia. runews24.ru (June 1, 2013).
17f81c1ad9a0d9dcd9e8a297a9500319d4f19337 Checked on June 6, 2013.
1534bbe3ef6a6d8afa3099100a62238d24b7a96f Archived from the original source on June 6, 2013.
49208800dd779ec41df6398bb3d22e4cda3fafa7 Чемпион The Championship Cup was handed over to CSKA for eternal storage — Football — Sports.ru ↑ 1 2 3 Football players, p.
14439902edb840a97ab1bc2fc23c1f99737ef1bf 2. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
342ee2cb9eb5a16683f6ee9dcbc8532901af247b Футболи Football players, p.
177e10fe312c543c3232a9bed06c40d64f22370d 6. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
41812d09108f25109d6efbb2c8e69eeaa7597cc6 ↑ Among the Strongest, p.
bd55c3ff4d7a638c89ea7f9064f29652b90e1a38 3. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
1ea74f50f27f5ba18de4c751471ce1ba47b0139e ↑ 1 2 3 Among the Strongest, p.
1f8ae88ef2f72c45325dbff977b126b1579312ca 4. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
865912dd60d218e23e8394051587d1a5622d9f32 ↑ Magazine "Great clubs".
320489d8336f5cff55c0c05d1888570597b7d345 " CSKA ch.
dc32f4a223eafcc23914c6abefa81067230ced34 1 " No.
b0a3b9a4958cee792cfe4bd06dde6f3db9e860e4 12 (12) 2006, p.
df9e4cca3c18a6787f43d6ff224de3c3375c6323 7 ↑ "Under the flag of Vsevobuch", p.
911136013624478cd01e4fabe44d77230ea225f6 ↑ "Under the flag of Vsevobuch", p.
7ec3c9ee7e5779689e1bc01558607899a8a49c07 Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
b9c2d86131af954f00126a5e601d2b8cc17e9651 ↑ 1 2 Magazine "Great Clubs".
c9a14971ee6f34482b90aa56d433b67461fc77aa 8 ↑ CDKA, p.
60c19a668222c8c0e17601aafdd9475a4b394be7 1. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
7fb8d093fcbc34fe707a44baa3a7f0e0455df5b3 Лет The Chronicle of Axel Vartanyan.
91bcccdb6e43163c1a1fc2ea602fa93a495d2169 The year is 1936.
6e6b009ca88b250af8792cb5b0f6c2eff956a3e5 Part three.
3bf90aff38a2895aa225a8da426e04f42566b172 All for the first time.
5eef8a7cb27cda415216e373bb9f39944843d41a All for the first time (ending).
e7a439a9e5bc2156c1d777e42bafdc6c84a62efe 9 ↑ "The first All Union", p.
84766d4541ba67cef6a638ec5eaa830a13dd325e ↑ "The First All Union", p.
7dd3f7b714d6dea500ad87178cf5ecf48253d605 5. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
e378cec5f6d380c30f25c8f0a5ea43fbb7b0b1a5 ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Nikolaev V.
b3033e9985ad4c28d52cb9e542624ce8f8a16991 A. Ya from the CDKA!
77869492377a1b46ff00c5ff36fd014dd20bac8b — ISBN 5-86502-031-5.
3b741d569892d57417bd6f6f9bcc177c867951ed ↑ "War", p.
bb268c76dfdb1418d0b0bae7cc7cc45195f2aa0a ↑ The Great confrontation against the background of the Great War, "Sport Express, 07.05.2011" ↑ "The Golden Age", p.
11f85440ad2f66bc9c32627acddacc6b61490e6a ↑ 1 2 "The Golden Age", p.
874589014d3632eee2d49b0277d89a7937b7ea05 ↑ "The Golden Age", p.
8d2d1413eda430f99d37cd6d6501c72f603b456e ↑ "Rout", p.
681098de38a3bdedcf9835ed87450373493ffe06 20 ↑ " Vozrozhdeni e", p.
c510473ea040fa9edb89c19996b8034d490523d8 21 ↑ "Rebirth", p.
e3af3d0974fdd254f945a941764f7b43e11cb855 7. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
30efcc796a3e06bd794d3b5be108669b460dd8d6 Возрожд "Rebirth", p.
f2ad799ee01984a81ac2a4a02a23faca222de559 8. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
653df4259558b2d8644fc07a1a4cfa0f48134998 ↑ Statistics of PFC CSKA Moscow(link unavailable) ↑ "Vozrozhdenie", p.
370240ca91f70673dcf5539a0bd490293320e696 ↑ 1 2 3 Magazine "Great Clubs".
d1442fbc9ee9153a9ed2c7131290d08e638eabe3 22 ↑ "Rebirth", p.
f3e349d16bb72956717ab58637708510bab18bd7 ↑ "Beskov", p.
50d5099535d7cb3419a4438bb55b7938079651bd 24 ↑ "Beskov", p.
e764340fa53c4ab94c2eacccf0645cabd0c72a09 Лейтен ""Lieutenants" and generals", p.
673f71c8f8f565d3cdbb7def2057e9c52a07310b 9. Pfc cska.com. Checked on December 9, 2011.
8d44bf242085fcd5ed7ffc36243cbaedac3a5883 ↑ The first group "A" of the USSR in 1968(unavailable link) ↑ ""Lieutenants" and generals", p.
c335add31e911ffd04dafc939aa688a2fa3a0a52 26-27 ↑ "Gold of Tashkent", p.
eaa7124f32e713ffa052454a1cd2adadc61eaff6 ↑ "Gold of Tashkent", p.
7b7ae6b80c55c34f3cf340738cfd73c105d9cd9f ↑ USSR Championship 1970.
41d590310450a6de654594cf9f1dc9d4ca426eaa Cska games.ru. Checked on December 9, 2011.
46e3af0e2d340879690772052975261d8df94707 ↑ "Years of fruitless efforts", p.
041e9be65dc7812534fa176cb0c9e27fd50d0ef2 29 ↑ "Years of fruitless efforts", p.
4eb64589e26c4e1db1a5a3fc27e65974f15ac8b9 ↑ 1 2 "Years of fruitless efforts", p.
8c229200c156d379c03f54ed686ae714b372d193 Archived from the original source
a2199c986c54a8952df4cf4d2254ae6af9e21cf1 Remember it?
f3742cb202f4cc109dc27b7e40f01820fba99fda registration | forgot your password
755e1ba2eef078eb97efca6169940aeae9effefd Home About The Club
db7e734ee48dd93780fe19454f817c94c934737f Club History Achievements Dynamo Stadium CSKA logo Records Club colors Webcam
f5fbba25e71746ac21267b1eea018930cd040512 Team composition Biographies of players Fans ETERNAL MEMORY of cups Help to the CSKA website Statistics Calendar of games CSKA Competition Wallpapers / Videos Polls Charges Fan songs Videos CSKA Hall of Fame CSKA paraphernalia Store Guest Book Forum We vkontakte Partners Contacts
0fb9eec5c9d3d7b0d118dd8cec8fbe8707ba6a31 Our media resources are online.
bf39fa778a08fc7b0062f623c9f9f4935a8dad6e Add them to your bookmarks
052986447f688a937ba2653d191c92812b3464bc Club History
6d07fbce375d9b3ddbcc63428ed72ec44dd48c98 Share |
e0d164572af95baccb514986aad0f856a4117a4e History of the CSKA club For most fans of army sports, the concept of CSKA is primarily associated with hockey and football teams.
12cd0b87e4645f3b18820b2cb182a4dca2d3b654 For the long way of the formation of domestic football, the team of the Central Sports Club of the Army:
28e5fe8ab9d6f78e7b007c95a8f4b14308aadef2 she won the title of champion of the USSR 7 times- 1946 - 1948, 1950, 1951, 1970, 1991 G. G. became a silver medalist of the USSR championship 4 times 1938, 1945, 1949, 1990.
1cf953d6656547b8947f50aa1780ca787913dcea 6 times a bronze medalist of the USSR championship - 1939, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1964, 1965 G. G. 1 time silver medalist of the Russian Championship 1998 5 times winner of the USSR Cup- 1945, 1948, 1951, 1955, 1991 G. G. 3 times finalist of the USSR Cup -1944, 1967, 1992 2 times finalist of the Russian Cup -1993, 1994
36ebcb2c75c2b683884c5e0457d1fe6514bd880a The best football players of the year were the army men Albert Shesternev (1970), Vladimir Astapovsky (1976), Igor Korneev (1991).
c97927fef9180e5f104f44e8737975ae47efd959 The year of birth of the current CSKA team is considered to be April 29, 1923, when the army team of the OPPV (Vsevobuch Experimental Demonstration Site, and a little later, the Voenveda Experimental Demonstration Site) was formed on the basis of the OLS (Society of Ski Lovers).
a8cb712f42b77214e5b880d4eeefb5de657ebcc8 Formally, on a territorial basis, the pedigree of the club could be traced back to 1911, when the OLS organized a football team.
8f7a4a4015d4aeb372c3730c3ce45080e1172947 In 1912, a football field was built on the 4th Ray glade of Sokolnicheskaya Grove, and later a stadium was built, which was first called OLS , then OPPV and, finally, CDKA.
9f22d7545bdf09a67fb8baf259d52a0003675ebf From 1911 to 1917, the OLS team competed in the Moscow championship in group "B", usually taking second and third places.
82d840dd142ca3e0b5d5b82b7b2536186e00662d In 1918, the club won the right to play in group "A".
4fcdc2dfb14033622607af1a549ca52827686ca6 In 1921, in the autumn championship of Moscow (for the Fulda Cup), the OPPV team took second place: She scored the same number of points with the team of the Sokolniki football club (KFS), but lost in the extra match for the first place - 0: 6.
2abd915f375c6ef2c8082f4ab0dbcbbada094a2b The biggest success for the OLS team came in 1922.
3ddba077524d4bdd0fbf5311725e0946279e193a She became the winner of the spring championship of Moscow, winning the so called "Kolomyaga" Cup, which gave her the right to compete for the traditional "Cup of Capitals" with the champion of Petrograd "Sport".
6b1f96bcd87bd52f790f252e9557e67c37e130be The meeting took place on June 25, 1922 in Moscow at the ZKL stadium and ended with a 1-0 victory for the OLS.
dfcb5700edb5e78d4b8c5b6a889d0ead7f09c878 For the first time, Moscow football players became the winners of the honorary prize.
7b903d306a2d0b2a928d5a5953f39a16869b1c9b The names of 11 players of the OLS team who won the title of the best club team of the country at that time have been preserved: F. Shimkunas, M. Isaev, K. Schmidt, P. Lebedev, V. Ratov, S. Dmitriev, S. Chesnokov, P. Savostyanov, M. Ratov, K. Tulipov, K. Zhiboyedov.
