9534b850cf66b6566c627a581d954d5b18580d44	Hibernate is a library for the Java programming language designed to solve object relational mapping (ORM) problems.
9b91dddb656f942c94cb977fa75c86dcdd8e03f3	It is free and open source software distributed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License.
e3ec7bb013e1ec673eecddc64cbcf7092370adea	This library provides an easy-to-use framework for mapping an object-oriented data model to traditional relational databases.
cdc6e4f466bb03c206140dce77ed17e1756cb2b1	The goal of Hibernate is to free the developer from a significant amount of relatively low-level programming to ensure the storage of objects in a relational database.
01a058429b99533be021d4830cdb43178a8f56f0	A developer can use Hibernate both in the process of designing a system of classes and tables "from scratch", and to work with an existing database.
980ea1cf0a6b874061ae631a5e2b243711e1f003	Hibernate not only solves the problem of linking Java classes with database tables (and Java data types with SQL data types), but also provides tools for automatically generating and updating a set of tables, building queries and processing the received data, and can significantly reduce the development time that is usually spent on manually writing SQL and JDBC code.
59ed902ca25114169e31b398d0a2bd75ac64bba1	Hibernate automates the generation of SQL queries and frees the developer from manual processing of the resulting data set and object transformation, making it as easy as possible to transfer (port) the application to any SQL databases.
5ec3554e649669c164abec12e3eb46b78c54b544	Hibernate provides transparent data persistence support for "POJO" (that is, for standard Java objects); the only strict requirement for a stored class is the presence of a default constructor (without parameters).
1bf7d76459ae6a6ac1ef9afe5a13995ff56b8e8d	For correct behavior in some applications, you also need to pay attention to the equals() and hashCode () methods[2].
1ffa4bfbcc75deda995ace6b97ad9d2aac9d49db	Mapping (mapping, projection) Java classes with database tables are implemented using XML configuration files or Java annotations.
0623b4f26489c64a7589f8d46db7fac0778779ab	When using an XML file, Hibernate can generate a skeleton of the source code for long-term storage classes (persistent).
9b053d9ad98f3106b2d3e2a75330196527aff564	This is not necessary if an annotation is used.
95bc2fd87fed4307bfd4edcd48c5e9411d852a20	Hibernate can use an XML file or annotations to support the database schema.
2867af00af2ea2b5d0e92382456fed0e6a20d085	In addition to managing relationships between objects, Hibernate can also manage reflexive relationships, where an object has a one - to-many relationship with other instances of its own data type.
42f0a6a5067a94ae2e6040c8f1242aa113269823	Hibernate supports displaying custom value types.
fa54d74cf75718b389ec7c4802f56233bcade73b	Overriding the default SQL type, Hibernate selects when displaying the properties column.
8a490583dd8bff400cdd17a3d73f177048f7c764	Projecting the Java enumerated type onto the DB field as if they are ordinary properties.
265b5f937696fbd25b36a3573d570c2c418ad9d0	Collections of data objects are usually stored as collections of Java objects, such as a set and a list.
6ef3f04f36a8f47b533deb946310be5c81010828	Generic classes (Generics) introduced in Java 5 are supported.
af47b4deae24d45432cc22a2a8d9c0f90c7090de	Hibernate can be configured for "lazy" (deferred) collection downloads.
f16ccb90f669d406b8e7555ac5a624f5b36748bc	Deferred downloads are the default option starting with Hibernate 3.
80b256f474e82cb775883bb634ce801e653ca9af	Related objects can be configured for cascading operations.
684356411e5c01a5c086e96cb712abcc458f5d6d	For example, the parent class, Album, can be configured to cascade save and / or delete its child Track.
52ddb36c7c3d8a3e18b06dc40d90f5d69877a216	This can reduce development time and ensure integrity.
ca4383f224829be016e82db4458cdec588a9dff0	The dirty checking function allows you to avoid unnecessary recording of actions in the database by performing SQL updates only when the fields of persistent objects are changed.
d62a6f5a0e9902823ed6814a4ebf7c5efbc41e55	The success of the Hibernate library prompted JCP to develop the JDO specification, which became one of the standard ORM technologies on the JavaEE platform.
0ac4233274281d6ae5ef16c0b2ab4f7fa1637bc8	Hibernate is also compatible with JSR 220/317 and provides standard JPA tools.
d3bc7ba7cf35b68417eef7fb3e3eebf2640a0679	Hibernate provides the use of an SQL-like language, the Hibernate Query Language (HQL), which allows you to execute SQL-like queries written next to Hibernate data objects.
1471b4951f2b111edfaf2ecc147b728d13da8aa5	Criteria queries are provided as an Object-oriented alternative to HQL.
90543def489f62603750b907f23c859c46e43acd	Hibernate can be used both in standalone Java applications and in Java EE programs running on the server (for example, a servlet or EJB components).
67439e36d0144aad96e7bc61895d28bb379a29f2	It can also be included as an additional feature to other programming languages.
065f7bd2c1163c5a521804f3617ecacbaff0c96d	For example, Adobe integrated Hibernate into the ninth version of ColdFusion (running on servers with support for J2EE applications) with an abstraction layer of new functions and syntax attached to CFML.
15fb50c446a417cf757c40b1f6b66e372235369d	Hibernate is a library for the Java programming language designed to solve problems of object relational mapping (ORM).
aad0ba424c36c4f86fb46ba1268e26995ebe65e9	In a nutshell, ORM is the mapping of objects of an object-oriented language into relational database structures.
2e2a32a0330136bc061639efa102de7293d7beba	Namely, objects, such as they are, with all fields, values, relationships, and so on.
a7fadb163db10c97f683d2fde3a104fa4377268c	Hibernate significantly reduces the development time of applications working with databases, takes care of the connection of Java classes with database tables (and Java data types to SQL data types), provides tools for automatic query construction and data extraction.
4ba50d53135247f3499b12874b9093e787dcd4be	Let's write a small application that uses the Hibernate library to store and process an Oracle DBMS table.
dc2dac724d1c395350cf5274ac1a208c07d516d9	First we need to download Hibernate.
07fdcb1413407efd892194ab9891382531a510ed	At the time of writing, the latest version was Hibernate 4.1 and we will work with it.
0c99592852d95ce0cdf23980675f95091b465de8	Do not be alarmed if the library will weigh a lot, most likely, documentation and various use cases have been inserted into it, among other things.
e1dd51748dc712fd71df581bd87f075a4ec8189e	We will also need to download and install the Oracle DBMS.
68654f178faf04bb87abfc28ecf275b0ab3c5ea1	In this example, I will use Oracle 10.2, but you can install a newer version, there will not be much difference.
8547eaf33e22bfdca6e3e14a1640d4d43186369a	After installing Oracle, create a user and a database with some name, for example, MyDB.
c1caef1b09c352e540d21cfd3de7e5a974e1e4c3	In the database, we will create a simple Student table with three fields:
391a5cbbfd2e293b12ba16e2c93ad9ec5a73353f	Annotations are used here for Mapping Java classes to database tables.
ea983e3a010cf044f1cd11e6ebbc4b2c031be06b	Simply put, in order for Hibernate to know that this class is an entity, that is, we will store objects of this class in the database.
e83d9efa96e54996fc456ed384af46c5e6e88731	The annotations used here have the following meaning:
070549dea0552c8179fdb23a5c180449fe4b8cbc	Now we will create a util package, and in it the HibernateUtil class, which will be responsible for processing this xml file and establishing a connection with our database:
3bb25d6eecc8253beaeddfe55e7ed2cfdc923ac6	Now it remains for us to deal with the interaction of our application with the database.
254c994750456b886ed497594aedf382d4f364f5	Then, for the entity class, we will define the StudentDAO interface from the DAO package, containing a set of necessary methods:
51701106a33c6f0b0e9c462981bcca26e852ac9b	Now we define the implementation of this interface in the SudentDAOImpl class in the DAO.Impl: package.
5a5ba0c33adea2e59a60c5739d860796d52400e9	In principle, everything is intuitively clear here.
3c5d62671710f0dad49bc2fbfbda4e254fd6287f	Let's create a Factory class in the DAO package, to which we will refer for our DAO implementations, from which we will call the methods we need:
d8d55e557a98d0fc7a1b518199ffe0c975a2b14f	In the previous part, we looked at the simplest example of using Hibernate.
afe447e3155c03bf11cc00d3e9ffecfc0867b497	In the second part, we will look at the types of queries to the database.
fc93f6fb7dd1ec123d6434226e19d25ceb086951	Queries return a set of data from the database that meets the specified condition.
cae84915afc4c007403a04cc4e576597ccf90e1c	The Hibernate library offers three types of database queries:
aaed5789104d1d7213ec24cc7115065c51bffd09	The Criteria object is created using the createCriteria method of an instance of the Session class:
70755489a6705b3a023d58782d50521c2966acbe	SQL is a universal language used for creating, modifying and managing data in relational databases.
f0459f9ebaedc71fc6875a0219ac974821209d67	Hibernate allows you to express queries in the native SQL dialect.
c8c7f860412407e83f45315f383f97dbf71532de	In the first case, using query. setString, we specify the ordinal number of the parameter (?) and the String type value that will be substituted instead.
cc91cb3346a1c8e829b139d9bf04c565d9642452	If the value is of type Long, it will be setLong, if Date, then setDate, and so on.
eb32e76be46c8aecec67bb85a2f74e9d45bdc397	In the second case, the parameter name is set explicitly, so the value is set to the parameter by name.
c88018871648525fece59be43fc38be95410179c	Hibernate allows you to make queries in HQL(The Hibernate Query Language), which is very similar to the SQL language, with the difference that it is completely object-oriented.
0377dfee1c55a63c67512b01a35075029a341e9c	If the query using SQL was made using the CreateSQLQuery method, then in HQL it will simply be createQuery.
8e839688e01ba01e9dfe145feb09335f1aa963d0	A simple example:
9ec8ea3402fbe2438acf83fb7cc6bc9a2723680c	In general, the HQL language is relatively complex, but it is rich and gives a lot of features.
44cdfb6ed4094b18d9d88d531807af5dfa0286cb	In Part 1 and Part 2, we looked at creating the simplest Student table using Hibernate, and also looked at the possibilities of querying this table.
812afda2deca43ff6aed5cc3bb02c2045470e38b	In this article, we will learn how to link several tables together using annotations.
430c8da241035cd48f47e0beb871775387c20244	To begin with, in addition to the Student table, let's create two more tables, Test and Statistics.
54a45cbc3174df2ef0e9a6bb4161417e4db6e3e5	They will be linked as follows:
766b059337651c557d46308cc2b963897d3ae7bb	The Statistics table is used to link the Student and Test tables to avoid a many - to-many relationship.
5e1a191fe0d6d0c5e0819fd3ede7c76ffbf393de	The TestDAO and TestDAOImpl classes are created in the same way as for the Student entity.
4cb70a0d3caf5eb65f974dfd2b24ef4cae677023	It remains only to show Hibernate how these tables are related to each other.
6acf7466393ef29d0601a81af75ad41112e51b18	The following types of annotations are provided for this in Hibernate
f385633f8bc5540beaee5fc6ecdd8358f2d9dea4	As you can see, in the Student class, we declared an attribute of the Statistics type and indicated that this table is connected by a many - to-one relationship with the table represented by the Statistics entity class.
a6d0378cfa11f9b6594d49414ab6ece9d5aad54a	And in the Statistics class, they indicated a one - to-many relationship with the Student class.
b27e5d73651368755481b4a9658fa99f91dbfd29	Using the @JoinTable annotation, we specify which field is the foreign key to the current table.
c538b0e5ef655bd9b039eaab063a913c0a777a09	In the same way, we denote the relationship of the Test and Statistics tables by simply adding the code to the Test class:
07744af41d67141aad29afe774aa169d23b1102c	In the Statistics class, we annotate the one - to-many relationship with the Test class:
c0016e1dacb04768430ce4827e5d7bced4a799a4	Since the Statistics table is not just a table associated with Student and Test, but it breaks the unwanted many-to-many relationship, we can also show this to Hibernate.
5e83628240f488dc2f50aa84e6f5a0bfb6e6ff5a	Simply, instead of separately denoting the relationship in each table, we will denote the entire relationship in one, for example, in the Test table by adding the code:
bfad05cb35ae12cb2a5a9cbcd0f46530d09ace7e	In previous articles, we looked at how you can create tables for storage in a database using the Hibernate Framework.
ec097485297446b48cff985a050f6b5ea5711dbe	We learned how to link these tables together, and also got acquainted with various types of queries to these tables using Hibernate tools.
8e49735009405a0258c321294fc9098dcaf57f6f	In this article, we will study the management and configuration of Hibernate using the Spring Framework library.
57a07d6ef73fbb495ce884f4dcd22d231bb42820	Using the Spring library, we will set up a connection to the database, establish a connection with it, and also learn how to manage transactions.
24d618f30c8fced92bcdd7be58165beb570dbb1f	Let's create a project of the Maven Project type in Eclipse and call it HibernateSpringExample.
5696b94d75e3c793e511f08f2515feda6d6f1fbc	The configuration file will be located in the main directory pom.xml:
d4a1769e126358afeceb6f5f634a7c403a0e9a0f	As you can see, there are a lot of dependencies, but Maven will easily download them and add them to our project, thereby making this hard work easier for us.
fdd47924455d4230eb3d24b1bc869f31dadf1095	I want to pay special attention to the last dependency.
7b01eaa825d556a79ece8383326a60e705407e30	This is a jdbc driver for connecting to a database.
1c896333fe1d3db5a8a369feefe26416bb6b53e8	You can't download it in the repositories, so to use it in our project, we will first register it.
96fe15e6d79abf67798c9d40660fde96655efee7	To do this, download the necessary jdbc driver manually.
0ba2b7bfd04fcc4a36e7b1403ff435196e1f05e9	Through the command line, go to the directory where our driver is located, and run the command:
0e71e6fe48ac668326dbe67cd4b80179d6223d8f	Now in the package ru. javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample of the main directory.let's create the StudentDAO java interface, in which we will describe the main methods of working with our database:
3866e15d0901e6b3b05645d3747d8d0b27734511	Hibernate is an object-relational memory management and stable framework that provides many additional features-from introspection to polymorphism and inheritance transformation.
213281abd896d9eb2f0203f093c41a5c0baa68aa	And converting a class hierarchy into a relational database model can be quite difficult.
79f2015705d7c04c7d73663b1bcf5c7b619cc32d	This article describes three strategies that can be applied in daily programming to simplify the transformation of complex object models into relational database models.
2249ce48eaf6670390aa15315e08a8a6d854e21c	Hibernate has a number of advantages over other similar approaches to object-relational management (JDO, data management components, internal program development, etc.): it is an accessible source program that has reached a high degree of maturity, it is widely used and actively discussed.
f2ef5bd214a40a047e224795e104ffb9dd06cca7	To integrate the Hibernate package into an existing Java project, you need to go through the following steps:
9f06d47104449501c3b089bc40613d3e06ead393	Download the latest version of the Hibernate framework from the Hibernate Web site.
32ec1009d0fef8cfb01776d66c3301cce474220a	Copy the necessary Hibernate libraries (JAR files) to your CLASSPATH applications.
13ba191a5b8671eaf8949b7255f0adc15b0afb4a	Create XML configuration files that will be used to convert your Java objects into database tables. (We will describe this process in this article).
642be5ffa562da6790b9e7d2a65a534904a84c9d	Copy the XML configuration files to your CLASSPATH applications.
1165551e1e12b12489756275315dc341ef3f6a28	You will see that you will not have to modify any Java object to support the basics.
4795e95edf4f5a18009373737a922e208d3427f3	Imagine, for example, that you need to change the database table that your Java application used - for example, rename a column.
58d123c00427e4bb703e6a61ab3fe8a448e93786	All you need to do to modify your Java application (to change the table) is to change the corresponding XML configuration file.
62ed31e8fa5c09ba5e814935f32809a1f9fe5566	Hibernate provides a query language called the Hibernate Query Language, similar to SQL.
c364bd5b51e87ce4c35f5db6ad04ff087411b63d	For those of you who prefer the good old SQL queries, Hibernate still gives you the opportunity to use them.
550daa6c4933aec740148d6c0f389ec986031ad2	We will use HQL exclusively in our examples.
b971d374eb01b062460d224c7f912f3968d4a863	You will find all the familiar keywords that you know from SQL, such as: SELECT, FROM and WHERE.
a0abae083df6cdf29e65139d99c2436e0d6849d4	HQL differs from SQL in that you do not write queries directly in your data model (i.e. in tables, columns, etc.), but in Java objects, using their properties and relationships.
6633cc91fe9fbe4b0686d016292e07383def347a	You can refer to the HQL link on the Hibernate Website if you want to learn more about the HQL syntax
1e348e15e85a6f596885c745d1f31961ec6f3e4f	The essence of the Hibernate functionality is XML configuration files.
f88cdcf511d583b665382ff8b441db0a95f9f881	These files should be located in your CLASSPATH application.
f0248f695b5b03fa73beff730f596d540404953d	We have placed them in the directory of our package with sample codes
6256096b6c96b8d0f1b4d2f0f17e25d62cb5ae38	The first file that we will consider is hibernate.ctg.xml.
6b1cab7b76d1f43f78033a55c8270a71cdd34f10	It contains information corresponding to your data source (DB URL, schema name, username, password, etc.), and refers to other configuration files that will contain the information you need about the conversion.
db783fca7878c1fddd301ae19b10f4520d01cefd	Saved XML files allow you to convert Java classes independently of database tables.
70d9bb1d05c30b76536ce0ee4397ca3625126e55	Next, we will look at these files in more detail, but for now it is important to note that the file names are created according to the sample ClassName.hbm.xml.
22c0305c3c4838fffae1bb2a9edac34f1bd64b30	In this article, we will look at a basic example that shows how Hibernate works and implements three different strategies with which you can use Hibernate for object-relational transformation.
bc078adf8d5150b4de37749cc03ce180301c5184	Our trial application will be used by an insurance company, which must preserve legal records with copyrights, which is guaranteed to buyers.
34f0001372ca587faed0ade56ca96fca4c40c398	We provide the full source code of the program for this article (see Resources); this source program provides the main functions with which you can build a complete application, such as Web or Swing applications.
055aefb89360c075e7d907482613b372b53f2ccd	Our sample assumes a classic use for such types of applications.
640d04060ac2c96cc31a6e85dc5687f9de2f9123	The user can provide a search criterion for different buyers (individual, corporate, for government organizations, etc.), and then present a list of all buyers distributed according to a special criterion - even if the buyers belong to different groups.
927465deb74d9a37055f2b330603cedcd2b2e68a	The user can provide the buyer from this list with the opportunity for a more detailed review.
8ecd12599129c38feada183b8bd6df0827d69419	In our application, copyright is represented by the Right class.
10e486ecf19b146aec5d5ddd8e73895ddb731739	Right can be either Lease or Property.
3b8680082d3bdd6dbc9de9fed9e7e8d72812ec95	Right - the property of the buyer.
585f7f4377d0b9b54019ead24fc3be589cde55d1	To designate our customer, we use the generalized Person class.
bb77b8fbb6ecfe5aabaac1392b67d9fce89e63f5	A Person can be either Individual (personal) or Corporation (corporate).
007df8fe6265e4d50109ba8e4ed93e78bf10f78f	Of course, the insurance company must know the Estate (property) to which these Rights are attributed.
e07826fbef6dfc5d4d977c7dc9da8a64163adbdb	Estate is a very generalized element, you will agree.
e0a328bbca626ff9f73c1ceecaa466be27757650	Therefore, we will use the Land and Building classes to provide our developers with more understandable terms for their work.
9d2a7ce5df68129a2fefe844b4a306c7128d3768	Our database model has been modeled to describe three different strategies, which we will discuss in this article.
06ff0b3b6aee41a8524143ba4b13a793b3f151d6	For the Right hierarchy, we use one table (TB RIGHT) and convert it to the desired class using the DISCRIMINATOR column.
d7d6bfd1bb470019bc356eb91f302a5bae0b4d32	Hibernate supports a wide variety of RDBMS, each of which can work according to our sample.
b898598656ba2aa2c182ce9b1648afcfa6928609	However, the sample code and the text of this article are adapted to HSQLDB (see Resources), a fully functional relational database written entirely in Java.
023eb2f5e0365ed37e910097c2b726c7f0d8dc0c	In the SQL Reference, you will find a file called datamodel. sql.
ad45e98300b0244eb5b519974a4712b3854963a5	This SQL text creates a model of the data used in our sample.
bcd41edc1f6c852b1fb1a24f8c68783c4835d9df	You can also always build and execute a sample code using the command line; you can consider installing the project in the IDE for better integration.
5e1f3967856c420f1e899401ec11954bc19e9cbb	Make sure that the necessary Java libraries and XML configuration files are copied to your application CLASSPATH.
00c14b944a03e2d11c3ab4396ff6a3baba87f906	The code only needs the Hibernate and HSQLDB libraries for proper translation and execution.
ad840e22acf05c8af07a32f0a9541194f5c839be	In our first strategy, we will look at how to transform the Person hierarchy.
6ace710699c891c78d692f76800e67df877ea1d3	You will notice that the data model is very close to our class model.
66ef675bac35194b5dd8c9294ec70104edf0b181	Therefore, we will use different tables for each class in the hierarchy, but all these tables must have the same key (we will explain this in more detail in due time).
23206ef96ea5e450a048bbf596fd3eee02f4ba4c	Hibernate uses this initial key when new records are included in the database.
59e52c8ed5be278a415357bd6be90e6effecd772	It can also use the same initial key to perform JOIN operations during database access.
6e3dca897c0a00a90310351fc62a833347221c82	Now we need to transform our object hierarchy.
d3effd0716828974c6761d0218540638cd7aa617	Hibernate is one of the most popular ORM frameworks today.
a54e9a2d852275aca01f0c54257759f61c797181	Of course, the fact that we got rid of SQL is a plus, but we should not forget about the negative sides, the main of which is performance.
8f52a287a8d4d3553c30ed2bd8e2fc22434d6926	It goes without saying that working with the database through well-written SQL code will be more productive than using Hibernate.
3df4e29253473de08f49cae8851ce09233404e98	However, SQL still needs to be able to write correctly, while Hibernate creates optimized queries.
a97d743e64b7b7dc54c754b0f2abb14898737948	Developers also spend a lot of time writing queries and stored procedures, while working with Hibernate speeds up the development process.
11d6810c8f7c91ca9d2e2f98fb437dbbee2764a1	One of the attractive aspects of Hibernate is that it supports dialects to all popular DBMSs.
a628adedd3328786d7d7e227cf5a8a0b6468c215	Our applications are also becoming DBMS independent, because the only thing that will have to be changed if we want to switch to another DBMS is the dialect in the Hibernate configuration.
530b3a53fedd863383fec8d5d2d42aa42d803feb	The most important task of Hibernate is to make the developer think in terms of objects.
2d3c80c7b13d4992aae97a01a3c3561bc43ae0f4	And not just at the table level – at the level of relationships between tables.
2d178f6ba1a8ae8bba5b8122b1c7c9fda74a49a7	That is, if the same student is studying in a group, then the relationship should be at the object level, and not at the level of the student's groupId field.
abb19635e0adf9afe5019186298c7b01fb4a898f	In other words, the uploaded "Student" object must have a link to the “Group " object.
917862ee8b0965996151a2bd7e58a8e9c17a6fbc	Moreover – to get data about the “Student " object group, you do not need to make an explicit request to the database.
5523917efd3fff8a828834e8a0e81a87f96adbc9	This function should be taken over by Hibernate – in the Java code, we just have to call the student.getGroup()method
888b45a568832ce0a119e6af92da2e0a1f38e25b	In principle, all packages like Hibernate are designed for exactly this purpose – to enable the developer to think in terms of objects and relationships between them.
12f8d977be9602bae00e74d062eed9a849ed35a5	Moreover, these relations can be different – one to one, one to many, many to one, many to many.
9154a9154be2000823d2c4b19bcc676c41251799	Another important thing to note is that you can create class hierarchies.
4741a7290a55e4cb451eae225295dfaa2c32ae03	Yes, yes, it is inheritance that inspires the advocates of object-oriented programming so much.
fdad82e212ebfa3e5a679e6bc7f012ea8826133a	Of course, not everything is absolutely chic and smooth, but in general it is quite decent.
52a44571922406a13c87b276b73b5b9874885eab	At first, all these difficulties will seem superfluous – well, in the end, that we should write several SQL queries to get data-add, query, fix and delete.
8e0ca9c245f51660db47e69c72a9dbb53b7c2d9c	For example, complex queries that are often required to create puzzling reports are often easier and more efficient to do in SQL.
863a34f0b0c7a01b5f0371def8b837bb92758177	Hibernate (library)
6d3307a2700606deecd08ec25663c32eb622ef00	Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
4c5d93f19de689f778f835376afc0cef8e068d5c	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on June 7, 2014; checks require 18 edits.
def0aa5411f5bf77f7f7d54dc8a02638bd5069c6	Go to: navigation, Search
3a6e5eb464b5dac415a3feb55ba9d009e07f7677	This term has other meanings, see Hibernate.
0b6ee070870c32f24915618dad4c22c50e5fd1c0	Hibernate Object Relational Mapping Type
4275ba1a592e006a0db6f239d82a3a77199aa972	Red Hat Developer
fd9cf4939beaa1d85157ce274bb34a0cb8256846	Written in Java
c62350bde1c1c994e20efb5bc36045297c158737	Java Virtual Machine Hardware Platform
afbea685ae079a9618be26f20f7582ac719c8667	The latest version is 4.3.10 Final (May 15, 2015)
913704314c140732f3f5c1a16b05a8d028d0f5f6	Test version of ORM 5.0.0. CR1[1] (May 28, 2015)
8b5103ce1792f561a32beebc6f357e4d5f8eecd4	GNU Lesser General Public License
3beee6f91fe58509f260c637f1e98e8bc8fed981	Website hibernate.org
57494398f97650de363ea89ac9d4ce530c4ebf24	This library provides an easy to use framework for mapping an object oriented data model to traditional relational databases.
4f9be057f0ea5d2ba72fd2c810e8d7b9aa98b469	Content
f54d0da96c1c13efa0fbaccfef8aa7135207f61a	1 Main Features 2 Mapping 3 Persistence 4 Hibernate Query Language (HQL) 5 Integration 6 Components 7 History 8 Literature 9 Analogues on other platforms 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References
570752a2a484943f323373f7dac3b061bc7c71f9	Main features[edit / edit wiki text]
49eccb0aaa68b00c2f96e145345ea54a2c182a25	The goal of Hibernate is to free the developer from a significant amount of relatively low level programming to ensure the storage of objects in a relational database.
26a686fc5298ea1f9d186b853b09790193971c6e	Mapping (mapping, projection)
83bb471847fb2064d98b738270f394ee4b435fd8	Java classes with database tables are implemented using XML configuration files or Java annotations.
dfbaa1a7f29df76f6dded7b1fd1d39d9a747f9af	When using an XML file, Hibernate can generate a skeleton of the source code for long term storage classes (persistent).
7ccf65beda73e86c89bfbc1e54813bddfa994fee	It provides opportunities for organizing the relationship between the "one to many" and "many to many" classes.
1bc67c51008ff4fe9d95bdcba6361acb9b20950d	In addition to managing relationships between objects, Hibernate can also manage reflexive relationships, where an object has a one - to many relationship with other instances of its own data type.
34799ff3aa56babf2179a88dbbbce81e32805f02	Projecting a single property into several columns.
6cfbc09c29a601dad9a3b8effacc481b204e7237	Persistence[edit / edit wiki text]
9fd300f1ba6ffcf7e58866d32c4f71bc326fb737	Hibernate Query Language (HQL)[edit / edit wiki text]
fd8ee9b82d22b46ff27d4e522c198fc4cddf3cfe	Hibernate provides the use of an SQL like language, the Hibernate Query Language (HQL), which allows you to execute SQL like queries written next to Hibernate data objects.
def13052b2f280240e1f702db5a4b6b283d89a7e	Criteria queries are provided as an Object oriented alternative to HQL.
e011c094ef0411f78b9b974eaeb6613173a31c68	Integration[edit / edit wiki text]
55aca32feafd331929aebea6601c0a86ca51209d	Components[edit / edit wiki text]
501cf138bb163807491aaa5db0d60e0bf84bbf70	Hibernate ORM (before version 4.1, it was called Hibernate Core[3]) — the Hibernate core, its own API, xml mapping (mapping) of object metadata (support for metadata in the form of annotations since version 3.6)[4]
a4bde15d9e50aae0b08db520664f54b6da00875a	Hibernate Annotations (since version 3.6 merged with Hibernate Core/ORM) — mapping using JDK 5.0 annotations, both standard for JPA and native extensions[5] Hibernate EntityManager — implementation of the Java Persistence API for Java SE and Java EE[6] Hibernate Envers — audit of persistent classes[7] Hibernate OGM — Object/Grid Mapper — extension for storing data in NoSQL storage[8] Hibernate Shards — a framework for sharding (a kind of horizontal scaling, that is, splitting databases into sections on some basis) [9]
b9faea3302d918c4806599b0f69946a83dac7f22	Hibernate Validator annotations and API for verifying the correctness and integrity of data Hibernate Search integration of Hibernate with the Lucene search engine, for the purpose of indexing and searching data Hibernate Tools development tools for Eclipse and Ant Hibernate Metamodel Generator annotation handler that creates classes of the static metamodel JSR 317 Java Persistence API (JPA 2), using the JSR 269 Pluggable Annotation Processing API[10]
52625b3585d5ea92027578f34ebfdd4106393f7f	History[edit / edit wiki text]
82c8deb71cb786d2699dd76006187882c3696e76	July 2002 version 1.0 June 2003 version 2.0 March 31, 2005 version 3.0 October 16, 2006 — Hibernate Core, Annotations, Entity Manager 3.2.0.GA -JPA support In December 2013, Hibernate ORM 4.3.0 was released.
7ef6d6ea4b80da9a0b3662842fe8d6163d1288e0	Work is underway on 5.0.
a8bff86af49580d1b98561fe61cbfed98655de0b	Literature[edit / edit wiki text]
ef81eabf6e44dbbc2b60ffb9f2a92249ccc4fd33	Elliott, James.
12886d786182b5752bd46e4327220932726aab7c	Hibernate: A Developer's Notebook.
78c607bab41faa920127cf5bfce77209d1e7d631	— 1st ed.
0b8f8c6e0e8dac3ac5835dc5cfca2fd9577aef5b	— O'Reilly Media, 2004, May 10.
94aa8bd4f8032b8cc2baf4bdc48f1302bf1479a9	— 190 p.
807ab3eb6ac94275154cc9729deaffc4e5bfd141	— ISBN 0-596-00696-9, ISBN 978-0-596-55653-2 (e book), ISBN 0-596-55653-5 (e book).
b17b309407607c02cd6c6a18e096dfffa98edab5	One of the first books on Hibernate, written by an experienced developer from Singlewire Software, who worked with object oriented technologies long before it became popular[11].
b08b09502a53650bc20f93bd5f74652d36669a8e	Bauer, Christian, King, Gavin.
0598709b905c0705d9ca14749d9cb4d483485f3e	Hibernate In Action.
8c2430aa0403c987905c4685fb3508cd372840c7	— Greenwich: Manning Publications, 2004, August 1.
dc1e69f62dd186ea96c305b015ba5d85ed389286	— 408 p.
6b93937d4961fb4b3be938f39912b2874a7ab69e	— (In Action). — ISBN 1-932394-15 X, ISBN 978-1-932394-15-3.
771ab5f4cf26fa588cbe8f26b6b5399e9a688916	Christian Bauer is a member of the Hibernate development team, Gavin King is the founder of the Hibernate project, a member of the EJB 3.0 Expert group (JSR 220), a leader in the development of the Web Beans JSR 299 standard, which includes the concepts of Hibernate, JSF and EJB 3.0.
b1a3ab002ad6699994491f7b7ad9e88386191c89	The book describes the outdated version of Hibernate 2. x.
d5d96d2fad3073e1194087b68954596ec48b83a8	It is considered one of the best according to critics [12]
897b21549431a5c160170749fc80776f320373a5	Java Persistence with Hibernate / Foreword by Linda DeMichiel.
d2603dd704961ae2878385c9c0737c37703d86f4	— Greenwich: Manning Publications, 2006, November 24.
28fac95defee5977e02fd3f4863f8837ea6e2a82	— 904 p.
003b4d560e8ccfd25115221edcc86b509892e9c2	— ISBN 1-932394-88-5, ISBN 978-1-932394-88-7.
ee15327c050aa14c832f1c330d1b1e3bc371e4c3	In fact, this is an updated and revised version of the book "Hibernate in Action", it describes Hibernate 3. x and JPA.
cdc49cf2708b1604349f458ca4c0ff335669ace4	The second edition of this book, describing Hibernate 5, is scheduled for release in early 2015 (individual chapters have been posted in electronic form since March 2013)[13]
3c5b32bf6e0fed4829e41ad2c77d23dc5cfcfe89	Linwood, Jeff, Minter, Dave.
7305e062a4b36ac45b5a45079e5d510652a1795f	Beginning Hibernate: From Novice to Professional.
7e8870d1fdda655a8d2210c910b3252238fc4385	— 3rd ed.
faef58b21216060a58d841dec90ec351c15d019f	— Apress, 2006, August 25.
11512b5ecc1e0bdf3cab5d1cf94a6b3db011376a	— 360 p.
fb159603fbfd29a2c3051bab377a3c8105cb45ec	— ISBN 1-59059-693-5.
96953f601b04d0284ed60119e0e3ebd8cded4196	Beginning Hibernate.
1ca17123e0c74606fd526c737cbe60fcb8f51c94	— 2nd ed.
834216abc35ae1e9b3f2cc827ba3b18f488974fb	— Apress, 2010, May 28.
318f9dff8b4437a075e8ef56696d80bc05a905d5	— 400 p.
a1bf474304cfa5c6122feb30cd2f21841716e66b	— ISBN 1-4302-2850-4.
cf8f75ea194d16f0dbe2f5288a92172d30b2b29e	Elliott, James, O'Brien, Timothy M., Fowler, Ryan.
1d0c2ca8c03109f01875cdec5f0bc6ca10d66783	Harnessing Hibernate.
aa8f5f219fd6a90031320e3fdb4123669f5b3d11	— O'Reilly Media, 2008, April 22.
f83bd91cf46ad1b1557843679759221e63f4c812	— 382 p.
0f030d1ee65245d0413c182d87315f15c6c7a4d7	— ISBN 978-0-596-51772-4, ISBN 0-596-51772-6, ISBN 978-0-596-15948-1 (e book), ISBN 0-596-15948 X (e book).
2cca16241a92c666ec1e6cc10d61980fc8bbedd4	Bernard, Emmanuel, Griffin, John.
d9bf11357320ce4d3b6fa64b7ece1aaba0879952	Hibernate Search in Action.
21554d830c42b012ced15900016d639ba5fa14e6	— Manning Publications, 2008, December 30.
be65937fdef6c2b0e9f3a3c6330c45de25a1bf93	— 488 p.
2f7dfb2a4b4c0eeacb741f1f86d22c295f516586	— (In Action). — ISBN 1-933988-64-9.
fd5d1dcad89dc15def4bf556ea92bc25045815c1	Analogues on other platforms[edit / edit wiki text]
5ae8cbb34931a5a1fb4b2f65c1761d275b31529d	NHibernate is a similar solution for the platform .NET
5e34346e368281e28aea9e78330f1b0126b5173b	See also[edit / edit wiki text]
3a79db3c7e6390e93b251d7178abc15fac61b7ff	There is a wikiuchebnik on the topic
70b9ccb8e038fcd70d177e7e46fcd7a807d08aab	"Java Persistence (English)"
367bf591fe6a20c59392bb9da1ed1d6157bc4887	Serialization of Enterprise JavaBeans 3.0 NHibernate a port of Hibernate to the platform .NET MyBatis iBATIS JPA EclipseLink
35b753bcda260031e31090ba7dfd13b2f4ec8ad7	Notes[edit / edit wiki text]
b672b147ffffd32b2ccbf698c0c0b7853e819afd	↑ Hibernate ORM 5.0.0. CR1 ↑ Recommendations for using the equals() and hashCode() methods in Hibernate(unavailable link history).
2bced87ebd47fea21d18f64dc81d0efb247fb552	Checked on August 20, 2009.
52c2c8e36696756bcf2236aafc2369196db2a4b0	Archived from the original source on December 6, 2003.
4d8968f085375442144999de9029412888f257fb	↑ About the reason for the name change Hibernate Core -> Hibernate ORM ↑ HIBERNATE Relational Persistence for Idiomatic Java.
3a260fb6cd3668f9fdb92f14266de168a97bbc74	JBoss Community.
78ed4fc826dcb44fb06668c258dcb06511e61ce8	Archived from the original source on February 17, 2012.
b44e13cd81c26d1e501cfa2b6d54288c389b2739	↑ Hibernate Annotations.
0cc33de4f34262f6cce4f02b23b15c82c7a590bc	↑ Hibernate EntityManager.
209cee8ef6a0eaab58b5a4b953ebc40626cc3e21	↑ Hibernate Envers – Easy Entity Auditing.
50f85e6f40dc643fa4cb0e57886f605e8a1beb26	↑ Hibernate OGM.
bfcb96e966992e4b8f74b4ff5500306579bdd1c7	Glover, Andrew.
e4400e4441f19627278a98791029d26a3b8ea2b2	Java development 2.0: The second Wave of Java Application Development: Sharding using Hibernate Shards (February 27, 2012).
b9c32d4c06a88ad2115bcbcd4055a6cdc11d881f	Archived from the original source on July 19, 2013.
5a3c65b387e0b5283677d934652b6d8a3a81c21b	↑ Hibernate Metamodel Generator.
4de2631cf6ee7ff0a79bad1c0d1ee46f38274ed7	↑ James Elliott at O’Reilly ↑ Hibernate In Action on Amazon ↑ Java Persistence with Hibernate, Second Edition.
e56a151746ff02eebb4afee3cffe44bba0157281	Christian Bauer, Gavin King, and Gary Gregory
0baa909bb87bd34f0ea319a7cc5bf7ed1ecb907b	Links[edit / edit wiki text]
ba28131bf75ba3b13ce84275b92e0a83cc8ac721	Official website of Hibernate (English) Article "Reference Documentation on Hibernate" (Rus.)
9c59a9577092829f5d01047418f4e6e04d57fd1c	Java Persistence API Cayenne · DataNucleus · EasyBeans · EclipseLink · Hibernate · TopLink · OpenEJB · OpenJPA
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95040b8a19d224ee1069e9cebaeded46fcfd477f	/Java Hibernate
67c3a5b53528ba1a02e5cd6a3922d4c8bddd9ef8	Java Hibernate
78a8035424134451df2e6598f672da28a7dd1c4c	In a nutshell, ORM is the mapping of objects of an object oriented language into relational database structures.
64ec8eac38e9d48f87814c5e30d7d957d12b4617	1) id id
59653c733c8dce94064c9646a6e39f4fcef01b9a	2) name — the name of the student
8e9c00e777d02cf069bcb9389c8ee643cd234578	3) age — his age
1769f61cd869d63544cc229e60436106c3c99742	For those who do not yet know how to create tables in Oracle:
8f27e485241e92a999938325f3337829be5f2905	CREATE TABLE Student(id NUMBER(10) NOT NULL,name varchar2(100) NOT NULL, age NUMBER(3) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT pk Student PRIMARY KEY(id));
0b11feaa603ac733bef6ea434f4eca025c7b1157	Work with Oracle is finished, let's go to Eclipse.
17e94355d9fbc5daa97b5d3c5649b39608ff6c08	Create a new java project, give it a name, say, HibernateSimpleExample.
cccad9c42956644f5dad37d546bf4202e82ca40d	We add our library to it using Build Path -> Configure Build Path -> Add External JARs.
b113dddba9564ac774d9b2ae4191dcc97335615c	Select all jar files from the lib folder of our library.
2e8df5dcf29438203bb8bde5194a4b815f25bd9b	Also, Hibernate requires a special jdbc driver to work with Oracle for a specific version, which can be found here.
113c0ab39034d2435e0550519a7644f3ab780174	Download it and add it to the project in the same way.
033b262caf32879832ca9c3d8dad4dbcbc8b2a79	Get closer to the code!
b3bd08c6a9865a9a0c287cd44457e82df647f1b7	First, create a logic package.
2fd72358255de1c1990919de628ca31796a85dca	In it, we will describe our entity class, which we will store in the database:
af63345ca89d1b31a084c2c82f0399f1034ffe8a	package logic;
9ddb24db956611da3d9671fa4b9eecc3ad7a5114	import javax.persistence.Column; import javax.persistence.Entity; import javax.persistence.GeneratedValue; import javax.persistence.Id; import javax.persistence.Table;
1e0777660f30292d549537a5c4b2c681cbb97d8c	import org.hibernate.annotations.GenericGenerator;
4036d6a6d3641a2db56439ad1a5c355e7b154d88	@Entity @Table(name="Student") public class Student
60ba4b2daa4ed4d070fec06687e249e0e6f9ee45	{
da26151bb012cd1e702efc3696fa7f9f71cb863a	private Long id; private String name; private Long age;
2f0fdc2353362c1094948948e4c71735ff75e10e	public Student(){ name = null; }
d577c2c8bc4b5f7baf17f2d96b2dc7903a326b0a	public Student(Student s){ name = s.getName(); }
a339961d05a35bb66a1e9f936fe88bc58883e30d	@Id @GeneratedValue(generator="increment") @GenericGenerator(name="increment", strategy = "increment") @Column(name="id") public Long getId() { return id; }
04931e95a4ab05e636c380be14f533bb2e6784ff	@Column(name="name") public String getName(){ return name; }
4624ac36f03131d0e0b6033d62f96aaef4d14507	@Column(name="age") public Long getAge(){ return age; }
8273aa8f3e07d521d575e66d70c11e4da2e48080	public void setId(Long i){ id = i; }
135370f4984177560d3b79b39c809f42072d90b5	public void setName(String s){ name = s; }
c9d8955e5c576314208aee77830c7ae305615a97	public void setAge(Long l){ age = l; }
c2b7df6201fdd3362399091f0a29550df3505b6a	}
d5a0f887b62b6b1d6eea89864609b1d4fd3be78d	@Entity indicates that this class is an entity.
ebb6fb4d3d9ae4cbaf7d371bf8ff8e8e83189845	@Table specifies the name of the table in which the objects of the class will be stored
0fd86ee1bc084882c954b5aa9da7dcef9fd25a7d	@Id indicates the id field
7b22616d0a3f13208058386a823a8c84580a9ad7	@GeneratedValue and @GenericGenerator indicates how the id will be generated (in ascending order for us)
8dc8b92dcbb0bf6c3357a0adb736069478e13e67	@Column indicates the name of the column corresponding to this field.
522c5d1caf7cb22e15148f3f334b5d9e220bcaa6	It is also worth noting that all entity classes must necessarily have getters, setters and a default constructor.
cd3ae43db4d1906a5105e03e9f0508cd4934ff8e	Now let's create the main configuration file hibernate.cfg.xml and put it in the bin folder of our project.
85608241cd161b3809ff9008e031ff32f3a691f8	From this file, Hibernate will take all the information it needs:
1d5605abb7f606e599997135678d686adb56db53	<!DOCTYPE hibernate configuration PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Configuration DTD 3.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate configuration 3.0.dtd"> <hibernate configuration> <session factory> <property name="connection.driver class">oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver</property> <property name="connection.url">jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:MyDB</property> <property name="connection.username">Your Login</property> <property name="connection.password">Your Password</property> <property name="connection.pool size">10</property> <property name="dialect">org.hibernate.dialect.OracleDialect</property> <property name="show sql">true</property> <property name="hbm2ddl.auto">update</property> <property name="hibernate.connection.autocommit">false</property> <property name="current session context class">thread</property>
f8882696e29832b6580f3f1ee41bdb8afb19246a	<mapping class="logic.
3e4a04907f6aa0893e461ecce7c994c60d18255a	Student" />
94e4bccf28c9930a77467f7acac4ec59d1f8facb	</session factory> </hibernate configuration>
67f6f471ccdb725a3b13187f3f884f1bc683f080	In principle, everything is clear here.
d6c232a9658a5d72d7ff0cd53ea0a02fa57734ce	I will only note that such fields as the driver name, url format, dialect are taken from the official website of the database developers.
71e419015d73a0941f668a09b6b68a0680586056	The username and password are specified for the user that you created in your DBMS.
980306edd8b79f4ad0072e80c131f789bf8cd188	The remaining fields are some additional settings that enable/disable some not particularly important options.
fc9c3ac5ab9e914ef6c98b3a4c2be05a17b760c4	package util;
0c3a0674b7ec898bd6b0311dddbc33071a083972	import org.hibernate.SessionFactory; import org.hibernate.cfg.Configuration;
75439cf4c3b6f0a4a79643670baa2ca8fbd126b2	public class HibernateUtil
46cf0e690c26360f12f144c645c84e502e192730	{ private static SessionFactory sessionFactory = null;
6b309c40dc78150b771e7ae682e6de6fcae023ad	static { try { //creates the session factory from hibernate.cfg.xml sessionFactory = new Configuration().configure().buildSessionFactory(); } catch (Exception e) { e.printStackTrace(); }
d9b316805ad7c1b0b9f3d21853c980d348a614a9	public static SessionFactory getSessionFactory() { return sessionFactory; }
142eb85638fccc93fe7ce25d5ec011f0c8a028d2	package DAO;
da960e17c70fa7e7ace1704929c26f6e90625c26	import java.sql.SQLException; import java.util.List;
8580ea2296fd3f258eb0781507d7e71d4e4cd447	import logic.
17b2fbe3878507209a61cda51413c8adc2d1e20d	Student;
973347f0013205c07ce63550279a5ff3123f25ec	public interface StudentDAO
d58d61b88d96b2acda3dacb174e7226301ba18d7	{ public void addStudent(Student student) throws SQLException;
a56679ac5222570755ab43ac09706f776e1082c5	//add student public void updateStudent (Student student) throws SQLException;/ / update student public Student getStudentById(Long id) throws SQLException;
1cfc7553601f48ea0ac9294854741589b352e8cf	//get a student by id public List getAllStudents() throws SQLException;
80237ff750466dcfbabaa01fe340b97578c1bceb	//get all students public void deleteStudent (Student student) throws SQLException;//delete student }
0fe5d90a0585c3d4bc8ef448281ab7f5940cb073	package DAO.Impl;
a643d27a148baadbf3ea17c7feb579fd5d588c7b	import java.sql.SQLException; import java.util.ArrayList; import java.util.List; import javax.swing.JOptionPane; import org.hibernate.Session; import util.
29eb785eaecaadcf6f3b8607100cdd116c90fbf3	HibernateUtil; import DAO.StudentDAO; import logic.
d2a2f97a3b9d7e38dba04fd672786e332d8fb4fb	public class StudentDAOImpl implements StudentDAO
2a675bd6815810791df7eb9156365fce45a17703	public void addStudent(Student stud) throws SQLException
cc6cd30717c382f349a1aa85df579038bb6ad95a	{ Session session = null; try { session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().openSession(); session.beginTransaction(); session. save(stud); session. getTransaction (). commit (); } catch (Exception e) { JOptionPane. showMessageDialog(null, e. GetMessage (), "I/O error", JOptionPane.OK OPTION); } finally { if (session != null && session.isOpen()) { session.close(); } } }
0bfe38d8c217bf29d77bcfdb308a1a475fe3ecae	public void updateStudent(Student stud) throws SQLException
7a28ddfc7b5e36e499ffa13e36b9623b41d0f49d	{ Session session = null; try { session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().openSession(); session.beginTransaction(); session. update(stud); session. getTransaction (). commit (); } catch (Exception e) { JOptionPane. showMessageDialog(null, e. GetMessage (), "I/O error", JOptionPane.OK OPTION); } finally { if (session != null && session.isOpen()) { session.close(); } } }
0f21c50328c194a3f2f2faf1083d931dd646c109	public Student getStudentById(Long id) throws SQLException
a50c87fddf7c6896aeb3892aad0b768ae31df49d	{ Session session = null;
4a82253d41ac576eca30875e55a61c0773a05045	Student stud = null; try { session = HibernateUtil. getSessionFactory (). OpenSession(); stud = (Student) session. load(Student.class, id); } catch (Exception e) { JOptionPane. showMessageDialog(null, e. GetMessage (), "I/O error", JOptionPane.OK OPTION); } finally { if (session != null && session.isOpen()) { session.close(); } } return stud; }
5d32e3f66484ae12ee581558890f6afdea350edb	public List<Student> getAllStudents() throws SQLException
15eb0685ec135475f862f5a2e4b9ded073c08e14	List<Student> studs = new ArrayList<Student>(); try { session = HibernateUtil. getSessionFactory (). OpenSession(); studs = session.createCriteria(Student.class). list (); } catch (Exception e) { JOptionPane. showMessageDialog(null, e. GetMessage (), "I/O Error", JOptionPane.OK OPTION); } finally { if (session != null && session.isOpen()) { session.close(); } } return studs; }
45bebdc7996850d6302c4eef69e6dc8bf817cc51	public void deleteStudent(Student stud) throws SQLException
e8925fae6d53d76007f0458249dd49f8c1d821a4	{ Session session = null; try { session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().openSession(); session.beginTransaction(); session. delete(stud); session. getTransaction (). commit (); } catch (Exception e) { JOptionPane. showMessageDialog(null, e. GetMessage (), "I/O error", JOptionPane.OK OPTION); } finally { if (session != null && session.isOpen()) { session.close(); } } } }
828525a29a06a23fde46ec9381be0146d7e16d9e	import DAO.Impl.StudentDAOImpl;
d27cdedb52828eb8c546436a2814a91bf09ff2b7	public class Factory
f6bc3ded840a86a9fa90b38a7cff6aee225f28f6	private static StudentDAO studentDAO = null; private static Factory instance = null;
36094de37b5b970b0397d2e07492f4fd95b95c1b	public static synchronized Factory getInstance(){ if (instance == null){ instance = new Factory(); } return instance; }
d83d059e0bac73a330d30632bfdf630634497079	public StudentDAO getStudentDAO(){ if (studentDAO == null){ studentDAO = new StudentDAOImpl(); } return studentDAO; }
c728934d2992e5030d51bc58f121726cd6c441b4	Well, that's it!
e3dcaab30f82db3f3fc812030fe9d2719c7db890	It remains only to see how it works:
dccd2ae358b9f15786496f2b8bb1e47cc0cf1ecb	package main;
f4557895a8946f6b4e39bc97ea5a2bfa0da631a2	import DAO.Factory;
033e0a93cd91410a4f0991d01b74c7c62ff69fdb	public class Main
2724ab06b7463ef324fcb8939be3ffdbe1cdfda5	public static void main(String[] args) throws SQLException
4580c92fcd1bde25bb262d3513e5639d6520b11f	{ //Creating two students Student s1 = new Student();
cfdabe65e3ca0885434baca9510256972e8407a3	Student s2 = new Student();
d8b525e7e20696b769d868678a2b9af71c245e42	// Initialize them s1. setName ("Ivanov Ivan"); s1.setAge(21l); s2. setName ("Petrova Alisa"); s2. setAge(24l);
4779f0ba6afd70164ab61b69bf89ddaa0c4e33bb	//We will save them in the database, the ids will be generated automatically by Factory. getInstance().getStudentDAO().addStudent(s1);
85b53731f8833b36d513551bc3bfbb8049aeeace	Factory.getInstance().getStudentDAO().addStudent(s2);
c9125b372f6017b00323c9c0b1e5669cb5c23545	// Output all students from the database List<Student> studs = Factory. getInstance().getStudentDAO().getAllStudents();
7183e02641a66dc8a89bdd157977a938a5ace6bd	System.out.println("========All students========="); for (int i = 0; i < studs. size (); ++i)
68842f7955ed25281a83e7f950bb3d20e8305112	{ System.out. println ("Student name:" + studs.get(i).getName ()+", Age : "+ studs.get (i).getAge() +", id : " + studs.get(i).getId());
e8aaa155c0782eef998d9ab6fb2523d708ecdd4d	System.out.println("============================="); } } }
e44d4c8c7fe4aa3b07ec5e911f12af10f5cd67eb	Java Hibernate.
4a22d471bb712b95b84ec0fa6a4d18705631ffe1	Part 2 Requests
e127e3e50d33c719657b5f0e502c6a9ac41f2377	1) Criteria 2) SQL 3) HQL
058471605f8432e809a7188c9bffe93a2d401413	Let's start in order.
783a9108b6a7b3415e6993f874c5d7568b10d306	Queries using Criteria
63ede8b94a0a7ec81325bde889b54338a065ed1b	Criteria crit = session.createCriteria(Student.class);
6857e255fd6909c411b67ca6d401be6d75fef1df	//creating a query criterion crit. setMaxResults(50);/ / limiting the number of results List studies = crit. list ();//putting the results in the list
daf67fc614f3e98c6ba472f6130ecfe701144615	In this example, a query criterion was created based on the Student class from the Java Hibernate article.
7976d0406da3fdc6637c5c3f8fee51a7112bc104	Part 1 Introduction.
a77e4a121e3d9b9e5fafbceeb8ae49a618c89e08	The narrowing of the sample is carried out as follows:
a7a6e3910318d4f27ca11ad62ceafdd3e70ebb69	List studs = session.createCriteria(Student.class) .add( Expression.like("name", "Ivanov%") ) .add( Expression.between("age", 18, 25) ) .list();
054edac97abdfbcda9e2d5db41fc154106c6696d	List studs = session.createCriteria(Student.class) .add( Expression.like("name", "_van%") ) .add( Expression.or( Expression.eq( "age", new Integer(20) ), Expression.isNull("age") ) ) .list();
143d1d02474d996d219f8afc8608697fc44d6702	List studs = session.createCriteria(Student.class) .add( Expression.in( "name", new String[] { "Ivanov Ivan", "Petrov Petia", "Zubin Egor" } ) ) .add( Expression.disjunction() .add( Expression.isNull("age") ) .add( Expression.eq("age", new Integer(20) ) ) .add( Expression.eq("age", new Integer(21) ) ) .add( Expression.eq("age", new Integer(22) ) ) ) ) .list();
c9410c39cb8df27da6421fdd0e89ef452be36a7c	Expression.like specifies a pattern where ‘ _ ’ is any one character, ' % ’ is any number of characters Expression.isNull the field value is NULL.
b2e118493a7434419dc0351d1a19682a7e186292	Expression.between — ' age’ — the name of the field, 18 — the minimum value of the specified field, 25 — its maximum value Expression.in -specifies the range of values of a specific field Expression. disjunction, Expression. or disjunction (OR) - combines several other expressions with the OR operator.
38596a728eaad7e73e9ab3fe8435046aa1ad22ac	Expression.eq determines whether the field is equal to some value.
05f93d48271f5ca45d0d60b781855dc393908e7c	The results can also be sorted:
1c6efd50400c8b1464d0069d4d4c1647a7b271e6	List studies = sess.createCriteria(Student.class). add( Expression.like ("name", " Iv%"). addOrder( Order.asc ("name")) //ascending. addOrder( Order. desc ("age")) //descending. list();
61a54eaaf1663630dde4dcdb24cae55b31d39be7	There is also the possibility of a query based on the data of an instance of the class:
3e10e613e1e9320987a4963ca813e7821325355a	Student s = new Student(); s.setName("Ivanov Ivan"); s.setAge(20l);
9a560fab49b7853d80783a1cb798fd3fe13c925f	List results = session.createCriteria(Student.class) .add( Example.create(s) ) .list();
ce0a19c753af31a9c80830f12025ff2d4fb0652b	Object fields that have a null value or are identifiers will be ignored.
6e1f67477f938f6c8e1d92d121910f590a79f5d9	Example can also be customized:
87b4b9f8f337c219fb6ecb535127c55311e24c42	Example example = Example. create(s). excludeZeroes () //excludes fields with null values .excludeProperty ("name") / / excludes the "name" field.
e44167a243447b32169a4e6ac51806b42d53027d	IgnoreCase () //sets a case independent string comparison. enableLike (); //uses like to compare strings List results = session. createCriteria(Student.class). add(example). list();
23ae5ec432801d91d5c7051e079703613dc979a2	Queries using SQL
91c45c0b3aa9a19849ad2632713cfc4e476a865c	It will look like something like this:
952c9ba5689c0a69c9a820057c07f0c8bf2ef68d	sess.createSQLQuery("select * from Student").addEntity(Student.class).list(); sess.createSQLQuery("select id, name, age from Student").addEntity(Student.class).list();
4b4bb49ac7851e0c4a71aa49814ac7f6b39732ba	In CreateSQLQuery, you specify the SQL query itself, and with addEntity, you specify which entity is expected as a result.
e1a7247d7bb0c8dbb87569a424d504086a193ab5	You can also specify parameters in requests:
f0d2450ab9cd671dfc15b669c20e711541a7c489	Query query = session.createSQLQuery("select * from Student where name like ?").addEntity(Student.class);
aace20be44623c36cdfcefa2bae32b86305e4de1	List result = query.setString(0, "Ivan%").list();
da7a45c514da0cff0449462ffaca1b2497610940	query = session.createSQLQuery("select * from Student where name like :name").addEntity(Student.class);
62eaf8723d92433d591b0c7bb5c6df99eea551a9	List result = query.setString("name", "Ivan%").list();
33b7471b7ebf88be09fd58a39f5406e39159434a	Hibernate allows you to make queries in HQL(The Hibernate Query Language), which is very similar to the SQL language, with the difference that it is completely object oriented.
5b8447755437c5cea055136579eb833d75caf255	List<Student> studs = (List<Student>)session.createQuery("from Student order by name").list();
fb59e53298ac9c0d18798a8af377caab423570aa	As you can see, select can be omitted at the beginning of the request.
7a1299c21c3edf03fa7d5a49562a5e666bbfc3d0	Since HQL is an object oriented language, the value of the fields can be selected as follows:
39ed4ad8f53380f3f1ced2e271c399063f7ee0d5	List<String> names = (List<String>)session.createQuery("select stud.name from Student stud order by name").list();
389f8c1bfa44e0eddfde8b521d366d3da68c70c8	And you can also do this:
ecc2e802c838579c7b4321a75c1f0a49c975c668	List result = session.createQuery("select new list(stud, name, stud.age) from Student as stud").list();
95ab1802326e094ce4593adba74ed9dcec94e743	They will be linked as follows: The Statistics table is used to link the Student and Test tables to avoid a many - to many relationship.
1ace23996e6c534c8a74a3c54ee796e54a6409a1	Let's create these two tables in Oracle:
89b39833bf4048929e1e28facc0208b068e4c3ce	CREATE TABLE Test(tid NUMBER(10) NOT NULL,tname varchar2(100) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT pk Test PRIMARY KEY(tid));
25924f2c53ea082a83d473d46c83e65ffa542769	CREATE TABLE Statistics(stid NUMBER(10) NOT NULL, id NUMBER(10) NOT NULL, tid NUMBER(10) NOT NULL, CONSTRAINT pk Statistics PRIMARY KEY(stid), CONSTRAINT fk Student FOREIGN KEY(id) REFERENCES Student(id), CONSTRAINT fk Test FOREIGN KEY(tid) REFERENCES Test(tid));
99681432f2749708c64ed504a414977d5c97d32f	Also, do not forget to add to the file hibernate.cfg.xml add mappings of our new classes:
98546e994c1f80b2f778bf9265488d83d3ab74bd	Test" /> <mapping class="logic.
ad6399efddcf8eae4fe98c713b09f2f84618d4eb	Statistics" />
1fb96f6afd5510da93f70210163854ff8ba1dfff	Let's move on to the code.
002653bd060347635009f084560d08a9c0e5990e	Just like in Part 1, we create entity classes in the logic package:
640ab2bae07bedc4c163f679a746f7ab7fb5d1fa	Test
0ccd1bb24d96f765e0549647e2a9430c35b7d574	import javax.persistence.Column; import javax.persistence.Entity; import javax.persistence.GeneratedValue; import javax.persistence.Id; import javax.persistence.JoinTable; import javax.persistence.Table; import javax.persistence.JoinColumn;
83724803807d591ce460aa0f8961cba0bdc16d99	@Entity @Table(name="Test") public class Test
b577655cec8f5733218f26ce622218f933c6601a	private Long tid; private String tname;
6cb326aa8149488a8a677c1edf74de6688eaab77	public Test(){ tname = null; }
61ae598d2d6646838cf78077bce570c0274a4907	public Test(Test s){ tname = s.getTName(); }
d7bacb03fec99178f8c8abc57aa7189650f96738	@Id @GeneratedValue(generator="increment") @GenericGenerator(name="increment", strategy = "increment") @Column(name="tid") public Long getTid() { return tid; }
007b0bbd05d8b37e7c1d2f7b55242b6182d6014d	@Column(name="tname") public String getTName(){ return tname; }
d62138e00063ff1480b5b228c0cfd3237d45634a	public void setId(Long i){ tid = i; }
a20cadb4499e00b3f71a6c133ee44425ee8456e3	public void setTName(String s){ tname = s; }
2086b21f8f49274138c38d476bee317a84a8aecc	Statistics
20a41f820ddad61d9141bd087ab3de5486c5e4a7	@Entity @Table(name="Statistics") public class Statistics
d782c0a5f61e133fa2e2162cb87f6aa0cf6c2dae	private Long stid; private Long id; private Long tid;
e82f3ab722377bf3651f55a0933223845754df39	public Statistics(){ }
3c6a50b02ab3b2572357fef438f29c20ae80b2be	@Id @GeneratedValue(generator="increment") @GenericGenerator(name="increment", strategy = "increment") @Column(name="stid") public Long getStid(){ return stid; }
dd7c0602aa607233d944727467da394903749253	@Column(name="id") public Long getId(){ return id; }
9a6540921c19e1dafee765ae714e224d3a33ea95	@Column(name="tid") public Long getTid(){ return tid; }
71cfcc00c64f1dc637371daece003ea510a70d52	How is this done?
d82f4462e50bc9866645719691f77a6c5b1e1fd4	Again, with the help of annotations.
43b16b7c8fba57ae0a3046645cf0dec5a50be2f8	The following types of annotations are provided for this in Hibernate @OneToOne, @OneToMany, @ManyToOne, @ManyToMany.
b4b534e4d7160879d2438600ed54bac578eb6010	For example, to link the Student and Statistics tables with a many to one relationship, you should add the following code to the Student class:
b62628c11f6730dcea78afd67ea0dcb4d3f8f4f7	private Statistics stat;
3f67a22f3680002c73ed03a6025eaf34b6a5d672	@ManyToOne @JoinTable(name = "id") public Statistics getStat(){ return stat; }
79103306e073460e7ea86923d53cf9406a0a3997	In the Statistics class, we annotate the one - to many relationship with the Student class:
2bc690d94407913f4a04bd654e0ab4388d75eda0	private Set<Student> studs = new HashSet<Student>(0);
2616a537d61623fc4c850bbc04cc6b954d5852c9	@OneToMany @JoinTable(name = "id") public Set<Student> getStuds() { return studs; }
0efa117e9af9cc77bc04cf134bcd16d805e771b8	As you can see, in the Student class, we declared an attribute of the Statistics type and indicated that this table is connected by a many - to one relationship with the table represented by the Statistics entity class.
1ae248bd5dae83cb2b162b7120e79d0d3fd6127a	And in the Statistics class, they indicated a one - to many relationship with the Student class.
f61ac462a4abb5f83973737fe784dfc09d225ab3	In the Statistics class, we annotate the one - to many relationship with the Test class:
4adf34e53fc56005097a42541bcf14af384a55c2	private Set<Test> tests = new HashSet<Test>(0);
f0506ab69090f842f2f9fe084326c32f1f65137f	@OneToMany @JoinTable(name = "id") public Set<Test> getTests() { return tests; }
eca58f23efdabdbc7b8d1d4ab403b5fd085e0cd2	Since the Statistics table is not just a table associated with Student and Test, but it breaks the unwanted many to many relationship, we can also show this to Hibernate.
ca4ba4f1a5508b1f79cd8b18380d8206e647f9d2	private Student stud;
4fc92a3cc64e971b182d89b3a76c4211369bd2a1	@ManyToOne @JoinTable(name = "Statistics", joinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "tid"), inverseJoinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "id")) public Student getStud(){ return stud; }
b9247bab990764fe461c44a722d12ebb87dec471	Using the name parameter of the @JoinTable annotation, we denote the linking table, joinColumns = @JoinColumn we specify through which key the Test and Statistics tables are connected, inverseJoinColumns = @JoinColumn we specify through which keys Statistics and Student are already connected.
d51f14c0311f0909165c85b5f8a5446a51a99293	If we denoted this relationship in the Student class:
c39b54c84b17d1ca1ab496d456a473a39172f576	private Test test;
5259f5121c64b39da86a8cec234db3e07641a939	@ManyToOne @JoinTable(name = "Statistics", joinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "id"), inverseJoinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "tid")) public Test getTest(){ return test; }
eb6a1dbc305dc31f6b334f00c2d7d4c30a7720e4	Part 4 Spring
7e6e9696d92b2d25f54b851f9e9954ac0f98bbee	<project xmlns="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://maven.apache.org/POM/4.0.0 http://maven.apache.org/xsd/maven 4.0.0.xsd"> <modelVersion>4.0.0</modelVersion> <groupId>ru.javaxblog</groupId> <artifactId>HibernateSpringExample</artifactId> <version>0.0.1 SNAPSHOT</version> <build> <testResources> <testResource> <directory>src/main/webapp</directory> </testResource> <testResource> <directory>src/main/resources</directory> </testResource> </testResources> </build>
7acd0759c3083fe3460e4d003695e3cff3decb65	<dependencies>
12fd0f3157b2a43fd34764aeaeaf51c9324ddabc	<dependency> <groupId>org.springframework</groupId> <artifactId>spring context</artifactId> <version>3.1.1.RELEASE</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.springframework</groupId> <artifactId>spring aop</artifactId> <version>3.1.1.RELEASE</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.springframework</groupId> <artifactId>spring tx</artifactId> <version>3.1.1.RELEASE</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.springframework</groupId> <artifactId>spring orm</artifactId> <version>3.1.1.RELEASE</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.springframework</groupId> <artifactId>spring jdbc</artifactId> <version>3.1.1.RELEASE</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.hibernate</groupId> <artifactId>hibernate entitymanager</artifactId> <version>3.6.0.Final</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.hibernate</groupId> <artifactId>hibernate commons annotations </artifactId> <version>3.2.0.Final</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.hibernate</groupId> <artifactId>hibernate core </artifactId> <version>3.6.0.Final</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.aspectj</groupId> <artifactId>aspectjweaver</artifactId> <version>1.6.2</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>antlr</groupId> <artifactId>antlr</artifactId> <version>2.7.7</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>aopalliance</groupId> <artifactId>aopalliance</artifactId> <version>1.0</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>c3p0</groupId> <artifactId>c3p0</artifactId> <version>0.9.1.2</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>commons collections</groupId> <artifactId>commons collections</artifactId> <version>3.2.1</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>commons dbcp</groupId> <artifactId>commons dbcp</artifactId> <version>1.4</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>commons logging</groupId> <artifactId>commons logging</artifactId> <version>1.1.1</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>commons pool</groupId> <artifactId>commons pool</artifactId> <version>1.6</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>dom4j</groupId> <artifactId>dom4j</artifactId> <version>1.6.1</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>javassist</groupId> <artifactId>javassist</artifactId> <version>3.3</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>javax.transaction</groupId> <artifactId>jta</artifactId> <version>1.1</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.slf4j</groupId> <artifactId>slf4j api</artifactId> <version>1.6.6</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.hibernate.javax.persistence</groupId> <artifactId>hibernate jpa 2.0 api</artifactId> <version>1.0.1.Final</version> </dependency> <dependency> <groupId>org.hibernate</groupId> <artifactId>hibernate annotations</artifactId> <version>3.3.0.ga</version> </dependency> <!-- ORACLE database driver --> <dependency> <groupId>com.oracle</groupId> <artifactId>oracle</artifactId> <version>10.2.0.1</version> </dependency>
0912fb11f47f9361b63907dafa2d806b63cdb230	</dependencies>
dcaa5ef1732756fac9e796f3eea7739f6ca0f920	</project>
f28948ddd74db4a848e7f1d80ffa7f55a0e2525d	You canot download it in the repositories, so to use it in our project, we will first register it.
f4aacc6577058286b235d55645f063fb678e0de1	mvn install:install file -Dfile=ojdbc14.jar -DgroupId=com.oracle -DartifactId=oracle -Dversion=10.2.0.1 -Dpackaging=jar -DgeneratePom=true
919298f624df9a7083ec826225325c1acf0deb5b	Instead of ojdbc14.jar you will enter the name of your file.
bd9213d3d8d623ce290f144b81ab27fe074d614e	After that, Maven will add it to your local repository and it can be used in a file pom.xml under the registered groupId, artifactId and version.
d3d981d926fdd39cd2302d48752ead16d686e6e9	Now in the package ru. javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample of the main directory.let's create our Student entity class, whose objects we will store in the database:
61a8ae7bb1464e3b01776117992d7e5f7bb80ede	package ru.javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample;
177b297a216536e0a843ba45016d08a08e0946e4	import javax.persistence.Column; import javax.persistence.Entity; import javax.persistence.GeneratedValue; import javax.persistence.Id;
82dea698a96bc6ae46c018361503b50f72005324	@Entity public class Student
17abcf0f2c339844607874375e66fcc9f5948f56	public Student(String n, Long a){ name = n; age = a; }
ea9ab084e98ebd590e65eaef5689491611638dde	In the main.resources directory, create a file hibernate.cfg.xml with mapping of our essence:
4ab16a8f98f634ac70d1ef69a67053411328a593	<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate configuration PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Configuration DTD 3.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate configuration 3.0.dtd"> <hibernate configuration> <session factory> <mapping class="ru.javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample.
299424f4b23681d063147764afe19deebfc013d5	Student"/> </session factory> </hibernate configuration>
f2b898895df70efa8c6ecaa820eb48b3f16251b1	import java.util.Collection;
2626598bc4fe92821e45acf9d55b29771935a728	Student get(Long id);
1f3f5d9bd725f4540c61bbee75bd5bed5eb2a1d6	Student save(Student stud);
143a56b86649aade8ae7864d17e68e97c69a69e0	Collection<Student> find(String text);
432d0ff2a42932d99d128d6251d490b32fc45df0	In the same package, we will create an implementation of this interface StudentHibernateDao:
cb663baed797c8eface0272551b8c663d7764622	import org.hibernate.SessionFactory; import org.springframework.orm.hibernate3.HibernateTemplate; import org.springframework.orm.hibernate3.support.HibernateDaoSupport;
c1cbb3e64aac3cd0f14c80780e430f50df6bb066	public class StudentHibernateDao extends HibernateDaoSupport implements StudentDAO
cde9c04989897f9372fcd49e419ac2fe132bbbbf	public Student get(Long id) { return (Student) getSession().get(Student.class, id); }
c90058b6f7661ad40c399629b74c9a96d71f30c5	@Override protected HibernateTemplate createHibernateTemplate(SessionFactory sessionFactory)
727cbed50d7b1ee86a05e7d8cb6195bc6c854929	{ HibernateTemplate result = super.createHibernateTemplate(sessionFactory); result.setAllowCreate(false); return result; }
feee57eff1c80160ab145c711ed468e0a5e6fe80	public StudentHibernateDao() { }
ada7167bfc7563f98bd6f4d79f7baa1afe0d77b6	public Student save(Student objectToSave) { getSession().saveOrUpdate(objectToSave); return objectToSave; }
33f2711aa5e6ae418b25584841bc437dc92c9f20	@SuppressWarnings("unchecked") public Collection<Student> find(String name) { return getSession().createQuery("from Student s where s.name like :name").setString("name", name).list(); }
72c5d32458ea38918069f41fa69061ffd94f6443	It is also worth noting that this class inherits from the org.springframework.orm.hibernate3.support.HibernateDaoSupport class, which is part of the SpringDao library and already implements methods for convenient working with the database.
e858ea1c41af4bfc1a83ebd6b1ef88b76b349b08	It remains only to configure Hibernate in the main.resources directory to create a file applicationContext.xml:
ae4cb277f41f9d162b1128f0d7b8bf23e22ac29a	<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <beans xmlns="http://www.springframework.org/schema/beans" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema instance" xmlns:context="http://www.springframework.org/schema/context" xmlns:aop="http://www.springframework.org/schema/aop" xmlns:tx="http://www.springframework.org/schema/tx" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.springframework.org/schema/beans http://www.springframework.org/schema/beans/spring beans 2.5.xsd http://www.springframework.org/schema/context http://www.springframework.org/schema/context/spring context 2.5.xsd http://www.springframework.org/schema/tx http://www.springframework.org/schema/tx/spring tx 2.5.xsd http://www.springframework.org/schema/aop http://www.springframework.org/schema/aop/spring aop 2.5.xsd">
b2bb4e3b434908aa836337f3e459a9656c85a055	<context:annotation config />
ff2da169309adcb59fe69343dab45b5542865815	<aop:config> <aop:pointcut id="myPointcut" expression="execution(* ru.javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample.*.*(..))" /> <aop:advisor advice ref="txAdvice" pointcut ref="myPointcut" /> </aop:config>
8d5f566f0c7cc80ccad637bac059124aa89bf9c8	<tx:advice id="txAdvice" transaction manager="transactionManager"> <tx:attributes> <tx:method name="get*" propagation="REQUIRED" read only="true" /> <tx:method name="find*" propagation="REQUIRED" read only="true" /> <tx:method name="save*" propagation="REQUIRED" /> </tx:attributes> </tx:advice>
79945418e3564ef8de38fe7d5721db6e7124b3fb	<bean id="transactionManager" class="org.springframework.orm.hibernate3.HibernateTransactionManager"> <property name="sessionFactory" ref="sessionFactory" /> </bean>
4f52e12bc1b0103362e45673de5b5995aea57e89	<bean id="dataSource" class="org.springframework.jdbc.datasource.DriverManagerDataSource"> <property name="driverClassName"> <value>oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver</value> </property> <property name="url"> <value>jdbc:oracle:thin:@localhost:1521:MoCoDB</value> </property> <property name="username"> <value>system</value> </property> <property name="password"> <value>orcl</value> </property> </bean>
6916365c4ff2ba7e3741500b6696c7841abde779	<bean id="sessionFactory" class="org.springframework.orm.hibernate3.LocalSessionFactoryBean"> <property name="dataSource" ref="dataSource" /> <property name="configLocation" value="classpath:/hibernate.cfg.xml" /> <property name="hibernateProperties"> <props> <prop key="hibernate.dialect">org.hibernate.dialect.OracleDialect</prop> <prop key="hibernate.show sql">true</prop> <prop key="hibernate.hbm2ddl.auto">create</prop> </props> </property> </bean>
b80061d58ced2104d63a613f0e9bfeec1637d608	<bean id="dataDao" class="ru.javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample.
9afe283a6fb3a4959b21e0d6d96d0fc659ef6483	StudentHibernateDao"> <property name="sessionFactory" ref="sessionFactory" /> </bean>
832e907f1cce7c49b761dc1f40bd1d635d1ba47c	</beans>
7c863bcf62487edbc498bbb1b3fa4e9beae67390	In it, we describe: dataSource connection parameters to our database, SessionFactory a factory for working with database connections and for displaying our model in the database, dataDao — a service developed by us, when configuring which we will specify a link to the SessionFactory, TransactionManager — a transaction manager, when configuring which we will specify a link to the SessionFactory and also specify which methods should start a new transaction.
88abec151becf60f454fe44616b07a820ae1b384	Let's write in the package ru. javaxblog.hibernateSpringExample of the main directory.java is a small Main class in order to try out the created:
6c00ce0de6f7c46446a7300af099d17104d29d78	import org.springframework.context.support.ClassPathXmlApplicationContext;
16c77f50936568616f3199b2f0dd992326c92954	public static void main(String[] args)
46551170cda5d8c5da9adaa8ffa90ca938ccee34	{ ClassPathXmlApplicationContext context = new ClassPathXmlApplicationContext( new String[] { "applicationContext.xml" }, true); StudentDAO studDao = (StudentDAO) context.getBean("dataDao");
458be47d114185ba4ef407eea705298137b7d952	Student data1 = new Student("Alex",20l); studDao.save(data1);
013ebdb47f88e42cbda52cae4eec7fd7d96e1f8b	Student data2 = new Student("Bob",22l); studDao.save(data2);
df50e49d268781d3eaf34e650a691fe17b375b50	Student data3 = new Student("Alice", 19l); studDao.save(data3);
4c9f1e688938a4a3fbef62c1c10e436560823f7e	System.out.println(studDao.find("A%").size()); }
e2bef463a1bfe118c5734812055e1c4d876c15e4	Download the source code of the project: HibernateSpringExample.zip http://javaxblog.ru/article/java hibernate 4/
3e18361540b6479942c0d50d74ce2def3025fae4	Add a comment
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08ab88df303c0a0b3bd113ccfe71ca26ac457253	The scheme for building an Enterprise application is the new Hibernate data structure.
0177a7e96500c0d00badb5fee163faa3df6e6cde	The beginning of the Hibernate path.
f8c83421bd949fd2ec738bf5557340ba65c0805f	Writing as XML files of Hibernate.
5b358f5a8b304e76ee441695f88765f99243fc1b	Annotations instead of XML Spring.
fc4e780a1a087a336853dadabfd49c77f3782bd8	The business level is in Spring action.
b3406b13d6d30bbcf8af035654999448419bef33	Go to Web Struts 1. x.
0dbfb4fbf2e6ca45d4a5e53d4841954b16ac29f7	First acquaintance
7e3c49768d8358255d9c80f865287ce7732cb785	Hibernate a package for DAO
4338f575d8d86ecfec61e4de3c485fe47d0698ff	This function should be taken over by Hibernate – in the Java code, we just have to call the student.getGroup()method In principle, all packages like Hibernate are designed for exactly this purpose – to enable the developer to think in terms of objects and relationships between them.
cb6aac171ce795597c7edef1c97f1e53abb2dcb0	Yes, yes, it is inheritance that inspires the advocates of object oriented programming so much.
43d3d0588a4c45090b71fb0a4582f797ef5ddf47	But keep in mind Hibernate should not be a replacement for DAO.
a466b6de7914df35761e56d90867e563c3c83dcf	Yes, in general, it will not work very well.
0afacb40c54535229fe79e6c055ea2ded8435b5c	It just allows you to conveniently communicate with the database.
9688ac0663d3e79c28da39c987139e0b93a2c316	But as we have already considered before, the database is not the only storage option.
bdc7c52a6c00db5edb5f4edd81f7f130c1d27aad	We will postpone the development using the DAO template for some time.
c1f966dd755122164413accb3e67cb916d8a8f48	But we will definitely return to it as soon as there is a suitable occasion.
ae1c297c752c7d70aa815896a7aa3adddec207fe	To solve its tasks, Hibernate must receive the following information from the developer:
7631f60747da20fa8a313bbb73fe3082d7293147	Parameters of the database connection.
d9692f0e503a2b5b2703e1a93d7f58e1cd219d25	In general, we canot get away from this anywhere.
1dc349704c7358cc8fa33d9f3f309f7f88d5c161	The package is a package, but the connection to the database must somehow specify a description of the mapping of classes to tables.
833fbef9feda3902b915e5601e32d2f8eb58cfa9	This description includes the relationship between a column in a table and a field in a class.
69124bdd099559f1d16feacbc7e23f0edc1d0e7a	If we recall the same students, then for each field in the Student class, we had a field in the table.
59ed686ec027783f833bdd7974646cf7fa55ef46	That's what we'll have to do.
b4c1eff10c1a90322a6d282d72103dfe826a4f75	Description of relations between classes
da9add1b03388f7b87174f37f5ef21fd2d3f9b0f	At first, all these difficulties will seem superfluous – well, in the end, that we should write several SQL queries to get data add, query, fix and delete.
a13cd46c42876611cc333e5ae94a16836009a2f6	But if you have not 3-4 tables, but 500-600 ?
c6c0a32265eab5edac41159a5fea4a56fb3d9337	And if you need to add some field and a relationship between the tables ?
c4e8bef182ca671631f77f6fa3d5ea8f236789e4	Such corrections become a non trivial task that requires a lot of time and subsequent testing.
18c74997114f48a6946dee57c7e789563ae7e51e	On the other hand, you should not flatter yourself – Hibernate is not so great at solving absolutely all tasks.
8c30a7868aa8f6dee16d0d8a8cc55f5465711f83	Hibernate allows you to do this – you can create a regular SQL query in it.
1837ce6bb161d77a891b30bb9350ecb84258c334	Also, mass changes in it are not done very effectively.
069f40b1c5d8f3b1fe89afb4fa01ef50d5eca70f	And I would also highlight the not always successful implementation of relationships – especially the many to many relationship – when editing such a list, Hibernate simply deletes all the old relationships and replaces them with new ones.
398409b8962059b3634f20175004b8dd06753e50	In general, look, compare, optimize.
9df5f1cfc856c23e7027c7c85fc15dbb58ec201c	But still, Hibernate makes it much easier to work with the database and significantly simplifies the code of your application.
7d1ff3965437b5cbac8408335fba4ba9c999981e	Well, let's get started.
3721a0ee4a230368d1ecfa6ec5d8e9845dfdaceb	First, you need to download the package itself.
c2315eadb1a123677bb373ea996bac4888e41533	Go to the Hibernate page.
c1e8d5b49272a1b4a66fd5ae38699aa50f270e98	On the left there will be a menu in which we select the Download item.
82d7c2c7b65d0616a391bc7e82119fa69c4ab111	In the list of implementations, select "Hibernate Core".
55e56ad275a2e50ee305af5c104a18a8ae719fa2	I will use the version 3.3.1.GA.
6eba176261b57519c6d244bf34b355c5eb67e68f	It goes without saying that it will become outdated over time, but we hope that compatibility will help to understand the newer version.
3dc05ee884b509675dbc5c1c4b24c21fd12392d4	To immediately remove all questions about the rest of the development tools:
09feb7a8c3d39579c435cffd450bee1cf2d3c186	The JDK version is 1.6. Regarding the sub versions, I think that this will not be significant for us.
99a1200360409d9687513895746682b51edb6e52	But just in case, I will specify the version under which I worked 1.6.0_03. NetBean 6.5.
12a1f43e732cb9620b19533875410e68e1676f9a	In principle, you can also use version 6.1. I donot think it will be fundamentally Tomcat 6.0.16. But in general, any Tomcat 6 MySQL 5.0 sub – version will do we even installed and configured it.
6fb26c7688feb18cd078849c910205a21a544db4	Who does not remember what and how refer to Part 3 Database
c9e4df3f1b27ecb63c09d5202e6800870facb167	As for the rest of the packages – every time I study, I will write the version with which I wrote the examples.
bde75dd874ccf4e0c8c1cc0c7c80e1aa0217fee3	I usually install all the packages in a separate folder – JAVA.
0dfdbead402b8bbff9b4399bf76f8f5b22152cdf	There are Tomcat, NetBeans, JDK, Hibernate, etc. You can choose some other name for yourself.
50828867ab9ed935fa50f084a98dee699a4b7eef	It's just a habit
f9e4d3b277ed9f757a90eb24924dce0e4bd7e4e1	Pre configuring the environment
2fae50fbf6dd00f216b886b91f571a055f30d221	This section is intended for those who have never worked with NetBeans.
3e5edee0f1b0b976685618def4dbe88412499c17	Because you can often see questions “How do I connect the library ?” , "How do I start programs ?” – I will try to remove some of them.
c3a6fc52d801d9d836832469c8dcd6cc3a12f33a	To start, you will have to install the JDK.
a308de26f32db9c91100cb2eb288ff235b3a19be	You can do this by running the installer.
0e0bc1c4850571a370e4b7c3ded4b8287c65173e	During the installation, you will need to select the directory where the JDK will be installed – then you will need to create the JAVA HOME environment variable.
5dbffcb2ae74937c928bae9570daaeb0fc641afe	You can see all this in Part 7 – what is a Servlet.
3ab6c6ff04a3c04e79a3e0fcf9a42aabee0ff73a	There is a section “Launching the Tomcat WEB server”.
4a2f9844c4b5a2ada5fe453769bf4a1ab03dc3c4	So use this information.
653ad1ca1ac8a6f831e20e974785bc2822851279	By the way, Tomcat can be installed immediately after the JDK.
09a097d180323e1cd7d41a09d3cbb67aada1242b	Despite the fact that it describes the installation of an earlier version – in general, nothing has changed much.
488ebe7040e82259d3bb1e25f64f9c2c523a742a	Now let's start installing and configuring NetBeans.
b2428ac44bb7c2e55b66d198f3d705012bb5516b	In general, there is nothing complicated in the installation – the only thing that can cause any thoughts is setting up the JDK.
1ddea1444562f4c362f2c4b16b05b538fa5fa60b	But usually NetBeans finds it itself (I very much suspect that it uses the JAVA HOME variable).
a162ea1518b48c65bdb4d5b00fc5c41dc1eadd8f	Also, some questions about configuring NetBeans can be found in Part 11 Application Server and Enterprise Java Beans
26dce8d01f58cd60e4ef718c66cf182f40b25adc	The only thing we will definitely need is to configure the library package.
aee4774843859ea1e9c8a2379d5389d42b97e61c	In order not to connect all the JAR files separately each time, we will create a library in which we will put all the necessary jars as needed.
f1cedb36e0ca056d567a3b7ae02e670cfda09ed2	To create our library, run NetBeans.
78d63cbdc92ae166cdf4ecdd699c3076ef98d656	Then select menu Tools->Libraries.
e0e3e299369202b726b24c229633707006546346	A form for configuring libraries will appear.
f5e8870b5cd63a19f49f2d815063efbfe546a7d2	Click the “New library...