69c792813bbacf3cfa4a40238e4e2ab633ec3da2 The only goal was scored by S. Chesnokov.
e083a2825b993aab1dba46cf0e6207af2b1a4784 As part of the OLS team, the midfielder V.Ratov, who was a member of the national teams of Moscow, the RSFSR (was their captain) and the USSR.
964543b088e08234c02601efb23a881f91abde8e The same honor was awarded to the left extreme K. Zhiboyedov, later an honored master of sports, one of the founders of army football, a versatile athlete, the champion of Russia in boxing in 1916.
1e0986bb292badf5663cc459abe8b3a5c45e14da In 1922, K. Zhiboyedov, as part of the Moscow national team, became the winner of the first football championship of the RSFSR, then P. Savostyanov, a well known player and judge, took his first steps in football.
4b915f7f50fb42babf506c84ddb7d3903ef16b92 After the formation of the OPPV, many OLS football players continued to play in the army team.
46cc053bc4457b1cc7741490013bc87e5b8a7052 The first official match of the OPPV team was held on June 17, 1923 in the spring championship of Moscow with the Ruskabel team and lost with a score of 1: 3.
37faf5ba3093aad6319c670d1d2b653da03bbe7e F. Shimkunas, M. Isaev, M. Grigoriev, I. Smirnov, V. Ratov, B. Berdyaev, B. Dubinin, P. Savostyanov, M. Ratov, K. Tulipov, K. Zhiboyedov played for the Army team (K. Zhiboyedov scored the goal).
68031814ef20b5546d63ceeded63e466c5ed35fc A few days later (June 26, 1923) at the OPPV stadium, the OPPV team met in a friendly match with Dynamo during a big holiday dedicated to the official opening of the Dynamo sports society.
0318dd8e5b0c9facad702d5c5553c7079a84eac7 The meeting ended in a draw 2:2.
4e520725c3f0121b0689df5cc2b86bf28e1e3259 And the OPPV football players won their first victory in the autumn championship of Moscow on August 12, 1923 in a match with Gosbank 3:1.
64a1c641d5d332691d51538968a048e76f2b7034 In the autumn of 1924, the OPPV club became the champion of Moscow in the competition for five teams.
228c5063460bbe3719682721a9c87f0f299426a1 The 1925 championship was not completed, and the army team retained the title of the strongest team, and the following year the OPPV was awarded the championship of the capital in the category of first teams.
f8a9e109e1fffac3324cd45f4cb37372e1149c9c In the mid twenties, the OPPV stadium in Sokolniki was considered the best in the capital, the national teams of the USSR, the RSFSR, Moscow played there, international matches were held.
0f07f2910d663e91e13a5da881e1567c248c7241 The constant participants of all the performances of these national teams were the players of the OPPV V.Ratov, Kzhiboyedov,".
28e82ee4fd22d1d788b035fb2bee9e0eb87d5be2 Tulipov, P. Pakhomov, B Dubinin, P. Pchelikov (one of the best extreme defenders, a player of the USSR national team), P. Savostyanov, E. Nikishin
3c2dbfd15bcda0e5c0153817cdfb3c421b121912 (one of the strongest midfielders of the late twenties and early thirties, a master of ball selection, a player of the USSR national team, an honored master of sports, a captain of the CDKA in the first national championships, who coached it in the post war years), P. Khalkiopov (a defender, later an honored master of sports, who worked as a coach and head of the team of masters of the CDKA in 1935-1938).
ad385fdf65bfb64d3d6bd613d11f7bfb53bb4924 In 1928, the OPPV team was renamed the CDKA team (the Central House of the Red Army).
c64978f098970da7afc68dc0522f0f87677c8568 Such football players as US are starting to perform in it.
50e15bd71217c424af93d0bf8d7b8a1cad65ddb9 Ilyin and M. Semichastny, who became famous at Dynamo Moscow, becoming honored masters of sports there.
37ed761a548656698f88a693061f62ed7c0f0493 In the championship of 1930, the army club shared the first place with Dynamo, giving them the title of champion on additional points of the Regulations on the championships, and in the spring of 1933, the army team played in the final with the first teams again with Dynamo and played 0:0.
6c0f27b30f88b8470f1cdfe677bbf7050c194ede In the final match, the goalkeeper of the CDKA played brilliantly.
fdb90a368229be35e5f0498dc026dde9b99c5c04 Ryzhov, who was attracted to the Moscow national team.
bb4fbfd97b7da5af48f1b0a3b1eae292f73277ea The successful year for the CDKA was 1935.
7637626972ae9fbd17bb5936a7649cbf41ae1f2f In the spring championship of Moscow, the army took the third place, and in the autumn - they became champions (in the absence of the strongest clubs then "Dynamo" and "Spartak").
ceaef9de1d249fd473bf58605180eb7e1719f8be They scored 9 points (4 wins, 1 draw), with a goal ratio of 13:6.
4cc02c79b3151fcdc025a6cdbfbe467af932be98 In the composition of the CDKA played: S. Leonov, K. Lyaskovsky, V. Savanov, A. Kuznetsov, E. Nikishin, P. Zenkin, K. Malinin, M. Semichastny, K. Ryazantsev, A. Shchavelev, A. Chulkov, B. Bochkov, V. Lesin.
ac2957dda64f40c3fdc47365f10f22066a996df6 As champions, they got the right to a friendly match with the USSR national team, which was preparing for a trip to Turkey.
78b24f1098687aef01dfd8edeb6ea42d7bfc2e58 The Army team lost with a score of 1:3.
19d91633ee80472b1fae623993dcd9c23235771f In the title of champion of Moscow, the CDKA team entered the competition for the national championship in the spring of 1936.
3382cce58d80263ea8698ac83ec56e855637fa14 The sports victories of CSKA are the result of the painstaking work of a large team of coaches, and the successes of many years are inextricably linked with the name of the talented teacher mentor Boris Arkadiev.
cd752f525dcb35f0a98fe4fd43f113f3cff2e5c7 In his "Team of Lieutenants" G. Fedotov, V. Bobrov, I. Kochetkov, V. Demin, V. Nikolaev, A. Grinin shone.
8d0a7197cd4f3177e0016d29525320cffeffdcaf Today, hundreds of young athletes are studying the game on the football fields of CSKA.
be2dd7314f44559d583f1a308edf8bf91a5dbdfd According to tradition, it is left to the best pupils of the CSKA Youth Sports school to defend the honor of the famous club, as well as legionnaires who have repeatedly proved with their game that they have the right to be worthy players of the CSKA professional team
3f3f2e15bdc42728b7960e32509bd3e35fd05f39 online news
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9a740d4a6fd4d3e25edfde798c18c716de215398 The championship.roo
1800d03b1b34a8d8281f608a5b1e75808bcebcd7 Amelchenko: I donot think Guilherme is doing citizenship for the national team Chugainov: Slutsky has a huge advantage over former football players Shirokov: the atmosphere in the national team has become more relaxed under Slutsky Slutsky: the invitation to the national team shows that my work is highly appreciated D. Kombarov: the Russian national team has every chance to overcome the group stage of Euro 2016 Diego Carlos: I will be happy to help the Russian national team Radchenko: I dreamed of playing at the World Cup, scoring a goal.
b4d147520ce0b6a75ed997c59d981aa840bea45c This dream has come true The field of the stadium in Toulouse, where Russia will play with Wales, will undergo light therapy Photo Moments: 15 most famous football hugs V. Gabulov: I dream of going to the European Championship
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9ebb5ea9bb56abce4d7f4b53ab3136cf8727581a Alexander Fridman was born on June 16, 1888 in St. Petersburg in the family of Alexander Fridman, an artist of the corps de ballet of the Imperial St. Petersburg Theaters, and Lyudmila Volchek, a pianist, a graduate of the Conservatory.
ad1e446eced2d0fd70a494ee415324cf613a11e0 Since childhood, the boy showed extraordinary abilities for the exact sciences.
cfd27be1bd767d1abdf545626733b766d42e0911 Alexander was still a high school student when his mathematical talent attracted the attention of academician A. Markov, who advised the prodigy to enter physics, which, however, he himself was going to do.
8bde57afb6c4a91e42de240fa55a89193c6c1b88 In 1906, Alexander graduated from the Second St. Petersburg Gymnasium with a gold medal and became a student of the mathematical department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of St. Petersburg University.
3247c6f44508bc71ffbe53464a0c0991d5c2acde In 1910, A. Friedman and his friend Ya. Tamarkin, on the recommendation of Professor Steklov, were left after graduation to prepare for a professorship.
188daf4bae7cbf61ef33a21392a1e6fdf1c2c83a The teacher wrote in his petition: "In terms of their abilities and hard work, both of these persons are equivalent and already at the present time they give the impression of young scientists, and not students who have just graduated from the university."
a33d22bbbb5970af8ba887472c476e1c65bdfbcf After passing his master's exams in 1913, Friedman joined the main physical observatory, which was part of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
273e5a5445dfd903f239b5b58d4419c8603abfc9 Alexander Alexandrovich then specialized in aerohydrodynamics, and such a "distribution" turned out to be very useful.
35d8a8689c2f885e9bb4817ec65b754b28657fc6 He was engaged in dynamic meteorology with inspiration, trying to describe in mathematical language those chaotic processes that occur in the atmosphere. He described the weather with partial differential equations.
9bc4c0b4027050c03c080dfd2026ec410b7217ec Then there was an internship at the University of Leipzig.
37a7b5372c9bf10a93ccfcdd5c21693cd4e25baf When the First World War began, Alexander Alexandrovich joined the volunteer aviation detachment.
4c7f37e8f3a950a7a63a898a4db97f3e3b2a0dd8 He was engaged in the organization of aerological observations and the creation of a special aerological service on the Northern and Southwestern fronts, personally participated in reconnaissance operations, having learned to control an airplane.
151e4b0f28caac5a1d55c3478c7aea0d4e85a7ce A little later, Friedman was invited to teach at the school of aviators in Kiev.
043a06c3f00e51bab8fce72b4f9fc5fcd980f813 Since 1917, he lectured at the Kiev University, then moved to Moscow and from there to Petrograd.
e09f0c33e73259914b8c7f1514e2960e8cd1ec81 The war undermined the scientist's health. He was diagnosed with a heart disease. The doctors did not recommend the humid Petrograd climate to the patient.
aa5ef139dceaefca009a96780ce2141aaf0e6c68 And in November 1917, he applied for participation in a competition for the position of professor of the Department of Mechanics of Perm University.
2c1e0e1fa6e309449421581fc83a9f86cc9b85ae The University asked V. Steklov to give a review of the scientific work of the second of the applicants.