1135d562265b75e9603ab43bca06ee564df4b9d8	" button and enter the name of our library in the form – StudentLibrary.
b61f5ef22da16bb662d3fd69e75fd8e1f412c711	After that, click OK.
79899189c38b94612b675a6a67977d01c586e142	Now we have a library where we can add our JAR files.
15d39fcd22fd253191f2892a005e7b45c810d44f	Which is very convenient.
defa8fea0abed25ea97e849661039ddf5d643429	Now it will be enough for us to install a link to our library in the project and the project will get access to all the JAR files that are in it.
e48cde1a9773542cf94271f3b8ce2cc20c730218	I think that you have guessed how to use the buttons for editing the contents of the library. they are located on the right side of the form.
f4cbf3cf751a8ce63d83c1d243984092f0cc73c2	Note: Be sure to put at least some JAR in our library before closing the form.
7ac70a2f3beb5f0d1e4ffe3534cce51de8db613b	Empty libraries are not saved !!!
346c7ed4e5d5891e6aa322593421a39f991bbae8	The final step is to connect the library to the project.
f55a5f85a79358f1fa0e6b58607ff9c5e0c7462f	In general, there is nothing complicated here either.
7f365f0a7035f89a7024a931672e0a118b7d0477	Right - click on the Libraries section in the window with the project structure and select "Add Library..." in it.
1eed605a624af1cc21ceeb726bcc267bedb28adb	Then choose our wonderful library.
5b536c74f9f9229a938ee6effd9d5844f207079b	In general, that's all.
624d7c7f2b41753f7c82144ca974717a04e8e151	What is also important to note is that the system automatically tracks changes in our library.
6d0c62c034df3f4cbb0a241ac2cc364c6f5d1117	If we add a new JAR file, this file will immediately be displayed on the structure of the files used.
fb54b959d2cc91d2642de4c7eba8978f0f82889f	As you can see in the picture – there are now two files in the library.
5e7e90c65c85384c38a596aab75717d9ad80ecd8	I just added a new JAR.
7a290716628199dea2875421c6f06c228f822e0f	Required Libraries
ec107f3f080d335761117baa56dd65c24b69fe83	All the libraries needed for the project "Student Personnel Department" are located HERE
0c6d5f08fa8552708c8afa37438fff79d1f44724	For the current project, these libraries will be enough for us.
5faea28e954bcc48c84e33ada26bda9128d3adb8	You can download it right here
51f3e8ccde7bf89c52534cda04b916e2780f72cd	antlr 2.7.6.jar
a60fb1faa18dcaed23495633027a080ac02edce3	commons collections 3.1.jar
3a230a73caae625a1e8f6d57c888c9195244903f	dom4j 1.6.1.jar
10a9805243b1b9f9c7392a100b494ee856c986c7	hibernate3.jar
0b7d51c1e07286b9712b6cc5901bb0dc4f6d1f65	javassist 3.4.GA.jar
ae18e8385f68323d90bea171a02da12d376c9e0d	jta 1.1.jar
e3c1a6f20da51a062edd55ebcfd0c9607e435f5b	log4j 1.2.15.jar
b3f9d67fa5bc8a81be59e2c663a26d115913e297	mysqlJDBC 3.1.13.jar
04779b1a06b1ae0626025512eb684a83f47b980b	slf4j api 1.5.3.jar
d430a8d3a2ab5447a1865ca8d8f8cf4dbf183162	slf4j log4j12-1.5.3.jar
69abf605d6896862950e6904f4f500295e8405b6	So the contents of the StudentsLibrary library should look something like this:
a89b079e20f1793612d41370bc093dc4893eb59d	In the future, I will not dwell on the libraries in such detail – I will just give a list of them and you will have to install everything yourself.
98a45f698b2822ce5422d79b0c43fd62db84de78	I think you can handle it.
7d756b9d45c289a35824e847f1bd7ed1038a7edd	Hibernate – the first application
f13f6b5fceabb70a23a69cd5d289715315883616	Since our database includes several tables and besides it has complex relationships, we will take the first steps with one table – I think it will be easier and clearer this way.
02f3b671083dc80e1ecc234b149bffe33ab102a8	After we see and try simple things, it will be easier for us to build a complete application.
6ee132aa22fc7ba363c0a8c8476aa87cb9b303e1	As I have already said, Hibernate includes at least two important things – the parameters of the database connection and the description (mapping) of classes relative to tables.
6012e739e938c4a8ab07f45079baa57b9757cc78	Hibernate stores this data in configuration files, which we will consider using the example of just one table – PROFESSION.
03349cbaed0ae77b1d36834891657d7d8b5b766e	It is not complicated for us and it does not require any other tables to create it.
91e7d353ea311769df1311eb507ee3fc0397da59	She is our reference.
ef2671c6c000aa114897f15b1cf1688c4b8507b5	So run MySQL, run the SQL script.
71b6e9a9008f20f260309eaa25362a31d641255f	Who does not know how to do this see the previous part Part 15 – A new data structure
57601eeb5d681ce7d60dfb06e5951f7d394d272e	So, let's create a new project.
a4058b252f5923227aa561587eb914f8399bd012	Menu File->New Project.
043e59c0f5db471e48f9b21749b916c1c0603fda	In the form, select the Java project -> Java Application.
9d72531f343aded56c4121070c2b3217ec6ea613	On the next screen, select the directory where our project will be located.
ae82995a3a9a5b476fdb073007868c8468b24fa5	Pay attention to the checkboxes at the bottom - put them in accordance with the drawing.
3999c64e94e55677fb40462679c6d56df2e482b8	Now I will give the structure of the files that we will use in our small project.
6dac627152853631190b9f11aa40be10dec1571f	All of them are located in the scr folder of our project.
ae8cf6901d3d9f398606c366a8cbd5b0ad828b90	hibernate.cfg.xml – The Hibernate Main configuration file.java – although it has such a proud name, we only need it to launch our Profession application.a java class that stores data from a table.
3168040ea1feda197ce6bfa5b32425f7d095feb2	It would be more accurate to say the data of one row of the table.
dd5d305400d33fb041c1c10511bd0e9471007056	Profession.hbm.xml – a file that contains a description of how the Profession class is mapped to the HibernateUtil PROFESSION table.java is an auxiliary class for initializing the Hibernate system.
9fdfd307f7d0b86c2f41727b49f51058c3c7ecb5	Its name is already so well established (it was given in the earliest versions of the documentation) that it is almost standard.
2904e61a341fc6a21a74284123897b7e58f2425e	Although life may be different.
7152c353e796321515b433b124f3e64455a6e794	But we will not stand out in this case
c618f3730cedb30c4f689f474fcc43530ac9e5dc	Pay attention to the file hibernate.cfg.xml.
586ef70e927a92d1fd52688d3105acefe198df05	It is located right at the root of the scr directory.
d36318c4c5503f00eac4c0308970790c3087215d	You can sort out the position of the others yourself.
10193cde5d2903c3385ea0286dbb335e5766b3fb	And now we will gradually analyze all the files that we have presented here.
5d93fc28821fb7b15581b667f4dd68e783c1375d	Let's start with the file hibernate.cfg.xml.
8da544c905f067c1b24f98a783edfd7103d694ea	hibernate.cfg.xml
b94d3e0573a390cf98c729b7d163b10faf3adb40	<?xml version='1.0' encoding='utf 8'?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate configuration PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Configuration DTD//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate configuration 3.0.dtd">
52b4ca1c9b489f7466b0fd3dfb6f182758de32fb	<hibernate configuration>
14f052143099f106d692fa65daa80fef9ae7a1f4	<session factory>
bcb5afad8e52f892229c9bc5fba339e37ca0d870	<!-- Database connection settings --> <property name="connection.driver class">com.mysql.jdbc.Driver</property> <property name="connection.url">jdbc:mysql://127.0.0.1:3306/db applicant</property> <property name="connection.username">root</property> <property name="connection.password">root</property>
eea770e81b31942b8a2a1702f33f785156a97fb9	<!-- SQL dialect --> <property name="dialect">org.hibernate.dialect.MySQLInnoDBDialect</property>
ac007fcc66dd72fc034be8b244679d20828d7856	<!-- JDBC connection pool (use the built in) --> <property name="connection.pool size">1</property>
911fa17308087c61957722871ea75d37ceb84e9e	<!-- Enable Hibernate's automatic session context management --> <property name="current session context class">thread</property>
ec0a93447d1e3c5f3310803e67eec0c7f314e062	<!-- Disable the second level cache --> <property name="cache.provider class">org.hibernate.cache.
3659c7d65a9dc36693240f02165ba18d23671301	NoCacheProvider</property>
b3998c1c6670401d17b45ba1d44cface4a9824ef	<!-- Echo all executed SQL to stdout --> <property name="show sql">true</property>
71456db404935799bb99359f6f11b5c823083e26	<!-- Mapping files --> <mapping resource="students/entity/Profession.hbm.xml"/>
20da2a33952cefa3198588cc03c0e62e83128ce0	</session factory>
a8d74ac7763dc86cc3752790d4f4d55ad0ab7a66	</hibernate configuration>
8ef52a012d0cf72a945cb171e623e0cb5709dcff	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
ba7ca0ee5a3b34882a99f32aad0b4938be9b2ad9	The principle here presents quite obvious things.
01b586285b5bb8212a001e534bc6a5d12c637f0d	With a little effort, you will be able to figure out what and why yourself.
d2a1016d09b44655713c479d57c6b93247dfd9c9	But I'll still run through the names.
d9f27911ae49bfb98072115172180e580b2ee7b9	connection.driver class is a fairly clear property.
6c4ed9ce28435cf63412476d06e9c2ad56c0cac0	It shows the driver class that is used to connect to the database.
cf846d6ba472488f8bd8b5df6aa02a198cc8929a	This is our old friend (of course, if you have read the previous parts) - the driver for MySQL connection. url is also obvious.
7ce2ae165a3a1bd7568674ac1f78b722989739f9	This is the URL for the connection to the database connection. username – the login to the database connection. password – the password to the database
897c96bd05402877757119c33200a16587df2f4d	Now we are moving on to more complex properties, although their complexity is probably somewhat exaggerated.
e1c6e3911b395ddf1ebd53738465afdacff5d5c7	dialect – since Hibernate can work with different databases, and each has some features (primary key generation, page output, functions), we need to specify which database we are working with.
2f5e30eadf2ad38df702e65f34cff4ff4f7fe1e0	In this case, we have MySQL, which we specify connection. pool size – this property shows how many connections to the database will be open at the same time.
ff82944a105971cb03ad574f4c57ed801c3d1ba3	As you've probably already heard, it's a fairly common technique to have multiple connections.
660f4a5e287473e0e2448dabaa2db81045b997a2	This increases the speed of the current session context class this property indicates how the control is performed.
38d5f899335f6cc4ae36c72f39a60587ef051244	I think that for now you do not need to go too deep into this issue cache.provider class – caching allows you to significantly speed up your work.
9b8d305ae5a1fc27351cc211e26c2026c4db9e77	Frequently requested data can be stored in memory and not read it every time.
6c45c9ad46990908d2676ab112e4e8ca800321d5	This method has its advantages speed, but also its disadvantages.
89808e78cd658082dde92abaf22aeca915d78197	If someone changes the data bypassing Hibernate, they may not know about it.
9505c6d118ac73dd9f6af073816a94db113cfa4c	In our case, we do not use the cache. show sql this property indicates whether the SQL queries generated by Hibernte will be output to the console.
06dc352ced4e42a6e6642814e90c6a73b5a350e0	This can be very convenient during debugging
5ea869da993b6a9a6329c82d442cd79ff21a18a4	And finally, the last property, or more precisely, the tag mapping.
7d20452e38adcbe15423c35b1219e24510dbda4c	It is used to list all classes that have a connection with the database.
3acf521b7a9bdbaaa42e785849ed6b42c7c0ff76	That is, if you want to use some class to link to some table, you must specify it here.
1dedda34da261db7bfb6f34b35f773575b5e3603	In this case, we have only one.
e1321243ad53a76eaa4ace1fc548634a5e1d1936	But we can analyze everything in detail, without being distracted by complex relationships.
e543d87cc5effb7eb83b6903037acc0cc41604ac	The next interesting file is Profession.hbm.xml.
576ba0955048f082af3d0b4df72e57d59b059894	It describes how our Profession class is related to the PROFESSION table.
810b4366b4cbdd14893d14aabeb26c546d7e2a62	Let's first give the Profession file.java
1420b31c5114504b9e302000cbdb8cdeaafa8298	Profession.java
c143b1e78588852f0fefed3d7dff5c03d577f81c	package students.entity;
31ed2dfdf09c90e6d73744b86636c8a8ea28e9c8	public class Profession
4daf3f080bb2733591499f913feecb1678b6940e	private Long professionId; private String professionName;
9d65bb600cbb3d29584399c5f0e2e9a6b7507f53	public Long getProfessionId() { return professionId; }
88835fb031cade3c83de3fb7a1af2305310e2762	public void setProfessionId(Long professionId) { this.professionId = professionId; }
c22fe5e10b1124db2ee068222af9808f0ad5ae95	public String getProfessionName() { return professionName; }
863bef8ac66d537dc482baf4b4fe313ebeea7956	public void setProfessionName(String professionName) { this.professionName = professionName; }
cff5305af390b8ed1aa3aa2f67a8dec7cdad96b8	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
6214eb9f6356fca364354b861b44ce31a8a94b88	Here, in general, everything is very simple – there is a class with fields where you can store data.
002f7645e551bd7ed298f327965bf98187d9aea4	Of course, you need to use the IDE tools that allow you to immediately generate set/get methods based on the typed fields.
1c7e7de408e95e628ad502b18e24a0d7ded271a5	Note: Get used to the correct naming of fields and set/get methods.
09dcc764903855dac79106500606e99bb226fdd5	I think that you are already aware, but I will repeat myself
80599f0471d970c2f6bd3a59c238810b036f2737	And now let's look at the file Profession.hbm.xml
fcc0941bb7c7d4e753fb44037cf2616ddca082bc	<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate mapping PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Mapping DTD 3.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate mapping 3.0.dtd">
b3f8c5d561141d59270052f681d5d8737d4c95bf	<hibernate mapping package="students.entity"> <class name="Profession" table="profession"> <id name="professionId" column="profession id"> <generator class="native"/> </id> <property name="professionName" column="profession name"/> </class> </hibernate mapping>
e554fccdbbc18fb2f27e0cb77185e84a4bf4e69f	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1925af62213b4087e93d92ffe0477f0c04d08697	Here we see a fairly simple description of the relationship between the table and the class.
42401ed81a50a484c907b5a6d59a6f1fc99b10ba	Let's focus on some attributes and tags
80291567f3aa29b4f827a95d737a1dd83b85055d	package= "students. entity” – this parameter specifies which package contains the class class name=” Profession”table=” profession” – this piece specifies which table which class is associated with id name=” professionId”column=” profession id" - this tag is specifically designed to describe the record id.
ef429e5c7abcde690a30bad381666f6f47ea0f71	You just canot do without it.
adc5b84209dce266ba05bb3342052a344dcac248	The ID itself may not be a single field, but a composite one, but in our case we will not go so far into generator – here we specify a way to generate a unique value for the ID.
66ff14e157b2ec3bb385221fd63b269066776cb0	The word native indicates that the value will be generated by the means of the SQL server itself.
47d285e5257082e352296e126e9bf81c6ace8b82	Here we can again look at the dialect parameter in файлеhibernate.cfg.xml.
79fcdc774c9e7a3253b1a3cd970ee9f385b1059b	It is he who gives an understanding of how to create an ID. for example, for Oracle, this mechanism is different from MySQL.
0fdb7c3d9156a82197e6aa39191183ebf30eae76	In Oracle, you need to use a special sequence mechanism that creates unique values. property name= "professionName" column= " profession name – - I think that this tag does not cause any difficulties for you.
2bda8f1dfb5db88431488e65a201b61cac39d4df	It describes the relationship between a field in a table and a field in a class.
e06060ce5792fe9d00abb6cc2949e97ce6f16b4d	Here is a very simple form of the record, where the type is not specified (in this case, it is determined automatically), no restrictions are specified, etc.
f1800903492ead5c8f4317ec835ed152ce3fbef0	As you probably already guessed, this file does not include all the possibilities of describing fields.
be8690205240e0c47579c3892a195da71432020d	For a more detailed understanding, please refer to the documentation.
b98fe1fe5c63f29e039c02063bd79b776e5d2e4b	We donot have much left.
67f844a685b16bf81d33f183ae728e6d995a9430	Now the HibernateUtil file is next in line.java
3863b13cfbeba0e1892b5796fbc83d9dc733ae47	package students.utils;
a77b8e09ad944dccf67cd2d741577b0119ad7979	private static final SessionFactory sessionFactory;
b21a92d39454263e2c36e8e513cadcf9d6260b72	static { try { // Create the SessionFactory from hibernate.cfg.xml sessionFactory = new Configuration().configure().buildSessionFactory(); } catch (Throwable ex) { // Make sure you log the exception, as it might be swallowed System.err.println("Initial SessionFactory creation failed." + ex); throw new ExceptionInInitializerError(ex); }
293629138bac8dca949fea53a1c3f948c7041477	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
ea453600b4ad3339aa622af1e23a51a0626e530d	I didnot even remove the comments – I have this file for several years.
19876f1d68d87d7af3fee3f3a55a630c89287d19	And I just copy it sometimes.
eeec60a3a9e911e3e05d3637afe53ce10d14d08c	As a result, there is also nothing particularly difficult here.
1a7f41977350e4a5104df21b79a7f756284cd3e8	I will highlight two points:
4ef28427e0afce6822b0961367c22e8416c3f682	The SessionFactory object is essentially a factory (creator) of sessions (connections) to the database.
c3ff8daf77573d7e6f72217f682f3d9855e7cb30	We specified in файлеhibernate.cfg.xml all the necessary parameters that our SessionFactory object uses when creating the Configuration class – this class is used to load the Hibernate configuration
4ce13c7deeccbc546b841a12c9973019f4025add	I think that the code should be quite clear how it all works.
c639978b96af94b05f53ab5c3292e8ada7ff22a3	When loading the class, the Hibernate configuration is read and all the necessary parameters allow you to create a SessionFactory object.
697633ffa87cd3aff6f5e830c9a963865fc77aa2	It is declared as static – i.e. it exists in a single instance.
5d25df19f6879ca54764e691a788ff946e754984	And now you can access it to get a Hibernate session that allows you to make queries to the database.
0b35f56fb489141ba31683ed142b68c7735f32e9	And finally, our main file for launching and demonstrating Main.java
19ada94d4a3e92482be3a84c45ce2cb0d6570b19	package students;
c59b493a56ccfb5af413875369b24c8f22e69fe1	import students.entity.Profession; import java.sql.Connection; import java.sql.DriverManager; import java.sql.ResultSet; import java.sql.SQLException; import java.sql.Statement; import java.util.ArrayList; import java.util.List; import org.hibernate.Session; import students.utils.HibernateUtil;
167b73768d96218542234228f06048325f22acad	// This method simply shows how the request is made when working at the JDBC level private void oldJDBC()
e4a848ba2088d42bbc16030fe94f22b120cded02	{ Connection connection = null;
ffbc340758bacf1d707bfabaf64e874835915bfa	Statement statement = null;
d306affc5d11450af5bbc96b7a9e057d7cf93116	ResultSet rs = null; try
d54a518c872b17781f2f43cdf6f8f1879ecd8b3a	{ Class.forName("com.mysql.jdbc.Driver"); connection = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:mysql://127.0.0.1:3306/db applicant", "root", "root"); statement = connection.createStatement();
6f3f2d2b6c2240864941073dd6879dc7e1cc507c	List<Profession> list = new ArrayList<Profession>(); rs = statement.executeQuery("select profession id, profession name from professio n " + "order by profession name"); while (rs.next())
9540d294e560097252095327af896ee112ba4895	{ Profession r = new Profession(); r.setProfessionId(rs.getLong("profession id")); r.setProfessionName(rs.getString("profession name")); list.add(r);
2ceb9c7a00ba2c3b03c26800f7c466d233577f0f	System.out.println(r.getProfessionId() + ":" + r.getProfessionName()); } } catch (SQLException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); System.err.println("Error SQL execution: " + ex.getMessage()); } catch (ClassNotFoundException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); System.err.println("Error SQL execution: " + ex.getMessage()); } finally
f6b157cbb5c77bf19fa881d9094a28de88dc49ee	{ try { if (rs != null) { rs.close(); } if (statement != null) { statement.close(); } if (connection != null) { connection.close(); } } catch (SQLException ex) { ex.printStackTrace(); System.err.println("Error: " + ex.getMessage()); }
65873d0f887ce71b04e92d909ff1d67a4003826f	} }
196848c653e369d056383bf20e8e8467c15a702d	// Метод добавляет новую запись в таблицу PROFESSION private void addProfession(String name) { Session session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().getCurrentSession(); session.beginTransaction(); Profession r= new Profession(); r.setProfessionName(name); session.save(r); session.getTransaction().commit(); }
ae2fd2858721c7a502ba631664b3623783f7baa7	// Метод возвращает список профессий private List<Profession> listProfession()
dceea8a46a165e1be11cb734d77bf02037761372	{ Session session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().getCurrentSession(); session.beginTransaction();
5beb5aae4d378a7bdefe5dd7fd75b232db26bd9e	List<Profession> result = session.createQuery("from Profession order by professionName").list(); session.getTransaction().commit(); return result; }
ce9bd30cff62750d60b1b05b93e8e4d59b97b8b4	// Метод удаляет по очереди все записи, которые ему переданы в виде списка private void deleteProfessions(List<Profession> result)
2c1c514903e60f626240aeeb6a6e095c674f7f9c	{ Session session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().getCurrentSession(); session.beginTransaction(); for(Profession p : result) { System.out.println("Delete:"+p.getProfessionId()+":"+p.getProfessionName()); session.delete(p); //session.flush(); } session.getTransaction().commit(); }
de701a56b6df101ddf20e1f84ffe0d4fe35c26df	// Методу удаляет одну запись private void deleteEntity(Object o) { Session session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().getCurrentSession(); session.beginTransaction(); session.delete(o); session.flush(); session.getTransaction().commit(); }
62d6b72de0c95ca3d4341ba6ab568c7bafcdc92c	{ Main main = new Main();
499d7b48547feb397396574ca1bace2709a7ae35	// Вызов "старого стиля" main.oldJDBC();
9968b65a7ce0573b4e3676e179d7ec014b45c01c	// Добавление новых профессий main.addProfession("Profession 1"); main.addProfession("Profession 2"); main.addProfession("Profession 3"); main.addProfession("Profession 4"); main.addProfession("Profession 5");
603232c9d70a987234511721f50444b969a07e74	// Вариант вызова списка List<Profession> result = main.listProfession();
067b411302c87f74da2946dbd9e31e15b832ba9c	// Вариант вызова удаления одной записи result = main.listProfession(); main.deleteEntity(result.get(0));
cb175581b0a4661695f4f3738a4f4957a726da27	// Вариант вызова списка и последующее удаление result = main.listProfession(); main.deleteProfessions(result); } }
e8444d4a2ce8bf88197d0bd677593ea25090b2e1	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123
12c85d37d8b2f8ca93ad49f983a8d36bc240540a	// Данный метод просто показывает, как делается запрос при работе на уровне JDBC private void oldJDBC()
d6b7f8ee4f88840e3677850dbde20781e1cae6eb	{ Clas
930d92304e3c95ebfea79e2da591327597a7fb69	javatalks Java Programmers Forum Java Forum программистовjavatalks.ru / 2006 - {current year} © javatalks.ru javatalks.ru Links javatalks Articles javatalks Conference Our Open Source Project
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803f87f02a3175eb51702472a9eedb7984246b33	Hibernate Tutorial
0fdb613fba254bd4b519add88cf08abefbbdd23c	Forum/ Databases and Java/
7336f75e493893333f9b6bda154c99b3123f754b	Persistence in Java (JPA, ORM, ODB)
65e9d53484d28eef5447bc06fe2d754d1090975a	1 2 3
271dcff3651d8bf9ddf34f996326685016b74b9e	anchor 08 jul 2009 22: 31
4892ddfdc3743d12a0c11fb78e80120c59b868c4	Starover
1bb505693c1ac1d47df0ca1065aa40f63b439ed6	Messages:9282
8743ccd98acadeb718464dafb4c6b8d25e9389cb	The concept of ORM
cc958e1a18d7335871b940495140fba0503c8b18	Hibernate.
c4683fc27e2a3a28e9eb52488e18128f563edd5c	General information and recommended literature
a862c2b21b5e1337de2b76d5e43ae1375117d34d	Downloads
bfdc1d307d41ec8b469600a786f9332837f15abd	The main configuration file (hibernate.cfg.xml)
b9fa083ecb7c87f71296b86e129aa8ce0cd70a29	The simplest class
7c71302b5691f32ff52316a55c1e17525bbe9853	HibernateUtil
83737b25b2313e43e3f956d79267c7c619c85893	Running the first example
5b9c4e7cde763e125f07d2405bb7b3e850cf2579	Hibernate and its cache.
2e3a9057f7bbbf7a56b61ab947fe74a9821b50fd	get() vs. load()
27b179139b7e6ff204b95064f4271e3513a9a5fe	Logging In Hibernate
7e72a12f23e022a5a9dc67ffb8ec5abb7c0a9cfd	JTalks Open Source | Test Data Management | Karma - Evaluate Risks in JIRA
9c906a4c3074b9a88ab41de21291dad20c1242a8	Updated:18 Dec 2012 12: 02
71125567c5d1c3dd8a256a9ef3774ce4ae17527d	anchor 08 jul 2009 22:32
cfa9a30c8d52e611362d38c1f11f387aaf39288a	1. The concept of ORM
293313a2797be4a106c5da04c1ba16967aafd268	ORM(Object/Relational Mapping)
a878e89f06285ca8becb8850d20ef3654afea818	- this is a way to save objects to a relational database.
8773bcbb32415886ab25024eb2ca84c69a85f044	In other words, ORM frees us from working with SQL and allows us to focus on OOP.
0065979cdeedd10bfe39450d03f1621a3397dbe3	The basis of the ORM is a configuration file that describes how the object will be written to the database.
b0113817b8c24e1bbff19967dc885b237edb672b	If everything is just as primitive with primitive fields: a string field is written to a column with the varchar type, an integer field is written to an int, then everything is more interesting with relationships between objects.
15f5b5bc9abb5b9c4f2434c106f1e0b5e1f0f5ed	For example, there are classes Book and Author, configuration files have been created for both, which describe their fields.
bab88803fbca563f26273434fdcad844dc2867ba	But the Book, among other things, has a link to the Author.
007fd720b8936ee0cc958df37fd78bae576fff5f	In this case, the tables in the database will be linked by a foreign key, which is also described in one of the configuration files.
d7eee3b626c49bce58299a65409ee46f5a6148e4	Note: ORM can be described not only in configuration files, annotations are also used, but for ease of understanding, they will not be discussed yet.
83da87b0f772533acab4539019b519aa1b5eff9a	Changed:08 jul 2009 23: 10
f474e384ab5dc3d2ea38995c6342ea36534e2d38	anchor 08 jul 2009 23:04
df936d272f55d7024f74e59e6c88e29d941625ee	2. Hibernate.
69163a43cc66c60b73f2f02bdb4c33556f0bbfa5	General information
ca86e2f7b79f34448865593108710bdc18f68b18	It goes without saying that working with the database through well written SQL code will be more productive than using Hibernate.
4c616394ba1fc7b2659b19ab7bdb012cb900d15e	For the functioning of Hibernate, you need: 1.
ed6d6a0babdb10cc42fe50358df91861e9234c3a	The main configuration file, which describes the parameters of the connection to the database.
fb07646dc1aa663a9a3cfc8694684c3539ea342c	2. Description of the relationship between the class and the table.
a3b2890f08676afc3d0de47c4a27c706e678f1af	Includes a relationship between a class field and a table column.
11d85c1331292775d037d1329690f87f846ce6c4	It also describes the relationship of classes with each other.
e39c964edcca80e937888aa15e1113df76169aba	Hibernate is a very complex framework, a lot of information has been written about it, if it is interesting to study it thoroughly, you can do this: Start Hibernate In Action the book is mediocre, but it will be useful for beginners.
d3475eda4d97a7bd0435b7398e9e4f1547335643	POJOs In Action is an excellent book for understanding how to work with ORMs like Hibernate, JPA, JDO.
23e93414fd3e17d42528ac57caf4f9dcc83aa400	The Hibernate Reference will give a more complete picture about Hibernate
4b915982a2cf5a086e3c18f7e956fcc4b41ab558	Java Persistence with Hibernate - a more detailed book about Hibernate, a must read for a real understanding of Hibernate.
d0d545449651900d19247021dd7bca3669a7d984	Changed:05 Jun 2012 10: 38
6ab3145b0c1e8d4e902b3fe034822318f6c388bc	anchor 09 jul 2009 13: 36
d5d6b940ea38e03196b17400bdbdfdd25d8a1c0a	3. Downloads
ebda4a74181c78ec2e48809bea6027c6821d96ca	Let's start downloading Hibernate 3.2.6.ga.
78a9c6ca06ce134712d35b2aba1ee92915e10fc3	In the future, of course, it will be possible to download a newer version, but for now this is the most relevant.
03fcd3f8310c35fbd00adc93c5eba9860ffd0c21	Many people (including me) were burned by the fact that they were pumping a complete package of Hibernate from the official site.
1ad3d4b36ae32602f75523ad9642ce7dcbdd0736	But, as it turned out, the libraries that come in this bundle have incompatible versions, which usually leads to a ClassNotFoundException when the application is launched.
e81cd8f3fd100d0607f213fe16596cbc1d47da64	So, here are the necessary libraries that can be downloaded from the central maven repository:
314f32d67b2ca4e1cd0aad7f3c5776545bdc0b90	hibernate 3.2.6.ga.jar mysql connector java 5.1.6.jar log4j 1.2.9.jar dom4j 1.6.1.jar slf4j api 1.5.2.jar slf4j simple 1.5.2.jar jta 1.1.jar icu4j 2.6.1.jar commons logging 1.0.4.jar commons collections 3.1.jar cglib nodep 2.1_3.jar
d92564626eaa94d2764362360c7e920201fd4cf0	All of them will need to be connected to future Hibernate projects.
b52555afff5f2d65e1b70dfcc8633bf21eceebdb	Changed:11 jul 2009 19: 12
47dd3aa73ef4aed031dc2faed7e39415395eb2a9	anchor 10 jul 2009 12: 35
8c7bdaf254d806fc7cb95eabb2b0edda71a72c9a	4. Main configuration file(hibernate.cfg.xml)
27a51213e149822b5b9818627d6715f934384af0	As mentioned above, Hibernate requires a main configuration file to function.
059682a3d474c80cfee12c8fd904def71145b212	Here it is (the library database is specified here, so to use this config after that, create a database with this name):<? xml version= '1.0' encoding= 'utf 8'?> <! DOCTYPE hibernate configuration PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Configuration DTD/ / EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate configuration 3.0. dtd"> <hibernate configuration> <session factory> <property name="hibernate.connection.driver class">com.mysql.jdbc.Driver</property> <property name="hibernate.connection.url"> jdbc:mysql://localhost/library </property> <property name="hibernate.connection.username">root</property> <property name="hibernate.connection.password">root</property> <property name="hibernate.connection.autocommit">true</property> <property name="show sql">true</property> <property name="dialect">org.hibernate.dialect.MySQLDialect</property> <property name="hibernate.hbm2ddl.auto">update</property> <!-- Mapping files --> <mapping resource="Book.hbm.xml"/> </session factory> </hibernate configuration>
ead9fa047fa83ac0c41caee933c82c6f720c72e5	hibernate. connection.driver class specify the show sql driver class - if set to true, SQL queries will be output to the console, which are hidden behind the Hibernate code dialect the dialect of communicating with the database hibernate. hbm2ddl. auto a property that specifies what to do with the database schema during initialization.
3e817e88117d0a93f6fe658864c5c0603a592d09	It can take the following values: update checks the database schema with the existing class configurations, if we have made any changes, they are automatically entered into the database.
59ebd065746c82347c10e03c87665d7542c05823	At the same time, the data that was entered into the database will not change - even if we decided to delete some fields from the table, they will all remain create - every time the application is launched, the database schema will be created again.
d228044210dbdfedd37d48c68bf0e2137b44338c	All the data that was entered earlier will be deleted by create drop every time the application is launched, the database schema will be created again, and when it is completed, it will be deleted.
1fca0ef45d16d88b85419b78cf643e528fbcebcd	All data that was entered during the operation of the application will be deleted upon completion of the validate application - during initialization, a check will be made whether the class configurations and the database schema correspond.
d79e0ec02a4ec5bfcd63e63d5591894c10436c5b	If we have made a change to the configuration of some class, and the schema in the database has not been changed, an exception will be thrown
7f56720c0e9e8dff2894dd4ebd3d4e42e5b54c1e	Next is the class description section.
2149375e12d7afe340d4db805478ec15bc79b469	Here we specify the files that are responsible for configuring each of the classes.
68cd6923b470a83b935414f205e5c9aa7be93235	Changed:05 Jun 2012 10: 28
612781554fc044b077a0e031d1999e8bd995182a	anchor 11 jul 2009 19: 29
c63b9e00ebc43bfba9ef4eea0d3955c9e8faf40c	5. The simplest class
0b7e178d1aa00e1f36fd7baf227906c0b95bf9ba	Let's write a simple class with three fields: a Long type identifier, a string field - the name of the book and the number of pages represented by an integer type.
cba36fbad72a364cce9f79c51c4f8ac6f6bab44a	Please note that the class must have a default constructor.
0cd42e2b3f623d61ef2e0676d1b94e3789e065e5	Since we have not declared any, it will be so. package ru.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore;
f1aa71459887dd12d4cccdb4cbc657a961319463	/** * 10.07.2009 23:43:14 * * @author ctapobep */ public class Book
63773aa7ab73874df4a60d57a0b09d1da2d34330	{ private Long id; private String title; private int pageCount;
a4ef983841b22b735d0f777b713bba8680822292	public Long getId() { return id; }
ab2b21276dfe914b3527fd5537257951b2207eb6	public void setId(Long id) { this.id = id; }
b5e164d80827a751e283063ab6c1235a77f270fb	public String getTitle() { return title; }
5d117013ce7198d9b37eb738db3f234712d23d9c	public void setTitle(String title) { this.title = title; }
5b29e0ad75329c04ac92378b1a43d483b99395e6	public int getPageCount() { return pageCount; }
91539a1ac49c21c954876674265386c518ae48a8	public void setPageCount(int pageCount) { this.pageCount = pageCount; }
6c74cbcf22d246c03e4f9a9a2d27bade9fbde8e2	Now we will describe its configuration file.
c43e67709f038f6acfc2e9135dc93cbf61948577	All these files must have a name ClassName.hbm.xml.
2a38983bbf93715f70a5616edb8b16a45a7cc31f	That is, in our case it is Book.hbm.xml:<? xml version= "1.0"?> <! DOCTYPE hibernate mapping PUBLIC "- //Hibernate/Hibernate Mapping DTD 3.0/ / EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate mapping 3.0.dtd"> <hibernate mapping package="en.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore"> <class name="Book" table="books"> <id name="id" column="id" unsaved value="null"> <generator class="native"/> </id> <property name="title" type="string" column="title" length="255"/> <property name="pageCount"/> </class> </hibernate mapping> By points:<property name= "title" type= "string" column= "title" length= " 255 " /> Here we have established that the title field will be created in the table with the type varchar (or varchar2 in Oracle), with a length of 255.
4399a21ff1e90b8cc8432df0a7dc526224a17fab	If we had not set the length, Hibernate would have determined it itself, and it would have been the maximum allowable length of this type for this database.
ee06f8092c1fb8e6cb4b3b6248db58d5ad0cd2d0	Since we have MySQL, the field length would have been 255.
dc2b478ae23dac412599e47437f22352509724a3	As for the field type, if you do not specify it, Hibernate will determine it itself, but only for primitives and wrapper classes(Integer, Double, etc.).
e8ede45aec3f1a1cb385425f095ed6c14aad76df	<property name="pageCount"/> As you can see, we did not specify either the type or the name of the column here - Hibernate will set everything independently.
eb8075f94b2e78ab7adc8326dbf27f0a48d30b1b	<id name="id" column="id" unsaved value="null"> <generator class="native"/> </id> The ID field is a prerequisite for the operation of Hibernate.
fe48e863fc7f03d8834572383aa1d19c8b980ca1	Its type can be either a string or a number, the main condition is uniqueness.
c5fbaab3f920848012e6ab5664bdafbb22f64d4f	The unsaved value attribute defines how Hibernate will distinguish an already saved object(persistent) from an already untouched one (unsaved).
eebb3f11c571f3c625521acde0d955537e503948	In this case, if the object ID turns out to be null, it means that it has not yet been saved to the database.
215be525baf9be024564d7fc4bb91a55a0abdf65	By the way, here we can observe a win of the Long type before long: the latter cannot be null, it will have an unsaved value of 0, which is not so obvious. generator is an identifier generator.
fda0b1976ad96bc6c8a8610f47ebf318c79a3b5a	Its class will be responsible for how the unique identifier will be generated.
e44bcac3e8b3d173ce2e5f9dbbd8e29696437f7a	In this case, the native class is installed, which allows you to use the DATABASE generator itself.
7df028724aacac01085a8a25d32470e02ee08da6	You can read more about identifiers and generators here.
f87f7536bb4ece62b3f683a005c2ccd7df80ea9e	<class name= "Book" table= "books" > The tag that describes the class.
60580a3f8a56b288278071ddca30206757d5d795	Here we have specified the name of the class and the table that will correspond to it.
620d2d98f451d6b49b4751940a824b41e1a335ec	More details.
27ce30c1f7ea6cb7098aeb153b53c2e38470c2c4	<hibernate mapping package= "ru. javatalks. faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore"> The main tag of this configuration file.
1e54a4183b6671f906b788d91572cf6f495ba0eb	Here we have specified only the package in which our class is stored.
bafe86c034acf192a46eb230deef85d32abf89c0	If we mentioned more classes here without specifying their packages, then this one would be used.
f86fdef36d19720e0fcc76f0fd9a62fabfc6fb02	I would like to note that if we had a class in a child package relative to the one described above, then we would have to refer to this class by specifying the absolute name of the package, and not the relative one.
59b878b57628a934713c1bf1169b922b483e4390	That is, let's say we have a package ru. javatalks. faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore.derived, then we would refer to the class in it ru.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore.DerivedClass.
a044061ccaa9d857d88062237e660fe4401777ad	Updated:20 Nov 2009 16: 46
70c4e2433d04b9280abb0bfc4cd71ae24fd3b686	anchor 26 jul 2009 21:46
90981067e0a084d3be83e7fbd0557a8348037891	6. HibernateUtil
4b01f2202c8702913e81b43d2d4f1b5618599e0f	Let's add a utility class that will load Hibernate and provide access to it: HibernateUtil.java package ru.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.util;
857e6fd964de61d13a98071f1896aebf68659c35	/** * 26.07.2009 20:27:43 * * @author ctapobep */ public class HibernateUtil
38de4f32638e31c962c399d14b1e8b740a2d4441	{ private static final SessionFactory sessionFactory;
d35877447d432eafab5220909ecb4d84542b3e21	static { try { //creates the session factory from hibernate.cfg.xml sessionFactory = new Configuration().configure().buildSessionFactory(); } catch (ExceptionInInitializerError ex) { System.err.println("Initial SessionFactory creation failed: " + ex); throw new ExceptionInInitializerError(ex); }
56f8987f649f5337cc0b01ca5aaaa32adc2e7fd9	/** * Gets hiberante session factory that was initialized at application startup.
def6167bb620cfffb844dcc363377b66fa2527e3	* * @return hibernate session factory */ public static SessionFactory getSessionFactory() { return sessionFactory; }
29908d141036aaf51105404de11e0757ecda93bd	This code creates a SessionFactory object - a factory that is used to create these are the Hibernate sessions that we will actually work with.
2de21f5497a59c158252cc0ee1a52987dbf3beff	A session factory is a thread safe global object that needs to be initialized only once.
3fb9f437864b596404ebc5e1164935748a7e72d1	A very important place here is played by the Configuration object and its configure () method.
be2bd2499d6926738f2e40f7fafec801db3bc2d3	If you initialize the session factory in the way described above, then the file hibernate.cfg.xml it will be searched in the classpath.
61b911ebb173f31a9e45f50ab25bfe7c3dd574ba	We can also explicitly specify the location of this file by using an overloaded version of the configure(String) method.
fc0f9836ec59a9cdbf741bbe1fe6b226a98811de	Updated:18 Oct 2009 22: 28
fcedc8964efcb47a3677dd397c6e64df352f14a2	anchor 02 sep 2009 18:53
3e08c823a5254b4ff1c6e296751412fbc8dcdaa0	7. Run the first example
177871b8a0674375dcb7a9b5df019e669c48be04	Well, the theory is probably enough.
74f7de626c7f5ba49650a23e07304e23ef3328a1	We need to finally launch something :) Let's save, extract, modify and delete the record from the database.
0ebf9dc7fe55291c0737890c84d62cffca868544	This is a typical CRUD operation(create, read, update, delete). import org.hibernate.Session; import ru.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.bookstore.Book; import ru.javatalks.faq.persistence.hibernate.util.HibernateUtil;
102f2f04a4e8d9a21337fdea1242b2185dd2ec47	{ public static void main(String[] args)
8291310352c5ef104bae08e5730810f57f68a72e	{ Session session = HibernateUtil.getSessionFactory().openSession();
a5e0cf74deb78ba97f8e3fca6a0f4cdf92ac78af	Book book = new Book(); book. setPageCount(520); book.setTitle ("Tales of Round Table"); session. save (book);//we saved the book, our id was generated and immediately filled with book = (Book) session.get(Book.class, book.getId()); book.setPageCount(430); session.save(book); session.delete(book); session.flush(); session.close(); } }
c96a0f648a8289012c3d0cffbe43df0b2aa2cb43	You can set up breakpoints and monitor how the content of the books table changes with each line.
329e35e3da8d9da9cd3a13cecb4f43d31df99746	Changed:02 Sep 2009 19: 27
9ee34bd5a89c8b9e9b290775fb6412e04dc98f73	anchor 28 feb 2011 14: 39
b1938160f3d9f7b43f892546579cbb4e5fcc967c	Hibernate and its caches
609e60d17a08d2797c5c6725e6f7a147253097c4	Hibernate has the following cache levels: Session level (1 level cache) - works only between opening and closing a session.
47f02a9f750d15efd5bfbc4d8c98ff5bfff95c84	For example, if you selected an object and then want to select it again , it will be taken from the cache.
42cd27e75b832ba4ac19c633a5a7909bebad2681	After closing the session, the entire cache will be cleared.
d9ae43cf7bed0ac60526418d7e5461140a6b2d23	It is when the session is closed, since the session can be used for several transactions, then these several transactions can use the session level cache together.
ae32c6172b8235d3f93da07ce1cb7b9201cf0c86	However, as a rule, when working with Hibernate, the session lives a single transaction.
a02a3ff7f0b3cfa85c203c4168a4f0964b7ff0f2	Process level (2 level cache, SessionFactory cache) - data from all sessions is cached here.
80bcea80ecf2690575db0721fd17b240e92c8d18	It should be noted, however, that if we are talking about fetch="join", then Hibernate will never search for child objects in the cache.
267a7785fbe5ca3f3a34a39e1566b20643056304	For example, from Authors a join a.books of the Author will be selected from the cache, and the books will be selected from the database.
dc4b001c440f6e3248698bd2a278c3a00befa90e	If the Books are loaded with an additional request (that is, fetch= "select"), then the objects will be taken from the cache (if they are there, of course).
c044cf9e3cae93d02f83ba2cf5fc7af5ad5437e0	In general, this cache works using some cache regions (=spaces), when each entity is assigned to some cache block.
b42e800326e989ea0ecf36fa3208efc864bda3d7	For example, so: books space will include the Book entity.
4b7daf34c8ce01177f484fe6dd17f0bd0ac683e8	authors space will include both books and their authors, because for example, when updating authors, you need to update books as well.
53628505b682a48c9e2c09e7fae1debd94c7409c	This is a fairly abstract example, just to explain what it is
b41e8cf8fb524e295914908db3d7595e21385eb1	These regions are needed in order to determine which operations need to update/kill the cache.
90035d17f5656daaaf1a3c67f762e05015800c87	Configuration of these regions is performed in hbm.xml in the file, as well as in the configuration of the cache provider itself.
d53e8298eb06bf0fac3f7b26157358f8d9179d5c	Query cache is an extension of the 2nd level cache.
be4f85c8134aab123552f5656f77960f40fc8462	If you activate it, then when executing the request, all the IDs of the selected objects will be saved in the cache.
53fef76b97c569833b36fbafe6abc85ebf13fd3d	When the request is executed again, it will not be executed in the database, just take all the IDs and the corresponding objects will be selected from the cache of the 2nd level.
5f5e756a9cbc25e513ced64275742d74b03c2dd3	Such a cache is useful only for read only data or data that is very rarely changed, because this cache is completely cleared if at least one change occurs in the table affected by the query.
8ea7989ff56eeb682b763acbd43ecdb82d88cef0	You can make sure that the query cache is enabled by default, for this you need to set the Hibernate: hibernate.cache.use query cache to true in the configuration
139983e7e60aa31727d52552b68cdca8d7cd162e	Hibernate cache & Native SQL Queries: Hib allows you to execute regular SQL queries, where you can write a query of any flexibility.
076f820f517a740aa679f2a2ad00d147af2030ae	The problem here is that since we are in charge of which tables and columns to change, the Hib cannot track which cache region this applies to, and because the most important thing for us is data integrity, the Hib cleans the entire second level cache during each such request.
004b822b4df4dce9969a7981f41b1a5257e150b9	This happens because our query can change some row in the table, but in the cache this "row" will remain with the same value and when working with this cache, we will get outdated data.
06948f9127de46d8acfb2514e772ca6ec30b8ad3	However, since we ourselves know at the time of writing the request which regions this can hook, we can tell the Kiba which regions to clean, so that it does not kill everything under the clean.
f789e6bb8a89f0b3e1a4f19d645bc8f1e4a28901	This is done as follows: SqlQuery sql = session.
f4018238a286cd45138d65abfc1c141c46e1e69f	CreateSQLQuery
4ec32aabca4a056afd58d549278c9c2f48bb21b3	("update author ..."); sql. addSynchronizedEntityClass(Author.class);
8d007d3701630eac13a48566778446ff80a7ab02	SqlQuery. executeUpdate();
833bbac7469520b0a8b05ed75a0660dea1ea6e73	In this case, the regions assigned to the Author will be cleared, but only they.
3b032cd801c5bbf4c1e35029677e3359adf67ba0	You can also specify other parameters: sql. addSynchronizedEntityName ("en. javatalks.bookstore.Author"); sqlQuery.addSynchronizedQuerySpace("author");
4a4ff5f4c0ffe84792e816f80a001b5840108c4a	Well, the last method, if you describe the request in hbm.xml in the file, it will look like this: <sql query name= "updateAuthor" > <synchronize table= "author" / > update author set... </sql query> If you know that no data updates will occur or that this will not affect the quality of the caches in any way, you can specify: sql. addSynchronizedQuerySpace("");
b87d5130cf46b42583c18910fec7e648e2d89c3b	An empty string will mean in this case that no caches will be cleared.
ab3ccd564142520726b3f9fc521ef6c52dbdcbca	Changed:17 May 2014 00: 48
5275910470cfe475b6e1bd1ba2488657f0cf4399	anchor 13 apr 2012 16: 16
839fdb5bd8894aad4c50011bcc8ed431b0db839b	The difference between get () & load()
b064dd89a62f8b5629f75f3d51d34baabf82da5a	Both methods return an object by ID, but they do it quite differently.
295cadfc51b300e42632207eac61c8ff692989e6	In this case, we are considering the usual situation when we do not have lazy="false" set for the class and bytecode enhancement is not used.
a8e353771156930a2c06a54a5796f1036df66ee6	To begin with, it is worth mentioning that Hibernate can return both a proxy (a wrapper over an object created in runtime) and the object itself.
e3b3d42fd257bd45c196e858cb7a7149bcb2b3bd	If the proxy has returned, then it can be in an initialized state, when all primitive and non lazy fields are circled, as well as in a state when it has only an ID.
1138fe7220aa14407028bce74f752ccc4bbb7f7a	Total: session.get(Book.class, BookID) - will access the database (well, or find an object in the cache) and return the initialized proxy.
8ea1c8f4534c0905701ae585107274c4585cefec	If the object is not found, null is returned.
4920be52c7b0cb65037248d892b605fd69af1de4	When we access the lazy fields, they are loaded.
eeef029110122fcd4ecff6300a5d01f351c627be	session. load(Book.class, BookID)
d0c54674ae5e426798e1ca3ff788ea06af1d5576	- an uninitialized proxy will return, there will be no access to the database at all.
27e05c162b33616bd3bf301bc27fed168113fd1d	It will just be a proxy that received only the information that we passed to the method.
8bb638306a26b12e2391883fb815a7c786081cc4	The proxy is initialized only when we access its fields, and then select will be performed.
8c2ae6705d7208d9d5c401d43d14fcb68d072e52	And in this case, if the object is not in the database or cache, an exception will be thrown.
6acfa834f13acd2d9226a3574056f124c490682c	This option can be much more efficient, but we need to know for sure that objects with such IDs exist.
239944d742928b05b92bd2469bc962004cffe91b	For example, in the following code there will be no select: Book book = session. load(Book.class, 24L);
2889283070aacbad4e41aeb5f71a5be48a62946f	Author author = session.load(Author.class, 12L); book.setAuthor(author); session.save(book);
3dd642dfb97ab64fa9107b778dbd786047b41385	Only insert will be performed.
a839fc3f9ef5404ba5ba7119f359fe50f46ab574	You should also understand that when you pull the connection of an object with another object
d7f35fbfc79246e62e2f0fab3b14162eafb36a91	(book.getUser ()) - the proxy is returned.
1532323aea842ee57c25c922dfeb0be736f2f849	And even when you pull getId (), the proxy will return and no select will be performed (unless you have disabled the proxy or use bytecode enhancement, otherwise at least an object with primitives will be loaded).
13029c10fbc179a629182848a1cf6a4259121446	anchor 25 may 2012 16: 01
725e70cd98d22e23af366078298fea4f2cd44883	Logging in Hibernate Article moved to: JavaTalks Articles
c929159a890a69c06a118ec8a05ad08bb90e75db	anchor 03 jun 2012 13: 25
6d357046ec8c8ee068129458cd101a0035cf7e74	pashalost
a46dae7b9d9cae03d2c9ef268669f712a3c9310a	Messages:34
3ae63ec21fe964592a0cbb0ef8c0154bf039b494	1) It is not clear how to configure log4j ("And add this to log4j:" does not bring much clarity) 2) It would not be superfluous to explain which classpath is meant when saving hibernate.cfg.xml (you could just say the src folder, and immediately a bunch of people would stop posting their ridiculous mistakes.) 3) mysql is not the best name for a test database of an example for beginners, try to guess why ?
8daec57243bb42d470ae0f1ce21e241aa65c5f53	anchor 05 jun 2012 10: 33
1f40ea1b3fe6963d13799fe2721ab3a21dc3b428	1. This is not a tutorial on log4j, I would not like to overload the posts with information.
c6f62feb82bdbaab4f24e7f7a90d4f4066503094	In addition, this is a fairly deep and far from mandatory configuration of the Hiba.
884bfcc28d57ba4ca02e5651e03db0eb2c706655	2. What is SRC?
56a46ddcaffdc6f5e5658f171663da5754fcd0c5	Over the past couple of years, I have hardly seen any projects where src is the root of classpath.
e540797fb25c67f969d9457a3fb8040972c55f01	If you are interested in finding out what it is, it is described here, you can also search the web for more detailed information if this is not enough.
a90330f593b416dc0dac250e7a68315733e3ad25	3. I changed it, thank you.
982ee52c714a9b232da5f7625885a52e55bbf1d6	PS: Hib is a very complex framework, it makes sense to start getting acquainted more closely with core java, here are books for beginners.
bdf6c34dff23f024943faa820b17d0bfe3514ef6	anchor 05 jun 2012 10:54
dbfa62fa739d608acb72fb33506ace3754067ba7	usik
65fbaec7460c593c15623962d0f7b38e063c055e	Messages:190
ddfe60bb560b8b9045443da69552ebb1e60a96d3	Old Believer, you would have done something similar with EntityManager. (Preferably an approach with anotations), then everyone would be happy.
86a83b271cecb9a6aa00b00e4382ae73f3fa1052	anchor 05 jun 2012 11: 58
30f4055d00991113fa4ac7be73850dbf23692fe1	I prefer not to work with JPA, but this is a separate story:)
e9ac737318320650f751cf829bfa9f788821a658	Moderators:No They are currently viewing this topic:No
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57a982d26315381b154d2d62264709eec35e5e32	Hibernate simplifies inheritance transformation By learning three simplified (to execute) strategies for displaying class hierarchies.
2dd95b52091a0cde46bbdd9e5b274bae3454ebc8	Hibernate is an object relational memory management and stable framework that provides many additional features from introspection to polymorphism and inheritance transformation.
69ad22134d2ac68d0904418293a121f6d2ecdb5b	Xavier Coulon, E business IT Specialist, IBM Business Consulting Services
fe5d24317a6c3ff30624b685d260bf36a2bef3bb	Close [x]
d945c2ec912df262f1002c3e9246b4afdd49419d	Xavier Coulon joined IBM France as an IT specialist six years ago and started with ERP consulting on various platforms.
996c2842142114912b2181b549c89b238b137464	For the last two years, he has been working on large J2EE projects, including open source frameworks such as Struts and Hibernate.
8b24c8ff8cca4b626686a509d62096bb02e14a27	You can contact him at: xavier.coulon@fr.ibm.com.
ccebbba38ba2bf29c5f9217e97b42549bf7e440f	Christian Brousseau, J2EE Consultant
4d5acee4075d7d3d379bd6afbde539abd3e158dc	Christian Brousseau, a Canadian who has been working on software for a little more than a decade.
7c2542f53d1746589f218d911e12ffb57fdecfb7	I started with numerous Windows developments (C++, Visual Basic, Microsoft Foundation Classes, ActiveX), switched to Java projects when the first version was released.
1248e561bbe6e862bb410bf4ab9fdc8f4cf10aaf	His competence as a J2EE consultant gave him an excellent opportunity to move to France, where he helped design, develop and deploy many J2EE projects for the systematization of enterprises.
b3d141dc24f1b7da4764a335e27be83af63af788	You can contact him at: cbrous@fr.ibm.com.
76d106d6f0fefe7c108aa500b4975ca018b78820	14.12.2004
0cea81e38337d4ad9fe59d4e74c653ca5bf2aeff	Contents Introduction A visual example of the Integration Service Strategy 1: One table per Subclass (Persons) Strategy 2: One table per Class hierarchy (Rights) Strategy 3: One table per specific class (Estates) Uploading Resources Comments
3e64be7be805ae1c3ff520efafec00b5bf897490	Introduction Hibernate has a number of advantages over other similar approaches to object relational management (JDO, data management components, internal program development, etc.): it is an accessible source program that has reached a high degree of maturity, it is widely used and actively discussed.
fc88611eb50fe18bd7275505d5ec54fb8661eb65	To integrate the Hibernate package into an existing Java project, you need to go through the following steps: Download the latest version of the Hibernate framework from the Hibernate Web site.
faab9e07afc273844029f5f9fe9eefaf9914cc5a	Create XML configuration files that will be used to convert your Java objects into database tables.
14c89722a0c90e0de531e6cf53e3ec3e7afd2759	(We will describe this process in this article).
a7872c0cc79f50c20f665fda04755aad8084227f	You donot need to recompile Java codes.
49800a4fca63597d8e6315ce8da91596f529e85f	The query language of the Hibernate Package (HQL)
726db66cf32dacf37b7ce33decc299f28bbe7303	Listing 1 illustrates the main example.
8b8c511523eb0cdbcba9a02b11ea227f3061dd2d	This HQL code restores all Individual tables, where firstName is "John".
6c56888009eae7380c11ff6ae00cc9b0c84dc57b	Listing 1.
90e03fa020510f3089dcd06176e3713ac9a3faa7	The main HQL query is SELECT * FROM eg. hibernate.mapping. dataobject.
3c38ffdf2f9511c771495dfcb311b0df3a8839db	Individual WHERE firstName = "John"
22d980feba3bf3f0db1723e0360e50d5afa4ae9e	You can refer to the HQL link on the Hibernate Website if you want to learn more about the HQL syntax The essence of the Hibernate functionality is XML configuration files.
3e6c2f1f29ff012b3e0491973073131398f71755	We have placed them in the directory of our package with sample codes The first file that we will consider is hibernate.ctg.xml.
24dc23e43706e7300b1c51516e1bed2533ef7f0d	In this article, we will look at a basic example that shows how Hibernate works and implements three different strategies with which you can use Hibernate for object relational transformation.
5974eef9eb4bc2e993df003cd9b87e44f4e4f6ee	Based on this paragraph, you can develop a class model, shown in Diagram 1: Diagram 1.
38e3bee19f19c60e84a89102d047719c4eed501b	Full class model Our database model has been modeled to describe three different strategies, which we will discuss in this article.
ccbc10167f4ee4ebbde4a4cdf39ed0a0fee7a8de	For the Person hierarchy, we use the so called super table (TB PERSON), which has the same ID as the other two tables (TB CORPORATION and TB INDIVIDUAL).
a561ee424081fb91d8f65168743fdc63549470b2	The third hierarchy (Estate) uses two different tables (TB BUILDING and TV LAND), connected by a foreign key defined by a combination of two columns (REF ESTATE ID and REF ESTATE TYPE).
214bab10774851e4b261f8a83330d57ca4a43d2b	Diagram 2 shows the database model: Diagram 2.
918d7db93773ae9a7127d047ecacc9e1e10ed0af	Full database model
afc2bbd645d7ffb49bdae8a953a4c5e64e5e00ea	To the beginning of the Integration Service, Install the database
dbd6e097ad062f03cffe34f63865752db38b5495	As part of the sample code package, you will find the following pointers: config, which contains XML configuration files of all samples (conversion, Log4J, etc.) data, which contains configuration files used by HSQLDB.
4e8e3006b61fd691ef9da21a183ea0b1c18d25c1	You can also find a batch file called startHSQLDB.a bat that can be used to start the database. src, contains the source text of all samples.
9c4d90348d5f083be4668cab3f54fd839cc23109	You can download these packages from the Resources section.
0f86713e192202d892e0d55774f2348d4329c329	To start Strategy 1: One table per subclass (Persons) In our first strategy, we will look at how to transform the Person hierarchy.
c3a3bf4f015dd7eaa6bd2b18a11e2a62daf04b2b	We have three tables (TB PERSON, TB INDIVIDUAL and TB CORPORATION).
8c0f3f0da205df47bb2b56eb32d751760712c0c9	As we noted above, they all have a column named ID as the initial key.
ac579a3481f10f1847cc99c8f96704f2c2fb674e	It is not necessary to have a common column with this name, but it is considered a good practice - and also makes it much easier to read generated SQL queries.
fa4aded78edaaac0aee6875a504b4b5ab6b75a06	In the transformation XML file shown in Listing 2, you can notice that two specific classes are defined as <joined subclass> inside the transform definition of Person.
8de7784f5739fde57f378a877f610a11a8fef294	The XML <id> element is converted to the initial key for the top level TB PERSON table, while the <key> elements (from each subclass) are converted to the corresponding initial keys of the TB INDIVIDUAL and TB CORPORATION tables.
f6e9fa080d49f009fa6e0473344448f22a05d2fc	Listing 2.
ba0fe6af43d0a39218e28f4078c2a927db6e0179	Person.hbm.xml <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate mapping PUBLIC "- //Hibernate/Hibernate Mapping DTD 2.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate mapping 2.0.dtd">
b9674453fd1cba11cdf241f5ad2790a517452a13	<hibernate mapping> <class name="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Person" table="TB PERSON" polymorphism="implicit"> <id name="id" column="ID"> <generator class="assigned"/> </id> <set name="rights" lazy="false"> <key column="REF PERSON ID"/> <one to many class="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Right" /> </set> <joined subclass name="eg.hibernate.mapping. dataobject.
7b508ae8176f48cfbd6985bcee2d9b667faa0ef1	Individual" table="TB INDIVIDUAL"> <key column="id"/> <property name="firstName" column= "FIRST NAME" type="java.lang.String" /> <property name="lastName" column= "LAST NAME" type="java.lang.String" /> </joined subclass> <joined subclass name= "eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Corporation" table="TB CORPORATION"> <key column="id"/> <property name= "name" column="NAME" type="string" /> <property name="registrationNumber" column ="REGISTRATION NUMBER" type="string" /> </joined subclass> </class> </hibernate mapping>
2c79b391155c806af2af6db99e6800101c82d59e	By saving the new Individual form property, our Java code with Hibernate remains quite simple, as shown in Listing 3: Listing 3.
60da51e9adff8ac625c8e8ce294f41f24bd323de	Saving the new Individual public Object create(Object object)table property
a909fca817277639d48806801abc989deda0f0df	{ Session session = null; try { session = sessionFactory.openSession(); Transaction tx = session.beginTransaction(); session.save(object); session.flush(); tx.commit(); ... }
42a1d64db93c07ae80856a81b7c37cd45d379f5a	Hibernate, in turn, generates two SQL INSERT requirements, shown in Listing 4.
8f83e87b1d9bf495dfa18233a2d380771c82df80	These are two requirements for only one save
136a602a0965880c7090ad36bde6c2ca0e516847	( ). Listing 4.
1d3df667096cd968b1ba2cd035f76ff93ed2b4ad	SQL insert queries insert into TB PERSON (ID) values (?) insert into TB INDIVIDUAL (FIRST NAME, LAST NAME, id) values (?,?, ?)
3772c245405992e9951b858be46c9611528b0ca0	To access the Individual table from the database, you just need to define the class name in your HQL query, as shown in Listing 5.
9142939cede3c3e69e7474699d8e85d1f2d586d2	Listing 5.
2457811d9f695b73d9dc19dc55104962169c0b0d	Activating the HQL query public Person findIndividual(Integer id)
43ceee45ecef24cd508280586e166e9054c73972	{ ... session.find("select p from " + Individual.class.getName() + " as p where p.id = ?", new Object[]
201778cb13e98f529adff83ec5e430972c304910	{ id }, new Type[]
837b5946ae8a74e509ebdb387ff973655e42eb53	{ Hibernate.INTEGER }); ...
ace4adc580cb7cc3f91f651e1e0d86cb842935db	Hibernate will automatically perform a SQL JOIN to restore all the necessary information from both tables, as shown in Listing 6: Listing 6.
7edb4762ebd00939a25df6b9bf2e6fd79ae6b447	SQL SELECT query to select Individual individual0_.id as ID, individual0_.FIRST NAME as FIRST NAME55_, individual0_.LAST NAME LAST NAME55_ as from INDIVIDUAL individual0_ TB TB inner join PERSON individual0__1_ on individual0_.id=individual0__1_.ID where (individual0_.id=? )
03c1101cef7863d28a79055b8cf61dc270c4b3ed	The Hibernate abstract Class query automatically outputs the entire class group when an abstract class is requested.
871d3150086bb9f9698f9570db323d6d282fcdea	For example, if we query the Person table from the database, Hibernate outputs a list of objects of the Individual and Corporation tables.
39aadb3d5ffc95491adf58d7870226777a6395ec	However, when the abstract class is not specified, the Hibernate package needs to execute SQL JOIN, because it is not known which table needs to be passed through.
47066c7e2d8116e532a9ff37a734e59a49b57d4b	Along with the other columns of the restored table derived from the HQL query, an additional dynamic column will also be restored.
50851b9df8ff79566702f7160a87299d23e655dd	The clazz column is used by the Hibernate package to define and place the restored object.
43cb72e86d509e3733f1e1e3a1f3ad8a97792971	We call this class distribution dynamic, as opposed to the method that we will use in our second strategy.
3fd0dec3ddf100d33e99ff0149d484392a54447d	Listing 7 shows how a Person is queried via id, while Listing 8 shows an SQL query automatically generated by Hibernate, including table crossing.
b6814e19011f7c84edd4e02d94737fad131a96d6	Listing 7.
869710b74bf1c671e8f42c61817c0275f3d491d9	HQL query in the search method of calling public Person find(Integer id)
bc0b3780b795941c68f62beac86992e0ca0ed835	{ ... session.find("select p from " + Person.class.getName() + " as p where p.id = ?", new Object[]
1e6fe066dc44a39c2b9a4d4a5a57055d3d2666c6	{ id }, new Type[] { Hibernate.INTEGER }); ... }
987e5bead2f7032205e0b4ead3ab10a2d21ff41b	Listing 8.
55f6b67be3c5171b54bf92a3ad57b1ac842b2279	SQL SELECT query for any type in the Person table select person0_.ID as ID0_, casewhen(person0__1_.id is not null, 1, casewhen(person0__2_.id is not null, 2, casewhen(person0_.ID is not null, 0, -1))) as clazz 0_, person0__1_.FIRST NAME as FIRST NAME61_0_, person0__1_.LAST NAME as LAST NAME61_0_, person0__2_.NAME as NAME62_0_, person0__2_.REGISTRATION NUMBER REGISTRA3_62_0_ as TB from PERSON person0_ left outer join TB INDIVIDUAL person0__1_ on person0_.ID=person0__1_.id left outer join TB CORPORATION person0__2_ on person0_.ID=person0__2_.id where person0_.ID=?
5f24cf0834cb84cf72383f8cc6f744e399439e05	At the beginning of Strategy 2: One table per Class Hierarchy (Rights) For our Right hierarchy, we use one table (TB RIGHT) to maintain the full class hierarchy.
9ceb002e6c362cbc4f962026be02d033d8d0ee47	You will notice that the TB RIGHT table has all the necessary columns to store all the properties of the class hierarchy of the Right table.
d7153af8bec3c9b18ee0a88564a7f16ae8379f0c	The values of the saved properties will then be saved in the table, each unused column will be filled with a null value.
676c93093bd995ea71773df290099d577c86cbfc	(Because there are many "holes" in the table, we often call it "Swiss Cheese").
e7b6d02386920d13a42f387fd7c90b9da987f964	In Scheme 3, you will see that the TB RIGHT table includes an additional column to automatically determine the corresponding class and distribution according to the class.
44b3ba58d63504512bde1e94259985d72ec56bb4	This column is converted using the <discriminator> XML element from our conversion files.
646cb3e9bbba8a7c70d397d4dd7efd3607fe4c77	Scheme 3.
73fa6c0aece2b91c074cbab2362c329c8cc0bd02	The content of the TB RIGHT table is the height of simplicity In very large projects, you will encounter a complex class hierarchy consisting of several levels of abstract classes.
457b1efa4e5aeb712cbbb247b12395beb819481d	Fortunately, you donot have to specify the discriminator value for an abstract class.
ac75462ccebe77c7fc0c5bb9d14479f5fd6a7782	You just need to define it for specific classes that Hibernate will use.
42cb500ba34eb579f041e6bc97ebe34e51494a96	Just like in the Person conversion file in Listing 2, and in Listing 9, we will convert the abstract class (Right) and all its properties.
1fbfa748fcd5ae6ae2187e68c53d64e2c96a6dbf	To convert our two specific classes (Lease and Property), we use the XML attribute <subclass>.
a3e405050a0f5dedded6864e5867bcdcdf7fe141	This attribute is quite simple; it requires the name property, just as the class attribute requires the discriminator value property.
6cf81ce05502139b69c7c23a76895ccad50a468a	Hibernate uses the latter property to define the class it should work with.
2377a247908c25ebeb91f7692a79a0480103d4fe	As you noticed from the class diagram in Diagram 1, discriminator is not a property of any Java class.
675f437177a66dc5ad6ca7c4d77bf2f5c3dd4846	In fact, it is not even converted.
c2ef2d04b3d844d5d145ee65c23b8edc5a47483d	This is just a technical column placed between Hibernate and the database.
1fed05785c17c88de0cbc1bc77261d32524cf2c3	Listing 9.
6f0e42789b1baea7a3d7cf9757833b6038105b52	Right.hbm.xml <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate mapping PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Mapping DTD 2.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate mapping 2.0.dtd"> <hibernate mapping> <class name="eg.hibernate.mapping. dataobject.
251807d8d1fde690ebd7bd43e4fa90a00057984a	Right" table="TB RIGHT" polymorphism="implicit"> <id name="id" column="ID"> <generator class="assigned"/> </id> <discriminator> <column name="DISCRIMINATOR"/> </discriminator> <property name="date" column="DATE" type="java.sql.Date" /> <many to one name="person" class= "eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Person" column="REF PERSON ID"/> <any name="estate" meta type="string" id type="java.lang.Integer"> <meta value value="LND" class= "eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Land"/> <meta value value="BLD" class= "eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Building"/> <column name="REF ESTATE TYPE"/> <column name="REF ESTATE ID"/> </any>
eca92b0236d0281a03060592ea034afb100813dd	<subclass name="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject. Property" discriminator value="PRO"/>
d3dec0b663a50b62ea48af3966d41a3fe9146dca	<subclass name="eg.hibernate.mapping. dataobject.
0c5165f9689fa62ab0b4da8c92b85fb741bea799	Lease" discriminator value="LEA"> <property name="duration" column= "DURATION" type="java.lang.Integer" /> </subclass> </class> </hibernate mapping>
5984cab23ddce519c6cabd2f86e4ec0881042eb1	In the conversion file of Listing 9, you see the "set to unit" relationship between the Right and Person hierarchies, which (naturally) are the opposite of the relationships in the Person hierarchy ("unit to plurality").
73b6d1f6e6d5d359570bd714e755b69831f35c3d	Pay attention also to the relations between the Right and Estate hierarchies; later in this article we will look at these relations as well.
1815dd7f6a81eeebad58926a3a3e6cc86b1bef17	As in the first strategy, here Hibernate produces fairly efficient SQL statements when accessing the database.
8b91c84cf55dd75334fcca2f398b28b17d01853d	When we request a specific class, as shown in Listing 10, Hibernate automatically filters using discriminator tools - good quality, because this means that Hibernate reads only the columns corresponding to the specified file.
e247dc628d0a53422779afe7cac20d4ad200c811	Listing 10.
32a6f8e3c459765870dc53b6689f164c7c3f3160	SQL query of a specific select class property0_.ID as ID, property0_.DATE as DATE, property0_.REF PERSON ID as REF PERS4_, property0_.
aa944f5448db8907f666d6984e431f936ff8b6be	REF ESTATE TYPE as REF ESTA5_, property0_.REF ESTATE ID as REF ESTA6_ from TB RIGHT property0_ where property0_.DISCRIMINATOR='PRO'
fd1a528ad54af65e8d7ba969ce8451be7c737716	Everything is much more complicated when we request an abstract class.
858d76e68047b28e99d96a3db092922133b27a8a	Because Hibernate doesnot know which specific class is needed, it has to read each column (including the discriminator column), then it determines which class to isolate and, in the end, shows it.
1e3ee9712921791b511c400dc19524504720e1be	The discriminator plays the same role as the clazz column in our first strategy.
f99b27d20987ec0d563b3be9ae7089d64520ed22	But this is a match it turns out to be more static, while the class name is derived directly from the discriminator value.
eba1d025851b950d41cfed5ffa4450713e8ebe2e	Listing 11.
e8b246bc10c8d31dd019ba36563adda37fc33759	SQL query of (abstract) classes Right select right0_.ID as ID, right0_.DISCRIMINATOR as DISCRIMI2_, right0_.DATE as DATE, right0_.
f334f9d98e67ad414fca99ece4c4bac65205c455	REF PERSON ID as REF PERS4_, right0_.REF ESTATE TYPE as REF ESTA5_, right0_.REF ESTATE ID as REF ESTA6_, right0_.DURATION as DURATION from TB RIGHT right0_
20849b717b69a908174107d9f06be542f08dbf66	Incompatibility of strategies As defined by the DTD (document Type Definition) of the Hibernate transformation, the first two strategies described in this article are mutually exclusive.
d770e933671795b0400c7b3cc62509853b7fbfef	This means that they cannot be combined when converting the same hierarchy.
7d126025a8493757ccd14e963e6a463db4f8ce21	There is one thing about these two strategies: in order for them to work, you need to "reset" all unused columns.
a53bf83a2b9685e0f3f35d7492661ed665fc4510	The resulting table can be difficult to work with, while developers usually rely on the integrity constraint in the database.
3cae98d3851398f78576620833963e88ae7401fc	(After all, Lease with a value reduced to zero does not make any sense!)
046fb7e145a8cd2ea763525bef58db0e085d4b23	The solution may be to use the integrity constraint of the database level check.
6d9972e0bfb2cc53b73d34d5553ecaf06f00e935	Depending on the properties of the discriminator, you can define a set of rules to execute, as shown in Listing 12.
0e51b953cb55e89831d404acf80f9e1d94b2d0fb	Of course, the structure of your database should support this feature.
dc79d13cafb5e623cca812499cf366ea3138c9c6	Moreover, since this integrity constraint must be expressed in one form for all specific classes, at the same time, with the growth of the hierarchy, it will be difficult to maintain it.
f97142bf92660c3ed6998bc321589de22b004a35	Listing 12.
3f66d149b2e811c7be013cabadf3cd758a9d3d2c	Database integrity restriction alter table TB RIGHT add constraint CHK RIGHT check( (discriminant = 'DPP' and date is null and duration is null) or (discriminant = 'DLM' and date is not null and duration is not null));
7a8dc2cb92a1d9cfd0ad78b14e3d9037a26a8c57	At the beginning of Strategy 3: One table per specific class (Estates) Our third and final strategy is probably the most sophisticated of all: one table for a specific class and none for an abstract Estate superclass.
7f424bcabb5034e71a799b1fab6ad47dc388acd4	Let's use Hibernate to implement polymorphism support.
e1cc1df7b7566a151942b7a60c2a59f9ad57a31c	In the XML conversion file in Listing 13, you will see that only two of our specific classes have been converted (Building and Land): Listing 13.
31fc895a70cb5e002d051ed75a13efca921c93c7	Estate.hbm.xml <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF 8"?> <!DOCTYPE hibernate mapping PUBLIC "-//Hibernate/Hibernate Mapping DTD 2.0//EN" "http://hibernate.sourceforge.net/hibernate mapping 2.0.dtd">
3c93eff87dc7c801699c93e526ef2314d0e9178b	<hibernate mapping> <class name="eg.hibernate.mapping. dataobject.
fef55d78deb25a9a9c628c8f2809a90e4c3e19e5	Land" table= "TB LAND" polymorphism="implicit"> <id name="id" column="ID"> <generator class="assigned"/> </id> <property name="description" column="DESCRIPTION" type="java.lang.String" /> <property name="squareFeet" column="SQUARE FEET" type="java.lang.Double"/> </class>
955afe30c8af280a9da3b7379ea08c38cc9a4d15	<class name="eg.hibernate. mapping.dataobject.Building" table="TB BUILDING" polymorphism="implicit"> <id name="id" column="ID"> <generator class="assigned"/> </id> <property name=" description" column="DESCRIPTION" type="java.lang.String" /> <property name=" address" column="ADDRESS" type="java.lang.String"/> </class> </hibernate mapping>
addfa5037a08c9d5bbdc6faed7dc61e7e6bfa178	Separating Property IDs between tables is important so that there are no identical property IDs distributed between two tables that are transformed within the same class hierarchy.
72680597334ea2c06de01a67550ae6ebfdbf1064	If this happens, Hibernate outputs several different objects to the same ID.
5aa1fc357ef8ae1a83c5cb9f9a6dff23f3d93204	This may be problematic for Hibernate - however, as well as for you.
8ce5b0bc9f4671ee49f3b626780204e1bf3b8382	If you look at the conversion file in Listing 13, your first reaction will be: "This conversion is no different from the ones I use every day.
23fa8130d95c2e55c2f84398cc59743259c4fd9e	Nothing special!"
bfa43b5ecf1ab8463c5b74bae86537f01d0fd33b	And you will be right.
2740bebb286e9eb24a052d48d5c7188a50a94f9c	In fact, our third strategy requires only one condition: we need to establish the properties of polymorphism in an implicit way in a special way.
f2c32759743a60bafa53868889bfca6bc8eddd70	Despite the fact that the class Estate, it is impossible to find anywhere else to find your file conversion, it still exists in our class hierarchy.
606b550894752f1b6262ef64e6da19d84740d6fb	And since our two converted class (Building and Land) is derived from the Estate, we can use this abstract superclass in our HQL queries, as shown in Listing 14.
883de6dc4d71bfe4ec08b19be67e1fbd2b1bb825	Hibernate will use introspection to determine the classes that extend this abstract class so that it can successfully execute appropriate for each superclass SQL queries.
97cf15b85a6c853ecc040ff12de608836b7d7f6c	Listing 14.
42166d3d9744ade585a274a4ccae903b47a36bfd	HQL query in the search method of calling public Estate find (Integer id)
3d54ddcfe509c52f7928c7fcbab5580abf7a72aa	{ ... List objects = session.find( "select e from " + Estate.class.getName() + " as e where e.id = ?", new Object[]
0460848909d06d48fb1858ca079e055142cdb2e6	To detect Estates with the corresponding IDs, Hibernate needs to provide two queries to the database (Listing 15).
0075598fd93c2bbe5013a10d20fd477b5eae74d5	Listing 15.
ef8db315636092bc2e9f0a5d5a8c3b4f0df73ee8	SQL select queries land0_.ID as ID, land0_.
d064062782cbe3c3ada77ad0c584b54aa965f345	DESCRIPTION as DESCRIPT2_, land0_.
3b4ff05f599c8e3391678e85abd5064c0a32d599	SQUARE FEET as SQUARE F3_ from TB LAND land0_ where (land0_.ID=? )
4bec07696be6bb1cb5cf000500de4155d7eb48d6	select building0_.ID as ID, building0_.
668d8be2b4d58d59992d5312feb5ff6b70615ae0	DESCRIPTION as DESCRIPT2_, building0_.ADDRESS as ADDRESS from TB BUILDING building0_ where (building0_.ID=? )
049df3677ec004d972f45872fc55432d90ba0507	As we saw in the second strategy, there is a "set singularity" relationship between the Right and Estate classes.
57e5e60c87175ff3f7233f4d39f68e3721313fe2	It translates something like this: "One Estate can refer to many Rights.
80572b4ec7cef2e276cc8b33aaa12849dd9dabf9	But each Right can only refer to one Estate."
e94883f96da99180c8807b7e72b1518cff526a9c	In the light of our database model, there is no unique table that we can use to create a foreign key constraint, as between TB RIGHT and TB PERSON.
07aa0cc3cba67e82fe213eaaf30b8d2e3f3e1110	It is almost impossible for us to create a foreign key.
f773067aa9fe8451d3d470e42d6568464fecda11	Fortunately, Hibernate provides us with a very powerful XML transformation element the <any> attribute, the use of which is demonstrated in Listing 16.
45b1240feccdd748d65d341e9cfbb7bb99a1f49c	Listing 16.
bf5359392aed5d6349017d36911636239357ef16	XML transformation of various relationships <any name= "estate" meta type= "string" id type= " java. lang.
9b5337e7eb811b751cb76d049272f3ef8f75788c	Integer"> <meta value value="LND" class="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Land"/> <meta value value="BLD" class="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Building"/> <column name="REF ESTATE TYPE"/> <column name="REF ESTATE ID"/> </any> <any name="estate" meta type="string" id type="java.lang.Integer"> <meta value value="LND" class="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Land"/> <meta value value="BLD" class="eg.hibernate.mapping.dataobject.Building"/> <column name="REF ESTATE TYPE"/> <column name="REF ESTATE ID"/> </any>
a671dd76c42ced07a1010f58b294897dda9300d6	Blocked polymorphism Classes whose polymorphic support is blocked (<class...polymorphism= "explicit"...>) are excluded from targeting requests from any of the superclasses.
81ba3912960b1202d342e33c69c084542af5312d	Let's take a closer look at this new part of the transformation.
1d69e118c3aa3f3cd3a2492cdafe6364338dd5c1	Our virtual external code is based on two columns from the TB RIGHT table.
d6de369a070d2892105e498628fcf4f1f101d8c2	The first one (REF ESTATE TYPE) contains a discriminator string that will be used to convert the name of the corresponding class.
952e944ac59d2b153e5d886dee47dd862dbb282e	The second (REF ESTATE ID) is the column name from the primary key of another table.
c10d68063ba359f67b8bb05546c93a833a26fb1d	Using the default settings, Hibernate will try to save the converted class names in the first column, which may be inefficient, but at the same time take up space in the table (especially if the class names change during code updates).
f4239ebe947eea383f60ae4f4ee37605c86e4da9	Fortunately, Hibernate provides the message of class names to string constants using the XML element <meta value>.
af511fcb76cee9612bfa7b1fc3646f4317100ef9	These constants serve the same purpose as the discriminators that we discuss in the second strategy.
b3330c6fd55e4ef96a2938ff310ef1f9b9ac92dd	Again, this attribute only includes Hibernate and the database, and this does not change the class hierarchy.
88b115e824c7b410df74b3acacafdc709b070ef5	Integration of the database model
2a3a83028d0eaa1d3efff71388d5902b04e15c88	Also, standard SQL does not allow reference limiters simultaneously with numerous tables in a given column; it is possible to attach a procedure that checks for the presence of data in the final table that has received the discriminator property that it reads.
79d93edbbbbf48631738380130ef840595dba838	However, this method of implementing integration can be very difficult to apply and also reduce the participation of the entire database.
7ade4bc68710e7f62527eacbba3291f98bc8695f	Polymorphism There is one thing to consider when using the built in Hibernate polymorphism: you can inadvertently return much more information; this is explained by the fact that all classes are converted by the polymorphism attribute set to implicit.
20833db5df33fa952ae06ab1af8c39e68fb7303d	Listing 17 illustrates a way to return the entire database using an HQL query consisting of two words.
5f833c2d6f7d0c10cd2372c887ae10eebd3d056c	Listing 17.
2c69c8fa3afcd5f0ece77b23061f07c750e52fbf	HQL query public List all () {... List objects = session.find("from Object"); ... }
a9e789070506ce4542da9e045df999fc9b696e22	Pretty powerful, donot you think?
172ee3fa67181a1c6dd747bcc9f6df2ccb64b8be	Of course, not many of you will need (or want, at least) to return the entire database with a single HQL query.
9cd3bcf997d6b818228a11f628527454db1751f3	The purpose of this example (nonsense) is only to show the possibilities of implicit polymorphism.
1ba142286ed35d89c1c0308ecceabf923cbd0f76	You can use these features to prevent useless filling of the necessary resources when sending SQL queries to the database.
9cf94cef872abde3d19ed1693f7b972ccc3d8e59	Conclusion In this article, we tried to give the simplest example for the implementation of the three strategies provided by Hibernate.
4d18f2d3a031d57b6c965dbe186d12569b5441cf	After all, every strategy has its advantages and disadvantages: Using our first strategy (one table per subclass) Hibernate reads numerous tables each time an object is defined and placed.
9bd347c51bab34a62d08d5bf5bfad83747e4127f	This operation can give good results if your indexes are well defined and the hierarchy is not too branched.
44b9fc4ef774dc4a027e8bdb9305f88a9d5ca06f	If, however, this is not the case, you may encounter problems in the overall execution of the task.
beb49d6c1be48e6950398f4bafb0f67095b0014f	For the second strategy (one table per class hierarchy), you need to clearly define data integrity using validating constraints.
de65da89c7890798057e6449eb49afe98c0a71cb	It may be difficult to use this strategy with a gradual increase in the number of columns.
18d65904870ff728750102b6aae42b72205553d7	On the other hand, you have the right not to use such limiters not at all, but to allow your application code to perform its own database integration.
42938f218f8627e9cd17458a5bedf4e1741ccc63	Our third strategy (one table per specific class) has some limitations in the transformation; data model allocation cannot use referential integration; this means that you have not included the relational database engine in full force.
94912a99748408d6ca846af9a03fa1f6a48a57b4	The "plus" is that this strategy can be freely combined with the other two.
6fb620a4bda8e1ae8b8e4c0190f68f4dd1c90aad	No matter what strategy you choose, always remember that you do not need to delete your Java classes in the process; this means that there is absolutely no connection between your working objects and the stable foundation.
75465c7575e611a6e19fbff34e1ca19de6697b10	This is the degree of flexibility that makes Hibernate so popular in Java object relational projects.
258a8874481191e297ceff1910ff9b1a68eb06d9	At the beginning of the Download Description Name Size Code sample j hibernate source.zip ---
5e11d9a5f7a234540619f2977bd76c4cba69c5d2	Resources The original article "Hibernate simplifies inheritance mapping" The Hibernate website provides all the necessary information depending on the basis with an object of continuous power.
8f4c7dd18e5246f3f1a0e13a824a53d1a27fd897	You can download the Hibernate files that you will need to run the application from this site.
33ef730da1244677296556cc6f4349f70b8afad3	The HSQLDB database is an open source, lightweight database written exclusively in the Java language.
155e0f8f81215494e24b84edfc57bfc7f0695fb2	You can download HSQLDB from this site and use it as a database for the application.
34cd66cc726b23d75a74376fe7dceb3bd502ca4d	See the HQL link for full information on the Hibernate Query Language.
4848fc33fe9d4196dc02e63b40e141ad5abc4942	"Using Hibernate to persist your Java objects to IBM DB2 Universal Database," Javid Jamae and Kulvir Singh Bhogal (developerWorks, June 2003) provides a good guide for converting classes to database tables using Hibernate.
698b5a1e4061852a69022052f907216d15494bd2	"Object relation mapping without the container," Richard Hightower (developerWorks, April 2004): An introduction to the development of a query processing layer using Hibernate and the Spring framework.
99ee72a3a73c220fae939d06a99266470bf019d6	"Developing Hibernate applications for use with WebSphere Application Server," Sunil Patil (IBM WebSphere Developer Technical Journal, September 2004) provides step by step instructions for using the connection of the WebSphere Application Server and management transactions when creating Hibernate applications.
956546bdf4951c257a23f34c57bc09c981e35614	"Hibernate your data," Davor Cengija (ONJava.com, January 2004) gives the basis of the Hibernate API and describes how to benefit from these conversion files.
daa254b2856ffa8f03002c238ed6212cbfbd8443	Hibernate in Action, Christian Bauer and Gavin King (Independent Pub Group, 2004) - a theoretical and practical guide to object relational transformation.
2db10b7cbdd571949e43dda8d75f192b79ca998c	Written by the Hibernate team.
3cd6e143d3717f4dc9db976908de7e6c6f1711d2	Hibernate: A Developer's Notebook, James Elliot (O'Reilly, 2004) - another great guide to Hibernate.
716cfa5707386dc82f40d357326cea07526caba7	You can find hundreds of articles about every aspect of Java programming in the developerWorks Java technology zone.
1a05079df430b25401aab25df121badd1c445d2a	Visit the Developer Bookstore to view a general list of technical books, including hundreds of titles related to Java.
c0f21fc6e25e183d90c72c0f8a2adcb99229e240	Related links: Object relation mapping without the container Using Hibernate to persist your Java objects to IBM DB2 Universal Database Developing Hibernate applications for use with WebSphere Application Server IBM developer kits for the Java platform (downloads)
fce06e20e5f7f74aacccab40b59b75a56c8f7305	Comments
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b4ae4726c8cebc20fc1c112cd8978ddad503bb71	The Great French Revolution can be considered with sufficient reason as the beginning of the modern era.
05212cc2fc0bca6484d2a0a414610a5bf1a067e2	The Great French Revolution (fr. Révolution française) is the largest transformation of the social and political system of France, which led to the destruction of the Old Order (fr. Ancien Régime) and absolute monarchy in the country, and the proclamation of the First French Republic (September 1792) de jure free and equal citizens under the motto "Freedom, equality, fraternity".
eb7a69045dac79cf8a8315815e2c2735aefeab32	"The Old Order" ("ancien régime") it was undemocratic by its very nature.
5f3940a5412d25d7a21ff2ba440f0edf854d2ce9	The first two estates, which had special privileges – the nobility and the clergy-strengthened their positions, relying on a system of various kinds of state institutions.
a82e22953bff1d2753338e828b9b6cd7133e55b3	The monarch's rule was based on these privileged estates.
35a84167c99903dd3a780a85f44b65044516a3d3	"Absolute" monarchs could only implement such policies and carry out only such reforms that strengthened the power of these estates.
3689cc3ad36ad3134415d45a3d2b0c8ecc3daa04	Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry — during a long series of peasant wars of the XIV—XVI centuries, the peasants achieved the abolition of the vast majority of monetary taxes and the transition to natural relations in agriculture.
2ec32728c06331a7e4f14b20f95b2b1306daa8ba	The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which were a layer of the French bourgeoisie).
8b425d786dcd46053a79bde18e0e57294709a969	However, the regime formed as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the XVIII century began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily from England.
d313a27bebcd373b568d19ba27b926848794d80b	In the pre-revolutionary years, France was hit by a number of natural disasters.
08b9b7df563d89836f41d92bfccf3080dfb3bb83	Food prices have risen. The supply of bread and other products to the markets has sharply deteriorated.
1589d2c2fda2240eedc2c74228deebdb774510af	To top it all off, an industrial crisis began, which was triggered by the Anglo-French trade treaty of 1786.
bd2f7a9736328a61246bec87298cf1f149b521c0	To approve the new taxes, King Louis XVI convened the States-General (300-nobles, 300-from the clergy and 600 - from the third estate) on May 5, 1789.
d036b59cf216efaad4ba371291e503fedf32ac98	It was the convocation of this assembly that served as the impetus for the revolution, during which the big bourgeoisie first came to power, and then the third estate, which plunged France into civil war and violence.
9c44c39848f8b1e90f86e96d6ed8e8d9076eac64	Their opening was scheduled for May 1, 1789.
185fe048971ece227d81081fe9107bb258b500a5	Public opinion in France demanded that in the States-General, where the three existing estates each had their own separate representation, the third estate should be given a double number of seats and that the voting should take place according to the number of deputies, and not according to the estates.
6943de0d6bd28315ae0bb7ce8f1d877511da5e2b	Thanks to the provincial assemblies, public opinion was already so inclined in favor of the third estate that Necker and the court were still forced to give in.
feead6f770abff3653c873683caac57ba320392c	The third estate received a double representation, i.e., out of a thousand deputies, it had the right to as many representatives as the clergy and the nobility combined.
8c52468097c7521c539a0291d2f98d0e3c4cd612	The king hoped to reach an agreement on a new tax system and avoid financial collapse.
34aff08d84a097bc7633a319fa0be2c0e4e6d5c6	The aristocracy sought to use the States-General to block any reforms.
c8e71e55f05096b6c3280a08318614a9280d4b00	The Third Estate welcomed the convocation of the States-General, seeing an opportunity to present their demands for reforms at their meetings.
5701e53557ac18390493779af966218357264808	The preparation for the revolution, during which discussions about the general principles of government and the need for a constitution were expanding, lasted for 10 months.
0acc4bf76f580023bdb8b6fad819f568e73cb7cd	Lists, so-called instructions, were compiled everywhere.
b1639732314e797649bdcd8d7304bfe6b5f06a00	In the spring of 1789, elections were held for all three estates on the basis of universal suffrage for men.
a4f81f638a39c19464b16036b744c7548eb69039	On May 5, 1789, the King officially opened the first meeting of the States-General in Versailles
f893277297639738ac6d6adfa3a0d1d794db5492	Heated by the political debates taking place in the country, various groups took irreconcilable positions on fundamental issues.
b67f6db0ad4deda23e41266f2cb93b9c1a8f4fd5	Between June 10 and 17, the third estate took the initiative and declared itself a National Assembly.
abc3d7dbf3889716543ec1ff3af74303436a11c4	On July 9, the National Assembly declared itself a Constituent Assembly.
199b40655e1d7f294a93db89ba9f8f6e4b07c27c	The government gathered troops to disperse the assembly, but the masses rose up to fight against absolutism.
0b0b14f80b613977ee223f039f52689b8673ad71	On July 13, an uprising began in Paris.
77f7cab0375ec4384d9700fc40e32a17353b9600	A bourgeois militia was formed, which then received the name of the National Guard.
965fd64998a028d77672bf8f4c10554fe9c24a37	On July 14, the rebels captured the last stronghold of absolutism - the Bastille fortress prison (which blocked the way of the rebels from the eastern part to the city center).
0188921d82596e1aa8455b3e8e37ee533a1b03ff	The Bastille has fallen (July 14 is the national holiday of France).
2353c4b48c0426d9376a49a7b388b67067b0e5e8	After the fall of the Bastille, a revolutionary wave took place throughout France.
7003edf87fb282e4ca0bddce80a71389679fa7b2	The agrarian revolution has begun in the country.
4ab7a6865fa583a5da7e9eba1ea21f4658587782	The news of the success of the people in Paris, they say, raised a movement in the villages; the peasants began to burn castles, and this peasant uprising caused such horror that on August 4 the nobility and clergy renounced all their feudal rights.
f6614031788498f41e07b5c9f2aff5f69aacce9d	The peasants forced the Constituent Assembly to proclaim the abolition of the feudal system.
7e6509b77b9d9d634598130922e8430ee8be0e0a	The King was forced to recognize the existence of the Constituent Assembly.
34e4e192929256498bc2549d551b6a6b95a0fdcc	The first wave of emigration began; the irreconcilable upper aristocracy began to leave France, including the king's brother, Count d’Artois
b24a4a46d05d6070c3474616cad7c13c8bcd0562	By August 26, the National Assembly approved the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights, which proclaimed the freedom of the individual, conscience, speech, the right to property and resistance to oppression.
8ff3c3182c94b5e2790f8b3937d80002d37653fa	Louis XVI delayed approving the August decrees that abolished church tithes and most feudal fees.
63f7af9aec40054c9c156d13bc15ba525c358d94	On September 15, the Constituent Assembly demanded that the King approve the decrees.
56b64af4bde5c87f430a4a28ce65be82135e808d	In response, he began to pull troops to Versailles, where the assembly was meeting.
8b72fa239c9bfaffa3bb1d5fa569c4df7093ce20	On October 5, hundreds of women marched on foot in the rain from Paris to Versailles, demanding bread, the withdrawal of troops and the king's move to Paris.
e0cda90f1c863e9de442d4d6e1c36f5892c4a4e2	Louis XVI was forced to authorize the August decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
5146013488c7d48a283992178d72ba23bc6e0c3f	Louis XVI was deprived of the right to postpone meetings or dissolve the assembly, and he did not have the right of legislative initiative.
9e89510a5d8649269538b6c6414fa9bb49fb1d83	The decree of June 19, 1790 abolished the institution of hereditary nobility and all related titles.
2bac9f50cad7bbfa9633c3154ec2bed3797598cb	It was forbidden to call oneself a marquis, count, etc.
86c9302e43a7624d1ac828a3bf95921ac6498cbf	The Central Administration was reorganized.
42cd44e8250bd3d2da37175f9ea19506050535e3	The royal councils and state secretaries disappeared.
d563422ef2d02aa3405cc1816ba87464b059690c	According to the municipal law of December 14-22, 1789, the cities and provinces were granted the widest self-government.
fc5bec71f9cb978f7e52fe9335a1f6ed0f8d5375	The system of dividing France into provinces, governorates, generalitats, bailiages, seneschalships has ceased to exist.
6d272ecb78f56fd4729f4bf02ed8d109b5daff94	The judicial reform was carried out on the same grounds as the administrative reform.
1a31a378440aede2a5c7ac1877263182e847f16a	All the old judicial institutions, including parliaments, were liquidated.
9f2981a06374bcdb5a0f0efedcb8557a9cce30d0	Instead of numerous previous taxes, three new ones were introduced — on land property, movable property and commercial and industrial activities.
6f69e010728f5337bd4e7cd19b822e1b4adf728e	But in 1790, the assembly prepared a new decree on the civil status of the clergy, which actually subordinated the church to the state.
e020403eb16512ade1ab4db8d66bcd52b10ed24c	In November 1790, all non-orthodox clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the state.
ac4866a7e8d126934b1747997625b1206b28498a	Within 6 months, it became clear that at least half of the priests refused to take the oath.
7ac9583612b24bfcfba3fa77593be00bab7f8e04	Moreover, the pope rejected not only the decree on the civil status of the clergy, but also other social and political reforms of the Assembly.
53dadd3fcc4494f04a0805b18ab90dee73fba94a	In May 1791, the papal nuncio (ambassador) was recalled, and in September the Assembly annexed Avignon and Venessen-papal enclaves on French territory.
2c03935b9c789b24acddef24e470b2854872c9b4	In the days of the revolution, many revolutionary clubs and newspapers appeared in France:
b3a43d7edf97dfea67cc503145ed0a28ad93c13b	1) The Jacobin Club-created in the autumn of 1789 in the library of the monastery of St. James, uniting supporters of bourgeois democratic transformations (Sieyes, Barnave, Robespierre).
7e703309838a4f31e030c5e1854cf82d4cf1c249	2) The Cardelier Club is more democratic and close to the plebeian strata of the population.
6412b27cd1190d5c6d3012bf3ecdf1bcfef431ee	It was founded in 1790 in the monastery of the Cordelier monks (who were girded with a cord).
b0a80eb191db72059e96e29d513f08c79804c255	Around midnight on June 20, 1791, the king, disguised as a servant, tried to escape, but was recognized at the border in Varenna by a postal employee on the night of June 21-22.
2882d7778683af212f813833c3b701585a8dbb34	The country took the news of the escape as a shock, as a declaration of war, in which its king is in the camp of the enemy.
678bd7ec8b4607e9a86fecdd0727c67de8856bfc	The Cordeliers called on the citizens to collect signatures on a petition demanding the abdication of the king on July 17 on the Champ de Mars.
9ebebeda101395d4be02ee317001428897659c92	The mayor of Bailly and Lafayette arrived at the Champ de Mars with a detachment of the National Guard.
4e458180adbc48c07becd9d70cffb669fd8817e8	The National Guardsmen opened fire, killing several dozen people.
0999a172fdb9501923051592af104a8559c934eb	This was the first split of the third estate itself.
450b3c636f750fbde532b2cf3717fbb21c420361	On September 3, 1791, the National Assembly adopted the Constitution.
b9a7177cc3dc612231d141f455c66d2142e33966	The king swore an oath to the new constitution and was restored to his functions, but not to the confidence of the whole country in him[45].
de2496f1e1be72d42c75290f883c4d4527c1e1c9	In Europe, the king's escape caused a strong emotional reaction.
0f60a14b1c4e6bbf7e66f8f36eb5dfd72ac9b269	In 1792, the Austrian and Prussian kingdoms threatened counter-revolutionary intervention and demanded that France renounce its constitution in favor of royal power.
41340153dc4a708f67779af0e05f2903dd465b35	On August 10, 1792, the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, called on the people to overthrow the monarchy, stormed the royal palace.
aff080044207506ebf36891bbe81ddbed3e0f8c9	2 armies were moved against the Prussian troops, which repelled the attacks of the enemies, and gave them the opportunity to retreat outside of France.
76a6ff58012a9f8e6ae2d4e2edb873f184be50d8	On September 20, 1792, the National Convention of 750 deputies issued acts: 1) the abolition of royal power; 2) proclamation of the republic (1 Rep.-September 22, 1792 bourgeois republic).
ba527ab5d2bdfaf857ea81947fc46daba4176403	In the winter of 1792, the Girondists were excluded from the Jacobin Club, and “Montagnard” and “Jacobin” received the same political name.
6b3b30907580a19161d3136fd8795c398e751e35	The Jacobins demanded the execution of the king, and the Girondists tried to save the king.
602ad369a0c27bfeabb4c24d89ae51096dac9612	On January 21, 1793, the king was beheaded.
d2a9a9a4952e3595f903e792fa43bb12f73fd348	The most radical part of the bourgeoisie (the petty bourgeoisie) seized power, relying on the broad masses of the people - the peasantry and the plebeian masses of the urban population.
c977582ab8c37d8a74db2c0948e80f53beafd689	On January 31, 1793, Danton proclaimed the doctrine of the" natural borders " of France, which implied claims to the Alps and the Rhineland.
623f2f72314f05e611e9c38590439b458cc60204	This was followed by Dumouriez's order to occupy Holland.
d24bf59998760da9ee1e3e75fbccf1988e27c68c	On February 1, France declared war on Great Britain, opening the era of"general war".
96f65bb472339a0184fd83303f7136553eda922f	The national currency of France has sharply devalued due to the fall in the value of banknotes and military spending.
5db2d0c3e082351cde325b2d66de581b72d33f3f	By March 1793, all the signs of a crisis were visible in the rear.
1baf6833afc5fa9477413079d2d0ebf97fc4db58	On March 18 and 21, Dumouriez's troops were defeated at Neervinden and Louvain.
07ff6b5551c0f3db54153ba4f740ca7598f3abd5	The general signed an armistice with the Austrians and tried to turn the army against the Convention, but after the failure of these plans, he and several people from his staff defected to the enemy on April 5.
fd9b6e831eec9f5a6696f9a4efe582ec7265db82	The radicals in Paris, as well as the Jacobins led by Robespierre, accused the Girondists of aiding the traitor.
94954c784b90cc4d8f33a02ea465994e156adb8e	Two days later (June 2), having surrounded the Convention with the forces of the National Guard, the Commune ordered the arrest of 29 Girondist deputies, including two ministers.
d02b76060df13f087c7712743b5208a86c285c8e	This marked the beginning of the Jacobin dictatorship, although the reorganization of the executive branch took place only in July.
8494308f11450177d98063fe7ab9cc000078eaed	By the end of July 1793, the French army was experiencing a series of setbacks, which threatened to occupy the country.
796003f39eff44bcce1244ce94e39f584020dcd5	The Austrians and Prussians were advancing in the north and in Alsace, while the Spaniards, with whom Pitt had made an alliance in May, threatened an invasion from the Pyrenees.
905621b9d877b8ed4b269ef583e11775a41ab369	These defeats undermined the authority of the Committee of Public Safety under the leadership of Danton.
567169610a25f337756ea43ab3d7328d5d7431da	On July 10, Danton and six of his comrades were deposed.
168e4b8cc66f2398bb2d556bf04f33914aad26d0	Under his leadership, the Committee ensured a turning point on the military fronts and the victory of the republic during the summer.
b18d055ecb4fe07d3f54a9ba455b2763d08ef1f0	The personal enmity between the two Jacobin leaders was mixed with a sharp clash with a new opponent – the Jacobin extremists, who were called "rabid".
c1828c9bad90eea119d576b1530df2f5e3efa43d	They demanded tougher terror, as well as stricter government control over supplies and prices.
9af3e566556e44c034792ac36a085419a198eb92	It is estimated that about 129 thousand people fled from France, about 40 thousand died during the days of terror.
0dad600e8576843e1f770f38cd82971ebdd1aa65	Most of the executions took place in rebellious cities and departments, for example in Vendee and Lyon.
ecae0b42ed7a714f71b4028dc7ec51109813e4b3	Until April 1794, the policy of terror was largely determined by the rivalry between the followers of Danton, Hebert and Robespierre.
b9f4c451fed05bf7ce79ae20b5ff94d0165b6c1a	At first, the Eberists set the tone, they rejected the Christian doctrine and replaced it with the cult of Reason, introduced a new, republican calendar instead of the Gregorian calendar, in which the months were named according to seasonal phenomena and divided into three "decades".
0ac0d06317dc858153ad381c794a21001d94f817	In March, Robespierre finished with the Eberists.
8ed5b09a11ceb63d10f5834fa2b301d41286b8ab	Now Robespierre and the reorganized Committee of Public Safety ruled the country, using unlimited power.
9f8cd4c8cd9cd28a634b1d6a1c36a8f660e4ad51	And indeed, as the revolution neared its end, Robespierre's influence grew more and more, so that in France and abroad he was spoken of as the main person in the republic.
eac7fffae0168f5fb2f5c9f65c11325cf3dc1780	After the blows inflicted on their rivals from both the left and the right, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of Public Safety continued to concentrate power in their hands.
ca96a01b25f7ab37318a7ae385266191fb81fa27	The Jacobin dictatorship reached its most terrible expression in Decree 22 of the Prairie (June 10, 1794), which accelerated the procedures of the revolutionary tribunal, depriving the accused of the right to defense and turning the death sentence into the only punishment for those who were found guilty.
7651d0f2ab26910c97a13abdbc6f6be48320a769	The tyranny reached fantastic extremes – and this led to the rebellion of the Convention and the coup of 9 Thermidor (July 27), which eliminated the dictatorship.
e37dc1763f87dbe3e78ce7a97b1a114af4d2d5c3	Thanks to this, she achieved superiority over the fragmented allied troops, which became clear in June 1794 at the Battle of Fleurus in the Spanish Netherlands.
ccfa4cd7d5e1d249157f58ff73f35ed3ef987be5	The forms of the" revolutionary " government were preserved until October 1795, since the Convention continued to provide executive power based on the special committees created by it.
3e1849a2794ae826b48f17af0a90b20b54a4d35d	During the Jacobin dictatorship, the French army achieved impressive victories, invading Holland, the Rhineland and northern Spain.
af5eb488556476a7725d5be5bdeebcefb91f1a75	The abolition of price controls led to a resumption of inflation and to new disasters for the workers and the poor, who had lost their leaders.
18d79d2a2a5297b007473f6f23db716eaeda060b	The rebels erected barricades on the streets of Paris, seized the Convention, thereby hastening its dissolution.
d835491341e9a0d97dff2479df086978ecd1564e	The rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed, almost 10 thousand people.  its participants were arrested, imprisoned or deported, the leaders ended their lives on the guillotine.
15b4c122a58a7f6b92b14b9e495e687214ccdc26	In May 1795, the revolutionary tribunal was finally abolished, and the emigrants began to look for ways to return to their homeland.
ed4b832f98da15247bc44e795f3887d91d9656a6	There were even attempts by the royalists to restore something similar to the pre-revolutionary regime, but all of them were brutally suppressed.
4c7dc0a0b1dc30afa11af7ff6ac7ac739d0f0ac6	On October 5 (13 Vendemieres), a monarchist uprising broke out in Paris, but it was quickly suppressed by General Napoleon Bonaparte.
3bba4254a900d1290686d41066a64b6598d1f352	Having defeated their opponents on the right and on the left, the Thermidorians hoped to return to the principles of 1789 and give stability to the republic on the basis of a new constitution — "the middle between monarchy and anarchy" — in the words of Antoine Thibodeau[111].
366a7e8c77daa862e4ca7f48b5557c97e9a410df	The Directory had a difficult economic and financial situation, aggravated by the ongoing war on the continent.
92edf49fa806f9297fbbdd46254eb695a5b96f9a	In the winter of 1795, the economic crisis reached its peak.
f88f75f1169a2fceb1cd55dff1e3533b9b36147d	Paper money was printed every night for use the next day.
a40a4dbc9625bdb9987aea9febf677c42788388e	In the winter of 1795-96, an alliance of former Jacobins was formed with the aim of overthrowing the Directory.
814d3c2463e9c3e9da216d6748f3075f8870b548	The war on the continent continued.
e7aff26f8dcbda8c8d69535f683f27dc5d156eb8	On April 9, 1796, General Bonaparte led his army to Italy.
f9eaeb3dfbdad8a751d47b370d6b8b482551649c	On October 17, peace was concluded with Austria in Campo Formio, which ended the war of the first coalition, from which France emerged victorious, although Great Britain continued to fight[117].
243d51b8cf9567d083bf3c09b2fca27466505bfa	Bonaparte decided to strike at the British Empire, blocking access to the Middle East.
3678211df1b4dda5fa0f929a7a42128c530ca059	In June 1798, he captured the island of Malta, in July he took Alexandria and moved troops against Syria.
c9c01f8866d2cb60395975c72a2fa22883fb9882	However, the British naval forces blocked his land army, and the expedition to Syria failed.
f73ae63e9e8ce348f1c077c362ebc464849828b9	Napoleon's fleet was sunk by Admiral Nelson in the battle of Abukir (August 1, 1798).
de32b97722bbeab935d6e5814745035828a7b11a	In August, Bonaparte left Alexandria, avoiding a meeting with the British fleet that was guarding him, and landed in France.
3aad3d52abe21b5e6d08d21a83f87fa683ca05e3	Arriving in Paris on October 16, 1799, he immediately found himself in the center of political intrigues [130].
1b93ebb7e12c7f4f522a13d36294482675dcddaf	The Brumerians turned to him as a man who was well suited to them for his popularity, military reputation, ambition, and even for his Jacobin past [128].
9ee53a7eeb7d9e357ae32537f2c75359ad9f4c72	Playing on fears of a "terrorist" conspiracy, the Brumerians persuaded the soviets to meet on November 10, 1799 in the Paris suburb of Saint Cloud; to suppress the "conspiracy", Bonaparte was appointed commander of the 17th division, located in the Seine department.
2431a4a053f70f11fb45058c61a6fcc25aa5d000	At Saint Cloud, Napoleon announced to the Council of Elders that the Directory had dissolved itself and that a commission on a new constitution had been created.
efce195fe247a5e549556558ed99a4647522f561	The Council of Five Hundred was expelled from the chamber, the Directory was dissolved, and all powers were entrusted to the provisional government of three consuls-Sieyes, Roger Ducos and Bonaparte[130].
1f1e694a79838d731b94130bb6f49a2e8aa23626	The rumors that came from Saint Cloud on the evening of the 19th brumaire did not surprise Paris at all. Military failures, which they were able to cope with only at the last moment, the economic crisis, the return of the civil war-all this spoke of the failure of the entire period of stabilization under the Directory[131].
360c4387208c72c66afef80ea9236d9cd122dd5c	The revolution led to the collapse of the old order and the establishment of a new, more democratic and progressive society in France.
96499447225efeff316858d91eae38466ce82d7f	However, speaking about the goals achieved and the victims of the revolution, many historians tend to conclude that the same goals could have been achieved without such a huge number of victims.
88ac8f195506dcb8ef4d9d597f43400aa616d098	At the same time, a number of authors point out that the revolution brought the people of France liberation from heavy oppression, which could not be achieved otherwise.
dc0dbab5999c00f9399679b5cfecf8026fdfbadb	A "balanced" view of the revolution considers it as a great tragedy in the history of France, but at the same time inevitable, resulting from the severity of class contradictions and accumulated economic and political problems[134].
f0a07a8658590e37f7cd9c8b39943afb5cf147ef	Most historians believe that the Great French Revolution was of great international importance, contributed to the spread of progressive ideas throughout the world, influenced a series of revolutions in Latin America, as a result of which the latter was freed from colonial dependence, and a number of other events of the first half of the XIX century.
8f00984fddaa428d81388c2fc22eb929ef84fce6	against the nobles: "The grass has already grown go and eat it!"
c061f8fe2b4b269fc0afdebb8b451dde589d214d	Auxerre, Amiens, and Lille followed the example of Dijon.
9ecdbb0d1103a65201da333b99d7fbf62998d99f	A few days later, the "robbers" — as most historians call the hungry rioters gathered in Pontoise, in Poissy, in Saint Germain with the intention of looting flour warehouses, headed for Versailles.
cb3bf148944d79bd3e3bf97c1b1fd91a4364e039	Louis XVI had to go out on the balcony of the palace, talk to the people and promise that the price of bread would be lowered by 2 sous (about 4 kopecks), which Turgot, as a true "economist", of course, resisted.
d82376a05bdfe8cd5a4a7ab15f0fd988399982b3	The price of bread was not lowered.
3e6a1e9ee1d1daac97f1940644211512f4db62ac	At the same time ,the "robbers" entered Paris, looted bakeries and gave the crowd bread, which they managed to capture.
ec4d61fc210d2d833efe9579555b8c66f3961fb5	The troops scattered them.
fa504911dfcdec5a761e4d20c2c2f231f28fe320	Two rioters were hanged in the square of Grava, and as they died, they shouted that they were dying for the people.
88944728bdba35fb3d8e59d92b1e8ff87bb5f95b	Since that time, a legend has been created about the "robbers" traveling in France — a legend that played such an important role in the summer of 1789, when it served as an excuse for the urban bourgeoisie to arm themselves.
d0654d67dd5959ae60021c9d709c4c95b3c43a22	Since that time, proclamations have been pasted up in Versailles, directed against the king and his ministers and threatening, if the price of bread remains the same, to execute the king the day after the coronation or to destroy the entire royal family.
f149579152cf5b210c3d2fb3893a000f3c9720bf	Since that time, fake government decrees have begun to spread in the province.
0b93e8597e273cdfc2a7aad76874bb349cba499e	One of them said that the Council had appointed a fee for grain bread.
bbc9056cc3d5f536387677141f0d7b6ec762f1b8	These riots were, however, suppressed, but they left a deep mark.
56a2e911dc2d9b46bbee093ae4d4556ae32926b0	A fierce struggle between the parties began.
60aed4899b5b06a0c6708a8b8ff046a8455572d2	Pamphlets were pouring in from everywhere; some accused the ministers, others spoke of a conspiracy of princes against the king, and others attacked the royal power.
ae3ba13019befc943f7428851ecf4e0f8b435378	In a word, with the general excited state of minds, the popular revolt was a spark that fell on gunpowder.
d2a9fa6fd1e95e473017ebdbe3ff8965a56be7c7	They began to talk about concessions to the people, which had never been thought of before: public works were opened; the grinding tax was abolished, which gave rise to various rumors to the people in the vicinity of Rouen; it was said that all landowner rights were destroyed, and the peasants began to refuse (in July) to pay duties.
de59de6081c24b900291c2e706fedc95d7dbaabe	In a word, the discontented, apparently, did not waste time and took every opportunity to expand the popular uprisings.
72a36f3de7112490cca906baff29cda3c129d391	It is impossible to tell in sequence about all the popular riots in the reign of Louis XVI: there are not enough accurate materials for this.
4f3b3cb108d8a62c25c563527eb680b20327e612	Historians do not deal with this issue much, the archives are not used, and only by chance we have to meet indications that there were "riots"in one place or another.
56420fc2fef4867bde1fff0c79139888795aa1f3	In Paris, for example, they took place after the destruction of the guild courts in 1776; in the same year, there were extremely serious riots throughout France, caused by rumors about the abolition of the corvee and the poll tax paid to the landowner.
413f3825113e8a1d48a145e4548b166cef24ce22	Some printed data that I have had to study, however, indicate that between 1777 and 1783 the number of riots decreased somewhat; it is possible that this was influenced to some extent by the American war, as well as better harvests.
3702f187159e1fd97aa47454415c53836647b65b	From 1782 and 1783, however, the riots resumed and continued, increasing, until the revolution itself.
843e7cb21dc29b7ddbf46038236d3d5f5fbea8fb	In 1782 there was an uprising in Poitiers; in 1786 in Visille; from 1783 to 1787 — in the Cevennes, in Vivar and in Gevodan.
79ec4f5dcf70806612cea04cf8ca5447a3bc07b0	The discontented, who were called "mascarats", broke into the courts, notaries and prosecutors and burned all the acts and contracts in order to take revenge on the so called praticiens (small lawyers), who sowed discord among the peasants and initiated all sorts of trials.
961a263c10f85bb1e8945be6ddb0c38cc69c5e98	Three of the leaders were hanged, the rest were sent to hard labor; but the unrest resumed on the first occasion, namely, when the parliaments were closed.
fe81120c657c453a745d91b074b234e47944f336	In 1786, Lyon * * rebelled.
a915ffa684e705234b0d0a122be1532fa285dc6c	The weavers, who were processing silk, went on strike: they were promised an increase in wages and in the meantime the troops were called; there was a clash, and three of the instigators were hanged.
2159463a7477c2335119650a47b69f15fecd17a6	From that time on, Lyon became a hotbed of uprisings, and when elections were called in 1789, the same people who took part in the 1786 riot were elected.
1b840590579238efdfe1d91425b17e939375d546	* Vie C. de, Vaisseile ]. de. Histoire generale du Languedoc, continuee par Du Mege, v.
bcf784274cd7a2ba803c81ce1ab898476dc04921	1-10.
2719d1df63d2e9387a62586db1b38844046046b9	Paris, 1840—1846.
f54b0123b6ea08cf0edf2aadda4ca76bc2e25bca	** Chassin Ch.-L. Genie de la Revolution, v.
7fde19f0d8ee5652f7d938857e7721efa73a09a5	1—2.
0d54d565027c50d8d8f423e596b67e3681e8ff3f	Paris, 1863.
2b494d931dfbf74de829adb079351c7a48e35c81	Sometimes the uprisings took on a religious character; sometimes they appeared in the form of resistance to the recruitment of soldiers (every recruitment of militia, Turgot said, is accompanied by a riot); sometimes the people rebelled against the salt tax or refused to pay tithes.
1468a0d97160e1ee9adc719c92b6c22758b73303	One way or another, riots occurred constantly, and they were most numerous in the east, south — east and north east of France the future centers of the revolution.
250a2b3cbe236a7e03ca2c88ed18aeda74a13d23	They grew more and more, and finally, in 1788, after the dissolution of the judicial institutions, which were called parliaments at that time, and the appointment of other courts (coursplenieres) to replace them, uprisings covered almost the whole of France.
74129e7f0cbe1514706dfb0ce2f74fd5b0579d6d	For the people, of course, there was not much difference between the parliament and "coursplenieres".
fe073b74671b430aee54efa9b1e0019499395e7a	If parliaments sometimes refused to register a royal decree or a ministerial decree, they, on the other hand, did not show any attention to the needs of the people.
73dc835df5b7a0674bd0dd91588749370c23183b	But the parliaments resisted the court — and that was enough.
6679c8cbd9762a4254e26a3a4af38e4e258b49c7	When the representatives of the bourgeoisie and the parliaments asked the people for support, the people willingly began to worry in order to express their protest against the court and the rich.
432488ab888551df663af23d77a07774a8e7204f	In June 1787, the Paris Parliament gained popularity by denying the court money.
fd5b50c045f3dbd7473b4977044e6130fccb0d9c	The law required that the royal decrees should be entered in the parliamentary registers for disclosure, and the Paris Parliament willingly fulfilled this with regard to some of them: on the grain trade, on the convocation of provincial assemblies and on serfdom.
43d51c9d2541791de2a7b295227dacbf12c3e493	But he refused to register a decree introducing new taxes: a new "land subsidy" and a new stamp duty.
cd3d712136753747203384a15c460bdf0303a32a	Then the king called a special royal meeting, called litdejustice, and forced to register his decrees.
5303f699771c279ec10b49db3ee6f12649094e80	The Parliament protested and thereby won the sympathy of both the bourgeoisie and the people.
77d423f3ac1a342c97abf1fa83f0d7b842c22830	During each session of the Paris parliament, a whole crowd gathered near the courthouse; scribes from various judicial places, curious people and people from the family jostled at the doors and gave ovations to the members of parliament.
36e4525e2a60d87911ee205689d7a2063ed72549	To put an end to this, the king exiled the parliament to Troyes; but then there were general demonstrations in Paris, and popular hatred was already directed mainly against the princes (especially against the Duke of Artois) and against the queen, who received the nickname of Madame Scarcity.
a19a5520c7032d6f178b0b49c77f57d233405ada	The Paris Chamber of Revenue, supported by popular unrest, as well as all the provincial parliaments and courts protested against the exile of the Paris parliament, and as the unrest increased, the king had to return the exiled parliament back on September 9, and this, of course, gave rise to new demonstrations in Paris, during which an effigy representing Minister Calonne was burned.
58ecff1cc0e49e4bcd8c23fc4650dcd914a79ee2	These disturbances occurred mainly among the petty bourgeoisie.
4718325c77de4eee2a42726ec1bb93fa0c0312f4	But in other places they also took on a more popular character.
31916199b8c684d73ab473f7b6c502e51d0a02d0	In 1788, an uprising broke out in Brittany.
6ba7edd1d19ba80c0512014d64156ea31b869ba8	When the commandant of the city of Rennes and the intendant (governor) of this province appeared at the courthouse to announce to the Parliament of Brittany the order for its abolition, the whole city rose.
48a0c28ac12605b9f40a67653ca31b1b1654127e	The crowd showered insults and even crushed the commandant of the city and the governor.
78ddf81a9ba1f5a346254dcc5d8027de7969c68e	The fact is that the people hated the intendant Bertrand de Moleville, and the bourgeoisie, taking advantage of this, spread the rumor that all this was the work of his hands.
b22d214e4bc07ba9462c1be885b849b686cd67ad	"This monster should be strangled," said one of the leaflets distributed in the crowd.
2d0182e96af73985a5e810f9c743841791e62ee7	When Molville left the court, stones were thrown at him and several times they tried to throw a rope with a long noose on him.
7c31b183cbf8879c0817f8767f5020330ad2d1ce	The troops were summoned, and the battle was ready to begin, but the youth disorganized the troops: one of the officers threw down his sword and joined the people.
0ea419e45d2646be7ddba4d901191498a1a8d0b9	Little by little, similar unrest spread to other cities of Brittany; then the peasants rose in turn during the loading of bread at Quimper, Saint Brieuc, Morlaix, Port l'Abbe, Lambalet, etc.
a9bc5ecdf94b8b673e630300f83ef7e6c469923b	It is interesting to note the active role played in these riots by the Rennes students who joined the uprising*.
1e9f4be030c04aa8baffe31df1d264b2cd5f6534	* Du Chalelier A. R. Histoire de la Revolution dans les departements de 1'ancienne Bretagne.
cedf0680f0d1892251395f3213df48b929c966eb	Paris, 1836, v.
b40121f785ff122e0f356bed04ea7d57aebcaadc	2, p.
d6b795f9ab1ecae32d0dae67230a3df2a7cc7ef0	60—70, 161 et suiv.
d09ddd9c96696958369091351e687776b42d8567	In the Dauphin, and especially in Grenoble, the movement took on an even more serious character.
fd00a930a25c2ddef68e022ecfb820be0647a54b	As soon as the Commandant Clermont Toner published a decree on the dissolution of parliament, the population of Grenoble changed.
13897708ef1d7426b0d36b3a697e2ecee6293d55	The alarm was sounded; its sounds soon reached the neighboring villages, and the peasants flocked to the city.
a00d45b7d7500c7a8804aef229e08872f51e8420	There was a bloody clash, many people were killed.
7f236acce2b094aec7ebd25eb85c0ed355f3ada5	The guards guarding Dante's command were powerless; his palace was destroyed.
e5b124ba546d5f98906c5302e68ae8498f372bfe	Clermont Toner himself, under the threat of an axe raised over his head, had to cancel the royal decree.
50c00f2334cfcd4ab0572cb174626500db718942	People, especially women, acted here.
f0d9a107f754bba9fa33151dcd8f0986f7b88022	As for the members of the Parliament, it was difficult for the people to even find them.
2685c7f2c97f8be9f649ef2172fc667a2aaa3072	They hid and wrote to Paris that the uprising had taken place against their will.
106debd767207941dc02749d20ec13a3d10dbf98	When the people found them, they had to keep them as captives, because their presence gave the uprising an appearance of legality.
43a7b325415fa7a97c2edc74502a695a77199109	The captured members of parliament were guarded by women: they were afraid to entrust this matter to men for fear that they would not be released.
50b2ea53bc559232a839b5d57c34a5d43eedcf9e	The bourgeoisie of Grenoble was evidently afraid of this popular uprising; at night it organized its own militia, which took possession of the city gates and military posts and then handed them over to the troops.
391fbb62e48890ca8d22d49178104df2d055f519	Guns were put up against the rebels, and members of the parliament and they took advantage of the darkness to escape.
30eb8100775a25f3ca949585fdeb92c6786c3a8d	From June 9 to June 14, the reaction was triumphant; but on the 14th they learned that there had been an uprising in Besancon and that the Swiss had refused to shoot at the people there, and this raised the spirit again; they even talked about convoking Provincial states.
b98a43e25c77f268cb02464e04a2b33f03e7d710	But new troops were sent from Paris, and the excitement gradually subsided.
de668571e72b5619cfbebec6f68404c3e9d46a5d	Nevertheless, the movement, supported especially by women, continued for some time*.
dad8f6e22b1704611ae52a7bcfc6f08aa58e14a4	* Vic C. de, Vaissette J. de. Histoire generate de Languedoc, v.
31a06ee543a8ba7fb7343c85330b1140f8a7adc3	10, p. 637.
2fcca117d25b7403c9332ea6b44a42e0b05d29db	In addition to these two uprisings, which are mentioned by all historians, there were at the same time many others: in Provence, in Languedoc, in Roussillon, in Bearnais, in Flanders, in Franche Comte and in Burgundy.
7053c1c7a5d09069ada47c79481d16d57b17e520	Where there were no real uprisings, the general uprising was still used to support unrest and organize demonstrations.
896c03e6f9f3e56d487a0746472c2dd0748e0028	In Paris, they celebrated with numerous demonstrations on behalf of Archbishop Sens, who was previously a minister.
b26839b39bfece7b9d4c8b13a56d7ff851df6547	A military force was deployed to protect the New Bridge, and several clashes took place between the army and the people, the leaders of which, Bertrand de Molville notes in his Notes (p.136), "were the very people who subsequently took part in all popular movements during the revolution."
935335f004c36bb6530ba8900d54d21f06121054	An interesting letter from Marie Antoinette to the Count of Mercy dated August 24, 1788, in which she speaks of her fears, informs about the resignation of Archbishop Sens and says that she is making efforts to return Necker.
d759991048169d69ac83c277b977d2fc58372bf9	From this letter, it is clear what impression the street gatherings made on the courtyard.
247fc3c5ae60fcab05287b371dfb56bf6391176b	The Queen foresees that the return of Necker will "weaken the royal power"; she is afraid "that it will be necessary to appoint a prime minister", but "time is running out".
00c4f9eed6ad23607693963babe7226dee3e042d	It is necessary that the Broker agrees*.
c7f26b23e8197b4b28860ed74e92fa3cd924a3ff	* Feuillel de Conches F. S. Louis XVI, Mane Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth Lettres et documents inedits, v.
cc61f0ecb52df565d217f5276c34fe2515bbc191	1-6.
5660e2c5df166019fea5f4fe46ae35fd9423bf3b	Paris, 1864-1873, v.
b8792f2735a83849d1076aa7eeb73ea279e5d3e4	1, p.
ec5137ace7e1f5fe4179b192425a68a80a324aa5	214-217 "Last night," writes the Queen, " the abbot wrote to us and informed us of my desire.
1aef8f4edff8439c7bf5aca161c32c9fc74adce7	More than ever, I think that time is running out and that it is necessary for him (Necker) to agree.
5bedca400953a0ff158c8e12505fd10fc3c1145a	The king has quite agreed with me, he has just brought me a paper written by his hand, with a statement of his opinions, a copy of which I am sending you."
890906a2283b882de9fac0724b18b98550ccc886	The next day she writes again: "There is nothing more to hesitate.
cfb963bef07ad3140879d68fb461c956d10543aa	If he can get down to business tomorrow, so much the better.
8c2c16ba00f13f826fe665478d1148e9c0f197d3	The matter is very urgent...
ae49812130be125ca7ca72c80900050c5e63aab3	I am afraid that I will not have to appoint a prime minister, " i.e. to make up a ministry.
65e588464b81a4018860779791d6a87edb2bad77	Three weeks later, at the news of Lamoignon's resignation, new gatherings were held.
f1b1f1f6016448b2c938c5351dd0a9836dcdd83d	The crowd rushed to set fire to the houses of two ministers, Lamoignon and Brienne, as well as the house of Dubois.
bf46314de6b1cfde2caa808e04bcd5ae607229cb	Troops were called up, and "a terrible beating of these unfortunate people who did not even defend themselves"took place on the streets of Malet and Grennel.
de55e70f5906e803eb339587b1919137d7f2d52a	Dubois fled from Paris.
f3b17fdbd963152881cb17bc5f3c4e36d84422c4	Otherwise, "the people would have organized their own lynching," say " Two Friends of Freedom."
354dc33ff2a32c917b8505834b47c48abcb87b5e	Later, in October 1788, when the parliament exiled to Troyes was returned, the "clerks and the rabble" staged illuminations on the Place Dauphine for several consecutive evenings.
2c8620f0b64e43b3d0a4e13b8ee8d7a0af8ac30a	They begged people for money for fireworks, forced the gentlemen to get out of their carriages and bow to the statue of Henry IV, burned dolls that invented the favorites of the court of Calonne, Breteuil, the Duchess of Polignac.
e19b2a8bd13cfb7e354a66e533c09c11aee2ce92	They were also going to burn the image of the queen.
d1bca571c09697e166731ab1948526c54dc8f918	Little by little, these gatherings spread to other quarters, and troops were called to disperse them.
5b4dd941a1549019d1210835ed78bdbd755ba701	There was bloodshed, and there were many dead and wounded in the square of Grava; but as the members of parliament tried the prisoners, they got off lightly.
b74110cfb1c34e1df91bb72ae035ba70098fe85f	This is how the revolutionary spirit was excited and spread on the eve of the revolution*.
a501c3474645ab440cb63edc5db9dcb67ab3061b	The initiative came from the bourgeoisie, especially from the small ones; but, generally speaking, the bourgeois tried not to compromise themselves, and very few of them decided to resist the court more or less openly before the convocation of the States General.
bd03439471ed8021a3b1e041cf8e6ed69d3cc172	If there were nothing else, except for the rare cases of their protest, France would have been waiting for many years for the overthrow of the royal self will.
70f723186e2c5e687ccad535c82e9fdca201222d	Fortunately, many reasons pushed the masses of the people to revolt; and despite the fact that every riot was followed by gallows, mass arrests, and even torture of those arrested, the people, driven to despair by poverty and at the same time driven by the vague hope that the old woman spoke to Arthur Jung, still rebelled.
a622e80dc198d5a6f4c97f103068810b3be6cfaf	He rose up against the quartermasters of the provinces, against the tax collectors, against the salt tax collectors, even against the army itself, and thus upset the government mechanism.
f17376675575796dd0f72ce4edcc9256a44891f4	* For more information, see: Roquain F. L'esprit revolutionnaire avant la Revolution.
9e3b462617c9af342f3cc09d5010d1b78093b844	Paris, 1878.
132674802e9b0b6d66c093e63c9dfc47048e8fa1	Since 1788, peasant riots have become such a common phenomenon and taxes have been so poorly received in the treasury that there were not enough funds for state expenditures.
053b0003393520a10efff49cde1bf7fdf78163ed	Then Louis XVI, who for 14 years refused to gather representatives of the people for fear that his royal power would suffer from this, was forced to convene first a Meeting of Notables ("venerable" people) and finally the States General.
85ebe39d57f29d274cdff09c315b9670e63106f9	VI
db4ef947738c74fa3637c29233cd3a1f2f6ee7e0	THE NEED TO CONVENE THE STATES GENERAL
de9aa95cd103c6a7556318ea59273f0bcc486ca3	To anyone who knew the situation of France, it was clear that the irresponsible management of the court could no longer continue.
01c7c97bd3bfe8ffa13d02e1e4924506ca3087f0	The poverty in the villages grew and grew, and every year it became more difficult to collect taxes and, moreover, to force the peasants to pay more duties to the landowner and to serve all kinds of corvee by order of the provincial administration.
c3cdf416f09c2dc66f535176c5e6d8025b58a480	Taxes alone absorbed more than half, and sometimes more than two thirds, of what a peasant could earn in the course of a year.
a48b29f45b1d516449b9a14102bacaf5079dfdbe	Violence, on the one hand, and rebellion, on the other, became a common phenomenon in the villages.
207b24b8cafb467247e790a4a6cb2973fca4fd7b	And not only the peasants protested and rebelled now.
228d2b59cdcdd5a7855407eca82071680ed7e66c	The bourgeoisie also loudly expressed dissatisfaction.
effaec32cf20ad8533e152c21025cfe8c9637abc	It is true that it took advantage of the ruin of the peasants to involve them in industry, took advantage of demoralization in the administration, and disorder in financial affairs to seize all sorts of monopolies and enrich itself on state loans.
7f3cf191e90c4a10808de4d4e54ba9311fcc9e3f	However, this was not enough for the bourgeoisie.
3d51ab8c9b1923921fdeddb5b573229490725c36	For some time, the bourgeoisie can perfectly get along with the royal autocracy and the rule of the court.
b48e8cce79ca514886ecc9bf6a15647e20c60faf	But there comes a time when it begins to fear for its monopolies, for the money it has lent to the state, for the acquired land property, for its industrial enterprises, and then it begins to look condescendingly at popular riots or even encourages them in order to break the rule of the court and establish its own political power.
97209921db9d2e96e48862dbc3f5be4f629324ca	This is very clearly seen in the first 13 or 14 years of the reign of Louis XVI, from 1774 to 1788.
4d7646fe764481abf63328ce944340ef20c70a41	The necessity of a complete change in the entire political system of France was evident; but Louis XVI and the whole court resisted this and resisted it for so long that those modest reforms that would have been very well accepted at the beginning of the kingdom, or even in 1783 and 1785, turned out to be far behind the development of popular thought by the time the king decided to give them.
000996e05b8f5e60f04bf4b3b9fafd7607e6b1e5	While in 1775 a mixed regime of government of the aristocracy with popular representation would have completely satisfied the bourgeoisie, 12 or 13 years later, in 1787 and 1788, the king was faced with public opinion, which no longer wanted to hear about half measures and already demanded representative government with all the resulting restrictions on royal power.
fc986f427e308b02475accdf61c02df51bfcf05e	We have already seen how Louis XVI rejected Turgot's modest projects.
8269ece8169087d47248da0089f9b4775ff34a7e	He resented the very idea of limiting the royal power.
268dd7f9008ee88f68a169267af3de3f074106fa	That is why Turgot's reforms: the abolition of the serfdom, the abolition of the establishment of guild elders and a timid attempt to force the privileged classes, the nobility and clergy, to pay some taxes did not yield anything significant.
b029b4b5e0d636f1bde61ffaa2f8896ef4df375d	Everything is connected in the state, but in the old regime everything was destroyed.
11e52dd02bd28cbeda13a4cbfd50b6f565eb0a59	Necker, who was appointed minister shortly after Turgot's resignation, was more of a financier than a statesman, and he also had a limited mind, the mind of a financier, catching the small side of public affairs rather than their large state sides.
623f6bdf337c512b9f48f7859420a5cf8553d715	He was at home among financial transactions and loans, but it is only necessary to read his book "Dupouvoirexecutif "("Executive Power") to see how poorly his mind, accustomed to talk about the theories of the state, understood the struggle of human passions and the needs of society at the moment; how little he was able to understand the enormous political, economic, religious and social task that France faced in 1789*.
20267ae7f6d2adde5c0ab51b1fe094eb07a110d5	* Necker J.
b6d08acfe5960d985a8d11717d71611455c705a9	Du pouvoir executif dans les grands Etats, \ 1—2 Paris, 1792.
0ee4b9b67458f7d091ecbfb78aa2cd9c0b75e627	The main idea of this work is that if France is experiencing a revolutionary crisis in 1792, the reason for this is that the National Assembly did not give the king a strong executive power.
eb99ad7dc59eaf705725361fc23066be7d449613	"Everything would have gone in its own order, more or less well, if they had taken care to establish a saving governing power in our country," writes Necker in the preface and then explains in two volumes what enormous rights should have been granted to the king.
898ba07908c99c215a836f45bbaa52ba257969cf	It is true that in the book "Surlalegislationetlecommercedesgrains", published in 1776, he developed — in contrast to the system of freedom of grain trade defended by Turgot some thoughts indicating his sympathy for the poor classes of the population; he demanded, for example, that the state intervene and establish a tax on bread in the interests of the poor; but this was limited to his governmental "socialism".
dac7483823c483d2fd3d87355e1fcb3c68c2b01d	The most important thing for him was a strong state, a respected throne surrounded by high officials for this purpose, and a powerful executive in last.
59253ce788c138ca255e5b88c5d338d9b7eab53f	Necker, therefore, could never deal with Louis XVI so decisively, definitely, strictly and boldly, as the situation required.
d82d65a2ed69d5f58a91791be3949fa2a7da8b83	He timidly spoke to him about representative government and limited himself to such reforms that could neither lead France out of its predicament, nor satisfy anyone, but only showed everyone the need for radical changes.
1e2ec252da73dde1141f306c9fbbebdae162c762	The provincial zemstvo assemblies, which Necker called on 18 in addition to the previously convened Turgot, and which were followed by district and parish meetings, had to discuss the most difficult issues and discover the terrible ulcers of unlimited royal power.
91bc23bb1c7a62d051c1f79af47ef52f6fc36183	And since the debates on these subjects soon became known and even reached the villages, they obviously further undermined the old order.
2174c798b9e0a52232043d9a8905a86084d6a1f0	Thus, the provincial assemblies, which in 1776 could have served as a lightning rod, in 1788 were already accomplices of the revolution.
38634024fd42d3c881e1576db0977188be7f8f46	In the same way, the famous "Report on the State of Finances", published by Necker in 1781, a few months before it was published in the state Headquarters, was a thunderbolt for the royal power.
2fe6a4287af6fa49307f1d9823a1a36be008ea4f	As is usually the case in such cases, Necker thus helped the fall of an already shattered system, but he was unable to prevent the transition of this fall of the old system into a revolution.
d8ce7936eaf7f06df7509437d93a1f0bf650c063	In all probability, he hardly even foresaw her approach.
1d702715e00a9a0de325ecc7da69ed2736ae614c	Necker's first resignation was followed from 1781 to 1787 by a period of complete financial ruin.
ae106b9c4a96657883119265d9fdafcbbb011b49	The financial situation became so bad that the debts of the state, provinces, ministries and even the royal court itself grew in a terrible way.
17788f02193847312f415c7ac3fbffc93775998b	The state could go bankrupt at any moment, and the bourgeoisie, interested in being lenders, did not want this for anything now.
d5449854fb04b09030d324392a5ac9ecbcf81558	The people were so impoverished that they could no longer pay taxes; they did not pay them and rebelled.
c985841f2a3e103da7feae6e277c3750e9ea009c	As for the clergy and nobility, they resolutely refused to sacrifice any of their privileges for the benefit of the state.
2632d49cf1a423f539432359f20fc134d951c80b	Under such conditions, peasant uprisings quickly brought the revolution closer.
7eb4cf8bce3a43c4e1025aa69dba11e61030e73f	And in the midst of all these difficulties, Minister Calonne called a Meeting of notables ("the best" people) in Versailles on February 22, 1787.
df32ea1d604dc00e7fa9afbf802f7e66d11662e3	The convocation of the Assembly of Notables was exactly what Necker should not have done at the moment, since this half measure, on the one hand, inevitably led to the convocation of a National Legislative Assembly, and on the other hand, caused distrust of the court and hatred of the privileged classes — the nobility and the clergy.
e3fce039294416e97d92f8b5641a7cab6029fdb3	Through the notables, it became known that the national debt reached the figure of 1,646 million livres, an enormous amount for that time, and that the annual deficit reached 140 million livres.* And this is in such a ruined country as France was then!
10f3643545a66750265b755dfcf2af4d55eab82f	* The livre was then about a franc.
f92e5ba5d0a6dedaa594167efcfde69669416908	All this became known; it was talked about; and when everyone was already talking about it, then the notables, elected from the upper classes of society and representing in essence a ministerial meeting, dispersed on May 25, having done absolutely nothing, having decided absolutely nothing.
3160619a460c45354d00112492ef3e79347138f2	During their meetings, Lomeny de Brienne, the archbishop of the city of Sane, was appointed minister in place of Calonne; but with his intrigues and "measures of severity" he only restored the parliaments against himself, and then caused riots everywhere by wanting to dissolve the parliaments, and further aroused public opinion against the court.
deabd4d330516d80b08f5a6cd268eaf22ae2da9b	When he was dismissed (August 25), celebrations were held all over France.
467d243205480d66864d9e2da504d46c1a56ccb7	But he so clearly proved the impossibility of an autocratic regime that the court had no choice but to obey.
7ca6fd61d0871d72e30bec4b3bea5eebb2ff4602	And so, on August 8, 1788, Ludo vic XVI was finally forced to convene the States General.
d7705cff91953ec8c802a47b79eb4d42c3a85774	But even here the court and Necker, who was again called to the ministry in 1788, arranged it in such a way that they increased the general discontent.
c5d192194894b1c0cf9b25c35c2aec8ad923b422	Public opinion in France demanded that in the States General, where the three existing estates each had their own separate representation, the third estate should be given a double number of seats and that the voting should take place according to the number of deputies, and not according to the estates.
f14e667b89f49d211acf0416ecf286ac70b5c3a3	The provincial assemblies (i.e., the provincial lands) had already expressed themselves in this direction , but Louis XVI and Necker opposed this and even called (on November 6, 1788) a second Meeting of notables, which they hoped would reject both the double representation of the third estate and the universal vote.
22f8833e28507a42a9d0cf29dc5b268d7bea816e	The Notables did so, but it didnot help anything either.
8ba266c42c96c41113aba9e0186283759e074b42	The third estate received a double representation, i.e., out of a thousand deputies, it had the right to as many representatives as the clergy and the nobility combined. we jumped into the first courtyard of the Bastille proper — the Provincial courtyard, in which the commandant's house was located.
c3ca1ab3898610fb955cc1e551f576fc6882ba4e	This courtyard turned out to be empty, since after Thuriot's departure, the invalids, together with de Launay, retired to the interior of the fortress.
3102b99da05d5e0bf08b8b55473446618b5dc946	Once in the Governor's yard, these eight or nine people first lowered the small drawbridge of the Front part, broke down its gates with axes, and then lowered the large bridge.
1347e0dea142aa8b98233bc20f652ced9041ef4e	Then more than three hundred people broke into the Governor's yard and ran to two other drawbridges, a small and a large one, which served to cross the wide main moat into the fortress itself.
72308c9295f5c8f72b696572cc6d6a6edea9d1c6	Both bridges were, however, already raised from the inside by the defenders of the fortress.
fc7f60037fe0e94d9d507472ef72e53476a101db	Here something happened that immediately brought the rage of the Parisian nation to its highest point and later cost de Launay's life.
ea8f4c0c92f9c346ff0af7b42e4ed9bb3b7ddc42	When the crowd flooded the Governor's Yard, the defenders of the Bastille began to shoot at it; someone even made an attempt to raise the drawbridge of the Front Line to prevent the crowd from leaving the Governor's Yard and taking it prisoner or destroying it.
61c008bb312685f87b207d17eca772c301b0f408	Thus, at the very moment when Thuriot and Corny were telling the people on the Place de Grave that the commandant had promised not to shoot, the soldiers from the height of the fortress wall fired rifle volleys at the Governor's courtyard, and the Bastille cannons fired cannons into the neighboring streets.
4f497d9f5cf0dc9af3a463ed215f8525261cd531	* Now there are historians who are trying to prove that this attempt was made not on the orders of de Launay, but on the own initiative of several disabled people who went out for provisions and were now returning to the village.
aa405dbbbf3ce611db187fc1d519164256d632da	It seems to me that such a course of action is absolutely incredible on the part of three or four soldiers lost in a huge crowd.
377aadf1956a75b2f59e6ee77fc4a075f18a4f7b	Besides, why was it necessary to lock the crowd in the courtyard, if it was not intended to make hostages out of it against the people or to kill it?
6985348dc1fadbe294b1ffe1dd1ff7a243ede412	After all the negotiations that took place in the morning, this fire, which was fired at the crowd, was naturally understood as treason on the part of de Launay, and the people began to accuse him of having lowered the first two drawbridges of the Advanced part in order to lure the crowd under fire from the fortress wall*.
e373912fb21d6f0960a65b72a4249d5979e75405	* Various explanations were given for this sudden shooting.
e84b854840613de139a84188f6c40936c0733be3	According to some, the defenders of the Bastille opened fire, because the crowd that flooded the courtyards of the Orme and the Governor's began to rob the commandant's house and the houses where the disabled lived.
f54a1f08ea909ca0dc1e94ec41c7cdcf4f921e83	Meanwhile, in the eyes of every military man, the very taking by assault of the Advanced part, which gave the people access to the access bridges of the fortress and to its gates, was already a sufficient reason for opening fire on the besiegers.
eb9882109967bd4f16d7724236698e0a8ed997bd	It is possible and even probable that at this very time de Launay received the order he expected to defend the Bastille to the last extreme.
c0269948255e4edb0e6abc2f5f099915c7ba316b	It is known that one such order was intercepted; but it is possible that the same order, sent by another way, reached its destination.
ccf806db95e15c106fab92c7374a288d6ff99d98	There is even an assumption that such an order was actually transmitted to the commandant.
ae697411a90d1a6f541a27c17ac59b28b5551766	All this happened at about one o'clock in the afternoon.
620cef1138c3b0693956df453af2141c2e6c90e9	The news that the guns of the Bastille were firing at the people immediately spread throughout Paris and led to two consequences.
ce17477e31e3bdff271f40e84ec46fedee814c4b	The standing committee of the Paris militia, for its part, hastened to send a new deputation to the commandant with a proposal to accept a militia detachment into the fortress, which will defend it together with the troops.
900589698695cf9509e60aa0cb80b4123349a025	But this deputation did not reach the commandant due to a strong exchange of fire, which continued all the time between the invaders and the attackers, who, standing under the walls of the surrounding buildings, fired especially at the soldiers standing on the wall at the guns.
fa916d605691d4c550559b0c79e574b4d2e5cced	The people, moreover, understood that the deputations of the Committee only hindered the siege.
6e61d0e8af747eaa31b96a7620c6fe116e6fdaae	"They donot want any more deputations, they demand the surrender of the Bastille and they want to destroy this terrible prison: they loudly demand the death of the commandant, " the deputies who returned said.
9dd4775eb93a7e5829bac43af765d53ee42f855b	This, however, did not prevent the Committee sitting in the town hall from sending a third deputation.
afc052c3d675c9635d598750a5564454c730cd68	The royal and city proctor, Rohr Ethis de Corny, and several other citizens were instructed to cool the ardor of the people, prevent the siege and enter into an agreement with de Launay, so that he would let the committee militia into the fortress.
f86b64086bbe68babec6b3fe962e25f23b886358	The desire to prevent the people from taking possession of the Bastille was very clearly revealed here.
d6e3f65b50fe6c24fb7561f4202aa5b430f1fbab	* "They were instructed to persuade all those who were in the vicinity of the Bastille to return to their districts and there immediately enlist in the Paris militia and remind M. de Launay of the promise he had made to Messrs.
55869eafd17a3b48cfdb2b103563e7c63702ca1d	Thuriot de la Rosiere and Bellon"… (LaJourneedu 14 juillet 1789, pCLVIII).
f2e5df593434507ed7fb34a46d08e687ec7231c4	Having appeared in the courtyard of the Advanced unit, full of people armed with guns, axes, etc., the deputation turned to the invali ladies.
10d232be35555f66991cb0b11d84602613500813	The latter, obviously, demanded that the people first of all leave the Governor's yard.
935ae2eef7c7ce4f9f9119f66a4cc464e822de29	Then the deputation began to persuade the people to leave (Ibid., p.CCXIV, note).
823371e2469d779642efeba057ed31a40e4b6cb8	Fortunately, the people did not even think of following their advice, but continued the siege, they realized that the time for negotiations had passed, and treated the gentlemen deputies very badly; they even once heard talk of killing them as traitors (Ibid., p. CCXVI, note, Proces verbaldeselecteurs).
aa23bbbbe79e494971e0a7c806c901d89fc76948	As for the Parisian people in general, for their part, as soon as the news of the shooting spread throughout the city, they began to act without waiting for anyone's orders, but guided only by their revolutionary instinct.
f7660ca16bae21c3375723a19b3c871b317abc32	He brought the guns captured at the Invalides to the Town Hall, and about three o'clock, when Corny's deputation was returning with the story of its failure, it met on the way about three hundred soldiers of the French guard and a lot of armed bourgeois under the command of the former soldier Julen, who were heading for the Bastille with five guns.
39930327e1bb58e151a1ea48582e811e9282fc32	At this time, the shooting had been going on for about three hours.
9773c96efc7d4b77b8a5638ec40c8516b8431490	The people did not retreat, despite many dead and wounded, and continued the siege, resorting to various tricks: for example, two carts of straw and manure were brought, so that the smoke from them formed a kind of veil and facilitated the siege of the two entrance gates (at the small and at the large drawbridge).
9cd508493f342fda647eccc15ccf9cddfb8f8b25	The buildings located in the Governor's Yard have already been burned.
cc8cceb774224b8a4162209c686d23a04b3bd28a	* 83 people were killed on the spot, 15 died of wounds, 13 were injured, 60 were injured.
22fa4ecd069a9a14e35174a907e434c122522b0a	The guns arrived just in time.
05716b1b0e56c0453c0bab5f68273e017bf1b2e1	They were brought into the Governor's yard and placed against the drawbridges and gates only 15 fathoms away from them.
5ad10dac9755cfa62a3f8a3cf51b1999657eb88e	It is easy to imagine what an impression these guns in the hands of the people must have made on the besieged!
4e1cfc86ab6c307781db331482adcf6042a2d5dc	It was clear that the suspension bridges would soon fall and the gates would be knocked out.
74ad13b0052f1f525efa289c7415ce1c2d658ab8	The crowd became more and more formidable and more numerous.
0e3942889117aa1d04090ba3faa319dcaca6e260	Finally, the moment came when the defenders of the fortress realized that to resist longer would mean condemning themselves to certain death.
e0863c0708a5adb303465fca0eaa59f8a561b370	De Launay decided to give up.
7fd822707605ac301dd0344abeb37137f82e1c25	The invalids, who saw that they could not resist the whole of Paris, which was leading a siege on them, had advised capitulation even earlier, and about four o'clock or between four and five, the commandant threw out a white flag and ordered them to beat the battle, i.e. the order to cease fire and get off the fortress wall.
ef1a8aa3e92583af84b03d7dccfbabe2393a9a09	The garrison surrendered and asked to reserve the right to go out with weapons.
483fafc898667ea9d08e55d4f00deb86acb36654	It is possible that the military Yulen and Eli, who were opposite the big drawbridge, gave their consent to such a condition, but the people did not want to hear about it.
6471077b5a27c0b5db784e8ac23a668ae90765d6	There were fierce shouts: "Lower the bridges!"
c9aa6cb7a23d11f1597fe4777bc6a5325c40c86b	Then at five o'clock the commandant passed through one of the loopholes near the small drawbridge a note reading: "We have 20 barrels of gunpowder; if you do not accept the surrender, we will blow up the entire quarter and the garrison."
0748f4efb69d0aba8d526bd1064b84cc51f7f12f	These were mere words, for even if the commandant had thought of carrying out his threat, the garrison would never have allowed it to happen.
42f3934d966d19a055de408862d0fdd6eb4f0ab5	In any case, de Launay himself gave the key to the gate of the small drawbridge.
6451dde8bfd8842604a680472a233ed123f53057	The gates were unlocked from the inside, and the people immediately flooded the fortress, disarming the Swiss and the disabled, and captured de Launay himself, who was dragged to the city hall.
7682da6b9227ba592d7d63abe0881fac44281b09	On the way, the crowd, enraged by his treason, showered him with all sorts of insults.
30d81e94f042712d748f1b26054553ffea933e0d	Twenty times he risked being killed, despite the heroic efforts of not one Shol and another*, who shielded him with themselves.
269115ec9f7cb5b8dd011040904bd074adc338af	A few hundred paces from the town hall, however, he was torn from their hands and his head was cut off.
4f7ec2a80ebab2ac1065768384ada5de1a97ea66	De Guy, the chief of the Swiss, saved his life by declaring that he was surrendering to the city and the nation, and drank to their prosperity; but three officers of the general staff of the Bastille and three invalids were killed.
350bf35d34378960bef396ef6dd6f5661dd674fe	As for the mayor of Flessel, who was in communication with Besanval and the Duchess of Polignac, in whose hands, as it turns out from one of his letters, there were many other secrets that greatly compromised the Queen, the people were already preparing to execute him when an unknown person shot him with a pistol.
544d696d4345cafd6582253e765f5b0bf3d8e58c	Has this unknown person decided that "the dead are the best at keeping secrets"?
f5e7028d5f61a0dadd46d538f625ba8d6ed44287	* Was it Maillard?
3ece4f87cc4dac39629a0686f1fb6773a3c53fa6	It is known that de Launay was arrested by him.
f193e042267a102f804f7ea055209f81dbebb414	As soon as the drawbridges of the Bastille were lowered, the people rushed into the courtyards and began to search for the prisoners who were buried alive in the Bastille.
5c690dee7f44e4b232402fb70ec2cbd75dd0cde0	At the sight of these ghosts coming out of the dark casemates and completely confused by the light and the hum of the voices greeting them, the moved crowd shed tears.
616575afd797feba1733837d8cd87479a984e473	The martyrs of royal despotism were led in a solemn procession through the streets of Paris.
fc3474bbf202bcaf1d7012fdc3ca637ec7a1b2e5	And soon, at the news that the Bastille was in the hands of the people, delight seized the whole city, and the population immediately began to take even more zealous care to preserve their conquest.
8c98e566cfb34a74f717d89401dfd4b083e91116	The coup planned by the court ended in a complete failure.
6bbcf993b0ae41b839fe220240c4a9ca3050f70c	So the revolution began.
778ec12599f3c9b5520c8693abdfd21a412adb2e	The people won their first victory.
def95f2e286384ace06969ecfbc87d9f9f8600c7	Such a tangible victory was necessary.
0bf917b99101dccbcf97a35e7c7e3a0c443d4f41	It was necessary for the revolution to withstand the struggle and come out of it victorious.
849e024ed827540f87d95f7b67bc497a7a9562ee	People d olzhen had to show his strength in order to force his enemies to reckon with him, in order to arouse hatred everywhere in the country and everywhere give an impetus to uprisings, to the conquest of freedom.
5d74734a7d8cd3bba1140b9bbca21f5564d1c9be	XIII
49159ae4000e05ce7040cda2aa4c38723d28b6d3	CONSEQUENCES OF JULY 14 IN VERSAILLES
73a02909772c6fdab7cef309b0bfa0d58c5d04aa	In every revolution, once it has begun, each individual event of it not only sums up what has already happened, but also contains the main rudiments of the future; so that if contemporaries were able to detach themselves from the impressions of the moment and separate the essential from the accidental in what was happening around them, they could already foresee the whole further course of the revolution on the day after July 14.
49c9018685a5174849c9a9fb360160f98de10876	At the court, even the night before, i.e. on July 13, they did not understand at all the importance of the movement that was taking place in Paris.
57c5763aa2852a8df01458e78f7d35cf1542dbe7	A celebration was held in Ver Sala that evening.
bd99626c85feefe58290d2d82d6c7b163386584b	In the palace, they danced in the greenhouse and drank to the future victory over the rebellious hundred lyceum.
8ad9eca5a88863d15930e8b313ceb06c22a73e72	The Queen, with her friend Polignac and other ladies of the court, and with her the princes and princesses lavished compliments on foreign soldiers in the barracks to wake them up for the upcoming battle.
fdd9359c19e4d429973b6daabd4e28be5671a7a4	With insane frivolity, the French court, which, like every court, lived in a world of delusions and conditional lies, did not even suspect that it was already impossible to take possession of Paris, that the moment was lost.
fd973172e810b05585b205cdfc273d841d73b381	Louis XVI himself knew no more about the state of affairs than the queen or the princes.
ee230f494699ffb6b27ee3679dcc4d64898456a0	When, on the evening of the 14th, the Assembly, frightened by the popular uprising, rushed to him and in servile expressions began to beg him to return the ministers and remove the troops, he replied in the tone of a sovereign still confident of victory.
8b9d3182054563c07204979edf9a36f898fa8ca1	He believed in the plan that had been advised to him, namely, to put loyal people at the head of the bourgeois militia, to curb the people with the help of this militia, and then limit himself to issuing several orders regarding the removal of troops.
bc99f9009a12fe5443f407058a9ae0a2a8352a48	This is the artificial world inhabited by ghosts in which the king and the court lived and continued to live, despite the brief moments of awakening, until the very moment when there was only one thing left to die on the scaffold.
ee06f153b3fcb28cad3ed33ef1ee2172c773a1d7	* Mirabeau, in the report of the speech he made at the meeting of the Assembly, which opened on the 15th, at eight o'clock in the morning, speaks as if this event had happened the day before.
8f5a35a4553f598bc18c56ca4d0a49f6132900b7	But he was talking about the celebration on the 13th.
00488829a148517b15ae099b40b11e39d4728736	And how well the characters of all the acting persons are already determined even then!
01d3637356bdf7321e8a69fbe0a989c9a4339da1	The king, clouded by his unlimited power, is always ready to take exactly the step that will lead to a catastrophe.
939e8d58c326ffcf7d3bf85eed2482cf90fea6a9	Then, when the catastrophe approaches, he shows his stubbornness, his inertia, only inertia, in the fight against it, and finally, just when everyone thinks that he will withstand and stubbornly resist, he gives in — always just for show.
eb17aa9a84e6703d50f88071c004d458d9e75f16	But koro leva: vicious, corrupted to the depths of her soul by her unlimited power, she directly pushes the king to disaster.
18757941115f0bfc1a2abbb594c4a1d1f82e84af	At first, she sharply resists events, does not want to admit them; then suddenly decides to give in and falls into the childishness of a courtesan with her friends.
b249c212905d0f0f56ba07d9c145a1293bba40d0	And the princes?
afd50d89c69ff50fcb2cdac3cc96fd73904d2bb8	They advise the most disastrous decisions to the king and leave him at the first failure; they besiege France and become emigrants immediately after the capture of the Bastille and go to intrigue in Germany or in Savoy.
5d14be54b5c6d67d5720a98421209fafde7f47e1	How quickly all these characters are outlined, in a few days, from July 8 to July 15!
456531c34727e09e192890b4b0788e8693d10d17	And on the other hand, we see the people, with their ardent enthusiasm, with their generosity, with their willingness to die for the sake of freedom; but at the same time — a people looking for leaders, ready to submit to the new masters who are installed in the city hall.
f93248084286ee278d35a060b7e3f4e74ca14a49	He understands so well all the intrigues of the court, he sees so clearly better than the most astute people — the development of the conspiracy that has been preparing since the end of June, and at the same time he allows himself to be entangled by other conspirators, i.e. the propertied classes, who will soon drive hungry proletarians armed with pikes back into the slums.
66a352a26c96a0a34b1e00b8ed00a8635bd4e2be	They were called to help when it was necessary to counter the force of the army with the force of a popular uprising, and now they are being driven off the street, having given them various promises, and they obey.
06069dbb61d33aa7d2f82f3f71adca4bfe064d5e	From the very first days, all the future great dramas of the revolution have already been outlined in the behavior of the bourgeoisie.
a15a5fc13d4918e0f57e451d25a8bd0a1132d07d	On July 14, as the royal power becomes less and less dangerous, the representatives of the third estate gathered at Versailles are becoming more and more afraid of the people.
6b9e41c1b8c42c955b064a130a7084ca6a3437b0	And, despite Mirabeau's fervent words about the celebration taking place in the greenhouse, it is enough for the king to appear in the Assembly, recognize the power of the representatives and promise them personal inviolability, so that they burst into applause, were delighted and went out into the street to see the king off, forming a guard of honor for him and reading Versailles cri kami: "Long live the king!"
b8db10987e9c153e3cf779b08001facec3dc19a7	And this is happening at the very time when in Paris the people are being beaten in the name of the same king, when in Versailles the crowd threatens the queen and the Duchess of Polignac, and about the promises of the king, people ask themselves whether they should not see in them only his usual falsehood.
f62470aba6ecd16f6f178fc26c12685f017e72ff	The Parisian people really did not succumb to the promises of Kohl to remove the troops.
b26b58babf31ad19fcbbdac915b26e4c8c89b417	He didnot believe him.
e2277e09fa02d261e30d13ae60f0fd14bbae2063	He chose to organize himself into a revolutionary commune, and this Commune, like medieval communes, took the necessary measures to protect the city from the king.
ab419dc7a7d75f705711c9d5fe7e385af252887a	The streets of Paris were cut with trenches or barricaded with barricades; people's patrols began to walk around the city, ready to sound the alarm at the slightest alarm.
d636c15b4a42c02152fb8bce4e2c129d7540af66	Even the king's visit to Paris did not calm the people.
69fddbc35b36d21ccfc8539c1744295fe9f767b8	On July 17, seeing himself defeated and abandoned by everyone, Ludo vic XVI decided to go to Paris, to the city hall, to make peace there with his capital.
24c60eb2fa30301ec1706809893ed67c34bcb2b7	The bourgeoisie tried to make of this visit a solemn act of reconciliation between it and the king.
49ac4f38d452c9787d5608c9590e400a88239e4e	The bourgeois revolutionaries, of whom quite a few were freemasons, did the king great honor by forming from their swords crossed over his head the so called steel vault when he ascended to the town hall; and Bailly, who was called the mayor of Paris, pinned a tricolor to his hat.
670322de804c7248c805b1c257ea39f38536e9ff	In the bourgeoisie, there was even talk of erecting a statue of Louis XVI on the site of the destroyed Bastille.
e0ee9cec37611f2786529321054d5301812eb051	But the people reacted to all this with great restraint and distrust, and this attitude did not disappear after the king's visit to the town hall.
1aafd14e5267d809155536f12772ff0f522a2974	The king of the bourgeoisie as much as you want, but not the king of the people!
e437e876eb82ae917b683d071201dca324ec780f	For its part, the court understood perfectly well that after the uprising on July 14, there can be no reconciliation between the royal power and the people.
698988125d15a802221b6c7c370ceb97f64e67c7	The Duchess of Polignac was escorted to Switzerland, despite the tears of Marie Antoinette, and the very next day the princes began to travel abroad.
94ee1c99bc6d4b09cf045ca2779310f64c93675a	Those who were the soul of the failed plot — the princes and ministers were in a hurry to leave France.
410979d1993359992116668f74fe2bacfa3f8703	The Duke of Artois disappeared during the night and was so afraid for his life that he secretly passed through the city, and on the way he was accompanied by a whole regiment with two cannons.
127a2763672f93238bc1aa77796cb82071e0244a	The King promised to follow the emigrants dear to his heart as soon as possible; and since then a plan has already been formed for the king's flight abroad, in order to return to France at the head of the German troops.
c45b30db838ac7489291d49957ffd766a2116850	In fact, on July 16, everything was already ready for the king's departure.
f6c44a547b94ef045883b10a0e1babf98f7bc153	Louis XVI had to go to Metz, become the head of the army there and go to war on Paris.
ae0b9874b21a6ca7be95b0581a536ec9379f7784	The carriages were already harnessed, and they were ready to be brought to take away the king and queen under the cover of the troops stationed between Versailles and the German border.
f97ff80968cc4e132053e3d27b8c5db7575324b0	But the Duke of Broglie refused to take the king to Metz, and the princes were in too much of a hurry to escape on their own.
0948e3a197a883b5283b504bce347a2ca3723ca9	Then Louis XVI, he himself told about it later, seeing himself abandoned by the princes and the nobility, abandoned the plan of armed resistance instilled in him by the history of King Charles I of England, and decided to go to Paris to express his submission to the will of the people.
e3922675d16bda3e4f3025bef228a66da2a8e09f	Some royalist historians are trying to cast doubt on the very existence of a conspiracy at the court against the National Assembly and the city of Paris.
08a84e029609160dcbbfaa1e02f5e3e581c3fc01	But the conspiracy has been proven by many documents.
d3a7da8fc711293b80119a31696ac5e709c37909	Mignet — a very moderate historian, as is well known, and who wrote shortly after the events themselves, does not express the slightest doubt about this, and all later studies have confirmed his view.
9963318799f14bc5163a8395cad2b9869428c507	On 13 July, the King was to repeat the statement he had made on 23 June, after which the Assembly was to be dissolved.
104410883554f55f74ca8e4e01f0d8b6e73e45d9	The king's statement has already been printed in 40 thousand copies for distribution throughout France.
14285fded4b5adf1e6d4cbf9e3713c3b0796d1a0	The commander of the troops stationed in the area between Versailles and Paris was given unlimited powers to arrange a massacre of the Parisian people and take strict measures against the Assembly if it resisted.
bfacfd25b74ff9be1d5dcc4444f7cba8ae543612	One hundred million credit notes have already been printed without the permission of the Assembly to cover the costs of the court.
b13ab882ededf2c6f6e5db6674f39c149da688d7	Everything was ready; and when the news came on the 12th that Paris had revolted, this revolt was at first looked upon at court as a revolt that contributed to the plans of the courtiers.
304a3b6eb91f6ed70d32e5a42664dc863ed993d4	Then, a little later, when they learned that the movement was growing, the king was going to leave, leaving the ministers to disperse the Meeting with the help of hired foreign troops German regiments and Swiss.
b0fba47e2bc61d3cabdd67d5e59c585d052ba7a9	But the ministers resisted this, because they saw that the wave of the movement was growing and growing.
438c92d6b81b8a1084c1ba6db3f736952c955ffe	That is why, after July 14, when the news of the capture of the Bastille and the murder of de Launay was received, such a panic seized the court, and why the Polignacs, princes and many other aristocrats, who were the soul of the conspiracy and were afraid of denunciations, hurried to flee abroad.
80747b5944ed5bce040f7d4487f1f1c90772a422	But the people were not asleep.
c3e4b46c1a99e4b056c9012a8e66e0c1e38f4810	He vaguely understood what these fugitives were looking for on the other side of the border, and the peasants began to detain them.
29b3852a44246989d160388ff109c4888f517591	Among them, Fullon and Berthier were detained.
d5ee94c0273ad7168b6e3c1d6f497679adcff591	We have already spoken about the poverty that was rampant in Paris and its environs, and about the speculators in bread, whose crimes are not allowed it was necessary to investigate.
f9acb566f4c3cb4f2e3d15c4286dfc7ec6397554	Among these speculators, who were surrounded by popular poverty, Fullon was especially pointed out, who had made a huge fortune both by financial transactions and in his position as quartermaster of the army and navy.
e1f029898b5d1a99ee2c48f9771d9d62dbb3a334	At the same time, his hatred of the people and the revolution was known.
f6904a1cac868b05132e84b28343e2ec04b063d1	Broglie, when the coup was being prepared for July 16, invited Fullon to the ministry.
758d229039727b329470fc9c5e7615e68d660a3f	The cunning financier, however, refused this dangerous post, but he did not skimp on advice: in his opinion, it was necessary to get rid of all those who had gained influence in the revolutionary camp.
de252795cc4edbcc0b7d41fbc136d8ebf17249b1	After the capture of the Bastille, when he learned how de Launay's head was carried through the streets, Fullon realized that he had no choice but to follow the example of the princes and escape; but as it was already difficult to do this due to the vigilant supervision of the Parisian "trenches", he took advantage of the death of one of his lackeys to spread the rumor that Fullon was dead and buried, while he himself left Paris and hid with one of his friends in the vicinity of Fontainebleau.
1f5ad40db5d6575e327a2d5aa38421566280e0ad	There Fullon was discovered and detained by the peasants, and then they took revenge on him for all their long suffering, for all their need.
1fe71e8fab98742de5a5ede6dc126412e52e1a53	Putting an armful of hay on his shoulders an allusion to his boast that he would make Parisians eat hay, the angry crowd dragged the speculator to Paris.
b70f1078c3075c73b66ede7952bac79610f2b2a7	There, at the town hall, Lafayette tried to save him.
f139b488a2e94e5f02ef08a2a9dda9370a2ed5ef	But the enraged people did not listen to the revolutionary general and hung Fullon on a lantern.
a710eda782bf279db5e2315d9727053d4559b0cf	His son — in — law Berthier also a participant in the royal conspiracy and also the intendant of Broglie's army was detained at Compiegne and also brought by the crowd to Paris, where they were also going to hang him on a lantern; but he resisted in the hope of escaping and was killed.
df905ce583ac6d9f9f840d080c5d6ce200e27cd6	Several other conspirators who had gone abroad were detained in the north and north east of France, and they were taken to the capital.
7ab21dd2c71a470227ea5d49fb2cf46a3ece812c	It is easy to imagine the horror that seized the courtiers at the news of these acts of popular violence and the vigilant vigilance of the peasants.
8e343e448e34fdc3aab8abaede95bf9923a8d430	All the arrogance of the court party, all their determination to fight against the revolution, disappeared.
9c2ad921e4d113f136496b216d8a896cfb297da7	Now they wanted only one thing: to be forgotten.
29fc7e593779fa236cee1ec87cdf09c6a28e40ee	The reactionary Party realized that its affairs were very bad.
8109685c888a4f5f1e1906ae7fb4ec3c510d565e	XIV
5569250482a2ce774cc84e346742cfcd3e416ad6	POPULAR UPRISINGS
e6717663b0231d797cbd839447e6ceeea4717835	Having upset all the plans of the court, Paris dealt a fatal blow to the royal power.
a4b012865afb8f4de81a60593c7843b664c0eb78	At the same time, the appearance of the poorest strata of the people on the streets as an active force of the revolution gave a new character to the whole movement: it introduced new demands into it — the demands of equality.
39a22119c36c7c4a4ad020148d173c6d885c0069	The rich and powerful immediately understood the meaning of what had happened in Paris during these days, and the flight abroad of first princes, and then court favorites and speculators only emphasized the meaning of the people's victory.
9ecb21d0749a489988d53c1fd31c63ea85fcca62	The court began to look abroad for support against revolutionary France.
313b2aaf129fdc6aafda0128fd74b2defe1ca8f6	Nevertheless, if the movement had been limited to one capital, the revolution would never have grown to what it later became, that is, to the destruction of the entire old system.
ac593a4f8073bdb1161b8842e149822eeb814e75	The insurrection in the center was, of course, necessary in order to strike a blow at the central government, to shake it, to discourage its defenders.
cf84268f4f704971ee2e49618c88d81ac01c16d1	But in order to break the power of the government in the provinces, on the ground, in order to destroy the old order in its governmental functions and in its economic privileges, it was necessary to have a broad popular uprising in cities, towns and villages.
a52d8aefc07cab4287634c33d421bc97232c6618	Such an uprising took place in July in a large part of France.
027fd419059b030118f66494236ca1399b37fcde	Historians, who are all consciously or unconsciously guided by the first history of the revolution, written by the "Two Friends of Freedom", usually depict this movement in cities and villages as a consequence of the taking of the Bastille.
c5e728a86f6b3507cd610ead03840dd3c87e4227	The news of the success of the people in Paris, they say, raised a movement in the villages; the peasants began to burn castles, and this peasant uprising caused such horror that on August 4 the nobility and clergy renounced all their feudal rights. if the essence of this report was the idea of the need to maintain a balance between too extreme parties and moderates, its conclusion was, like the Ebertists: "death to the enemies of the people" — the strengthening of government terror.
fd756d7a982480377b88792c5331d53a9444988e	The very next day, he demanded that the decisions of the revolutionary Tribunal be expedited.
537390ca5fe56069d070a5a2a3739cf5272187dc	At the same time, i.e. , on 4 Nivoz (December 24), news was received in Paris that Toulon had finally been recaptured from the British, and two days later, on 5 and 6 Nivoz (December 25 and 26), they learned that the Vendeans had finally been defeated at Savin.
47843ffd565ec490110a7b2e30a12b349b91a61c	On December 10 (December 30), the Army of the Rhine, going on the offensive, took back the fortified lines of Wissemburg; then the blockade of Landau was broken on January 12 (January 1, 1794), and the German troops were forced to clear the left bank of the Rhine and retreat to the right.