331fbecef4d86e92388c1f53573c305c76e540f8 On April 13, 1918, Alexander Alexandrovich was elected to the post of extraordinary professor of the Department of Mechanics of Perm University.
cffd97016a1b99d42825bea68e87ae364708a6bd Due to the lack of teachers, the thirty-year-old professor had to take on courses in differential geometry and physics.
e033e8f50189dbe3df304f836d97cf01e815900e A deep study of these disciplines soon helped Friedman to get closer to the discovery of his life — the theory of the expansion of the Universe.
fad988468fc84dd944e2b12ead0d1c69dc80ac0d In May 1920, Alexander Alexandrovich took an academic leave and went to Petrograd.
b4e58fcbeae51650697d9e091f677f1051f56457 In December, he finally resigned from his duties as a professor of mechanics at Perm University.
4425fd66dbf351fdbde6feb08afd5c156c9bc244 Peter attracted the scientist like a magnet, despite the prohibitions of doctors.
880ecc8071fac924592bc39908416138a2e40113 In Petrograd, fate brought Friedman together with Vsevolod Konstantinovich Friederiks.
ee45a546892c9472756b347d2c559e2838ecb091 This Russian physicist was caught by the First World War in an enemy power-in Germany, and only the intercession of the outstanding mathematician David Hilbert saved him from a sad fate.
45b70775380a0cf794178c1a6337a735d4920539 Friederiks was Hilbert's assistant at the University of Göttingen at the time when Einstein was constantly visiting there to discuss with Hilbert the main provisions of the general theory of relativity (GR) that he was creating.
8961efe6f2f2fac27d59ef13f2848c8cefe1ed70 Hilbert was one of the first to highly appreciate Einstein's theory of gravity, and Friederiks was present at this.
9363b2264f0e607704b88e41d5b67c9bce57a060 The original Einstein solution to the cosmological problem likened the universe to a pendulum at rest.
f5ad674300d9e39cbdf3c0d4809589986f2ff137 With the help of GRT, the great physicist calculated the voltage in the "suspension rod".
f51fd8def8a8498f93ce8d2e60f162c2159d0daa Friedman also discovered that a suspended load does not necessarily have to be at rest, and using the equations of Einstein's theory, he calculated exactly what the movement should be.
cf27956b172d9c0ca6f31e72d5b01055b56c8925 In other words, having formulated and studied the cosmological problem in a more general case, Alexander Alexandrovich found that within the framework of Einstein's theory, it is essentially insoluble, more precisely, in the conceptual framework of the latter, it is possible to obtain a set of physically equal models of solutions, which does not allow making an unambiguous theoretical choice.
d9dd5a18f8a7655ed0c23766c0b98634fa74ad8a Astronomers, however, did not pay attention to Friedman's theory until Edwin Hubble experimentally discovered the phenomenon of the expansion of the Universe and deduced the "speed—distance"relationship.
8919b2e92b6e689ab83ea8dcf782b35383679af6 This happened seven years after the publication of the work of a Russian scientist, which indicated the presence of such a dependence.
7a83aed84eea87e99cc27b1b9baac8fecb415c9b Friedman himself was no longer alive by that time.
af7baf73721e0f8787cb4d25dd997aad1fca0dda He died in 1925 at the age of 37 from typhoid fever.
404f567079c664865dad670acaa021a8ff502ec2 Friedman was a mathematician who flashed like a bright star in the physical sky.
8f1c8b8283eb886e4c3083cef33e149eb8bd9467 The equations he derived turned the density of matter to infinity, the radius of the universe to zero, and our world to one, the very first point.
3309db54ad1dc7788999fff289931461526c093a He was born on April 25, 1903 in Tambov, where his mother, Maria Yakovlevna Kolmogorova, was delayed on the way from the Crimea.
189a4be070af435b684eb62d902f9c1e92a38403 She died in childbirth, and all the care of the baby was taken over by her own sister Vera Yakovlevna. She replaced Andrey's mother, and he treated her as a mother until her death.
d7e01c526f8f002242a5094eb5212472633296bd Andrey entered the private gymnasium Repman, which after the revolution was transformed into the twenty-third school of the second stage. He graduated in 1920.
f58a88ad893f7d13451d49d8c6e4a95e754800b6 Student Kolmogorov teaches his favorite subject at school, which provides him with a livelihood.
7e037eef37811f6d8c446576b0c34269f344f80e At the same time, he conducts his first research under the guidance of the famous mathematician N. Luzin.
6cd5f2173ea87d804a3b2aa73eb84cbcb8254d00 At the beginning of 1922, Kolmogorov completed his work on set theory, and in the spring of the same year he built a Fourier series.
af2c2e3cac35226513c3e787b038fc097e3fef36 In 1925, Andrey Nikolaevich graduated from the university and became a graduate student of Luzin.
779f94b0c7f106ccb7a23c393a4fa7b4ad7fab60 In the same year, he began his famous research in the field of probability theory.
9c5c13e78a43a2e7b62c4a46fdda9590fe55c11f Andrey Nikolaevich graduated from graduate school in 1929 and became a researcher at the Research Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics of Moscow State University. At the same time, he heads the Department of Mathematics at the Liebknecht Pedagogical Institute.
f876cc04370c5ee323d779322d0b12e8d4945086 A number of the highest creative achievements of the great mathematician belong to the 20s.
ccd07399b4da0fe404466e5647f10917f8d087b1 He creates a general theory of operations on sets, studies trigonometric series, writes several works on mathematical logic, turns probability theory into a strict and systematic mathematical discipline.
3723745c6c7383ac02fe29b869b11c976c14af41 In 1930, Kolmogorov "falls" on a long road — a business trip to Germany and France.
942df9268e85eb717a7e9730444ca9a1a23459cc In Göttingen — the mathematical Mecca of the turn of the century-he meets with many outstanding colleagues, and above all-with Hilbert and Courant.
6b15c05224dce61e747a44ed6ec808cc77c40512 Returning to Moscow, Andrey Kolmogorov becomes a professor at Moscow State University.
ee4f68e4b60698db8e21521a6ace4b87aec67841 In 1931, his fundamental article "On analytical methods in probability theory" was published, and two years later — the main work of his life, the monograph "Basic concepts of probability theory".
91b665faa4c514acef639d55cb4d39f3bd532e3b This was followed by work on random processes, turbulence, and algebraic topology. The scientist introduced one of the central concepts into topology — cohomology.
222f09e65d00ae4b6404a3b3f46c8fc8bf00e7eb It is particularly worth noting that in 1935 he founded the Department of Probability Theory at the Moscow State University Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics.
6c1739bd2ead407fa578f9055c63126fae165a40 At the end of the thirties, new directions appeared in the field of his scientific interests: problems of turbulence.
8a4bf2bea678cdc3fae0c3e06b3263cd50b8fc23 He organizes the laboratory of atmospheric turbulence at the Institute of Theoretical Geophysics of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
70131b52adbc8787e19fbdb191ba7f025c02c22e Kolmogorov for many years headed the mathematical department of the Large and Small Soviet Encyclopedias.
48e4b227f782364baee76377488506cdb88b59b8 Many biographical articles were published from his pen. Andrey Nikolaevich was surprisingly able to say the most important thing about his colleague.
ab3bfed28d5b0a62354ba42981baad0d0aef30bd He applied a similar approach to solving mathematical problems: the more general the idea is, the simpler it should be.
090e1e54c0c06a1a411dea8fab24c3114b6380a9 Academician Kolmogorov embodied the rarest combination of a mathematician and a natural scientist, a theorist and a practitioner.
921af1379b2cab4ff7c3c003124ac4d824f6732b The remarkable mathematician Mstislav Keldysh was born on February 10, 1911.
4be52855c960b907e394b9a0c3759fc7b28c5cac In 1931, Mstislav Vsevolodovich brilliantly graduated from the Physics and mathematics department of Moscow State University and "distributed" to the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI).
d6d50237bad21d241f83f9be593de2e9ac3c34ef Here he immediately proved to be a very promising specialist.
ade52f492c74640a7ad9aae5d567f55611d9fde2 Solving purely practical problems facing aviation, Keldysh already in his first works outlined completely new approaches in the application of mathematical methods for aerodynamics.
dbc113ad39ed0fab4e6659a8cdece5162a9a87ef In the thirties, the aircraft industry of all advanced countries faced the phenomenon of flutter.
e8cfc1345f3016f735b5a0456d010c0c897a32e6 It suddenly appeared when the speed of the aircraft increased and led to its destruction in the air.
5baca665106a0c29211ad979620a3673a7e51db2 Based on complex mathematical calculations, Keldysh formulated practical tips for designers, following which it was possible to avoid flutter.
f267fd0d30ed849f01a1dc0e4af92cacd29f8ae3 Higher aircraft speeds required a longer runway length, which, in turn, led to the need for a three-support (instead of a two-support, as in the first-generation aircraft) landing gear system that resembled a tricycle for children.
669171059d9e78eb4400fc0bf2bf80468aedd33d However, when a certain take-off speed was reached, the tricycle landing gear system suddenly broke at the front rack.
e36a4c85d38561e8965c3a67fbd4a838605b4113 There were self-oscillations in it, which led to destruction.
bdc9e55c77e898d0bb96eb7c7dcede34ded2eb83 In 1945, Keldysh in the work "Shimmy" of the front wheel of a three-wheeled chassis " not only completely solved this problem theoretically, but also formulated practical engineering recommendations.
f0f22fcfd5b916af2af33dd54d6034213bb51e75 In 1938, Mstislav Keldysh defended his doctoral dissertation at the Steklov Mathematical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences on the topic "On the representation of functions of complex variables and harmonic functions by series of polynomials".
8ba85e0e5d5db0725f57c082e0708e1362219b23 This study was recognized as a landmark in the development of mathematics.
4c0623606bac1bc604dde682706f4fce3d25fe17 Colleagues emphasized Keldysh's ability to formulate very complex tasks in a simple and understandable way.
117ea683dc555a08e1f9d2fe33158fafd5bf1a4d Keldysh was able to return to fundamental research only towards the end of the war.
b330772a3d1eabc4beca2700ca0fd1c7b8e0d474 In April 1944, the Department of Mechanics was created at the Mathematical Institute, which Keldysh began to head concurrently.
2fb9b0014c8f90dbc054d6d8718d4d3d77ef6758 The beginning of the cold war set new tasks for the country and its scientists — in particular, to create atomic weapons and their means of delivery.
8d5e8ac48ceaf56824793ace0d74293da5a7fa5e He created and headed the calculation bureau, which, together with the mechanics department of the Mathematical Institute, later joined the Department of Applied Mathematics.
428e8b7117f6384e808eb30a32c3aa0789a9d98e At the same time, in 1946, Keldysh was appointed head of the Jet Research Institute.
a85c256ee87adff624072c3c37ecbc29a0eab89d In 1954, a letter was sent to the Government of the USSR on the creation of an artificial Earth satellite signed by then almost unknown, classified, and now famous scientists M. Keldysh, S. Korolev and M. Tikhonravov.
c9a684bfdd35078f495a2d160c36762309d16727 The brainchild of this program was a miniature satellite created in record time.
34c5d0d1e6d30cae9e607a69ecfb5623a3d0804d In parallel with space problems, Keldysh actively participated in epochal developments of atomic topics.
639d1039a4a61b559bd5d4037dd8ad40bbac792b Back in 1946, he began to cooperate with a group of Soviet nuclear physicists.
79c6bc1b96a843c977514b792619d1f63a8c496e In parallel with the physical experiments, the construction of physical and mathematical models and their subsequent reproduction in calculations were carried out.
784b27de44932d0e48b6fcc1ff31ebbb4a456c1c The amount of calculations required by the atomic problem was so enormous that the computing tools that existed in the middle of the century could not cope with them.
a3c8127156f149f63a205dbab59520ce27231e1b He organized the creation and production of electronic computers, and the scientific departments led by him were the first major customers and consumers of this technology.
974cf2563175c5ae5f18472426a02f76c7691e0b Mstislav Vsevolodovich personally developed new computational methods and algorithms, primarily numerical methods for solving problems of mathematical physics.
079ffc85730da6e1e202593db226f7a633a4b464 Academician Keldysh was not only a brilliant mathematician, but also a talented organizer.
82219890e4f2e80faaf1ce2a300c0c9fff589a6b No matter what team he led-small or huge-this team certainly achieved outstanding results.
003a9a7fb2f9b8dced9367a9bebbae0598b19566 It was under President Keldysh that the Academy of Sciences flourished.
3ea43baa957cdc5109ea5d868c9abcd4dd4bd06b Such important disciplines as genetics and cybernetics were rehabilitated, the foundations were laid for the development of new directions — quantum electronics, molecular biology and many other disciplines, "people's academicians"left the scientific process, in particular, biology.
36b060eb7a8b824612cabafca01b8d1eb827d710 In 1975, Academician Keldysh left the post of president of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
87419a31a7b76cf8c4f4b8858d940519e9987a95 He acted like a real Russian intellectual: he found it impossible to remain in such a responsible post, since a serious illness entered his life.
f6692b66f48f82b167f9fb482e268443d6a5d7f5 Mstislav Vsevolodovich died on June 24, 1978.
6f9bf9239a59b35753a4c42d9921af304d33a8e4 One of the stars was lit in honor of the conquest of the atom, the second — in commemoration of cosmic victories, and the third crowned the glory of the Academy of Sciences, carefully nurtured by its talented president.
86b4a66d0f1e9db08c69d4762a5940dc76327f76 This scientist, who has made a revolution in geometry, belongs to a small group of geniuses who show outstanding abilities in only one, very narrow field.
a90f3f8d8b7ae3197d0ae3c9bc37b3d0618c120b Benoit was born in 1924 in Warsaw.
0f03d8e4d156e42ec4618a1628131ba214170a28 He comes from a family of Lithuanian Jews.
f6d2e95bfc78843702ee2dc5193f72109eb7343e Benoit went to school, but soon lost interest in studying.
daecb1f78c7080088cf145763371e142d3c86891 As a result, by the age of sixteen, he didn't even really know the alphabet, and he only learned the multiplication table until he was five.
aa13ad3dba60f363b7a25b954689554a901cfa4f But the young Mandelbrot discovered an unusual mathematical gift, which allowed him to become a student of the Sorbonne immediately after the war.
33ddb1507d56dc5bdccb8ea48fc02748a65cd5a0 He solved all the problems not according to the usual algorithms of mathematical analysis, but with the help of the sharpest geometric intuition.
be75655eb013b645380d2b02a33d4abd52aad669 At the entrance exam, at first he could not solve algebraic tasks, but suddenly a connection between algebra and geometric images presented in his imagination was established in his mind.
6b24529547cee9dcff97d14dac31cd4e86694a52 After graduating from university, Mandelbrot first became a "pure mathematician".
874eb492343e1fcb52df3f1977b4bd349abae518 Soon he received his doctorate and tried to get as far away from official academic science as possible — in his own way, only visible to him.
ae8e92cd95669ed402b8b45933c3b896baa193c4 In 1958, he began working at the IBM Research Center in Yorktown.
25d107f5857f6e5006959de38ffd6d6edbf3da99 He chose the place of service at the call of his heart: IBM was engaged in those areas of mathematics that were interesting to Mandelbrot.
7465057708b7cf3496ac74bf76a0ae6eaa9603d3 His colleagues were amazed by his developments in the fields of linguistics, game theory, aeronautics, economics, physiology, geography, astronomy and physics.
6aff4468aa1eea116c37238886568e80c4854c90 He became the first mathematician who (not without the help of IBM) gained access to high computer technologies.
0737e086e3890763b21e072d9fc0d545992627ae And this helped Mandelbrot mathematically master the spaces of new and new fields of knowledge.
54265ddcaf13c283284250e8d80cd0b4756561d4 The scientist admitted: "Sometimes I am seized by a sudden impulse, and I give up research in the middle to plunge again into a new field that has suddenly become interesting for me, and in which I know nothing. I followed my instincts..."
e26d8a574fd4a677796bc534ff91c7defb0e5b39 But his unconventional mind found work for himself in a wide variety of fields.
9bb18b212ade38320866df5301e5f1a4735ee77a Studying economics, Mandelbrot, for example, discovers that seemingly arbitrary price fluctuations can follow a hidden mathematical order in time, which is not described by standard curves usually depicted by statisticians.
5da4169ae18e6de66961e036894b60fc7f02b719 Thanks to Mandelbrot, it became clear what a four-dimensional space looks like, figuratively speaking, the fractal face of Chaos.
f0254e63e81e1ad73c4b2a2faf0db554d63f0d3b Benoit Mandelbrot discovered that the fourth dimension includes not only the first three dimensions, but also (this is very important!) the intervals between them.
aadabe1231a61a006be9aa1c03146c24bf9cef13 Recursive (or fractal) geometry is replacing Euclidean geometry.
f287d64d4cbb41462751fd393eded9fadcf3d5d7 The new science is able to describe the true nature of bodies and phenomena.
510ed0b0fca8c61660fd828a5bada921e686eaec Euclidean geometry dealt only with artificial, imaginary objects belonging to three dimensions.
cb1557ede31717b5c3c7205a3386a4eed39adf99 Only the fourth dimension can turn them into reality.
c51bf19f5cbd1d9ebb004ca90dca8432d71571bf Generalizing, we can say that all objects with a fuzzy, chaotic, disordered structure (and there are an overwhelming majority of such in nature) turned out to consist of fractals.
f0dd5e30b391c42f21f82ea539f57de0cca4873a The connection between chaos and fractals is far from accidental — it expresses their deep essence.
851fc8aeb3ce41ac9bfe25c9e25500e82bcb93c7 The fractal geometry of Mandelbrot can be called the geometry of chaos.
0b474bca00819412dcc87de13df9655e90ff8505 It is the theory of chaos that is used to study real processes.
f301cfd0e5dfb7b286a4f7f56cd8e1a2ec72f3c7 The scientist who was destined to carry out a revolution in the exact science of mathematics was born in 1906 in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was close to its collapse.
6fe5fa964e09c8e10f269d0d90eac7aa8451016b In 1928, Kurt Godel graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the University of Vienna.
df98a95359339073509796ce309d3bed79db7cb2 In 1940, he went to the United States, to the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study.
30d59cc7b44d59d813577d9a2a2c102329caefe6 And in the interval between these dates —in 1931-he discovered something that made him famous.
ba997ad585a5024291a63c495d2a26fae78d566c His contribution to the very foundations of mathematics is considered revolutionary, pushing the boundaries of this discipline and having a significant impact on the general worldview and culture of the XX century.
6141a8fabb0aeed2b7409918856bbf87bd481842 Thus, all possible theorems would be issued by a machine, which would make the work of mathematics in general meaningless, reducing it to the role of an operator of a computing center.
38176c73b0b3f639bc0074cde5cc539d7144ad7f In 1932, Godel's theorem (or the so-called incompleteness theorem) appeared.
88ad219f0ddd204389a8920139e9c2abcd4b39d1 "Completeness" is an indication that any real theorem can be derived from axioms.
ef250e06729a12ab9f7020dca3cc2b6496b1bc48 So, it follows from Godel's theorem that there is no complete formal theory where all the true theorems of arithmetic are provable.
18c60259c629f625230a8d8ee24dcf494f675fca Godel's work had the effect of an exploding bomb. She forced von Neumann to interrupt the course of lectures in Göttingen, and Hilbert to stop working on his program, which seemed to him so promising.
0271654bc04b8999ca0f17ad13f53fe3eb64f4ac According to Godel, the consistency and completeness of any logical system cannot be proved with the help of auxiliary means of this system itself.
e5a09181fcbc2d26fc1baf59c7c5468aea9e46ed The result obtained by Godel goes beyond the narrow framework of arithmetic, also influencing cybernetics.
c9d010625261d27ab1bef5782c843a896ddc52cc Some time after Godel's discovery, the mathematician Turing noticed that all computing machines can be replaced with just one simple and even very slow calculator, since, if you do not limit the memory used, such a calculator perceives programs of arbitrary length and complexity.
6beb20521c900e02ebaee26dbb0f44ac6f43f6f9 Functions calculated by a " Turing machine "are by definition" computable", so instructions for calculating them can be passed to different machines without fear that errors or ambiguities will arise.
7c4b96530854bd3514800f50cea8e8e6f5322884 The Turing result confirmed what machine users already felt intuitively: namely, that there is no way to determine with certainty how a program works, except to test it in practice.
f07d86bb39cc4fb8b67cea57ad440e250e956a9d Is there always an unknown function that cannot be calculated?
2699cca75bc085f32258c67afb897ec1a9c37a8f Godel's answer was simple: even if the first hundred or a thousand values of this function are calculated, we still do not know anything about how to calculate the subsequent value, so it takes human intelligence and creative efforts to get out of the rigid programming framework for a computer.
b26b99ad821b451365775fec1abcc810235134ec Again and again, a person is convinced that a computer is surprisingly diligent and at the same time just as stupid: it performs calculations without thinking, only according to a previously compiled detailed instruction.
56b49f5a21b52fb54c2ada52f548f8beef5ecb43 Godel had to listen to many reproaches for destroying the integrity of the foundation of mathematics.
1c6ed567ddb08408540d4193ba8146d80bfa4022 He invariably replied that, in fact, the foundations remained as unshakable as before, and his theorem led to a reassessment of the role of intuition and personal initiative in one of the fields of science, in that which is governed by the iron laws of logic, which seemingly leave little room for these advantages.
8620148f7ae87d35f6e896010dc281f3069bfc8a Despite the assurances of idealists, mathematics turned out to be a real art, where there is a place for improvisation, and Godel himself gave a worthy example of creative service to the museum of Mathematics in his works written in a dry language and dealing, at first glance, only with the essence of the problem.