15c5c617ea40a8f5589239929b54397b43145e05	Thus, the republic gained new strength, having won a number of victories.
965c6ce1a958a23b756a3dac490fad517df7686a	At the same time, the power of the Committee of Public Health increased, and then Desmoulins, in the fifth issue of his newspaper, repented of his attacks on the revolutionary government, continuing, however, his malicious attacks on Hebert.
f06ab5734dadeb0a9bc28ed8d4550c0a5d038926	Thanks to this, the meetings of the Jacobin Club during the second decade of the Nivoz (from December 31 to January 10, 1794) became real general fights because of personal attacks.
265d4a39dd37782079d047f133a677cb3df34f7c	On January 10, the Jacobins pronounced the expulsion of Desmoulins from their club (which was tantamount to a close execution), and Robespierre had to use all his popularity in order for Society to finally reverse this decision.
4c36575aba8920d0f9948f16bd1e86b5b095271a	However, 24 nivoz (January 13) The committees decided to act and immediately put fear on their accusers, ordering the arrest of Fabre d'Eglantine.
33e798530bab65d2c8168d62c9426c6b775195b8	The pretext for the arrest was the forgery of a document, and the Committees announced with a bang and a bang that a big conspiracy had been discovered with the aim of casting a shadow on the integrity of the people's representation.
249b97d13c71a777b169807f9a3f7e971cbbe41f	The fact that gave rise to Fabre's arrest was the forgery of a decree of the Convention in favor of a powerful Indian company; but now it is known that Fabre was falsely accused of forging this document.
7c1baf055227ffd20cf2aca1d511bcc4972954de	The decree on the liquidation of the affairs of the Indian Company was actually forged, but not by Fabre, but by another member of the Convention — Delaunay.
10b079be190f1df822f9252d5c83f6e34f11f5ff	This document still exists in the archives, and since it was discovered by Michelet, it is known that the amendments made in the decree in favor of the company were written by Delaunay, not Fabre; but since the prosecutor of the revolutionary court, Fouquier Tinville, who was undoubtedly loyal to the Committee of Public Safety, did not allow this document to be brought to court, Fabre died as a forger of the document.
1a8dc09f423d08013ecd80c0fc62eeab879284f6	Robespierre, of course, did not stand up for him: he did not see him.
9de6b4ea41d40368946129aae17b2dd96ab37341	* The case was quite complicated.
4a81c02b015fb7c37cae2f3df1d50208c73510ca	There was a very clever man in the service of the Royalists, Baron Batz, who was so brave and so adept at hiding that there were whole legends about him.
26cb79d23db78e6c75807cc3427250e4d851375c	This Baron Batz, who had been trying for a long time to free Marie Antoinette, now began to persuade several members of the Convention to engage in a large stock exchange speculation with money that the Abbe Espagnac was supposed to deliver.
e3b4cf4767b6aaecd478d9bf7c17aaa4c24402d9	Batz once gathered Julien (from Toulouse), Delaunay, Bazire (a dantonist), as well as the banker Benoit, the poet Lagarpe and the Countess Beaufort, Julien's mistress, in his house for this purpose.
b440d4834a03dd2afcc69aeb7269f04f2bf35283	Chabot, a priest who had renounced the priesthood, at one time a great lover of the people, but now married the sister of the Austrian banker Frey, was also with them.
43b19608690c27fe2c721b7a065e2d49b6d9235b	Fabre was apparently present at one of these meetings; they tried to bribe him, and indeed Delaunay was bribed to act in a case concerning an Indian company.
72b28da9233a1a31baf4db8b9a5df5fcbd69f1b9	This company, however, was attacked in the Convention, which ordered the liquidation of its affairs and appointed special commissioners for this purpose.
e5867353345fd08328d4721d7a78154b57f4b900	Delaunay was commissioned to write a decree containing the decision of the Congress.
0a82bb4e317cabe018779e75fe925592ffdc5fe4	Then Delaunay wrote it and gave it to Fabre to read, who made several corrections in it with a pencil and signed it.
3568d72df3869fc13fc0ebe2fa55b4de82158012	But other amendments, beneficial to the company, were made in ink by Delaunay's hand on the same draft, and, without submitting this draft to the Convention any more, it was passed off as the decree itself.
e8be503987e49d8da738c23a795a7131a8d90c9b	Three months later, Fabre was guillotined along with Chabot, Delaunay, the Abbe Espagnac and the two Frey brothers, Austrian bankers.
e923f75bf54538394b94f1e585c993861d56113b	Thus there was a bloody struggle between the various factions of the revolutionary party, and it is easy to understand how much bitterness was brought into this struggle by the foreign invasion and all the horrors of the civil war.
710ccd4a6649a5a71d2d4390d955f48ab5915253	Nevertheless, the question naturally arises: what prevented the struggle of the parties from taking a fierce character from the very beginning of the revolution?
251c9187ac6323acf3384012b4d613e02f0ec091	What made it possible for people so different in beliefs as the Girondists, Danton, Rosier, Marat, to act together for several years against the royal power?
1d2fc22f4d5fa886ec921277157a4632b26bcfab	It is very likely that the intimate and fraternal communication established even before the beginning of the revolution in the Masonic lodges in Paris and the provinces between all the prominent figures of that time contributed to this unity of action.
dda73c4a6ce1a0d4001a3a459c3449323d649cd5	It is known, in fact, through Louis Blanc, Henri Martin and from the excellent monograph about the professor Ernest Nys*, that almost all the outstanding revolutionaries belonged to frank Freemasonry.
48f28b87e614d2b9287ad86bcec6dad6581a036e	Mirabeau, Bailly, Danton, Ro espier, Marat, Condorcet, brissot, Lalande, etc., etc. all belonged to the fraternity, but the Duke of Orleans (who called themselves during the revolution, "Philip Equality") has been the great national master of the Masonic fraternity until may 13 1793, in addition, it is also known that Robespierre, Mirabeau, chemist Lavoisier, and probably many others belonged to lodges illustr Minato based Weishaupt, whose purpose was "to liberate the people from the tyranny of princes and clergy, and as immediate progress, release of the workers and peasants from serfdom, from serfdom and from the craft guilds".
05a882a450c91d016941c4d961d1850e29b98562	* Nyse Ideas modernes: Droit International et Franc Maconnerie Bruxelles, 1908 (has a Russian translation).
f36874bde7414c8aa26bed9e06e4c9f3a961d2c5	There is no doubt, as it says E. NIS that "their human aspirations, their unwavering sense to the merit of the person and its principles of liberty, equality and fraternity" Freemasonry greatly contributed to the preparation of public opinion for new ideas; and this the more, that "semesta throughout the country, the Freemasons kept meeting outlining and enthusiastically accepted progressive ideas and the fact is much more important than people think it is, under gotovilis people who knew how to discuss things together and vote".
4b26ecab4ea1acd6fc231c0f711c256d129413ad	"The connection of the three classes in June 1789 and the night of August 4 was, in all probability, have been prepared in Masonic lodges"*.
4787f93163face4d8c83d26548550a6da3d615eb	* Ibid., p.
0a38d80328dd56cd25bc75d01d6a538918c4326d	82, 83.
9d5b15c2d0b38a17d5c541da4954bd9539862fdb	This preliminary work has undoubtedly also established certain personal relations and habits of mutual respect between the people of action, in addition to relations that are always too narrow in parties and the interests of narrow parties.
a1ed550aa05cb0046d70e5a5175b5e83f262929f	This is what, we think, allowed the revolutionaries of very diverse parties to act for four years with some unity against the royal despotism.
78dc5dfaa9de2e05f06ba7cb60fc95e93f88cb99	Later, this unity was subjected to too severe tests and, of course, did not hold, especially since the Freemasons themselves were divided on the issue of royal power, on the execution of the king, and even more so in relation to communist teachings before the Masonic lodges were closed at the beginning of 1793.The relations established between the Freemasons before the revolution and at the beginning of it, thus did not survive until the end of the revolutionary period; and then the struggle of the parties broke out with desperate bitterness.
c971aeaa67cdb4faaad556fb3c822d65e9bb8f06	LXV
736c34ff3bf1d4bf2d8cd40bacb860889403fd11	THE FALL OF THE EBERTISTS.
4c110699aaf2fdbe98e09db1926f6eaffe08e586	EXECUTION OF DANTON
5d47ce60e5c4060098639747a23eeeb4c89aa1cf	The winter passed in this way in a dull struggle between the revolutionaries and the counter revolutionaries, the latter raising their heads more and more every day.
2873f02f7751638757a82d57f9efdaeb38f30d92	At the beginning of February, Robespierre became the voice of discontent against some of the commissioners of the Convention, who, like Carrieu in Vendee, in Nantes, or Fouche in Lyon, acted with desperate rage against the rebellious population, and they did not even make a distinction between those who prepared the uprisings and supported them, and people from the people involved in the riots.
6301ee3ea9f0c24f15acb6a269f01ae23098b280	He demanded that these commissioners be immediately recalled, and threatened them with prosecution.
0556475fa2d4af765876ae6762273148c652f806	But nothing came of this agitation, 5 vantosa (February 23) The Convention granted an amnesty to Carrie, from which it was to be concluded that the guilt of other commissars was forgiven, whatever they might be.
d44bf1460461f49ee92310a6d5a06c698a9e90bb	The Ebertists were triumphant.
f550b32f3aa6366b51f293d0bb6067cc7d5db3f1	Robespierre and Couthon, both ill, did not show up.
f26cc9e07b38f56adaaf1085f63dec08a26b9436	* Young Julien, by the way, openly wrote to Robespierre about the misbehavior of some commissars, especially Carrie.
c6d9de6bec5d8d2bde25d274e8c2700121f617a6	See Une mission en Vendee.
16aafa2a58edd1ee838f8eea66fe49ac1662e516	Under this title, E. Lockroy published a book containing Julien's letters.
e133b48cfa68b26dbaac77f893f63e8e5b4ab211	At the same time, Saint Just, having returned from the active army, delivered a long, processed speech on February 8 (February 26), which made a great impression and at the same time shuffled all the cards.
d14660c71136455dc1d2e55feade3d2c7ad6123a	Saint Just not only did not talk about mitigating the persecution, he completely accepted the terrorist program of the Ebertists.
39d4ef6f16adf4dd8d18431d9f578c274003ad5f	He also threatened, even stronger than them.
66abe8a938db3843621f7eea2dc618281906dcb5	He promised to take up the party "dead people," indicating both the immediate Shih victims of the guillotine on kantonistov — the "political cult" which "slow steps", "is deceiving all of the party" and prepare the return response; she speaks of mercy, "because these men donot feel quite virtuous to be terrible."
cbe561cf2f6abd5b7da3d3213b9b9a6a76f3267d	Here Saint Juste, of course, conscious of his strength; staying honest of course, he had every right talking in the name of Republican honesty; whereas abortista, at least in words, lightly related to issues of morality, which gave reason to mix them with the whole crowd of bourgeois predators who have not seen the revolution, except for gain y.
fa8416a1edcd8f52eccbbba1b2488c8e32509284	As for the economic program of Saint Just, in his report on the 8th of Vantose, he reproduced from himself some of the thoughts of the rabid.
69ed81700afc702f908bf9a9df6171e918e0a7ed	He admitted that he had not thought about these issues until then.
dd83c5f6909f65efadc51b7797a34367c64a4047	"The power of things," he said, " leads us, perhaps, to results that we did not think about before."
f71a1c2ce8490a6c1a3b4e99272629034fb0e53a	Now that he thought about it, however, he didnot think of much.
2a09b4959700e5ee5c2d691604f59ad570f07fe0	He had nothing against wealth in general; he rebelled against wealth only when it was in the hands of the enemies of the revolution.
02157c6a5736a128ff39e9def14a61e8169d8d8b	"The property of patriots is sacred —" he said, " but the estates of the conspirators serve for the poor."
a2661ba752b619c9979f5e9123a7560e0fe71452	He made, however, a few comments about land ownership.
b265c08863e6252b84decabb9db960e74f497b3a	He would like the land to belong to those who cultivate it themselves: let them take the land, he said, from those who have not cultivated it for 20 or 50 years.
45e105723c6b9c65433812c29dedb5975e6a70c5	Thus, he imagined a democracy consisting of wealthy small proprietors living in modest prosperity.
72d2233f87bf2f4feebab44f23ef96f573e4100d	And he demanded that the lands of the conspirators against the republic be selected for distribution to the poor.
40b835d6675520704449b25fb319a734905f47dd	As long as there are poor, have nots and as long as civil relations in the country* are such that they cause needs that contradict the form of government, freedom is impossible.
19b559590d048aec9fbc9ab33219f5d648937f0b	"How can freedom be established if there is still an opportunity to raise the poor against the new social order; and how can there be no poor if everyone does not own a piece of land...
60363a9d289282c8e5a3ac3c3e4666d09730ed3d	Begging must be destroyed by distributing national property to the poor."
939cbfb85929b4ab7347d885b30e54b59d22312a	He also spoke about an organization like the national insurance of all citizens; about "a public land fund that exists in order to come to the rescue in case of a disaster."
fb9c34582fea830bf185beeed21c6d93dfa5fde9	This fund would serve for the "reward of virtue", for the benefit of individuals in case of personal misfortune, for education.
7994c6604b0a0eb0f6494ec08d115e9b93bc2881	* Saint Just was referring here to economic relations.
c36105a0a7e8ff8ca5942f7c67ac9defd2d2ad8a	And along with this, he preached an intensified terror: an ebertist terror, slightly tinged with socialism.
6fb36fc7562fd812ff1c4557a2520e24f82b247e	But the socialism of Saint Just has some fragmentary character.
f06868ecc2d3d94e47922a77e3a0f9ff98b50117	These are rather moralizing tips than specific thoughts and projects of the legislator.
a6aee482ce40a5a1ce12766273ecba1e8e8a343f	It is clear that Saint Just sought first of all to prove, as he himself put it, that "The Mountain still remains the peak of the revolution."
08edd916f8d56ced8f12c828306d442631af9193	She wonot get ahead of herself.
69b42a0f2c62b3e64bf6c4e164948ec69163df4e	It guillotines the rabid and the Ebertists, but it borrows something from them.
7896f7fd3453822002dbd3014eafed266b585a88	With this report (from which the Jacobins later wanted to make almost a bible of socialist demands) Saint Just obtained two decrees from the Convention.
bf9033c045574ae3777d5e848572e2ea7c7fb917	One of them was answered by those who demanded mitigation of the persecution: the Public Security Committee was given the right to release "detained patriots".
efcb98de81abc95e795dc696c7081f59e94bd90d	The other represented an attempt to pull the ground out from under the feet of the ebertists and at the same time reassure those who bought national property: the estates bought by the patriots will remain in their possession; but the property of the enemies of the revolution will be taken away for the benefit of the republic.
86cb2345ef59ff142dbb76d4075698a12dff5f84	As for the enemies themselves, they will be kept in prisons until peace is concluded, after which they will be expelled from France.
053aa47d953c754f5dd3e0832d90544641cb0704	In fact, only words remained of Saint Just's speech.
f447f194cd25f37148f815e59de29bcfdef3a771	Then the Cordeliers decided to act.
defb9cbc09404a442ddc458a1a20187184ac6509	On March 14 (March 4), they covered the human rights table hanging in their club with a black blanket.
8b9c1e87e4a7ed79d5654d44047beb6584e7c6fd	Vincent spoke of the guillotine for the enemies of the revolution, and Hebert made a speech against Amard, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, who did not dare to send another 73 Girondists to the scaffold.
6691e2673c4e287ad6fa80d2e434e2909eb7ac11	He even hinted at Robespierre, not because he was an obstacle to really serious economic reforms, but because he stood up for Desmoulins.
14d6ce4e253bf4079aa2135592b7671a6687a77c	Thus, the Cordeliers did not leave the area of terror.
37c20bbf221ded4eccb4d298c0be3ed892722981	Nothing was said about the main issues that worried the population — economic issues.
a95a79aff5d22adecbbb51895f2dab78478076f0	Carrieu raised the question of the necessity of an uprising directly.
13485485a689db4ad35ae56fd3a0af3aae1908dc	But nothing was said that could raise Paris.
8b7fd59051334ec6f23d126ba212dd050fe84a2a	Paris did not rise, and the Commune refused to follow the cor deliers.
2dc66bb09514c0ffb063ee29cdb8eca3bd5bce64	Then, on the night of the 23rd of Vantose (March 13), the Ebertist leaders Hebert, Momoro, Vincent, Roncin, Ducroquet and Lomur were arrested, and the Committee of Public Safety began to spread all sorts of fables and slander at their expense through Billot Varenne.
df473b242442e5b8175cff31ff2bbdb9e216041b	They were going, Billot said, to cut off all the grand pianos in the prisons; they wanted to rob the Mint; they were burying life supplies in the ground in order to create a famine in Paris!
bf5c220f0c0db8fe598066d3ec6722796e197060	28 vantosa (March 18) Chaumette was also arrested after the Committee of Public Safety, by its own authority, replaced him and put a certain Selye in his place.
a6c97167769e4b59e18e019e7f7fb23410bfd6c3	In the same way, the Committee autocratically replaced the mayor of the city of Paris — Pasha.
f8752b370bae357384018f603f094d69c0523ba3	Anacharsis Kloots was already arrested on December 8 (December 28) on the pretext that he was making inquiries whether the name of a lady was on the list of "suspicious".
0e709388d182aee1a005c4b44739775393f14084	Leclerc, a friend of the Communist Chalier, who came to Paris from Lyon, and an employee of Jacques Roux, was involved in the same case.
32117501ce551c2ec9ff49f9217e1d4d982199d7	The government was triumphant.
58357575baf7b2b854880a6e7b78175612c95c8b	The real reasons for these arrests in the extreme party are still unclear.
bb4fe35f9d17c245d13a8f42fae57c3091ec5127	Were the Ebertists plotting to seize power with the help of Ronsen's "revolutionary army"?
778fe611ddab2d6df478978df441a51cd2fe58d0	This is possible, but nothing reliable is known about this.
2093ea00b69abb9a962d50c1c6e3d34759a33c36	The arrested Ebertists were immediately brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal and the government was not ashamed to arrange what was then called an "amalgam", i.e. it included bankers and German agents in the same process, along with people like Momoro, who already in 1790 was distinguished by his communist views, and certainly gave everything he had to the revolution, or the poor Leclerc, a friend of Chalier, Hebert and Anacharsis Kloots — "an orator of a kind human", who already in 1793 foresaw the republic of all mankind and had the courage to speak about it.
0a4906eb1ed842c7bc95362a2e3c5eb8511ffbd6	4 Germinal (March 24) after the process for the form, which lasted three days, all were guillotined.
d1e15f866d48680caea3193b051ac991b55a3fab	It is easy to imagine what a holiday this day was among the royalists, with whom Paris was overflowing.
3989e1b7460ea936fa7d4aeead041bd495ceb8a9	Crowds of "muscadins", dressed in the most incredible outfits, poured out into the streets, and they pursued the condemned with their taunts and insults, while they were being taken to the execution that took place on the Revolution Square.
4f0b3af12f7a27bf21f9ddd5d199cfbe10501b35	Rich gentlemen paid crazy prices for seats near the guillotine in order to fully enjoy the execution of Hebert, the editor of the newspaper "Pere Duchesne".
b1710cd0cc3f180794dbd12ee544f81ffe9404a6	"The square turned into a theater," Michelet wrote — " and there was a kind of fair around it; masses of cheerful people walked on the Champs Elysees between tents and benches."
65728e45fcee39d4480301bc1eadb00f78b879ba	The people, gloomy, did not show up.
66b041a5fb25398440281f04e589d6af23537e6a	He knew that his friends were being killed that day, that revolutions were dealing a fatal blow.
d4183c237e2f83c199a526467566e38f81db1569	Chaumette was guillotined a few days later, on April 24 (April 13), together with Bishop Gobel, the same one who renounced his dignity, and the crime against them both was unbelief.
88dd1b03b46da46053887873a8e239ab138dbab2	Robespierre and his party were clearly ingratiating themselves with the bourgeoisie in the hope of prolonging the revolution.
0ab2b47d47195fdaf0249eb2a1dc7c27c2deff31	Desmoulins ' widow and Hebert's widow were included in the same group of guillotine victims.
a3af315aa6e29e7e3f8984e1b75f0c13de3cde6b	They did not dare to execute the Mayor of Pasha, but the Committee of Public Safety replaced him and replaced him with a nonentity, Fleurio Lescaut, and Chaumette was first replaced by Selye, and then by Claude Payan, a man who was completely loyal to Robespierre.
983ae6f6c60d8b83ca4a606f0c8668490a063d54	In order to please his patron, he cared more about the "supreme being" than about the Parisian population*.
f595d861d581f5b92c6d3fef9cba4857b7ad96a6	* By virtue of Law 14 of Fremer, which established a "revolutionary government", instead of the prosecutors of the communes, who were elected by the people and represented the self government bodies, national agents were introduced, appointed by the Committee of Public Salvation.
3cacbc0570c2ba153768f8d0a1c009f4b464cd01	Chaumette was then confirmed in his position and thus became a "national agent", i.e. a government official.
8da45305acb5d3a0179cd048c67c503c2f28ee77	On the day when the Committees decided to arrest the Ebertists, i.e. , on March 23 (March 13), the Committee of Public Safety introduced a new law to the Convention, which allowed it to replace the people elected by the communes and replace them with officials appointed by itself.
49c1198f583bdb6fb337c42cde9467e0c13624d8	The Convention, of course, adopted this law, and, using it, the Committee replaced the Pasha and appointed its own man, Fleurio Lescaut, in his place.
f616553da683c385a097c59896e999889100b584	Thus, the Committees of Public Safety and Public Salvation finally prevailed over the Paris Commune.
edd17b6ca75c7d52019f2da2b22607b0c7f268f4	And so ended the struggle that this center of the revolution endured, from August 9, 1792 to April 13, 1794, against the official representatives of the centralist revolution.
9dc5a6d5f3aedb666f72bee34cf84aca2ed12794	The commune, which, together with its sections, had served for 20 months as an expression of the Parisian people and a beacon for revolutionary France, now turned to the organ of state officials.
06981b4bd55e6eb1cd13ceb3fa9ee3a44fcb8ea4	After that, the end of the revolution was obviously already close.
739ed6268767e33dc710b03c70db1a03ec09cc9e	With Pash and Chaumette, two people who represented the people's revolution in the eyes of the people disappeared from the revolution.
7a7cc96f4d15bb6cf56969dc3848ba0bfbc0eaab	When the delegates sent by the departments to declare their consent to the June constitution of 1793 arrived in Paris, they were struck by the democratic character of the capital.
806046d4de94ac4c6a3ab4fc3cac12b3af435fe0	The mayor," Uncle Pash, " they wrote home, comes to the Commune from the village on foot, bringing his bread with him;
2b794abc2ea7d049e057aaa363a3cebfe4a80de7	Chaumette, the prosecutor of the Commune, " lives in the same room with his wife, who sits and fixes something.
982d6061b115f62d0e4830a7b0921be4b9929b66	Whoever knocks, he is answered: "Come in!"
a145f93d4b8fd8da73d2d814eadc800178de82f9	Just like Ma Rat."
3d29f6c7ac73a61ce4cc378b80626305f5f226e6	Hebert, a fellow prosecutor of the Commune, and the "orator of the human race", i.e. Anacharsis Kloots, are all equally accessible.
262b40f1103ed5b4d23e2dc21cc6924c34fb4f66	These people have now been taken away from the people for the sake of the bourgeoisie.
83d9c318dc977689d15d914f90105a908c65c217	* Anacnarsis Clootz par Avenel, vol. II, p.
59dd645aa736039e32a8e877964649e09cd5962d	168—169.
6171cb8850eb89c707c5c791334c75120c7ae929	The execution of the Ebertists, however, caused such rejoicing among the royalists that the Committees saw with horror how suddenly the triumph of the counter revolution was approaching.
9797715895de62ca7afa35829261fb76da242ea1	Now on the" Tarpeian Rock", so dear to Brissot, his successors demanded already the members of both Committees themselves.
a42c3deda7a863ab3cdaf443c3233e8a341f0374	Desmoulins, who behaved in the most abominable manner during the execution of Hebert, inciting the screamers who ran after the cart in which he was being taken to execution (he himself told this), has now published the seventh issue of his newspaper, devoted entirely to attacks on the revolutionary system.
cc54135a8441364fa04115c25b60ba385dbddd19	The royalists indulged in frenzied expressions of delight and begged Danton to launch an attack on the Committees.
53120328e8d439986e9c523a84b2c051494416fd	The whole mass of the Girondists, who had disguised themselves under the name of Danton, were now going to take advantage of the Ebertists ' disappearance and the defeat of the Paris Commune to carry out their coup; and then Rosier, Couton, Saint Just, Billot Varenne, Collot d'Herbois and many others would go to the guillotine.
7f078b241ad34b4ea5365df2e59a5ba91b2b5a47	In this case, the counter revolution would have prevailed already in the spring of 1794.
d1e4962577777952c0b5a6c36f5b451ef3115c03	Then the Committees decided to strike a strong blow to the right and sacrifice Danton and his friends for this.
229334bd365b9c7e5a7e47ea1bd4b35b4c71e84b	On the night of March 30 to 31 (from 9 to 10 Germinal), Paris learned with horror that Danton, Desmoulins, Philippe and Lacroix had been arrested.
1e782d154022d201aaf50a85c9359d41ab342914	Based on the report read by Saint Just at the Convention (it was compiled according to a draft written by Robespierre and still preserved in the archives).
bf9ac21d3eb923ea18204e91008f1099bd9e9abe	The Convention ordered the persecution to begin immediately.
085b5964e5725d8faea35476909bcbe9cd6baffa	The committees again composed an "amalgam" and handed over to the revolutionary tribunal Danton, Desmoulins, Bazire, Fabre, accused of robbery, Chabot, who admitted that he had received 100 thousand francs from the royalists for some case that remained unknown (he, however, did not spend them), Delaunay, who really committed forgery in favor of the Indian company, about which we spoke, and the intermediary Julien from Toulouse.
fdfc0f9819382af209d49bfad2068e91b575dfff	The process was, of course, only for the form.
539ae0f0a78dea9cc9a55f249f68e599d6d76ed0	When the Committees saw that the powerful defense of Danton could cause a popular uprising, they ordered to stop the defensive speeches.
8bec0c28e739e33507f2f0045c13d9b991095552	All were executed on April 5, 1794 (16 Germinal III year).
775a803127cf62e92e94b9ac211c9adcb6850d8a	It is clear what an impression on the population of Paris and on the revolutionaries of all France should have been made by the fall of the revolutionary Paris Commune and the execution of such people as Leclerc, Momoreau, Hebert and Cloots, followed by the execution of Danton and Desmoulins and, finally, Chaumette.
e2c316c1a62b891ce421274a96a1d1cc8b7b8acb	In Paris and in the provinces, the people realized that these executions marked the end of the revolution.
93a3bb6ba1074b000ba447a86db1d0ca94aa37e7	It was known in political circles, of course, that the counter revolutionaries were counting on Danton at the moment.
766b50d495a3a7108b66f8cc968d48671a7cd144	But for France in general, he remained a revolutionary who stood at the forefront of all the native movements.
e1f89a419492774c78ab86a13bc33309d893f73d	"If these people are also traitors, then who can we rely on?" people asked themselves.
bc5ad71e1cda8fd9a1eceb4fff8e2230c5a51470	"But is it true that they are traitors?" others asked themselves.
fd7f83f8ff80c6896afa97f1f82ffe8911928615	"Isnot it clear that the end of the revolution has come?"
95c23158d46f3ed3e8e3c9e58f821021aa92d9e0	Yes, its end has come.
1db386a6580d4d32d8162013d911336a1f559043	Once the upward movement was stopped, once a force was found capable of saying to the revolution: "You will not go further than this" - just at the moment when new popular aspirations were trying to find their expression; and since this force could take off the heads of those who were trying to find this expression, it became clear to true revolutionaries that the revolution was coming to an end.
21350e0390ce112c11737ee69c5e9c6088e41247	They could not be deceived by the words of Saint Just, who assured them that he, too, was beginning to think like those whom he sent to Guillotine.
38cda13a318b56501f47f227270b80be314ef18c	They realized that this was the beginning of the end.
8c664e6d8d1e84c0af016752784d9014a222ee43	And indeed, the triumph of the Committees over the Commune was the triumph of order, and the triumph of order means the end of the revolutionary period.
af2cda9dd75f8ae36ade2ae6787c543232a5a5de	Now there could have been several more convulsions, but the revolution was over.
9653ded3c9defc3b7da96a481c5da34a2793a546	The people have since lost all interest in it.
3a87e546219aa6d1451b7057058282ac50a6b886	In Paris, he left the street to bourgeois dandies muscadins - and madly dressed up women from the bourgeoisie.
c920bdccb21db0a93d85e06820677643a7ef9961	LXVI
879c2a5b76f1098419438d6a65e09a45942806f7	ROBESPIERRE AND HIS GROUP
69c0b0979efdc644f6de9bcfa7ec101db6f6846e	Robespierre is very often portrayed as a dictator.
e89db131f61b8a5f2133c2a3496f83b47d6e2e30	His enemies in the Convention even called him a tyrant.
306ed52ec53381cbe02dbd3af7316c58044dc548	And when he died three months later, on the 9th of Thermidor, the era of reaction began.
8ca2721b43a3d8ec41fbb09c3cfd8d30ff6c8e5e	Meanwhile, it would be completely wrong to see Robespierre as a dictator.
629f21fef26e48baba7b9ca17f2674fe706a9886	That many of his fans wanted to dictate for him, there can be no doubt about it*.
555bcdf6e9a83f5a54fbc7a354a03493cbee567b	But it is also known that Cambon enjoyed almost unlimited power in his special field, in the Committee of finance, and Carnot had very broad powers in military affairs, despite the dislike of Robespierre and Saint Just for him.
88a25b8ff45c78f0402536a8180fe9b3f9c63b88	On the other hand, the Committee of Public Security guarded its police power too jealously not to resist the dictatorship; and some of its members directly hated Robespierre.
1451d93ced8dee318c6a24b229b22aaa735aaf41	Finally, if there were representatives in the Conte Vente who were willing to allow Robespierre's strong influence, they would still not want to submit to the dictatorship of Montagnard, who was so strict in his moral rules.
9f56106493aa4cbb0f06e565e99b70991aa50a75	* No matter how little historical significance Baudot's work has (Baudot M. A. Notes historiques sur la Convention nationale, le Directoire, 1'Empire et 1'exil de votants. Paris, 1893), the proposal of Saint Just, mentioned by Baudot (p. 13), to appoint Robespierre as dictator in order to save the republic, has nothing improbable.
da99ccbd2399b6b1e9b6e80cd5fa053e809c0d33	Buonarroti speaks of this intention as a well known fact.
ece79208100a7d81c0d95e0f8bcde266744c8634	And yet Robespierre really enjoyed great power.
814d884bc25c50607d154bedc86dbeee193301a8	Moreover, his enemies, as well as his admirers, felt that the disappearance of the Robespierre group would be — as it turned out in fact — a triumph of reaction.
1a519945ba09e30087ffc490fc7feb53d0e27631	How can we explain to ourselves the power of this group?
68f3c5ad20d5db688357ccd8e67734970b8d22ab	First of all, Robespierre remained incorruptible among all those, and there were a lot of them, who were seduced by power and wealth:
1ec1906e97adbb3344f35e2806abd2833798e4f6	a circumstance of the highest importance during the revolution.
aa1a70782d039c98b04c32e586de90f57fa79c4e	While the majority of those standing around him were perfectly engaged in the sale of national property, stock exchange speculations, etc., and thousands of Jacobins were in great demand for positions in the government, he stood before them as a strict judge, reminding them of the moral principles of the revolution and threatening with the guillotine those of them who were too devoted to profit.
f749676dd66fb98e4f30ee4d93594cb3d804fe7d	Then, in all that he said and did during all the five years of the revolutionary storm, we still feel, and contemporaries should have felt it even more strongly, that he was one of the few political figures of that time in whom nothing weakened faith in the revolution and attachment to the democratic republic.
fdeab522958cb70905349884fe0d69ea3c915fb1	In this respect, Robespierre represented a real force, and if the Communists could have put forward an equal force of mind and will, they would undoubtedly have given the revolution a much stronger imprint of their aspirations.
a79f4377dc4c0155e7d639411f26f12c83acc192	However, these qualities of Robespierre alone, recognized even by his enemies, could not explain the enormous power that fell to his lot at the end of the revolution.
7d69b4c86d1086fa636f5045d1c8681d1f228951	To this we must add that, in addition to the fanaticism that the honesty of his intentions gave him in the midst of all those who used the revolution in personal forms, he himself tried to strengthen his power over public opinion, even if he had to step over the corpses of other honest figures who turned out to be his opponents for this purpose.
fe8401dbad25d6ebc5ec829a0ff257a957496836	Finally, the most important thing is that the nascent bourgeoisie helped him first of all in strengthening the power of Robes Pierre.
da88cd5ae47bb8d25556de6ddb313508f06caf07	As soon as she realized that among revolutionaries he represented a man of the golden mean, that is, a figure standing at an equal distance from the "exalted" and from the "moderate" and thus representing the best defense of the bourgeoisie against what she called the" excesses " of the crowd, she began to nominate him.
995d02d91a9a6f0b84c649b8a5d72afd6b1be098	The bourgeoisie realized that Robespierre was the man who, thanks to the respect he inspired in the people, and thanks to his moderate mind and love of power, was most capable of forming a firm government and thus putting an end to the revolutionary period.
e643ed4c6fc4cd94ea91da662b8db97ed6eca70d	Therefore, the bourgeoisie, as long as it was threatened with danger from the extreme parties, did not interfere, but helped him and his friends to consolidate their power, create a government, and defeat the extreme party.
5a941d0e8a47100255ef55953adee69427e37a5b	But as soon as the" extreme " were defeated, the bourgeoisie overthrew Robespierre and his government and celebrated their fall, since it gave the real people of the bourgeoisie, the Girondists, the opportunity to return to the Convention and start the Thermidor reaction.
6a2891a9cd02fdfcbf90fe6a783707af157ac9b8	Robespierre's mindset perfectly suited this role.
42200bb976507468759fa77052a47f500785ec54	This can be seen, among other things, from the draft written by him for the indictment against the group of Fabre d'Eglantine and Chabot and found in his papers after his death*.
45a41716ca6ed8deb7f8ccdad7105c7308e5a0ec	This note characterizes Robespierre better than any reasoning.
78d3905d96af13696d700b4c15dd50b75f6aa676	* The charges for this group Robespierre wrote a draft of the indictment, which was read by his friend Saint just.
f3bd8df9ca08532b2a87d0a2ad73ab0ddb7343cd	Cm. this draft: Papiers inedits trouves chez Robespierre, Saint Just, Payan, etc. supprimes ou omis par Courtois, precedes du rapport de ce dernier a la Convention nationale, v.
fb2dd2966486f1ffffa5683687bc089a83dd105e	1-3.
466b280451c736102813dc937aa4f36b4508a5dc	Paris, 1828, V. 1, p.
c6d54ea9eb857c994abd9335325e0d9b4266d5c3	21 FF.
f41238bfc501db58ba90247c0a868a6bd76e55b0	"The two coalitions have been openly competing with each other for some time now," he began his note.
2a7add01a13fbb81111f72be19742ce601325040	— One of them tends to moderantism (excessive moderation), the other to extremes, essentially anti revolutionary.
6f86693ced379a859b0ae027e550cddeeb501b52	One is waging war against all energetic patriots and preaches leniency towards the conspirators; the other secretly slanders the defenders of freedom, seeks to destroy every patriot who has ever made a mistake in anything, and yet turns a blind eye to the criminal machinations of our most dangerous enemies...
dbbbc3e183da7093f7ff16d13e11006ba65db5ed	One is trying to use its influence or its presence in the Convention (here he meant the Dantonists); the other is trying to use its influence in popular societies (Commune, rabid).
ee85e138c74c5a7a91c6d5451d79e3a07aa75a59	One wants to cheat the Convention out of dangerous decrees or measures of persecution against its opponents; the other makes dangerous speeches in public meetings...
30fe2abd1fed7c85fe2205d5a3d406229aa010d9	The triumph of both parties would be equally dangerous to freedom and representatives of the people's power."
6780c7189b9af091428f4b0273b7736994f3a0e0	And Robespierre told afterwards how both parties had attacked the Committee of Public Safety from its very foundation.
a7a27e2953b242c372ca6deb265c53311cdeee5a	Accusing Fabre of taking care of leniency, "in order to hide his crimes," Robespierre added:
332e515071d3014d6a2a95dbd2cf0dc3c66bbc69	"The moment, of course, was chosen well to preach this cowardly teaching even to people with excellent intentions, when all the enemies of freedom pushed to excesses in the opposite direction; when a corrupt philosophy, sold to tyranny, forgot thrones from behind altars, opposed religion to patriotism, put morality in contradiction with itself, confused the cause of religion with the interests of despotism, all Catholics with conspirators, and wanted the people to see in the revolution the triumph of virtue, but the triumph of atheism, is not a source of national well — being, but the destruction of the moral and religious views of the people."
b138939a75ced82c469c2dff3e4c819afe01d767	* From the book of Olar (Aulard A. Le culte de la Raison et le culte de 1'Etre supreme (1793-1794). 2e ed. Paris, 1904) one can see how much the anti religious movement was, on the contrary, connected with patriotism.
7db956a33fc612bd39c0fd0f63c8c1882b5957b9	From these extracts it is clear that, if Robespierre really did not have the breadth of views and boldness of thought necessary to become the leader of revolutionary parties, he perfectly mastered the art of using those means with which it is always possible to arm the so called public opinion against certain persons.
42df51f296e3c4e296a3e08f68ed268edc7fa5d2	Every sentence in this indictment is a poison twisted arrow hitting the target.
ac7eb4c5eb95a8f96d59c8082b8ebc3d1ccbc1e2	What strikes us most is that Robespierre and his friends did not understand the role that the true enemies of the revolution, the "modernists", forced them to play until the moment had not yet come to overthrow the Montagnards.
f5079a11ac71c908f20b09d9f66f25c8126a99ab	"There is a whole system of pushing the people to equalize everything," his younger brother from Lyon writes to Robespierre, " if no measures are taken, everything will be disorganized."
c0428055458b5e99c51c0812a3c12cf347bd76c9	And Maximilian Robespierre did not go beyond such a narrow understanding of his younger brother.
af265b9a5fbe4f4ada46400b89fcd66003217c85	For him, the efforts of the extreme parties to push the revolution even further were nothing more than attacks on the government to which he belongs.
2e4558310672d9607099ece7175fb9d8dd3f767f	Just like his enemy Brissot, he says that these extremes are tools in the hands of England and Austria.
079eebbd0937d6f0bd18c81236124a298fba799b	In his eyes, communist attempts are nothing but "disorganization".
fda2358c9178aefd4ef98d37fd4ebf0311439a0b	"We need to take measures," he writes: we need to crush them with terror, with the guillotine.
eff00823ed48287fb109e3c9e59c46df5dd37606	"What are the means to stop the civil war?" he asks himself in one note.
f1acfc84d9d08fc1be5701d225d05e840c14968f	And he answers:
9c89a2a8893fc507fb1970f483bf4b06f8a52f09	"To punish all traitors and conspirators, especially guilty deputies and administrators; to send troops of patriots under the command of patriots to pacify the aristocrats in Lyon, Marseille, Toulon, in Vendee, Jura and other areas where the banner of rebellion and royalism is raised; and to give a number of frightening examples, executing all the villains who have defiled freedom and shed the blood of patriots."*
9b24a45aceef3c0b0ca6ef35a33737eb74d5bcf3	* Papiers inedits..
a6e8e575469dad634234d8a5aa7ea06fc1dfe88e	., v.
00dd52bd87b0fb94d004917628e707432bf9a011	2, p .
abfb80760ea4780b8a238698b70362aca2fbf0a6	14.
381eb098bd139519335720b74bba8e14002572af	As can be seen, a person of the governmental mindset speaks here in the language that all governments always speak, but he is by no means a revolutionary.
1a4db92fae0885ac11c45195723531defddd28ce	Therefore, his entire policy, from the moment of the fall of the Commune up to the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794), turns out to be completely fruitless.
b19c153631c22aacdbb2634711b3e9dad786153f	He does nothing to prevent the impending catastrophe, which should end the people's revolution, but he does a lot to accelerate it.
71b4e77e9ee35972de677734e234c9b7ee5efe6e	He does not turn away the daggers that are sharpened in the dark to kill the revolution with them; but he does just that which gives deadly force to these blows.
fbdd6301f96d1eaf187976fd3654b823e6bee87d	LXVII
4569eae56bbe3f98e0b483a7e94aa20f3b85bf1f	TERROR
0f40c162b29bcce1f553fd5e64d279d3411a3bc2	Until that time, there were six ministries that were subordinate to the Committee of Public Safety only through the Executive Committee, which consisted of six ministers.
a7043ce91557ee22a9e517634712914031df10fd	Now, on the 12th of Germinal (April 1, 1794), the ministries were destroyed and replaced by 12 Executive Commissions, each placed under the supervision of a special group of the Committee of Public Safety*.
786c86c04e253068fdec72faa689100aec2b7888	In addition, the Committee also received the right to recall by its authority the commissioners of the Convention sent to the provinces.
cfdea9f4cbc434019e2a27def3e57b8413536c20	* As shown by James Guillaume (Proces verbaux du Comite d'instruction publique de la Convention nationale. Publ. et annot. par J. Guillaume. Paris, 1889-1907, t. 4, Introduction, p. 11, 12), most of these commissions were gradually established already starting from October 1793.
3abdbf702a6e5a18f9fdf818215f05163f321e7f	On the other hand, it was decided that the Supreme Revolutionary Tribunal would sit in Paris under the supervision of both Committees.
edb789061732f285a2dd7eea70434625744be0dd	Those accused of conspiracies anywhere in France were allowed to be brought to Paris for trial.
9c3fd1be6d893659987ea8c863ffd70458f33976	At the same time, measures were taken to clear Paris of dangerous people.
7abb415e0f4a9cb90442d4014276e7ed81ca33cd	All former nobles and all foreigners belonging to the nations waging war with France were to be expelled from Paris.
6c60fef3a2fe6c67ece5d0414f379710ffaf0228	Only a few necessary exceptions were made (de cretes 26 and 27 of Germinal).
80b3618f376952e1b8ea22b54694992beae2783c	The concentration of power in a few hands and intimidation with the help of a Revolutionary Tribunal this was how the supreme centralized government of both Committees was created.
73d74debac2b3b67c30aa2060beb49cf2ea1a850	That was their main concern.
dd076b6c3485607347b84c4684eb46ba78119b94	Another serious concern of the Government was the war.
fce741c267379fc4c1d18efb8c6a7047238fd993	In January 1794, there was still hope that the liberal opposition in the English parliament, which was supported by a significant part of the population of London, as well as several influential members of the House of Lords, would not allow Pitt's conservative ministry to continue the war.
8f1aeb8a5ffc835be85742a8e3cad44062758e37	Danton, apparently, shared this illusion, which was one of the crimes exposed against him.
c6fcbecb9fb83e775194f5f0c5d63493e80babc2	But Pitt drew the majority of parliament against the "godless French", and from the beginning of spring, England waged war energetically together with Prussia, which is in her pay.
4039c723b0695d57ba21acb503f7371a6862d683	Soon, four armies of 315 thousand people gathered on the borders of France, having against themselves four armies of the republic numbering 294 thousand people.
d93d2f1427d2cf78c83154ccff9cb1bec243d023	But these were already republican, democratic armies that had developed their own tactics, and soon they prevailed over the allies.
d48aaec28f095a33fc64c968f43b4cf3680ecdab	The blackest point, however, was the state of minds in the province, especially in the south.
d553cd9768a5ee099407d8bbb565bc46548dbe84	The wholesale extermination of both the leaders of the counter revolution and the dark masses raised by them, to which the local Jacobins and the commissars of the Convention resorted, gave rise to a deep hatred against the republic in the towns and villages of southern France.
1cbe04919cd9b9612473ba6c822ed92562689b8b	The worst thing was that no one, either on the ground or in Paris, could think of anything except the most extreme measures of extermination.
3ca81c7e270a031f13fdb244ba3a064130f754c6	For example, in the department of Vaucluse, overflowing with royalists and runaway priests, it happened that in one of the small villages located at the foot of the Ventoux Mountains, in a Bedouin village that has always stood quite openly for the old order, "a terrible insult was inflicted on the law!".
b8d3a924da9d64a89cfed1081bdc72862e65a598	On the first of May, the tree of Freedom was cut down and "the decrees of the Convention were thrown into the mud!".
d61e998d5efe701d65bddd0535921993b21dad98	The military commander of this area Suchet — he later became an imperialist demanded a "frightening" example.
d446d19bf74d96aa15d98fb237d7672161fa37ca	He demanded the destruction of the entire village.
a820368a3c9ef802369de1db315717adf0c077a6	Meunier, the commissioner of the Convention, hesitated and turned to Paris, from where he was ordered to " act with all rigor."
16340b5e3d1db62b24b11476be5ca5794d298762	Then Suchet set fire to the village and turned 433 houses into ruins.
29bcd9792afeed22c997baaf53066d5f6b5855b9	It is clear that with such a system, there was only one thing left: to "act with all rigor"forever.
c92ce69f900b8d046d32ea4287b22dbbe8c9e0b1	And so they did.
98aa4aa84d11e39c0b96f1b19c3c329edcfd936e	A few days later, in view of the impossibility of sending to Paris all the citizens arrested in this area (it would take an entire army to accompany them and prepare supplies on the way, wrote Meunier), Couthon, a friend of Robespierre, proposed to both Committees, which immediately accepted his proposal, to appoint a special commission of five members, which would meet in the city of Orange, to try the enemies of the revolution arrested in the departments of Vaucluse and Bouches du Rhone.
02a4e5f3859186ed47796fe8563e1de73476ba86	Robespierre wrote in his own hand the instructions for the commission, and this instruction soon served as the basis for the law on terror, issued on 22 Prairie**.
0b7efbaed4def60e6b8017d12d286aab0a086b6e	* I am following here the story of Louis Blanc (Blanc L. Histoire de la Revolution francaise, v. 1-3. Paris, 1869, v. 3, 1. 12, ch. 13), who cannot be suspected of hostility in the Robespierre group.
27b9107713822be0aa73aa6b7125945b89444822	** "The enemies of the revolution," the instructions said, " are those who, by whatever means and whatever appearances they may hide behind, try to hinder the course of the revolution and hinder the establishment of the republic.
d93306deb2349bf2199945e2a956050caaef0165	The penalty for such a crime is death; the evidence necessary for pronouncing a sentence will be all kinds of information, of whatever kind they may be, if only they can convince a reasonable person and a friend of freedom.
22dc90c6addea01d0474689df69cfd4865f09bd7	The rule in pronouncing sentences should be the conscience of the judge, sanctified by the love of justice and for the fatherland; their goal is public salvation and the death of the enemies of the fatherland."
8fe8648e78244edbed736f25a50e019bbefbf1de	There is no need for a jury, judges alone are enough.
8f94de70ffbcc1a31f3577d71d5f850ed0ddc821	So, the judge's conscience and "information of any kind" became a sufficient basis for pronouncing a death sentence.
c3370c1056b3a356f2d0b4d03153ba66fe7353dc	A few days later, Robespierre developed the same principles before the Convention, saying that until now the enemies of freedom had been treated too carefully, that it was necessary to simplify the courts by discarding their formalities.
e406de8f9456cf443af2364136f37d91ffc29b6d	And two days after the feast of the supreme being, he introduced into the Convention, with the consent of his comrades on the Committee, the well known law of the 22nd Prairie (June 10) on the reorganization of the Revolutionary Tribunal.
8279a6dcdb241036547f0afd64ba405c8c7ae52d	By virtue of this law, the tribunal was divided into divisions, each consisting of three judges and nine jurors.
3377eae2ddbfe6a6b7c4450b0c3ee9d37dfea86e	Seven were enough to make up the court.
11e071349173c75d89cdfd9cca5ad897b86f490f	The basis of the sentences should have been the very principles that we saw in the instructions given to the commission in Orange; only among the crimes for which the death penalty was imposed, was also included the dissemination of false news in order to sow confusion or divide the people and the corruption of morals and public conscience.
9e9c768e26ad5174be7bb97b2cbd20b9acef9a2b	* "They want to control revolutions with the help of judicial hook — making," wrote Robespierre.
4d8dcfee449f162303748d9094d724f6beaadb72	- Conspiracies against the republic are treated as processes between private individuals.
98e887d265d6ad86994f3884bba62c681a19c932	Tyranny kills, and freedom makes speeches.
7c90d38c69c0ddf412418c05146941ad840c0242	And the code drawn up by the conspirators is the law by which they are judged!
93fb39ac7e7b3baa14035177ef9f0ff17116c80a	To execute the enemies of the fatherland, "he continued," it is enough to establish their identity.
b2da4c5e1bbe4709effa40121220fc1b42f68d1d	It is not punishment that is required, but their destruction."
4eaef0e5c3e471fbae28938675fd8685e110d0d8	To issue such a law meant to recognize the complete inability of the revolutionary government.
5360c2af959a40b06f39df5fa61181469e3000a1	This meant, assuming the rank of legality, to do the same thing that the Parisian people did in a revolutionary, open way in a moment of panic and despair during the September days.
ed65bb7b366c12b8ac77ddb0f2684a38de48d73e	And the result of the law of the 22nd prairie was that in six weeks it helped to mature a counter revolution.
2f5f1c60131d40f9e8ba956c6aa67a412672a40d	When Robespierre prepared this law, did he only mean, as some historians try to prove, to strike at those members of the Convention whom he considered most harmful to the revolution?
f85cfc1379106a69ccb28b0d6d4e56511f36310e	His removal from business, after the debate proved that the Convention would not give any more of its members to the Committees without protecting him, gives some probability to this assumption.
e927be16e1c267fc2804da0ff1f811980b425e60	But, on the other hand, the fact that it is firmly established that the instructions of the judicial commission in Orange were drawn up by Robespierre refutes this assumption.
2b2cfc1d49b65efb4dbcd3f26993b9cbf343c5f1	It is much more likely that Robespierre simply followed the flow of the moment and that he, Couthon and Saint Just, in agreement with many others, including even Cambon, saw terror as a weapon of struggle for the whole of France, as well as a threat against some members of the Convention.
b14f18af4b31a2206dc9fc8b65161188656190a1	In fact, this law has been approached since the decrees of 19 Floreal (May 8) and 9 Prairie (May 28) "on the concentration of power".
7463f305d30f8ed629d194f6069eb2270396f5ca	It is also very likely that Ladmiral's attempt to kill Collot d'Herbois and the strange case of the girl Cecilia Renaud, presented as an attempt on Robespierre's life, also prompted the Convention to pass the law of 22 prairie.
79bfba109c7228f2fa71f7a7df2dfa4abe818125	At the end of April, a number of thefts were committed in Paris, which were supposed to arouse the anger of the royalists.
87543fcc8ce7709ade3c4814598cd488faf85a7e	After the massacre of April 13, in which Chaumette, Gobel, the widow of Desmoulins, the widow of Hebert and 15 others were killed, d'Epremenil, Le Chapelier, Type, old Maleserbe, who defended the king in his trial, Lavoisier, a great chemist and a good Republican, and, finally, Louis XVI's sister, Elizabeth, who could be released together with her niece without any danger to the republic.
6c2e2d5c0e49933284bb2de9d16acc6acd811166	The royalists were worried, and on the 7th of the prairie (May 25), a certain Ladmiral, a scribe, about 50 years old, came to the Convention with the intention of killing Robes Pierre.
90331acafe6f1e75125eaf1530eb14630187af34	He fell asleep there during a speech delivered by Barer, and thus missed the "tyrant".
577fcecce184d4f3a33cf8d394555f6d63560910	Then he went to the house where Collot d'Herbois lived and shot Collot while he was climbing the stairs to his apartment.
6b94961318aa8c8d6a56547a314353c17a10d991	A strong struggle ensued between them, and Collo disarmed Ladmiral.
2d462d1f262f0887c73fd4aed132f5700344193b	On the same day, a young girl, about 20 years old, Cecilia Renaud, the daughter of the owner of a paper shop, an extreme royalist, came to the courtyard of the house where Robespierre lived with the carpenter contractor Dupleix, and demanded a meeting with Robespierre.
978c30626132b73a616f580f62e3d250150fe3fa	Her behavior aroused suspicion; she was arrested and two small knives were found in her pockets.
85037cc2c619d26aaf6039f8fe5b22fe389f1dfd	Her clumsy speech suggested an attempt on Robespierre's life, at least completely childish.
005dc5c5acefdb0dc4dc8c5425992b605169ff95	There is no doubt that both of these attempts served as pretexts in favor of the law on terror.
efced2d79c6f4b180b2b388f0bc9dc692e36c34c	Both Committees immediately seized the opportunity to eliminate a huge "amalgam", i.e., the execution of every p an ode to people connected somehow in one process.
acd2bc99cbb59af9c05ee5ed3b41711182b972ff	Cecilia's father and brother were arrested, as well as several people whose only crime was acquaintance with Ladmiral.
3477397dac554d1b83b13ffabbca3f481b5ea280	The same" amal gama " included Madame Saint Amarant, who ran a gambling house where visitors met her daughter, Madame Sartin, known for her beauty.
ae11ffd35e1adb87d9af0699dbe99e8f1e3eb854	And since this house was assiduously visited by all sorts of people, among others Chabot, Defier and Herault de Sechel, and Danton and Robespierre's younger brother apparently went there, they tried to make a royalist conspiracy out of it, in which they wanted to mix even Maximilian Robespierre through his brother.
56a32d0f7814746d3616c1f0bd05734ea19bbec9	Sombreuil (the same one whom Maillard saved during the murders on September 2), the actress Grand Maison, a friend of the famous royalist Baron Batz, the royalist Sartin, one of the royalist "knights of the dagger", and next to these gentlemen — an unfortunate 17 year old girl, the dressmaker Nicole, were included in the same process.
586ea7321a4cd925f2c2c5c72101cac1cbe3ae68	By virtue of Law 22 of the prairie, the court case was resolved in the fastest way.
e3e59ba63e304cbe2e3d40ad97bda2a7801f5277	This time, 54 people were taken to the execution at once, dressed in red shirts, like parricides, and the execution lasted two hours.
0d0ec177981131a488c1e6dc51e3733063c9100a	So a new law came into effect, which was called the Robespierre Law.
8dd79d09209f2a2953c42a8eae86edd5d77d7d44	He immediately made the reign of terror impossible for the mass of Parisians.
87846e2b4f8df8ea7b834440114a6a5d670231d0	It is easy to imagine the state of mind among those arrested under the September law "on suspicious persons", which was then filled with Parisian prisons, when they learned about the law of 22 Prairie and its application to 54 executed.
c49a0fb43ecd73b0601be96a6dee620d053c151a	They were waiting for a general beating, "in order to clear the prisons," as was done in Nantes and Lyon, and were preparing for resistance.
9c194dcf03b3770c6c33c1404e5f950e428d47af	In all likelihood, plans were also made for prison riots*.
cd5bdfa50798f6ecd0cab230b0b3a562c797cf1d	* During a search made in prisons, significant amounts of money (864 thousand livres) were found in the prisoners, regardless of jewelry, so it was believed that the prisoners had only 1200 thousand livres of all sorts of valuables.
95e8be29d495b3e34ea5c799aba4b407f31275b9	Then the revolutionary court immediately began to sentence 150 people to death, who were executed by detachments of 50, criminal and royalists, who were taken together to the scaffold.
c31a53c88dc141343fda7d0cedcc446fbcdc5aef	We do not need to dwell on these executions.
e9a223dbcd37a8d572ce3192b291ea224f9a2a2f	Suffice it to say that from the date of the foundation of the Revolutionary Tribunal, i.e. from April 17, 1793, until the 22nd Prairie of the second year (June 10, 1794), i.e. in 14 months, 2,607 people were executed in Paris; but from the date of the introduction of the new law, from the 22nd Prairie (June 10), to the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794), the same court sent 1,351 people to execution in 46 days.
ab448b4f1b587e9762cfe99d5feff19e9719f791	The Parisian people soon began to look with hatred at these carts, which brought dozens of people sentenced to the guillotine every day, and five executioners barely had time to empty the living cargo.
72bc9b6e27e0d53ee2e9cf45c84e9fc64ccb9c48	There were no more cemeteries in the city to bury these victims, and whenever new cemeteries were opened in the suburbs to bury the executed there, sharp protests arose among the population of these quarters.
46eab5a4649cef7c93ec3d1c819819e83515e221	Now the sympathies of the Parisian workers turned already to the executed, especially since the rich emigrated or hid in France itself and mostly the poor fell under the guillotine.
0598174522e1c0e8d6f139c0756ab8118bd2ad5c	Indeed, of the 2,750 guillotined people whose social status Louis Blanc could establish, it turned out that only 650 people belonged to the well to do classes.
996fa6eba3ef9cbcbb44ffc85f776d58e7b5a9ea	At that time, they even told each other in secret that a royalist, an agent of Baron Batz, was sitting on the Public Security Committee, who was pushing for executions in order to incite hatred against the republic.
d5d04cb1eb2297b005738d981e26f44d6dd43404	One thing is certain, however, that each such batch of executed persons hastened the fall of the Jacobins.
1d6a90d6ac6df30a9dab9e16aa727dd7fc81af43	There are things that state people do not understand.
944c549a7d0d7dc978cde6e2207ebed2c98f0ef4	Terror has stopped terrorizing.
1673110c584fc89b4a9c212ccdb4c2dc06f5aa7b	"Intimidation" no longer intimidated, but only embittered.
778af60233e500c371cf73e96125c703d591313a	LXVIII
95681106c9fd73dd6f8d5f3f2f9b093169d76fff	THE NINTH THERMIDOR.
ab760b606b130007df63b2cf07906b3ceb6456e3	THE TRIUMPH OF REACTION
460422dc5c8c408f213060b112577e13150ee0da	If Robespierre had many admirers who even went so far as to deify his hero, then he also had no shortage of enemies who deeply hated him.
c029fd5448e291196f61d7c50f439290f3874aa1	These enemies used everything they could to arouse hostility towards him, attributing to him all the horrors of terror.
36eb255631b4887b8785293a6bf5daf842abb218	They also did not miss the opportunity to present him in a ridiculous light, involving him in the ridiculous stories of an old woman half mad on mysticism, Catherine Theo, whom her admirers called "the mother of the Lord".
e5b4ffa46a73695383a2fc81f3e412b1c3b81532	But it was not personal enmity, of course, that caused the death of Robes Pierre.
9906783f87b2d926fd60593f9d7f3d14559f109f	Its fall was therefore inevitable because it represented a government system that was already heading for a fatal demise.
df31d2ace040dfc4b03212285178d6b59de24c83	Having passed through its ascending time, which lasted until August or September 1793, the revolution has since entered its descending phase.
94b42ae2ea0e4d98982a1bd6e536180b177595e6	Now she was experiencing a phase of the Yakobin system of power, the best exponent of which was Robes Pierre.
13aaca393c5a143172ffad6f61b775f1ba0c370a	But this system, having no future before it, could not escape.
83f778325e565979f4887d8b246f707f1ee50839	Power inevitably had to pass to the "people of order and strong power", who were just waiting for an opportunity to put an end to the revolutionary "disorder"; they were waiting for the moment when they could overthrow the Montagnard terrorists without causing an uprising in Paris.
67cb00317dd8fdf9de01e35e0096e2b9b66d6e0c	At that time, all the evil that came from the fact that the revolution in its economy was based on the enrichment of individuals was clearly identified.
f5576857ecae8c082b07478c172fdd9b87e03115	The revolution must strive for the good of all, otherwise it will inevitably be crushed by those very people whom it will destroy at the expense of the whole people.
c53aa95bd76782ce952546b6821d82d758080be4	Whenever the revolution makes the transition of states from hand to hand, it should do it not for the benefit of individuals, but for the benefit of groups, communities embracing the whole people.
d84c196afbe182cfd83efe4ef6262a2f7a3f0713	Meanwhile, the French Revolution did just the opposite.
447506397f988c0a5d823298a58cb07e9a61b1a3	The lands that she confiscated from the clergy and nobility, she gave to private people, while they had to go to rural and urban societies, because in the old days these lands belonged to the people and only because of historical violence became private property.
b8df8cdac215e87bad99734687c8d90c3bfafe12	Since they came out of private ownership, they should have been returned to the people.
a4b6b3b9b59bdb5eb2d044aac901f4a38a4a0947	But, guided by state and bourgeois goals, the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, and after them the Convention, having taken away the lands of the landowners, monasteries and churches and turned them into the state treasury, decided to sell them partly to individual peasants,but most of all to individual people from the middle class.
c657173f7c83050e3705d961bbff0a9cc3818063	It is easy to imagine what a robbery began when these lands, which were worth from 10 to 15 billion francs, were put on sale in a few years on terms that were especially favorable for buyers, and the buyers had only to win the favor of the new local authorities in order to improve these conditions in every possible way.
c02bfa33813214400a41fcb6f7a405c49e4dadef	Thus, "black gangs" of buyers and speculators were created on the ground, against which all the energy of the commissioners of the Convention was broken.
f13092caa03a406d39bff6cdc8763f80e44218b7	And then, little by little, the evil influence of these buyers, supported by all the speculators in Paris, the quartermasters of the army and local robbers, began to rise up to the Convention, where honest Montagnards were overcome by clever businessmen les profiteurs, as they were then called.
802edeec345a35e427a832820e7cc6edcd51d704	In fact, what could honest people oppose to these hordes of robbers.
55dd073fbc6933e4e964052d1f690666ce0ab324	Since the sections of Paris were paralyzed and the "rabid" were destroyed, who could the honest people from the "mountaineers" rely on?
de6bbfbac7d28fe86739150ddcf5651a3a0c3a02	The right were, of course, against them, and the center of the Convention already then received the characteristic nickname "swamps", or "belly"!
2115eb125155abbf0afd0dd91bd0a585b4cdac62	It was here that the clever businessmen who were "in order" sat.
ad1237ff5a4964e4a982c9eef0f53271dbd312dd	The victory won by the troops of the republic on the 8th of Messidor (June 26) at Fleurus over the combined forces of the Austrians and the British and ended the campaign in northern France for this year, as well as the successes won by the republic in the Pyrenees from the Alps and on the Rhine, and, finally, the arrival in France of the transports with bread from America (and it was necessary to sacrifice the main warships) — these very successes became arguments in the mouths of the "moderates" against the revolution.
39a61cd4de378034b9a27f7cc4c559f628f614f6	"What is the use of a revolutionary government now," they said, " since the war is ending?
d086979fb252b2e00fa1b2fc4e5ae49cfdac55dc	It is time to put an end to the rule of revolutionary Committees and patriotic societies.
f65ae3d76f2219e72116253c8976ceb0c9144d1a	It's time to end the revolution and return to the legal order!"
d1c501f393a5a375eff167acc8584c36e11de8f5	But the terror that everyone attributed to Robespierre did not subside, but rather intensified.
787d8771960fbe7b3d6f34f3ddbe1f483b52e397	On June 3 (June 21), Herman, the "commissioner for civil administrations, police and courts", submitted a report to the Committee of Public Safety, requesting permission to investigate conspiracies inside prisons, and in this report he threatened general beatings of prisoners, saying that "it may be necessary to suddenly clear the prisons."
72e15fcb2d38d8f0c2299b7e734d5e00fab7d942	The Committee of Public Safety allowed him to carry out such an investigation, and then terrible massacres began: dozens of men, women and teenagers were carried under the guillotine every morning by rows of wagons, and these massacres soon became more disgusting to the inhabitants of Paris than the September murders.
32b0dc6e1819622e7988363958fdd7f9ad92b4be	There was no end in sight to them, and they took place in the midst of balls, concerts and amusements of all kinds of the rich bourgeoisie.
1b8b578da96a8dda8fc39ab5e62829bc7ee35a35	Moreover, the executions were accompanied by all sorts of outrages and cuttings of the royalist youth, who were taking over the street more and more boldly every day.
a09b23bf5c985b996da944eb5165c8e4971cbef3	Everyone felt that things could not continue like this, and the "smart ones" together with the royalists took advantage of this in the Convention.
ed29023e44fefb253573df654518e48391916fe5	The Dantonists, the Girondists, the members of the "swamp" closed their ranks and focused their efforts on one thing: to begin with, the overthrow of Robespierre and the end of terror!
0c8593c07b7b964452f00fdaf6006ad91e734e6a	And since the Committee of Public Safety managed to depersonalize the sections that had previously been the true centers of revolutionary popular movements, the structure of minds in Paris has fallen so low that the counter revolution could already hope for success.
299dbe5379a9d3cbd658275c7fbc4404d094c4b9	In addition, 5 Thermidor (July 23) The General Council of the Commune, now headed by Claude Payan, a personal friend and according to the clone of Robespierre, he further undermined the authority of the Commune in the eyes of the people by making a decree that was completely unfair to the workers.
6530022c821ef4f1c2b05744976d69826f60f270	Despite the fact that the prices of all supplies have risen terribly due to the lowered exchange rate of banknotes, the Council of the Commune ordered to publish in all 48 sections of Paris the maximum wage established by the law on the maximum, which the workers had to be satisfied with.
da8ec38497c2517363230456a912b053718f812c	The commune, in this way, was losing its last sympathies among the people.
c64d942b4ddc6dc124633f472549dc0a994e7f2e	As for the Committee of Public Safety, it was already unpopular in the sections, since, as we have seen, it destroyed their independence and appropriated to itself the right to arbitrarily appoint members of their committees.
c2b69a964c50faa7859df927dfd9933b6452653e	The moment, therefore, was the most suitable to carry out a coup d'etat.
370891eed921e8d35e6912b29de5f032912b5143	Robespierre hesitated.
37fd2ea3649cf777edaff14adb7078b85437cd5d	He did nothing, and only on the 21st of Sidor (July 9) he opened his campaign against the conspirators.
01733e883ff01ec044d0e784c4f619c97d0d320a	A week before, he had already complained to the Jacobin Club about the war that was being waged against him personally.
42a921d75410c9d5636ab52bf4ddcdc391566c89	He even attacked — slightly, however Barer; the same Barer, who up to that time had always been an obedient tool in the hands of his group when it was necessary to deal a strong blow to its rivals in the Convention.
632ed61945acb0981d673e434c33e0a0960b5719	Two days later, he decided to attack openly, also in the Jacobin Club, Fouche, the commissioner of the Convention, a terrorist, for his cruel behavior in Lyon.
d23368e400a67dff998b4f904853edad5dcf92d8	He even achieved that the club decided to bring Fouche to its court.
bc5e8120065e070911989b8d3ab9814af46e8b38	On the 26th of Messidor (July 14), an open war began, since Fouche refused to appear at the court of the Jacobin Club and openly opposed Robespierre.
d479eff6c0fdd38088867bd1689d2633a3aa190f	By attacking Barer, Robespierre thereby armed against himself two other members of the Committee of General Salvation from the extreme Republicans, Collot d'Herbois d'billot Varenne, as well as two powerful members of the Committee of General Security, Vadier and Vullan, who often saw Barer and acted together with him on cases of conspiracies in prisons.
82aff9280068f36facacc0b6ee784b2d8dd4b3a7	Then all the influential members of the left in the Convention, i.e. Tallien, Barer, Vadier, Vullan, Billot Varenne, Collot d'Herbois, Fouche, feeling threatened, united against the" triumvirs " of the Ter Rorists, i.e. Robespierre, Saint Just and Couthon.
1b9e2ba369bd567ad4267e67f14cff2b6da06d48	As for the moderates, Barras, Rover, Tiryon, Courtois, Bourdon, etc., who would like to get rid not only of Robespierre and Saint Just, but also of all the extreme Montagnards, i.e. also of Collot, Billot, Barer, Vadier, etc., they probably decided that it was better for the chal to concentrate the attack on the Robespierre group.
8ecf21d8eecc8007304aaad656da0ba8e5c766c8	They understood that if they could cope with it, it would not be difficult for them to cope with the others.
3859acc9a981c2412cc2d36fd17b5c589f4716f4	A thunderstorm broke out at the Convention of Thermidor 8 (July 26, 1794).
943dcd6fe207d61b702fa1ae557a4534bb56e892	It was not a surprise, since the Convention hall was packed with spectators.
9529ccbcb51a53aa234ccea1a5a641786201b021	Robespierre, in a very elaborate speech, attacked the Committee of Public Safety, accusing it of scheming against the Convention.
ba4d72ca059dd9a71a5bcf402f8ddc1d1473963d	In this case, he defended himself and the Con Vent from slander.
8a0c8a2b027c0ca21c4a06c0ffc687efbdbd2d6e	He defended himself from the accusation of striving for dictatorship and did not spare his rivals, not even excluding Cambon: he spoke about him, as well as about Mallarm and Ramel, in words borrowed from the "rabid", i.e., he called them feuillants, arias, and cheats.
4503feff0a16d3e9513cfbfd077a0041e22e7ce9	Everyone was waiting for the conclusions of his speech, and when he reached them, it became clear to everyone that in essence he was only demanding increased power for himself and his group.
34b21ae67535091473986309ca2ce18b40684603	No new views, no new program!
ebac5b09f0340d31af23e17c4a0354d8c98bbe46	Before the Convention, there was simply a man of the government who demanded the strengthening of power in order to punish the enemies of his power.
1be2c4953a65570eda376f2de6376bdeb3b40655	"Where is the remedy for this evil?
c1cbb5b5d95a73a5065cec78109739890ac4af63	— he said in his conclusion.
00069485a9d9c60f1f98adb199feff27f4c2b7ae	- Punish the traitors; appoint new people in the chancery of the Public Security Committee; purify
0c1858d44d4522fed9df33a79626341e0a3c6eeb	The Great French Revolution
291028d6332c456ede5489ec23fe8f6059557c41	This term has other meanings, see French Revolutions.
a39228ccf38a24bd4a310ed274bbc80a0a547a36	The Capture of the Bastille, July 14, 1789 Country France France
518664b0e91497d415fdfee523790b9845b53c25	Date July 14, 1789 — November 9, 1799
df6f8e5360917baeee7c735f58f9dbb81d39ffc4	Reasons the crisis of the absolutist system
06a4c53367b99999832c0e68eb7205d015c1cfc0	Results the abolition of the monarchy, the creation of the First French Republic
8bd8f25c254401c8a58387617b4003c798c70986	The driving forces of the third estate: the bourgeoisie, the peasantry and the urban plebeian
9bde6edc272639b76637b2b90460c41836ee03e0	The beginning of the revolution was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and historians consider the end to be November 9, 1799 (the coup of 18 brumaire).
aaf579b2e5e36d6b09b007e29a0312ec9cb82ac8	1 The causes of the Revolution 2 The Absolute monarchy 2.1 The Pre revolutionary crisis 2.2 The Aristocratic Fronde 2.3 The Convocation of the States General 2.4 The Proclamation of the National Assembly 2.5 The Taking of the Bastille
1aa1875616e52f5eecdda80512712713ce1da904	3 Constitutional monarchy 3.1 Municipal and peasant Revolutions 3.2 The March on Versailles 3.3 The Reconstruction of France 3.4 The Varennes crisis 3.5 The Fall of the Monarchy
435e8775590fa08583e757f815f6ca4746af5eec	4 The First Republic 4.1 The National Convention 4.1.1 The Trial of Louis XVI 4.1.2 The Fall of the Gironde 4.1.3 The Jacobin Convention 4.1.3.1 The Revolutionary Government 4.1.3.2 The Organization of Victory 4.1.3.3 Terror 4.1.3.4 The struggle of factions 4.1.3.5 The Thermidorian Coup
49b38345569bb02b03941b0a43478ab6db7a7e13	4.1.4 Thermidorian reaction
5948421ae9224fef931c015fcfe59f47b4753fae	4.2 Directory 4.2.1 Stabilization attempt 4.2.2 Crisis of 1799 4.2.3 18 brumaire
9d12d57f52eee30f00a138478247d3a746751c68	5 Results of the Revolution 6 Historiography 6.1 Character
fcfd45b3c22da6e058426ca145e2f5b1a8b36a26	7 Songs of Revolutionary France 8 Revolution in Philately 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Literature 12 In cinema 13 References
73ec07e4316e0d1f29371eb5f0f904a69ee43c2b	The reasons for the revolution[edit / edit wiki text]
5cf6e6543a181dac4826b8e78efd1d0aa97770bd	France in the XVIII century was a monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a regular army.
19deced847b5e1377a6f611e3e28a92be51c7300	The socio economic and political regime that existed in the country was formed as a result of complex compromises developed during a long political confrontation and civil wars of the XIV XVI centuries.
cb0cc6aaa1bff19884fef12094ab5c7256d8ac20	One of such compromises existed between the royal power and the privileged estates — for the rejection of political rights, the state power protected the social privileges of these two estates with all the means at its disposal.
93c5f69a8e6bee28168dbd2b17256ee66fc1fba4	The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie
6ed72794cc1661210897e0d88840a82eedf89bd6	(which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which were a layer of the French bourgeoisie).
fce40a610d2a58d762b5210c5220bac55379e496	In addition, excessive exploitation increasingly armed the masses of the people against themselves, whose most legitimate interests were completely ignored by the state.
d76826e801f5a125854d250b831f4deb7f5a0171	Gradually, during the XVIII century, an understanding matured at the top of French society that the old order with its underdeveloped market relations, chaos in the management system, a corrupt system of selling public positions, the lack of clear legislation, a confusing taxation system and an archaic system of class privileges needed to be reformed.
7df2f37bda3a8786fe40f85ccd2694c6493abb1e	In addition, the royal power was losing confidence in the eyes of the clergy, the nobility and the bourgeoisie, among whom the idea was asserted that the power of the king was a usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (Montesquieu's point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (Rousseau's point of view).
a975a68c49567c8e018d4056bfe9f81c8ae066f0	Thanks to the activities of enlighteners, of whom physiocrats and encyclopedists are especially important, a revolution took place in the minds of the educated part of French society.
d3243292f99ccd9d8f72b1686e244a1fd4526d47	Finally, under Louis XV and to an even greater extent under Louis XVI, reforms were initiated in the political and economic fields, which inevitably had to lead to the collapse of the Old Order.
5df202e8704b7df218d6f3c0fd57fbe65cbf176b	Absolute monarchy[edit / edit wiki text]
114afaaa1d82715fb96677575f3096660cc68cc3	In the pre revolutionary years, France was hit by a number of natural disasters.
3ca405c0b329c912bd7501b817eb7894dcbe790a	The drought of 1785 caused a feed famine.
a2ddc30676970619bc6359a26fcf1ba07d1cf160	In 1787, there was a shortage of silk cocoons.
5c6fe56f31ccf066281be5a11b4218f513a50e6a	This led to a reduction in the Lyon silk weaving production.
d3c8451cbf812147661372d067668cc9993da722	At the end of 1788, there were 20-25 thousand unemployed people in Lyon alone.
a45be2dc5a9ce5077434ee7b7d74550596498211	A strong hail in July 1788 destroyed the grain harvest in many provinces.
53f40a57ab7b2dd7873ca27bf72418da421f7669	The extremely severe winter of 1788/89 destroyed many vineyards and part of the harvest.
f3e3e17648e4424966ec8429d07f86e8b2e465d0	Food prices have risen.
3bb0066c87699f54ddcdb06169a6da2f9c689e20	The supply of bread and other products to the markets has sharply deteriorated.
776b935fbcf2b314ac0f0947fc22ae02140e9376	To top it all off, an industrial crisis began, which was triggered by the Anglo French trade treaty of 1786.
9ab44850e3f658b0ad4e02887c757dc18ccfb107	Under this agreement, both parties significantly reduced customs duties.
129ea1ff4b066705a01a41389d689981c21e73a7	The contract turned out to be disastrous for French production, which could not withstand the competition of cheaper English goods that poured into France[1][2].
bc64ab1e0343808bf94d8a1a75c96fd508c63d4a	The pre revolutionary crisis[edit / edit wiki text]
a9a84ad9b42091636022602639009e80c2d468f8	The pre revolutionary crisis originates from the participation of France in the American War of Independence.
46499409684164fd4afde490acb807bf81bddbcf	The revolt of the English colonies can be considered the main and immediate cause of the French Revolution, both because the ideas of human rights found a strong response in France and echoed the ideas of the Enlightenment, and because Louis XVI received his finances in a very bad state.
8fa13cfa330db408d35f7d7e9b470d10f03d9843	Necker financed the war with loans.
4799ad2965f6468652b233b6dc8e67f4fc4ab206	After the conclusion of peace in 1783, the deficit of the royal treasury was more than 20 percent.
a54febd6c96241bc37bb6de54874af7a4f091d5e	In 1788, expenses amounted to 629 million livres, while taxes brought only 503 million.
273b888a9b72545075a2694c19281581475c6075	It was impossible to raise traditional taxes, which were mainly paid by peasants, in the conditions of the economic downturn of the 80s.
3df75ba7d786a28d71a6f611ee0e2d35c0059ff8	Contemporaries accused the court of extravagance.
3f6aa29ee66c0c2c824f7a698b7a975157556cef	Public opinion of all classes unanimously believed that the approval of taxes should be the prerogative of the States General and elected representatives[3].
9eb6646275d8534a578dbe4da5d26d4926ea76f8	Charles Alexandre de Calonne
356f909c73e4664c0a460d4466a1e98fb3834a4b	For some time, Necker's successor, Calonne, continued the practice of loans.
c574a8ad02637f893fb79468c5a3d1ed033154f7	When the sources of loans began to dry up, on August 20, 1786, Calonne notified the king that financial reform was necessary[4].
b7c47aa980fdd75e3f90e5bef2cad0fd7f1da6fc	To cover the deficit (fr. Precis d'un plan d'amelioration des finances), it was proposed to replace the twenty, which was actually paid only by the third estate, with a new land tax that would fall on all lands in the kingdom, including the lands of the nobility and clergy.
395283b87252ed5974800e3c352433a9c2dd37a5	To overcome the crisis, it was necessary for everyone to pay taxes[5].
92336c934735e8ce731fa9dbf38ea4028319df75	To revive trade, it was proposed to introduce freedom of grain trade and abolish internal customs duties.
95d2762b90125ca5017143d83fcca2b5b12ae467	Calonne also returned to the plans of Turgot and Necker regarding local self government.
978c1d5aed370f951e7abf26724966de956bdd49	It was proposed to create district, provincial and communal assemblies, in which all owners with an annual income of at least 600 livres would participate[6].
bc96111d3001d36e459704d6d784770f9dffbef6	Realizing that such a program would not find support from parliaments, Calonne advised the king to convene notables, each of whom was personally invited by the king and whose loyalty could be counted on.
64189471fe41cda46d7a3d5b844a6687ef20e5fc	Thus, the government appealed to the aristocracy — to save the finances of the monarchy and the foundations of the old regime, to save most of its privileges, sacrificing only a part[7].
ae80dffd9a4393e8af71bd763fc6affeb517f2f8	But at the same time, this was the first concession of absolutism: the king consulted with his aristocracy, and did not notify it of his will[8].
b4b00920fc20b0fc571fc7f0e85eb29d0be4f2c8	The aristocratic fronde[edit / edit wiki text]
3ec78dc5f5b3f9022cdc71b148d547bdb018cfa8	The notables gathered at Versailles on February 22, 1787.
3fb02d18dac70131b93959146f3cb9165cb6c9ea	Among them were princes of the blood, dukes, marshals, bishops and archbishops, presidents of parliaments, quartermasters, deputies of provincial states, mayors of major cities a total of 144 people.
62c875eaa701a4bf58d3fd51b215c69dc6a6c27b	Reflecting the prevailing opinion of the privileged classes, the notables expressed their indignation at the reform proposals to elect provincial assemblies without class distinction, as well as attacks on the rights of the clergy.
0b599db9a759096389b486ac60e786eb39498f29	As expected, they condemned the direct land tax and demanded that the Treasury report be studied first.
e6e8349280e1af76113bf178da68fe685400362d	Struck by the state of finances heard in the report, they declared Calonne himself the main culprit of the deficit.
042e8ce5867aeb3636ca3f1980035c97bf3ab625	As a result, Louis XVI had to resign Calonne on April 8, 1787[9].
6fd93672a60aeac0fc671c7d63f5fda94f615529	Lomeni de Brienne
3c3493e0548f302af09799233c147c5fe0a846e9	Lomeny de Brienne was appointed Calonne's successor on the recommendation of Queen Marie Antoinette, to whom the notables provided a loan of 67 million livres, which allowed plugging some holes in the budget.
466041c376bf7841f5e4e1c5913ad5b615a85e5a	But the notables refused to approve the land tax, which fell on all estates, citing their incompetence.
eaea963055665dfaa0f428d9a0ae5f9075018df9	This meant that they were referring the king to the States General.
762b1f289a8121a96d0bd817b9faf307d334a976	Lomeny de Brienne was forced to pursue the policy outlined by his predecessor.
dfc6ecbcfb2fc1e1bad8c99d8f318ec41de7a08d	One after another, the king's edicts appear on the freedom of the grain trade, on the replacement of road serfdom with a monetary tax, on stamp and other fees, on the return of civil rights to Protestants, on the creation of provincial assemblies in which the third estate had a representation equal to that of the two privileged estates, taken together, and finally, on the land tax falling on all estates.
2b2e9502adad54643e6d4361292c95a889cd0f66	But the Paris and other parliaments refuse to register these edicts.
9c92ee62bc643b15a1eb20089e315c112778287d	On August 6, 1787, a meeting is held with the presence of the king (French Lit de justice), and the controversial edicts are entered into the books of the Paris Parliament.
0270867ed6e9fde9cad3b31b8fda06b173de7e3d	But the next day, the parliament cancels as illegal the resolutions adopted the day before by order of the king.
191c81f193f40325ae88cf292dc09830684c4463	The king sends the Parisian Parliament to Troyes, but this causes such a storm of protests that Louis XVI soon amnesties the recalcitrant parliament, which now also demands the convocation of the States General[10].
8c1f8f94127542f6b91a51c1e63cff622f3bac48	The movement for the restoration of the rights of parliaments, initiated by the judicial aristocracy, increasingly developed into a movement for the convocation of the States General.
68049e4374ea94fe73ee495197610c8bc28cab9b	The privileged estates now only cared that the States General should be convened in the old forms, and that the third Estate should receive only one third of the seats, and that the voting should be carried out by name.
0a8ee2250fbe90dfd5b8ef5760f78dd4969e5ae8	This gave the majority of the privileged estates in the States General and the right to dictate their political will to the king on the ruins of absolutism.
211afc5fa2b5680e204c9fe7e9b9942d13d8894f	Many historians call this period the "aristocratic revolution", and the conflict of the aristocracy with the monarchy with the appearance of the third estate on the scene becomes nationwide[11].
07cf4ead2b43ee52b2fb16a7f8d9720cf7263db1	Convocation of the States General[edit / edit wiki text]
eb3e34a3c104e70786a0e9357cd6fd35654e1c2a	Jacques Necker
a60c2ea07a163a5b76960a87249e98851b0c9bed	At the end of August 1788, the ministry of Lomeni de Brienne was dismissed and Necker was again called to power (with the title of Director General of Finance).
97db6637c24bf8db73c90f00197309d85a55d363	Necker again began to regulate the grain trade.
1e00c3f221835682d51da8c1e0e5da56d99435e0	He banned the export of bread and ordered to buy bread abroad.
fc2d1c47c0c3b0d6a547ef5966663eb88b6fe92b	The obligation to sell grain and flour only in the markets was also restored.
6345317a803ba862dc7f0e29f7bf8004339e4164	The local authorities were allowed to keep records of grain and flour and force the owners to take their stocks to the markets.
1b4b4921e8c3b4367c4b36118018317ae3d6c670	But Necker failed to stop the rise in prices for bread and other products.
8cef5aba03e23ad79bc0a4b91a2ec427277ab3f6	The Royal Regulations of January 24, 1789 decided to convene the States General and indicated the purpose of the future meeting "to establish a permanent and unchangeable order in all parts of the administration concerning the happiness of the subjects and the welfare of the kingdom, to cure the diseases of the state as soon as possible and to eliminate all abuses".
a276d8cc9883a478d162ed0a900904492fd9cec3	The right to vote was given to all French males who had reached the age of twenty five, had a permanent place of residence and were listed in the tax lists.
1d4b55029e2b2ae71cb54d47bed515c2b2c85241	The elections were two stage (and sometimes three stage), that is, first representatives of the population (electors) were chosen, who determined the deputies of the assembly[12].
c348604b54b27a1fc5ba13bddc440ca77cd4d504	At the same time, the king expressed the desire that"both at the extreme limits of his kingdom and in the least known villages, everyone should be provided with the opportunity to bring their wishes and their complaints to his attention."
868fbe50a33b651a25292c5d31f03958baed85a7	These instructions (French cahiers de doleances), the "list of complaints", reflected the moods and demands of various groups of the population.
3061d17e6c35ee1b4c4ed7ef03745d63ef894d6d	The orders from the third estate required that all noble and ecclesiastical lands, without exception, should be taxed at the same rate as the lands of the unprivileged, required not only the periodic convocation of the States General, but also that they should represent not the estates, but the nation, and that the ministers should be responsible to the nation represented in the States General.
55cea6332bf5752048c24ab3d24981cdacd3c874	The peasant orders demanded the destruction of all the feudal rights of the lords, all feudal payments, tithes, the exclusive right of hunting and fishing for the nobles, and the return of the communal lands seized by the lords.
22357da336e65f211b3d7cbd577b6faca3915182	The bourgeoisie demanded the abolition of all restrictions on trade and industry.
8a300fd1fdacf0aefd0d57b0177402f27006fbe5	All the orders condemned judicial arbitrariness (fr. lettres de cachet), demanded a jury trial, freedom of speech and the press[13].
3190da151757a688a6f6a8f7b0ec27e723b6c3ec	Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes
64c55379fc69032dbbbd965e79ec82fd344c1738	The elections to the States General caused an unprecedented rise in political activity and were accompanied by the publication of numerous pamphlets and pamphlets, the authors of which expressed their views on the problems of the day and formulated a variety of socio economic and political demands.
c5fa790f9886ff603e044645cb8e391cb3d2e761	Abbot Sieyes ' pamphlet "What is the Third Estate?"was a great success.
efabbf80036546b94331967a2640b75e8749bc16	Its author argued that only the third estate makes up the nation, and the privileged are alien to the nation, a burden that lies on the nation.
d4c47c97a558e7c240d8863ee2aeed87d777a670	It was in this pamphlet that the famous aphorism was formulated: "What is the third estate?
bbb24fc366f82098eaa367d1d16d86952e4938be	". What has it been so far in political terms?
1b3f141ab87179d0755abc1d4da67f0c04e3ab7c	Nothing.
515d3b95581802295c84d54096f056bdaa9aeef9	What does it require?
7f05b46cb69a955fdffbd0a9341ad8118ee275f3	Become something."
a9bf21336fa69d82081138b9f7caf5a1bac68124	The center of the opposition or "patriotic party" was the Committee of Thirty that emerged in Paris.
bf035311f64fff1dd94b67814ac4c2abfa80866c	It included the hero of the American War of Independence, the Marquis of Lafayette, the Abbot of Sieyes, the bishop of Talleyrand, the Count of Mirabeau, the councilor of the Parliament of Duport.
5fee40e1bde8f9549881cd6b2324ae0b16f17a4c	The Committee launched an active agitation in support of the demand to double the representation of the third estate and introduce a universal (fr. par tête) vote of deputies[14].
2b9977b911f8b1df0ded0c806bede94d6dcd3132	The issue of the working order of the States caused sharp disagreements.
10ed0073fc92701b4fe3db639dfec6bd04dd6302	The States General were convened for the last time in 1614.
ae3a4f523bb9b5b48bb7726c7bf06c559a34584d	Then, traditionally, all estates had equal representation, and voting was held by estates (fr. par ordre): one vote was held by the clergy, one by the nobility and one by the third estate.
d571f236ba6f3ae81f25a119aba2c4f726b5b173	At the same time, the provincial assemblies created by Lomeny de Brienne in 1787 had a double representation of the third estate and the overwhelming majority wanted the same part of the country's population.
ac716ddfd9eff4ddebb99b2323cd8b2935ce5d70	Necker also wanted the same, realizing that he needed a broader support in carrying out the necessary reforms and overcoming the opposition of the privileged classes.
7a34877c86d2e77efc61ae1fba04de66f394660b	On December 27, 1788, it was announced that the third Estate in the States General would receive double representation.
46cc99f7c0a2c48b8fcdabadb164e9b3916da4d5	The question of the voting procedure remained unresolved[15].
7be8619e7316f9413cb5d07f29ac3a0b1417ede6	Proclamation of the National Assembly[edit / edit wiki text]
729c59708baeec76e6c9177ae4010b0a52179c0c	Opening of the States General
a3a684665cdb839eb3b12ab3a37819d50dda4862	May 5, 1789 in the hall of the palace " Small amusements "(Fr. Menus plaisirs) The grand opening of the States General of Versailles took place.
f92cc030da10378ab350fd6e0d4d79271b8ad032	The deputies were placed in shifts: to the right of the king's chair sat the clergy, to the left the nobility, opposite the third estate.
a6daec33357dca4924752a265b5163aa0bff6579	The meeting was opened by the king, who warned the deputies against "dangerous innovations" (fr. innovations dangereuses) and made it clear that he sees the task of the States General only in finding funds to replenish the state treasury.
cccb8e630aeaab52d9d4ce99dc0734a6e380ff1f	Meanwhile, the country was waiting for reforms from the States General.
63c23af5226ec4a3ef01378159fb9c41f40c6fde	The conflict between the estates in the States General began already on May 6, when the deputies of the clergy and the nobility gathered for separate meetings to begin checking the powers of the deputies.
abe5e46fc2ada7a2e125ef02806f5e0581714743	The deputies of the third estate refused to be constituted in a special chamber and invited deputies from the clergy and nobility to a joint review of their powers.
23601968c892f9bdb7f3379863ea43ce62422299	Long negotiations between the estates began[16].
c50a24f4cdb353ab531ab4b1e2100158e6e70f2d	In the end, there was a split in the ranks of deputies, first from the clergy, and then from the nobility.
3a5d0f8fc6c21d204d6a0547e11f333134cb5b60	On June 10, Abbot Sieyes proposed to appeal to the privileged estates with a final invitation, and on June 12, the roll call of deputies of all three estates began according to the jury lists.
f0dbdde801aaa223676c0325b7c38a907008fc18	In the following days, about 20 deputies from the clergy joined the deputies of the third estate and on June 17, a majority of 490 votes against 90 declared itself the National Assembly (Fr. Assemblee nationale).
57938c4696b1a87a592006d657cf970c5e36c30b	Two days later, the deputies from the clergy, after a stormy debate, decided to join the third estate.
45426083d9039e1aaa46b26378045158315d7559	Louis XVI and his entourage were extremely dissatisfied and the king ordered to close the hall of "Small Amusements" under the pretext of repairs[17].
97e2267bcc7139a09a7df5ea5215632f31c312c8	The oath in the ballroom
0200d21723a0d1d36ab81a89325dc1a120f282e5	On the morning of June 20, deputies of the third estate found the meeting room locked.
c1ab91e516f318b31460a980faabd2cc2707e775	Then they gathered in the Ballroom (French Jeu de paume) and, at the suggestion of Mounier, took an oath not to disperse until they had worked out a constitution.
f71ad97375903259af4a16d417de647b66c28bfd	On June 23, a "royal session" (French Lit de justice) was held for the States General in the hall of "Small Amusements".
020760c356a99578d98329d27e8e8b90e2cde952	The deputies were seated in the same way as on May 5.
24ab68ac9211805717846a8019ba31a61be2dc4e	Versailles was flooded with troops.
299459f85b756b40061b977f2873b72192d17cfb	The king announced that he was canceling the resolutions adopted on June 17 and would not allow any restriction of his power or violation of the traditional rights of the nobility and clergy, and ordered the deputies to disperse[18].
fe6f767272d590d91bcf6290af443c48da8a2b35	Confident that his orders would be carried out immediately, the king left.
8775c0013006edb0b8cc0799804753aafdfb5f77	Most of the clergy and almost all the nobles left with him.
94b3e8ec162e1a582e791a580b80b8aac1d42da7	But the deputies of the third estate remained in their seats.
bb168745639891bc9618fb1cb8f94a880da16472	When the master of ceremonies reminded Chairman Bailly of the King's command, Bailly replied: "The assembled nation is not ordered."
7b6c4ca4f2fa1d5f7f1c0c8b97de113e25e660f8	Then Mirabeau got up and said: "Go and tell your master that we are here by the will of the people and we will leave our places only yielding to the force of the bayonets!".
266c6eeb7674325265993ae3460a071f17c8ec0d	The king ordered the Life Guards to disperse the disobedient deputies.
fa76f294fbfa04d6b41c22819a4feb3db6625753	But when the guards tried to enter the hall of "Small Amusements", the Marquis of Lafayette and several other remaining noble nobles blocked their way with swords in their hands.
9a4c649146439fd70d740ba611ef1c9eb71962d6	At the same meeting, on Mirabeau's proposal, the assembly declared the inviolability of the members of the National Assembly, and that anyone who encroaches on their inviolability is subject to criminal liability[1].
1712adeeefaeb0b73a9fd89264b77e1583f19eb3	Honore de Mirabeau
5143157e982ed01d20e6356b2629e1229584a7f9	The next day, the majority of the clergy, and the day after that, 47 deputies from the nobles joined the National Assembly.
ef32c96fdc152aae2781ccf375cd102871451fde	And on June 27, the king ordered the rest of the deputies from the nobility and clergy to join.
eb7afebf810cc41736fdddb682b50621fae585a1	Thus the transformation of the States General into the National Assembly took place, which on July 9 declared itself the Constituent National Assembly (French Assemblee nationale constituante) as a sign that it considers its main task to draft a constitution.
03cdd54040c7a1ade9601a9ed82f1bb1c18eee6b	On the same day, it heard Munier about the basics of the future constitution, and on July 11, Lafayette presented a draft Declaration of Human Rights, which he considered necessary to precede the constitution[19].
05d44b798e144249a3420b6d49fcecf03d862723	But the situation of the Assembly was precarious.
5f7c3ed0cbe87ddc6976748b14d2d831970aa639	The king and his entourage did not want to accept defeat and were preparing to disperse the Assembly.
51b7ba654842ea421992406078482ea58846148b	On June 26, the king ordered the concentration in Paris and its environs of an army of 20,000, mainly hired German and Swiss regiments.
f8f38b7e39be9e9cc035daabad23e9f7cdec2633	The troops were stationed in Saint Denis, Saint Cloud, Sevres and on the Champ de Mars.
ab4bc9a5b398116fb98b54724f3e284611d2c416	The arrival of the troops immediately inflamed the atmosphere in Paris.
66d144e40c3a7baa0b9c8beba497963f5b93c3f8	Rallies spontaneously arose in the garden of the Palais Royal, at which calls were made to repel "foreign hires".
bee8cce1cfb67b2517cf564508eb3af8885d7d39	On July 8, the National Assembly addressed an address to the King, asking him to withdraw the troops from Paris.
cda54f11a21511a0a102a5e2ffde0222e13cf291	The king replied that he had summoned troops to protect the Assembly, but if the presence of troops in Paris disturbed the Assembly, he was ready to move the place of its meetings to Noyon or Soissons.
87c9659030721f818dea84784f138053962cdb47	This showed that the king was preparing to disperse the Assembly[20].
784ee6592da0961524ac35abb9b48bc4dd430298	On July 11, Louis XVI dismissed Necker and transformed the ministry, putting Baron Breteuil at its head, who proposed to take the most extreme measures against Paris.
d09fb4ac07bd3473eba2022c8a736abfe28a9792	"If it is necessary to burn Paris, we will burn Paris," he said.
709981892717194f300719e8511d963fcbaeb5d1	The post of Minister of War in the new cabinet was occupied by Marshal Broglie.
546bdca53c9e6eeaf7375bcac8909a24befd69a2	It was the Ministry of the Coup d'etat.
5b6f3ed169fcc8e0b64ee1beecbe94b7cb91d737	It seemed that the cause of the National Assembly was defeated[21].
e98e18a2bb52d07e8eea4696439fe77d61c3fc32	It was saved by a nationwide revolution.
8c957393e9c5d0efc51f58269664f7aeb7cffca6	The Taking of the Bastille[edit / edit wiki text]
9aaff303e4609ede29c199ed7a648fc5dc73feca	Main article: The Taking of the Bastille
41b92339c15fc9b516c482be3c54bfefb566977e	Storming the Bastille
bb76bdcc5e1de4371a9c40109dfc5c1e1ce4c920	Necker's resignation produced an immediate reaction.
2a838c8bb6f2bee68df5e75154c0c514e8f91da2	The movements of government troops confirmed the suspicions of an "aristocratic conspiracy", and the resignation of wealthy people caused panic, because they saw in him a person who could prevent the bankruptcy of the state[22].
249856ef1b69cb82e0aafc9876b5defd66466790	Paris learned about the resignation in the afternoon of July 12.
11739fa74d39b54762cc537d1a6c0234d486a74d	It was a Sunday afternoon.
7b0c84398c3183b524efc59cbbdeca28613d121c	Crowds of people poured out into the streets.
7a5c5aeeafaca995468560ad086c4cb2a1dd7cb6	Busts of Necker were carried all over the city.
e24666f6ee71f181407ba240c0c4ee808f4d4aa2	In the Palais Royal, a young lawyer, Camille Desmoulins, threw the cry: "To arms!".
8e5bc98fd9a6c3118f163875430380985d51da37	Soon, this cry was booming everywhere.
921c73f1767352484368c2706779de0d473429f5	The French Guard (French Gardes françaises), among whom were the future generals of the republic Lefebvre, Gulen, Eli, Lazar Gauche, almost entirely went over to the side of the people.
a8a9ab30b56192caf4858a128f71cc972c9e8d87	Skirmishes with the troops began.
1cd320410bda2032d7e41da81b07d4c45e6c8145	The dragoons of the German regiment (fr. Royal Allemand) attacked the crowd at the Tuileries Garden, but retreated under a hail of stones.
9be8455d59df41f46e017e14fd8a7bfa0f77f6a5	The Baron de Besenval, the commandant of Paris, ordered the government troops to retreat from the city to the Champ de Mars (French Champ de Mars) [23].
201ea741ac52e43a12f494702016c129c7852843	The next day, July 13, the uprising grew even more.
f2b04f03b5af77e8a0cf7ce44aa902433e2b1330	The alarm bell had been ringing since early morning.
1abf1cb93d6522635f3a3289d749ed8bc118306d	At about 8 o'clock in the morning, Parisian electors gathered in the town hall (French: Hotel de ville).
fe81a370f1115622b6c263d37c8b82dc32e35968	A new municipal authority, the Standing Committee, was created in order to lead and control the movement at the same time.
879331dcf32733186a6d492a54c75506cd124264	At the first meeting, a decision is made on the creation of a "civil militia" in Paris.
0b5b6085c184143ec8d6dd1e4dcb9a0ccc849e83	This was the birth of the Paris Revolutionary Commune and the National Guard[24].
2456e4481ccd49ac6ba2a1381660a3cdc1df6a45	They were waiting for an attack from government troops.
1d9434780dff3aaf4aac1031e04fa7832818c97f	They began to erect barricades, but there were not enough weapons to protect them.
7605aebfec424f9f7bd5e765b942602ba44ed606	A search for weapons began throughout the city.
3fa1eff50216bcf9cc10a6cce6d54f26182eceb2	They broke into gun shops, seizing everything they could find there.
f14290fbf56f9c4aaaeb58b0bf49e96073d1fe26	On the morning of July 14, the crowd seized 32,000 guns and cannons in the Invalides House, but there was not enough gunpowder.
4e0315c2f16e04578f3586137e2e4f602d8a79da	Then we went to the Bastille.
0c121cdc97845f0ed7c75d0f31e3537b1586e7db	This fortress prison symbolized the repressive power of the state in the public consciousness.
e62f042ebf3e7bf8a21d720a95fff12293ef978b	In reality, there were seven prisoners and a little more than a hundred soldiers of the garrison, mostly disabled.
66b404ef6881bc2146061aa68d8338b5a5023fc3	After several hours of siege, the Commandant de Launay capitulated.
f978bc874f6302170c89c093caf851fa39eeec53	The garrison lost only one man killed, and the Parisians 98 killed and 73 wounded.
a090bb577b1ffa74c7b3bc8fe1c3063eabbcf67a	After the surrender, seven of the garrison, including the commandant himself, were torn to pieces by the crowd[25].
730a9733e46d00cbc171e0ae1b2cabfc0885f7f9	Constitutional monarchy[edit / edit wiki text]
1f123d315a7a4e7de636fe93c46b84ddb2bfd611	Municipal and peasant revolutions[edit / edit wiki text]
623215a72258bc83c00ce4598a989ed0ad7ed91c	Main article: The night of August 4, 1789
9c32d21778c5255ae85d11188281dd90feac697c	Declaration of Human and Civil Rights
f4b9cd278071ab2c8fe0f8840bf68c06f070643e	Twice dismissed, Necker was again called to power, and on July 17, Louis XVI, accompanied by a delegation of the National Assembly, arrived in Paris and received from the hands of the mayor of Bailly a tricolor cockade symbolizing the victory of the revolution and the accession of the king to it (red and blue are the colors of the Paris coat of arms, white is the color of the royal banner).
12159d37b18be8b6e208ce03d55965b5ec0b0559	The first wave of emigration began; the irreconcilable upper aristocracy began to leave France, including the king's brother, Count d’Artois 26].
d48a166dd427fef48659696dafc21e8d1eebb787	Even before Necker's resignation, many cities sent addresses in support of the National Assembly, up to 40 before July 14.
be0fb541316060ddcb2fda991d4164de689c297a	The "municipal revolution" began, accelerated after Necker's resignation and swept the whole country after July 14.
7b9ee5de39a99648ddb43732811a863a297c186e	Bordeaux, Caen, Angers, Amiens, Vernon, Dijon, Lyon and many other cities were engulfed by uprisings.
3bfd4fcb6cf054d6dc0605afc0660b45ef00d275	Quartermasters, governors, military commandants on the ground either fled or lost real power.
3d5493085d7bb917bfff5074452a59ddf50451a6	Following the example of Paris, communes and the national guard began to form.
64746e6af28e83ce966bc55b31c9322863c96784	Urban communes began to form federal associations.
9349492e090d903ded89e4be1fc8051f3013c34c	Within a few weeks, the royal government lost all power over the country, the provinces were now recognized only by the National Assembly[27].
f865645096eea728efa42c5c21201874984d98f9	The economic crisis and famine led to the appearance of many vagabonds, homeless people and marauding gangs in the countryside.
13f66880381ff5d0a2df1b104660f21e4efdb44c	The alarming situation, the peasants ' hopes for tax relief, expressed even in the instructions, the approach of the new harvest, all this gave rise to a myriad of rumors and fears in the village.
25904a61211461e1534a07c22fb071496320786d	In the second half of July, the "Great Fear" (French Grande peur) broke out, which generated a chain reaction throughout the country[28].
ce3cff460c272733e345dd9f459fb28aea59f384	The rebellious peasants burned the castles of the lords, seizing their lands.
ce27bb30b53cb482af08f8958a1e65adf87f7716	In some provinces, about half of the landowners ' estates were burned or destroyed[29].
45d6cb07f9b3f7865abba7aa8a4f750856df997e	During the meeting of the "night of miracles" (French: La Nuit des Miracles) on August 4 and by decrees of August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly responded to the peasant revolution and abolished personal feudal duties, seignorial courts, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations, and declared equality of all before the law in paying state taxes and in the right to hold civil, military and ecclesiastical positions.
f1e283e9b70a32836926dd06141a1e98aefc9cbb	But at the same time, it announced the elimination of only "indirect" duties (so called banalities): the "real" duties of the peasants, in particular, land and poll taxes, were left[30].
cb9bf0a488066b8b98adefc52d8399d85bfffd74	On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" — one of the first documents of democratic constitutionalism.
d1bddcd047ef435ec1f5afbc3a3e28e7b4e0f9a1	The" old regime", based on class privileges and the arbitrariness of the authorities, was opposed by the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of" natural "human rights, popular sovereignty, freedom of opinion, the principle of" everything is allowed that is not prohibited by law " and other democratic attitudes of revolutionary enlightenment, which have now become the requirements of law and current legislation.
f529ec6451280d3b0bd47eeca14e9a7662e157a4	Article 1 of the Declaration read: "People are born and remain free and equal in rights."
7f99962b9272a4769b965704938b940e24968d2c	Article 2 guaranteed "natural and inalienable human rights", which were understood as "freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression".
6402a369d8934b127d84558ff52b2c462001e421	The source of supreme power (sovereignty) was declared to be the "nation", and the law was an expression of the"universal will" [31].
efec85150696fb1f2d0e84cd1c2ca640d68ef9b3	A trip to Versailles[edit / edit wiki text]
dc6af746a4618923e32222bd192b73172f4782f3	Main article: A trip to Versailles
b59eef009f9ed50a201dceb9685a0c5140bdf633	Revolutionary minded Parisian women go to Versailles
297f9ef38a5b91801492ab6459c51de5572f1dfd	Louis XVI refused to authorize the Declaration and decrees of August 5-11.
81f9c7ba9abaf548e66e8adc28fa63968c58d731	In Paris, the situation was tense.
06c2afc7ed6e861c90d7ebb83cfc78e2f67738c7	The harvest in 1789 was good, but the supply of bread to Paris did not increase.
ac7e450aecabc84cf6abc9a2ca1a0a6ff81c8ab8	There were long queues at bakeries[32].
8805fc44e1522ff86869640890791f91cde7c493	At the same time, officers, nobles, and knights of the Order of St. Louis flocked to Versailles.
5658415b795b16964fff421664801078cbf543b1	On October 1, the King's Life Guards held a banquet in honor of the newly arrived Flanders Regiment.
d89afe90d202e6fcedf2b4cf8788955a24632d0e	The banquet participants, excited by the wine and music, shouted enthusiastically: "Long live the King!".
5b9c1f300a24dddc4c1862029a9841e5b0d89547	First, the Life Guards, and then other officers tore off the tricolor cockades and trampled them with their feet, attaching the white and black cockades of the king and queen.
65cf8ec0153f2f10b816ebd39fd3631bf0492f58	In Paris, this caused a new explosion of fear of an "aristocratic conspiracy" and demands to move the king to Paris[33].
2ebb19f1195e3634aa5aa497cbbc90cb4e91bdfd	On the morning of October 5, huge crowds of women, who had stood in vain all night in queues at bakeries, filled the Place de Greve and surrounded the Town Hall (French: Hotel de Ville).
f3b8dda966b8a29512b4fed149d1b98f59ea407c	Many believed that the food supply would be better if the king was in Paris.
366fd57e61b199031968b28770c5810790fb890c	Shouts were heard: "Bread!
884cebe42a4b934750398099b607845885ab0257	To Versailles!".
7416ee34454ee7b6920d8727dfeadcffe67db4d6	Then the alarm was sounded.
c18de85eb042231637e3f687be247fe06d5b7a1a	Around noon, 6-7 thousand people, mostly women, with guns, pikes, pistols and two cannons moved to Versailles.
4c249cd289f52d21992d8eaa684cc69ac333f812	A few hours later, by the decision of the Commune, Lafayette led the National Guard to Versailles [34].
98a3ec9c764af5eb7b65551f3f911bab3e1fafee	Around 11 pm, the King announced his consent to approve the Declaration of Rights and other decrees.
74666f6fa59516753bdfe8a2a428dacfdad503ab	However, during the night, the crowd broke into the palace, killing two of the king's guards.
d3895f71937717ebc62325c13f00a980bde687cb	Only Lafayette's intervention prevented further bloodshed.
9ac1104cace9661d672603b5e6dde524fdbbecd9	On Lafayette's advice, the king went out on the balcony with the Queen and the Dauphin.
f9765e29d62fbd54803f46b2d2098d4c1b359546	The people greeted him with shouts: "The King to Paris!
820eb4f55860f056ed5a25ce08d37c1c06e30488	The King to Paris!"[27].
706bb6e0d2d6532b927cda295515a4af9a729bea	On October 6, a remarkable procession went from Versailles to Paris.
be42ce17dd45d6725f15ebe77298cc898b00c313	The National Guard was in front; bread was stuck on the bayonets of the guards.
34b3b1a2f75dfbfb851d881b5a8cef5f19f59e35	Then followed the women, some mounted on cannons, others in carriages, others on foot, and finally a carriage with the royal family.
8962f239b37926f5277554ae8d85369faa7943aa	The women danced and sang: "We are bringing a baker, a baker's wife and a little baker!".
baa068c2821958bc92aad0addabec5437c94a5b8	Following the royal family, the National Assembly also moved to Paris[35].
ab5b126cede558aef07a081961fc6378b2a57dad	Reconstruction of France[edit / edit wiki text]
f3210d7c783f2b227a3a44e7d6eae93daf543f98	See also: Feudal Legislation (1789-1793)
958ce6529131abbb581614505839b97faba4e10d	The Constituent Assembly set a course for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in France.
4079e383b9c2a0d1f6c2138b90362ae0319ac8e6	By decrees of October 8 and 10, 1789, the traditional title of the French kings was changed: from "by the grace of God, the king of France and Navarre", Louis XVI became "by the grace of God and by virtue of the constitutional law of the state, the king of the French".
490e544b2760f6053f3e0da7904f2f7d02bbf81a	The king remained the head of state and executive power, but he could rule only on the basis of the law.
736bca6324527be714a9923839ac098bd4468442	The legislative power belonged to the National Assembly, which actually became the highest authority in the country.
9a219285c7f4c237feef82b2aa7380148ec1728a	The king retained the right to appoint ministers.
3aa8c5549be5ee97d674cd4074fa2e76fb92334b	The king could no longer draw limitlessly from the state treasury.
bd9714781368634e75e7cc32fdf5cd9933ef0ff9	The right to declare war and conclude peace passed to the National Assembly.
2d0bb57fbc681b313f5760e597081f059e3346a4	It was forbidden to call oneself a marquis, count, etc. Citizens could only bear the surname of the head of the family[36].
aee05867fb4a57a944d86851c3f0b61771304059	From now on, six ministers were appointed: the interior, justice, finance, foreign Affairs, the military, and the navy.
b93026192f732b5f4b84d219cf17bddbf87ba938	According to the municipal law of December 14-22, 1789, the cities and provinces were granted the widest self government.
0271aa8a09db8985d607c9ef5e9f1b33b7051faf	All agents of the central government on the ground were abolished.
01375a1b91b5512129b227568fa34c9148feca11	The posts of quartermasters and their subdelegates were destroyed.
e7f17b021fabd020b6110436dd66724dade8b334	By a decree of January 15, 1790, the Assembly established a new administrative structure of the country.
de7a2c48ae31db4c4bcf9cf5c310ca7389dcfd08	The country was divided into 83 departments, approximately equal in territory.
dc6df8fdd505bf693913955e7423a23c2eb26794	Departments were divided into districts (districts).
1a2fb79be210b3b7575d1b68b8c63ba7cc34f7d7	The districts were divided into cantons.
ebf322fcd1fee9bb55422ef32e7eff7dac885cf1	The lowest administrative unit was the commune (community).
9fb962052f8dd2af4073d4e16a708fb856b56649	The communes of large cities were divided into sections (districts, sections).
eff23bc2d00c83d7185c51df4d0832432e42acde	Paris was divided into 48 sections (instead of the previously existing 60 districts)[37].
feee1cef58303da40b971290455b09e648c5d34c	The sale of judicial posts, like all others, was canceled.
cce40abdfe357d18eeaa050a1b5f3ee31bc3bf23	A magistrate's court was established in each canton, a district court in each district, and a criminal court in each main city of the department.
e3574dc7ff91ac3f0121df0f1e0df513189c7fba	A single Cassation Court was also created for the whole country, which had the right to annul sentences of courts of other instances and send cases for new consideration, and the National Supreme Court, whose competence was subject to offenses by ministers and senior officials, as well as crimes against the security of the State.
0d9443c893a485eb81197baeec63b0d5ff0c5005	The courts of all instances were elected (on the basis of property qualification and other restrictions) and were judged with the participation of a jury[38].
2d5d3474d29291c69d6c611615a11132e33a3869	All privileges and other forms of state regulation of economic activity were abolished — workshops, corporations, monopolies, etc.Customs offices within the country at the borders of various regions were eliminated.
5134d3f5e95c677ea9dc713b5e3bf6c5a1181caf	The Constituent Assembly put a huge state debt "under the protection of the nation".
8de18b2c08ec2f37b8d4fe2c4fa68104aee9361f	On October 10, Talleyrand proposed to use church property to pay off the state debt, which was to be transferred to the disposal of the nation and sold.
edf857d92275f59adc0982962df02619f951de49	By decrees adopted in June and November 1790, it implemented the so called "civil organization of the clergy", that is, it carried out a reform of the church, which deprived it of its former privileged position in society and turned the church into an organ of the state.
f7b76a7232ee5f49bbf419c50cb8e6f55bb061a9	The registration of births, deaths, and marriages, which were transferred to state bodies, was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the church.
2b7309f7b799c5a9979f0a5209097a99a8d50f8e	Only a civil marriage was recognized as legal.
2cf6f3de95d1947336df2c5bef9b26c59d065366	All church titles were abolished, except for the bishop and the priest (parish priest).
5a6f7399bf7c1fe7f8915c85bab8ffeb11d38799	Bishops and parish priests were elected by electors, the former by department electors, the latter by parish electors.
be39822ac102172f60240ae3f42d5d6d46cda739	The approval of bishops by the pope (as the head of the Universal Catholic Church) was canceled: from now on, the French bishops only informed the pope of their election.
2d57ac655577d4f93b7503a893f76af556e9615d	All clergymen were required to take a special oath to the "civil structure of the clergy" under the threat of resignation[39].
6d3c50aaca43d49b5ce5cbfb4c891f92309cd921	The church reform caused a split among the French clergy.
069938e7d2c3ad1f18d085c6c44e6c61977eb74b	After the pope did not recognize the "civil structure" of the church in France, all French bishops, with the exception of 7, refused to take the civil oath.
71309825c310d42a8a9f09c066d4169c38bc127c	About half of the lower clergy followed their example.
c69f989f507c96fd39c006aca33db0bb3e2c7102	An acute struggle arose between the juried (Fr. assermente), or constitutional, and the non juried (Fr. refractaires) clergy, which significantly complicated the political situation in the country.
008fbeb3d3a2463ac407f5a0c20f13fd3b2d0bfd	In the future," non sworn " priests, who have retained influence on significant masses of believers, become one of the most important forces of the counter revolution[40].
59c50db5fb668b5a7263585277ead0385a3dda13	By this time, there was a split among the deputies of the Constituent Assembly.
9d75aaffd059faa8d0a31c0b360180e112a1bdce	On the wave of public support, new leftists began to stand out: Petion, Gregoire, Robespierre.
8c5d163a59f34aaad931ebaa7ec821b66c54a0bc	In addition, there were clubs and organizations all over the country.
6530a67c289482b5550caaa555d522096c8e950c	In Paris, the centers of radicalism became the club of Jacobins and Cordeliers.
01012e43d9aae90be21056ac5c02822f6088205b	The constitutionalists in the person of Mirabeau, and after his sudden death in April 1791, the" triumvirate " Barnave, Duport and Lameth believed that the events went beyond the principles of 1789 and sought to stop the development of the revolution by increasing the electoral qualification, restricting the freedom of the press and the activity of clubs.
acfa30411d6cd05fa07efacd4105aeb40b0e584e	To do this, they needed to remain in power and enjoy the full support of the king.
9000458c3da475a91e2abfd64c8f8dca7c4ab1ff	Suddenly, the ground opened up beneath them.
7e1c6d4282d7550e52c1f9a974ca8b8906a3a287	Louis XVI fled[41].
4dd3fb2b068d8cf1bb1ebc83557af0ab16c58078	The Varenna crisis[edit / edit wiki text]
cfc8e4a29ddebb1519cfe40ed0df10bb29ee685c	See also: Escape to Varennes
a19cbf6b1ad447f432cf53017516e92a76123a3a	Louis XVI and his family returned to Paris on June 25, 1791 after being identified and arrested in Varennes (Meuse department, Lorraine region).
650ffe283b121ccd1b747e2849922b5a4675c662	The attempt to escape the king is one of the most important events of the revolution.
c96e3eada7c996f7d7455f7382d4830a8f95fd41	Internally, this was an obvious proof of the incompatibility of the monarchy and revolutionary France and destroyed the attempt to establish a constitutional monarchy.
834fb449f93687618d8fb2fae7e5ca7eb6f1e593	Outwardly, this accelerated the approach of a military conflict with monarchical Europe[42].
3a629ac72bc5333e4852be2187716c32740fb44f	The royal family was brought back to Paris on the evening of June 25, amid the dead silence of Parisians and National guardsmen holding their guns muzzle down [43].
5567d62dad58070531c850f3002be38f2b9ea9e1	From this moment, the radicalization of the revolution begins (then who can be trusted if the king himself turned out to be a traitor?).
b6c36daed6ef658f8c2b70fd6573315ee1c6cbb9	For the first time since the beginning of the Revolution, the press began to openly discuss the possibility of establishing a republic.
f9d3e9a2a4e38322ebc8f11db419a8ab215f8b3f	However, the constitutionalist deputies, not wanting to deepen the crisis and question the fruits of almost two years of work on the Constitution, took the king under protection and said that he had been abducted.
93a15e92dc9a77a2c97e92dd54096aeb5c2d8470	According to it, it was proposed to convene a Legislative Assembly — a unicameral parliament on the basis of a high property qualification.
5c04befcb043c29515a4269c8d2be6afb0ab1b48	There were only 4.3 million" active " citizens who received the right to vote under the constitution, and only 50 thousand electors who elected deputies — Deputies of the National Assembly could not be elected to the new Parliament.
2ad3735654505ed743e28d686395057efdcc7bc5	The Legislative Assembly opened on October 1, 1791.
133655c7a683e34988c32cdc1dc5a225a06bab65	In Europe, the king's escape caused a strong emotional reaction. the federalist revolt, the war in the Vendee, military failures, the deterioration of the economic situation.
8718b49512e0d26db4d0c6e6368df6191c209bf0	Despite everything, it was not possible to avoid a civil war[66].
b7cd9f4993fcb88b5a3ad343c7ca31f99adc650b	By the middle of June, about sixty departments were engulfed in a more or less open uprising.
991d48259cb61505691ec642c865c4f24645ba93	However, the border areas of the country remained faithful to the Convention [67].
824fa32a4cd76cac4f47fe01d7a2cb8c4aacd4dd	July and August were not important months on the borders.
3d0dcb6a5ad47dc9d0ce6fc479ccb0f41c547f52	Mainz, the symbol of the victory of the previous year, capitulated to the Prussian troops, and the Austrians captured the fortresses of Conde and Valenciennes and invaded northern France.
d98c8c5bad8803c9d5ce6e44d60f91a12a9b34b6	The Spanish troops crossed the Pyrenees and launched an offensive on Perpignan.
a1e2a65b020ed5b5f452201e1b5a94ed4b59c46e	Piedmont took advantage of the uprising in Lyon and invaded France from the east.
586a129d3839fe06af78c13cf6365b8d7017a30f	In Corsica, Paoli raised an uprising and, with British help, expelled the French from the island.
d5aded73aaf9cacae3e7bd91218209d0ded53455	British troops began the siege of Dunkirk in August and in October the Allies invaded Alsace.
936f81b936a07a005f384315070a8246bac5e9d6	The military situation became desperate [68].
6f338c493a7ba4b13e7800450f583601c0fdc773	Throughout June, the Montagnards took a wait and see attitude, waiting for a reaction to the uprising in Paris.
10974e2ea1067cf79ff06013866a3255651ee336	Nevertheless, they did not forget about the peasants.
b871b246107a9ccbb67cb2a233a4fdf925324200	The peasants made up the largest part of France and in such an environment it was important to satisfy their demands.
9a9b44f8486233acb9c8cc7ffb96f547c21eff68	It was to them that the uprising on May 31 (as well as on July 14 and August 10) brought significant and permanent benefits.
5ef78d31463f312f506c356c15a11b7ea59a6118	On June 3, laws were passed on the sale of emigrants ' property in small parts with the condition of payment within 10 years;
e13b882684a2e9ab7db9558012d98d531be9680b	On June 10, an additional division of communal lands was proclaimed; and on July 17, a law on the abolition of seignorial duties and feudal rights without any compensation[66].
51fea45cd8bc860e7ad451dce739de2f19321167	The Convention approved a new Constitution in the hope of protecting itself from the accusation of dictatorship and appeasing the departments.
c443aef291ab42b5dfa80af5051e83c65104eaa6	The Declaration of Rights, which preceded the text of the Constitution, solemnly confirmed the indivisibility of the State and freedom of speech, equality and the right to resist oppression.
993c7469f742c85ce5ca7b7f83475669677ba08c	This went far beyond the Declaration of 1789, adding the right to social assistance, work, education and insurrection.
415a87a1faffdaf2bc8959fc817d1429dd4559db	All political and social tyranny was abolished [69].
9bfb71f3862a16bfa2b9fbd08ba6a7469f0972fb	National sovereignty was expanded through the institution of a referendum — the Constitution had to be ratified by the people, as well as laws in certain, precisely defined circumstances[70].
6d8b1a4535c9f632d2a20c90d81df0dfa460662e	The Constitution was submitted for universal ratification and adopted by a huge majority of 1,801,918 in favor and 17,610 against.
c0d621ffd290ebcf7e8813e9d9a4b9641a0ccdc2	The results of the plebiscite were made public on August 10, 1793, but the application of the Constitution, the text of which was placed in the "sacred ark" in the Convention hall, was postponed until peace was concluded[71].
903ab2964b2783bb2dd36592b4c6337bb32ee873	The revolutionary government[edit / edit wiki text]
e5d4c48f7bf3e0d6306b2d980b482919c13b9df3	"The provisional government of France will be revolutionary until peace is concluded" - the decree of the Convention of 19 Vandemieres II (October 10, 1793) [72].
a0bb608dc142a3f98906172c7d5cac3c508e8c26	La Marseillaise
dd8b7e53beca01a54d66ae38ef7a2dbdd832c4da	The Convention renewed the composition of the Committee of Public Salvation (fr. Comité du salut public): Danton was excluded from it on July 10.
a7e34534c3fb59a26dcddb03d20fd1db56ba0e55	Couthon, Saint Just, Jeanbon Saint Andre, and Prieur of the Marne formed the core of the new committee.
eaac5b3fd2b3912804dcf30f9d6de9a8a906ad6f	Barer and Lende were added to them, Robespierre on July 27, and then Carnot and Prieur from the Cote d ' department on August 14’Yell;
3e8c3697034d7e72308c9624c59297c0eb6eb3a0	Collot d'Herbois and Billot Varenna — September 6[73].
9b6430df1f9b274247b83cddfbc0db4b0905cc17	First of all, the committee had to establish itself and choose those demands of the people that were most suitable for achieving the goals of the assembly: to crush the enemies of the Republic and erase the last hopes of the aristocracy for restoration.
6b418e7292fc01cdff856fbfa96cd685b8120029	To govern in the name of the Convention and at the same time control it, to restrain the Sans — Culottes without cooling their enthusiasm this was the necessary balance of the revolutionary government[74].
8d39c6df37736f6a9fce33e8a04566e649479bd9	Under the double banner of price fixing and terror, the pressure of the Sans Culottes reached its peak in the summer of 1793.
fb378b98b542fe1386a95fb3aa8238ff6271bbfa	The crisis in the supply of food remained the main cause of dissatisfaction of the Sans Culottes; the leaders of the" rabid "demand that the Convention establish a "maximum".
b81b6109ce60ee01ef8775a8e5737fb27cedab3d	In August, a series of decrees gave the committee powers to control the circulation of grain, and also approved ferocious punishments for their violation.
77b791e8f860e4569ee53a31169023f05655e268	"Storehouses of abundance"were created in each district.
e1f40da015f4619d653c64f321ab6c8a25080248	On August 23, the decree on mass mobilization (French levée en masse) declared the entire adult population of the republic "in a state of constant requisition"[75].
39891fb0711cf7028c8a13355beab3e2d173707c	On September 5, the Parisians tried to repeat the uprising on June 2.
b7af2368d570404a980fd5b051ec9a5a5eba8b18	Armed sections again surrounded the Convention, demanding the creation of an internal revolutionary army, the arrest of" suspicious " and the purge of the committees.
984b1c41b9a3885b166ae63d1cabac8d04779aae	It was probably a key day in the formation of the revolutionary government: The Convention succumbed to pressure, but retained control over the events.
ba461cb9229a00c0bd3c8d0f68c4f9c346862ce8	This put terror on the agenda — on September 5, on the 9th the creation of a revolutionary army, on the 11th the decree on the "maximum" for bread (general control of prices and wages — on September 29), on the 14th the reorganization of the Revolutionary Tribunal, on the 17th the law on "suspicious", and on the 20th the decree gave the right to local revolutionary committees the task of compiling lists [76].
39b9bc2bbe961c21878920f4fdfbdcb43fc250ce	This sum of institutions, measures and procedures was fixed in the decree of 14 Fremer (December 4, 1793), which defined this gradual development of a centralized dictatorship based on terror.
3f6f7f523008d2675efd2d003d3cf4dbc661e8a8	In the center was the Convention, the executive power of which was the Committee of Public Safety, endowed with enormous powers: it interpreted the decrees of the Convention and determined the methods of their application; under its direct supervision were all state bodies and employees; it determined military and diplomatic activities, appointed generals and members of other committees, subject to their ratification by the Convention.
83b022e7d66300f64b3fb2321ad5cc6aa0f4535b	He was responsible for the conduct of the war, public order, provision and supply of the population.
43b9f2492cc35fb7ee737999f50b1124cc894c38	The Paris Commune, a well known bastion of the Sans Culottes, was also neutralized, falling under his control [76].
6c5fa7775863bb26cf0ab9c78d917eee0f9f111e	Organization of victory[edit / edit wiki text]
aced38c09c903ae97255178fc6e9e43715c29060	The National Guard of Paris goes to the front
89329f1f06189b58b81da58d7fb95802296ca5a3	The blockade forced France to autarky; in order to preserve the Republic, the government mobilized all productive forces and accepted the need for a controlled economy, which was introduced impromptu as the situation demanded[77].
20c597a284251d2d4b2bbae71eb758e5990fcf67	It was necessary to develop military production, revive foreign trade and find new resources in France itself, and there was little time.
2bb59b307c4434d30b05f2c3a1646cde7cd4b04c	Circumstances gradually forced the government to take over the leadership of the economy of the whole country[78].
0061690416296ea49783d37bf50e1985ae649f46	All material resources became the subject of requisition.
78c903d2c4b22cbe63cdd5a2fde52a272ad980b8	Farmers handed over grain, fodder, wool, flax, hemp, and artisans and merchants manufactured products.
0ff2ca3d286ec95b449d0d99f05df67eb9b7e1d8	The raw materials were carefully searched for metal of all kinds, church bells, old paper, rags and parchment, herbs, brushwood and even ashes for the production of potash salts and chestnuts for their distillation.
0e080a205fc971613fc761366781f104c29d75d2	All enterprises were transferred to the disposal of the nation — forests, mines, quarries, furnaces, furnaces, tanneries, factories for the production of paper and fabrics, workshops for the manufacture of shoes.
863e18adcfe5a2b3bc4e187b7b9b3bafecb3091f	Labor and the value of what was produced were subject to price regulation.
161f122ef4ed77b71bdf42a6a5e07f424aecb5ba	No one had the right to speculate while the Fatherland was in danger.
1f8c9fad20242e07540f4252bba760dde971af3e	The armament caused great concern.
18de00020d1d228eb0dac229600507e16de1a621	Already in September 1793, an impetus was given to the creation of national manufactories for the military industry — the creation of a factory in Paris for the production of rifles and personal weapons, the Grenelle powder factory[79].
bd43219088ce344052a74dda4f528cefe24073a6	A special appeal was made by the scientist.
f7f20d90848234ec94ca98a7db7845bb62c9a9df	Monge, Vandermonde, Berthollet, Darcet[fr], Fourcroy improved metallurgy and the production of weapons[80].
ccc623290d10f48fb33e3af49fda2dea3acf8cef	Experiments in aeronautics were conducted in Meudon.
1a9b6bfceedbc24ecd77e4b450d60ddf3ccddb75	During the Battle of Fleurus, the balloon was raised over the same places as in the future war of 1914.
b07955638d76e96c40a2b4b97f69a164afea47c8	And nothing less than a "miracle" for contemporaries was the receipt by the semaphore of Chappe in Montmartre within an hour of news about the fall of Le Quesnois, located 120 miles from Paris[81].
4c6d8fb948ebb3ccda11ad1b8c033c815cc9a484	The summer recruitment (French Levée en masse) was completed, and by July the total number of the army reached 650,000.
017cde16e429143556b5f6d8245a86f989ae1cf6	The difficulties were enormous.
375f32abab5895d587e25b9d12eb24905e39c11c	Production for the needs of the war began only in September.
cc7d3b6371c3a6656c05071d2a7cdd64de9a1fe4	The army was in a state of reorganization.
e8106c9f9bf8de7dd51eb547d6786deadbc60a0e	In the spring of 1794, the "amalgam" system was undertaken, the merger of volunteer battalions with the linear army.
68ed88d6603b4991fd37f6a436e5b9926313d363	Two battalions of volunteers were joined with one battalion of the line army, forming a demi brigade or regiment.
a7d37386a9982133ce4e3ff317e6abe79a5ab530	At the same time, unity of command and discipline were restored.
e0d28083af73c2689fc6744191c91f8659da5900	The purge of the army excluded most of the nobles.
aa351f8a0c8241a324e7a98f42cfdd02cd6e8806	In order to educate new officers, according to Decree 13 of the Prairie (June 1, 1794), the College of Mars (fr. Ecole de Mars) was founded — each district sent six young men there.
d0f62243b9e126d7f09f8096ab7997793858bb7b	The army commanders were approved by the Convention [82].
413c02f6effc0f85458676f95b108b76a5467991	Gradually, a military command emerged, incomparable in quality: Marceau, Gauche, Jourdan, Bonaparte, Kleber, Massena, as well as the officers, are excellent not only in military qualities, but also in a sense of civic responsibility[83].
6219cf362c56fc31641662edf1d529670427bfcf	Terror[edit / edit wiki text]
eba57302e9ef3a56cc7899bacbbf9687b49f1acb	Although the terror was organized in September 1793, it was not actually used until October, and only as a result of pressure from the Sans Culottes [84].
813a4b1a473f371d094160269f186d92d89178e0	The big political processes began in October.
3a7e8235d88a3ef5c893d35e761b2db500279f67	Queen Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16.
b27c045364c56c9741d533250696edf52631c9da	A special decree restricted the protection of 21 Girondists, and they died on the 31st, including Vergniaud and Brissot[85].
6db6c9a5dc60bfd2276b8f6bce9611ec9b275c03	Execution of Marie Antoinette
0eb60d2bcb82c52444c9bd6b296be217c3e736c6	At the top of the terror apparatus was the Committee of Public Security, the second organ of the state, consisting of twelve members elected every month in accordance with the rules of the Convention and endowed with the functions of public security, surveillance and police, both civil and military.
48d0a382936b84ef75239c236a0aa583c3f49661	He employed a large staff of officials, headed a network of local revolutionary committees and applied the law on "suspicious" by sifting through thousands of local denunciations and arrests, which he then had to submit it to the Revolutionary Tribunal[86].
e773cc2a788f0ddc6bae5afeb42b705992ec2a7f	Terror was applied to the enemies of the Republic wherever they were, was socially indiscriminate and directed politically.
9e19e50e9cc9e744cc76d554306b29a6523faede	His victims belonged to all classes who hated the revolution or lived in those regions where the threat of insurrection was most serious.
6be8b4779853a12a16d576b4db428a7eb5a01aa4	"The severity of the repressive measures in the provinces, "writes Mathez,"was directly dependent on the danger of rebellion" [87].
0b39038d8e954687934088a283cae899c848957e	In the same way, the deputies sent by the Convention as "representatives in the mission" (French: les représentants en mission) were armed with broad powers and acted in accordance with the situation and their own temperament: in July, Robert Landet pacified the Girondist uprising in the west without a single death sentence; in Lyon, a few months later, Collot d'Herbois and Joseph Fouche relied on frequent summary executions, using mass executions, because the guillotine did not work fast enough[88][pr 2].
b2205ad5c1ce89a9c37fb4277e249328d855b03a	The victory began to be determined in the autumn of 1793.
10bfec54a35305d1813efd98fc81839047303ba7	The end of the federalist revolt was marked by the capture of Lyon on October 9 and Toulon on December 19.
1f3e969cde8712e0fb066ab4b34199d5fb7f240d	On October 17, the Vendee uprising was suppressed in Cholet and on December 14 in Le Mans after fierce street fighting.
3ab6c8dcc3c41d1e6c1e7bb2c16d55b1d06bca0f	Cities along the borders were liberated.
78dc9349ffbc1e68d0bc4f4e176388c98e2c33b0	Dunkirk — after the victory at Ondschot[fr] (September 8), Maubeuge after the victory at Wattigny (October 6), Landau after the victory at Wissembourg[fr] (October 30). Kellerman pushed the Spaniards back to Bidasoa and Savoy was liberated.
49448e92f2cf0a3d40362d4102a2d95d01c19a39	Gauche and Pichegru inflicted a number of defeats on the Prussians and Austrians in Alsace[90].
2c4d1a2aefd5a2d6c5f5a86cdaa597a1a701fdb6	The struggle of factions[edit / edit wiki text]
291bbfce1fea6cdf414597710c6486dc814333b6	Jacques Hebert
faf3fea99b02a77d0a926d212c1b0865394cfabd	Since September 1793, it was possible to clearly identify two wings among the revolutionaries.
075a6e7da292ab21904222c5259254acd6e4984e	One was what was later called the Ebertists — although Heber himself was never the leader of the faction — and preached a war to the death, partially adopting the "rabid" program, which was approved by the Sans Culottes.
eed044314007085876a7704383ccae17ab43cabd	They agreed to an agreement with the Montagnards, hoping to exert pressure on the Convention through them.
a253356f026330cd924e639e7761b627be439710	They dominated the Cordelier club, filled the Bouchotte War Ministry, and could carry the Commune with them [91].
357eb0ff7f06a3a2afb94c702d54c92506ab67e6	Another wing arose in response to the growing centralization of the revolutionary government and the dictatorship of the committees — the Dantonists; around the deputies of the Convention: Danton, Delacroix, Desmoulins, as the most prominent among them.
239cb81e588069033fd5bef74b57636a54791047	The religious conflict that has been going on since 1790 was the background of the campaign of "de Christianization"undertaken by the Ebertists.
5e6462fe63876299b9f6ba634e7012de779c8197	The Federalist revolt intensified the counter revolutionary agitation of the" non sworn " priests.
bc6c97fa886f600a9e5e8c283367547203e5bd26	The adoption by the Convention on October 5 of a new, revolutionary calendar, designed to replace the previous one associated with Christianity, was used by the" ultras " as an excuse to launch a campaign against the Catholic faith[92].
33d2abafdbf3a2ac41f598a28b51fb6d64f5fe91	In Paris, this movement was led by the Commune.
7685ac5f619f74f7abfc830965e43165d46791aa	Catholic churches were closed, priests were forced to abdicate, Christian shrines were mocked.
8833a17f5e179778053864d920b9a41bef46845f	Instead of Catholicism, they tried to plant a "cult of Reason".
17cede9571ce8be22c222b07d6f31d68180dfbe1	The movement brought even more unrest in the departments and compromised the revolution in the eyes of a deeply religious country.
59082acc19c74a2badd13873dd1cfb883eb972d3	The majority of the Convention reacted extremely negatively to this initiative and led to even greater polarization between the factions.
42f9083ca81a451027b6aee4b9a63a174610ebd8	In late November and early December, Robespierre and Danton resolutely opposed the "de — Christianization", putting an end to it[93].
6babc8c23b24f6c1181af630ed5b5a328ee33e54	Georges Danton
0b86057c29b9a92015e5c3e1d1c1fd5054e04e2d	Putting the priority of national defense over all other considerations, the Committee of Public Safety tried to maintain an intermediate position between modernism and extremism.
e97b141e48bc9f330c631bcbffd6bdfacb399d25	The revolutionary government did not intend to yield to the Ebertists at the expense of revolutionary unity, while the demands of the moderates undermined the controlled economy necessary for conducting military operations and the terror that ensured universal obedience[94].
c0291f0ae4c367a51a15dc08dba1a1007e2ff6ad	But at the end of the winter of 1793, the shortage of food took a sharp turn for the worse.
70c4ce4a2a9948e1b550e5adbdeb80fa4435375e	The Ebertists began to demand the use of harsh measures and at first the Committee behaved conciliatingly.
b5ec1f1b79a1ea61f639504b30337c0db09b4f53	The Convention voted 10 million to ease the crisis, on 3 vantose Barer, on behalf of the Committee of public Safety, presented a new general "maximum" and on the 8th a decree on the confiscation of the property of "suspicious" and its distribution among the needy — the Vantose decrees (fr. Loi de ventôse an II).
16800ac0e08bc1660de5243f39bbac8c92aeabaa	The Cordeliers believed that if they increased the pressure, they would triumph once and for all.
ca954d221ef0393c9e2056ac39d4cea65a658d44	There were calls for an uprising, although it was probably as a new demonstration, as in September 1793.
38468be30bd7ecec09e3b3c24112da3dfd91b023	Maximilian Robespierre
ed976245939e840e6e730a6c972c551571c074e9	But on March 22, 1794 (March 12, 1794), the Committee decided to put an end to the Ebertists.
26d66c9a74121fff105257897c9696b57cde2b82	The foreigners Proly, Kloots and Pereira were added to Hebert, Ronsen, Vincent and Momoro in order to present them as participants in a "foreign conspiracy".
3d5ec687522b5e1939ffe0cb22e7efbfa466852f	All were executed by 4 Germinal (March 24, 1794) [95]. Then the Committee turned to the dantonists, some of whom were involved in financial fraud.
1127bca02c57a6ad15bc543b824b26a77b5523d2	On April 5, Danton, Delacroix, Desmoulins, and Filippo were executed[96].
aa50cc06d040fa285f09ce209b63477ad64d1563	Germinal's drama completely changed the political situation.
23b3d26c8ae23bdb14743e33a2bde955cc971bed	The Sans Culottes were stunned by the execution of the Ebertists.
9507d61f4723521cac454ddcb506106289bf3faf	All their positions of influence were lost: the revolutionary army was disbanded, the inspectors were dismissed, Bouchotte lost the war ministry, the Cordelier club was suppressed and intimidated, and 39 revolutionary committees were closed under government pressure.
d933b76fd54a7b66b7c55bd82babe57619ce495b	There was a purge of the Commune and it was filled with the nominees of the Committee.
c218abf15fc64ec315937b3b5f3a49476efaa177	With the execution of the Dantonists, the majority of the Assembly was for the first time horrified by the government it had created[97].
6de5c599ae1e590c2b80d4886f93dbcc9f66d939	The Committee played the role of an intermediary between the assembly and the sections.
ac848f90797f257c9d295cbed244b661ec6e9741	By destroying the leaders of the sections, the committees broke with the Sans Culottes, the source of the government's power, whose pressure the Convention had been so afraid of since the May 31 uprising.
19eb79a16a938189c6ab7e63c4ba6c25bcb30e82	By destroying the Dantonists, it sowed fear among the members of the assembly, which could easily turn into a riot.
9ceadc97c6058283b34cf17494a7c6fc861e6c28	It seemed to the Government that it had the support of the majority of the assembly.
d084da30c53f98ac33ede232e370b368b24f92f3	It was wrong.
56e48496f138c021b118aae30b362fe309bc8d6f	Having freed the Convention from the pressure of the sections, it remained at the mercy of the assembly.
a495819ba4ee0c518a0e2c2f80151802b5bae04e	There remained only an internal split of the government to destroy it [98].
52b0e2258395ee361e70af404cd0bac8ecfcf521	Thermidorian revolution[edit / edit wiki text]
3b5ea52df3113d454832f3475abb518332a09820	Main article: Thermidorian Revolution
18d0169d289e53fac409863dcea9dc30543fc792	9 thermidor
5e69ca306b8d28c1874625fecefeacfdca4ec443	The main efforts of the Government were aimed at a military victory and the mobilization of all resources began to bear fruit.
80b4dded08504810d232df83101adf79711139a9	By the summer of 1794, the republic had created 14 armies and 8 messidors 2 years (June 26, 1794), a decisive victory was won at Fleurus.
bdbff2bf72c99e43a1fc1d77b954ab51e6b3e027	Belgium was opened to the French troops.
f209589abc2f3945fbe062fc4518803d4ae0189f	On July 10, Pichegru occupied Brussels and joined the Sambro Meuse army of Jourdan.
b2448bd299ebd18b34803dc17adce7bdf9e5e6d7	The revolutionary expansion has begun.
6eec7e4483283947f0015afb2d70c88b5c6ccc8c	But the victories in the war began to cast doubt on the meaning of the continuation of terror [99].
a9a2bed9170aeed891480f228cb860d69a8d3b2f	The centralization of the revolutionary government, the terror and the execution of opponents on the right and on the left led to the solution of all kinds of political differences in the field of plots and intrigues.
ea1d3fc33c2d607b215f4fc4a775eac1a6ac93e3	Centralization led to the concentration of revolutionary justice in Paris.
98bb3dc349adc9e6e15ecfe48cb67c3ab4f03dd7	Representatives on the ground were recalled and many of them, such as Tallien in Bordeaux, Fouche in Lyon, Carrieu in Nantes, felt under immediate threat for the excesses of terror in the province during the suppression of the Federalist uprising and the Vendee war.
518d6165f7257bc9aa9336e9409d2e1a1fced046	Now these excesses seemed to be a compromise of the revolution, and Robespierre did not fail to express this, for example, to Fouche.
551a44a45ce4d995eb165ec482d70bd0c770867d	Disagreements intensified in the Committee of Public Safety, which led to a split in the government[100].
1c80489dfc47a6c6450c3fb0783e9fb9597a8469	After the execution of the Ebertists and Dantonists and the celebration of the festival of the Supreme Being, the figure of Robespierre acquired an exaggerated significance in the eyes of revolutionary France.
62ef8e3a43b513e1e9d5349f4932aeefb2395628	In turn, he did not take into account the sensitivity of his colleagues, which could seem like calculation or power seeking.
cf47bb38fc10e786849de73530fd9cc7b6a37df5	In his last speech at the Convention, on the 8th of Thermidor, he accused his opponents of intrigue and brought the issue of the split to the court of the Convention.
833095be5ee5602b8d221ce18103b0127f48d6de	Robespierre was asked to give the names of the accused, but he refused.
36fed7aec7c74f1634cd58f7d70c083eb8a10eb4	This failure destroyed him, as the deputies suggested that he was demanding carte blanche[101].
371327a76b362735a4ae58833b3ab73f2a14eee2	That night, an uneasy coalition was formed between the radicals and moderates in the assembly, between the deputies who were in immediate danger, the members of the committees and the deputies of the plain.
bf75fccda9bc0c5ca848e7e97aa9674ac1bcfd8d	The next day, on the 9th of Thermidor, Robespierre and his supporters were not allowed to speak, and a decree of accusation was announced against them.
1df4143036f3b44ca8b88ddafe29eac3bc059471	Execution of Robespierre
d2a6961faf403b524d8e754e9492a0cd3b0fd87e	The Paris Commune called for an uprising, released the arrested deputies and mobilized 2-3 thousand national Guards[102].
f0ad9901e03cf6d12b77cd728043e9995f1e8a4d	The night of 9-10 Thermidor was one of the most chaotic in Paris, when the Commune and the Convention competed for the support of the sections.
8c17747d7e4ef5d0ad2b1f01bf434de554139ebc	The Convention declared the rebels outlawed;
9229cd3342ea65f85e83ee7d497f37c9335db71f	Barras was given the task of mobilizing the armed forces of the Convention, and sections of Paris, demoralized by the execution of the Ebertists and the economic policy of the Commune, after some hesitation supported the Convention.
c1fd04efe1d0b576269083bdcdd5579fbe8a151a	The National guardsmen and gunners, gathered by the Commune at the town hall, remained without instructions and dispersed.
e4517a5187cbb0e6b06ec82d9207de74f8fd771b	At about two o'clock in the morning, a column of the Gravillier section, led by Leonard Bourdon, broke into the town hall (French: Hotel de Ville) and arrested the rebels.
952aafdf631f6d2bc2504618232a043330cc4caa	On the evening of the 10th of Thermidor (July 28, 1794), Robespierre, Saint Just, Couton and nineteen of their supporters were executed without trial.
85b0d402398c8c18e02436c75ef9c29ae3e791b1	The next day, seventy one functionaries of the rebellious Commune were executed, the largest mass execution in the history of the revolution [103].
800493175c61798aa09be404ff9f02d6cc21a086	Thermidorian reaction[edit / edit wiki text]
b9de5369d5e3f3c8652763a709d9c7e4282fc8c7	The Uprising of the 1st Prairie
d12103963a55154f194ef3a6a46336f40d79f1f8	The Committee of Public Safety was the executive power and, in the conditions of the war with the first coalition, the internal civil war, was endowed with broad prerogatives.
53368ccce546e40c6282ed851e74715a462a1c37	The Convention confirmed and elected its composition every month c, ensuring the centralization and permanent composition of the executive power.
743620a240cfef62f0d59b45ee856ac40b3d20d4	Now, after the military victories and the fall of the Robespierreists, the Convention refused to confirm such broad powers, especially since the threat of uprisings from the Sans Culottes was eliminated.
d3c123060df51e151c47f666f917381b82487674	It was decided that none of the members of the steering committees should hold office for more than four months and its composition should be updated by a third monthly.
a99ca78d03728dd9e18161d1c11c09d656af3719	The Committee was limited only to the field of warfare and diplomacy.
da424153a0673c2acb0d375398efb8a8439640e8	Now there will be a total of sixteen committees with equal rights.
fd05e324fb52874d23862abc4f0c0c0477940a46	Realizing the danger of fragmentation, the Thermidorians, taught by experience, were even more afraid of monopolization of power.
518b69ba3f7370fe992862feac16fa513ef17e3c	Within a few weeks, the revolutionary government was dismantled [104].
da02f961843226b49db7fcf54cbd11ea1e6dfb79	The weakening of power led to the weakening of terror, the subordination of which ensured national mobilization.
31f72b430ef0dd1e12315818e97164a42194e2b2	After the 9th Thermidor, the Jacobin Club was closed, the surviving Girondists returned to the Convention.
380f4b7a5a8b6f019070c76cded7c6bf1e1dc18f	At the end of August, the Paris Commune was abolished and replaced by the" administrative commission of the police " (French: commission administrative de police).
bc8417fa1e50f9b3b1cf29183e19adff1889fff4	In June 1795, the word "revolutionary" itself, the word symbol of the entire Jacobin period, was banned [105].
146a1e53019f8ba30af44b01a5b53d36fe19d682	The Thermidorians canceled the measures of state intervention in the economy, eliminated the "maximum" in December 1794.
0d894653dde441b610158ab29767bf603b831f43	The result was a rise in prices, inflation, and disruption of food supply[106].
75ec929ac8c819992c9722e835eef12a6c6e69cf	The wealth of the nouveau riche countered the disasters of the lower and middle classes: they feverishly profited, greedily used wealth, unceremoniously advertising it.
bdb0706f1f7d2c7e7aa8a35fe78cc1680bff6ccf	In 1795, driven to famine, the population of Paris twice raised uprisings (12 germinal and 1 prairie) with the demands of "bread and the constitution of 1793", but the Convention suppressed the uprisings with the help of military force [107].
cadf12cfc2eb04b9e026ae455b3a06058eeecf68	The Thermidorians destroyed the revolutionary government, but nevertheless reaped the fruits of national defense.
74e95b32e78131c6c47a7a858be1d35d4504532e	In the autumn, Holland was occupied and in January 1795 the Batavian Republic was proclaimed.
1720ee337efdeec3ee19ee5dc6262d7d21660024	At the same time, the collapse of the first coalition began.
f8dbe6a3c754cc0be1f8c93406aa9f238d82fcee	On April 5, 1795, the Peace of Basel with Prussia was concluded and on July 22, peace with Spain was concluded.
3c012146f5efc6e6e029e80a3c4cd2d0995ff8c7	Now the republic declared the left bank of the Rhine its "natural border" and annexed Belgium.
8e04f56c1a50d9e7ef5ece20b8629cb51d6579dd	Austria refused to recognize the Rhine as the eastern border of France and the war resumed.
4cb28dd537801ad9fc50311ef2143c30e6b097ec	13 vandemieres
29416d2cd7bbab6cfdc7adfca5ee6adc356dfa24	On August 22, 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution.
00059faa785481acac80354b181ba8292851e66e	Legislative power was entrusted to two chambers — the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders, a significant electoral qualification was introduced.
995faeb384d2a4ad76b114d14da95f11fe9f4e19	Executive power was placed in the hands of the Directory — five directors elected by the Council of Elders from candidates submitted by the Council of Five Hundred.
1a41948c517763eec802166b794abfbbce2cbbdf	Fearing that the elections to the new legislative councils would give a majority to the opponents of the republic, the Convention decided that two thirds of the "five hundred" and "elders" would be necessarily taken from the members of the Convention for the first time[108].
7269d96c34993b9df3366ec9509f92b1b6d32fda	When this measure was announced, the royalists in Paris itself raised an uprising on the 13th Vendemière (October 5, 1795), in which the main participation belonged to the central sections of the city, who believed that the Convention violated the "sovereignty of the people".
d440601fe039cb34b928593d821278c20def8830	Most of the capital was in the hands of the rebels; a central rebel committee was formed and the Convention was besieged.
c71ac350b65fcbbba42cdee415752d9f62cfd37a	Barras attracted the young general Napoleon Bonaparte, a former Robespierreist, as well as other generals Cartaud, Brun, Loison, Dupont.
a03da63d639ea83c88eca1436022729b119a6cc0	Murat captured the cannons from the camp at Sablon, and the rebels, having no artillery, were driven back and scattered [109].
5aed358fba5e5d12ca80cede16b42b022976a4ce	On October 26, 1795, the Convention dissolved itself, giving way to the councils of five hundred and elders and the Directory[pr 3].
98a9c1d0e22215f0f02a89cee981915f18606253	Directory[edit / edit wiki text]
d3f9052f683a25c56c37ddb4f22a3a3d90cc446a	Main article: Directory
f15c28a1324c239c0330c312f71780d1111789eb	The events since 1789 have split the country politically, ideologically and religiously.
f9b6624a029703178b5dd8b40b4e3a2e750ca1dc	Having excluded the people and the aristocracy, the regime depended on a narrow circle of electors provided for by the censorship of the constitution of the third year, and they were moving more and more to the right[112].
5f02af4be8a9477d4b4435d3b81fb2e3a0d86251	Attempt to stabilize[edit / edit wiki text]
d07e03fa8e74340b421aa605871e9efcffabf3c2	Gracchus Babeuf
1aeeda82098a743f935b6f79f0ef804dd6bd0afc	On the 30th of Pluviosis IV of the year (February 19, 1796), the issue of banknotes was discontinued.
251a9c58fa957363c9f0a22fc95a04c19e1bcd77	The government decided to return to the specie again.
b792edc157ff9b961ada70d9cef5e59eb4c5246a	The result was the embezzlement of most of the remaining national wealth in the interests of speculators[113].
72ea38e758898e8557586bf7593ab848284be2f1	In rural areas, banditry has spread so much that even mobile columns of the National Guard and the threat of the death penalty have not led to an improvement.
697550b79ebca68f278013918e0935bdefb2d363	In Paris, many would have died of hunger if the Directory had not continued distributing food [114].
a32f38bf366e8bfa7f4b137114be58eb6cafd6bc	This led to the resumption of Jacobin agitation.
53cd57f5ad0f1566d97ecc5e19f3527b6dd87864	But this time the Jacobins resorted to conspiracies and Gracchus Babeuf heads the "secret rebel directory" of the Conspiracy of Equals (fr. Conjuration des Égaux)[114]. In the winter of 1795-96, an alliance of former Jacobins was formed with the aim of overthrowing the Directory.
bdc81dfc44068eca898c121d28c3d3ede8fe79f1	The movement "in the name of equality" was organized in the form of a number of concentric levels; an internal rebel committee was formed.
1245d30f4de31eb2fcf915b8cecf3c6c36da6f60	The plan was original and the poverty of the Parisian suburbs was appalling, but the Sans Culottes, demoralized and intimidated after the prairie, did not respond to the appeals of the Babouvists[115].
4bd90d6fb9192522acc07696b28713c939c66f6a	The conspirators were betrayed by a police spy.
2bf4685c440982bef3f3c36b45386e277c85f1a5	One hundred and thirty one people were arrested and thirty were shot on the spot;
80b995cc9f574dd1c6db970ee6ef2d4d931dc77d	Babeuf's associates were brought to trial;
404bbeb8b5bb03a0fe258fb58cd3eb38c56d8083	Babeuf and Dartet were guillotined a year later[116].
9c41931254d4c75c856b3a8bc6d452f84e4b344c	Napoleon on the Arkolsky Bridge
3a8e128257db19daec7dada331e532e8e7ab8e53	The republic was unable to strike at England, it remained to break Austria.
50dfba12601b830abff00cef406d55d888b481f7	A series of victories followed in a dazzling campaign — Lodi (May 10, 1796), Castiglione (August 15), Arcole (November 15-17), Rivoli (January 14, 1797).
80cb20799948a33b9c62fa26f403eaf2e2440d62	According to the constitution, the first election of a third of the deputies, including the "eternal" ones, in the germinal of the V year (March April 1797), turned out to be a success for the monarchists.
828216e94d456e4812af1e234ed98ee6fb5d48bd	The Republican majority of Thermidorians has disappeared.
904c42895f24d0027c5b9a80ed5468daf8322d49	In the councils of the five hundred and the elders, the majority belonged to the opponents of the Directory[118].
229a45af90b1e1ad804076cb2b0fda4dce29fc60	The rightists in the Soviets decided to emasculate the power of the Directory, depriving it of financial powers.
5af1f898cdfd308aaad8630d90d3047bce2f0197	In the absence of instructions in the Constitution of the third year on the issue of the emergence of such a conflict, the Directory, with the support of Bonaparte and Gauche, decided to resort to force[119].
ac07a242b055f7a7e316b78692d365a102957771	On 18 Fryuktidor V of the year (September 4, 1797), Paris was placed under martial law.
e790bd54f811ed6e4ceafed004225d41a733ed50	The decree of the Directory announced that all those who called for the restoration of the monarchy would be shot on the spot.
a0508d76f2e74c6b4960112c31f0f6a6cf744e36	In 49 departments, the elections were annulled, 177 deputies were deprived of their powers, and 65 were sentenced to the" dry guillotine " — deportation to Guiana.
9e3a46feb4f9f6a5c3b0053bd99fe7f2427a86c3	Emigrants who returned voluntarily were asked to leave France within two weeks under the threat of death[120].
a30090871cbbdce52579dbcc83f46fe9c6b20ef3	The crisis of 1799[edit / edit wiki text]
bcfa50ae1584174ad9d89e9b5c3c679d554de262	The coup of 18 fryuktidor is a turn in the history of the regime established by the Thermidorians — it put an end to the constitutional and liberal experiment.
9d0f96e0d005532d84a5ef030aa73388f10cdcfe	A crushing blow was dealt to the monarchists, but at the same time the influence of the army was much strengthened[121].
5dfa4ac6037bebe12bfe7e6045e7c3b80fec95da	After the Treaty of Campo Formio, only Great Britain opposed France.
3410ffacbec490fe9d272e245106f5f78cef4ac2	Instead of focusing its attention on the remaining enemy and maintaining peace on the continent, the Directory began a policy of continental expansion, which destroyed all opportunities for stabilization in Europe.
809a24a7ddf7d4fc1079ce4fa024bffcf405f5c9	The Egyptian campaign followed, which added to the glory of Bonaparte.
038c045d5b9c49b2b830bf71f3ec78e5f45ea149	France surrounded itself with "daughter" republics, satellites, politically dependent and economically exploited: the Batavian Republic, the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland, the Cisalpine, Roman and Parthenopean (Naples) republics in Italy[122].
ebbcc58935371866598efb0a4b673f59d137d6d5	In the spring of 1799, the war becomes general.
6500a466d428711e1c1e185810fc4b20ca1de23b	The second coalition united Britain, Austria, Naples and Sweden.
f60a82c789cd57cbc835b1aa1228d17ab47fe7bb	The Egyptian campaign brought Turkey and Russia into its ranks[123].
6aa27384e336c7e2c71b625aa7a1b90eba051ca9	Military operations began for the Directory extremely unsuccessfully.
4368ff94ac4430772a2263f0b16b08a01958c572	Soon Italy and part of Switzerland were lost and the republic had to defend its "natural borders".
f7802e52ebc6e7071eaca5a487e63b5f64639b71	As in 1792-93, France faced the threat of invasion[124].
d02f3fff35603f588fea7375b4fc0d61c206aa58	The danger awakened the national energy and the last revolutionary effort.
42be09e47a4c227248e4d9a4432a28a885dca28a	On 30 Prairie of the seventh year (June 18, 1799), the soviets re elected the members of the Directory, bringing "real" Republicans to power and carried out measures that somewhat resembled those of the second year.
bb83cc3aa72c9e2f9d57e56948226357e245ab10	At the suggestion of General Jourdan, a draft of five ages was announced.
733fbdee27fa1c6750c97b23bf5f6b608b7bb9a9	A compulsory loan of 100 million francs was introduced.
6a7e4387c59d3a0a4ecb551098cc1525db6ad6e6	On July 12, the law on hostages from among former nobles was adopted[125].
915c15c2b0735b7a146916af98558e6da936b411	Military failures led to royalist uprisings in the south and the resumption of civil war in the Vendee.
ea32a62b3e5e83b9f339f548034e00204081be54	At the same time, the fear of the return of the shadow of Jacobinism led to the decision to end once and for all the possibility of a repetition of the times of the republic of 1793[126].
bab1ea9dad53b104910e83514b340c697639bb79	18 brumera[edit / edit wiki text]
80f784e4a203f039b7b117e7011ffdfa98744cde	Main article: The Coup of 18 brumaire
7a56adea0f0859babe263a7cf9cb34ba2063f585	General Bonaparte in the Council of Five Hundred
581a7a08ac563f22ae8d3c7b6071f2df573ab724	By this time, the military situation had changed.
7d107e2280f6b12be1221d0913e9603e77cd88fa	The very success of the coalition in Italy led to a change of plans.
7fd405bdfb69530ed4e92db6de9651c9f24c58ee	It was decided to transfer Austrian troops from Switzerland to Belgium and replace them with Russian troops with the aim of invading France.
c1c2cc359294d761b5180111c6d096de06b98d59	The transfer was made so poorly that it allowed the French troops to re occupy Switzerland and defeat the opponents in parts[127].
582a64967bc45807b076feeca1c4be8722dacb1f	In this alarming situation, the Brumerians are planning another, more decisive, coup.
08e1026079cfd1ba3b0190e9cd63dff67e9d1a95	Once again, as in fryuktidor, it is necessary to call the army to purge the assembly[128].
badfee2cffb888a4a3d201d8b7fd5488f7d1ef9f	The conspirators needed a "saber".
e4c404eaf006f2dc49af08d7cd36489e0d382a3a	They turned to the Republican generals.
19e82b1972bb9677cbe61377718909404332d6e3	The first choice, General Joubert was killed at Novi.
bff498793f3001bdca196da7e9cb3f32e9d837b6	At this moment, the news of Bonaparte's arrival in France came[129].
d63fa217527954768ae1d9614dfc9d36c04a6adb	From Frejus to Paris, Bonaparte was hailed as a savior.
5a1d1e08d4b8749119b2fd75dd507494afa4b6ab	Two of the directors, Sieyes and Ducos, themselves conspirators, resigned, and the third, Barras, was forced to do so.
1794a764ae84615a14007f3185161ecf219f5c0b	The Council of Five Hundred was difficult to convince so easily, and when Bonaparte entered the chamber of sessions without an invitation, there were shouts of "Outlaw!"
94b63431bd38c11eee3a805fd7b123c0174f95f0	Napoleon lost his composure, but his brother Lucien saved the situation by calling the guards to the meeting room.
36ed98f2458081da8de3888cbd2ecf821d8a2ec8	The Council of Five Hundred was expelled from the chamber, the Directory was dissolved, and all powers were entrusted to the provisional government of three consuls Sieyes, Roger Ducos and Bonaparte[130].
43a10dc8c3e841f9f7b01fbb770a02865e9e3be6	The rumors that came from Saint Cloud on the evening of the 19th brumaire did not surprise Paris at all.
10c0fa3ccb8e79e17c9348aad4b56b72096ed36d	Military failures, which they were able to cope with only at the last moment, the economic crisis, the return of the civil war all this spoke of the failure of the entire period of stabilization under the Directory[131].
b1902dc7144edc1f1d4b6b8258ef55e9b9c7dc8f	The coup of 18 Brumaire is considered the end of the Great French Revolution.
d97cf6f597163682f8f70ef7f505cef14ef8fe7f	The results of the revolution[edit / edit wiki text]
4696fda8c89766cad0545b4212828692edea5476	As the American historian R. Palmer points out, the common point of view is that " half a century after 1789, ... the conditions in France would be the same even if no revolution had taken place"[132].
6852f97d605a7ea0c95c0a6da0f395468ec5e288	Alexis Tocqueville wrote that the collapse of the Old Order would have occurred without any revolution, but only gradually.
8f0b3bbe08fc4946373037aa75d860c196f8a720	Pierre Huber noted that many remnants of the Old Order remained after the revolution and flourished again under the rule of the Bourbons, established since 1815[133].
29331a230b2c5ac601653add8ba94a5b40e2a721	Historiography[edit / edit wiki text]
281b637121a42dc65a080bb01b5afc8bb6d1174e	Character[edit / edit wiki text]
fb82724a7ef88bc2c7d50c1d5a6e506f3a573fbd	Check the neutrality.
47e3b4ab64ff96fd3b3a6a720b1279d81ae0810e	There should be details on the discussion page.
e0010eb4b6bd1abe7a50127507ccb3479f36239c	Marxist historians (as well as a number of non Marxist historians [pr 4]) claim that the Great French Revolution was "bourgeois" in nature, it consisted in replacing the feudal system with the capitalist one, and the leading role in this process was played by the "bourgeois class", which overthrew the "feudal aristocracy"during the revolution.
9a049e721709ac34cf5053a685754f7feaaeb922	Many historians disagree with this[135] [136][137], indicating that:
1d7980ae9d4b9ff737af49b0dbb95236ff1f51ca	feudalism in France disappeared several centuries before the revolution (see the Old Order).
97debce493d14fc38174505d61a7dd92e0053027	At the same time, it should be noted that the absence of "feudalism" is not an argument against the "bourgeois" character of the Great French Revolution.
b9ab5d78d88d42be9dc35707d9a27bc0a4bc5436	With the corresponding absence of" feudalism", the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were bourgeois in nature (See the revolution of 1830 and the revolution of 1848); capitalism in France was sufficiently developed even before the revolution, and industry was well developed [pr 5].
740d7500798750dadf0b00dfb2c05fd0f9f39e93	At the same time, during the years of the revolution, industry fell into a severe decline — that is, instead of giving an impetus to the development of capitalism, in fact, the revolution slowed down its development[138] the French aristocracy actually included not only large landowners, but also large capitalists[139].
691e10e85625991b46e318ffaa1271a6c1755306	Supporters of this view do not see the class division in Louis XVI's France.
33d249afadeb915ae5a7bdddd8002d0a11a67a25	The abolition of all class privileges, including taxation, was the essence of the conflict between the estates in the States General in 1789 and was enshrined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen[31].
889e6f414c9c0ec778271fdd0a3c90577c1fc38c	Meanwhile, as R. Mandru points out, the bourgeoisie for many decades preceding the revolution bought aristocratic titles (which were officially sold), which led to the washing out of the old hereditary aristocracy[140]; for example, in the Paris Parliament in the XVIII century, only 6% of its 590 members belonged to the descendants of the old aristocracy that existed before 1500, and 94% of the members of parliament belonged to families that received a noble title during the XVI—XVIII centuries[141].
1937afd041b42a9a33454d2d598bf3131a91edc9	This "washing out" of the old aristocracy is evidence of the rising influence of the bourgeoisie.
c81226e034bb26c61a57ded64aa095e02dd6a466	It remained only to formalize this politically; however, this required the expulsion from the country or the physical destruction of that part of the bourgeoisie that had previously become part of the aristocracy and, in fact, formed the majority of the latter; it was the French aristocracy that imposed capitalist (market) relations during the 25-30 years preceding 1789[pr 6];
8872dd3135e8a427e1aa07c9f0fa9fac8bd4cf53	"Again, however, there are serious flaws in such an argument," writes Lewis Gwine.
0f4fd9d35b83a1a27ab0c3ccefe5b51c65e52e93	"It must be remembered that the aristocracy owned most of the land under which coal, iron ore and other mineral deposits were located; their participation is often considered as just another way to increase the income from their land holdings.
16cddfa60a669820767b14327ac1f3327f3a12ec	Only the aristocratic minority managed industrial enterprises directly.
4f7cb41f31f2c7b1e0e1886d2adab481053b9e27	Recent studies show a difference in "economic behavior".
ee386bea6657f5fe523bcd1a3556575ce65dc2d8	While the" bourgeois "of the third estate invested huge sums in mines, for example, concentrated production in several main places, introduced new methods of coal mining, the aristocrat, having "feudal" control over the land where the most productive mines were located, worked through his agents and managers, who constantly advised him not to involve himself too deeply in a modern industrial enterprise (les entreprises en grand).
f979a6b2920eb0e14ea03e6592937cf74a27e300	Property here, from the point of view of land or shares, is not a key issue; it is more a question of "how" investments, technical innovations and "management" of industrial enterprises took place"[142]; at the end of the existence of the Old Order and further during the revolution, there were mass uprisings of peasants and townspeople against the methods of economic liberalism (free trade)used in France[143] [144], against large private enterprises in cities [145][146] (at the same time, workers and Sans — culottes, who were part of the bourgeoisie of that time, took an active part in these uprisings[137][147]); (and against fencing, construction of irrigation systems and modernization in the countryside[144]) during the revolution, the "bourgeoisie" that Marxist historians mean [pr 7] - not merchants, entrepreneurs and financiers, and mostly officials and representatives of the liberal professions[148], which is also recognized by a number of "neutral" historians[149].
01f01460ed465641e06a0a92a1985faac09d4204	Among non Marxist historians, there are different views on the nature of the Great French Revolution.
1987439e0e5fac98dd2cd2f68cad5e1db2d699b1	The traditional [source not specified 244 days] view that arose in the late XVIII early XIX centuries. (Sieyes, Barnave, Guizot) and supported by some modern historians (P. Huber), considers the revolution as a nationwide uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppression of the masses[150] [139], hence the revolutionary terror against the privileged classes, the desire of revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with the Old Order, and build a new free and democratic society.
04a8800a1dfcb7cd4d857c975c1301d5c6e9e347	From these aspirations flowed the main slogans of the revolution freedom, equality, fraternity.
d078846acf4cd2a8cdbc47976e38cb9440ab2a63	According to the second [source not specified 244 days] view, the revolution as a whole (A. Cobben[151]) or by the basic nature of protest movements
5b5003e538c4221cd94279ad39a530132397d35d	(V. Tomsinov[source not specified 254 days] B. Moore[152], F. Fuhrer[153] had an anti capitalist character, or represented an explosion of mass protest against the spread of free market relations and large enterprises (I. Wallerstein, V. Huneke, A. Milward, S. Saul) [154][155].
9bdb2aa6ea83e22e29e52df111ab2021414c713e	According to G. Roode, this is a representation of radical and left wing radical views[156].
9b5ca4b0544544944c9be4472958ee6c1955fdfd	At the same time, the Marxist view of the Great French Revolution is widely spread among left wing politicians,such as Louis Blanc, Karl Marx, Jean Jaures, Peter Kropotkin, who developed this view in their writings.
0c15a3833da18682df20cb112e492d115a010195	Thus, one of the authors adjacent to the Marxist trend[157] Daniel Guerin, a French anarchist, in "La lutte des classes sous la Première République, 1793-1797" expressed the neo — Trotskyist view[158] — "The French revolution had a dual character, bourgeois and permanent, and carried the beginnings of a proletarian revolution", "anti — capitalist" - generalizes the views of Guerin Wallerstein[159], and he adds that "Guerin managed to unite both Sobul and Furet against himself," that is, representatives of both the "classical" and "revisionist" trends - "They both reject such an "implicit" representation of history," Wallerstein writes[160].
9fbc7bdc93da875463bedbe4a9c8d1f624a98969	However, among the supporters of the "anti Marxist" view — mostly professional historians and sociologists (A. Cobban, B. Moore, F. Furet, A. Milward, S. Saul, I. Wallerstein, V. Tomsinov[citation 254 days]).
a9c3ee215408f7b2c31f830ddc1dc003d4ecd8e7	F. Furet, D. rishe, A. Milward, S. Saul believe that, by its nature or causes of the French revolution had much in common with the 1917 revolution in Russia [159][161]
16da17488ab70293b5029bd5dea178539645592f	There are other opinions about the nature of the revolution.
1f743fe3d9b89d273fa098c08a9ba4a3458cb34d	For example, historians F. Fuhrer and D. Richet consider the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between various groups that replaced each other several times during 1789-1799[162], which led to a change in the political system, but did not lead to significant changes in the social and economic system[163].
36480b082830cc6d09dbcc12069fb91424a12fdb	There is a view of the revolution as an explosion of social antagonism between the poor and the rich[164].
8b6ad5a57de6f1b5501f85579a2ec878bf022871	Songs of revolutionary France[edit / edit wiki text]
94ba6125262593ba051f54f29e0e7d23367f0f11	"Sa ira ""La Marseillaise"
e5e75b048843f13e953b1fb2a96d95fb08e488bd	The revolution in philately[edit / edit wiki text]
f92cf534444ae24b51e8f280179170592c57b281	Postage stamps of the USSR
b7499f82b7577a6ecdaceecbf6ff513a704762ce	200 years of the Great French Revolution
f170a80ec41e469487ddc9c7e1d9288cb890abef	The Capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789
18e69453323d62020de73c0492a6a8340b77a1af	J. P. Marat, J. J. Danton, M. Robespierre
28f4c538892cb4fb2016834d70cf4b239607d165	► The Great French Revolution
088cfaef71e574541ed1eddeca84c90cdeabc515	Simolin, Ivan Matveyevich the Russian Envoy in Paris (March 14, 1784 February 7, 1792) The French Revolution (film) (1989)
276f2659aea1002204de147fded89f991b7d3acb	Historical drawings of the events of the revolution
7ebf20a3f0300242446455c31452ca188ad33464	Цифры The figures of belonging to a particular grouping have changed throughout the existence of the Convention
bb3c532cf37018a1b31f65daea04da340785b4ca	"The leading role in the Convention belonged to the Republican "parties", between which, however, there was an acute struggle on almost all issues of domestic and foreign policy.
93a1dd73b548904c6d4c328818f88da8523ec536	The right wing was occupied by the Girondins (approximately 140 people), among them such major political figures as brissot, Vernio, Guide, Pétion, Buzeaud, and other...