04325638b6c32450f3e5d590a2de397c1166c5ae Great scientists of the XX century
c5a2004adbf1b57502141544a6ff74732eda3349 All biographies
081a9258b8f2776c5a49a35181bb3b58412368fb Home XXI century
9caf80b96a70759459f580030dd39e7be7bc415a 25.01.2008 Kurt Goedel
44395723dbf1d978c8aa2a517004674cf00cdd2f Category: Mathematics
7fc8d007651a2c22d6bfcacfb012896e56fddd60 (b. 1906)
d2ae524bbc043bae25c6b6c78cd00d75fe5fe2e2 Mathematician
946d410a86e07c56944df257924d1bc3c9fa24f9 INTUITION AND LOGIC
cf5c3fdaed2a26c75ba4cf762d3c2e954c9badcc The scientist who was destined to carry out a revolution in the exact science of mathematics was born in 1906 in the Austro Hungarian Empire, which was close to its collapse.
9441f4ba01e1585d8974000840ab6c7f04c82717 For the German Kurt Goedel, the Czech city of Brno became his native.
b1ddca6cd4b6e75f3cc560dc76e31b4e2c4bfadc And in the interval between these dates —in 1931 he discovered something that made him famous.
a0b198d5194db3ce0f97c5aec2f4c5eef4d155e0 The course of geometry, studied in secondary schools around the world, is based on the" Principles " of Euclid.
bc3db5b30a00842aa7c59848d75e870fe5984ca6 The ancient Greek, who lived in the third century BC, formulated several axioms regarding the properties of points and straight lines in the plane, from which follows the validity of many useful and important geometric theorems.
47d369f6bf205fbbe36e1a2857f93e4518b890d7 Euclid's axioms are simple and unprovable.
d5f447800a1ef3b5dab65f6a3d6e61fce54bc724 One of them, for example, states that only one single straight line can be drawn through two points, the other that parallel lines intersect at infinity.
e1dd1cfbf35cf4e22e242f31b9052a880f42066f These statements are accepted as something obvious and do not require proof.
a93179128083a2fff0104c885de8b6b28de3dada Euclid, in fact, was able to represent all geometry with the help of a small number of true and fundamental statements, expressed very clearly and concisely.
72f29e763410025851fbe87420a0d5afcd00eeb8 Mathematicians decided, using the" method " of Euclid, to try to represent other branches of mathematics in a similar way.
c041d21f98da5974f777a593811082e6daffff22 Let's say the science of numbers.
114d07a30e9d45a368e29b3055dd841271b69104 The Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano first formulated arithmetic in the language of axioms.
4361e5566ab113167e046731c3875fcbbdd9ebe5 These statements seemed ridiculously obvious — there is a zero, each number is followed by another number— but in fact they were surprisingly exhaustive.
8171d1fa02903cbfba730845ebec78d9e14eb440 Peano's work was continued by the outstanding German mathematician David Hilbert and his students.
2ca83d6014546e539de75b00fa751bfb67a0e161 Hilbert tried to reduce all mathematics to a system of axioms.
8395ae0f57ce14f8d15d307ee41eefa1c9b64650 He believed that in this form it would be possible to enter it into a computer programmed in such a way that, at the order of the operator, it would issue any statements following from these axioms.
4e74e5984f92861d9c25c88df0d6181c5d922148 If a mathematical robot were created, people would reach the heights of logic and get an electronic oracle capable of answering any question.
99ddd1cdc965155ca519873469f11dcf8f49a877 But Gilbert's hopes were not destined to come true.
bb00a0202a536ce264073e773bcccae261025220 In 1932, Godel's theorem (or the so called incompleteness theorem) appeared.
a78d3286a80a630085a0e9646e587b9bad9cbec0 And "consistency" implies the absence of paradoxes, when both some statements and statements that are opposite to them can be derived.
8d3cfe72370cea7d3d49f027b7dbe29f9de2a469 Godel's work had the effect of an exploding bomb.
1627f3c617defc9177da0a944eb26e409f64b363 She forced von Neumann to interrupt the course of lectures in Göttingen, and Hilbert to stop working on his program, which seemed to him so promising.
a1c87ad885f7650a32f4e78b2edd47b15002515b You can, of course, use the methods of a more powerful system to prove it, but this more powerful system itself also cannot prove its consistency with its own methods, which means that the next more powerful system is required.
0f47dd6914a7460beb073c8597047f892c5969cf As G. I. Ruzavin, a Soviet philosopher and mathematician, pointed out, " it turns out a whole hierarchy of formal systems, each of which will surpass the previous one in strength
80830158cd5cc3ff35faf99c3af16ee70f9add05 means of formalization.
286bd462d46d850a28c276c5018f6d642b5d5833 Based on this, in our opinion, it can be argued that a complete formalization cannot be completed at a certain historical stage of the development of mathematics."
f0096200fce2ed87f6c3f3b3d5f23bbe38a43936 A machine whose work is based on the axioms of Peano, as Godel argued, will be unable to answer a well defined sequence of questions.
ab806245bdf793203696ac9c5c53e54818b9c5c5 What these questions are, Goedel did not say.
f92d1dba2202e8298634eab11a2fea4546b63a48 But we can assume that in the Godelian sense, the puzzle below will be unsolvable.
0bd103a9e1934acf3ae270931eb23b2e19eb3747 Let's construct a sequence of integers starting with any integer, and each subsequent number must be equal to half of the previous one if it is even, or the previous one multiplied by three and then added with one if it is odd.
8d4b40bb5782615a362a0f4db0547f82e5bdb5fe Repeating the procedure for calculating subsequent numbers, we will eventually build the entire sequence: 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1.
15b02a945fcde0e85397f3265457b5771ffc06ce So, we have come to one.
7587e99bc3ee155ed621077d8508a24bb847d064 It turns out that, regardless of the number with which the sequence begins, we always come to one, although there is no proof of this fact.
1d9529250aad4165d135f36a6faf2b83d0142010 Perhaps this is due to our inability to find it, but maybe it also points to the shortcomings inherent in the very fundamentals of arithmetic.
ac59e067307c2ca0b5442869eccb16e38d5b0466 In principle, you can create countless such programs, but, fortunately, they can be combined and stored together, making a complete list of them.
6c5891fbf4c0dd84920326b8584fa8c39e8de9eb Not all programs will be useful, and because of some, the machine may even enter the mode of continuously and non stop repetitive calculations.
db647c1d066e49a286b134ad0c4e4799547a3e63 If everything works fine, then in accordance with the orders in the program, the machine prints another number in response to the number entered into it, i.e. it performs calculations: for example, it can print the square of some number, double it, or output a number following the number entered initially.
7ef1d06247dba590e286f59d2e4281413491b044 In general, this machine can calculate incredibly complex functions of the initial number entered into it.
a88dc891c56738163ce0294002b0c5921d9d574e At the same time, there are functions that cannot be calculated, moreover, they make up the vast majority, although it is difficult to define such a function.
07cf92150600d08d0befeb2c896b65370a8ea8bc Oddly enough, the example of an uncomputable function follows directly from the theory of the "Turing machine".
77b69fdae00ddf6430ff83e2d82a6a90c402ae84 If you assign the value " one "to an integer corresponding to a normally running machine, then" zero", on the contrary, will correspond to a machine that has entered the mode of non stop repeated calculations.
80a982d268f911bb42e99ac06623afcbbb81dcd9 Thus, we have given an uncomputable function, and this proof repeats the proof given by Kurt Godel for logical systems.
dfd970053f497bb945e5d4b03e0507785e1acd4b Knowing this function, we can tell in advance, without resorting to running the program itself, whether the corresponding machine will stop or will idle.
cf81eea0becaae6bdc45a6a4d7164608ac8c9c73 This is not an abstract question: it would be very convenient to know in advance whether the program is running or not before running it into the machine.
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adf7cf7b44a2ddd9c4d7e68eb0efb0afa53bdfec 25.01.2008 Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman
b7140f683f1bc2dc3f34583e5214f8d68376f801 (1888-1925)
f7ce967090725863315d359fa4fe1b5a5508d316 Mathematician, geophysicist, cosmologist
f2dcaa91184e475b734b018708c9e6716220918d THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
8814e5a78d89d67ca38242c97eeab47980285484 In the spring of 1922, the prestigious "Physical journal" "Zeitschrift fur Physik "(namely, German journals at that time published the latest innovations in world science) published an appeal"To German physicists!".
eadaca6fc46b81a2e7d267026e3c8c6c3503ab6e The Board of the German Physical Society called on colleagues to save Russian physicists from a long term and cruel information famine: after all, since the beginning of the First World War, scientific journals have practically not been received in Russia.
565ce28e4c1dd18bb8c3b0e8f898c63e4af7808c It was proposed to send publications of recent years to the specified address.
f96679dd26381248bb3845e19a5b0c39106a8792 Subsequently, they were planned to be sent to Petrograd.
bf2374d41602dd63953a3845248bf5f84de4cd2e In the same issue of the magazine — two dozen pages below — an article sent from Russia was published.
b3b96c61c865dbcff218a997d4eb3e8aa3c11797 It was about Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.
df6aaf27efede70b94f491251101b0b5accf40af The author's name Alexander Friedman was unknown to German colleagues.
df1c36cd78139ddfb3e62c9e5fea9802e272bce1 During these years, Professor V. Steklov, a brilliant mathematician, a surprisingly bright personality, a future academician and vice president of the Russian Academy of Sciences, transferred to the capital from Kharkiv.
4853373685b85d7781f766cd3ded7b7b997c691b The Institute of Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences now bears his name.
1f26ffc33604bd6a77128799836139fe1661d682 It was Vladimir Andreevich Steklov who was destined to become Alexander Fridman's Teacher, his reliable protection and support.
0e6ed83b9e8f0ec159e5e9c32742f84109f31b3b In 1910, A. Friedman and his friend Ya.
56172e1024805b0bf12b1bd87ba33bfc8eafdac2 Tamarkin, on the recommendation of Professor Steklov, were left after graduation to prepare for a professorship.
45233d8bc0e89c4057dbc563269bbc4bea114197 In 1922, Ya.
2b7b8d2448533bbc58bf613280f54fa20e82dae4 Tamarkin, a friend and co author of A. Friedman on several articles, illegally left Soviet Russia, moved to the United States and later taught at Cambridge.
ca53bda10d732aedb9a1f56d0a29c65ffb00342b He was engaged in dynamic meteorology with inspiration, trying to describe in mathematical language those chaotic processes that occur in the atmosphere.
2a6dae123db1cca47ed9ce6b553c563ae89f0de3 He described the weather with partial differential equations.
c5dafd306716fdffb5a1931d62ed0ecef7b5b158 The war undermined the scientist's health.
968c78759e74064b77b27cc9f76f70db68c73d20 He was diagnosed with a heart disease.