061eaf12160de1959bbe621f1bb715ca62f3b15c	Left wing "party" Montagnards (first little more than 110 people, over time their number increased to about 150), represented a motley conglomeration of people from different social and economic views...
d4f2b67f0c28dd0bc1271f22a0979fc0fc46d4aa	Between the two warring groups was a "swamp" or "plain" — passive majority (about 500 members), allied to the one, the other."[54] ↑ Based on the latest terror research:
baa40e27c75583315717d59945c360fb935b16f8	"Of the 17,000 victims distributed across specific geographical areas: 52% in the Vendee, 19% in the southeast, 10% in the capital and 13% in the rest of France.
9c93f77ea0003f1f01a807c97378f939701d6647	The difference between the zones of shocks and a small proportion of fairly rural areas.
ad425db6e9d89e4ba28b08ac0939bbd8864fd25c	The contrast between the departments becomes more vivid.
7b26bcb1894b92bbb8b7e469e0eca717c54ec250	Some of them have suffered more, like the inner Loire, the Vendee, than the Maine and Loire, the Rhone and Paris.
374512c10c5b045a395a3ddf3e9fc9ffe451adf5	No executions were recorded in six departments; thirty one had fewer than 10;
12a682508359e3b168df02a094d9c532d8fba8b4	32 had fewer than 100; and only 18 had more than 1,000.
00fc651ef0bfe39f75f8f365dcac42fca9f907e5	The charges of rebellion and treason were by far, the most frequent grounds for accusation (78%), followed by federalism (10%), counter revolutionary statements (9%) and economic crimes (1.25%).
d9cdee036d773b5a670c17eeee53e789d8a999f7	Artisans, shopkeepers. employees and ordinary people made up the largest contingent (31%), concentrated in Lyon, Marseille and neighboring cities.
534ac1b36a511a17b2c587507e6f6abd741b65ad	The peasants are represented to a greater extent (28%) due to the uprising in the Vendee than federalism and the commercial bourgeoisie.
44f92232e061335d3a4858e1635eafe40e17fe5e	Nobles (8.25%) and priests (6.5%), who seemed to make up relatively fewer victims, were actually in a higher proportion of victims than other social categories.
085a02e13b431f5d34957e37027a61bcb42bd5f7	In the most peaceful regions, they were the only victims.
8bc0a2f5c5f05378ef06e2f0f0457ca46dae8908	In addition ,the "Great Terror" is hardly different from the rest.
355637440c921bf5d7cfde8ec59d098fc462efdf	In June and July 1794, it accounted for 14% of executions, as opposed to 70% in the period from October 1793 to May 1794, and 3.5% until September 1793, if you add executions without trial and death in prison, then a total of apparently 50,000 victims of Terror throughout France, which is 2 out of every 1000 population.
8aa60a640aead5c3b2158e77d0abb24ef16d19d6	" [89] ↑ 4 Brumaire of the year IV, just before the end of its powers, the Convention declared a general amnesty for "cases related exclusively to the revolution"[109].
d36beaa5a615c935932338ca606a32d9eeb0f8f1	At the same meeting, it was decided to rename the Place de la Revolution (French place de la Revolution) to the Place de la Concorde (French place de la Concorde)[110]
1f4ee5713f1ea9ea5245c7e23b83e4462c391211	According to the historian R. Palmer, for the first time the thesis about the Great French Revolution as a "bourgeois revolution" in its modern sense was put forward and developed by Louis Blanc in his 12 volume work "History of the French Revolution" by R. Palmer.
bc66444e1f31baa94ce28666ab5bdca40116438b	The World of the French Revolution.
d2394ccf2aa39c6833fe2220b1df8e1cd3b370b0	NY, 1971, p. 262 ↑ As indicated by F.Braudel, capitalism in agriculture in France in the 18th century was less developed than in England, but more than in Germany.
f8a96f252d0efd3c668d1e64ea9d03a541f95bac	During the 18th century, industry developed rapidly.
bc0f6f871dad89ebde030ade4f677840eea1cd5d	Everywhere, in every city and even in every village in France, there were industrial enterprises that employed a significant part of the country's population.
53caece2004d979f929946f600545209c5a03d7c	So, at the end of the 18th century, only 5 provinces of the north of France employed 1.5 million workers in the textile industry (with the total population of the country - 25 million people).
298f0fbd8c0d185787996b4e611c5dd17ce03907	Fernand Braudel.
dfb855f4944ea5d585dfe1415fe81c7e1ed5b856	Civilisation materielle, economie et capitalisme, XV XVIIIe siècle.
885c9def7428700b425019b4d2f49f86150fa4cf	Tome 2.
bbe2c924ce6914325b09264686a9a92faf65f656	Le jeux de l’echange.
ad2733675ff25f3413e579af5cd681b2240e4b67	Paris, 1979, p. 256, 269 ↑ The introduction of market relations began in 1763-1771 under Louis XV and continued in subsequent years, up to 1789 (see the Old Order).
37c4b14f48c4f53d8293583b7b18e4a6229989ad	The leading role in this was played by liberal economists (physiocrats), who were almost all representatives of the aristocracy (including the head of the government, Physiocrat Turgot), and kings Louis XV and Louis XVI were active supporters of these ideas.
cde29222e4276622b434599b41a293757fc66da0	See Kaplan S. Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the reign of Louis XV. Hague, 1976 ↑ The concept of "bourgeoisie" in 18th century France differed from the current understanding of this term.
257dcbc1ef244c3d76a56763ea52717255be021e	The then French bourgeoisie meant approximately what is understood today by the "middle class" and included very different groups of people by occupation.
bd6704a79c6506da8ded0e6faadd1d172a875ede	R. Palmer. the World of the French Revolution.
a8134d09ddf8c5f94e19610decea80c20dc4a90a	NY,1971, p.258, P.Goubert. L'Ancien Regime.
4a45a8644d77c6fae88c0bcb70de65bb9f83e8db	T.1: La Societe.
b8e6fa8a1d68d8ba410b58ba2c1b18aec208bf15	Paris,1969, pp.
0821c4412613fc76a8282b407b2e4d366c9500d8	218-219, A.Milward and S.Saul.
164e9237866f85233f064b071522a0d043bdd2b3	The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780-1870, Totowa, 1973, p. 265
2eb56be3c2d93cdab0c52e677e3167dfddb30ac5	Sources
b73aaa212cb239a68896ea1afd4540e66068efaa	↑ 1 2 Revunenkov, 1982, p.
bf0843fcae9ce53f4a85018c9d5da3ae73df954b	66 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p.
4ba58f27ab56b1e55d69001f381a4848b3a4ae40	87 ↑ Lefebvre, 1989, p.
7d77613d08290193963e40a0208e0a7148f38d54	22 ↑ Furet, 1996, p.
725cfbbc00d81803bb9c9d6540b62f74e1607b6e	40 ↑ Lefebvre, 1989, p.
e9356d47823829050591a1af7ad86d9a754db866	23 ↑ Vovelle, 1984, p.
7e7834782d505ff47b27f1f045627025cf2a2e56	76 ↑ Vovelle, 1984, p.
f327414cef320af7f22c301d9e778534c35f54d0	77 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p.
9b1b3a70e7b6c2a28819ea8eeea5a81586377c87	99 ↑ Lefebvre, 1989, p.
2b1d601c0ae14ae65ab0767c6d098fd3730073c9	27 ^ Revunenkov, 1982, pp.
751f27b2fda10d62bd7b4d0a2568c353815792d8	57-59 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p.
d5c3d26c5dcae4f5f9d65cce53b8ae8141c82075	108-109 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p. 125 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p.
7fe909483f28476b960049edbaaa71664c4abe7b	126-127 ↑ Furet, 1996, pp.
30ab3bd72748596a8a13a7351fceaec4c317c669	45-51 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p.
a11551b329579966a6aa5ff3dbcf742d6d818c26	103-105 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p. 130 ^ a b Furet, 1996, pp.
1426d13e7584d22f03aa7869afa6a12ddb8f4820	63 ↑ Vovelle, 1984, p. 102 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 114 ↑ Hampson, 1988, p.
e1762de56ccecc8449531e4d02923dd71a7dbe9c	67 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 115 ↑ Vovelle, 1984, p. 103 ↑ Thompson, 1959, p.
fb73c17d41278fa1619ced48ed320fe0e473d4f5	55 ↑ Furet, 1996, p.
6890f57f59717f092222abd077723fe435ad932a	67 ↑ Hampson, 1988, p.
456ba74b061e33341ed572b70babf7726ef42ad1	74 Рев Revunenkov, 1982, p.
0f814368eabbd3096921c21c6976665497f1b4d8	71 ↑ 1 2 Hampson, 1988, p.
f18c3628f3d47bb30476208adb183ba0cbd8bb3d	89 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 128 ↑ Badak, 1998, p .
26a3cd6e8e4333d24ce2d66a175cf86441f25351	14, 16 ↑ Vovelle, 1984, p.
d0178aba877399987aa8a6e6729cb3d6312caa65	112-114 ↑ 1 2 Revunenkov, 1982, p.
015d26471f0506c04664297dac66bff5ed68b2b9	80 ↑ Rude, 1991, p.
d21cedfd9d44bb6830e600836a7271ac2fc7e7bb	57 ↑ Furet, 1996, p.
414b5105514c1d0f80294ac6dc648d71dbd77e53	79 ↑ Soboul, 1974, p. 156 ↑ Revunenkov, 1982, p.
65f48349517dfd2234f1e03c771254510300adda	85 Рев Revunenkov, 1982, p. 107 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p.
22de59b726d6829c1ee12b4290c245c2f8ab2e4f	125-126 ↑ Rude, 1991, p.
6a8fc4bd29f3bc757094228d06243248e0cd20fd	63 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p.
be94a8f893a5e25be458ca04392f21ba3ac4b2d4	198-202 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p.
138236044019e3625eb49bd30015a0850deadc9c	144-148 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 176 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p. 222 retrieved Revunenkov, 1982, p. 128 ↑ Rude, 1991, p.
95c2835915142a899f094272e254435d9bbd23f4	74 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 210 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p.
86c09a14f33d068b2cdcaf3debc26c106eff82f1	135-137 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 222 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 246 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p. 144 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 238 ↑ Lefebvre, 1962, p. 235 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 262 ^ Revunenkov, 1982, p. 207 ↑ Chudinov, 2006, p. 297 ↑ Rude, 1991, p.
a37bfe36b6dce7606887338498605162eae4c1cf	80 ↑ Hampson, 1988, p. 157 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p.
6909a49e502522b730388f0511991c0398402c36	199-202 ↑ Rude, 1991, p.
68e7f1eb46296b305474f68a675493c5bf77785a	82 ↑ Jordan, 1979, p. 172 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p. 196 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p.
1024f01d9a38480aa8238577742694f76a89428f	176-178 ^ a b Soboul 1974, p. 309 ↑ Chudinov, 2006, p. 300 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p. 189 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
271865246d0f22685db376f8a70ace52b0e0f8d7	68 ↑ 1 2 Lefebvre, 1963, p.
447a6cca6d498867f3352146214690156e23f7a1	55 ↑ Mathiez, 1929, p. 336 ↑ Soboul, 1974, p. 319 ↑ Bouloiseau, 1983, p.
e1e01b4d077166060b4e32ed2877a754706e2bc9	67 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 316 ↑ Mathiez, 1929, p. 338 ↑ ADO, 1990, p. 238 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p.
19e59f0617d81c2721eb461efe766cf4ea5dd765	323-325 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
542b790dc960f9625400153a1e9794a66787dfeb	64 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p.
490ddc0adf2301155c788ef134806a456a20bfc4	328-330 ↑ 1 2 Furet 1996, p. 134 ↑ Bouloiseau, 1983, p. 100 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 100 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 104 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 101 ^ a b Thompson 1959, p. 426 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
ec63c86a1860c54e444c5868d9daf41be71564b3	96 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
ad9636a34e59a2e8dfb37522cf1a081c1358a8e8	98 ↑ Soboul, 1974, p. 341 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
80a46c81b3f7b02db3a49f28091e4f8655b4eea4	71 ↑ Furet, 1996, p. 135 ↑ Greer, 1935, p.
1055457d5bf0e993e62c82118e4b8b25ed4e32c2	19 ^ a b Furet 1996, p. 138 ↑ Bouloiseau, 1983, p. 210 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 354 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
6075c2f3c5d96299b1f2fcaa3b3df6bf4af8dec3	61 ^ a b Thompson 1959, p. 442 ↑ Chudinov, 2006, p. 303 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 359 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
bc037b5fecd8ec156722205a6af605b7946125b0	88 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p. 220 ^ a b Hampson, 1988, p. 221 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p.
94490bed5ea4bc45f04aa1bf7d98a94c55a6de7b	90 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p. 405 ↑ Rude, 1991, p. 108 ^ a b Lefebvre, 1963, p. 134 ^ a b Furet 1996, p. 150 ^ a b Soboul, 1974, p.
4be720f6abacaeaca6dbfb0f0445437ff7fa96f1	411-412 ^ a b Rude 1988, p. 115 ^ a b Thompson 1959, p. 517 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p.
2dd189ef5f07b499f63d4bc150c22f8ff5d98dba	9-10 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p.
dafd14483ad5ab45ddf281f539b45cae2a1bfece	20 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p. 319 ↑ 1 2 Soboul, 1974, p. 473 ↑ Thompson, 1988, p. 473 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p.
f6d26f6fb027f3c0efd48cb67da1bab1dc1b4290	29 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p. 483 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 174 ↑ 1 2 Lefebvre, 1963, p. 175 ↑ Rude, 1991, p. 122 ↑ Lefebvre, 1963, p. 176 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p.
a35d77234f65931e3464487037d5393cb9575b49	503-509 ^ a b Furet 1996, p. 181 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p. 507 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p. 508 ↑ Lefebvre, 1964, p. 338 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p.
b24202b7b87a68dc5c1609ec6bf3acaf54079745	523-525 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p. 162 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p. 164 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p. 372 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p. 184 ^ a b Soboul, 1975, p. 540 ↑ 1 2 Rude, 1991, p. 125 ↑ Doyle, 2002, p. 374 ↑ 1 2 Woronoff, 1984, p. 188 ↑ Woronoff, 1984, p. 189 ↑ Palmer, 1971, p. 253 ↑ Goubert, 1973, p.
129aa29f79ab419c3600d259b601862fb8941750	245-247 ↑ Palmer, 1971, p. 254 ↑ Wallerstein, 1989, pp.
bdbb5f491385a18afded192596b7b0e4fd084dbf	34 to 60 ↑ Palmer, 1971, p. 265 ↑ 1 2 G. Ellis.
38380e2e05f163c07ee52ca2258b19ea2aae9ca1	The ‘Marxist Interpretation’ of the French Revolution.
5e1d1e6ae9c01399d8b8953e7989796ad53c7561	The English Historical Review, vol. XCIII, N 367, 1978, p. 363 ↑ Alfred Cobban.
146871cd86e7ad91aa8fc7b1d471c9a4fb5cffec	Interpretation of the French Revolution.
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8021bcb8057a5bbf9f038f88faa5a131ae42f96f	74-75 ↑ 1 2 Goubert, 1969, p. 235 ↑ R. Mandrou.
5ef71a4e3ac1859a60086576671eff4725b714d2	La France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles.
9d440f91add6c985db6791d7762c928809249d79	Paris, 1987, p.108 ↑ Goubert P. L’Ancien Regime.
91b334f1e4b63d011c898e62ff52c8a4a171f038	Paris, T. 1, 1969, p.179 ↑ Gwynne Lewis.
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6b2b126b8a62f240cd61befff4c28cbf39a0a057	83 ↑ Kaplan S. Bread, Politics and Political Economy in the reign of Louis XV. Hague, 1976, pp.
653efccfa4d21c665e17e6d1958560ec45a6ac1b	488—498, 666—670 ↑ 1 2 Wallerstein, 1989, p.
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450e65c9bb8e68365e6c851dd15ac3de9d60afec	61 ↑ G.Lefevbre.
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2f333a29a339d598f27bbe378c8a36756ccf0262	83, 92,104 ↑ Francoit Furet.
64b62093dc8faeaba468c7d6bdb5e6595d32d8db	Penser la Revolution Francaise.
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257de1a82ae384f8192cac7bf06100a5ead164bd	129—130 ↑ Wallerstein, 1989, p.
1234c840ba6c43c21cf2eec859e63db7786ff02d	93,48 ↑ A.Milward and S.Saul.
b1a09ca081d984cf1d5a684bbc46121f1930e941	The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780—1870, Totowa, 1973, p. 256 ↑ Rude, George.
d6e18cb80335123d9ac63d47d42a5ff8aad16615	New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991, p.
905ae725d6e301d1c6d1e6814e357c2af760329d	18 ↑ Alfred Cobban.
4e357a233bc0f63d6ae2abd359ffef73f75826aa	Cambridge, 1965, p. 121 ↑ Rude, George.
7ae15a2f16907bdfecd7014fa907db595afef2cc	19 ↑ 1 2 Wallerstein, 1989, p.
d299d208b2b028da586f886f7486cdadbd74a439	46 ↑ Wallerstein, 1989, p.
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7bdbaa39169fa87e13c72266377539972306d39e	The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780—1870, Totowa, 1973, p. 252 ↑ F.Furet, D.Richet.
b2b2ca779d52b81d4db736e7d63f0da4fd6254e0	La revolution francaise.
ff051215da1b3fdc5d81cad3144d0a84b6e6cafb	Paris, 1973, c=213, 217 ↑ Francoit Furet.
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e505068e1dccba371cb6d8b00b177fb3323a7725	28, 157 ↑ Cobban A.
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721e34cf133a8eaad032ad7997f4ead3f6ccb92f	THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION, the revolution of the late 18th century, which eliminated the "old order".
ae2a0056dbdd059de6ecd0311ea3c0a643ab42b9	THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION
f7bf9a8ee05f574707115f8ac4efcdf6c200c586	Background.
d051f49cb191fc9e8a95bf2d04ba393fe1a2830f	1787–1789.
e68e8daf33346ef8d746263adff46c970852335d	At the same time, the revolution in France itself was part of a broad movement that began before 1789 and affected many European countries, as well as North America.
8b3c5cdadd97d3c980557c4f3634f06223170869	The first two estates, which had special privileges – the nobility and the clergy strengthened their positions, relying on a system of various kinds of state institutions.
c116cf16278d696527dd694a4d166580ef62ce6d	By the 1770s, the aristocracy felt pressure from two sides at once.
56fd6089144d2a9db1630c2a2e49c639eb9efa20	On the one hand, its rights were encroached upon by the "enlightened" monarchs of the reformers (in France, Sweden and Austria); on the other hand, the third, unprivileged, estate sought to eliminate or at least reduce the privileges of the aristocrats and clergy.
0ee35943f5054a9294b2818fd39b1c810fbb2720	By 1789, in France, the strengthening of the king's position caused a reaction from the first estates, which were able to nullify the monarch's attempt to reform the management system and strengthen finances.
9435196b9ec003a21693a58a7326e3bf00e708fd	In this situation, the French King Louis XVI decided to convene the States General – something like a national representative body that has long existed in France, but has not been convened since 1614.
fb1398a3b3bf423817c5a98c92e6c6abf72dbd26	In France, the foundations of the old regime were shaken not only by conflicts between the aristocracy and royal ministers, but also by economic and ideological factors.
5976bb9f8b79c50e3dbdc02e7bb1265049550646	Since the 1730s, there has been a constant increase in prices in the country, caused by the depreciation of the growing mass of metal money and the expansion of credit benefits – in the absence of production growth.
dafb3c511638c2078f012bf12c53e6e6392c8e4d	Inflation hit the poor hardest of all.
bdcfe4fecb81e54a43aa401c9e1ac1de0791418b	At the same time, some representatives of all three estates were influenced by educational ideas.
84a5fdcee9f4d12caf13717ac384bebd3308ee7f	The famous writers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau proposed to introduce in France the English constitution and the judicial system, in which they saw guarantees of individual freedoms and effective government.
33d34f128364230e2ad0c524cfff505768347dc0	The success of the War of Independence of the United States breathed new hopes into the determined French.
9146b7bb5dd042df99778b5a79235f15c5275cb3	Convocation of the States General.
5abe9353836adcadd0a33f0a36cbb51ff1eda025	The States General, convened on May 5, 1789, had the task of resolving the economic, social and political problems facing France at the end of the 18th century.
4c0c2ab415a5fd621960f49c3ea416c16273e961	The aristocracy sought to use the States General to block any reforms.
2c1b12d2c82e2fb6f2f19a71ce0b48f09053a412	The Third Estate welcomed the convocation of the States General, seeing an opportunity to present their demands for reforms at their meetings.
dd80ff262a289a66986d3aa31c9bfe7ca932636b	Lists, so called instructions, were compiled everywhere.
19d474f295b1492405fab9c29e2de0fa7d2737f9	Thanks to the temporary relaxation of censorship, the country was flooded with pamphlets.
37294924b41c4571f6e3e6b5e7f4295d0d95f183	It was decided to grant the third estate an equal number of seats in the States General with the other two estates.
39321cb35c44055c1717f72710b2cdfbac4010b4	However, the question of whether the estates should vote separately or together with other estates was not resolved, as well as the question of the nature of their powers remained open.
feade92fc7685fe7c4860e344e0122529cad1ee7	As a result, 1201 deputies were elected, of which 610 represented the third estate.
ddae46f499a457f8fba50d463be1ba847001bc8f	On May 5, 1789, the King officially opened the first meeting of the States General in Versailles
a7d20fe4f3c24d80a099f69c9d3d2ded97087d4f	The first signs of a revolution.
d668e0538d9630acffb8f8d2294fe9d72ee151ff	The States General, who did not receive any clear instructions from the King and his ministers, got bogged down in disputes about the procedure.
e0afba9da38a62bb71d4c3d8b3b53daef5319153	By the end of May, the second and third estates (the nobility and the bourgeoisie) completely disagreed, and the first (the clergy) split and sought to gain time.
0f6f2e6ce76a65d1ffdd80b7f5aa5b656905bf9c	By doing so, it asserted its right to represent the entire nation and demanded the authority to revise the constitution.
4a19ad00acdce7b5b93436bb5c901b5eb80ecc26	In doing so, it disregarded the authority of the king and the requirements of the other two estates.
ed705000c95140499027a409a49c38ba6af5e325	The National Assembly has decided that in the event of its dissolution, the temporarily approved tax system will be canceled.
c6936f5edb09bf95f4bbfc3604da9c76c1228060	On June 19, the clergy voted by a small majority to join the third estate.
3eefc85d0899526fe32d9ce9c74596902f8dabff	Groups of liberal minded nobles also joined them.
fff7efda2cd7f07be080e1c305eadb1e46329906	The alarmed government decided to seize the initiative and on June 20 tried to expel the members of the National Assembly from the meeting room.
d850df24dfe0ff546b6b0bdf8b6507a8b315f76a	Then the delegates gathered in the nearby ballroom swore not to disperse until the new constitution was put into effect.
e1b3359709f72956ac52709b040fa92211223e06	The gathering of the royal troops to Paris caused a ferment among the population.
33947e5651910851fa2d21bfe06af713d7a81dfb	In the first half of July, unrest and unrest began in the capital.
36b5205a2be8c6c0a0d41fdf6a5a27954ba8fba8	The National Guard was created by the municipal authorities to protect the lives and property of citizens.
db7c4bb1eb99427dd73c17765bc87fc075348e5c	These riots resulted in the storming of the hated royal fortress of the Bastille, in which the National guardsmen and the people took part.
725d125541b253369e8db63a762472a6ae78fff9	The fall of the Bastille on July 14 was a vivid evidence of the impotence of the royal power and a symbol of the collapse of despotism.
1091d5352dd7502a04448605d1376f06536191fb	At the same time, the assault caused a wave of violence that swept across the country.
0834550b9c71fdce5edd264eb3e499b791d05890	Residents of villages and small towns burned the houses of the nobility, destroyed their debt obligations.
3f00f4729cbb856d0165e100b768266358d33bce	At the same time, the mood of "great fear" was spreading among the common people – panic associated with the spread of rumors about the approach of "bandits" allegedly bribed by aristocrats.
bfbdfbf6a4b54a4ece9537e420536667c0d3cb81	When some well known aristocrats began to leave the country and periodic army expeditions began from starving cities to rural areas to requisition food, a wave of mass hysteria swept through the provinces, generating blind violence and destruction.
cb2f9bec74389742ac50e49a75351bf91c82ee6d	On July 11, the reformist banker minister Jacques Necker was dismissed from his post.
3381baec587556b1bc9cd0a336c18e19ca4a35df	After the fall of the Bastille, the king made concessions, returning Necker and withdrawing troops from Paris.
644d3d736614b264f614670840d08321ff3a8c08	The liberal aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the War of Independence of the United States, was elected commander of the emerging new National Guard, consisting of representatives of the middle classes.
39353a1178603d411ad98871a118445ef868e976	A new state tricolor flag was adopted, combining the traditional red and blue colors of Paris with the white color of the Bourbon dynasty.
de34b03c550725bfff3baf0b7357bc007bf131dd	The municipality of Paris, like the municipalities of many other cities in France, was transformed into a Commune – in fact, an independent revolutionary government that recognized only the authority of the National Assembly.
3b27c64ba45faf5374ddda1d8fdd02763cfbe56d	The latter assumed responsibility for the formation of a new government and the adoption of a new constitution.
d7240580e77a35b82e8d5acb463647250c9115a1	On August 4, the aristocracy and the clergy renounced their rights and privileges.
c1302da738bdd6158351259492554ff17b56c1e2	It was emphasized that sovereignty belongs to the whole nation, and the law should be a manifestation of the common will.
4f899ceb841ba191e45e5b2a71f234f1335b4219	All citizens should be equal before the law, have the same rights when holding public positions, as well as equal obligations to pay taxes.
7b321472e630c23f986453ccee84e399894502de	The declaration "signed" the death sentence of the old regime.
266eef6dc5e0a9770db4f6fb516d4a5cda97110b	This had an exciting effect on the townspeople, who saw the king's actions as a threat of counter revolution.
fe45a546d05d4f1ccc5758e583435f89decdcab1	Living conditions in the capital were deteriorating, food supplies were decreasing, and many were left without work.
a15c8bed4a0fa07908a5dd76680561c5d120eb6c	The Paris commune, whose sentiments were expressed by the popular press, set up the capital to fight against the king.
2ff1fd3181de0a2e939fce15135d27ce79dee80c	The next day, the royal family, who had actually become a hostage of the gloating crowd, moved to Paris under the escort of the National Guard.
947f30830c70f93db4e22d36267b636652412cea	10 days later, it was followed by the Constituent Assembly.
d0f2a6abf812f45cbfa614aa15f1b281a824a7b4	The situation in October 1789.
a60f92463d6f71268ea47fb8dea896add97be3a7	By the end of October 1789, the pieces on the chessboard of the revolution had moved to new positions, which was caused by both previous changes and accidental circumstances.
e6093c7e0b41097d41fe9df6713463ba0fdf1bda	The power of the privileged classes was finished.
dbcd3ceec148e266d2e2d0a050a5df5ce6c4c58b	The emigration of representatives of the highest aristocracy has significantly increased.
0e11dba4dd0facea5aeb775d96a5de15c7b231cd	The Church – with the exception of some of the higher clergy has linked its fate with liberal transformations.
a6d307021850482d0fee22abcac48ac117149b1d	The Constituent Assembly was dominated by liberal and constitutional reformers who came into confrontation with the king (now they could consider themselves the voice of the nation).
d9172258dfb74c1f45410ae5241cd5b0cf3c4a19	During this period, much depended on the persons in power.
a1be8d076664d836c27bff85e0e98e71ca5ddb03	Louis XVI, a well intentioned, but indecisive and weak willed king, lost the initiative and no longer had control of the situation.
b6bc6a5f7a2eadc658d19ef1499798f93fdce0b8	Queen Marie Antoinette – the "Austrian" - was unpopular because of her extravagance and connections with other royal courts of Europe.
cdaf2ab209fda814215e38f56ba2f222f27686cf	The Comte de Mirabeau, the only moderate who possessed the abilities of a statesman, was suspected by the Assembly of supporting the court.
72049e6a2894da6713b176abdbbff2d0b0373f70	Lafayette was believed much more than Mirabeau, but he did not have a clear idea of the nature of the forces that were involved in the struggle.
f38aa9b9b32246b15ba1a7b305bb8a38fe9b515b	The press, which was freed from censorship and gained significant influence, mostly passed into the hands of extreme radicals.
afa804ecfa3f376a5603c4f9b03b5a9dc78a8487	Some of them, for example, Marat, who published the newspaper "Ami du Peuple", exerted a vigorous influence on public opinion.
2e8ceefbff4beda4393a2080e05ef5e2db5cf469	Street speakers and agitators at the Palais Royal excited the crowd with their speeches.
a9a8fa6bb212538e5b1c0590b9279107bdfac228	Taken together, these elements made up a rattling mixture.
3d8bcd87fdce6e1a7cf238acdf6f157451ad4189	CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
85018e534c92f710b0786d2e62f2e29c458f98f9	The work of the Constituent Assembly.
b1425e91b1a5dfb8a1b75bf3729a28b2cecacd7b	The experiment with a constitutional monarchy, which began in October, gave rise to a number of problems.
49e5ceba86458ff0ecca639448246279cb3b55eb	The royal ministers were not deputies of the Constituent Assembly.
0ce582e2db288d98312275dcd2fd616656286765	The king could postpone the adoption of laws, but did not have the right of veto.
ce31bce5da44fc13dda24be00b3ad798a57d0def	The legislative body could act independently of the executive branch and intended to use the current situation.
13a6b452a918b6ae16274f6e9f3ae520098cd456	The Constituent Assembly limited the electorate to about 4 million French people with a total population of 26 million, taking as a criterion for an "active" citizen his ability to pay taxes.
b44066308c7784838d1fccf65d117cd2656c05ba	The Assembly reformed local government, dividing France into 83 departments.
81ae9cf8360d00821ae4d1b7851415c3449a2107	The Constituent Assembly reformed the judicial system, abolishing the old parliaments and local courts.
663e5f44db28ce75435cf4ba661f2cc30ac605cb	Torture and the death penalty by hanging were abolished.
c8ca8d4c98e4a49102e9199473c9bc8fcc18f5b8	A network of civil and criminal courts was formed in the new local districts.
d2f5469a6f34e374e76e2ad67a546a030a174be4	Attempts to implement financial reforms were less successful.
f0c219fa8bd3642ba10a30582b6e35b7110cad46	The taxation system, although it was reorganized, could not ensure the solvency of the government.
08e14379a049ac7a5a6fc0070a9328dda6e66e02	In November 1789, the Constituent Assembly carried out the nationalization of church land holdings in order to find funds to pay the salaries of priests, for divine services, education and assistance to the poor.
2b71fee7392bb50d98733cf1dcc36023bc5d918e	In the following months, it issued government debt obligations to secure the nationalized church lands.
cd1dcb46ceffcdbd193c7251ba26ce12b085c3d1	The famous "assignats" rapidly depreciated during the year, which spurred inflation.
0be6f2dfe730ebb3bb0ea1bda1f5b317c5cba245	The civil status of the clergy.
2a6fbac966d6f0e4ade4987275377d10b35fe7ee	The relationship between the congregation and the church caused the next major crisis.
0a8665dce92b0956d74bb35068791ad67624fcbc	Until 1790, the French Roman Catholic Church recognized changes in its rights, status and financial base within the state.
038b92c23c08948cedbc200a0bac79d6e367e77b	Ecclesiastical positions were to be held according to the results of popular elections, and newly elected bishops were forbidden to recognize the jurisdiction of the papal see.
efb8ffb3865f6485342599844a85b1b768df0bf4	In November 1790, all non orthodox clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the state.
04a7e8e03acb0cccd4427362d4bc436b57898557	A religious schism was added to the political differences, and the church and the state entered into the dispute.
7b700c209e84cdaf076c4fad8c66aca3730d38c6	In May 1791, the papal nuncio (ambassador) was recalled, and in September the Assembly annexed Avignon and Venessen papal enclaves on French territory.
fa8c818a514f9799a9c272ef72f136c37634b0e6	On June 20, 1791, late at night, the royal family disappeared from the Tuileries Palace through a secret door.
37af8ccd6c1325ddbeaa87341267d357b1444fb6	The whole journey on the carriage, which could move at a speed of no more than 10 km per hour, was a series of failures and miscalculations.
1b2a416258ed2be88826406ab28906304e223f61	Plans for escorting and changing horses were disrupted, and the group was detained in the town of Varennes.
837074fd336c9564553175f85a85610d4ccc54a8	The news of the flight caused panic and a premonition of civil war.
dbb6a3b14fede59c1d60baccd0fb5fbeb3ef3ea4	The news of the capture of the king forced the Assembly to close the borders and put the army on alert.
0bc15d5d20d127e6d04d837f531546e8159aa4e4	The law enforcement forces were in such a nervous state that on July 17, the National Guard opened fire on the crowd on the Champ de Mars in Paris.
7a8f46fb3cf5a0f4bcae619ef18bf21712d65115	This "massacre" weakened and discredited the party of moderate constitutionalists in the Assembly.
9710429d6c956f919170b7d1763dec32fedb1941	In the Constituent Assembly, the differences between the constitutionalists, who sought to preserve the monarchy and public order, and the radicals, who aimed at overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a democratic republic, intensified.
51d0572d09bb54e32538c668864952749101f24b	The latter strengthened their positions on August 27, when the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of Prussia published the Pilnitz Declaration.
5403f3623b1ae91f071f67f598be6cc5a31be7fc	Although both monarchs refrained from invading and used rather cautious wording in the declaration, it was perceived in France as a call for joint intervention by foreign states.
77970d97071da9641079483b0c16ac8f4277b069	Indeed, it clearly stated that the position of Louis XVI was "the concern of all the sovereigns of Europe."
12cd1013fddccd0d60c357052d45d884e595b9a2	The Constitution of 1791.
db6732fb3ae4c89a3a85a636f4c58438c1ea760e	Meanwhile, the new constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791, and publicly approved by the king on September 14.
a4dec900b6e34617340cb20963d8d2d9edee9706	It assumed the creation of a new Legislative Assembly.
39c10f793369e492c9a708751209726c21573576	The right to vote was granted to a limited number of representatives of the middle classes.
1ae241f4221127c6d4b67a4087a36d3cbba19c08	The members of the Assembly were not eligible for re election.
836fdcaf992c5bd193d7d592d22dc6efe6141af7	Thus, the new Legislative Assembly threw away the accumulated political and parliamentary experience at one blow and encouraged energetic political figures to be active outside its walls – in the Paris Commune and its branches, as well as in the Jacobin Club.
77c53ae180b9d4e831d2d3cc0af9c5493cf13c6b	The separation of the executive and legislative powers created the prerequisites for a deadlock, since few people believed that the king and his ministers would cooperate with the Assembly.
489f69e91913e02b713ff482062968fbc897ea02	By itself, the Constitution of 1791 had no chance of embodying its principles in the socio political situation that developed in France after the flight of the royal family.
4a0181cb88df06d78d6d0b88718e63e35c8b9c3a	After her capture, Queen Marie Antoinette began to profess extremely reactionary views, resumed intrigues with the Emperor of Austria and made no attempts to return the emigrants.
13fbee683be59d406b76fdb0ed0e6a5059dc9b7e	The European monarchs were alarmed by the events in France.
8a5941bc321be93cd85fc039d41d594c6a3f1686	Emperor Leopold of Austria, who took the throne after Joseph II in February 1790, as well as Gustav III of Sweden stopped the wars in which they were involved.
c56080a378bd77ff999a46102c6d5c00530bce67	By the beginning of 1791, only Catherine the Great, the Russian Empress, continued the war with the Turks.
f1b72ab95c8d80cebfae6b7f5674ab9dce7ba195	Catherine openly declared her support for the king and queen of France, but her goal was to involve Austria and Prussia in the war with France and to provide Russia with a free hand to continue the war with the Ottoman Empire.
4d5c409663552ffacdee9ce6c5e7e60c864f1967	The most profound response to the events in France appeared in 1790 in England – in E. Burke's book Reflections on the Revolution in France.
a1baf4874e08959724df58d14fbce4b3990f60d1	Over the next few years, this book was read all over Europe.
d1c6fd76431e5b30460ff8c651269e0053749f0a	Burke contrasted the wisdom of the ages with the doctrine of natural human rights, and the projects of radical reconstruction with a warning about the expensive price of revolutionary changes.
ae1abd4f4b668731ec2d3f660fd1fee9797d3cf5	He predicted civil war, anarchy and despotism and was the first to draw attention to the large scale conflict of ideologies that had begun.
797155439ba7dbafe7f30b08a800f32249a3317d	This growing conflict turned the national revolution into a pan European war.
e7886a94b004ef5ed7f76a6fa212fb16aad09f99	The Legislative Assembly.
77993853d541faeea880c15293c46b6053970be1	The new constitution created insoluble contradictions, first of all between the king and the Assembly, since the ministers did not enjoy the confidence of either the first or the second and were also deprived of the right to sit in the Legislative Assembly.
0e96cc9240972f357fc81a2ac1fec66ce2f9609e	In addition, the contradictions between the competing political forces intensified, as the Paris Commune and political clubs (for example, the Jacobins and the Cordeliers) began to express doubts about the authority of the Assembly and the central government.
c124eac6096bbe902025c52f44097dec344aec2e	Finally, the Assembly became the scene of a struggle between the warring political parties the Feuillants (moderate constitutionalists), who were the first to come to power, and the Brissotins (radical followers of J.-P.Brissot).
0c14392d41dd0ba5f0ea9e7977f527f14cc679dc	The key ministers Count Louis de Narbon (the illegitimate son of Louis XV), and after him Charles Dumouriez (a former diplomat under Louis XV) – pursued an anti Austrian policy and considered war as a means of containing the revolution, as well as restoring order and the monarchy based on the army.
663663b0583d683cc9606ff240278c7af7eb4b06	Carrying out such a policy, Narbon and Dumouriez became increasingly close to the Brissotins, who later became known as the Girondists, since many of their leaders came from the Gironde district.
f7dd0af49d3d4fa3b156927db65d990e4225c1ba	In November 1791, in order to bring down the wave of emigration, which negatively affected the financial and commercial life of France, as well as army discipline, the Assembly adopted a decree obliging emigrants to return to the country by January 1, 1792 under the threat of confiscation of property.
7838ba8823dee2ea8d0b5a3146e6ba47fef1b2aa	Another decree of the same month required the clergy to take a new oath of allegiance to the nation, the law and the king.
e99799d5f88bb9413f30e64833943c3953c950aa	All priests who refused this new political oath were deprived of their financial support and subjected to imprisonment.
467cbf526ff096923858f5524cf35724882254ec	In December, Louis XVI vetoed both decrees, which was a further step towards an open confrontation between the crown and the radicals.
493cc29e9d5eef3b9e7742bae115f950215f752f	In March 1792, the king dismissed Narbon and the ministers of the Feuillants, who were replaced by Brissotins.
d87511094445bb7d8e47891dc9d0336f3655828f	Dumouriez became Minister of Foreign Affairs.
f4ebbdc1ebe2e74e99300bd390d15a7dffc93b47	At the same time, the Austrian emperor Leopold died, and the impulsive Franz II took the throne.
78acb270634c8aa77335a57c6c1d4a7c85b1a1b5	Militant leaders came to power on both sides of the border.
66b87bf2e7396fdd5c9edb0047edb3dcce114f94	On April 20, 1792, after an exchange of notes, which later resulted in a series of ultimatums, the Assembly declared war on Austria.
f4700863140c6898849ccc0a07673ac3ef7927ec	The war is outside the country.
f23d734f012792911eba5cac860ff0fa80d25d4c	The French army was poorly prepared for military operations, only about 130 thousand undisciplined and poorly armed soldiers were under arms.
ffd38daed9fdec1cadb55b2999eaed08b35225e2	Soon it suffered several defeats, the serious consequences of which immediately affected the country.
6728fcf7253b427210dd56efe6cf29692520312b	Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the extreme Jacobin wing of the Girondists, consistently opposed the war, believing that first the counter revolution should be crushed inside the country, and then fight it outside it.
5e7a6fba8b1cb9b053eb45df89386c9f73be494f	Now he appeared in the role of a wise people's leader.
5d203ef8208bdc132f7cdc45b65b0ec6ffe14acb	The King and Queen, forced during the war to take openly hostile positions towards Austria, felt the growing danger.
14c352f98df3b66ab1056dff020782f7d355d2f1	The calculations of the war party to restore the prestige of the king turned out to be completely untenable.
07b1c1b67b3f73cddb55d889c77aa397efd63961	The leadership in Paris was seized by the radicals.
9a9819fe30c8e25514a0f01c718cffe03f98d8ec	On June 13, 1792, the king vetoed the previous decrees of the Assembly, dismissed the Brissotin ministers and returned the Feuillants to power.
cf48cdee3f187fe7611e135bd3fad5b2407983e8	This step towards reaction provoked a number of riots in Paris, where again – as in July 1789 there was an increase in economic difficulties.
195b788647afa4c871be497976d4fe9dfcbf1a5b	On July 20, it was planned to hold a popular demonstration in honor of the anniversary of the oath in the ballroom.
c3896173d56de5cc67203721dec6f04e1e8b7c59	The people handed over petitions to the Assembly against the removal of ministers and the royal right of veto.
fc1c0f759b5bb296f4f0a2ac102dfd653755394f	Then the crowd broke into the building of the Tuileries Palace, forced Louis XVI to put on the red cap of freedom and appear before the people.
5f8751ba53a692888d1811bda511cfd12562d046	The king's courage aroused sympathy for him, and the crowd peacefully dispersed.
85f580bbdfdb6a20bdfd6e98167ab9f2e7d4dad4	But this respite was short lived.
aed0ecf1cde63fe0263d0f59b8f4de4dec7e1cd4	The second incident occurred in July.
762b99c506e4d68906b6f05794db84792c4a5bdc	On July 11, the Assembly declared that the fatherland was in danger, and called all Frenchmen capable of holding weapons to the service of the nation.
b03e3514de9cd79b70534852632693ed51ba8b25	At the same time, the Paris Commune called on citizens to join the National Guard.
383db6c8fb2ff2810ecc561ca5571f2080cffe4e	So the National Guard suddenly turned into an instrument of radical democracy.
95fde6e28862fa48075dd6ee13bbdc92d0b01624	On July 14, approx. arrived in Paris to participate in the annual celebrations on the occasion of the fall of the Bastille.
413eada75312c54b23fcc7f6319fe00193275b63	20 thousand provincial national guardsmen.
916a96a7a5b480360407b39a7d01df4f656d4e6d	Although the celebration of July 14 was peaceful, it contributed to the organization of radical forces, which soon came out with demands for the removal of the king, the election of a new National Convention and the proclamation of a republic.
783c0d7f2de8dd500fb0ee91808754e83e8aede3	On August 3, the manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick, the commander of the Austrian and Prussian troops, published a week earlier, became known in Paris, in which it was proclaimed that his army intended to invade the territory of France to suppress anarchy and restore the power of the king, and the national guards who resisted would be shot.
93abdf8bba6b503d9b72b2e0672429490285e52f	The inhabitants of Marseille arrived in Paris to the marching song of the Army of the Rhine, written by Rouget de Lille.
514253f55e9a788c93605f3ab034690159d8c635	The Marseillaise became the anthem of the revolution, and later the anthem of France.
0cf56c5ee581149cbf3a3345830e41c4f7006087	On August 9, the third incident occurred.
b951dae1f72489188ba4dca37aa0e1751dfa92be	The delegates of the 48 sections of Paris removed the legal municipal power and established a revolutionary commune.
b0fa913b64385b455b035044f13cfeb974d682e7	The 288 member General Council of the Commune met daily and exerted constant pressure on political decision making.
71d1e9fda20a1e59a6d47398681b04da935d9024	The radical sections controlled the police and the National Guard and began to compete with the Legislative Assembly itself, which by that time had lost control of the situation.
7f9b56d0fa4d8913d6f8ef02d208f1987da5de4e	On August 10, on the orders of the Commune, the Parisians, supported by detachments of the federates, went to the Tuileries and opened fire, destroying about 600 Swiss guards.
3962105f9cd124ccd2e2dd7d9253d0c84188f176	The king and queen took refuge in the building of the Legislative Assembly, but the entire city was already under the control of the rebels.
e55104ab804ef82af40c8683c5f46201b0611fb9	The Assembly deposed the king, appointed a provisional government and decided to convene a National convention on the basis of universal suffrage for men.
071271625f1228c14c9e717329ab541cfb2d8188	The royal family was imprisoned in the fortress of the Temple.
094127ca6ea86b9228fa5da4db567dc7e805e0fe	THE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT
cee7117a436dd71c5ba2ae3915df274ee7ca543c	The Convention and the war.
2b8cea7656114fa87258c66c8d1ab874e54e9cd7	The elections to the National Convention, held in late August and early September, were held in an atmosphere of great excitement, fear and violence.
3c68acd1b4fa5918430dec6a696a3ee6b5157f49	After Lafayette deserted on August 17, a purge of the army command began.
aea975a0b67d742c2325729cd69a6b2109658e09	In Paris, many suspects were arrested, including priests.
a800e28f0c8c6a18d005e386c6693225b32962f9	A revolutionary tribunal was created.
b1580b02ed56ea0a240be50252bf5fcac0dd9e8d	On August 23, the border fortress of Longwy surrendered to the Prussians without a fight,and rumors of treachery infuriated the people.
8069ccae53e7eb7ab1af878b6bf2acef007c06c4	Riots broke out in the departments of Vendee and Brittany.
f249a69a1df1df799fe7be62db5bca263fc5d627	On September 1, reports were received about the imminent fall of Verdun, and the next day the "September massacre" of prisoners began, which lasted until September 7, in which about 1,200 people died.
114db7affe77f5664cceb2c4d89196eb40f1a10b	On September 20, the Convention met for the first time.
09330d1a33d6d290fbaef8f6d11630b1eee8bff6	His first act of September 21 was the liquidation of the monarchy.
e38155fbed41043bd759460cccf67d7ec2818a3f	From the next day, September 22, 1792, the new revolutionary calendar of the French Republic began counting down.
f50ac6259eff152cf02a992bae49042bef62c840	The majority of the members of the Convention were Girondists, heirs of former Brissotines.
98610bbefc9d07db5334f71335a18817fd5548be	Their main opponents were representatives of the former left wing the Jacobins led by Danton, Marat and Robespierre.
e8347263b82a8c0fcd9133b9292981c95aa60f91	At first, the leaders of the Girondists seized all the ministerial posts and secured the strong support of the press and public opinion in the province.
310e109ac84a596ec3a407e916984e084e29c8cf	The forces of the Jacobins were concentrated in Paris, where the center of the extensive organization of the Jacobin Club was located.
bd191192bf7248cdce4e832d0d09bb4ffcea6fba	After the extremists discredited themselves during the "September massacre", the Girondists strengthened their authority, confirming it with the victory of Dumouriez and Francois de Kellermann over the Prussians in the Battle of Valmy on September 20.
5102ea9197b6b73fbeba31f5ecc98b2a8104a5c0	However, during the winter of 1792-1793, the Girondists lost their positions, which opened the way for Robespierre to power.
0fac53538e44febffe62e52186d8a7e391fb36af	They were mired in personal disputes, speaking first of all (which turned out to be disastrous for them) against Danton, who managed to win the support of the left.
455ecde0a0eff16501357fe44e2e347187f6e1bf	The Girondists sought to overthrow the Paris Commune and deprive the Jacobins, who expressed the interests of the capital, not the province, of their support.
5b1b126cde9f50976bf71e1aecd6d03ca1d6adc5	They tried to save the king from the court.
32012a3faf300f960d4f33337d37e068bb97fc6a	However, the Convention actually unanimously found Louis XVI guilty of treason and sentenced him to death by a majority of 70 votes.
d7ceff4631ba5628d5af4aeac27bd5d8965c69a6	The king was executed on January 21, 1793 (Marie Antoinette was guillotined on October 16, 1793).
57930556fabefbd87ebf98f78a75f4895cded7d0	The Girondists involved France in a war with almost all of Europe.
f71551c5da99967d3ec64ec6db7ac69b3f2ee1d9	In November 1792, Dumouriez defeated the Austrians at Gemappe and invaded the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium).
7f1e40acb6a6f7887a0d211b5fea2849631d9e65	The French opened the mouth of the river.
b8b84c92e65ddd00f1c7e3257294cab064f41c9a	Scheldt for ships of all countries, thereby violating the international agreements of 1648 that navigation on the Scheldt should be controlled exclusively by the Dutch.
3488553c65826061bb806e42f820e8e282ded111	This was the signal for the invasion of Holland by Dumouriez, which caused a hostile reaction from the British.
ba0a512e38d9428d359798c50e254bbd52982440	On November 19, the Girondist government promised "fraternal assistance" to all peoples who wanted to achieve freedom.
d57510bb5af1223026e41e9e1c9e83c40f1c3dcf	Thus, all European monarchs were challenged.
d5d173029e8d8863e4bf9b91292dabcd04c6aa6f	At the same time, France annexed Savoy, the possession of the Sardinian king.
d51a07c9afc20d51484db43ced1d6b4d0c8b6075	British Minister of War William Pitt Jr. began an economic blockade of France.
c17738d199b339ac6eafbe9dc81974a181fc18ee	In Paris and other cities, there was a shortage of the most necessary things, especially food, which was accompanied by growing discontent of the people.
06f1b1f6b3dc9ba1b719da6c76aaa08c5db5554f	Fierce hatred was caused by military suppliers and speculators.
2eacdb905053e4d500206f2dbc26285f1a3e0a23	In the Vendee, a revolt against military mobilization broke out again, which raged throughout the summer.
eb7979ee9392620acc1792bab0f6937b554fe0a3	The betrayal of the leading French commander dealt a tangible blow to the Girondists.
bb3d13231453cd37b62291a32f7ba6787002cc54	Danton demanded the reorganization of the central executive power.
a7f7fcef55c06fd6ba13246c928230683b827baf	On April 6, the Committee of National Defense, created in January to control the ministries, was transformed into the Committee of Public Safety, which was headed by Danton.
e92513ce416adcc91180ea31e702df467d275bcb	The Committee concentrated executive power in its hands and became an effective executive body that took over the military command and control of France.
f173ddf4ab05284aeff52ad4f517e9851b7e4937	The commune came to the defense of its leader, Jacques Hebert, and Marat, the chairman of the Jacobin Club, who were persecuted by the Girondists.
da7aa70ed955e80b1f6cf0f580f7a4d8caf75f12	During May, the Girondists incited the province to revolt against Paris, depriving themselves of support in the capital.
ed64fa31c93e4a2afd0f2489a30eb869a6a02259	Under the influence of the extremists, the Paris sections established an insurrectionary committee, which on May 31, 1793 transformed the Commune, taking it under its control.
436c37c7620696d88c287c5ef42c202ffde7ff71	In order to put pressure on the Convention, the extremist clique in Paris incited the hostility of the provinces to the capital.
f28a4976f96547fc1b41b513904e3e9be0a56bb4	The Jacobin dictatorship and terror.
314602707ffaca76ed2db9cbc065e96e38579d8e	Now the Convention was obliged to take measures aimed at pacifying the provinces.
fb828ebd62b1ee971ccc7121ef4c60766f42a107	In political terms, a new Jacobin constitution was developed, conceived as a model of democratic principles and practice.
659d812e4744448cf0e49ade535d58d25fe3831a	In economic terms, the Convention came out in support of the peasants and abolished all seignorial and feudal duties without compensation, and also divided the estates of emigrants into small land plots so that even poor peasants could buy or rent them.
c09d8c73765c5c37bb12ddeeaec15ed099bc2b90	He also carried out the division of communal lands.
1de59f5fb719ff5e627ca736512dd0ef113f7f7c	The new land legislation was intended to become one of the strongest links linking the peasantry with the revolution.
6bfc6fd253475e9ded16f9d8cba189e095ecf962	From that moment on, the greatest danger for the peasants was the restoration, which could take away their land, and therefore none of the subsequent regimes tried to annul this decision.
e2f4a10faa59ca2c47b3f709c23a1567a181efad	By the middle of 1793, the old social and economic system was eliminated: feudal duties were abolished, taxes were abolished, the nobility and clergy were deprived of power and land.
6273bab77314b0166565170f43938f4b34efe4a3	A new administrative system has been established in local districts and rural communes.
553f046badfa291b8ae3336fdff2ed2b83d9f8f3	Only the central government remained fragile, which was subjected to sharp violent changes for many years.
7b130fa3c3e44af0248427e0f9f4741df6802793	The immediate cause of instability was the ongoing crisis provoked by the war.
6dee24e7b82c03cb33cfd9b8344bd3bced053519	On the same day, July 28, Danton became the chairman of the Convention.
0791f7bdcd6f5fc0b15241ae6b993491f04d5735	These were the heirs of Marat, who was killed on July 13 by the Girondist Charlotte Corday.
0e8cbd6aac71a6a1e093abaa3f7e893c04b80657	Under the pressure of the "rabid", the Committee, now recognized as the real government of France, took tougher measures against speculators and counter revolutionaries.
ae9ac3822c8513071677566ee77ac85ba3392e18	Although by the beginning of September the "rabid" were defeated, many of their ideas, in particular the preaching of violence, were inherited by the left Jacobins led by Hebert, who held significant positions in the Paris Commune and the Jacobin Club.
525f1c5cf3e1dc8112d68f8117d72d96e1b75296	In mid August, Lazar Carnot, who soon received the title of "organizer of victory", joined the Committee of Public Salvation, and on August 23, the Convention announced general mobilization.
519d42e0e1b437b6113d1528f86d8c43934254b2	In the first week of September 1793, another series of crises broke out.
37bd9d25ddc4adc7451533ca7cf64d10ddcc1f97	The summer drought has led to a shortage of bread in Paris.
95204be4a53972b4a5b7a4429f09dde5326eaf45	A plot was discovered to free the Queen.
15bfeaeae017c0dbb2db71bc944f98f660a5a4b1	There were reports of the surrender of the port of Toulon to the British.
b426a46e7e1c7afcfc25d1db41e639247570dc60	The followers of Hebert in the Commune and the Jacobin Club renewed their powerful pressure on the Convention.
2bede9ab422779b87d7fb38627482ffc2d9aa9d4	They demanded the creation of a" revolutionary army", the arrest of all suspects, tighter price controls, progressive taxation, the trial of the leaders of the Gironde, the reorganization of the revolutionary tribunal to try the enemies of the revolution and the deployment of mass repression.
2dc2fb6a6657b1f36256bad575a317d3c2ad7dec	On September 17, a decree was passed ordering the arrest of all suspicious persons by the revolutionary committees; at the end of the month, a law was introduced setting maximum prices for basic necessities.
36cbae5c86a7b74e3a5972d2a97c8cbc60f8071b	The terror lasted until July 1794.
342fc562b1c32ee95f4625e5adc440e784caaa34	Thus, the terror was caused by the state of emergency and the pressure of extremists.
4b51d9852018aa9ddf54ed29b00adc1621f71618	The latter used for their own purposes the personal conflicts of the leaders and factional clashes in the Convention and the Commune.
c8384f1d8ecb98359c9783737c1a99afe86893ae	On October 10, the constitution developed by the Jacobins was officially adopted, and the Convention declared that for the duration of the war, the Committee of Public Safety would perform the functions of a provisional, or "revolutionary", government.
21cb4520cb82cf87d0cc4d22e99e1a50ae70f568	The purpose of the Committee was declared to be the exercise of rigidly centralized power aimed at the complete victory of the people in saving the revolution and protecting the country.
264ae7774ce9a323c27af69109b10edc34ade1c7	This body supported the policy of terror, and in October held major political trials against the Girondists.
f4468cf2da570b6ce427ce99006dab524805588a	The Committee exercised political control over the central food commission, established in the same month.
02761ef44cd3c57675401da01e673768e7a9193c	The worst manifestations of terror were of an "unofficial nature", i.e. they were carried out on the personal initiative of fanatics and thugs who settled personal scores.
57ed257694f2fb0a63ac59e820c3d0644061fda5	Soon, a bloody wave of terror covered those who held high positions in the past.
1200c972cae35917c17c7d23e7b652a0a4e58a3d	Naturally, emigration increased during the terror.
ce1a454e23f299ca0f79c1e31ea78fb7027e65df	Eber himself and 18 of his followers were executed by guillotine after a quick trial.
4433904d381d0613d218b64401361d926fd2479e	The Dantonists, who sought to mitigate the excesses of terror in the name of national solidarity, were also arrested, and in early April they were convicted and executed.
b9b45dfd54eb85f7f6d03ce3886dcdae3b945ba9	At the same time, the propaganda of the cult of the Supreme Being, put forward by Robespierre as an alternative to both Christianity and the atheism of the Eberists, reached its peak.
aff6b0e9dda1928f9b6616d76f88863f8b01d54f	Robespierre, along with his two main assistants, Louis Saint Just and Georges Couton, were executed the next evening.
7bbd82d19a7d013ec2f1c09954af18589451cdd8	Within a few days, 87 members of the Commune were also guillotined.
cd26e3a60f749da30478831d8f89189bfa534e30	The supreme justification of terror – the victory in the war was also the main reason for its completion.
6fac0ba8f2c5b2076a5071cee4bc1cd4a54307d3	By the spring of 1794, the French Republican army numbered about. 800 thousand soldiers and represented the largest and most combat ready army in Europe.
22e1b849f4cf6e201b51a92a08752acf486420da	Within 6 months, the revolutionary armies reoccupied the Netherlands.
bbd59b5c0ef92cea368576e418387fc7b13a1fd7	THERMIDORIAN CONVENTION AND DIRECTORY.
c1f9c48ef7b2d92a837452288e092ce3f64ebc12	JULY 1794 DECEMBER 1799
8d74d90ee177ba2cfa7eb0b4564b89c4fe271425	Thermidorian reaction.
27fd24f1eab4e26e3fef5df0fecead806b27f2fb	After the first months of the Thermidorian reaction – the so called "white terror" directed against the Jacobins the terror began to gradually subside.
ccdb8d8a9d3529b8f43eebce5a86a3d7d7e69191	The Jacobin Club was closed, the powers of the Committee of Public Safety were limited, and the decree of 22 prairie was annulled.
179b29a3a6746e129e296962a802873cffd16d9b	The revolution lost its momentum, the population was exhausted by the civil war.
6a657c538baa692c64f30e58e1dc40eae377cda2	The first coalition of Great Britain, Prussia, Spain and Holland broke up, and all the countries that were part of it – except Austria and Great Britain – asked for peace.
ba4aac2dbcf81b66166da0a7644ca2249900817e	The Vendee was pacified with the help of political and religious concessions, and religious persecution also stopped.
4a904174f45e9a091a8b28cf981afe49eb151e44	In the last year of the Convention's existence, which got rid of the Jacobins and Royalists, moderate Republicans occupied key positions in it.
1f6b5f9a8c1a905ab6c733cb9433b706f9f170c2	The Convention was thoroughly supported by peasants who were satisfied that they had received land, army contractors and suppliers, business people and speculators who traded in land holdings and made capital from it.
91dd09ff3a80d5c72cd0da723dfeca6924932d44	He was also supported by a whole class of new rich people who wanted to avoid political excesses.
bfc2c24f2ca7e5cd5812fce9106609c5871207c9	The social policy of the Convention was aimed at ensuring the requests of these groups.
d71acc27845546304d35c6fc6d691d82ed095d5c	Independent rebellions broke out.
8e035819439d9b0baf2224adbfeed60b0710d59c	The largest of these was the uprising in the capital in Prairie (May 1795), supported by the Jacobins.
0117dccc74f204aae42b4ff7a4ea90bcb39b11bd	To suppress the uprising, troops were brought into the city (for the first time since 1789).
2469cfc8c3718a35fb1860da77bdc745c7009c5a	The rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed, almost 10 thousand people. its participants were arrested, imprisoned or deported, the leaders ended their lives on the guillotine.
a3eaf782c1b088e9a325eede428ef0fbe4934189	There were even attempts by the royalists to restore something similar to the pre revolutionary regime, but all of them were brutally suppressed.
f1eb3e8e30489ee98564b08d1a0c66b19e5571ed	In the Vendee, the rebels took up arms again.
f8ae23aae8cf3b3e8a1a2d890133fbfa10af5ca0	The English fleet landed over a thousand armed royalist emigrants on the Quibron Peninsula on the north eastern coast of France (June 1795).
df75574e1ba28d8a11d7944b380a9f57de6e5ab4	In the cities of Provence in the south of France, the Royalists made another attempt at rebellion.
4154e46fdff4fa4556678c9723d0158bc0379eb2	The directory.
c2977c5a9fa52ba8369f553ead3f1a56c771e20f	The moderate Republicans who strengthened their power and the Girondists who restored their positions developed a new form of government – the Directory.
72a56a246723065d2a50d69031f9f242e685503f	It was based on the so called Constitution of the third year, which officially approved the French Republic, which began its existence on October 28, 1795.
29722f3c10e484f74c2ccd2d416233efb61ff3e6	The Directory relied on the electoral right, limited by the property qualification, and on indirect elections.
364456ee5171c0133ed776a21e18163da511b0ab	The principle of separation of powers was approved between the legislative power, represented by two assemblies (the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders), and the executive power, entrusted to a Directory of 5 people (one of whom had to leave his post annually).
3b9a9b6b3f72fb687b4d7d4a7e97d90a494421c8	Two thirds of the new legislators were elected from the members of the Convention.
628318c0e5e3d04ccb801ea6f1919f4453038952	The insoluble contradictions that arose in the relations between the legislative and executive authorities, apparently, could only be solved by force.
5a3f662da1d88a7bbc2b9781782ba8508bfec4b5	Thus, from the very beginning, the seeds of the upcoming military coups fell on fertile ground.
9f233fe62ea7c3ca8805b97fcd263161c1166317	The new system was maintained for 4 years.
bf5c1bc5660e07b09bc86968b75aebf0e43176cc	Its prelude was a specially timed royalist mutiny on October 5, swept away by Bonaparte with a "volley of buckshot".
1f239b4e0fccbccac8a8a8903958b4e2e374b81f	It was not difficult to assume that the general would put an end to the existing regime by resorting to the same means of forceful pressure that occurred during the "coup of 18 brumaire" (November 9, 1799).
fb96d16ed97fa8ddae6417ab43b9d071a418b453	The four years of the Directory were a time of the rule of a corrupt government inside France and brilliant conquests abroad.
eb8fd106f6324bf7f64e9b89cf430318e9b218d5	These two factors in their interaction determined the fate of the country.
5294b3fd4c0fdafd24d2039ea4adb26f827a63a0	The need to continue the war was now dictated to a lesser extent by revolutionary idealism, and to a greater extent by nationalist aggression.
1c6cad39d152004d46512258ae16d69bcfe78387	In the treaties with Prussia and Spain concluded in 1795 in Basel, Carnot sought to keep France practically within its old borders.
0087772382e3a344f27742d866d8477b112ffcc2	But the aggressive nationalist doctrine of achieving "natural borders" encouraged the government to claim the left bank of the Rhine.
a5473b2457b29ff78e363e4ca2c10cf4d0a40f4c	Since the European states could not help but react to such a noticeable expansion of the borders of the French power, the war did not stop.
bd411a395ef121666322bb7f6cac623dab927c73	For the Directory, it became both an economic and a political constant, a source of profit and a means of asserting the prestige necessary to maintain power.
391c03454dc7798e5f1194319687a47aad129302	In domestic politics, the Directory, representing the Republican majority of the middle class, in order to preserve itself, had to suppress all resistance from both the left and the right, since the return of Jacobinism or royalism threatened its power.
ae314bf4c1d8bed85952ed0a504f34751670ccbe	As a result, the internal policy of the Directory was characterized by a struggle in these two directions.
3f12404fb51d6f5204fe3711216f39d78aa41f9a	In 1796, the "Conspiracy of Equals" was revealed – an ultra Jacobin and pro communist secret society led by Gracchus Babeuf.
27a3328ed92bb1cb17e54f58c4c0bea491e15a03	Its leaders were executed.
f6a1a3b19cd50bcc6174c279154a87fa7f41ee2c	The trial of Babeuf and his associates created a new republican myth, which after some time became very attractive among adherents of underground and secret societies in Europe.
e5b2cbf06c2b0976a19ab14f8696c12a7a672776	The conspirators supported the ideas of social and economic revolution as opposed to the reactionary social policy of the Directory.
7c78fed19b705627300e44e96b98c9a3e80b3c57	In 1797, there was a coup of fryuktidor (September 4), when the royalists won the elections, and the army was used to annul their results in 49 departments.
9641717e1575bdd6eb5d7c7a8f8a3d89c8fa6eb0	This was followed by the Floreal coup (May 11, 1798), during which the results of the Jacobin election victory were arbitrarily canceled in 37 departments.
bfb745bac766703913ad2cb70f5bfea06879473d	They were followed by the Prairie coup (June 18, 1799) – both extreme political groups strengthened at the expense of the center, and as a result, three members of the Directory lost power.
fad9000a9693b30ed871250b2eaf29dfb6346c80	The management of the Directory was unprincipled and immoral.
38de1135200c6739cb4ba3e3c0587bc3832c8ffe	Paris and other major cities have earned a reputation as hotbeds of promiscuity and vulgarity.
4c99bec7a6179afcf6c5ce39ce0f3a81e1606b6c	However, the decline in morals was not universal and widespread.
bd8c05ba0fd3874664959c7059cd2b8577df4044	Some members of the Directory, primarily Carnot, were active and patriotic people.
ae3934422210ab7dd214aedba436cae05de1efa1	But they did not create the reputation of the Directory, but people like the corrupt and cynical Count Barras.
99c079cddef656fdb94aa0dd08945d48b4320139	In October 1795, he enlisted the young artillery general Napoleon Bonaparte to suppress the rebellion, and then rewarded him by giving him his former mistress Josephine de Beauharnais as a wife.
b4ba1da348fecf12b6625b7a12f6ed96c311ab42	However, Bonaparte was much more generously encouraged by Carnot, entrusting him with the command of an expedition to Italy, which brought him military glory.
414fd4111d6fc950b82a42553a9c8897afd33566	The rise of Bonaparte.
b78d79fac4670f35d71312f97ba0b3827391c3ab	Carnot's strategic plan in the war against Austria assumed the concentration of three French armies near Vienna – two moving from the north of the Alps, under the command of Generals J. B. Jourdan and J.-V.Moro, and one from Italy, under the command of Bonaparte.
2928b9f002ba1b0aa0eecf403bb963f011c20913	The young Corsican defeated the king of Sardinia, imposed the terms of a peace agreement on the pope, defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796) and entered Milan on May 14.
d50b50ec146f1547af037df580e1b438c51c8c34	Jourdan was defeated, Moreau was forced to retreat.
225a81f10bff04f3bc1136d17e2e5c5d85b85bf8	The Austrians sent one army after another against Bonaparte.
44318ea57a9b7a07a003011f478b5c772ce532cc	All of them were defeated in turn.
e67b85077bac7a438a60805b327c8bdc6b8ad707	Having captured Venice, Bonaparte turned it into an object of bargaining with the Austrians and in October 1797 concluded peace with Austria in Campo Formio.
b804e490c0027a09f81cad25d9026d5b93c23220	Austria handed over the Austrian Netherlands to France and, according to a secret clause of the agreement, promised to cede the left bank of the Rhine.
14cc11214cc19b0369809298e61eea366ca0befa	Venice remained with Austria, which recognized the Cisalpine Republic created by France in Lombardy.
eb8df30f8e11c360153d0cd1a086270ac7d02df0	After this agreement, only Great Britain remained at war with France.
21e0b172f1001b41af971de8a5c758951ae26f5d	Meanwhile, the Directory was in agony because of the defeats on the fronts and the growing discontent within the country.
4679f4a1b5ef6e9c95650e048134719e204cea0e	A second anti French coalition was formed against France, in which England managed to attract Russia, which had been neutral up to that time, as an ally.
4c4ca505de5a5d2312b725edb75578109d8e318e	Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire also joined the alliance.
1d342a02cb6a3519801919dd5dbc38978e1ac052	The Austrians and Russians drove the French out of Italy, and the British landed in Holland.
bc4771b1da606138d858a81eb87d02d6fd6e88f2	However, in September 1799, the British troops were defeated near Bergen, and they had to leave Holland, and the Russians were defeated at Zurich.
9f306ae0f2b3eeff008963f5dd5277f9c4b96964	The seemingly formidable combination of Austria and Russia collapsed after Russia withdrew from the coalition.
813a80feb03270916c7cb0596f4b2e2f6e819e7d	Despite the huge losses and defeat in the Middle East, Napoleon was the only person who managed to inspire confidence in a country where the government was close to bankruptcy.
0776cecf60798dc095631e1e124c30d8f377d668	As a result of the elections in May 1799, many active opponents of the Directory entered the Legislative Assembly, which led to its reorganization.
aa6498fe13749abadf2543810891a66236ba6050	Barras, as always, remained, but now he has teamed up with Abbot Sieyes.
1ad843a8fc20522681ad487dad8c658ffa21045c	In July, the Directory appointed Joseph Fouche as the Minister of Police.
007e0c0b48a4624189be9d272dec7f3b0cab4cbb	A former Jacobin terrorist, treacherous and unscrupulous, he began the persecution of former comrades in arms, which prompted the Jacobins to actively resist.
be858fdb38f008366c90beecebc3b842597dba8b	On September 28 (September 14), they attempted to force the Council of Five Hundred to proclaim the slogan "the Fatherland is in danger" and to create a commission in the spirit of Jacobin traditions.
724f40b196fce3e3cd5e9bbc1636a7115ea4848c	This initiative was prevented by Lucien Bonaparte, the most intelligent and educated of all the brothers of Napoleon, who managed to postpone the discussion of this issue.
fdbc0b09e8644edb308949013892e3d6b9751e1f	On October 16, Napoleon arrived in Paris.
8c35395c68c67c1d460c3750e666f7cfd1cdae84	He was greeted everywhere and hailed as a hero and savior of the country.
b2768d280200aff5142ead24a6a2028d4da36411	Bonaparte became a symbol of revolutionary hopes and glory, the prototype of the ideal republican soldier, the guarantor of public order and security.
02418b39fa094d0a26ef68094fc4027228b2800d	On October 21, the Council of Five Hundred, sharing the popular enthusiasm, elected Lucien Bonaparte as its chairman.
06d54c131080f930cda41167865796ca8d7a4571	The cunning Sieyes decided to involve him in a plot that he had been hatching for a long time to overthrow the regime and revise the constitution.
056d9ab7a1d08ee8f9ec9ca5da3d0b46fbade764	Napoleon and Lucien saw Sieyes as a tool with which to clear the way to power.
d7724c9cff6a1cb2b19b6ed3fa98135aa00084f9	The coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), we can say, was an "internal affair" of the Directory, since two of its members (Sieyes and Roger Ducos) led a conspiracy that was supported by the majority of the Council of Elders and part of the Council of Five Hundred.
2d0bc58ca9c68648c0598974c185546525596d59	The Council of Elders voted to move the meeting of both assemblies to the Paris suburb of Saint Cloud, and entrusted the command of the troops to Bonaparte.
df40a8b24c6fbf238cf80c765819bace78bde23a	According to the plan of the conspirators, the assemblies, intimidated by the troops, would have been forced to vote for the revision of the constitution and the creation of a provisional government.
1b7e20afce6fbc082139c63f1bde4274c86c4099	After that, the power would be given to three consuls, who were instructed to prepare a new Constitution and approve it at a plebiscite.
44d92da36ac02fc32c19cf468889057c61892e72	The first stage of the conspiracy went according to plan.
b14e46a1a3cabe44fde55cbc4c2d0ee6c8b79e7d	The assemblies moved to Saint Cloud, and the Council of Elders was accommodating in the matter of revising the constitution.
cabf0935f963dc5bf5ea4f4bcbb6b6b936eff955	But the Council of Five Hundred showed a clearly hostile attitude towards Napoleon, and his appearance in the chamber of sessions caused a storm of indignation.
394849ff3b8b01a95af9756257010f8864445c18	This almost thwarted the plans of the conspirators.
5a2b507133cd68a37b8e9227bf26e98bccbe27a5	If it had not been for the resourcefulness of the president of the Council of Five Hundred, Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon could have been immediately declared an outlaw.
d42a35977d81babf7b5994f28fcfcc6985923bdf	Lucien told the grenadiers guarding the palace that the deputies were threatening to kill the general.
18458f228b1580e325b079d6ee17efdd4f9b4872	He put his naked sword to his brother's chest and swore to kill him with his own hand if he violated the foundations of freedom.
d0b1632fbcbf04f1159abe5c33f9a056fb660ca8	The Grenadiers, convinced that they were saving France in the person of the devout Republican General Bonaparte, entered the chamber of the Council of Five Hundred.
2659aebf0a1754003f805a1acf1b78106a5c0a81	After that, Lucien hurried to the Council of Elders, where he told about the conspiracy that the deputies were plotting against the republic.
c179d7b47022c244deb63ac423455abe460de416	The elders formed a commission and adopted a decree on temporary consuls Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos.
3b25ec171242ff89334e2583fccb46ab4ab4b1ca	Then the commission, supported by the remaining deputies of the Council of Five Hundred, announced the abolition of the Directory and proclaimed the consuls a provisional government.
523aac1d69d4ea3cde7cf586bccd278ec521e050	The meeting of the Legislative Assembly was postponed to February 1800.
55af8066e7b9bbbd22a85fcc21d5d6207ec2ef42	Despite the gross miscalculations and confusion, the coup of 18 brumaire was completely successful.
255a8f736b2d91f80f120b134b9fd93e64dc5f8b	The main reason for the success of the coup, which was joyfully welcomed in Paris and in most of the country, was that the people were extremely tired of the rule of the Directory.
fb354cf00ca2efc7ef68f90642f59fc1aa4a032f	The revolutionary pressure finally dried up, and France was ready to recognize a strong ruler capable of ensuring order in the country.
da4e1b5dfea063f43553c1be058f98f426d31a22	The consulate.
1d78761c930f43f6e89ebb60b658a275f09872c0	France was ruled by three consuls.
c2aa3711f92f685426c234ca3c3b2fb3b0290bfc	Each of them had equal power, they exercised leadership in turn.
abf065c0a15372d29abbbbacaf395ca05ee8b247	However, from the very beginning, Bonaparte's voice was undoubtedly decisive.
ad370eac89592df6d08e703df4569b0638b0699a	The Brumaire Decrees were a transitional constitution.
6008dcd0130ef6c9a0ee09ca835203ef543e7ed8	In fact, it was a Directory that was reduced to the power of three.
be32019e9d037c302517b25511d128c9487c2264	At the same time, Fouche remained the Minister of police, and Talleyrand became the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
9da3691c11ddd7b831c51b27cfe6312d52b221cb	The commissions of the two previous assemblies remained and developed new laws at the behest of the consuls.
097572780b0bd9a90ac4c8761236ab461297a5a0	On November 12, the consuls took an oath "to be loyal to the Republic, one and indivisible, based on equality, freedom and representative government."
cb7813efac9ab855c4aef89528f44676fea6c59c	But the Jacobin leaders were arrested or exiled during the consolidation of the new system.
53110b4191364fc307c3f9ad05f00f513353c6fd	Godin, who was entrusted with the important task of organizing finances in a state of chaos, achieved impressive results thanks to his honesty, competence and ingenuity.
d58dd489ae928de784b0810338ea2c67824a948f	There was a truce with the Royalist rebels in the Vendee.
a076454d563d75ac069d5e8afbcbc1d4d6caa411	The work on the creation of a new basic law, called the Constitution of the VIII year, was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Sieyes.
01019efa64f6a5ceb1cd35ddd9a8480f3c10079a	He supported the doctrine that " trust should come from below, and power from above."
cc0a9ffd493bed47dc632e49655ebde70be48461	Bonaparte had far reaching plans.
8df415b4ea1f05c8a7c27467b0f4239b95dada23	On the "sidelines of the coup" it was decided that he himself, Zh.
0d6b69ab6999bf3aa4b7de5c35d4ec41d2e1b73d	- Zh. de Cambaceres and S.-F. Lebrun will become consuls.
281009b5de706f6b85b35f5250bd75fd80866496	It was assumed that Sieyes and Ducos would head the lists of future senators.
3039fbb385c0751f6dae4c604ff1a0655c968d0b	By December 13, the new constitution was completed.
872980eed7b27e957a7ca39545fd2f247200d4de	The electoral system was formally based on universal suffrage, but at the same time a complex system of indirect elections was established, which excluded democratic control.
251e1f6d7020a6c3553c194f29ca7f8ac877f13d	4 assemblies were established: the Senate, the Legislative Assembly, the Tribunate and the State Council, whose members were appointed from above.
718ab4f5088692d5b3f4f829cf7bc0f66a7c79c5	Executive power was transferred to three consuls, but Bonaparte, as first consul, towered over the other two, who were content with just an advisory voice.
0857f07bd5ee3177e48806e9bced3414ec70970d	The Constitution did not provide for any counterbalances to the absolute power of the first consul.
5203e95980738d25b2c5a0fee4bea5a7a7caa464	It was approved by a plebiscite in an open vote.
452d05d5c8ee4d81af08a5c9098c51cb99e9776b	Bonaparte forced the course of events.
b2b4e2925ef7e37e5706c2298efd8a155ef1bf96	On December 23, he issued a decree according to which the new constitution was to come into force on Christmas Day.
33b9d34b8a70327633e18b99d097b7f52ed34cb8	The new institutions began to operate even before the announcement of the results of the plebiscite.
dccaac55ad8d158d2c853e87f1fbdf27672b80a9	Thus, pressure was exerted on the results of the vote: 3 million votes in favor and only 1562 against.
7a13b2a76387949a39ab29ef97d76047df749039	The consulate opened a new era in the history of France.
fd8152ebd07ef6524e2d74d46d34d4e06932f83f	The legacy of the revolutionary years.
b922cfe78cb2e4a298453b9c50e34f773a573a7f	The main result of the Directory's activities was the creation of a ring of satellite republics outside of France, completely artificial in terms of the management system and in relations with France: in Holland – the Batavian, in Switzerland – the Helvetic, in Italy – the Cisalpine, Ligurian, Roman and Parthenopean republics.
5243b7d78e5ba857ae3280fce5c52b02e209a3fa	France annexed the Austrian Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine.
5df17af2e1743bc0b4c117894ea57f9b73237bd0	Thus, it increased its territory and surrounded itself with six satellite states created on the model of the French Republic.
ba32da939d6c873d393634df7523bd4750338eb1	Ten years of revolution have left an indelible mark on the state structure of France, as well as in the minds and hearts of the French.
2c19797671472b1794b74f38d8c1d0047c60550b	Napoleon was able to complete the revolution, but he did not manage to erase its consequences from his memory.
19e8b9a7f30495e0c2da1c7a83101fe0e2a7820b	The aristocracy and the church were no longer able to restore their pre revolutionary status, although Napoleon created a new nobility and concluded a new concordat with the church.
e70c0b298e7b7fae41fcea8c5c412be3ff32dd59	The revolution gave rise not only to the ideals of freedom, equality, fraternity, popular sovereignty, but also conservatism, fear of revolution and reactionary moods.
788804bf9dfb7635e8768c22a5c8eeeb20aa0c30	LITERATURE The Great French Revolution and Russia.
6d39ad4126fa9084faacd93a6a422337330e6d5b	Moscow, 1989
07950eb578a427212865c06102e59486af44ff6e	Freedom.
bfb3c229884733f2dc5229bf73c81ab04d2ab9ee	Equality.
de3494aea550007626f8cd087277ae6daba11f6a	The brotherhood.
f13dea0daa7d86806602de4159bbf57d55e92980	The Great French Revolution.
ae53363b3bb01435389976ba3c411dbb32f53acb	Smirnov V. P., Poskonin V. S. Traditions of the Great French Revolution.
dabe6c0017af4e63ccfc46ba7798bc8f47dd9cd1	Moscow, 1991
a106631fc09d9c16ff8666d43af40b8f9ade5929	Fuhrer F. Comprehension of the French Revolution.
c26b094aae7404299c6eee38a9fa4a1c54b240ee	Moscow, 1998
95a578654a2db7b2e69dae28a3065904215955b4	Historical sketches about the French Revolution.
e16e9973929540fe18751c6c81bc07b31aab7573	The Main History Of Europe.
3aa8c04355792ce13fdc970750bd9352c1fe77ae	A new history of the XVIII XIX century The Great French Bourgeois Revolution
70f461378d9fce32ec4cad6eb8ea23b9031503b8	The Main History of Africa is the History of Asia.
1e4069b3ac0ad32168e017dd0f7d8955035a42c5	History of Uzbekistan
2654b0572f5006905ec5fe59d9fcbc63be61b188	The history of Europe.
1cbc73b3ee1e807e1bddebfb76595ccd41a01030	The history of Ancient Greece.
94e032b12d9adfbf0f639277281a66b07cc63f5e	History of the Roman Empire.
7e2d9a8c83edc043a13028a33a9c4872e534470f	The history of Russia.
b18272bcb46d651c06c37d579345732e294f88cc	Preparation for the Unified State Exam in history
5b11f563a48c1721c5c9fcb48d55c69d0e7715af	The history of America The history of nomads The history of peoples The history of cities Trade routes Historical monuments The history of Religions Historical maps The history of wars Documentaries on history The history of the primitive communal system Great generals Chronology Search
bbbb9015365b4d0ef5146d44daeac6e2cd596098	Documentaries
299886cf637f9482df8ba1d1a8be76b8b3ae4257	Documentaries Athens and Ancient Greece
7d1b9c621b4c0f56272193b9c5598ddb354ad48c	Documentary film about Lyubov Petrovna Orlova (1902-1975)
afa9c05a8abdfcbbb91cc47438f7432d0fc8b6f6	Documentary about Giuseppe Garibaldi
72346bb99dec8429385763b4dd52453bff276160	Documentary film The Fall of the Roman Empire
b75109b74a38cdbffcf5199084ccf2c14efb5b95	Documentaries Impostors in the history of Russia XVI XVIII centuries
a331dc3dad0a926952229b4bf9fc068ec5644387	The Great French Bourgeois Revolution
537452c353517e10989042bcb774fb91a005eb4c	| |
7ff043a1ecff397382ebdb5e240426e98f3b9803	3 estates :
04cbde3c61691ece66b263637cc412f0afae2d3e	1) clergy;
16ec1f16db1a2f8655c1f6d608cb367911207a05	2) feudal lords;
1fc15a13f47776f4c601ad363e9a9c0180d28881	3) rich citizens.
2016b3a2bd96b4a178f94e88a5086b73cfd89f02	Causes of the revolution: 1) feudal ownership of land;
342bd557f81ffa9c85a140ff8494aa87ef82c229	2) the dilapidated system of the absolute monarchy;
27c53516f244ba340a0ec432e5a7b9159c65a190	3) excessive taxes, restrictions on the purchase and sale of land, countless internal customs;
a095c682c8475776fccbbd530b1eb54f0dd4e636	4) political disenfranchisement of the middle strata of society and the third estate (citizens) led by the bourgeoisie;
6718d54f2cd54d6ca42db59fe1da924bd7eae23d	5) obscurantism of the church.
7402a7f2a5dd88e53fc3ab33037ec1e79a9ded26	In 1787-1789, a revolutionary situation developed in France: 1) as a result of the influx of English goods, many manufactories were buried (the industrial revolution in England);
c68f96e801884429ea083e23f7f99df3552781f2	2) unemployment has begun among the apprentices and workers;
21d859da46120d44649c70b31cbdf9cbc09d3263	3) the crop failure of 1788 caused the high cost and lack of food;
252a139705edf42f439a87e6ac55cbbfa897e727	4) unrest against unemployment and rising food prices began in the cities;
bdb59c9f42639e848a892acd34cff6fcb3c9c87c	5) the peasants ' protests against feudal duties resumed in the village;
a5882ed79e3578c03e508a268837fd1217082425	6) the power could not continue to rule and reign as before.
7b4edf8e86506f7bdafa7b4437b6c5a77ccf374a	The annual deficit in the royal treasury exceeded 80 million livres, and the national debt reached 4.5 billion.livrov.
e5e3785da149f97f1006f817cf8509aa43ce18ed	The reason for the revolution: To approve the new taxes, King Louis XVI convened the States General (300 nobles, 300 from the clergy and 600 - from the third estate) on May 5, 1789.
e9464d0d985eac63cdafdfcc515e40dab74ccc8e	The nobles, the clergy and the king were in favor of a general vote, hoping by this to subordinate the activities of the General States to themselves.
13db5ec39bc855007afdafdafb0d6cf3a5d97674	The third estate rejected this principle, and on June 17, the General States were proclaimed a Constituent Assembly.
f753d0b631a20cb9d4db18fa0846688b00c5beb2	The Popular uprising of July 14, 1789 and its consequences: On July 13, an uprising began in Paris.
ecfe274d2a8662aec063651336213bba5e3ac994	But they were canceled: 1) personal duties of peasants;
662b511307c5b23a0e2e087af77a4c21fd198312	2) corvee.
5343ad6cd8c821f519aae295e9719543aaa9fd68	But the inheritance of the land was subject to redemption.
a1f359258b9bee5b23a3a38cd791b7b197af7bda	Thus, the agrarian question of the revolution was not completely resolved.
f845db58880d04164882417279fef83c154279ee	Declaration of Human and Civil Rights.
d91c4fed2d1c89b515510b40b8ffb1fd32ee0f39	On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted this Decree, which proclaimed: 1) the source of power is the nation (not the king);
972bbdbecb246e364669b8ee265df8a70680e339	2) preservation of the constitutional monarchy;
6b4c67b2da59a4919dde878e663ae90cf51725c1	3) freedom, property and resistance to oppression were recognized;
c9af8c5cb05d771d640a9edb2f376d0436c1078a	4) the right of citizens to participate in the publication of laws and the establishment of taxes;
067ecc705ea1d47e5d5dbf36762768feaea39eac	5) freedom of conscience, speech, and the press;
e917e3c038aec94654c411345167e3879df7c092	6) arbitrary arrests were prohibited.
239a7f1cf56b91ed78824a209845c46f4a8b4fa9	But the court aristocracy was preparing a counter revolutionary coup.
4431519f4e2b731729ab51bcaa80d4547981ae4f	But on October 6, the people broke out into the Palace of Versailles and forced the king, along with the Constituent Assembly, to move to Paris.
75b50f0f750e878f11292b74dd7104b491078a86	After this meeting, the flight of aristocrats abroad intensified.
b179ebc2305c3ce13bec3b62c122aafdc32a3e6a	The Jacobin Club and the Cordelier Club.
ef87559cc7f7b8cc2be1e3d81744fdb19376f014	In the days of the revolution, many revolutionary clubs and newspapers appeared in France: 1) The Jacobin Club created in the autumn of 1789 in the library of the monastery of St. James, uniting supporters of bourgeois democratic transformations (Sieyes, Barnave, Robespierre).
f3530bc6f2c8d31e7210381de7aeb9d0edb9d17f	They paid a fee of 24 livres annually, which made it difficult for the poor to participate.
752d2fb38b39fbe66726544228f900c10ac472e2	Low entrance fees made it easier for the poor to join it.
f66b38518cc5994036bdef73aaee6862e6560408	The Constitution of 1791 was drawn up by the Constituent Assembly: 1) the regime of the constitutional monarchy is fixed;
862aa1aca320b535dbc897c9a095d3b0cb2d1207	2) the publication of laws was submitted to the Legislative Assembly, whose members were elected;
7bf4df6e1ab279db4193fdc01b5fc1f0b30dd7bd	3) executive power was transferred to the king and ministers appointed by the king and responsible only to him;
5908011caa767350128ad5cbaf5b081087c0e521	4) declaration of war and conclusion of peace - the legislative body;
a5a0aee15d65de366ea93164cf314ba5e20907ec	5) the Constitution did not apply to colonies where slavery was preserved.
43f538a1440a255d62751d7f4365535d9bcd8997	But the king did not approve the constitution and on the night of June 21, he and his family fled to the eastern border, where the counter revolutionary army was located.
74084c7b3815c59ea616235c64dc51068433f2ab	But on the way, he was identified by the postmaster of Drouet on the border of France and returned to Paris, and on September 3, 1791, the king was forced to approve the constitution.
61c018f1a36da4fa537cf6094345e2c6561d329f	The Girondists.
5ccaeb69a8258d3b00994141fb807ef073878876	Until the end of 1792, the Girondists occupied a leading position in the Jacobin Club.
244fa7becb9658728c975a0c625c2a02cf16b9b8	1) They were representatives of the interests of the large and medium sized commercial and industrial bourgeoisie;
399d52bbbfecc082da0ee0a13167c6fe9d62a595	2) they defended large property and freedom of trade;
d347332e21ac5db832ecf186e6aef003aa99b20b	3) they stood for the establishment of a bourgeois republic, for the further restriction of royal power;
967483c5e03b57d1c947e7b2483a216de8817a83	4) their main enemy is the correvolutionary aristocracy;
beb89c8e8135585949ac801828dd196de75d450f	5) they were afraid of the masses and did not want to meet their needs;
7d20763bd0ec89d820129412fd57ef1049bc4618	6) they were hostile to the peasants;
f49db442ead2df818200135e924d7ffde2b36963	7) they were afraid of decisive revolutionary measures.
c9e2e4241be2c20d219fc52be8f7f36b9dfb500b	1st Military coalition Austria + Prussia Revolutionary Wars.
9911d335adc66c0246f9ee7830a2911f665bd594	In 1792, the Austrian and Prussian kingdoms threatened counter revolutionary intervention and demanded that France renounce its constitution in favor of royal power.
286374578cad22aaf144d4e3d0d6277f172c9a1f	The Legislative Assembly, with the consent of the king, declared war on Austria.
eb3c60431624b3eafe88d462aed1be8640b9d04a	Soon the Austrian troops broke into France.
37d30eebd1697a70e0f7e0ea435a78bde782d2cb	Marie Antoinette (wife of Louis XVI) and the general secretly handed over the plans of military operations to the Austrians.
16795da5f288d40a9d618065f179fdac307c99a9	And the king dismissed the Girondist ministers.
67b442c7a7ced9c0cc8223b9c37e225e4a2457a6	On September 20, 1792, the National Convention of 750 deputies issued acts: 1) the abolition of royal power;
5970df7835e6b9a66a94da602e2a9804121fb115	2) proclamation of the republic (1 Rep.-September 22, 1792 bourgeois republic).
4099b70c402f06e2483eddce4535cab8445ca465	The majority in the Convention was occupied by the Girondists.
6d3715b610e21df3ffe9e2ec4295df3446981798	They occupied most of the ministerial posts.
8cecf965cf45ee7e797ff3e7bc88aba92fba5cad	The minority in the Convention was occupied by the Montagnards (Montagnards), since they occupied the upper benches in the meeting room.
e9e5ecf16bb6894e3fdeccf0442c410a8372cf7e	It was the most revolutionary and democratic group led by Danton, Robespierre, Marat.
99d5fa32f1040bed37562e398083ba96baea5c3e	The Girondists were defeated and removed from the Convention.
1f0389b4f598f2604b856a46df14aa997842b1a3	England broke off diplomatic relations with France.
c605ab81e9eb80b48c2344f5f0142373e4a036d6	All these events accelerated the uprising of the people led by the Jacobins against the Girondists and the establishment of the dictatorship of the Jacobins.
cb35c6ef148608ac5fad721a8dd83cc93c2e9636	Some of the Girondists fled to the departments (provinces) and raised uprisings in the south and west of the country (Gascony).
5a65676f52480ebe0c30ca38a92367d581dda9fe	The Constitution of 1793.
5e85c8087ca019be52f067a9456ae29016ea8e3c	On June 24, the Convention adopted a constitution, which proclaimed: 1) equality, freedom, security and property;
8a6ff40baf5512efa0f58067452614c7919372be	2) freedom of speech and the press;
528aa750c7caf6fb6d264658e722f85d39e742ee	3) general education was provided for;
d8a8bcb5a82387a17ec02dd41b4e70e33e1ced08	4) freedom of religious worship;
0e5ddcc87244f6e1418dafd88470c05bd8e72e0b	5) the right to create people's societies;
aa5bfb028e6934a79c75863d440c21738bd0f932	6) inviolability of private property;
e210b1dd8b48ab85d55e981745aaf89b46ba8583	7) freedom of private enterprise;
bf21950d8dee680b07bf418e447b8c56da9ce776	8) The Constitution of 1793 proclaimed the foundations of people's democracy the idea of the rule of the people and the equality of people in rights;
a3526536e8725ccacb51c9d2682d9bcd3128b1eb	9) France was declared a single and indivisible republic (the Girondists proclaimed "federalism");
cb04e6144c72fd38f193506cb7d74555ce41494e	10) voting rights were granted to men who had reached the age of 21, regardless of their property status;
3648ceb61aa3645a4d8df31538e1bce77c275f25	11) the parliament consists of one chamber (Convention) (a single and undivided republic); 12) the executive council " Committee of the Salvation Society” is elected by the Legislative Body (Convention);
ad540cdd98d479b28ca053725484d6ea07d1442f	13) The Constitution rejected foreign interference in the affairs of the French people and proclaimed the principle of non interference in the affairs of other nations;
20f7d54eb577755fd51cd4439a6ccee9edf08bfc	14) legalized private property and the use of hired workers.
a1fc098d45c8524ad0b50db904769e60da813580	But in fact, the Constitution of 1793 was not implemented.
b5f65c6ee7f66e891e153242c85ead27bba16b84	In the conditions of military intervention and civil war, the Jacobins postponed the introduction of the constitution until the end of the war, and in the future its application became impossible due to the fall of the Jacobin dictatorship.
e5822c39f527e257c310b2dde5a7185e022738b5	At the end of July 1793, a new invasion of the interventionists (Austria, Spain, Prussia) began.
8628125f19d7cae0362defb9a465da80d4729689	The Republic was surrounded by enemies.
8fcae0c881f2a1b136f3280d1aecc837c56d9608	And the Jacobins gathered a massive army of 450 thousand people.
2b1c777d0cadce36ecfd6c6cb95f7362f00efc99	By the beginning of 1794, the territory of France was liberated from the invaders.
0aae527daef2ff693e7b4e75a8e5cb108501dce7	This operation was led by Captain Bonaparte (Corsican).
0e55b7b26bb75c47de7f45cabcbf3af169f46968	The Jacobins were bourgeois revolutionaries and therefore rejected the demands of the plebeian revolutionaries (they relied on poor peasants and urban plebeians) regarding
2dcc41550a13d27a442e6f12cbacd4a68d41d697	1) partial confiscation of the property of the new rich;
85ad75ad32cab300c0bfb54264a1f6daf926f039	2) introduction of the maximum price and
2a3cfb6916814e60883de81f0ca30872cef54971	3) reprisals against speculators.
bd32255cfd42c93e452fc160f2cc872105df7326	Plebeian revolutionaries (Varlet, Roux, Leclerc) spoke out against revolutionary terror.
8e3dba879b478389253a2729b41dc690f8dad125	In September, the Jacobins arrested them.
6fe3973352a91ec76f5dd259231524e94514bf03	While waiting for death, Jacques Roux committed suicide.
1c021bc9f46ea59c694ef6b204bbccd62faa31c3	Terror began against those who did not agree with the policy of the Jacobins: 1) Queen Marie Antoinette was beheaded;
d28a8ca8cc694706592e32207247ae60479b1312	2) the leaders of the Girondists were beheaded;
deb37f5acfa2c36bb3ccbed74743850ea3f4f556	3) several more Jacobins who opposed the government (Hebert, Chaumette, Danton, Desmoulins and 13 people).
6111582bf69ab87b46755cee9c096a12be99ac48	All this strengthened the opposition in the Convention against Robespierre (he was at the head of the Jacobin dictatorship).
782db98933787f6b44b01fbe14b3f083cb40aaf0	The socio economic policy of the Jacobins did not satisfy the poorest segments of the population.
5f983d6b75e888213c2ecd02b308094711addf03	The situation of workers and poor artisans worsened.
59121b4ac8a1c85efcc5ac0ec76e7cf6c51446b8	The majority of the members of the Convention belonged to the new bourgeoisie, which had profited during the revolution.
aa28ed275ef552b54ae4c019c51139f2c7304636	1) She wanted to restore unlimited freedom of enrichment;
085564c6d435b28794aaaf0346bed41fe0aae6e7	2) eliminate the regime of dictatorship and terror;
35f942d110fd4357d4f4bf46e124f52334dc9733	3) sought to seize the lands of neighboring states;
ee5d0789deb4c9d8b282c3454ec41496a83a269e	To do this, it was necessary to overthrow the Jacobin government led by Robespierre, Saint Just and Couton.
fd70e0ee49f40de4adce4da71c1cd3180750c22e	On 9 Thermidor, 1794, the members of the Convention organized a conspiracy, arrested and guillotined Robespierre, Saint Just, Couton and her 22 people.
6c6fcb3d88a2c557ccd5c47d8cb981174132c59d	This coup brought the big bourgeoisie (bankers, industrialists, merchants, usurers) back to power.
25d524a21537d2040fa60e94b8791d09066a7398	But they remained opposed to the restoration of the feudal absolutist system and stood for a bourgeois republic.
a7bb87d857bf2d308ec8053bf2f3f8dc2670008c	The Committee of Public Salvation remained the highest executive body.
4befbf5aed51e63945e78abc47f5baefc343c278	75 Girondists returned to the Convention again.
56e17738a931eec196f61661cbc50de7e556b2a6	"The Constitution of the third year of the Republic” (1795): 1) granted the right to vote only to taxpayers (the property qualification was restored);
4ebaef08c7497040dd441208546542edb0eccfd7	2) and men at least 25 years old;
d7d3a9c13fb974edf98f7caa916b105003abddbb	3) established a Legislative body of 2 chambers: a) the Council of 500 - with a legislative initiative; b) the council of elders from persons not younger than 40 years;
1c9bcd2c102884b1dda93e6c994e88f95796b0be	4) the executive power was elected by the Council of Elders on a list submitted by the Council of 500.
b394ce2cd3022d60c34216341e90e8c4e39752b7	The executive power was awarded to a Directory of 5 people;
40bdba3c6589a7aefd26e0893aad9e4170a221d3	5) the composition of the Legislative Body should be updated annually by 1/3 through elections.
e22b1c54a6dfeb3e9db68d96773055307d326f63	Aggressive Wars of the Directory: The Directory pursued an aggressive foreign policy: 1) Bonaparte captured Lombardy in 1796;
b65d7f2ac01a8cf40297a2d2130d3ffcf13012e6	2) 1797 - the left bank of the Rhine and Belgium;
d01a60b39b2c78094ba2ecb1cbc11e8c13eb1514	3) The Republic of Venice was divided: a) Venice went to Austria, b) The Ionian Islands to France;
3abec336d8a6b395a309786e7845739e77c01722	4) 1798 Switzerland submitted;
e020eb25e0245ed65fdc548d2f633e09328f0e14	5) 1798 the French entered Rome and Naples;
da90293e42cbbf92f954c1372d1f6fe24c10285a	6) 1798 captured Alexandria and Cairo.
26b3903a9359a97dc5970b3c136f2190b01af497	In 1798, England, Russia, Austria and Prussia formed the 3rd military coalition against France: - in 1799, Suvorov's army defeated the French in Northern Italy;
54aad1c4e3e3e78b6028fb3e1c6162c8e3df2dff	- Ushakov's squadron liberated the Ionian Islands; in 1800, the British squadron of Admiral Nelson captured O. Malta.
38eeeb821aa179a26aae9da17b21101212e90d11	The military coup of 18 Brumaire VIII (November 9, 1799) Military defeats undermined the precarious position of the Directory regime.
3b64134fdc5c95262807734c5ef9807affbbc8a3	In 1799, the activity of the Democratic revolutionaries who wanted to revive the Jacobin Club intensified.
9e434302bac04dfc969eccdec3525bb6ff997f73	Under these conditions, the big bourgeoisie wanted a strong government to suppress uprisings.
2533a4255af949c90c659f7c33f6db5b71c4b9a4	On November 9 (18 Brumaire), 1799, Bonaparte dispersed the Legislative Corps, the Directory and power passed to 3 consuls Bonaparte, Sieyes and Roger Ducos.
39d4909b43fb10ac2c9bc10fd103bf3089b9300a	But only Napoleon Bonaparte turned out to be the absolute dictator.
3a105e87a3b118bd1d78d3afa540e896de46ae13	The Great French Bourgeois Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy
98fd986480515a36826eadd620ad4fc6e3a726b5	Prerequisites of the revolution.
b7e2d100998fd459aef7c8186f017565abc3c159	Even at the end of the XVIII century, medieval feudal orders reigned in France.
2ba2bd8ee78b97ba078d89bb8112164a939fca03	This was an agrarian country.
f7c6d78e42949fd415b201c8706315e3edb58fb8	The land on which the peasants lived and worked was the property of the feudal lords.
b8c484d00e7c1a5b911d3a72934258238cfba27a	The peasants took the land for rent and got by somehow.
f4224b8faa8449c4e53aaac1887c21909f1fdf46	Taxes were growing every day.
8926404eaf7458355c0800e8308ea3aa61ec8134	In addition, there was also a church tax.
ecbb327a20066661ce7caf0ef323cbbea2806178	As a result, the villages were impoverished, and the peasants turned into beggars and vagabonds.
2df82fa75035f00ef423df2b561c9acdeb9b4786	This situation contributed to the outbreak of "bread riots" from time to time.
1fa7d13a8d25325d560c704b7605f4f98b2f5429	Medieval feudal orders hindered the development of industry and trade.
ecc2d00afe07a62db292421d1ef071420496ba20	In comparison with Great Britain, manufacturing production in France lagged far behind.
e02c35ecf38ffcb26c9f4437b387de9bf705f2c7	Thus, even at the end of the XVIII century in France, revolutionary changes in industry were not yet foreseen.
fa1eff6f98ab0789898c9f2c2ede35c40c2477ca	The workers of the manufactories were allowed to leave the territory of the enterprises only on Sundays.
ef2f850a9a0f157fb64a5c41e5d444e72327472c	Domestic trade suffered from the pressure of border customs and road tolls set by each province separately.
b1437e9107dffa68a07d77981d8305148f94018d	Moreover, the bourgeoisie, no matter how rich it was, did not have political power.
9b350d3b8aaed19bb91a1cb686e7293a3065eb83	The government of the state was practically in the hands of the clergy and nobles, who made up only 4 % of the population.
75681dda653db7660741ba6959a98e33d691c594	They were exempt from taxes.
2812f64b1b205ed552af859692e07f76034e2d7d	Only nobles held officer positions in the army.
d3dcd132ef6aa1f07a6625349880aad04b60ca4b	The third estate, which actually feeds the country, was not allowed to manage the state.
e4725ca12f3cf03bc04241739fce9675550a07fd	Feudal absolutism prevailed in the country.
d6fa795931a12073458e63c35896c9554f278c2f	For the monarch, the concept of human rights was just an idea on paper.
9a6bc821b7b462dcd3cb968d96aaf6a38088f0c6	In addition, at the end of the XVIII century, France failed in foreign policy, and this lowered its authority in the international arena.
caf16691e923743afc2dd3030f1a6ee3d89f4083	This happened at a time when most of the country's money was spent on the maintenance of the army and navy.
3eb53ca3208a92a34fb93607249b4623af334caa	The situation of the people, exhausted by wars and taxes, became worse and worse.
2ff35342e466866afc6114c11d31eaaf2be1b04f	All these factors determined the inevitability of a revolution in France.
95b5afb61382701319d1b205980ecb314887e742	The beginning of the revolution.
a8e65be0624f6ce284d10c44a54d15c5f59a64a8	The situation demanded to prevent the coming revolution.
db912616f9ed6cfccdbb70a708f1e62b56e9d94c	Therefore, in 1789, Louis XVI convokes the States General, which have not been convened since 1694.
990c59b57862ac0887b6ff27dc868809d6e2cf64	All estates were granted the right to submit their claims in writing to the States General.
a63527638f52103c4f7a425f280ca3f35a0af8ab	In order to replenish the empty state treasury, the king announced the need to introduce new taxes, which must be approved by the States General.
ebf6ddfe5e1fddb985d9017ae747d7ecdcc6b6e1	To which the third estate demanded that the property and state of the upper privileged class, which had not paid taxes before, be taxed.
23d351d4b231201f1270cf22ffe797e67174eb46	As a result, there was a split in the parliament.
7e2798f641d76c37c47a29a5d540ab076d94aab7	The inhabitants of Paris approved the demand of the third estate.
ae36a1f3853721ad585b0462951a50df1f34cc40	On June 17, 1789, deputies from the third estate declared themselves representatives of the entire people.
11801eb834a08c40f2abeaa140f6db4a80ad033a	At the same time, they established a new parliament — the National Assembly.
f8edb65ce980fe95dd09756935c1ab416e8b6c82	The people began to arm themselves.
5945ed4d097d4b2eee77a22cdba7eaeefaa9ecc9	On July 14, he captured the stronghold of the French absolutist monarchy, the formidable fortress prison Bastille.
5bf87e437798b605b4207fd757b371af73c45575	Frightened by the events, Louis XVI was forced to make concessions.
1be402e19993feed2d309a3a811de2f36e0262e9	He recognized the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly.
044fdeca187ccfdfb07b591b0af669b81deeacc4	Power in the capital passed into the hands of the Paris Commune (Paris Assembly), consisting of representatives of revolutionaries.
a95f05cab058fb149b65f8b1f7b3a48a42f00df6	Thus, the absolutist monarchy was overthrown in France.
8727317ab95646e4ebbef7ef96537468339fa09c	The big bourgeoisie or, as it is also called, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie came to power.
f1e1a856f5747c1460d21e7889635adabb4d3c2d	This bourgeoisie was a supporter of a limited monarchical system, as in Great Britain.
e909dd63b7e307c39bf468582914d77ba65531e0	Abolition of feudal orders.
e3fb293f6b6f08c4d7295cfdb861017398c4badc	The overthrow of the monarchy did not bring peace and order to the country.
6eb22e6449ac051a64ebf967f71f8e0752b85a39	Moreover, the whole country was engulfed by a peasant uprising.
8d1bca2999a2026db1ed2b69074fa6ce479688f0	The peasants refused to perform feudal duties.
10aa56adb8905170d228aa7f1be56bd1916d46b6	They began to occupy food warehouses, set fire to the estates of the nobles.
6143e83206ea0fd2853f9cc18fe36f5bcafd0315	As a result, the Constituent Assembly issued a decree on the abolition of privileges”" According to this document, the feudal orders were abolished.
8d1c8e51989fae524c40d34bf667a0f27023937f	In 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Declaration on Human Rights.
2058884441cf85b4f9f8cf309df3487f657983d7	The text of the document began with the words: "People are born and remain free, and equal in rights.14 The declaration proclaimed the people "the source of power.
c60a03812ee0ecfd0696445d55f34f40fde5ecb2	It abolished feudal and estate privileges.
12f28cd9c5598edc9ffdb8e3b9cfaac83898b1e1	Announced the freedom of speech and the press.
ea3094c9f95603ef707baab436574efdf2f27a1c	Determined the free participation of a citizen in the adoption of laws, and also declared the sanctity and inviolability of private property.
9c9856bc2a1a5e61d1abb63a7143121ff4759634	At the same time, the rights of the king were limited.
b1094f6f2456cd6a5d18a541136d929becc32687	Adoption of the Constitution.
a0d2ba39831fa9ecad122fb5a66c096dde032ee2	In 1791, the Constitution was adopted for the first time in the history of France.
3869de3f14a526e036d4fe936425636b3740bffb	She announced the rights to the elections of all men who have reached the age of 25.
52c7f97c5098d395f641d67e757fd0500fbeb289	Starting from this period, political parties began to operate in the parliament.
b95ddc00326b800904522af0b4d3d252f51b2666	The leading parties were the "Girondists "and " Jacobins".
6f7711d35ec5d6b8b5a6e3dbf615d643269c32a9	The Girondist party won the parliamentary elections and took most of the seats in parliament.
b23867459fe69b259c70fdac8847dfe3f4d833f0	This party represented mainly the big bourgeoisie.
fcc4ac802f0fac5286a6e096efafaf5d56e43d58	She chose the path of reconciliation with the king.
c684246723ce52c4a60cdea31963f1b1ea76217c	This period is also characterized by the fact that an external threat has joined the difficult internal situation of France.
323b8f0a6ff8080c1013a414775cd8f947dfe6fb	Neighboring monarchical states attacked France.
cd7f42ca40aa02f0f1b0ee764b6f0ba226914da0	These were Austria, Spain and the United Kingdom.
5c5fc8da62edc6213d8fd5d714a2f7e3578b52ec	In 1792, " The Legislative Assembly11 (Parliament) appealed to the people with an appeal to the Motherland in danger.
4d794c1e8b0f31baea8a01d2ff451ca6831a3a5b	The Girondists did not provide the defense of the state.
af83c006399f44ffd94a5f1f1edecd075ab34e26	This caused a sharp discontent in the country, on August 10, 1792, an armed uprising began in Paris.
437c7d1c39ed440a73cbc3e8afd5fa7225cf3201	In such circumstances, the parliament was forced to deprive the king of power and adopt a resolution on holding elections to a new parliament the National Convention.
a460356648dcf16e2927bfa243a1fbf2201212b2	Louis XVI was arrested.
b07936d2c5ab97ba06b8043bc5594664f8bcb0c5	Thus, on August 10, 1792, the monarchy in France was overthrown.
634d7081660d7f764739602479e9604e2b67f9eb	The Jacobins (the party of the middle and petty bourgeoisie) demanded an immediate trial of the king and an immediate execution, the establishment of a Republic, the abolition of feudal dependence and the declaration of a revolutionary war against foreign invaders.
f4ba8a802b0b2afc2a46d16841a848fc5d23aafe	Famous leaders of the Jacobins were M. Robespierre, J. P. Marat, J. Danton, Hebert and Shommet.
0994d611410923a7903b05b2a6070c41827990d6	On September 21, France was declared a Republic.
88a94815754e281b46fc3391aa763752183204dd	Louis XVI was executed.
33d796cbf9b6fa750b2df398f5271c22cde6c37b	The Republic abolished feudal class inequality.
28a7bbfd236282da95b06b805901611bb5975326	Freedom, equality and fraternity have become the slogan of the country.
abe58bc97fc7ce79b665a8c71ceb9a80158b1174	A decree is a decree of the supreme power that has the force of law.
90551605ee166699b5e7380cba67b36d8b12338f	A commune is a municipal self government body
db903c411f7f86974c1130a0628b5482796e85f4	The Constituent Assembly is an assembly endowed with the highest powers in resolving important issues related to the life of the country, and therefore acting as a parliament.
5d8575a01fba87a5c9e3f10abdaebf738d2da8c5	Power is political power.
1fb53235ee53601f7acf3fc3d85b6e32e389af88	The results of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution and its historical significance
605dfb6dde526df68b78c33953f4466ef2cf72cb	The coming to power of the Jacobins.
e8fa969f1250609b3ece19376b7f3ac5d155b28e	After the execution of Louis XVI, the intervention against revolutionary France, initiated by the monarchs of Spain, England and Austria, intensified.
63a886b00ff6af6269aeed1515ea7186f992a19b	The Girondists who came to power did not ensure the defense of the country.
b7dc5c34c65edf766387d4a472e4247ee34f1980	In addition, peasant uprisings began in the south of France, caused by the sale of land to urban bourgeois.
78acfa9258305063630121fe967e89ca8f242a92	The rebels considered the execution of the king a crime.
52cf426a40427da65a86519272ecd11057f2995c	The Jacobins blamed the Girondists for the difficult situation that had arisen.
f9e05f2b7e1c8d7669d088ee93095439ae034fc7	The Jacobins called on Parisians to take to the streets.
4f102263bf07937ed9f7a2d03ce356174429d130	The uprising, which began on June 2, 1793, ended with the removal of the Girondists from power.
fe7aab1d9b0d770fd799c1c94d8fb34eeca6e5ae	Power passed to the Jacobins.
79145861f71d1196465275fce523956b6e653923	Under the leadership of Maximilian Robespierre, a new government was created - the Committee of Public Salvation.
729da93d51fc00fb2331fbc26e1685c50da26d7a	Emergency courts began to operate with renewed vigor.
3e2713cca125344a9e132700c0cbb2b4303e5ba7	The internal policy of the Jacobins.
2aee92d1c2006b28a21b2565390b7756b5ce75e1	In 1793, a new Constitution was adopted in France.
42791bb2db0360462e4f3441f6726e062a219b5c	Feudal duties and levies against peasants were completely abolished.
eec9e6c9cf313427efa233f075be64bdccf91a8a	The peasants finally became the owners of their lands.
90b6fbd115f37c555d4469fb3ab2a77eef3d5791	Feudal acts and documents confirming the rights of feudal lords were burned.
2b052cec56ca9b58f55420bbdcfd5e6a3fb91fcd	The confiscated lands of the nobles who had fled abroad were divided into small parts and sold to the peasants.
64d45f91ce7a15824b032feb9334480c9e0374a0	The Church was separated from the state.
bb9f653baa41997de8425c64c43fb4cf33a47204	Fixed prices are set for essential goods.
4e51cca55674996e0a1a83476ddd6db76932a03c	However, these measures caused a negative response.
fb7ed5214a882fb721b730a9cb6f48f55c8ca9f2	The sellers refused to sell their goods for the prices set by the government.
ae4a91e7aec32141c779fee6e2364f2ee4079459	They switched to underground sales.
bf8c2b85aa062d579e49b475e7cda5ad296b9f46	As a result, prices have risen.
4b70b1d73bd7160dfc1e6b4fbc9725022dd1d37d	The Government also set a maximum salary level.
d98ef47e2a9e2fce7662e353fac1f2f65d09236c	But even this measure did not give positive results.
e80b3890b023fe2a8d0d85e53e158dfc63583545	The workers began to strike.
2f39a7ff5582abffe3a2802221c10fdaa1c47726	The government brutally suppressed the workers ' protests.
cdee319eeb7a57ea86d9359ff94f6028aa97b9a8	Foreign intervention and high prices for the most necessary goods extremely complicated the situation, which forced the Jacobins to resort to the establishment of a dictatorship.
ecbe7892b9ec2a680a4a18759b5685d1c3ce254f	In 1793, the Convention adopted the law "On suspicious persons".
616f84fb4a6aebbf5559d645f48d651e21e99070	This law provided for all people who were" suspicious " from the point of view of the Jacobins to be put in prison and kept there until the good times came.
c80bd1ef30960776af7bd2fd6c4d787921fb7f61	In fact, the Jacobins, through terror, wanted to get rid of their enemies.
8b79555add9db023588b15640477325448ebdb73	The proof of this was the imprisonment and execution of all the Girondists of the Convention.
e053e748f98b72a7d6fc44573771dd0a86aa4959	The uprisings inside the country were also brutally suppressed.
7c0920dfe2a1a92b9eff18c3cf75e7030381f75c	The cruelty of the Jacobins was boundless, fierce and senseless.
524103001f229b21a482fc4e42641d65ea4375b2	At the same time, they took measures to strengthen the army, which soon gave positive results.
046ab2e8b302be2776218abf055fd6daee1094a5	In 1794, the interventionists were expelled from the country.
6ded1750fbb374c0fca7c36681e09f2df86a48f2	In this war of independence, the young captain Napoleon Bonaparte became famous.
8f5632062b2757330cee218ce033ab462d247d5a	The Jacobin Party.
a42a91d48a177e3eaf48957ed2b4ecb46ff1b940	There was no internal unity in the Jacobin party.
47643dff98068c555f73222b65c47c255ca1c3fb	In fact, this was a party consisting of various groups.
3eec8211e96bf0cacbcc6024c01857d511b28026	At this time, they were united by two big ideas -the fight against foreign intervention and the suppression of uprisings inside the country.
45855d03b7c1fd3e46b4f29b8630a0af5f0bd8ff	After the elimination of these two threats, a group struggle began in the Jacobin party, Eber and Schommer were supporters of a just society where "there should be neither rich nor poor and everyone should be moderately well off."
1ea2617991df4b1f5f6a1e7fbb26403a7777de9a	In 1794, supporters of M. Robespierre arrested them, put them in prison and sentenced them to death.
e8929dab7dd020b0226e9b91269b7d1f1be20c1e	Supporters of M. Robespierre also considered dangerous the group of "valiant" Danton, who was a supporter of the unity of all the parties operating in the country.
f637472aaaff57425cbf9f6152805bbac0d555c0	For example, he suggested that all well meaning representatives of various parties unite in one group.
8ec56915be94569afc6846d4ce8d0d09b643727b	He also demanded an end to the revolutionary dictatorship, renounce terror and return to constitutional order.
6363d4cf8e1a78825c1600924ae7cc600acde4a6	The Robespierre Group rejected these demands.
762e690f6b98ae94551cbaa7e831071631ff1254	In March 1794, Danton and his supporters were imprisoned and executed.
9c9e195b00154bdb14e64bad1c446b60c550b21e	Over time, the policy of terror established in the country clearly exhausted everyone.
51b08907c1d229e7a163113fadd9d34e2ca13865	Robespierre's authority began to fall.
252a44f19c19f03951534f86285adab9619a418e	By eliminating his opponents in the political struggle, Robespierre, thereby, signed his own sentence.
3ed7238b204ba3bdcbef631071ec40e80a8da1ef	The people hated a Republic based on bloody rule.
ff70ca81441b40b0211810b19116eb668ba59981	Now all the opponents of Robespierre have united in a single alliance against him.
9f379b13eafec2de2bf9662ac018a727ec483007	The overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship.
16ba71c577687942300f63970ebd940c40872c36	A conspiracy was being prepared in the Convention against Robespierre and his supporters.
8f5efe6ad9428b25302be311e731eca2c7c929ee	On July 27, 1794, the Convention charged him and declared him an outlaw, which meant execution without trial.
2486ece3ccb5616bd059d8f40460cd113a0be6f5	Robespierre was imprisoned and soon executed.
e131e9af30bd7263795ac50ac5e4679901f204a9	In total, one hundred people were executed together with him.
d83a16158536cc88e5434ef1d46bf5b523d270a7	This was the end of the Jacobin dictatorship.
0c464709a9088ab15a26b4d5c4ccf6d4f1321f80	This marked the end of the revolution.
09d200e20fb9dae4bad0b70cd40875c082af6a5c	The Girondists returned to power again.
3c9b00cd9085099f5befb94ecdca216c6bc8d3da	They were supporters of the Republic, which protects property and freedom, creates conditions for entrepreneurship.
cbb03d1fb47ef42a919897dcd6eef652e9689f73	In 1795, the Convention adopted a new Constitution.
d90ea0a5133a12fb1fadb682e979edfa0b701ee5	It guaranteed the strengthening of the republican system in the country, confirmed all the revolutionary resolutions on the elimination of feudal orders.
f975a032b252bfe90b91e18ab4ad159e0c9e6397	A bicameral parliament was created in the country.
6ec8c938a82c896a2d7d8386b44cc4a7033f1345	The executive power was transferred to the Directorate, consisting of 5 people.
4243df7da8bf9de671ea261e194115ab6c2b5c01	She ruled the country during the years 1795-1799.
75faaa74fc880f3daa3d6566651712420717ea5f	During this period, supporters of the monarchy rebelled.
a51a73ca9962607f9df4a743ca032df7a8583f1d	Their goal was the return of the monarchical system.
3c056d156359d6b0fe30e3b41d835976e7b7ca38	But General Napoleon Bonaparte opposed the rebels and turned out to be the savior of the Convention.
e8ab49eb449f025d0a3df415a220a358ec6a2ebd	By quelling the rebellion and preserving the Republic, he paved the way for a bright future.
982dbcc963a6d40ab82e0fac320f59e132cd06f0	The coup d'etat of November 19, 1799.
325dd8bae93a770fa064cab20e309d74a1288190	The politically weakened directory, which was afraid of an attack on France by other states, hoped very much that Napoleon Bonaparte would liberate Italy from the Austrian troops.
8c7bf09126d03804a9bfe30fefd7f41d0346e03b	The twenty six year old commander brilliantly coped with this task.
9600c396db4a60b8d43709b4719b3d526b638561	In 1797, he forced Austria to sign a peace treaty and recognize the victory of France.
87c486870cac72baba40c0d60e7f5865475d644c	Napoleon returned to Paris, drowning in glory.
649237bf4a8f5624914ab6ad60941d3e3c6cd8d2	The leading circles of the bourgeoisie came to the conclusion that it was time to establish the power of a strong politician in France and began preparing a coup d'etat.
2ffc5ca428cd54dd047a530e455777b17f1f57ed	Napoleon Bonaparte did not object to this.
b3c522310a718a8a4ed11a8d9807a4373b0502e6	On November 19, 1799, a coup d'etat took place in France.
faf050905507ec2583765f2896473f522456f925	The parliament was ordered to transfer power to a new government - three " consuls of the French Republic4*, among whom was Napoleon Bonaparte.
776a7bd2aa206ea990d91e1cfbb3122b17b220d8	In fact, all the power was in his hands.
bc1e65f98de47515011eea325b5c77a1e8e5f02f	The historical significance of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution.
95eb80ffa7a021afaa190c711db406ee842de102	When it comes to the French bourgeois Revolution, the word "Great**is used in relation to it.
d77989c1e3c0e0ace735631597dc367ffdfa6f32	Why?
aa092ae5b84a16c006629fff38a1911f6e00b5da	Because this revolution decisively put an end to absolutism and medieval feudal orders, freed a person from dependence on another person, did not reconcile with any other kind of monarchy.
6edc9490462166f063eb57111c0a25676de42e06	A genuine republican system was established in France.
d667c962c885e9d5dc96a2a4060d5cce7c340be4	If in England the bourgeois revolution ended with the reconciliation of the bourgeoisie with the nobility, then in France the bourgeoisie defeated the nobles.
24afdd787dabcbc6266f3e8303604973d18fc3cc	The French bourgeois revolution destroyed the old society and the old state system.
709a123be0165676b3ea321ff01f077c7ef9287a	She prepared the conditions for the industrial revolution in her country.
561b83c847e5e91810ca0d99a6fdd7ddea48adde	The ideas of Freedom, Peace, and Property put forward by this revolution had a great impact on the development of other European states.
ce4312bd57ae07617753d30388a3d5ed76ed66b4	Directory (Latin: management, management)
98bf336099913dbba97eb484c11c18ec4eca9fb0	— the name of the government of the French Republic in 1795-1799.
8ab675f41c54d4935c9ea98cb8123cbb245ca009	Consul 1) in France, the title of three persons endowed with the highest executive power (triumvirate).
3adbaeb2c56cd61c427218bfd18feb472ea2dc0a	The first consul was Napoleon Bonaparte;
5c41f6d03b851b474bf0380c1a20443b61b0ff5e	2) a permanent representative of a foreign state in any city or place, an official whose duties include t defend the interests of their state and its citizens in the host country.
4f8c12d71339f267c71c7ad2fd596e3548fea64b	A state of emergency is a regime imposed in a country under special circumstances for the duration of their validity.
9826ff79d1ffb6d3023f5c6e7e1297adf05f0d98	As a right handed person, it restricts the freedom of citizens (for example, freedom of movement).
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c4dd3c8cdd8d7c95603dd67f1cd873d5f9148b29	<
6474013b7c2c2dfbf8c21e53db1a447445a7a959	Doping (English doping, from English dope — to give drugs) is used in sports not only in relation to narcotic substances, but to any substances of natural or synthetic origin that allow improving sports results as a result of their intake.
7535d46fa43d55b659f1d46324d84b4dbdfd3325	Today it is considered that the use of doping is a conscious intake of a substance that is excessive for a normal functioning athlete's body, or an excessive dose of medication, with the sole purpose of artificially increasing physical activity and endurance during sports competitions.
1fa633ed3626a4b9458f5279d13444c58cf1cb05	The fight against doping is also being conducted because records are given at the cost of the health and life of athletes.
e61afde4185912513d232b91f19e9788c120e72a	Initially, doping was used by horse trainers and riders in the United States.
80028a4f410dfaf7db63b0c618c8d44329da2e4e	These were stimulants introduced by Americans into the horse's body before racing by subcutaneous injection or oral administration in the form of drugs.
1d2a56c954339b6a1dc8f10af9dfd681b74b5fc6	Information about this, as well as about the red-handed detention of riders, first got into European and Russian newspapers in 1903.
b9f8c1e0e3d012b11b7c15512d31e8b92930fb80	In the same year, the racing societies agreed to fight and strictly pursue this ugly phenomenon, which threatens to bring incalculable troubles to the blood horse breeding.
b7f54555d406518c84b307bfc0073e10bb871079	The very first violator caught was Frank Starr.
47ffa617470d3e2152a5d9b4fc983bc6b0cdf71f	During a running day on June 8, 1913, an elixir was found in the rider Frank Starr, which is given to the horse to excite and strengthen its course during running.
9e73d0f53b62ee6b172857d34de6f22552f5f46b	Artificially improving the horse's agility for a short time, the elixir at the same time has a harmful effect on its health.
496f3e8559c6accb4d94199d0ec6e0192f6f172f	The rider F. Starr was deprived of the right to ride forever.
defa98d9088badec4ecc1a5627f5cb61e2d4eb69	At first, they did not fight against doping.
1379565bd397669c040026d1cc497c3b27b9681b	Obviously, because few people used it, and it was difficult to detect violators.
f3e7e014006e9db9986f088e4b01f8b1cb608b7c	For the first time, the world learned more about doping during the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome.
3b33786fd2dae1dabf99ad2343ada91f7bec21dd	Cycling races for 100 km took place in such deadly heat that many athletes fell off their bicycles.
f4433e95cf30e56a4697193632e894c192d81b1a	Danes Knud Jensen and Jurgen Jorgansen lost consciousness after the fall.
3d26371971f01955d3a6c8b30a0709ee5751f3e7	Jensen is dead.
08ed6d8c134bb2db957c134c94da71bdd472fd5d	There is a well-known case with the English cyclist Tom Simpson during the 54th road race of the Tour de France.
a9f40674d8f26df4b6f3df6c44510bd98cebc38e	On a hot day on a steep 20-kilometer section of the track, Simpson fell off his bike twice.
3e417bb3147795ef714fca0ab99a789e6b1f81ba	After the second fall, resuscitation attempts were unsuccessful.
b01583b179d45235f1ee166967cbb8a1ba94f428	In both cases, the true cause of death was not reported.
387ab595d03b0de770e2a726f5257273669724e8	Only over time it was officially announced that strong stimulants were found in the blood of the dead athletes.
f7ab6caeb5a7e2a8f63263be62bd68706bf7da14	Doping in athletics: the five biggest scandals
3e5595fe3565f381946b07d27606c3ef77208da6	Ben Johnson, the 1988 Olympics
95fcc0d5862b8afb0a97c72901e0b4f2f325d997	Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 meters at the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul was one of the most impressive and fundamental moments in the history of sports.
99a71d45709984425e0bb52238b53be648ca1383	The race in which he crushed the reigning champion Carl Lewis and broke the world record has acquired the character of a real sports drama.
367cbf4f5ecd4e184d5a929c4dd054d8c90b9403	The result shown by Johnson — 9.79 seconds-turned out to be so symbolic that it gave the name to the film about this race.
2a258dd370fc9bd2ff958e91976d1658aaa31682	But three days passed, and the world learned how the athlete achieved victory: the Canadian took the banned steroid stanozolol.
8d6decb89db03e7701be41d16ace90b638ded87c	American sprinter Tyson Gay broke away when he won gold in the 100, 200 and 4-100-meter relay at the World Championships in Osaka in 2007.
e5240687301471bb8a9ed273a7d7a55b92c38b52	He repeated the success of another American, Maurice Green, a year before Usain Bolt (Jamaica) took off at the Beijing Olympics and became one of the greatest sports stars in the world.
54794da5cdf0ca13c68604c36ac45c081520270d	However, as Bolt ascended to the heights of fame, Gay had more and more difficulty.
b5ba2bcb8b8e1e64202e8c53165a3b2d37983455	The Osaka gold could remain the highest point in his career, as not only Bolt, but also other stars from Jamaica, for example, Asafa Powell, began to dominate the sprint.
c3d0bcef3cee88015a33b4bcf563371d3b0aea79	And in 2013, it was announced that Gay's doping test was positive.
06d1f616d5caf841bbb29839486c54ffcf8e0c41	Gay admitted the presence of a prohibited drug, but said that a "third party" was to blame, which he declined to name.
6ed62b8828698d19b255254117a8e058becb49a2	Perhaps that would have been the end of it if, after returning to the treadmill after a one-year ban from participating in competitions, he would not have returned in great shape and did not win one race after another.
c768326cd763b21010a02791e6efbb29ce3dbcde	Gay's return caused a lot of controversy, but when he reached the peak of form in 2015, there was talk that he could win the main event of the year — the World Championship in Beijing.
f400e2f081396a9b42b9a79d965b8e35f59000af	But the miracle did not happen, and he lost to Bolt, slipping a few meters from the finish line.
20842e20c7f063089f5e4334644da5c6d632f716	BBC sports commentator Steve Cram (along with Sebastian Coe Steve Ouett, one of the representatives of the stellar generation of British runners of the 1980s) spoke in the spirit that Usain Bolt, by defeating Gay, " may even have saved the reputation of his sport."
a8a19ab428940d54e9e2ab4b54d739da746079c9	Ilona Slupianek (now Ilona Longo) is not just one of the most famous names on this list.
2320ab661e81eea002cf37b571e5ef47b9eecdb2	It represents the most infamous doping system that has ever existed — the one that was created in the GDR.
76e7189cf960ab147542884d746f22b11bd4e0bc	The shot putter passed a positive doping test during the 1977 European Championships in Helsinki, during which she showed a stunning result — 21.20 meters.
863b939bd379dd0e74bd532c97520f5bbdc3dc70	The International Athletics Federation disqualified her for 12 months.
a0fa92a5957138404324fa17e5efaddb2e772122	Sports functionaries believed that by doing so they would strictly warn all potential violators of the rules.
c22fab33e485adbdc0266ee0d2849384cc9a3ae5	In fact, something exactly the opposite happened.
3fa1bdd8d8e93c0d32613a4d429678abd3a06c89	Slupianek returned to East Germany, where she could train without hindrance taking steroids.
7ed5372916693289cc949adf16d36211da1bed75	The East Germans began to test their athletes for doping before they went to international competitions, so that they would know for sure that they would be able to pass any test abroad.
b94af1084b5830947a411905a9adaab495885a14	Ilona Slupyanek continued to perform and set a world record in the shot put (22.45 meters) at the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, which lasted for four years and was broken by the Soviet athlete Natalia Lisovskaya in 1984 (22.53 meters).
d030065a68f72d48f6444285bd4bca8b6de1a9a1	The sports system of the GDR continued to develop a doping program that brought the first state of workers and peasants on German soil countless gold medals.
336a727e959bc9e55a5648133ba325fb905b180b	Jones, the most famous athlete whose name was associated with the infamous scandal around the BALCO laboratory, became the Olympic champion in the 100 and 200 meters at the Sydney Games in 2000.
ceb303cc893a1c03cfc40b72495b21cd1ca61b0f	Jones lost her Olympic medals after her ex-husband, shot putter CJ Hunter, testified under oath before a grand jury that he saw with his own eyes how she injected doping into her stomach in the Olympic Village in Sydney.
b88caac9f8b2a42edec6f69cc16b504137cc4efe	Then Victor Conte, the founder of the pharmaceutical company BALCO from San Francisco, said in an interview with ABC that he personally gave Jones five different drugs that help improve sports results.
4ab9687d513094974f7742db3926a94c7630cfa9	Types and groups of doping additives
2224f142aaca60f121b70b0ae9f1a44c4627232d	Naturally, certain substances have their effect on the human body.
8575b060741a5fc82f8cbd5eeaf31d779fee448b	Some medications are painkillers, while others increase the physical characteristics of an athlete, increase strength, endurance.
593361cb5976187297e94d38bacd18482e3ccb29	In addition, doping is not only a stimulant of human capabilities during competitions, but also an assistant in training.
1487675ce3c71e1d4a43f9636f6da626a65f8991	Based on these signs, doping in sports began to be divided into certain groups.
46878f971e1bc73e32e5d98dbff819374325ad40	The following types of doping are prohibited for use both during competitions and during training.
0f067ab55f066edb9f384cc8e868af2c0c77c194	Anabolic steroids.
6ca32fad33d5d500c70d251aadc6c26c5be71393	These substances are popularly called anabolics.
3b45db2e71052fe447276224ed3f6533789ba645	This type of doping is formed from the male hormone testosterone.
31712b26efbe38dfd79aa47b9eaf3a7a083bfb5c	Probably, many people know that in sports testosterone is of great importance in obtaining the necessary results.
a3c8949d99f916755eba725cd9cce1ac4e366e4e	Anabolic steroids help in building muscle mass, protein absorption and the development of a male physique.
0101dcd7d8b66dee5e87df82b2be3805a969ed2f	But their hormonal nature makes itself felt.
cdd7132b87a15675f4dd98f47ef92170f57d9fc6	These drugs have an androgenic effect on the human body taking them.
13057de5e31478df0a2fe6336ea71ec5086223f4	Peptide hormones (or, as they are also called, peptides), growth factors.
7b695dda87b9a5f1173f0c3c427b733d984db5a0	Growth hormone, insulin and erythropoietin are prohibited substances for use by athletes, because they help them get an increase in muscle growth and reduce the fat layer (growth hormone), as well as increase the production of red blood cells (erythropoietin).
be57b10489f123975a034013e1073dc68f7d6b2f	Diuretics.
ea71bb459c69c5856a78e986c21ad74535e25e87	The scientific name of these drugs is diuretics.
7f26eb55bc1d936e7e12ec56ba695e5094ef595e	There are three main reasons why diuretics are used in sports.
2ccd7038c7714fa6ba0e7b6d298c3a3700d5ce51	First, it is a rapid reduction in human weight.
1985ed8c133a0def4815f966e81f4020262b1094	Secondly, giving the athlete's body a more beautiful muscular appearance.
4820c177090a13e9a702d1026005aa24dfd32ada	Third, diuretics help to remove other auxiliary drugs from the body and thus hide the use of prohibited substances.
38bf35feea2cc8cef8b8661190b1741285b55e4c	Beta 2 agonists.
6d9de1f9aaa4f85928f3ec4ef30bce87cc0a2630	They increase the volume of muscles, promote their recovery, prevent the loss of muscle mass with age.
eba1ff92129fef20ff5a277218501a01bf618ad9	Drugs that are prohibited only during direct competitions:
3003eb8d282929fe53934201c5058d09427c4c12	Narcotic painkillers (for example, methadone, morphine, fentanyl).
3f1d009c43dc6611c43736b97b8e927aaadb0ef1	The name itself suggests that these substances are used to reduce sensitivity to pain.
09eb7170051317a4666958593fe81842404ada69	Stimulating substances.
616a9fb12d2c79a3ea3784ceac94d2c4b63383e5	First of all, drugs of this group act on the central nervous system.
3f200da5c914a76275c6457aaeae102fa1556eb7	It is worth noting one important fact at once: many stimulants are part of anti-cold and antiviral medicines.
b0251c5781f280ee31f05881044a4ba6b71174fd	Based on this, an athlete should read the composition before using a seemingly simple cold medicine.
9f39ea92230296b2fad39ae3d5549a1628c277f0	If the drug does not include prohibited drugs, then you can use it during treatment.
f6c966f44664e3db33c37cf25604b4c2c2660fea	Glucocorticosteroids.
7216862c7d896b0b042a402bec0b681519d575ab	Athletes use them to feel a surge of strength and reduce pain.
e1ce37ee3c12161f305323ad14a616c0aeb776cc	The fight against doping supplements
7fd1e5dad97db64bac4798b93f0a6fc0ba24ff02	As previously mentioned, at the moment there is an active struggle against the use of various drugs that help to increase sports opportunities.
9dd63cffdf236d218a4a3ffbb477cd0dfb9a164b	Doping is a danger of leaving the sport for a short time, or even forever.
b8e34f0162ae5cfab086e969801672f2788b5f79	After all, almost at every competition, specialists check athletes for the presence of prohibited substances in the blood.
9fb18cd6f60df4fd71500bccf18c15ec8c5945dc	The winners are always checked, and the rest - to choose from.
078a79f17e5792a0ba72bc6b43cf76cd2d2abff4	If prohibited drugs were found in the athlete's body, then the person is disqualified for a certain time.
0eadc756cb92b2e764021ce5b1e5fcca812d79c2	For the first time – for 2 years, and if this error is repeated-from 4 years and forever.
9e820286fb585bd696743d1bb4e117156ddd23d7	Sports fans have often heard about scandals caused by the use of prohibited substances.
cffafc1a06655b6c336c6f12d8dcc93129c9aa13	Last year, biathlon was lit up in them more than once.
9c44fedf225089ba0b9112b3b3290868e0a073e0	The athletes of the Russian national team used doping, for which they were disqualified.
1d88517ea2a304c8a126f10f2c16478578e4896e	Harmful effect on the athlete's body
8969167b32258de5f92dc3afbd7b88fa21fe3e6b	Doping is not only an aid in increasing sports results and success, as well as physical data of a person, but also the cause of many problems.
f86573619e5ea3149be37b1ce3ec7021de7f8cef	The use of supplements in most cases does not pass without a trace.
4359f06a3d2f3a24f7f4aa4175200a6474de5df9	Such interference in the human body leads to negative consequences, and the athlete pays for the achievements with his health.
8c839981f742c44860d4706916e39db097d6bea4	As an example, we can take erythropoietin, which was previously mentioned.
7d8761ae34aa60271885103b5f90323f0a3049f9	With a high formation of red blood cells, the blood can become thick, which leads to the formation of blood clots in the vessels and veins.
3913d0e78a57d243d7b5180653bc1b5f009e5ef7	In this case, you can not do without problems (you also can not forget about the fatal outcome).
a9ed73a623ab196f999a624e1b91de848890a1e0	All types of physical activity are divided according to the intensity of loads into very high, high, medium and low intensity.
77c0b8b8fd50f71b78212cd68487959fd7b5aa91	This corresponds to the level of sports qualification of athletes of extra class (Olympic and world champions), masters of sports of international class, masters of sports, dischargers, persons engaged in physical culture, not engaged in physical culture and engaged in physical therapy for the purpose of rehabilitation of certain functions with the help of a given motor activity.
2d74c023a691f91bcafac68f1c26306b80a03348	Naturally, the requirements for these persons, their fitness, nutrition and pharmacological support will be completely different.
70a0b226138a0d7e763528d04a857a34363d24c5	However, all of them have limits of their capabilities, which limit the physical performance of a person.
900dd360bd41e653fbc39d149e6dc1f137782757	It should be borne in mind that these factors that limit performance depend on the type of physical activity, which can be divided into five main groups in accordance with the classifications of sports:
49b2577fcaf98fa99dc5531ccc73caf51276bc0a	1. Cyclic sports with a predominant manifestation of endurance (running, swimming, cross-country skiing, speed skating, all types of rowing, cycling, and others), when the same movement is repeated many times, a large amount of energy is consumed, and the work itself is performed with high and very high intensity.
28d6c2f24082fead7068ef52ed53dba76bdea379	These sports require the support of metabolism, specialized nutrition, especially at marathon distances, when energy sources are switched from carbohydrate (macroergic phosphates, glycogen, glucose) to fat.
ba7a1aeb21efb8379c0329ac18f0e69a83880331	The control of the hormonal system of these types of metabolism is essential both in forecasting and in correcting the performance of pharmacological drugs.
58892e62155e653d1558949dffa7a5c4630487e4	2. Speed and power sports, when the main quality is the manifestation of explosive, short-term and very intense physical activity (all sprint distances, throwing weightlifting and others).
13c005696abbc51feabbaa5d774bf4fe07314d47	In most cases, these characteristics depend on genetic determinants, and the energy sources for such activities are fundamentally different in the phenomenon of endurance.
6627e63716665a4157950d18435072a23e68e87e	Natural sprinters have a higher percentage of fast muscle fibers compared to long-distance runners.
0fe1b8634734d4df1b9673ba41756ac4290dc956	Speed is a very demonstrative indicator, which undergoes the earliest and most pronounced decline with increasing age in comparison with strength and endurance.
a2f23f80cb3f02141d4e52e0652f293959765e82	The increase in body weight in all throwers and weightlifters requires special control over specialized nutrition and the shift of the catabolic to the anabolic phase of metabolism without the use of anabolic steroids and somatotropin.
9030c163d46559516c16bed55276905873726a31	In sprinters, an uncontrolled increase in body weight is unacceptable.
b53894e41d4dd6a0a8bfc3b0c2b2773b16e51b4c	3. Martial arts are very numerous types of sports activities (all types of wrestling, boxing and others).
34e29c2c1c28ffe9dd321cb7a4cf2b5162569819	A characteristic feature of energy consumption in martial arts is an unstable, cyclical level of physical exertion, depending on the specific conditions of the fight, although, sometimes, they reach a very high intensity.
f5ecc6d171b70fa18d8babd3cdb511004bd0384b	The type of physical activity, its duration and intensity are the basis for the selection of pharmacological drugs.
4c2c98109939b00872bf0b811757c38f7a97b7e9	These sports, in most cases, are quite traumatic, which can cause disorders of microcirculation and metabolic processes in the brain, therefore, nootropic drugs should be used as protectors.
e65bbac372c076c67111a3a4cd20d8a349fea411	4. Game types are characterized by a constant alternation of intense muscle activity and rest, when athletes are not directly involved in game episodes.
29a30ec997f2ecdab6695af9f3661053dac9c1a6	The tasks of pharmacological support are associated with the correction of recovery processes, energy compensation, improvement of metabolic processes in the brain with the help of vitamin complexes, nootropics, adaptogens of plant and animal origin, as well as antioxidants.
6c5eb3954fb518cb5e5de198b8e20dfd839e75dc	5. Complex coordination types are based on the finest elements of movement, as it happens in figure skating, gymnastics, diving, shooting, where excellent endurance and attention are required.
3e4c752a499112acd7118ad219d782e876bcb0fb	For example, to make a difficult jump, you need a huge explosive force, while when shooting, you need to concentrate attention and reduce tremor.
493ed74e8366c725c97f5046c86d9ce3636c4972	It is of great importance to increase mental stability with herbal preparations of a calming effect (valerian, hawthorn without alcohol components), nootropics, vitamin complexes, energy-rich products.
b041a48fb44e22f0457a43271ec439b931b161f9	Complex technical types are largely associated with the use of technical means (auto racing, bobsleigh, parachuting, sailing, and many others).
2f1d929029668d04049a0004712c0ac6729bcfba	The level of physical activity may not reach very high values, but the nervous tension is at the limit of human capabilities, which determines the principles of pharmacological correction – increasing mental stability.
80a14226a55b0ab05841974e2881203a16056317	In addition, there are a number of mixed sports, where various types of multi-sports are used, including the listed types of physical activity of a person.
093348dfb9a6df033a07d34a6e57b6cad74af343	Thus, there is no reason to believe that there are universal pharmacological agents that could help unambiguously solve the problems of sports pharmacology.
ccdb2e3cd08bf862a3e18a8812dd18e4da10c916	Doping control is the most important component of a comprehensive program of measures aimed at preventing the use of prohibited (doping) drugs by athletes.
08859d429612e79e3c91c6f560159a3ef1d6766d	The doping control procedure consists of the following stages: the selection of biological samples for analysis, the physical and chemical study of the selected samples and the execution of the conclusion, the imposition of sanctions on violators.
e841b8be3711b1a244473003e726889c25a829a3	During the competition, the athlete receives a notification that according to the rules, he must pass a doping control.
a707dfa0f8b791e05a8cdc7b85f24ef1b3db00fa	Mandatory doping control is carried out by the winners who took 1st, 2nd and 3rd places, as well as by the decision of the commission one of several athletes who did not take prizes (they are selected by lot).
c7100351ab530ab9b2a117ee483753bbfef3454b	After the performance, these athletes are sent to the doping control room.
8369fce39a08f5e726ea11f5908723b4ed8e1ad8	Then, in the presence of an observer, a urine sample is taken.
2f1e68f011a48b46b1de8218f4dc440f58282486	Thus, the name of the athlete is not mentioned at any of the working stages (to maintain complete anonymity).
3451a6cf9de64d48186f828cd72dc04280596290	Before signing the doping control protocol, the athlete is obliged to inform the commission of the names of all drugs that he took before the competition (since some drugs contain prohibited substances in minimal quantities, for example, solutan).
9adbc487fa93a0fa445ce38be39bf8e9a1f118af	After signing the doping control protocol, the athlete can only wait for the results of the analysis.
8a4ba83341573252c1bbfe9b8018a3cb56543382	According to the doping control regulations, the A sample is analyzed, and no later than 3 days after taking a biological sample.
9cf182c50c08a75a94df5617f84d87ef72b16f45	If prohibited drugs are found in it, the B sample is opened and analyzed.
2c9072b6223533a7c49b73e6a1bc0cae7db5d767	Either the athlete himself or his authorized representative may be present at the opening of the B sample.
0ddee85cd9c324e3152a5ee4fccf541bfe37c052	If prohibited substances are also found in the B sample, the athlete is subject to appropriate sanctions.
2f03caa19c554a8cb1f7752ea6537e4df7a61e71	If no prohibited drug is found in sample B, then the conclusion on the analysis of the bioprobe A is recognized as unreliable and sanctions are not applied to the athlete.
53b71ad414cf9158ac7b5ba94cb19f3ce191ecac	Six years ago, when I first became interested in the doping topic, I also heard this opinion expressed by a fairly authoritative specialist: 'If an athlete is caught on doping, for me it primarily means the lack of professionalism of his doctor and coach.'
ee7bcc1a1b2ee82bc4dee7d64e154dd65f28753e	Often this is true.
30ebbb8ab72fb14b1a9d9a3f18045c45edf223da	I will return to the grandiose scandal at the World Ski Racing Championships in Lahti, when the leaders of the Finnish national team were disqualified for manipulating blood.
19204f416b3dcf43ff4b3facee954efd4b4f70cc	At that championship, the Finns did not hide that they wanted not just to win a certain number of medals, but to crush everyone and everything.
45a892bd8459f570347b4c063c85fa6b3e608aa4	In the preparation, everything that is possible was used: both drugs that increase hemoglobin, and alpine houses that simulate the rarefied air of the highlands (which, as is known, significantly increases the content of red blood cells in the blood).
d0480170ca7061a00ded3c2b4620353c500c2eba	As a result, the level of hemoglobin in athletes increased to such an extent that no legal methods helped to reduce it to normal in the days remaining before the championship.
8fd169df17081fcfb94414f279b37cdbfea8901f	There was only one option: to declare that there was food poisoning in the team, and already legally clean the blood with HES-hemodesis.
990710c149786ef6ffa7b1d3dcc9786565293796	Of course, there would be a lot of suspicions and backstage gossip in this case.
afbda3df04df21e1c2ecf9bbda2fa2bf105384a9	Apparently, they were afraid of this - they decided that it would somehow work out.
69912763d716fa1372f12a16b1156d5ca90e8677	It didn't work out.
b5cef8c69326cc95d947224cd882153426b8922e	Skiing in Finland is the main sport, a national treasure.
9874d32c6d6d4775b7fb55f0ad06c696a1c39281	Accordingly, there are huge state injections.
31148505f3c75dc168f509366b085718877805cd	But before the championship, another party came to power in the country - and therefore to money -.
b7a3bb293a62f5a07cf899a76ba8f3957fd2afc7	The sports management was changed.
96f71a20c5dbb0aaea1b831ed55e55fc3edddc4b	The scandal, inflated to colossal proportions, looked very much like an elementary settling of accounts with its predecessors.
70796cbb2fc9491d82ba6720748014e312158433	An indirect confirmation is a bag with the inscription Suomi thrown at the bus stop closest to the location of the Finnish national team and stuffed with syringes and empty ampoules.
10f0ce30fd491da26e2653186dff1e826c01dabd	So it turns out that the whole fight against doping in the form in which it exists has nothing to do with true concern for athletes.
cc8742bc871206e534e743afdea8aa24d1d4a7d6	A characteristic fact: for two and a half years of the existence of the so-called World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), no international sports federation has opposed its actions, despite the controversial and imperfect methods used.
76ccb21849bd65b2ab6192eb6006b46b0937f896	It is more expensive for yourself - they will accuse you of supporting those who are not clean on the hand.
fac9f4a3e3b9e989b2bc2a6602981d5ce3c987af	The FIFA medical Commission has been entrusted with dealing with doping control issues.
66b6ce9d1e6a96ef3b55b1f2669483392336bbb4	However, experts already predict that there will be no doping scandals at the World Cup.
ab158b02e784173ca62a160878543e63cb9680d0	This is primarily dictated by common sense.
8d871fab02bc7b3bba1ded0c1316553461ee051f	No one will allow killing the most expensive sport, just as Finnish skiing was killed.
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274cdb024d726d85259cf793d56e033f2e08ca96	What is doping in sports?
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d07e48fd4c6ae034b46c089e6d8fed6c6f2f90f7	Doping is... what is doping in sports?
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25b10a3e51726261e3c1218a2702aa45ff73d94a	Doping is used in many sports today: athletics, cross country skiing are an example of this.
c5adcaf458cba8cab9ba9698dec35e23e7061e6a	Many athletes were deprived of medals and titles when foreign substances were found in their bodies that help in obtaining the maximum result at competitions.
1e171cccf15df8efb443ad2fe873b7fec9fac82a	There have been, are and will be a huge number of questions and scientific doubts about the use of doping in competitions.
8b6a1038e1b44570e47a44e219eb6154c5d90055	Actually, it is worth understanding what doping is, why it is used and what it leads to.
aaa87ea78f278de93fc66d84d7d1af97cf36d11c	The scientific concept of Doping is natural, synthetic and narcotic substances that can improve the functioning of the athlete's body.
d09b537327ac354f39fcec166287fc95a4bf1c7b	Also, this concept refers to substances that can stimulate the synthesis of proteins after exposure to an external force on the muscle mass.
1a39e7c1ff90393bd217e4cce3293dde810c0edd	It should be said right away that during the competition, athletes are prohibited from taking certain medications.
215592f98ce2479d217858d5416456ce2a485a6f	The first use of the history of these drugs dates back approximately to the beginning of the XX century.
dba4487fcac8d49e65eb072d80f868fa3f8d8b8f	Doping in sports began to be used by American riders and horse trainers, who subcutaneously injected animals with the necessary substances.
98a0c3e43fc7fb715b713512c89c28cc20624fd0	The first information about the use of doping appeared since 1903.
3cb1714703cd9adaf305cf0eceeea6cd59cf1898	It was from that time that the racing society began its struggle against the use of any auxiliary substances.
9a2cf698d8ef8d6d53cbe029802d5968d6ded3be	It turns out that from this moment the doping control was formed.
3fbe665a960788a3028f4780bfbd347d07e3679d	Only at first he was not as active as he is today.
65b89708e3eaf8f3388d30619eb63876677ce43e	Types and groups of doping additives Naturally, certain substances have their effect on the human body.
6b19a7c53a9a29333be9bb92170a2fe2da1fcad0	Drugs that are prohibited only during direct competitions: Narcotic painkillers (for example, methadone, morphine, fentanyl).
07a94a6f38d0356fd7ad36eef2d8da18d56d17d2	It is worth noting one important fact at once: many stimulants are part of anti cold and antiviral medicines.
129f9f7ede9f3fba6db16964e0e801e3ca5f52f0	The fight against doping supplements As previously mentioned, at the moment there is an active struggle against the use of various drugs that help to increase sports opportunities.
2dcdcb23db6fa0e7ffef4ec15cec5c7ce92865c2	For the first time – for 2 years, and if this error is repeated from 4 years and forever.
4c2a394f6cf166bf991d5a5cbac9caab09408ae9	Harmful effect on the athlete's body Doping is not only an aid in increasing sports results and success, as well as physical data of a person, but also the cause of many problems.
fb2d82a807405b06786b766182bc85999af489ba	Concluding the discussion of the use of doping substances, it is worth saying a few words that recently there has been a tendency to reduce their use and a healthy approach to sports thanks to doping control, various anti doping prevention programs.
b4295073fd6e0ff6f86fa6afb75782dbb9beba90	Many people in the world of sports say " No " to doping.
d2a10d13975133d9ebe5935b8dc6cee1cc272a1c	Take, for example, the biathlon mentioned above.
6164ba7b0b8371b0c5242c25619bb0c174a880b7	Doping in this sport, according to the president of the Russian Biathlon Union, will never be used again.
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f03fcafeb6353b8dd30105308f4f83e648906ed8	Doping
2c17934e2a2a8f9af4a013907baaaac4b0024e60	[edit / edit wiki text] Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
f9fb44ab10be149d3dfbe113fb28c750e07fe8ee	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on September 15, 2012; checks require 47 edits.
43ecbc70c0ea026dd53b890db0c06a0a592dcd20	This article lacks links to information sources.
fbd4984f3b3716baee4ff3bca926d056d61bc81a	The information must be verifiable, otherwise it may be questioned and deleted.
c3f43d6e1f8072ac6ca2c1c9a1a3e356c90c1348	You can edit this article by adding links to authoritative sources.
e87f8b8f1983737cb1f62616409c150379331eb7	This mark was set on August 16, 2015.
15844151e4224267d6f52eed8770f2c4a686cfcd	Such substances can dramatically increase the activity of the nervous and endocrine systems and muscle strength for a short time, they also include drugs that stimulate the synthesis of muscle proteins after exposure to muscle loads.
a0f47f2e7c4791752c7e7932839328f4fb48246c	A huge number of medicines have the status of prohibited for athletes during competitions.
c59285bbbb2cee89c6e4bfb5961448f1cf8be82a	The modern concept in the field of anti doping in elite sports is given in the anti Doping Code of WADA (World anti doping Agency, established at the initiative of the International Olympic Committee — IOC).
fd78eee0f252bee527ff540680dc5050e30ea51e	Vada every year publishes the list of prohibited substances for athletes and a new version of the so called standards: international standard for laboratories and the international standard for testing and international standard for the design of therapeutic exceptions.
24147e3a53e5756ccdb17b4224b54d6798c7fe5a	In 1993, the IOC Medical Commission banned the use of the following pharmacological drugs: stimulants (so called stimulants) of different groups and classes, drugs, anabolics, painkillers, diuretics, peptide hormones and their derivatives.
9bd6706e77469ec8b2be5db52fa0a11d7719672d	Restrictions on the use of alcohol, coffee, local anesthetics and beta blockers have also been introduced.
9249e9200678e0a212f1ad8ab45001f6eef7cab2	[remove]
ba4a432ba595dc6ba66990f1c287a3ef87e49870	1 The first victims of doping 2 Groups of doping drugs 2.1 Stimulants 2.2 Painkillers 2.3 Anabolic steroids 2.4 Diuretics 2.5 Peptide hormones
51070cf8393e3ca0d0b175122e39f3c5df053453	3 The fight against doping 3.1 In Russia
62d61c5aae0cec4a409afe00272ffb599aff49bb	4 See also 5 Notes 6 References
1e0c7b811517e5a58e3508cc6eb4396b6df44d84	The first victims of doping[edit / edit wiki text]
18ec6ade37c05ef743f63b0ca01c1fb3aeb9e6d0	Information about this, as well as about the red handed detention of riders, first got into European and Russian newspapers in 1903.
c78dfe7f022c010cceb5adcd21ecb65951f9580b	There is a well known case with the English cyclist Tom Simpson during the 54th road race of the Tour de France.
75a1f47df63a6496eb555d50a8566baca3deba57	On a hot day on a steep 20 kilometer section of the track, Simpson fell off his bike twice.
ca14d8fb34549cde04de7bb9530d8b61324f02cd	Groups of doping agents[edit / edit wiki text]
afda5d4f80c27b993c2b89c2b17d40e18b32a5f4	Stimulating means[edit / edit wiki text]
8bf37bab7d9b83626ab3f3a7ba0f262c8d0d511c	Stimulants, or stimulants, act on the central and peripheral nervous system.
1bb59dbeda48767aeb97d6195b9fd9db5d1e56a2	These include: amphetamine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, caffeine and strychnine, phenotropil, mesocarb (sydnocarb).
358f13c3ee3b51a40ecf2160e7cc975bfed421ea	Many of these compounds are part of anti cold remedies.
84f49f8a47adc0f6ef085901276227aa7bf11ae0	Therefore, before taking the most banal medicine, the athlete should check whether it does not contain prohibited ingredients.
d44983b95c5719b80b685041d12c82aa8e07474c	Stimulants used even in small doses at threshold physical exertion can cause:
61a272e2e843aeea2f41637b9557af60d6802dfd	increased blood pressure and acceleration of cardiac activity; violation of thermoregulation and heat stroke, followed by collapse and death; the occurrence of addiction and mental disorders.
b7c7a57073eb07f2c3a8e09b26c50e99dca37250	The most commonly used stimulant is caffeine.
36ec9bd42cf3c3a1e187ce4916cea883ddb7d8ef	Currently, there is no ban on it, since it is part of coffee and tea.
26b7a9d0a551a322e4bb935f75225f2f23caa8b9	Stimulants are prohibited only during competitions, and their use is not considered an anti doping rule violation during out of competition testing.
6aefbf03f2b26a5208807c8039c412a140b60331	Painkillers[edit / edit wiki text]
40ffe4bfe534bb103ec6611cc072a77776fdde05	Narcotic painkillers reduce sensitivity to pain, regardless of its nature and cause.
87351ab8aa64fd3f9cc42265e244c00b089b4c34	Athletes resort to them to shorten the recovery period after bruises and injuries.
016464a128159d93c73ddec4bcaccb851d6da450	Their use is prohibited only during competitions.
8e93a074aaf7c2f54fb3300f4aad8b7ff171a8df	Non steroidal analgesics are not included in the WADA Prohibited List.
d0fdbe38e2f9279d9366ddc36f72c34453b13fd2	Anabolic steroids[edit / edit wiki text]
664fee6a344258eaa941f2d2c0a4649127168fa1	Main article: Anabolic Steroids
123fd43567a0010392816490e030ad74ccfacca3	One of the most popular groups of doping agents are anabolic androgenic steroids (anabolics).
e5db5e370f144584d0ad366f1921dd593121c549	These are synthetic derivatives of the natural male sex hormone testosterone.
33bcaf46b14289cd089482ea82cc3f9e7eda3c44	The effect of these drugs on the body is twofold: on the one hand, they stimulate protein absorption, muscle mass building, the development of a male physique; on the other — the development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effect, or masculinization).
68a89913cb855dc0131e5c99d5db9fd0cd8104bc	Both of these effects are inseparable.
b4eb69aae01ffab2d6beee2c6a99213d85e9858b	These compounds are used primarily as a long acting doping, because this is the only way to convincingly improve sports results.
51ab7e2f1d55803b2ec7217d70b8db1c8deb49f1	The most characteristic property of anabolic steroids is their ability to enhance the synthesis of nucleic acids and protein, as well as structural elements of the body's cells and, consequently, to activate the repair processes in bone and muscle tissues.
b973a0abe1585e90ca465e49faf25fda7a3e6959	They stimulate the absorption of amino acids in the small intestine.
01729e1cd81b4bf4f1a33b0c7ab9199a6d61d692	They activate the production of erythropoietin (a substance that stimulates the process of hematopoiesis) and anabolic processes in the bone marrow (anti anemic effect).
bb3f6974431ec722aefe57863ccce6eaa0415a0e	They have a positive effect on nitrogen metabolism: they cause nitrogen retention in the body and reduce the excretion of urea by the kidneys; they inhibit the excretion of potassium, sulfur and phosphorus necessary for the synthesis of proteins; they increase the reabsorption of sodium and water.
6a804c64810fa5cb063b130fb1c893b05bdf1d7a	Anabolics promote the fixation of calcium in the bones.
ec1607b586e96b136f6a9a623e95fc3e34722b1d	Uncontrolled use of anabolics can cause mental disorders, liver failure, the development of neoplasms in the liver and lungs, sclerosis and thrombosis, prostatic hypertrophy, violation of the functions of the genitals.
27fd7b71a683db32645f267cd29cc0905fa7c972	In addition, an increase in muscle mass is not accompanied by a strengthening of the ligamentous apparatus, so when using anabolics, ligament damage occurs, most often a rupture of the Achilles tendon.
598b752b0f5ddb3cd60d52ea2761f23348afe7f1	Typical anabolic androgenic steroids include the following drugs: nandrolone, stanozolol, methandienone (methandrostenolone), oxandrolone, methenolone (primobolan), mesterolone (proviron), trenbolone (parabolan), oralturinabol and boldenone.
dc6c4aad54a2909e73a5f7196114b6f9232082d2	Diuretics[edit / edit wiki text]
95777b246b6b0fa422cc489448cb344f43ba22d7	Diuretics (diuretics) are, for example, furosemide, chlorthalidone, amiloride, acetazolamide.
1a3838ca48c9f1ef0502a2f8406e52b87516c7df	In sports, they are used for three reasons.
acaa35d1727829bbfdc962a6fdcc7fb980a6fe1f	In those types where there are weight categories, diuretics help to quickly reduce body weight.
2185238274ccd6ac0fd5eb45d678289a56f65358	Diuretics also help to improve the appearance in gymnastics, figure skating or body fitness.
17d1717c92f3e2a0c3d736b29275523432fbf781	Dehydration helps to give the muscles emphasized shapes.
1874aa992b596ce4522883a0007d718284974010	And, finally, intensive urination helps to remove other doping from the body or mask their use by significantly reducing the density of urine.
4fd2fa466a3b2f2c64f0f62745686da7dbba9959	Diuretics can cause serious violations of the water electrolyte balance, a drop in blood pressure, a violation of the rhythm of the heart and sudden death.
d68aa1a64142eefce5b65b1779dd387ccb39fa77	Peptide hormones[edit / edit wiki text]
29a07c570790097c127de5b5533b04301ac89c4e	Examples of peptide hormones are insulin, growth hormone and erythropoietin.
4677065c58498ace75b9f950b0cd5fd9a05dc980	In young people, growth hormone leads to gigantism (extremely high growth in general), in adults — to acromegaly, that is, a pathological increase in some parts of the body, mainly the feet and hands.
6d7ef78bde3abc363633a39c038153c9e9e3351b	Erythropoietin, produced by the kidneys, stimulates the production and maturation of red blood cells.
60ad8cdc03442edf7f4a97c90ec943cef7a0523c	Its use is designed to obtain the effect of long term training in high altitude conditions, but it can lead to increased blood viscosity, which in turn leads to thrombosis of blood vessels and a fatal heart attack, often during sleep.
b678a963ea29951c603e5a9964c6756d62db148f	Almost all of the mentioned doping agents are used as medicines.
6bccee3bbd2d5679bc84ad57f7528ca9d3b38846	But in this case, they are used under the supervision of a doctor.
efd0f70a0dcab48197e739a041c021e3fa67c138	The patient is not subjected to physical exertion, takes protective medications and follows a special diet.
fb715ae8386ddce848b2333316b330f49debcac5	The fight against doping[edit / edit wiki text]
202aaaaaa54354a986f6cce437d1cedc8abdce7e	During national and international competitions, doping control is carried out not only for the winners, but also for the rest of the participants by lot or by the choice of a doping judge.
f586db8529407227bd9bec5261bafc9523a0eb90	Doping control rooms (stations) are located in all sports arenas.
9514b00a8947977c6db2c0c6c0f30bc0e9b2aa91	In most sports, the established use of doping entails disqualification for 2 years, and repeated for 4 years or even forever.
b61f9a8bb1b51416f22758611af1614fafd1cbf1	However, this does not stop many athletes.
3029333f30b76fd121d8c5a36c2c7f191e44b3c5	Moreover, most athletes use doping outside of competitions, in training.
fd7734946754adad795837f3882e9b03ffd81fb8	With such a load, this is not surprising.
666ec7ec79b004e155620274393445c5bb268aee	Coaches treat this phenomenon very calmly, and often force their wards to use doping themselves.
099202763b5168d9dc447e306a91f0b319b7477d	It is officially stated that coaches do not encourage the use of doping, and to use or not to use is a personal choice of each athlete.
2d7560796eee7633be8f35830807a2193d2f1dbb	In some cases, athletes are given permission to take prohibited drugs, called a therapeutic exception.
92bbf7ae2f08c82ae5e25d6a94a79fc7ffa70f8c	At the same time, the athlete must confirm that taking these drugs is necessary for his health.
22f575ccdbec30d00cbb002d027e971ceebb4654	So, according to medical documents, many skiers and biathletes suffer from asthma.
58ca4a8df6db7440692cccbd2e898da0f1314c70	With the permission of the IOC medical commission or their international federation, they have the right to take drugs that are included in the WADA Prohibited List.
d188a1437d008f6a6899af955fd1436b07bef8d7	These drugs can give an anabolic effect and have a psychotropic effect on the cerebral cortex, improving respiratory functions and increasing the amount of oxygen entering the lungs to nourish the muscles[1][2].
d4e21af9f5daa23e54e85cc7b5946d024b2d2c6e	In Russia[edit / edit wiki text]
2f02d12db81860fdb485c7766e3d6a154d19804c	On November 4, 2015, the French prosecutor's Office officially charged the former president of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAF) Lamine Diack with accepting bribes in exchange for refusing sanctions against Russian athletes convicted of doping.
4c7ef78b086b54da4f7d98849ea734430a42f85f	According to the French media, the money could have been received in 2011 from the All Russian Athletics Federation (VFLA) for concealing data on anti doping rule violations by Russian athletes[3].
638dc472e01c2ead71f6a2e28f5f7a40b0da2956	On November 5, the VFL anti doping Commission disqualified five athletes convicted of doping[4]:
b40563aff7b215c56a6cdaf1affe202f57d9f017	Yaroslav Kholopov the anabolic steroid ostarin was detected;
150a301e42b2d4bb364314e15df599aa40644796	Vlas Bredikhin was disqualified for four years for using the anabolic steroid oralturinabol, for four years.
bf6654916bc9c233c220955714ab8f08a080f4f9	Evgeny Nushtaev — stimulant tuaminoheptan; six months Maria Bespalova dehydrochloromethyltestosterone (based on documents received from the MALF); four years Maria Konovalova deviations in the hematological profile; two years (results from August 2009 to 2015 will be canceled)
0e085661717d71180d484556b81fc3297496d2de	Heidi Krieger Lance Armstrong
5747fa82fc2590a697c5c28f58ef9d53f2d6b648	Норвеж The Norwegian skier denies that her asthma helps her win (rus.).
1a39d79e5fad81c2f818eeac3f4ce13108ab223d	NEWSru.com (February 24, 2010). Verified on August 17, 2015.
0c88443f5f08e033e52c3e906e78c6e9f18e7591	Archived from the original source on February 27, 2010. аст The Russian biathlon team has officially added asthmatics (Rus.).
f607327647f4bf175d31e99ac62e3be4ba538a27	NEWSru.com (March 5, 2011). Verified on August 17, 2015.
628e282a7bbe1b12eb3e3a9c02a13778f3b2cba2	Archived from the original source on June 17, 2013.
dc2dc4a5b89d216ef92804ea68cce8ea6452c0d7	↑ "The former head of world athletics is suspected of receiving bribes from Russia" ↑ "Five Russian athletes are disqualified for doping", BBC, November 5, 2015
e2bd5a844665392913b8fb98a5e731f8355487e3	All Russian Anti Doping Rules, Ministry of Sports of the Russian Federation, Order No. 638 of June 18, 2015.
9cf9f751fe4a311e0cd6815513cfe26392199f21	International Convention against Doping in Sport Doping is a definition from the World Anti Doping Code Federal Law of the Russian Federation No. 240 FZ of 27.12.2006 "On ratification of the International Convention against Doping in Sport" German athletes will be paid for doping A very frank interview with three time Olympic champion in cross country skiing and biathlon Anfisa Reztsova to the magazine " Skiing Carefully, doping!
e4178e8edf0eb0c360b9cf3160ab9c4269cdc2bf	To improve this article, is it desirable?:
18e715c04539a43c5723476367e9a176debbc224	Wikify the article.
5f413563ef302873819bafdd73bc1de7e48c7a5b	<img src="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"
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0066d6d6b655af176b2952297c2ed1e7a07a0337	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t itle=Doping&oldid=74639241"
c7a6b5da8099732693e4e117ae556ddf01a6eba1	Category: Doping
37f3495194c9dd7a14fd275d5ea70fd0c56e86fc	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles without links to sources from August 2015 Wikipedia:Articles for wikification
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41f29448725e41ee85cb8c0447b7c256fd9cfdc0	Types of doping and the reasons for its ban.
12f9c28d6e449198ffa5a82c49431ff076ea5c9f	Sanctions against athletes convicted of doping
04b77c048ce8b42a896e05b8a7e651d674d023a6	Sanctions against athletes convicted of doping 1.
533463362c4c73a441497a6d50117f66c670e735	Doping and the reasons for their ban 2.
a69de53d519d0f0d3ec252c76a10b1606b15bede	Sports and doping 3.
48f3fba5eb1f751347547a0ab57fd94ec0174b4c	Doping control 4.
98a1e65ba51301b4c6466b91c423d24dbce83d31	Doping and the reasons for their prohibition Doping is a drug that is used by athletes for artificial, forced improvement of performance during the training process and competitive activity.
4a604c3c1539f124c57eed94b369d3a1dcb2b739	Depending on the type of sport, they can have completely different and even opposite pharmacological effects: from psychostimulating to tranquilizing, from diuretic to cardiotropic effects.
b87899cd9c6ec5d93287f1fe10a1aefa11b7b1cb	Therefore, it is wrong to call doping stimulants.
f2150465a44f4fd88c8c389a76201a8ec9f31a4d	They are prescribed once or in a course, depending on the tasks set and the mechanism of action of drugs.
e43b7cc94aba0c8b5efe1cdd26e2352df65ebf0a	So, no one will think of using anabolic steroids once, and psychostimulants in a course.
1fab62d3292710cc3f600fd9dc6ada14de363876	Judging by the publications, the conclusions of the IOC MC, doping has been used and is being used in all countries.
e7d565c0e0f54c268be8132fe8a2546d5b85d0ca	The reason for this is the excessive desire to achieve prizes in competitions and the mercantile interests of athletes and coaches, sports organizations, entire countries.
f94124347bcf1f6a8999f250bcf62729ed9724ac	Over the past ten years, a large number of articles and books have been published on this topic (especially in the United States), which describe the practical use of doping in sports.
08f580d8a56224c3d46a83ead471e0d9ad106f51	They have been translated into many languages, including Russian: see the Reference Material on Doping: permitted and prohibited drugs...
c75fedcae377327ea70e308e7e6cde167ddbc46e	It can be stated that doping causes numerous complications in athletes, up to fatal outcomes.
9635a24fb8e215559f614143372b812fe919007a	For this reason, and also because all athletes must be in the same conditions, the IOC has banned the use of a number of pharmacological drugs in training and competitions.
a0c039d5fc3ff8f0eab66434a4e6efa05de59e82	Some believe that this is a violation of human rights, and every athlete is free to prepare as he wants, with or without doping.
339ca3aab9dd6c29090d92b9590986f31d43660c	In this case, the result of the competition will depend on which country comes up with a more powerful doping or a rational scheme for the use of known drugs, and pharmacologists, not athletes, will compete at stadiums.
f417174790e1dc4e386f8e7425a54b952905a04d	There is still no consensus on the definition of doping, and it is extremely important to clarify this, since the use of doping can cause sanctions, appeals and court proceedings.