884eb2f679c8841d9d32d2b4d70c2a2c9c43eda5 The doctors did not recommend the humid Petrograd climate to the patient.
e8c9d9809d341f043a327a8f4e130dc93c92f4f1 Two people applied for one place: Professor A. Leibenzon and a private associate professor of the University of St. Petersburg.
a5a3c83ee16a018b7ccd45f0c940b2dab5efce3c Vladimir in Kiev, A. Friedman.
819fcef1f2c82b27c3235a58e70c03d5c5766e84 The following characteristic went to Perm: "It should be noted that G. Friedman is extremely efficient and has a general erudition not only in pure and applied mathematics, but also in many issues of theoretical mechanics, physics, meteorology...
e7e7dd2fb5dd0ff284a98a01c571bce02a3b828f I consider it very desirable to attract him as a teacher of mechanics at Perm University.
e1841ae4d86adbe1fe58f30dc1d485aabe4767ce The university will find a worthy employee and scientific strength in him."
0aa783d039034d829dc21f7fc5cc049697796e69 From that day, the department actually began its history.
75dd63052ea0d99842ddf31ad075def43736ff3c Due to the lack of teachers, the thirty year old professor had to take on courses in differential geometry and physics.
2dab4be13ed86c48f5a2f685d9a18412d44ed753 Friedman needed to communicate with his equals in intelligence, which he really lacked in Perm.
0d193ee85853c3e14b15c1c05ff364ba99d9b48a This Russian physicist was caught by the First World War in an enemy power in Germany, and only the intercession of the outstanding mathematician David Hilbert saved him from a sad fate.
ef9e20dbc420228e99a1757f132eca41fbde35b9 There were no serious publications on GRT that stirred up the entire physical world in post revolutionary Russia.
73b59d5b83ada77458ef9bee1b0e064a244caf22 Only a few popular brochures on this topic have been published.
0799e30146b4be4ef188704011485dd368dd0ff9 One of them was written by the author of the "theory of the century" — Albert Einstein.
8f4ca0c2b9c64e6d802935274bd6afd571c164de Its Russian translation was published in 1920 in Berlin, and in the preface to it, the great scientist noted: "More than ever, in these troubled times, we should take care of everything that can bring people of different languages and nations closer together.
fcae4feed5ff97f00abc9f155bc940cdd184e785 From this point of view, it is especially important to promote a lively exchange of artistic and scientific works even under the current difficult circumstances.
b6607b96a4c3077f794650cca25ab5e67557c10a That's why I am especially pleased that my little book appears in Russian."
e351e82cb77a1ccd2124a0dcc0f2f5bbd003b26b However, according to the popular statement of even Albert Einstein himself, it was impossible to master the general theory of relativity.
0293b745000622fc9ab60b7ac495de5527bb214d Friederiks filled in the gap.
ab9e9ee7bd0eb4ef1938a342634154b806cf0d3c In 1921, his presentation of GRT appeared in the journal "Successes of Physical Sciences".
6686217dec3c9e84c7ca100538d1192e0b3cdace This article helped Friedman a lot in working on his own theory.
19b76e6fae4ab8fb9a8eb29d7f3743c8b0d53391 For many centuries, humanity has considered the sky an ideal of stability and harmony, unattainable on a sinful Earth.
5b3a10309cdb12bc409b51e3187912b5f0499f3d And even such a revolutionary in science as Einstein, who dared to fundamentally revise the age old physical concepts of space and time, did not dare to abandon the belief in the stationarity of the Universe.
bb4a9e2cdc0002e7b82989f4bd84b3e468abd6aa Friedman, in his work "On the curvature of space", dared to assert that Einstein's general theory of relativity is a very special case.
f47e48369b23df789c52a05be5b63c3020e3fb5c Friedman discovered that change is a generic property of the universe.
4a43d983e3e8dca1bba507b2c1513b395b4a879f According to him, the constancy and positivity of the curvature in no way implies the finiteness of "our physical space occupied by shining stars".
ddb2178ba6783295cfbe938fbc0bc553775752cc According to Friedman, Einstein's field equations in their original form can be consistent with the cosmological principle and the assumption of a finite mass density in the universe only if space is not static.
2a965c2335dff1efefa06adc197a991451a400b3 It was a truly revolutionary idea.
b547a258f24c0e34cc01e15a9a063412cc9340e7 Einstein himself did not accept it immediately.
fd4304f9d6ee671864a0461b3387225fd27e3ea6 He tried to "find" an error in the calculations of a Russian colleague.
e5119f82c3101ebad9191e17572fb1071382df1b And "found".
96aa54a76bd148ad0ce3826ca39292bbfae0558b However, after receiving a letter from Friedman, in which he defended his correctness, Einstein called the results of his colleague "shedding light on the cosmological problem."
1d25288f049de947a1319ffa3501dc751793cea3 Here is what he wrote in the "Remarks to the work of A. Friedman" On the curvature of space "in 1922:" The results regarding the non stationary world contained in the mentioned work seem suspicious to me.
096a953a3f95ecf904213da32a7df80b9c0575bc In fact, it turns out that the solution indicated in it does not satisfy the field equations."
055860593b1527956a8c98dcc45aa014307e0b7c On May 31, 1923, Einstein changed his opinion: "In a previous note, I criticized the above mentioned work, but my criticism, as I was convinced from Friedman's letter, was based on an error in calculations.
a256f2eebf2fc92b3f88e90b4dfb36797bc0cf14 I think Friedman's results are correct and shed new light.
372979d98efe4bb802234dfb1db37fd94f41dc11 It turns out that the field equations admit, along with static ones, also dynamic (i.e., variables with respect to time) solutions for the structure of space."
72569fc8209e51b1ecddb719dff9375974f0290f Seven years later, the following entry appeared in V. Vernadsky's diary: "A conversation with Verigo about A.
4762a0ef7cc8578b876f320fa30b92a2d8352bbe A. Friedman.
56f8e6719f1cf3feb5d53168a017d69358c7d385 M. B., a brilliant scientist who died early, was described to me extremely highly by B. B. Golitsyn in 1915, and then I paid attention to him.
2959224e896c08efe4e6065042deafb9c683dc68 And now in connection with my current work and his idea of a spreading, pulsating Universe — I have read what is available to me.
1359cdfe8b786f1326315a6791d9f4814b1890c1 A clear, deep thought of a widely educated, God given person.
44ba634f6b444273a552168e2a801e4a765b3ba1 According to V.— his comrade and friend, he was a charming person, a wonderful friend.
1794fe4945d195602a5f976b1ecee33b631f6547 He met him at the front (Verigo in Kiev, Friedman aviator in Gatchina).
e892985b84697feca9ffa7be0df5fa5e2723aa46 At the beginning of the Bolshevik power, Friedman and Tamarkin, his friend, but much lighter than him, were expelled from the University.
9a670ffc2819cbe5125174bfdc6ec514cbe1a231 At one time, Friedman wanted to run away with T. Maybe he would have stayed alive?"
3b667de717601e2c0a37da205bdc5f98f21cdc02 Viking repair Escondido | Santehrai a bath for sale here, favorable prices.
c40890b43bdc8623b8e9263a920d3883fd8621fa 25.01.2008 Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov
c36d1dbcc56517a103aeb36e963fd88b10e4bb2d (1903-1987)
d27c0629a385fb816f6c9dfb83bd573a759e52f5 A WORLD BUILT ON PROBABILITY
155cadc7d1d7dc594071b23dee831c9f9bc772a8 During his lifetime, he was called a titan of the Renaissance, a harmonious representative of antiquity, and Pushkin in mathematics.
96ae01b6ca040fc581ca9354038ff29a274b8378 The widest range of creative interests, the variety of mathematical fields in which Andrey Nikolaevich worked, made him an encyclopedist of this ancient science.
8054c444e63fa570c28815384ce2de1b001828e9 We can say that in the history of the XX century there is hardly a mathematician who would work so successfully in the field of set theory and measure theory, mathematical logic and topology.
165b49904d4016aa5a8584e84e25018187a32c79 She died in childbirth, and all the care of the baby was taken over by her own sister Vera Yakovlevna.
0bdf5c7293f9388dff6c16bc136c34ce4508b5fc She replaced Andrey's mother, and he treated her as a mother until her death.
05d289838da099ad882fae5965114fb753c77f54 On his mother's side, Kolmogorov came from the nobility.
2fac1707ad3ff95554f2837630d5d1636c9da25f His grandfather Yakov Stepanovich Kolmogorov was a district leader of the nobility.
dba6ba598dce95d9ff35a107e956f623664fcadd The Kolmogorovs owned the Tunoshna estate, located on the Tunoshonka River near its confluence with the Volga near Yaroslavl, and a large house in Yaroslavl itself.
e7d31f4910841de37c5fccb4317ce069dd6bea48 Andrey's father, Nikolai Matveyevich Kataev, was the son of a priest.
20e3a584e3b8835ced7660513f7983b6fd69e5c0 He received a higher special education, becoming, as they said at the time, "a scientific agronomist".
3ef18549c469e338a2a7659af1dcbd5c6487f34f After the revolution, he worked in the People's Commissariat of Agriculture.
02c632b5988577c846a99a70a2d71426127322cf His father did not take part in Andrey's upbringing.
849dc620f3695869f181b1d9380d0ea0eec7a882 In 1910, Vera Yakovlevna and Andrey moved to Moscow.
56d246a2daf5c0cbd5563702d944e9539a204121 They lived on the interest from the capital received by inheritance.
e862c81f0ae86f8a9c5614a0dfbbf99f11a7cd38 Andrey entered the private gymnasium Repman, which after the revolution was transformed into the twenty third school of the second stage.
b3f41c57c33d83ad464ecf531b295e90b7f8eaa8 He graduated in 1920.
96fdda0390c97e8b276bab187bd498dbfde33458 And I didnot immediately decide to become a mathematician.
9acc48e70273545ae4d09964edebca68a8ad38bc It was a hungry and anxious time.
2319d56032fba0c560a70de7a27d470336f3c3cf The young man wanted to get not only knowledge, but also a profession, a craft.
4cae14d8fc1331ecab2402f4b64ce99efc32accd Here is how he himself later recalled this period of his life: "At that time, technology was perceived as something more serious and necessary than pure science.
b0bc70165028eeb1798f4a0bbbc7b327d14d5924 Simultaneously with the mathematics department of the university (where everyone was admitted without exams) I entered the metallurgical faculty of the Mendeleev Institute (where an entrance exam in mathematics was required).
4272436d45e17020fe9171aed11c160472719ab3 But soon the interest in mathematics exceeded the doubts about the relevance of the profession of mathematics."
c2d02132ab6e8df7e77e6c6913204a30dd60e05e This brings the young mathematician worldwide fame.
16185443967dac40beba51c6d9aa32c187448346 "In those years," Kolmogorov recalled, " the period of stay in graduate school was not strictly limited — there was, for example, a case when a young mathematician stayed in graduate school for seven years!
670f3f9e9e6d4db5a1282f2b8713b3b66c2d6f71 Since being in graduate school gave me complete freedom to indulge in scientific research without having other responsibilities, I also preferred not to force its completion."
204979dfc4d5a2082985ffb215cb0347e1ae0bc6 Andrey Nikolaevich graduated from graduate school in 1929 and became a researcher at the Research Institute of Mathematics and Mechanics of Moscow State University.
10010a00c23ff7ac3e6c537adb9ca647b052a356 At the same time, he heads the Department of Mathematics at the Liebknecht Pedagogical Institute.
2e4f7456b5987c0945705b7f95585a4843910562 In Göttingen — the mathematical Mecca of the turn of the century he meets with many outstanding colleagues, and above all with Hilbert and Courant.
2dd869ba7eb0e327d3e5acd0d19a610c34892863 Later, Andrey Nikolaevich very vividly described the conditions that Mecca provided for young mathematicians to work: "The Mathematical Institute represented exceptional facilities for scientific studies.
bddd8ce594442a26f663f429cea60ecc2ae3a4ed Young scientists were provided with a small separate room with a desk, two chairs and shelves for books and all sorts of papers, and they were also given a key to the library, where they could take any books without asking anyone, take them to their work room.
6e51b91a9cc167b9eca0ab60d036a140d68e1987 It was assumed, of course, that after passing the need, the books taken are immediately taken to the library and put there in their proper place."
bb4e73b5ab65919ae4c681ff8548be4232419ca7 These works made Kolmogorov a world luminary in the field of probability theory.
8715afce4ad97ff10f3243da65583ac748ddf1ea This was followed by work on random processes, turbulence, and algebraic topology.
b2976bb378c97e15d74704b7d19e08121efafc81 The scientist introduced one of the central concepts into topology — cohomology.
6799c5a3b099fe5012471c81b211da501d26daa0 A huge place in Kolmogorov's life was occupied by friendship with another outstanding mathematician — Pavel Sergeevich Alexandrov.
27c8b33650601469fdfd710370b588157015670a It began in the summer of 1929 and lasted for more than 53 years until the death of Alexandrov.
6d98ad909ea77f863f17c3797b9d4984bb7d4f99 Andrey Nikolaevich wrote: "For me, these fifty three years of our close and inseparable friendship were the basis for the fact that my whole life as a whole turned out to be full of happiness, and the basis of my well being was the unceasing care on the part of Pavel Sergeyevich."
af4873219a866ed3d62b162f3344fab5aab3f86b One of the main events of this great friendship dates back to 1935: Kolmogorov and Alexandrov acquired a part of a country house in the village of Komarovka on the picturesque bank of the Klyazma River.
8ab470c82e1c6690695055f1789a87429df1e859 It was in this house that their creative activity mainly took place.
6c07088ab5d5688e3d30e153429ab80314c06f03 During his life, Andrey Nikolaevich held many responsible administrative posts.
50e369c20adc11c863beb6839175c6e1e77da313 Kolmogorov was elected an academician in 1939.
d12d73a3c00f1a6ce6e98b60374f11129e45e24e The war forces Kolmogorov to interrupt his research work and turn to defense topics, but in 1946 he again returns to the issues that concern him.
e0adbc993eaa5d0f72139b638fc065baf76c84ae In parallel with his work on this problem, Kolmogorov continues his successful work in many other areas of mathematics.
07523948679f948ef4fbc83198e9960a8a697e53 The report "General Theory of Dynamical Systems and Classical Mechanics", which he read at the International Mathematical Congress in Amsterdam in 1954, became a world class event.
cc96ed878571c8767189c678e2a289d985d3bcdf Ilya Prigozhy, the creator of the theory of dissipative structures and a Nobel laureate, describing the highest achievements of the XX century, wrote: "We are experiencing a revolution in this field of knowledge.
302f67a52abc3878bfbdf9b09054e5c916c5889e Thanks to the Soviet scientist Andrey Kolmogorov, dynamics has become one of the most actively developed areas in physics and mathematics.
b734b50a4d42683dc11d49a124e95ff755bb13f1 What is this revolution?
b68538c6175c17995ba5d8d86397e78d61b8ab4e <...> The concepts of instability, chaos, and the growth of the amplitude of fluctuations are of interest today to an increasing number of researchers in various fields: from mathematics to economics.
1931116e64c225111135275cc4657b09ee32f6d2 The famous "black Monday" (October 19, 1987), the day when the stock price fell first on the New York and then on other exchanges, will probably go down in the history of science, but not at all because the victims of exchange frauds lost part of their capital.
f574b2a98777efd89c9e17ae3dda12a471bad111 The fact is that from that day on, major American newspapers began publishing articles on the dynamics of chaos, and the concepts of "fluctuation", "amplitude growth" and "bifurcation" became as familiar as the "Big Bang"and" black holes".
cb8a109962ec910c9f72ed56beef06a3d4e9fe21 Many biographical articles were published from his pen.
d5ebf502d2a6756021ae67429ad73972ba63f047 Andrey Nikolaevich was surprisingly able to say the most important thing about his colleague.
f308e60e0ea02868aea3888c61f3d003494f9140 He embarked on many months of voyages on the research vessel "Dmitry Mendeleev", educated students, wrote not only scientific, but also popular scientific works.
67ee7d0eabecff6f5ceda73d5b5ae1e04af3b82b In terms of the breadth of his interests, he really was a man of the Renaissance, embodied in the XX century.
5a22e7b8c680bd22cd204503f3ce77674e283fd9 25.01.2008 Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh
f78aaeb227f39f4d574099017d024303470e0855 (1911-1978)
a324bd670019d8a99b5eedbddb2b4a45eacc813a COSMONAUTICS THEORIST
7b61fc7f766817c49bf4e9b5e981bedb2b45bac3 His paternal grandfather rose to the rank of general of the medical service, and his maternal grandfather was a full general of artillery.
91ecca27a9bf406b5383d10be8b31afd7ce5e1d8 The grandson of two generals, Mstislav Keldysh never hid his noble origin and even in the fatal thirties wrote in questionnaires -" from the nobles".
064e0a636c5cc342eb19229932e2b6427678c9e1 In fact, the flutter is a self oscillation of aircraft structures.
75974bdb39401067f879bcf94f4ab893c2608471 Thanks to the work of a young mathematician, the Soviet aircraft industry got rid of this difficult problem that stood in the way of the development of high — speed aviation by the beginning of World War II, and the scientist himself received the State Prize of the II degree for this work in 1942, and in 1943 the Order of the Red Banner of Labor.
fd91c3c376c97bd3bae35f93f059db98b37a5581 During the entire war, he, being already the head of the TsAGI department, supervised anti flutter structures at aviation enterprises.
b444d536a279aee7c327bbbdeb02dbd95a223170 Higher aircraft speeds required a longer runway length, which, in turn, led to the need for a three support (instead of a two support, as in the first generation aircraft) landing gear system that resembled a tricycle for children.
2b3e8c0bd56310354160c30f0eb6b7e26f14cac7 However, when a certain take off speed was reached, the tricycle landing gear system suddenly broke at the front rack.
5c20eb7bab2c9501b4c402cd45051803f00f9017 There were self oscillations in it, which led to destruction.
4c16b623aa602928c6b71267e844fb3cb4b6f204 This phenomenon was called "shimmy" in aircraft science — this was the name of a fashionable dance of those times, the main "step" of which was dangerously repeated by airplane wheels.
6d4124f583409da98b346dbbf810efa624d8493e In 1945, Keldysh in the work "Shimmy" of the front wheel of a three wheeled chassis " not only completely solved this problem theoretically, but also formulated practical engineering recommendations.
ee39c44a6e75c00e011d075af7b580bea6ebaade For this, he was awarded the second State Prize in 1946.
745d491d8dc1b0258e930022a28e0de1858b9f8f In general, in the pre war years, Mstislav Vsevolodovich performed a number of brilliant works in the field of fundamental mathematics.
c47a826f45f3ac47136457d651659da54f106656 His research concerned various branches of this science: the theory of approximations, functional analysis, differential equations.
9c2f24007066c4421d10eadec37340e36ea41a83 Keldysh knew how to make his works beautiful.
db7da436fcd7eb062a84dc7b061f9b719825def8 He found unexpected analogies, used both the mathematical apparatus created by his predecessors and his own innovations.
8cb2594ea6e85157295742bfe36388612f489677 It should be noted that a number of his fundamental developments came from specific applied problems, such as the "shimmy"problem.
90d92ae20e4bad19f9d48d809247c9ea9b72fb20 In 1943, Mstislav Vsevolodovich was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and in 1946 — an academician.
c4cf87d06128012e49bea077ab69befa5af4572c Keldysh was involved in the implementation of both " programs.
48292759a3411afa359f704a3066ff0c1b52eda2 At this stage of his activity, Academician Keldysh was not so much directly engaged in scientific developments, as he managed global projects.
15d3f6c4699420741fb81932481dfc00916fb916 He was at the head of large scientific and technical teams with the mysterious names of Research Institute 1 and OPMMIAN, chaired various responsible commissions, held senior positions in the Academy of Sciences.
84e1a8061be00a2cde8a5fc95ebeb2c42c8e37eb But despite the huge workload and chronic lack of time, the academician did not cease to be a great mathematician.
d05c76da5591c4f446796f493b5d5f7f86a6c48b The creation of high power jet propulsion systems for equipping cruise missiles required the development of new mathematical approaches to the problems of supersonic gas dynamics, heat and mass transfer, and thermal protection.
45ea9cf7ffc384e02d680cd1d317d5bf38dbef79 Time was running out: the Americans were developing their own version of the Navajo cruise missile.
39260bb934e6902bb0342ebad61140bdceb1f7e5 But the world's first "krylatka" still appeared in the USSR — in 1959, it showed higher characteristics in the testing process than its overseas rival.
f239cf82faae4e58e51ee4a8aec35067e0243330 The rocket was unaware that back in 1940, a decade before its first flight, a team of mathematicians led by Keldysh had launched research on rocket dynamics and applied celestial mechanics that had no prehistory in world science.
4d91b3d5a899e58b7a2b009fdcf0ddf01f042bac In 1953, the employees of OPMMIAN analyzed the optimal schemes of composite rockets developed by themselves, the ballistic descent from the orbit of the spacecraft on which the astronauts were to return to Earth, the possible stabilization of the device by means of the Earth's gravity field, and many other revolutionary ideas without exaggeration.
01ecb0f88e4fe96894e0faf7df94d7bc1251ae69 Academician Keldysh was appointed chairman of the special commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences on this problem.
942f896303dc5fdc94a97cb25940927af4227aa0 It was launched in 1957, causing a stir around the world.
d8fa8e30c633bf6e6c3813edae785cece054dae2 With the launch, Keldysh's "contact" with the satellite did not end.
d94753a983aedc23a30c6d269d083addd697a4ea It was necessary to monitor the" newborn", predict the trajectory of its movement, and these observations were supposed to contribute, for example, to the ballistic design of interplanetary flights of spacecraft with minimal energy costs.
911f2eb12da1847a2bb10cd83721e0bf7bc232aa Keldysh searched and found brilliant solutions to the most difficult problems.
e097610100c5b572b322b4385375aad21f9b6b1f Such were the scheme of acceleration of spacecraft with the entry into an intermediate orbit of an artificial satellite or the use of the gravitational field of the planet for purposefully changing the trajectory of movement.
203eca332232d4bcf6f46ccc6a1939d9d48ccc41 These calculations have become universal in the design of subsequent spacecraft.
fff2ea38c75c0183d624ccffdfc560ef0e0fba04 They made Academician Keldysh a cosmonautics theorist.
d1a1684e7a5c148c2774d61d7cbdc4690fe65091 In 1959, the interdepartmental Scientific and Technical Council for Space Research under the USSR Academy of Sciences was formed.
8bcf106a74574554142e78963d06b12bc3de74b8 It was headed by Mstislav Keldysh.
6d652d42e978152c49d829d790cd2d2a6d686bcb It was hardly possible to find a more suitable candidate for coordinating all aspects of space exploration.
2ecff9f501036668e00c3e46d3537eb8eefa87ff In 1961, Academician Keldysh was elected President of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
6ec2bdf965f444439751dc938ce15364b4cff4fa He held this post for fourteen years.
9253407b3a2487a484c8b82131c203113d899bd2 But let's not get ahead of events.
00012cc9b9f551f4373edd2fdfa7b0a72938fa55 So, connecting macro - and microcosms, the academician worked for more than one decade!
eb096ddd58a0453a5cd7af12c0a7cf6f9c95ee99 Academician Keldysh deeply understood the essence of the obstacle that had arisen.
98727decd087126dde5a0a1fa165aeda19a6ecf4 "Computer ization on Keldysh" provided another notable step forward for Soviet applied mathematics.
f7ba2d0d29f838e29ad59b0c6036cf2b98da0a31 No matter what team he led small or huge this team certainly achieved outstanding results.
da0a850b66c64e38eac2fe497f84761ecf3bbc4c The academician managed to carry out deep transformations in the temple of Soviet science from the foundation to the dome.
be74cce162f8f269cc5cada63d14cc3241a62eca Fundamental science has become the main driving force in the development of society.
9cb91b4b6eee87ac3b7b6c7d56df2677f6f3e8a8 The only mathematician, Mstislav Keldysh became a Hero of Socialist Labor three times (1957, 1961, 1971).
eaeaab079fa187d7536ff672b3440fef49cab9c4 The dates when the stars were lit on the academician's chest coincided with the greatest achievements of Soviet science, which the grandson of two Russian generals selflessly served.
1086e6282357cb0036dfb9086c47e90d88837067 Equipment.
66934889dfa59727c3c8b609e4716886d3aa4a64 Fuel oil pump in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
a5e3e56f748ea14e8b966faeeaa712f1d5730cb9 25.01.2008 Benoit Mandelbrot
862e41d2df138bb9f7ed03bf7c3d750848251f7e (b. 1924)
f44808af64c39687f71a8f31dedaf44c4241fdc7 GEOMETRY AND CHAOS
b45868797f68070dceb8583eaf15ba9e936040e1 Some people have the ability to make mind — blowing calculations worthy of a supercomputer, others have incredible abilities for foreign languages, and others have a phenomenal memory for dates that keeps the entire course of world history.
e01e387f2000f5f3bdf93b202dfc2dda03b13758 Benoit Mandelbrot has his own "narrow specialization" — he can see spaces of other, more than three dimensional, dimensions.
a907e7cf4a1ae0acebffdf694876619933f25b13 In 1936, the Mandelbrots emigrated to France and settled in Paris, where their uncle, Francois Mandelbrot, had gone earlier.
c08b69b04069394d81f33534a6f58360acb2dc77 He was a member of an elite group of French mathematicians in Paris, known under the collective pseudonym "Nicolas Bourbaki".
f462a81d50f9c8330cb04f26ea816786e275f80a When the war broke out, the Mandelbrot family moved to the small town of Tulle in the south of France.
03fc23e60eea5ccbbd7aa4aac8a24f77ed680a19 As a result, by the age of sixteen, he didnot even really know the alphabet, and he only learned the multiplication table until he was five.
ce1f66d6f60c1c578b698c27d8ff320e34654d92 Even now, many years later, it can be difficult for him to use the telephone directory.
1e7c160d57b65158d28c468af54da0d4e2bcf199 His talent was radically different from the usual mathematical abilities, first of all, with an amazing spatial thinking.
b93255823837fe0d041188c3281ae1bb477fd691 The teachers were amazed by the originality and beauty of his solution and gave the applicant an excellent rating.
1e7afb6d4a60eb481fa6b036c9ab10f47f238c3c But the scientist was so carried away that he went far away from the purely applied problems of the company.
1d2a099a5d5fb70abc03ccae4a8e544077d22dae He became a master of "non traditional mathematics".
31722d9fe9a3caed7012d03d8bb9f820643a73b1 The scientist admitted: "Sometimes I am seized by a sudden impulse, and I give up research in the middle to plunge again into a new field that has suddenly become interesting for me, and in which I know nothing.
5663800f28c1617f60a082f6d8e51d64c36ab1c4 I followed my instincts..."
28d3b7f0759ccd1370de9891f7ab251883df5141 The instinctive way of searching for knowledge led the researcher from side to side.
2183b476a2ad580b4df16d2102378d5bd8a91b0b In a century when narrow specialization actually became synonymous with scientific research, the" broad minded " Mandelbrot was unpopular in the circles of colleagues.
2fd3dffafde329e888123f6c4a0a520f4100f66a Mandelbrot's "calculation" of cotton prices became famous all over the world.
7fc2a224e63ff456c3d4e0227ed8b5479352644b There were reliable data on these prices for more than a hundred years.
e2488294bd2a5634f5ef7b43762e83f73fc3a6d3 Their fluctuations during the day seemed unpredictable, but computer analysis was able to trace the trend of price changes.
6fe2cd35c3a568d364ed0618aa812ef1cf691192 And it was Dr. Mandelbrot who conducted this analysis.
c06c4a637a002de4b69acd818ce680afa35b4113 The mathematician drew a graph on which price fluctuations for one particular day were superimposed on a longer period of time.
0f71d7d089272d628dd70d49d45767105979ea1c Mandelbrot traced the symmetry in long term price fluctuations and short term fluctuations.
eb4df6906bf1f9457dd0fffa227cb34f364ac70a This discovery was a complete surprise for economists who used mathematics only for calculations.
cbced758aaa73749d4536247a061f4850371ae31 And Mandelbrot himself was surprised by his own discoveries.
e2cb43b9e4128c0d9c898272ef24def63be9e8b9 He did not fully understand their secret meaning, but he felt that he had found something very important.
ccf53c6cbd8545d5897fbaf2f02cb61bf0f395dc Later it turned out that he intuitively began to develop a recursive (fractal) method in economics.
130925614dbb35c09b5ead59eb5635bb89c8e360 So, fractals… To paraphrase the poet, we can say :" We say Mandelbrot, but we mean fractals."
e842cc2685fa19ef5f847d7552851ee34d74b48f The converse is also true.
5c26f14ef6e10bb489185e6e53df142ef0741dca The concept of "fractal" was invented, of course, by Benoit Mandelbrot himself.
e31688e29c87ba68de5d039d6db418405ac84be0 The word comes from the Latin "fractus", meaning"broken, broken".
37a29e24fc47c1361b3ae0291d554630d3ceccd6 The mathematical objects to which it refers are characterized by extremely interesting properties.
6b573179889258cd84175c71e4e93761c81619eb In ordinary geometry, a line has one dimension, a surface has two dimensions, and a spatial figure is three dimensional.
232d585a45e3f9804abf93900b52ef2ba30dbb98 Fractals are not lines or surfaces, but, if you can imagine it, something in between.
b623d9011fbd4cf26ac294e55c190eb2a7930fed A square with a side L (a figure on a two dimensional plane) has an area L, the volume of a three dimensional cube with an edge L is also equal to L, and, in general, the volume
6c9dccc70ddfc91d5da619be38ad11f332d73071 the n dimensional hypercube is also equal to L.
0854793782435ae819179e74d642cf4549baf99b The dimension of an object (the exponent) shows by what law its internal area grows.
d7ae1ab3436446b63a3259ad01dc3768119651c1 Similarly, with increasing size, the volume of the fractal also increases, but its dimension (exponent) is not an integer, but a fractional value, and therefore the border of the fractal figure is not a line: with a large increase, it becomes clear that it is blurred and consists of spirals and curls that repeat the figure itself on a small scale.
1f93b195d36516ed83e18fde791b30289c59a25b Such geometric regularity is called scale invariance or self similarity.
4496c77b94b7376b3a38f48da5fb0c53556d276c It determines the fractional dimension of fractal shapes.
f497f83cbc88d59ae459c8289a5542d6f2132189 Before the advent of fractal geometry, science dealt with systems enclosed in three spatial dimensions.
23e53a7b3443987e749db33beb636e95486c9037 Thanks to Einstein, it became clear that three dimensional space is only a model of reality, and not reality itself.
fb6735b26cd809f294a669cbf8e3cbf615061c3e In fact, our world is located in a four dimensional space time continuum.
41757906db94699f5007c69297995d5dbd8523a6 Thanks to Mandelbrot, it became clear what a four dimensional space looks like, figuratively speaking, the fractal face of Chaos.
a557462ac94ffc3da07350a9761a8c8495a5bc49 Liquid, gas, solid - three familiar physical states of matter existing in the three dimensional world.
0097c676cbfbaa724e08587ba712919f236cabce But what is the dimension of a cloud of smoke, clouds, or rather, their boundaries, continuously eroded by the turbulent movement of air?
1315470dd2490bb13cfe8b9a17108c3c150180f1 It turned out that it was more than two, but less than three.
eef213b9456e4ab3ae06bca2b34c2812418727c7 Fractional value!
6c99f84de9009b3a14ee0900e73c16de46a69f10 Similarly, you can calculate the dimension of other real natural objects — for example, a coastline washed away by the surf, or a tree crown rustling in the wind.
86d3ce8f1627b8b72f09533ecb92f14d31e54fc5 The human circulatory system pulsating, alive has a dimension of 2.7.
b45b2aa67915bf43316806464af659aff9838e3c And chaos, as it turns out, is beautiful…