594a81ffb41293bc654fc077d31fe93619dd4798	Therefore, we can give the following definition, reflecting the essence of this phenomenon: "Doping is a biologically active substance, methods and methods of artificial improvement of sports performance, which have side effects on the body and for which there are special detection methods."
0fdd58486c3679ca8af5b7e46c46891109d34cb2	So, blood doping is not a drug.
511883a6fa438d66cf9fc39ec9a192d709391107	It is a blood taken from an athlete in advance, treated with various methods (UV radiation and others), and then, before the competition, injected into him (blood, plasma or red blood cell mass) to increase its quantity, oxygen transport function and nonspecific stimulation due to decayed red and white blood cells.
3521b9c407e8d5d7d6fcbfb76f7089582a0127e0	In addition, other manipulations are being carried out to create non traditional dosage forms and methods of drug administration.
eb34ceae6bb96c27e338d17dd39ac4f6d17b8cf5	For example, practical doctors and trainers in the USA have developed specialized methods of administering anabolics: "dog tracks in the snow", combination, fusion, rapid switching, cycling, dosage reduction scheme, dosage increase scheme, plateau, steroid jump, which reflects the features of combined and long term use of these prohibited drugs so as to achieve maximum effect and not be caught by the doping examination service.
a8cc9e7e17afa35d30d46c0adcd9cba5c5adb538	Thousands of pages have been written about doping, while there is still not a single book where the issues of ideology are discussed, how you can use non prohibited, harmless drugs of plant and animal origin.
e5c2d1a60b49ce9714152826f22a279ec22c9e03	In our country, doping examination is carried out in the anti doping laboratory of VNIIFK (head of the laboratory, Candidate of Biological Sciences V. A. Semenov, pharmacist), which is equipped with the latest high resolution devices and qualified specialists.
b9be82092deb9f1d7b8f82271ba9292ca4070ad9	The Department of Biologically active Substances of VNIIFK is engaged in the development of biologically active substances of plant nature in combination with products of increased biological value of the non – marketing structure, which was headed by the author of these lines for 18 years a pharmacologist who has repeatedly lectured on this topic in Russia and abroad.
453f623b11f15d72f5849d1c394add0bde9b5bc9	Doping includes all psychostimulants, respiratory analeptics, adrenomimetics, MAO inhibitors, cholinomimetics, anticholinesterase agents, antidepressants, narcotic analgesics, cardiac glycosides, testosterone and anabolic steroids, corticosteroids, peptide hormones – STH, ACTH, gonadotropins, erythropoietin and others.
e9a68677c1c5042a8482d03524a68cf5acac42a6	In addition, beta blockers, sodium oxybutyrate, tranquilizers, sleeping pills, marijuana, hashish and alcohol are prohibited in all types of shooting, and diuretics are used to exclude the masking of steroids, their accelerated excretion and water.
75385070f448edbf06f2a14b731ab7e1cf99325c	There is an addition to all groups of medicines in the list of prohibited drugs: "and other related compounds".
747be9a71482c7b1c5db4c2fe101c8c1d35fefd7	This means that an unknown doping can also be detected both by its chemical structure and by its pharmacological action.
51a5db56859d24d01fedc3f2dd547bd1e3b22ef5	Since testosterone is an endogenous substance, it is customary to calculate the ratio of testosterone (T) to epitestosterone (E), which should not exceed 6:1.
38e4f8c1d23ea311ed5803c758ee9a64fd0156a5	If it is greater, it is considered that the athlete injected exogenous testosterone.
f6a2b8dae2c4a6fdb4167a1621d589cab014306b	However, the level of testosterone can vary widely in the body, both in physiological and pathological conditions.
a5de35d1a17eb3a14c9a113144dde11a4eece45a	For example, in cases of a decrease in the excretion of epitestosterone into the blood during the tumor process, functional insufficiency of meta bolizing enzymes.
3de58465fbdf817b3b1be10057c0f9221e1f25f4	If the T/E is more than six – additional studies are conducted within three months, as well as information about previous studies is collected.
7d9d1dd6ab78ae37f3b648955ebb36edb2f2ad65	In addition, the masking agents epitestosterone and probenicide are prohibited, which make it difficult to decipher urine tests.
10cb6222ba4ba83b46dcffa0972c104b2229242c	In the practical use of these groups of drugs that artificially increase human performance in military, aerospace (except sports) medicine, moderation in their dosages should be observed, which almost never happens with their prohibited use in sports.
c7179a149ea6bf655eeff243172f551789be81b0	This leads to severe complications, sometimes ending fatally.
d10cd38efd6fe5fb710e09cfea960d705d2c38c0	A detailed analysis of the side effects of doping was carried out by us in the book "The Doping Monster".
f768363eb9c12383a64e20e9175955a0a20d335f	Another important problem that a sports doctor faces in his daily activities is the differentiation of combined drugs that contain doping components and those that are safe.
83a7774421cf2648c5fe55186b9592a136c8b811	In various countries, including Russia, there have been cases when doctors prescribed pharmacological drugs containing doping (ephedrine, anabolic steroids, amphetamines, diuretics, and others).
b32c754110d5cdf173c7207a67cdacae04fdc298	On the other hand, attempts were made to conceal the deliberate use of doping, with the aim of forcibly improving the performance of athletes, allegedly not knowing that nasal drops or intra articular injections are not doping.
0c1c57f5e79bba6aa1db5e86ec6f1058e47bb7b3	However, ignorance of this issue does not exempt from liability in the case of a finding of prohibited medicines in a bioassay.
10815edd0ea00ffa46e18450bdf72dac2b403e08	It is very difficult to prove to the IOC that there was an error, and not an intentional action.
78580b4930ff02d4866e24274454104ce2394c0a	Therefore, it is better to consult with specialists in advance, since everything that is prescribed to an athlete orally or parenterally (including specialized nutrition, biologically active food supplements, vitamin complexes, geriatric drugs) must have an anti doping certificate.
8068b7bd5b090da563b3b3d0371e5cf8a98763cc	This is not an unnecessary measure at all, since provocations from sports competitors have become more frequent, who added doping to food and drinks in order to exclude a strong athlete from the fight.
5561a978b8d8c002e17aeeb0027792731cba97d0	Sports and doping All types of physical activity are divided according to the intensity of loads into very high, high, medium and low intensity.
01ff00721c76927d2ae3ae5ffeb2b9eced8bdfd1	It should be borne in mind that these factors that limit performance depend on the type of physical activity, which can be divided into five main groups in accordance with the classifications of sports: 1.
9ce181853b6ac31879874307013dadbbda26b577	Cyclic sports with a predominant manifestation of endurance (running, swimming, cross country skiing, speed skating, all types of rowing, cycling, and others), when the same movement is repeated many times, a large amount of energy is consumed, and the work itself is performed with high and very high intensity.
492712f7d34647488c3c2b24c4cf860e9a0a8d59	2. Speed and power sports, when the main quality is the manifestation of explosive, short term and very intense physical activity (all sprint distances, throwing weightlifting and others).
9af34fc922b5b5001ec2c515e2d8b70dd8f15a99	Natural sprinters have a higher percentage of fast muscle fibers compared to long distance runners.
a40a7f1d35f6f1ef4c60b34b6474d16773654fb9	Carbohydrate metabolism and energy sources prevail: macroergic.
072b3bb41f2ebe05885508cef4c375ba643dfbbe	Coordination of movements and mental stability are of great importance.
e088d5a5b024ce0bf2bb6dc6079e2c25596a2dad	Physical activity varies widely.
2648cbf05f709975347c340bd3cb4fdc7a6b14a6	It is of great importance to increase mental stability with herbal preparations of a calming effect (valerian, hawthorn without alcohol components), nootropics, vitamin complexes, energy rich products.
501425594adee1c0241d0d09f71beedd60080245	In addition, there are a number of mixed sports, where various types of multi sports are used, including the listed types of physical activity of a person.
30738c4cc78e82784e7976f368ffc452b7513f74	Naturally, the tasks of pharmacological support differ significantly and fundamentally.
2b876f4eef23fecf1a5ecad60d9b9bd6ee9dcc5b	It should be added that there are many problems with restoring and maintaining a high intellectual level in chess competitions as a sport.
3f998c2cdc858d21bf69737e1003e17a3209c8eb	So, sports activity includes almost all types of physical performance, both dynamic and static.
8d07ee8dd4ef6eebb63e1c4708af7b30a63a209e	Next, we will consider pharmacological drugs that affect endurance, speed, strength, coordination, taking into account the intensity of physical exertion.
a7356ae955d750dec3c5124182ab346133e5b42c	Over the past 15 years, it has been found out that, depending on the types of sports, the following doping is used in different countries (Table 1).
fd76b95a075581bb40736afdf0de95857fd64438	Table 1 The use of doping in related sports
2486f0a6237e690249c7029e39104e7228c6b0e7	Related sports Doping Complications
5aa348c1a500b32908d105ccfb4bf353f7b8193a	1. Speed and power sports: weightlifting, throwing, bodybuilding, sprint distances in athletics, swimming, speed skating, cross country skiing.
adc3e0ec42ef0d9480db05f625af4a510d79d943	Anabolic steroids, somatotropin, gonadotropin, amphetamines, diuretics, etc. Drastic changes: metabolism, hormonal profile, masculinization in women and virilization in men.
157476453eb6905d4c2e549377dd4823b0ed8efc	2. Sports with a predominant manifestation of endurance, cyclic sports: running, swimming, cross country skiing, cycling, speed skating (long distances).
2fb4ee7b80857a2f31c9a2921158f0382f08cd8e	Anabolic steroids, somatotropin, gonadotropin, blood doping, psychostimulants, etc. Loss of orientation and consciousness, fatal outcomes, hormonal status disorders, etc.
9612709aca1593ee18eba7b399bb1c0466f6af34	3. Game types: football, basketball, rugby, baseball, hockey with a ball and with a puck, golf, etc. Alcohol, cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, marijuana, etc. Fatal outcomes, loss of consciousness, toxic effects.
3c5d6fd40a8e7334f2b6a6502134898ec5a54f67	4. Complex coordination sports: high jump, diving, figure skating, gymnastics, fencing, etc. Alcohol, narcotic analgesics, tranquilizers, beta blockers, etc. Drug addiction, alcoholism, etc.
53b716d73b6c351a63e9ebcfffa9b992339d4f72	5. Martial arts: all types of wrestling, boxing, martial arts, etc. Narcotic analgesics, marijuana, alcohol.
26487fd809fca0d5eb7ea805d7466f90b3de70f1	Drug addiction, drug addiction, etc.
892be29c149599330931881194e704f5bfbaf303	In equestrian sports, various doping methods are used depending on specific tasks (psychostimulants, tranquilizers and other drugs), therefore, doping control of horses is carried out.
c4995cb1c02be9ab5c0e70c0a251a9f3d9b327c1	Doping control Doping control is the most important component of a comprehensive program of measures aimed at preventing the use of prohibited (doping) drugs by athletes.
12b5c4f2f5282421249b04322eb24db9ad1e76c7	The regulations adopted in our country for the organization and conduct of the doping control procedure fully comply with the requirements of the IOC Medical Commission.
3dc509d25ce1258f7fe1e3b4aecc5a1e56124d4e	Here, the athlete chooses a container for collecting a urine sample for analysis.
c9c1116b8394ba803ea749ec8e86ae41a8a49e83	(The observer makes sure that there is no falsification of the sample).
42ee8f474aadb132ba0b2e49b62f8de1c65b88a7	After passing the sample, a number is pasted on the vessel, which is also chosen by the athlete himself.
37ccbf69eb0c8be458783e1a687ad30a1b52c310	After that, the resulting biological sample is divided into two equal parts – samples A and B, which are sealed and assigned a specific code.
4de2b27943d8643ce52153420d1b77ef2cda4fc0	Copies of the codes are pasted on the doping control protocol.
081b729d842add4e283453524bbf13cd344f5743	Then the samples are packed in containers for transportation and taken to the doping control laboratory.
a090b32489b762b999eeca4dcecfe91f7efcfc9d	The refusal of an athlete to undergo doping control or an attempt to falsify his result is considered as a recognition by him of the fact of doping with all the consequences that follow from this.
fbc3a4da5b0933a09b4b6cc8783add26b554c3f7	Falsification of the results of doping control consists in various kinds of manipulations aimed at distorting its results.
7e96d3cf9a32ed4e2e15ecf86e27050c995925ff	Athletes can resort to attempts of falsification when they are obviously confident in the positive result of the analysis of biological samples for doping.
b73402ce4e91a152fe7d23510f487a5e2c6e83eb	At the same time, there may be attempts to substitute urine (catheterization and introduction of foreign urine, obviously free from prohibited drugs, or fluid imitating urine into the bladder; the use of microcontainers; intentional contamination of urine with aromatic compounds that make it difficult to identify doping).
c58de7422f13324e9644cda8b908ab8a7bdfe2fd	Prohibited manipulations also include special surgical operations (for example, sewing placental tissue under the skin).
961ce28a8dc5c81afe2a6a37504e257c5fbad9ba	The physico chemical methods of analysis of biological urine samples used to determine doping (chromatographic, mass spectrometric, radioimmune, enzyme immunoassay, etc.) are very sensitive and include computer identification of doping drugs and their derivatives.
861df7f31359ea0c6d6909b58897617a3ec077cf	They allow you to determine with high accuracy all the drugs used by the athlete, including those used during the last weeks and even months.
5d68efcbd808e88b25607e45bbaa5d6704cfd2f1	In addition, methods have been developed that determine the so called "blood doping", i.e. transfusion of the athlete's own or someone else's blood before the start.
1821203e666fd99df5c0197659792d8d42a9bcb5	If earlier only highly qualified athletes passed doping control and only during responsible international and domestic competitions, now such control is carried out not only during the competition period, but also during training sessions, and all persons involved in sports, regardless of their sports affiliation, are subject to doping testing.
445f3abe7ce228e64f47363b54ac4a4cd42adfc3	Sanctions against athletes convicted of doping Detection of doping threatens an athlete with severe punishments, up to complete excommunication from sports.
2408dd4ef205e744b6d6225097d06230d2812a68	At the first detection of prohibited drugs (with the exception of sympathomimetic drugs, such as ephedrine and its derivatives), he is disqualified for 2 years, if repeated for life.
1750e7faab1e20a0dcad3d4432b28726e8f68b56	In the case of taking sympathomimetics for the first time disqualification for 6 months, for the second for 2 years, for the third – for life.
7c6464c8e8f6bb2d07597a8696362cc5408bd7ed	At the same time, the coach and the doctor who watched the athlete are also punished.
dddeedfd9becc3d41ffaa9615bd6f50084052fc5	The use of any drugs officially classified as narcotic drugs as doping entails appropriate administrative and criminal penalties.
5520de139d4f8b2ebcb1803b0058022ec34a04de	Currently, proposals have been made to the legislative bodies of the country to introduce criminal penalties for taking anabolic steroids without medical indications, or inducing them to take them.
f07cf92a9933177cf5309d0c383e48191c31b499	Related topics: "the List of prohibited substances and methods" "Legal issues of doping in elite sport," Reference material for drugs: allowed and prohibited tools...
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2d3ef418788eb1075906613a53bde4841ff6ebec	Doping in sports
8aefb06c426e07a0a671a1e2488b4858d694a730	000
140f491617dd56668c494b5cc17ea4b7142015f9	From the point of view of common sense, the fight against doping in sports has finally reached an impasse.
59fff51af1cdae998d470587f44e16390ac14d6c	According to the observer of "SE", this struggle now has nothing to do with true concern for athletes.
1071e917bd1dedcd767f22b62b5565527b5ccf23	And they themselves are nothing more than hostages in an alien and extremely dangerous game.
66050679d3f7a7d85e8debccf8b427b4e98b90ee	DOPING: THE HUNT FOR A PERSON The doping scandals that accompanied the competitions of skiers, including Russian ones, at the Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, have not subsided so far.
dd78edf3896e6f848fb44ba0b4cc4a3753da99fd	The Congress of the International Ski Federation has decided to disqualify Olympic champions Larisa Lazutina and Olga Danilova for two years.
a64ada5610fee13a89b34f137c54252a96900242	Let me remind you what happened at the Games.
2f21bd40cd86e8cc0c21a7e186b79b212d995f2d	After the final type of the Olympic ski program - a distance of 30 kilometers, which Lazutina confidently won, a banned drug of the latest generation darbepoetin was found in her sample, which helps to increase hemoglobin and, as a result, overall endurance.
763af396164f79546c6fa6dbb19be5f04ec66c82	The same result was given by Danilova's analysis.
0348d9e5a1a349476ca0caf7f5df9fcfd807688e	The day before, after a positive doping test for the same drug, the Spanish skier Johann Mulleg was disqualified and deprived of gold.
6700f4a641eb054804f164da399e073bdd58a837	Commenting on the incident, IOC President Jacques Rogge noted that positive tests deprive an athlete of a medal won in a particular race, but are not a reason to deprive him of previous achievements.
8a32e407ccc4aea68b7117d58a65c39aa27aea31	After that, Rogge added: "And yet I myself can not consider either Mulleg or Lazutina real champions."
26fb87aff4c190d59d4dac07d00a8257649e22b3	The opinion of those who fight against doping in sports on duty has always been that the control over athletes should be constantly tightened.
9310fc8a4556635cc40867b8176dce6ffdd02807	However, recently another point of view has become clearly visible.
37807544dac8b163c3c4061408e5535af788c632	Four years ago, IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch publicly stated that the fight against doping is conducted by absolutely the wrong methods and means, and decided to convene a special session to review the entire concept.
aa941eaeabe1a1b28a0a7aafcff8372705b5505e	But nothing happened.
13d9dc3b9d22a49626777d35ad945d8bb6e98254	Very timely - there was a well known "case of bribes" among the members of the IOC, and Samaranch was simply gagged.
c6a4a1d842d758e8cee42f54d84b409e614b4ebc	IS RUSSIA A DOPING EMPIRE?
578cd91023f62abaed6044e84127e702dc52dbbc	After the sensational disqualification of a whole group of Chinese swimmers, which happened a few years ago, the best medical forces of the People's Republic of China were attracted to the field of sports pharmacology.
c9c1e6a1bf4dfc0c500f710bdec66f406fe08647	Methods were developed that allow the use of folk and medical drugs that are not prohibited in sports, but can stimulate the achievement of results.
4308a4ecc1562bffc11629d7ff2f51d081b1f876	The largest research institutes have started working on sports.
3f686ed6878956ce5909736ddabb77300eddfa42	The results are already obvious: according to the majority of experts, at the 2008 Games in Beijing, the world should expect a complete triumph of the hosts in many types of the program.
f264890a3a241129959dea08be4a011e676d7ffd	About 20 years ago, we had a similar situation.
5c2fb4fbe49398fff7d1aeb21c128acd90292d2a	Not right now.
d9cab4fa8655297f1a88e0e6ea167c789ae1bd1b	As there is no more or less serious pharmacological service.
c13573ab52bd85d87b7282dc5f1e8bff541d66e9	To call such an incomprehensible division that exists in the Russian Olympic Committee, whose representatives are often dealers of a particular pharmaceutical company, does not turn the tongue.
ac2978b8d58bc7a1819f402fa60bc4cf01a261eb	As a result, team doctors, coaches and athletes act, as a rule, at their own risk: if the medicine has at least some indications that can be applied to sports specifics, they do it right away.
728efeadc7c47b506644660c4d42e755fc0bf1ec	About side effects (for example, that the sensational EPO is invisible, he is also darbepoetin, is not invisible at all), as a rule, they learn after the fact.
0dfd0b720a8b51a20b447cfe7684bdfb93842089	After the sample gave a positive result.
f1868f3a74cf1eb48a35afe0223ff7bf93bf965b	However, why be surprised?
7cb21a5b904cd07f48198216a9543c7322d68013	In Salt Lake City, the complete failure of most of the leaders of the Olympic team became obvious.
78e94400e94e5f321cfc0fa15ef30414be0f5e83	Including those who were responsible for medical issues.
6249070312585f74abf98f1663cf8f12731fa590	What a memorable press conference is worth!
c76964e10e97875e614b21c001448cf1d9d440a0	Journalists (including Western ones) assessed the speeches of the Russian leadership briefly: a complete inability to speak, think, or do things.
1675d449781b72813fa6c61ec2db902e1772495f	Attempts to present a series of Russian ski disqualifications as a systematic hunt for Russians are at least ridiculous.
d3179f6698aebb283926a0ab29a0727a78cdc0a3	All the cases were primarily the result of the incompetence of Russian officials, who, to begin with, did not know either their rights or the rules.
f46323e64b41ea51efdce957706f9c580e964f0b	According to the former president of the ROC Vitaly Smirnov, the problem with doping is getting worse every year, as more and more Russian athletes prefer to train abroad.
998b044ea9581535bd4cd0d90885868040e17b04	Accordingly, they are more difficult to control.
93126f70138f0384c84cc2a2b24d281bc7ae886a	But here is an example from athletics.
e6865bda0982b42687dfad7a4591f7e49ab7ddc3	Due to the lack of money, the vast majority of athletes spend 95 percent of the preparatory period not abroad, but inside the country.
b2cbfdc4649cf70a6f6bd39964ab0b90c496cbfe	They are regularly tested by international organizations.
89e077d9328a89d89daf87619b1d1aaa0138822b	By the way, they test very few people abroad.
2c045df4e3cfab8d09f85a4153d6fc9df211fdb2	And no one asks the question: why exactly are Russians so systematically 'shot'.
19611c99d6ddcb14396e85de49b730a08a06b082	Here's the thing.
bf113e94c0bf3cdef86391be0fe0acea08042110	According to the rules of the International Athletics Federation, every athlete competing for the national team of his country must be checked out of competition at least twice within six months.
88b55d076a5837184f71d7fdebe86db6e0952006	If these tests were not made, and the athlete won a gold medal at the World Championships, then he will not receive money for it.
255edfbe6f6a02800f8fce8a18f0515e28c3ca33	In countries such as the USA, Italy, France, Great Britain, etc., out of competition control is carried out by their national laboratories, which then send the sample results to the international federation.
9a75629dead2c6afd1e47d0a7c73ff7d304a570a	And they already know that, for example, Americans do 300-400 tests a year.
59b77f522551f8972c701eb3895847f05577e4d7	In Russia, they donot make any!
17e0bd42d55ba98f56c749f425aa3555970a6db9	The worst thing is that it's too late to fix the situation now.
0bba95f68489caf15e02098ad38c32f8c52a483b	For the whole world, Russia has become an empire of doping.
62c40d7ae6a611c0da8c3673fb5749eb3f8c605e	This means that the targeted hunt for our athletes will continue.
efaaf93babcb17b18871e8afa44ab3256542f670	The Salt Lake City scandal is probably not the last.
111fa19443276eb8e0c24af732cc61cbf23624fe	The events in Salt Lake City suggested that the fight against doping had taken the form of some kind of global legalized profanation.
1a276c9936a68dfeb231a01bf4d36c5991050831	What is the so called problem of asthmatics who openly use banned ephedrine in winter sports?
b1f8a921f137f58b7bd9352d6d070ddd1b5a2029	However, from a legal point of view, you can not find fault.
7ec3e82b987b582ef0a035d22bca010435d3faab	First you need to prove that the certificates are fake.
04e05857146d51309e5788564dd0ba77edab0b38	It is not necessary to gather an international consultation on every occasion!
59040d650054cc5c0d7b15dd55c3afc088497d52	But maybe then we should start playing according to the rules proposed to us?
aa7da6232d7ab8d7889f46a7e09019aeb8fae759	And why not?
b6ba3f2f0b86be3c15b59d06a82b89137288bbad	In a private conversation with one of the doctors, I heard: "It would be worth agreeing with some serious state medical institution to have a card for this or that athlete with all the necessary tests and examinations, on the basis of which a diagnosis was made - 'bronchial asthma', appropriate prescriptions were given.
99d10fd0c1a8c35bc00dea2e0c578f1b5e37f242	And a person with this card will be able to travel around the competitions quite calmly."
ec4d22761a37bdfc43724d9024edbb5158016272	Practice shows that for many years no one has died at the ski distance and has not fallen ill with any additional diseases.
dcbba8175191fef95ce661f760b9ec673ac8ad86	Someone uses ephedrine, someone does not.
9496aff6a4a4c232f7d758230a8abb4d9390a332	But they are afraid of what: as soon as the first step is taken, the entire anti doping fight may crumble altogether.
7597990aa13d75695395256d563c3eed193afbc6	And this can no longer be allowed.
9cf1856093a6ec2b6000bb75ca1a0312638a19be	The fight against doping is a serious business, politics.
dc6b84fe022059f26a1ba1febc6a1127aea111d0	The main argument of anti doping fighters is that, going to the start, all athletes should be in equal conditions.
9a6a2a1bc4c9f4fff8a414aa410413b4d72b08f8	The task is impossible initially.
aaa8f4f74f1d4e881459fb1bbbba3d6988134691	Any doctor knows that, for example, at the beginning of the monthly cycle, the hemoglobin content in a woman's blood drops noticeably.
3dba2c7ff841c6f42a24bc3d02c7fc8fc379fa33	Accordingly, the overall endurance of the body decreases.
09f250f12433cfde31d79c40b5fc2a2d2e37d3c5	So the phrase thrown in the hearts of one of the leaders of the Russian national team in Salt Lake City to his biathlete athlete is quite understandable: 'She has to go to the start, and she has her period.
e7daf6702c0f387b8070deee3d2ca94811c1e0cc	I found the time, you fool!'
2d37a9c69084664df342ae8c12ac58339f9a76d8	Direct Official online store Baonzimniye new products in BAON!
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f782354ad532db08746998dbf109bbe858aa2187	But this is just a digression.
da3f3e6b09969bc3c5c8a768f3b4bedbe1e7c3a3	Here is another example.
77ca3a97fbdbafe6cd79f64b84e3dcb640c8b5a2	The doctor who advised Lyubov Egorova on nutrition issues once noticed: - After the ill fated disqualification, she is scared to such an extent that she does not take any medications at all.
559f2dad2ceba850108d138624df528e51e30255	But she has a hemoglobin level from God 160 units.
62a4d3e37a6911d66a508abec5cdfb46c119718a	And in high altitude conditions, it grows to 165 at all.
b11a792382529e3e7a408cfc3adee73ee26f6a0f	I fully admit that Lyuba's successful career was largely connected with this.
5d74048924bcefb88e80c034e7bbf5a111ed73f9	After the introduction of the EPO test, Egorova was regularly checked, they found an excess of the permissible norm, there were no traces of erythropoietin, but she had no right to go to the start.
c2f13037f90b8b8cdf51340112b4a53d512b3bab	The European champion speed skater Dmitry Shepel got into a similar situation a year ago. At the World Cup stages, he was suspended from the starts until Russian doctors collected a huge amount of all kinds of archival information confirming that the unusually high level of hemoglobin in Shepel was congenital, inherited from his parents.
e7851682fb9e5f0d29c4ce506a751a1e3e8662d0	And only at the Games in Salt Lake City, the athlete was left alone.
6e4a79c0c845e2cc35771bd54b396c360c094ef6	Paradoxically, even the most ordinary training can be easily summed up under the existing definition of doping.
7d206b84446fac53570d89ccc8670a7c608b74cb	Contributes to the growth of achievements?
0a9143d47fb8f5c8ce72c187dbb4f2c8bedf3de9	Absolutely.
5e84b8a1e606125f16d00651ef1a6cb8b02f2787	Can it harm your health?
49b1e628bf1f07bfcc0a0e767f99afee1c143895	Quite.
45bd31ba60ca01661d2eb979be7b8b8496a2ee34	And it is really not clear what is more dangerous: to scoop out the reserves of the body to the rest or to provide a certain margin of safety with the help of medicine.
1a93470c345056025267a8cd4253123f23a78bff	I remember the words of one of the sports doctors: - Every time one of the riders is caught using prohibited means, I want to say to the one who catches them: 'You yourself sit in the saddle and pedal 15 stages of 200 kilometers.
3e2a97e892b97b681eb506aac6d83811593543dd	And I'll see what happens to you - without pharmacology.
1a3a3fbfa02d34704029b513174f7408e8bf245c	And I wonot pump it out when you die.'
62f93fad88eab1d37a74edf3ed702c2bfbd34297	Another sports doctor, who happened to work on the Tour de France, said: "This is not just a race - it's all about survival.
20e8054b76f1be5aa6cae2bb111a59e8d6efbbc0	It is necessary to drive 4000 kilometers in 21 days.
f20efc4b02247a66de3e0dd9e1589e00da0d4be9	Overcome more than 30 mountain passes.
52ac5ebeeba3f4fd83d410b27db122fcf4ab9408	Sometimes riders have to spend 8-9 hours a day in the saddle, in the heat, and they spend up to 10 thousand kilocalories, sometimes consuming up to 10 liters of water.
d510768f2b8e244f25466eac304fccffdfcbb333	But you canot eat and drink so much!
ed456879481abe000aa4f65c48cacf37559d2c81	This means that it is necessary to provide compensation in some way, protecting a person from excessive loads.
b5e5b819538025bd65075b2bbc831cc9d1dc9638	Endless anti doping raids on cyclists have led to the fact that the level of wrestling at the largest professional races has been rapidly falling in recent years.
27c84e965ccd2d259dc3c5de52edb4fa6bea653b	What can we talk about if the leader of the Giro this year was 37 year old Jens Heppner, who spent most of his career performing the duties of a greg in Telecom, for quite a long time?
4d21e268a132513095fbbdf04fd950fb2f156077	The winner of last year's Giro, Gilberto Simoni, was disqualified for cocaine, and the year before last - Stefano Garzelli for a small amount of diuretic.
76c69abe0cf046ca2e19fab353035d3b8be96e97	The career of Marco Pantani ended with disqualification - the rider was removed from the almost won multi day race, having discovered after one of the stages an excess of the hemoglobin level.
1265eb08d370c625010edceed38822de6bf39d08	The same fate befell Dario Frigo, whom experts unanimously called the rising star of Italian professional cycling.
0a4d98c90a58d167de67d8d6304e54f52687af95	He came under last year's police raid, which found syringes and ampoules in the athletes ' hotel rooms.
dcac972077aba88a4d421e52b31a75db53ac1bae	The driver was not saved even by the fact that during his career none of his tests gave a positive result.
b0816b480686364c9d85798d42521f27eede996f	Outstanding Italian cyclist, two time world champion and winner of the Giro Gianni Bunyo was forced to retire from the sport after being disqualified for an increased content of the male hormone testosterone in the body.
500d8b6f36e343a5743ac4b0589796c872fba9b2	Then he was acquitted, proving that the same innate feature took place.
a02d87a4eb32a4f50c4d618fbd7f7db066edddd3	But Bunyo did not want to return to the sport.
d1ceebb5305158b2a58fb37a8881a8bbfbd82bcb	VOTE OF NO CONFIDENCE Six years ago, when I first became interested in the doping topic, I also heard this opinion expressed by a fairly authoritative specialist: 'If an athlete is caught on doping, for me it primarily means the lack of professionalism of his doctor and coach.'
437c45ef53a68c9c270747844bf88bbc9135d852	There was only one option: to declare that there was food poisoning in the team, and already legally clean the blood with HES hemodesis.
cfa1faaaceae2e5fb64f1d8574ce5202a593dbc8	It didnot work out.
e0bc406710b1f679ab8d63350d3084e1ced98baf	Was it possible to hush up the scandal?
e543ffe14af88be6250d9fd5a18baecbf6f7825c	Taking into account the fact that the samples were analyzed by a home Finnish laboratory, - easily!
b949bdaea37c89ba2fc81d645871412ed18ecf13	Why wasnot this done?
c28b7463fb00fc7787b07bd4c8360557cfd2d2a7	I can only make assumptions.
4d9fa870cb4e537fc12800ca08dae5404f7f8b87	But before the championship, another party came to power in the country - and therefore to money -. The sports management was changed.
0284f75dbd9c670e77b964b9867d34f98a8d4df4	They are nothing more than pawns.
5a82d044c9318b7e3ec174df6a3f3bf8102e3058	Or, if you want, hostages in someone else's game.
a69b9c8964239615e281f7e930d07c5dad967d05	A characteristic fact: for two and a half years of the existence of the so called World Anti Doping Agency (WADA), no international sports federation has opposed its actions, despite the controversial and imperfect methods used.
0ec09d28536a963fb45b1dd8ccc3f617736a928a	Therefore, the decision of the FIFA congress, taken before the start of the current World Cup, not to allow WADA to participate in these competitions looked very scandalous.
c8a4348b9eac500566a4fb568f855d23e05fb45c	"We rejected the services of WADA for the reason that they do not have specialists with sufficient qualifications," FIFA President Sepp Blatter said.
c9ca21c32eb371ccc7101acae6b7014c297df22d	But not because prohibited means are not used in football.
db68b481055e7082fd248708263bb6c66690e098	Elena VAITSEKHOVSKAYA
5950d5f701a0b4c4ba8fb08115e802cce7831fe6	http://www.sport express.ru
dbaa35b8f5058d6426b23f297bb0a9513bd3d850	Published: 08/10/2003
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b20e7346c6c645088efff2c269d4685c5089d0b3	Together with the human form, Otar Kushanashvili lost his mobile phone.
2fa4d11385455c1c6d28e95e1dae7bf16ef3193a	Otar Kushanashvili, a well known character in the world of show business and television, a young man who will turn thirty three on June 22, came to Moscow eleven years ago. At first, only M. knew him...
0ebd5980df64dab89fb624c1888a2269e95dc38b	Go, Contex, Go!
2682d477ddef60ddb164206b7856db6050df5610	Published: 05/12/2003
e68fd3ef4235d1ed462c23f73f8109b14af90251	One bright spring day, Norman Benson: a short, well cut, round and elastic, like a cabbage, middle aged man, went out on the balcony of his apartment, found a neighbor on the landing...
30ef8a0db226784098bd613ba7c835bfece149dd	How to recognize a rival?
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046d4d628267e2eb152a7b3ac1f1b4296e1397ee	The law of meanness or the law of supply and demand?
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9b6e42a15bb49d871bcfe5513fcddfe58b7f7031	Doping in athletics: the five biggest scandals 6 comments
ddae5054461f3deef6b551040891e5c73da61247	November 11, 2015 at 9:40 am
74e0c0308797069af93c78a51ed54e6f7d21800b	Ben Sutherland, BBC Russian Service
86f2fb078ba82c9262124170a741e609e1404e94	The doping scandal in Russian athletics is far from the first in the history of the "queen of sports" and the sports world as a whole.
25f8d8db30937aa45ccb98664189a99372af17db	The report of the World Doping Agency (WADA), prepared after suspicions about the mass use of banned drugs by Russian athletes, concludes that there was a large scale deception.
76d6a3ba628e515d1a2cf3bcfb6aeea52470fbb6	The drafters of the document claim that athletes, coaches, doctors and even employees of the Russian special services participated in a conspiracy to conceal the facts of the use of stimulants by athletes.
2c48fa8abd9e20a56fc25685f788e2c566f0dac3	The members of the WADA commission went so far as to say that the success of the Russians at the London Olympics was nothing but a diversion.
d85378d71f74bfb5ab9a215ae841f034b261c43b	The BBC suggests recalling other doping scandals that shook the world of sports in the old days.
af453f4543a93c6577edac412b5994a40ffb9e26	Ben Johnson ran the 100 meters at the Seoul Olympics in 9.79 seconds.
af8f1c5f3ae61d7bdac9c50a153c0ec4aa42e6d2	Photo: Reuters
9debb13a54abe2e4c34a5f9129e52f3efcd0c0fa	The result shown by Johnson — 9.79 seconds turned out to be so symbolic that it gave the name to the film about this race.
12ef3e1a7bf054a88318e92ec70e78aee3dc97c1	"If you donot swallow it, you canot win" is a spell Johnson, a budding young athlete, first heard in 1981.
c2c79f6cdc9143c13cd181a7e7ada5a5adcaf6d9	Seven years later, the formula worked, because the athlete actually took the drug.
99f7f9a4dc80795b65eb4505dc3e51016929a3a8	It was then that the use of doping in athletics became a global byword.
c0d666702411f381c97466388edf0aa94ae1e1df	At the same time, this concept has really penetrated into the consciousness of people.
c41b8bea61a9531f7862e4017026834468f98d17	The men's 100 meter dash is the highlight of the Summer Olympic Games program.
49f43adbd6f438c47c7ad93f8c04d9ed51bd423d	The winner becomes a star of the universal level.
3506bbb34fcde9dbbe669c6c7a8e8b9659d36d86	If people stop believing that running 100 meters is clean, what will it mean for the whole sport?
1247bcf53083ed158d2d56c9320eeebe1f01234e	As it turned out later, over the next few years, the results of six of the eight participants in the final race at that Olympics were in question.
edb6842a50f884ee9435ab6fcb0048a339928447	For this reason, it was dubbed "the dirtiest race of all time".
c068d3e94f0476565a5e60c6aa72c420aba52223	Tyson Gay, World Cup 2015
2aa3896f034f9d92f04b3d237ee731d3c25bbd69	Tyson Gay was not destined to win the 2015 World Championship in Beijing.
a8ce5ba8bb8f240dc49ad011501dd4324a93aa8f	American sprinter Tyson Gay broke away when he won gold in the 100, 200 and 4-100 meter relay at the World Championships in Osaka in 2007.
cb6e509d465e37276cbc714010686853e02ab0b2	Perhaps that would have been the end of it if, after returning to the treadmill after a one year ban from participating in competitions, he would not have returned in great shape and did not win one race after another.
2b860ab6c718ceff08ff76b31146611eae64dae7	Ilona Slupianek Shoknecht, 1977 European Championship
668677c2a490ec00eadf57fec276d804fca32089	Ilona Slupyanek was the first woman to push a shot over 22 meters at the 1980 Moscow Olympics
27f4c382d0056280f5d4e0ee27293c9cf983e0b4	The GDR went into oblivion 25 years ago, and the pharmaceutical company Jenapharm, a manufacturer of banned drugs that many athletes from East Germany took, does not have time to fend off lawsuits filed against it by almost 200 former athletes.
3ec8980fcccc984f085239fb05cba7fce00309d5	Marion Jones, 2000 Olympic Games
281cbe5d966b87b3601b1bd3501e232d1d1c3d6b	Marion Jones lost her Olympic medals after her ex husband testified against her.
62ff2387697cc85dc37bb59f4dc8eb3f4c2b75de	By this time, she had already won the World Championships twice.
11ef7eb6429d33389abc66d90d3ff03bc702b5d9	Jones lost her Olympic medals after her ex husband, shot putter CJ Hunter, testified under oath before a grand jury that he saw with his own eyes how she injected doping into her stomach in the Olympic Village in Sydney.
95b216854eeb0a7c780039b099210bddb96e68be	Jones maintained her innocence until 2007, when she finally admitted that she lied under oath when she testified about her role in the BALCO case.
504974f66d7b8c1afa071ba0777fbbf1700d79eb	This company has developed, in particular, the steroid THG, which allows you to hide traces of doping in the blood of an athlete.
81fac37dd34b9ee7c9da86a8ec63690027cac185	The names of 20 other major sports stars, not just Hunter, were tainted.
fc7b2e7f6897f3b085fced440e76f95448e94918	The list includes sprinter Tim Montgomery, the father of the first child Jones, the famous baseball player Barry Bonds, as well as sprinter Dwayne Chambers, who was the first to get caught using THG.
2a9f781dd722a436744b9db3bb72896388828087	Lilia Shobukhova, London Marathon 2010
f37d4a96a1827dff738f1a50c9c24514174a83fb	The revelations of Lilia Shubnikova gave an impetus to the WADA investigation.
56ad5c6cf5e9201fa374484eeb85776e68ef85f4	Photo: Eurosport.com
2fa680dba8b87d6927025d682fa652391b21c21a	Lilia Shobukhova, as well as discus thrower Evgenia Pecherina, have become the catalyst for the current scandal that has shaken Russian athletics.
0228d7d1c6251a4e97c01ff77d518ef9cc3e55cd	Their interview for a documentary by the German TV company ARD, aired in December 2014, served as the impetus for the investigation launched by WADA.
98bdc017eee4b721b442a3480438d11f7be29b14	Shobukhova admitted in that interview that she paid 450 thousand euros to the All Russian Athletics Federation (VFLA) to hide a positive doping test.
abbe015439d43428620aeb133ce4270ca0f98f82	Pecherina, for her part, claimed that 99% of Russian athletes are guilty of doping.
733286c9fc8fb24691f867cd70af50abbbf0e7db	But if Pecherina's success was limited mainly to national competitions, Shobukhova was the winner of the London Marathon.
351172cf89e42a6915cadd5bff27b81a5a0ae838	Now she is serving a two year disqualification for inaccuracies identified in her biological passport.
2bae956f6d9c77629400535ec5c0d6805206edbf	The documentary contains a recording made by a hidden camera.
36a821e675690ef4c471272028f037406c566eb4	In the video, runner Maria Savinova, who won gold in the 800 meters at the 2012 Olympics in London, admits that she took the banned anabolic steroid oxandrolone.
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5e5fd9d485e112577f8b5ef91c50ad794e63c3d3	<img src="http://bbc.112.2o7.net/b/ss/bbcworldservicepartnerdev/1/H.22.1--NS/0" height="1" width="1" border="0" alt="" />
9a5a4b17e6bd2123124f7cf015aea0869b71768c	Related news: Mutko: Doping is not an invention of Russia, everything comes from overseas Doping tests for Belarusians will become more expensive after the scandal in Russia
16f4670ad3f43da377a4792ab8b6f042ca7e8cac	Topics: doping, athletics, running, the Olympics, Russian cinema
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3570a79305fc0b086a7f811379b9aa9097142791	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (January 17 (29), 1860, Taganrog, Ekaterinoslav province (now Rostov Region) — July 2 (15), 1904, Badenweiler) — Russian writer, novelist, playwright.
b44d6de8e3c4aedc4d1c2d389133c5fecc88784b	A recognized classic of world literature.
19f5a966c4c3ca046fbf0e8b28458d9eeb45f39a	A doctor by profession.
c83446cc9c9585a645b2e1908ab8c804285315ba	Honorary academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in the category of Fine Literature (1900-1902).
d67d826166d1ef1cb86ba6ed0016c12524cd7307	One of the most famous playwrights in the world.
c11a18df189fc0b388eaf3e56c8e90dd095baaf8	His works have been translated into more than 100 languages.
00013e9cb59f8724e3b29ea67b7d21bcfceba205	His grandfather Yegor Cech was a serf, his father was the owner of a grocery store.
dcb81b93a5f596bb0ae72fa5fc38f03c963bb7da	The family had six children — five sons and a daughter.
7401e02fb05c10da9fb1e83f8a5220ec9ab44300	His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, was a very interesting person.
e84eb4c5bd4ef0f304b2dffd5d963181bbd4d318	He had a grocery store in Taganrog, being a merchant of the 3rd guild, but he was engaged in trade without much zeal, paying more attention to attending church services, singing and public affairs.
6ff52ef34519bb89ae1b207cd71bfc11ba14ed28	The situation in the Chekhov house was traditionally patriarchal: children were brought up in strictness, corporal punishment was often used, no one was allowed to do nothing.
127838bd9ce695b27696caa6c7c0c1a4ae407ebe	In addition to studying at the gymnasium, Pavel Yegorovich's sons sometimes had to replace their father in the shop, of course to the detriment of their studies.
65c0860854ca04baa820e59d4287769d35460122	In the evenings, they sang in a choir.
3c2fe7b32c32c13477ae6b56ca065b29739ded3a	Mother-Evgenia Yakovlevna, a wonderful hostess, very caring and loving, lived exclusively the life of children and her husband.
c43d69e67a72ea4e1e671d25d04557c9f29f708e	But, at the same time, she passionately loved the theater, although she visited it infrequently.
aea3e457b17048034d116e2ddc7512c10a6ffb23	In her early youth, she was sent to the Taganrog private boarding school for noble girls, where she studied manners, dancing and good manners.
3b18417337a4187132eda898140027e356d8b439	Yevgenia Yakovlevna had a huge influence on the formation of the characters of her children, educating them with responsiveness, respect and compassion for the weak, the oppressed, love for nature and the world.
5899bf4e959f4b19bd6f1220a7269e9677ab0be2	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov later said that " the talent in us is from the father's side, and the soul is from the mother's side."
b5d099633ee15a9c138c64bf6b776d792939aa83	Anton Chekhov studied at the Greek school at the Church of Tsar Constantine in Taganrog, then at the gymnasium.
659862410efd719bd04ea4e8b3c9f5e752762007	As a student at the gymnasium, he simultaneously worked in his father's shop.
45b1bbfc222e289819ffcb0d31dbcea1a27176ed	In 1876, my father went bankrupt and had to flee with his family from creditors to Moscow.
de8213c6a5d26bd4794257e649548cc0fa8e5347	Anton remained in Taganrog until graduation from high school, earning a living by tutoring.
5c3cfc03134a0371934830cf485b5fefd847bc85	He arrived in Moscow in 1879 and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University, graduating in 1884.
a79d917565ef2e44ea8a582782f224a4ce97a012	After entering the medical faculty of Moscow University (1879), literary work became the main source of income for Chekhov: since that time, his "humorous trifles" have been regularly published on the pages of mass illustrated magazines under various pseudonyms (Antosha Chekhov, The Man without a Spleen, etc.).
1218413a3d091cfa6dc0871c7cd2536317b8055a	After graduating from the university (1884), Chekhov, working as a district doctor, continues to "write a lot": the main genre in his work of this period is a short story, a sketch, a sketch, traditional for mass periodicals, the basis of the plot of which is a funny or ridiculous incident, a curious or funny incident from life.
209d07e19a98170d3cf742b14c068aa1ce345e33	Scattered through the periodicals, written within a certain volume and by a certain deadline, the works of this time made up the collections "Motley Stories" (1886) and "Innocent Speeches" (1887).
c0872b96db24783692cc0c8e53091a5d5c550ead	With the beginning of regular cooperation with the newspaper, Chekhov renounces the pseudonym and signs with his full name.
f49f53c9f95fb10c028bac42e2d5b0a91f97f9f5	In 1887, Chekhov's first play "Ivanov"was staged.
41aedd5eb6dc82bb00e9edd45922426ac96778d3	It was first staged in Moscow at the Korsh Theater, which is very popular with the Moscow public.
79f80cb5262a86ef4fd5aacc4f9197774a545ac2	F. A. Korsh-a passionate theater lover, a writer and translator of plays, a very enterprising person, built a theater in Bogoslovsky Lane in 1882 in a very short time.
b57d80f9f4f6a59b20ecfec9831dd7b3abac49e7	During the ten-year activity of the theater, in which the famous V. N. Davydov, Glama — Meshcherskaya, Rybchinskaya, Martynova, Kosheva, Krasovskaya, who made up a rare acting ensemble, played, more than one and a half million viewers watched the performances, and more than five hundred plays were staged.
4acf34457c2ee2f89bcda79575dea4002076f1fe	The main merit of Korsh was that he introduced morning public performances from the classical repertoire, which were willingly attended by young people.
25a9e765bbc160dee24a2be3a8c0d04e9f6d9c0c	On November 9, the premiere of Chekhov's play "Ivanov"took place.
edba63107e7bc28924d5e3ef74c84ea01a399a8c	The public reaction was mixed: someone loudly applauded, someone shushed, some jumped up from their seats and stamped their feet, and a massacre just began in the gallery.
63ab65b7be0aca621dbf4ff18639dbae0347242b	But in general, the performance was a success, although motley.
235d4d9fa4a0d9872056753a9c4f15479439b193	Chekhov was noticed, the dramaturgy and the idea of the play turned out to be new and interesting.
ac7b4ffff16f3c5a286d90fd855d63d498af1706	The official dramatic activity of the writer began.
0a686eae245a2a6509e141d2d453140a78170751	In St. Petersburg, "Ivanov" was in a somewhat corrected form.
6cbea2b5812f62091115ec5c0783f0eb23ddaedd	In 1888, the Chekhov family settled on Luka, near Sum, Kharkiv province, at the dacha of the Lintvarev landowners, to spend spring and summer there.
472b8a669ffa471424336c827c5cfa94a7d427f4	Chekhov needed new places and new subjects for his works, and, moreover, the cough began to torment the writer more and more often.
11c41c028e14f3a4545eb71496cb666369410685	Anton Pavlovich receives his friends of writers at the dacha: Pleshcheyev, Barantsevich, the book publisher Suvorin. Chekhov formed a real friendship with Suvorin, which lasted for many years.
17474d9aa5137569ea9c28c69641b600bcce444b	The Chekhov family spends another summer on Luka, in 1889, but it is overshadowed by the death of the writer's brother, Nikolai.
09c23b36a2eaf2ceef4245c969a227b51f6f0c49	This event had a strong effect on Chekhov, he, soon after the funeral, leaves Luka, begins to gather abroad, but finds himself in Odessa.
e0075319513769543167464ef9add673463a2fa9	The Maly Theater toured here, and Chekhov met a young artist Panova, for whom later, already in Moscow, they tried unsuccessfully to woo him.
d0d4363211a7b51565f57a7636cb67cef74bd49e	After Odessa, Chekhov goes to Yalta, he is overcome by depression.
e02256661ccb6180ab2ef9faffcae4a58df4879c	In Yalta, there is an acquaintance with the Shavrov sisters, with one of whom, Elena Mikhailovna, a writer, Chekhov subsequently corresponds, takes care of the publication of her works, gives professional advice.
051a427cf99c148230e90932a8d426c3d1eea318	Returning to Moscow, on Sadovo Kudrinekaya, Chekhov actively takes up literary work.
b201a9438296121caaae6f93c56cdc279e45825b	Soon from the pen of Anton Pavlovich comes "A boring story" and the play "Leshiy".
1cd7816497efee606b9397ceffac1ef1c26085aa	In the house on Sadovo — Kudrinskaya there are also written: the story "The Steppe", the vaudeville "The Bear", "The Swan Song", more than a hundred stories.
b406d5c92c248441758620167fe1aa62053e7148	And this despite the fact that there were almost always guests in the house.
1dcff9d62b62e841e9cc7b6c4dd68c907aa63b67	On the second floor, young people were jostling, the piano was playing, there were conversations, and at this time, on the first floor, Chekhov was sitting at a table and writing.
92e62d59ba63a37494594e522cbee47b15eb2088	In 1888, by the decision of the Academy of Sciences, the writer received a half Pushkin Prize for the third collection of short stories "At Dusk".
68e5f51fc7127126b47900f3e1b9685534b79697	Despite his increasing fame and huge literary successes, Chekhov is dissatisfied with himself, he strives not for fame, but for creative activity.
8439bfb7bb7266f6a8038a4c0fbf38d3015ba87a	In 1890, Chekhov went to Siberia, then to visit the island of Sakhalin -the place of exile of convicts to hard labor.
4e179e1b2b9b29deaa4db98da8331982a5c7b6ec	The writer fully reflected the journey along the Siberian rivers and roads in his essays "Across Siberia".
1c764d8a03c5680f8761939078d2befaf1aeab32	The ascetic work was carried out by Chekhov on Sakhalin.
543ffbac48339e1b41629ded89249aec7931074b	He made a census of the island's population, making about 10 thousand statistical cards.
e91b1a28432efe0d6bfae12588f2c5fb04072b8c	A huge amount of documentary material was collected about the work and life of Sakhalin convicts and local residents, about prison bosses and official arbitrariness.
6ff8fc03ece566600c44b53fa74b6b3528b8e141	Chekhov visited prisons, studied their technical and sanitary condition in detail, met and talked with many people.
6327ed9a4d33f5d1576e1cacf2f85596e600eee4	After returning from Sakhalin, Chekhov systematized his notes and wrote the book "Sakhalin Island".
d3a2597a0d8d9d913769d4223cf1113b22eb28c3	This work caused a huge resonance in Russia.
0f66d9ce4017383693830f3432c3c114e7969f39	Officials paid attention to Sakhalin.
21bf066ff4f1074a07f9976f2fc4891ba87143f0	The Ministry of Justice and the Main Prison Administration sent their representatives to Sakhalin.
6031ca96f419a1214da273d7528afd1f14a71e66	Sakhalin doctor N. S. Lobas noted: "With the light hand of Chekhov, both Russian and foreign researchers began to visit Sakhalin."
090a0aff5ffc19ffa36f6794668a16d0bf627640	The route of the Sakhalin trip is as follows: from Yaroslavl along the Volga to Kazan, then along the Kama to Perm, from there by rail to Tyumen, and then across Siberia on a tarantass and along the rivers.
c8c61b3f9eb9547e0ffd7372a01acadbd96375c0	Chekhov stayed on Sakhalin for more than three months, then through the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, visiting Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon, Constantinople, arriving at the port of Odessa, he returns to Moscow by train.
b6fa5660547815a181ef0e0bb38f8d74907a9ff6	After a while, essay notes "From Siberia" and "Sakhalin Island" appear, as well as such works as "Gusev", "Women", "In Exile", "The Story of an Unknown Person", "Murder".
985706875cc9a56815052f045f8905cc1039e6d7	Life in Moscow after such a trip seems uninteresting to Chekhov, and he goes to St. Petersburg to meet with Suvorin.
1b7b1a8a96bfe42554d91e3055f4e8cec9e1717c	They decide to go to Western Europe together and visit Vienna, Bologna, Venice, from which Chekhov is delighted, as well as Florence, Rome, Naples, where the writer climbed Mount Vesuvius.
e80de396f21da27efb9a0ccc697beac3d7b6135a	From Nice, Anton Pavlovich goes to Monte Carlo, where he loses 900 francs at roulette, then to Paris.
0d537ca66eae40cbc3e46c82dd54cbb679e54db0	On his return, Chekhov goes to Aleksin, where his younger brother Mikhail has rented a dacha on the banks of the Oka.
81771a4e1bc3a29a7f542b659cf01c5072aaa3da	But soon the Chekhov's change their place, moving to the Bogimovo estate, owned by the local landowner E. D. Bylim Kolosovsky.
381f4e65e789766b62215455ba00f3661bca7578	The estate was magnificent, with huge rooms, a beautiful garden, lime alleys, ponds.
db529153a8065b13b2933042bacf0b8e1c077261	The writer was delighted.
bc74d4237846d4b18ac1a75f996dfb5ebd6c6d18	Every morning he got up at four o'clock, drank coffee and sat down to work, and not at his desk, but behind the windowsill.
c949b01c72f4e7b6236796171d04203049d0329b	The "Duel" was written here, the Sakhalin notes were systematized.
7a18dfff1f5a97c2e0c387c1c51661a78b03aac9	In 1891/92, part of the central part of Russia and the Volga region experienced severe famine due to crop failure and drought
8c9e9e746b434d22b54c5d5eb3c1c7da85824c42	Chekhov organizes a collection of donations for the benefit of the starving Nizhny Novgorod and Voronezh provinces, he himself went there twice.
50bc5ec4d9f4c6b8c558e1f68a5b6d2cf328ac44	Chekhov is outraged that there are no objective articles in the newspapers about the situation in the village, that correspondents know the village "only by Gleb Uspensky".
246b99a25329e933d7b31a0074881e3a657bd359	At this time, Chekhov is writing the story "The Wife".
6d4f53845d7b6281d5be6e5a7a00b4a776997b4f	In 1892, Chekhov bought an estate in Melikhovo.
252d2524ba4968dcdf1b2de12ee8dc67ea9a4207	An old dream to live in the village, to be a landowner has come true.
1f01142f58004cfa0227bb10e0b987d096619a79	The estate was located in the village of Melikhovo, Serpukhov district, Moscow province, was in a neglected state, but it cost Chekhov relatively inexpensive.
2d13fef76d31410a1466133d5abd8037aaa49c82	So, in March, a family consisting of father, mother, sister Maria and Anton Pavlovich himself moved to Melikhovo.
04215e9cf5150b161ac6a29ddec1569b8dc2df6c	The Melikhovsky period is not only Chekhov's inspired literary work and active medical practice, it is a colossal social activity of the writer.
f4de6f0a4a7487e37f234eb0f13aa093c26fc074	During the cholera epidemic, Chekhov works as a zemstvo doctor, serving 25 villages.
324128a9612c6c090af4c03706f30490b4e3f44f	He opens a medical center at his own expense in Melikhov, receiving many patients and supplying them with medicines.
56322e17038f40cdb6030df22f219f423052cff8	In Melikhov and its environs, Chekhov is building three schools for peasant children, a bell tower and a fire shed for peasants, participates in the construction of a highway to Lopasnya, petitions for fast trains to stop at the Lopasna railway station, and also seeks the opening of a post office and telegraph there.
b4833b019b43af4300ac239b940f0f6150088580	In addition, it organizes the planting of thousands of cherry trees, sows bare forest areas with larches, elms, maples, pines and oaks.
17b33220fb38130dec8b6f159fb733d4aaadc1fc	In Melikhov, Chekhov comes up with the idea of creating a public library in his native Taganrog.
e2ed2c859a0a8e84a7d452170e845ce4a72f168a	The writer donates there more than 2 thousand volumes of his own books, among which there are many unique publications with autographs of museum value, and also makes a gallery of portraits of scientists and artists for the library.
94f4e184b25e0c070173156e5eeeb1ceafd12fd2	Subsequently, Chekhov constantly sends the books he buys to the library, and in large quantities.
bc97144c5fefe4c944320722bf53a1cf6341dd46	In Melikhovo, despite the endless round dance of guests, by the way, not always welcome and tactful, Chekhov constantly writes.
ed10469d7f7910f3b75cec058288a7394f194805	In 1894, he built a small wooden wing, about which he himself wrote in one of his letters: "My wing turned out to be small, but amazing."
3af6fda7428a7f4085fe79be235d3ba59897cf1d	When Chekhov was at home, a flag was raised over the wing.
a3e63ec15c8f13a2f14a39de906088f2b3c23485	It was here that "The Seagull"was written.
6f0cbcf99b6d6242b16cc0a5a8cf97bc36b564e3	In 1896, the premiere of the play took place on the stage of the St. Petersburg Alexandriysky Theater, but the performance was not a success.
8ddf866c8153526757133f00dc3955d0fe0d74be	Chekhov was very hard going through an unsuccessful production.
c56093927682067e77cd08fa2a70c124b0d4f581	In 1898, "The Seagull" was staged on the stage of the Moscow Art Theater and was an ongoing success.
6596b9c26a92d53bb77073a1b470412e76810923	In general, in the Melikhovsky period (1992 — 1998), the following were created: "Ward No. b", "The Man in the case", "Babye Tsardom", "A case from practice", "Ionich", "Gooseberry", a large "village cycle" of works was written, such as" Men"," On a cart"," New Dacha"," On service affairs", the story" Three years", the plays" The Seagull","Uncle Vanya".
892326cf5be1a95bf58bd5983a7c8449df8bd926	It was during these years that Chekhov wrote more than one and a half thousand letters to various recipients.
56fafb3268cd3fea17e2d564b09023ecdce73b20	In 1897, Chekhov's tuberculosis process sharply worsened, and he was forced to go to the hospital.
02ea3766d196ad9d9b0be259a476903815b319da	His health, already weak, undermined by a trip to Sakhalin, has deteriorated so much that the doctors insist on moving Chekhov to the south.
d31854ded07af7f13440c2d5d8ed9f06c806b274	During the autumn and winter of 1897/98, the writer lived in Nice, then in Paris, where he met the famous sculptor M. M. Antokolsky.
802bbd8a216c3327f091ac8a143b6fe8df68e980	In May 1898, Chekhov returned to his homeland and went to Melikhovo.
0a86ff829c98121cb9df95776da53a807d08c9cb	Here he lives until September, until the autumn dampness began, and then he goes to Yalta.
ea099383490f6d56d5ede316b14447f3fddd0797	The winter of 1899 in the Crimea was extremely severe, with snow and sea storms.
70c50e0d4b1c236aa8a7d6bb9e7d7e59165bc2d0	The writer longed for Moscow, where at that time his plays were successfully performed, his creative life was in full swing.
7a4bd4df951f47997fe45f409c6f4b4d7b79daac	In the spring, he goes to Moscow, then to Melikhovo.
50793feb9ebf4230759d26e6725a52d80a7d9c2d	But, at the end of August, he again finds himself in the Crimea.
9f3861e05e6d30e9fede23685317a54b8c0ad00e	The estate in Melikhov is sold, and Chekhov with his mother and sister finally moves to live in Yalta.
46b304435bd449c01bbc85e8ff1aa5e8cc5b4843	In the late 1890s and early 1900s, G. Chekhov was a recognized master, his works cause a lot of literary disputes and, as a result, a socio-political resonance.
f3461c05dfb88cbd6fd1f8d90ace496858b3f4a7	Chekhov poses questions of conscience and responsibility for his life to himself and readers.
29c0d5e6fa2b2506c58318860a946826c77c2c00	In 1900, Chekhov was elected an honorary academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
643391b42bd58c7e3d0a7f8cd8c0bb92a249a698	But in 1902, Chekhov left its ranks as a sign of disagreement with the Academy's decision to expel Gorky because of his political unreliability.
2e813b44e7bac071fe614ff32f7ef08766704fad	Chekhov spent the winter of 1900-1901 in Nice.on treatment, then goes to Italy, and in February returns to Yalta.
c58bef56f806a00d21cff78ba50bf02259f6d58d	On May 25, A. P. Chekhov and O. L. Knipper were married.
5a49f1af7a4c55405332e11f4568a5ce67feb6bf	Immediately after the wedding, Olga Leonardovna takes her husband to the Ufa province for kumys — it was believed that he helps with consumption.
d6c7c2accd965d7668bc6444faf3867644163ee2	Chekhov is already very weak, but despite the painful illness, he continues to write, meet people, help everyone he can.
b1bd2a77d06da332679a401a7e4d8b3630cfb950	"I despise laziness, just as I despise the weakness and lethargy of spiritual movements," he once said about himself.
7908de8bcdf4488130e600beabd65fac84fb1ae5	The play "Three Sisters" (1901) was written and staged.
d90eaf2f39cb559282e74f4dc4bdfec57c1a5858	Chekhov mostly lives in Yalta, although autumn and windy wet winter, spent in a poorly heated house, do not add to Anton Pavlovich's health.
7c1b32641f1f78390e468d641e0bce693728940a	The couple did not see each other for several months, since Olga Leonardovna was busy at the theater, and Chekhov had to stay in Yalta on the orders of doctors.
9a1e5df5051ef200abd020827d0171126308079f	These separations were painful for both of them.
2bbd94d9df24922e0b9965773848a1d3cf3a0e1e	Chekhov wrote to his wife: "If we are not together now, then it is not me and not you who are to blame for this, but the demon who put the bacilli in me, and the love of art in you."
0b59ebec504fefbd2fb114537515147cd482c812	In general, Chekhov's correspondence with Knipper is an amazing evidence of their relationship: there is so much tenderness, love, respect, care for each other, sometimes poorly hidden pain from the inability to be together.
d22418587126197463622e284d6b40b6c642c9cb	The letters reflect the history of the development of the Moscow Art Theater, where Chekhov is its main author, and Knipper is the performer of the main roles; an interesting exchange of opinions about literature, writers, actors, in general, about the artistic life of that time.
6ab875ece2274cc6aee794a5ece73feb6515d1fc	The heroes of the letters are Gorky, Bunin, Tolstoy, Stanislavsky, Nemirovich Danchenko, Chaliapin, Komissarzhevskaya, Meyerhold and other famous personalities.
6d6969b6a21ca62e0057c4939436ac0103a2527c	In 1904, another Chekhov play "The Cherry Orchard"was staged.
30826bbf7bf343544ece839c58990b35f22e257c	Knipper plays Ranevskaya. Like the role of Masha in "Three Sisters", the role of Ranevskaya was the pinnacle of the actress ' creative rise.
42d79e4445d9f34d46577896f3ecba50d836cc75	"The Cherry Orchard" is the last work of the great writer and playwright.
469e12584df78abc45b3e236e7643698e7b46ff7	The tuberculosis process worsens so much that in May 1904 Chekhov leaves Yalta and together with his wife goes to Badenweiler , a famous resort in the south of Germany.
5f21e42406eee8ce871f46c8debf48109ebdf358	But there could be no question of recovery, here Chekhov only temporarily relieved his suffering.
f120dbaf54c420791ae08fafc69256df0e1008f6	On July 15 (1st according to the Art. style), at the second hour of the night, Chekhov felt especially bad.
b649e80a4acc3d9adce0f44e7075214e4bb05f67	When the doctor came to answer the call, he said firmly: "I'm dying."
678310da6e22f9372ae2c6b3d7a924edc844d4d0	Then he asked for champagne, slowly drained the glass, lay down, turned on his left side, and soon died.
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11656fc0369772fb35ce6a8b314e614eff4d03bc	/ Biographies / Chekhov A. P.
490fc6e4c174da851f744cf51639c4f1017ee1a4	Chekhov A. P.
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a45e10106d0fdc57bc1c9c40a51443783b6e1b75	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born in Taganrog on January 17 (29), 1860, died on July 2 (15), 1904 in Badenweiler (Southern Germany).
2931ea56e13e9a05413ab07514a4e411e887382a	He was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.
abfe18c626ed24704aa497d8f71911312ce1c5d9	Father Pavel Egorovich Chekhov (1825-1898).
4e7b169829e7e398225ba2d8f92477a361dc267e	Mother Evgenia Yakovlevna Chekhov (nee Morozova) (1835-1919)
d9d9ed46a0297fc25ab9590290ad96106725f2a2	Brothers and sisters: Alexander writer, linguist (1855-1913);
c3451d56718323a9b2e75199076c551d0166eb43	Nikolai artist (1858 -1889);
0d42494f8575cdd4ca4c2b1730235030dbc374b9	Mikhail writer, lawyer (1868-1936);
97f56e536b7df910745fbbdadcb7f9207f512901	Ivan was a teacher (a famous Moscow teacher) (1861-1922); Maria was a landscape artist (1863-1957).
899f1aeda4dfeb8a67cea7d0290d43c296ea5624	All the Chekhov children were exceptionally gifted, highly educated people.
b284c197452edf81012870c98d316de5be2867fa	My father played the violin perfectly, sang, Masha accompanied on the piano, in general, whole musical family performances were arranged.
974a152283916e5e5e790f81d1bdb4d840757f47	Mother Evgenia Yakovlevna, a wonderful hostess, very caring and loving, lived exclusively the life of children and her husband.
20c6f2d3944653331a252b7e903ff2cecd45b91a	Yevgenia Yakovlevna exerted a huge influence on the formation of the characters of her children, educating them with responsiveness, respect and compassion for the weak, the oppressed, love for nature and the world.
1593b41b04fc824c0e7535d0cbdfac4cb9ccfd33	In 1876, the Chekhov family moved to Moscow.
230b252ee17c16e525ab2944616ebbd07d50eb13	Trade in Taganrog became unprofitable, Pavel Egorovich went bankrupt and had to flee from creditors.
328938452a6b9ec82e6b7734d9fb9ff13986b0f3	In Moscow, the Chekhov family has been living in severe poverty for a long time, almost three years.
20ae6cbf8d9d760ed4ecee13fe365f1f40d93ceb	Despite this, all the children continued to study, and Anton, earning a living by tutoring, remained until the end of his studies at the gymnasium in Taganrog and came to Moscow only in 1879 in order to immediately enter the medical faculty of Moscow University, where he listened to lectures by famous professors N. Sklifosovsky, G. Zakharin, etc.
daa7e87d2d571038a53f8bafd5a3d4280931b866	In 1880, his first printed work appeared in N9 10 of the magazine "Dragonfly".
db4bbc4ba4e0f4e039357c01af17f7c28393f125	Since that time, the continuous literary activity of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov begins.
513da2ebc81e32bd8cabdaa6d30fe1cd4565a338	He collaborates with the magazines "Spectator", "Alarm Clock", "Light and Shadows", "Worldly sense", "Fragments".
442ab19017bee2a8830abc63ffa214f10f9f5230	He writes mainly in the genre of short stories, humorous stories, skits, signing with a pseudonym Antosha Chehonte or a Man without a spleen.
bfebf30666f63796a72931c9a1df768c83b1567b	In 1884, Chekhov's first book of theatrical short stories, The Tales of Melpomene, was published.
31056d3ebeb7a931f67b4e8c3dc208f7e859fd3e	After graduating from the university, Chekhov begins the practice of a district doctor in Voskresensk (now the city of Istra), in the hospital of the famous doctor P.
751d1c98e26fd045fd48a6cd8ead082091bb4f5a	A. Arkhangelsk.
1282dfd74d49c50039c308ccc9b55e328d4c9674	There are such stories as "The Fugitive", "Surgery".
e978fb3f44547db467b7626a3628de95aa6026da	Then Chekhov works in Zvenigorod, temporarily managing the hospital.
d0a92de9820f5c897478a7aaf4627074a632a3e1	There are themes for such stories as "The Dead Body", "At the autopsy", "The Siren".
19506d497cffbac289dee0f779a163250c433f50	Since the spring of 1885, the Chekhov family has been coming to the Babkino estate, near Voskresensk (Chekhov's Istra), to their good friends and stays there for a long time.
2c27e17b0e58c9b56bc265484c032fce173744c9	This was best reflected in the work of Anton Pavlovich.
79aeeee02f99227f302fa8267ee4903ff19fa6f5	Beautiful nature, conversations about music, art, literature, friendship with the artist Levitan.
18d815a0c375af7c86b331c1d3ae8498db51638b	Chekhov works hard and fruitfully.
6d1058bcb8e93c3eab014beb77307a3d5164aa36	On his return to Moscow, in 1886, Chekhov receives an encouraging letter from the writer D. V. Grigorovich, goes to St. Petersburg to express his respect and gratitude.
122918344630744bee60915f5d29b9e12758b0cf	In St. Petersburg, he unexpectedly receives an invitation to work from the famous publisher A. S. Suvorin in the newspaper Novoe Vremya.
8b38d96fa087b9d2f388e967a7dbd4a773a35390	Collections of works of this time — "Motley stories" (1886), "Innocent speeches" (1887).
7647d4a46ff59eb9f65368572b01477e6000e9a5	F. A. Korsh a passionate theater lover, a writer and translator of plays, a very enterprising person, built a theater in Bogoslovsky Lane in 1882 in a very short time.
607508e11cf0b7e4297a46ccddef643ad851579a	During the ten year activity of the theater, in which the famous V. N. Davydov, Glama — Meshcherskaya, Rybchinskaya, Martynova, Kosheva, Krasovskaya, who made up a rare acting ensemble, played, more than one and a half million viewers watched the performances, and more than five hundred plays were staged.
c066b589ece2dea51b1a51062743b8c7b2f31ae1	Anton Pavlovich receives his friends of writers at the dacha: Pleshcheyev, Barantsevich, the book publisher Suvorin.
be397c29551de281d2eece4882f59abd0f09e8ae	Chekhov formed a real friendship with Suvorin, which lasted for many years.
9249f7138801e8e72594a1bbe6d1b08b7a859463	The play "Leshiy" was unsuccessfully staged, Chekhov removed it from the repertoire, and, a few years later, remade it, giving a new name — "Uncle Vanya".
2258dc4bf30874eb6cead71e83149e6bca8f3623	In this house, Chekhov meets L. S. Mizinova, the "beautiful Face", as he later called her.
ddefdabedae8e3b41af279c3816fee7d274ce671	Very beautiful, funny, smart, Lika became a favorite of the Chekhov family.
a17d54d2d4806a8b9509a9d525b837ff591bc035	The Chekhov house was visited by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Grigorovich, well known artists at that time A. P. Lensky and V. N. Davydov, the publisher Leikin, the writer N. S. Leskov.
34d11dff9b718080c3e44cf08dcdc4b2699c503d	Chekhov dedicated the fourth collection of short stories "Gloomy People" to Tchaikovsky.
f5800a9bedfe80b6425a56836a543e45599c181a	Chekhov worked until eleven o'clock, then went to the forest for mushrooms or fishing.
75958faceeaee48314bee3182ccd03751bdc96cd	At one o'clock the family had lunch, and at three Chekhov went back to work until the evening.
b122df1608d9c5d61a737eb45fce3c709cc9c8b4	In the evenings, one of the local summer residents, the zoologist Wagner, who later became a famous professor, often came to visit.
c5a2129840d956b18eef14576d075f39eb5eb87e	With him, debates began on the topics of degeneracy, the right of the strong, etc., and it was Wagner who was the prototype of von Koren in the "Duel".
7a4c2272e7a6aa9ec9181de843c035ed46a839ed	In 1891/92, part of the central part of Russia and the Volga region experienced severe famine due to crop failure and drought Chekhov organizes a collection of donations for the benefit of the starving Nizhny Novgorod and Voronezh provinces, he himself went there twice.
04afd9ae01ebc8e5b5585d8e94966076d7e2afd6	At first, their younger brother Mikhail lives with them.
0ed383ec860d9cfae7075edd1595b7a3ea277a38	Immediately, work began on the arrangement of the house, the territory.
cc5535652d3b8dc722525d28a7c59b39ae9a14bf	Chekhov took up the task with great enthusiasm, the new life fascinated him.
6f62c048108c8208c60405eb71bd3e61aa3ab785	In the Chekhov house, everyone had their own economic role: Pavel Yegorovich, a handsome old man, once a strict, exacting and somewhat despotic educator, now fully recognized the primacy of Anton Pavlovich.
3b2815b15f0e5904b6dde277caaa0b6ef073c082	His tasks included taking care of the garden.
51455b9c3a448e411eee70eaa22ac7e778da52ec	Her mother, Yevgenia Yakovlevna, kept house, got up earlier and went to bed later than everyone else.
f10818280dd2e9d8fb9ee3a886f9e3f2f5a183b7	Sister Maria was engaged in gardening, while she regularly went to Moscow, as she worked as a teacher in a gymnasium.
5ac3ca9d30d8f42b7eb76f6a54773232f69d7f31	Mikhail was engaged in field farming, he even transferred to the service in Serpukhov to be closer to Melikhov.
2ce2e9e831186386311994122f549d571a7978ae	Pavel Yegorovich begins to keep his diary — a concise chronicle of Melikhov's life, reflecting the state of nature, the economy, the visits of numerous guests, the arrivals and departures of relatives.
d40e1670084ccec24d1197942a9c225d93bc5648	Despite the difficult road (sometimes it was necessary to walk 12 versts from the station), guests constantly came to the Chekhov's.
10373ac3c438b1cbe9db31014a1c1451a66d0e43	The artist Levitan often visited, drawing inspiration from the modest Melikhovsky landscapes, many writers, artists, musicians, people of science, older brothers with families, relatives from Taganrog visited.
afc269877d01bda97c84b5da59fa984094a38082	Actresses came: O. L. Knipper, T. L. Shchepkina Kupernik, D. M. Musina Pushkin.
157cd2db05bebcd6e1047a1ffdee02a546281ab3	Maria Pavlovna's friends, the artists Khotyaintsev and Drozdov, and, of course, Lika Mizinov, often visited.
356c751107df27ba2e18293b89943294825b4fd3	Chekhov does not lead the life of a village recluse.
bf4c0c165a58a531ca44d622627e669625809f28	He often goes to Moscow and St. Petersburg, where he meets with writers, artists, artists, visits theaters, concerts, visits the editorial offices of magazines and newspapers, takes part in literary evenings, anniversaries, official dinners, etc.
6d97b96965f74744c2a8a1d2e22a7e2420d12918	In general, the appearance of Chekhov causes a great resonance in creative circles.
0fd157a235f554d89956654616aa5d843c73ca96	In 1895, Chekhov visited Yasnaya Polyana to meet L. N. Tolstoy, who had been waiting for this for a long time.
54108c7c9c19488cba4d5005baf0016ab004f5ad	Subsequently, Chekhov and Tolstoy often meet in the Crimea.
2029f334971221542a32f9d6f3b6d72ed106fd25	Initially, the cozy house, surrounded by berry bushes, was intended for guests, but soon became the writer's study.
94547ca541bd50fc19dca67bf43ba24e10aca902	Chekhov persuades Antokolsky to create a monument to the founder of the city, Peter the Great, for Taganrog.
3c3f99578df305a6d5fd3444428bd8f6d6c786de	The negotiations are going well, Chekhov organizes the bronze casting of the statue and its delivery through the port of Marseille to Taganrog.
a4f46e5173e39c956571f52c08a4805c9ecc6a6c	There Chekhov acquires a plot of land two kilometers from the embankment in the village of Outka.
5bc38e09a3e2fd8afc41202f9bcb1acb918cc96d	In October, Chekhov learns about the death of his father.
1f89c449befe9b1a9dfa8cd23daa9bc4cdca12d6	He writes to his sister: "... The sad news, completely unexpected, saddened and shocked me deeply.
5dfdf848680b1c8fe5e6fb21bd2b1ca0db29945a	I feel sorry for my father, I feel sorry for all of you... it seems to me that after my father's death, there will no longer be the same housing in Melikhov, as if the flow of Melikhov's life also stopped with his diary."
9d59c93c524a5c763fe60bee6b887ea61670f249	In Yalta, Chekhov begins the construction of a house.
edbf8e82eae96f7b34fff8d495acc526ce5bb48b	The money for the construction came from the sale of works to the famous book publisher Marx.
e3a658b4394770424f756d7eb6dc432b11dafff7	Soon, a beautiful dacha was built according to the project of the architect Shapovalov.
646da674cf4e03aca0c86c6e0bcbc55c0902089c	(Chekhov Garden) Chekhov enthusiastically engaged in the improvement of the site, planted trees.
a12667e9f1638e8c79c6c2e0766774166fb2780d	Here he begins an active social activity: as a local resident, he is elected to the board of trustees of the women's gymnasium, donates 500 rubles for the construction of a school in Mukholatka, takes care of the device of the first biological station.
7a92de2cac82610194396b55d6e85bd306ce6bec	In Yalta, being seriously ill with tuberculosis himself, he works in the Guardianship of visiting patients.
c7db97f6a9b3fb5a859b528d1f1c5f181f19e5e5	At that time, many consumptive people came to Yalta, and almost without money, only because they had heard about Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, who helps to get settled and can even arrange for a residence permit for people of Jewish nationality.
1b4a744db464821f26d6db8739526cd287843a6d	In the late 1890s and early 1900s, G. Chekhov was a recognized master, his works cause a lot of literary disputes and, as a result, a socio political resonance.
16ffb84c1c797041027a36133df16abaa66cdc87	He writes: "A writer is not a pastry chef, not a cosmetics manufacturer, not a entertainer; he is a man who is obliged, contracted by the consciousness of his duty and conscience."
b0a308621a81efe1f7f20c49f70abfa18dfdc39f	This is Chekhov's life and writing credo.
3b4fac3d0e5007cb8ceeeab79bcdb1859c7c828f	On this occasion, V. G. Korolenko, with whom he had long standing friendly relations, comes to Chekhov in Yalta.
6784f99bf815533910737e6f5f487ff1f7c39613	A. P. Chekhov, A.M. Gorky and the troupe of the Art Theater in Yalta
1ed1dd0779e30c02e913ea3fa9ac739c3729044c	during the tour of the theater in the Crimea (1900).
46cec21bb76fe2be592d907f66f1f23662ad550d	In the spring of 1900, the Moscow Art Theater came to the Crimea on tour.
09238789d1f29d27b7c768538ca17828ef2576a8	Chekhov goes to Sevastopol, where they give "Uncle Vanya" especially for him.
882becbef85f21c195544012047ba15281f13e6d	Later, the theater moved to Yalta, and the most interesting people began to gather in the house on the Outka: Bunin, Gorky, Kuprin; every day the Chekhov's entire theater troupe — Soon the theater returns to Moscow.
39e6480cb3ca270e7811868c6c4f27a86245bfb2	But already in July, Olga Leonardovna Knipper, the leading actress of the Moscow Art Theater, the first performer of roles in Chekhov's plays, whom Chekhov met at rehearsals in 1898 and subsequently actively corresponded, again goes to Yalta to visit the writer.
b923684e053100cebbb3fe66b0eb892d83b5832b	They spend the whole of July together, and during this time their future life together is determined.
fdf39154455b14255785040f02be857c9ef67d28	In November 1901, he wrote to his wife: "My office has an ordinary temperature of + 12 and rarely + 13.
0cd0137d8d7d42327cc11f578cf2b7e9c1ea88e3	You canot light the fireplace, because the fireplace hurts my eyes.
97da6830c38163ecb4c4c101256cc305d9bb1778	And it is difficult to work at 12 degrees."
9aac0e6a6076221a1580f911b4e4ff3138f13fa1	Knipper plays Ranevskaya.
5c8075981733d4d6bf4ed5d968028d7296cf6b7b	Like the role of Masha in "Three Sisters", the role of Ranevskaya was the pinnacle of the actress ' creative rise.
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ef0511d367bf4513743556fe248ec097c96d50df	See also on Chekhov:
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8e32eb90291d2895c2d173d5cfca5d1614942ffb	Biography Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born in Taganrog on January 17 (29), 1860, died on July 2 (15), 1904 in Badenweiler (Southern Germany).
52393ce3f8eafed01b195ab3b77f5d67c9bb88fa	Collections of works of this time — "Motley stories" (1886), "Innocent Speeches" (1887).
27d667df22f1a023446410c633ce5dfe5906f568	With the beginning of regular cooperation with the newspaper, Chekhov renounces the pseudonym and signs his full name.
43274ebdaabaad2b333a21baaf662fcbfac4c7f0	On November 19, the premiere of Chekhov's play "Ivanov"took place.
b8373a8611dec0b62311c814758a03fb9b9f5a58	The reaction of the public was mixed: someone loudly applauded, someone shushed, some jumped up from their seats and stamped their feet, and a massacre just began in the gallery.
e633eb40810c7acc4c5525c79c464969877747e1	With Suvorin, Chekhov begins a real friendship that lasted for many years.
d15cfb708950d89507a6468738d414cb58521625	In the house on Sadovo — Kudrinskaya there are also written: the story "The Steppe", the vaudeville" The Bear"," The Swan Song", more than a hundred stories.
bf18a9c9e01dbf50d4a1a9ded16010d409deec22	On the second floor, young people were jostling, the piano was playing, conversations were going on, and at this time, on the first floor, Chekhov was sitting at a table and writing.
ae61b12f7a9442bdd63bf47fe70f545abcb21bb1	In 1891/92, part of the central part of Russia and the Volga region experienced severe famine due to crop failure and drought.
16d0c34b405577918ca067c93cd81e69685b68c7	The estate was located in se the village of Melikhovo, Serpukhov district, Moscow province, was in a neglected state, but it cost Chekhov relatively inexpensive.
3d704a0f38e32a8fc00ddd2009788f5227362230	A. P. Chekhov, A.M. Gorky and the troupe of the Art Theater in Yalta during the theater's tour in the Crimea (1900).
c254f5b8c41a903bf20f32abd396f392444e5028	Chekhov goes to Sevastopol, where they give him "Uncle Vanya" especially for him.
2fa7b7d4d3fc0cd683b196dede70e77d8eebe3f4	Later, the theater moved to Yalta, and the most interesting people began to gather in the house on the Outka: Bunin, Gorky, Kuprin; every day the Chekhov family has the entire theater troupe.
97553eb4b31b85443de2ca85af5b4804d889f2b9	Soon the theater returns to Moscow.
cee6966f4e25e074336d28fbf23163f0b439762f	Chekhov mainly lives in Yalta, although autumn and a windy, wet winter spent in a poorly heated house do not add to Anton Pavlovich's health.
fbb758bfd68ea77cbfd7087abdcb84c3f193844f	The couple did not see each other for a long time several months, since Olga Leonardovna was busy at the theater, and Chekhov had to stay in Yalta on the orders of doctors.
9914888bdb216660614777af167bec3f5df41519	Sometimes Chekhov visited Moscow
29712e9f845d356df4aeae7b5bb20967cbe628da	© "New Literary Network", info@antonchehov.ru with the support of the Web IT company
cddea190d430774a581fdf371345c4903685211a	Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich
f5f0f936bb996dad66c3e51928241f8d52d1ed49	This is the stable version, released on February 23, 2016.
9ca05499fb3094561072712a3fe003c905e85c63	The state is unpatrolled
bf6a324f21a58f8f2728896eaa998e6d323a30bc	The request "Chekhov" is redirected here; see also other values.
a6edb4577310241b8c3bb246b06e3519a3b8e834	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov
05e6af728a6dc9542563f8a8e50112eb2fcadd2f	Aliases: Antosha Chehonte, My brother's brother, A man without a spleen, etc.
609ef9e284bc42740a560dc25f0d223aa00d95cc	Date of birth: January 17 (29), 1860[1][2]
2a1a0dc365b7fda67ec7519791312e910cd160eb	Place of birth: Taganrog, Ekaterinoslav province, Russian Empire[2][3]
8a9df182e08798c62b2c35306a89e440d03414a6	Date of death: July 2 (15), 1904[1][2]
b3394e22a1b80c01739e756dcc592d7241d427f7	(44 years old)
b10817e649808a2b961d6ff8c67081f129d8e859	Place of death: Badenweiler, German Empire[1][2]
fd1c3c5e4d1f28afae898965a2cfba39c4121b44	Citizenship (citizenship): The Russian Empire
5fac5a78778d95a6e4cf8e3653bd2cd908275c9b	Occupation: novelist, playwright, doctor
aa3bf787d8fc14edb7c75e32f6a9e044263c0c29	Direction: Realism
bf4b315ebe03f8cb1d16019d68c427bf07fd2337	Genre: short story, novella, play
fdaf384ac6d4d3e98491dad6399da0956fe5d800	Language of works: Russian
d18f2023228d5bba11121c3ddea40e020443b2b6	Awards: Griboyedov Prize (1901), Pushkin Prize of the Academy of Sciences (1888)
ab9ad1c9606de6d680e31cb79c0c3bfc55592fb8	Awards:
671048db110a3469e52979ba873e1f31f52b0adc	Signature:
9940cee9dcfd2862a83d0f049ab23143c87d8860	Works on the site Lib.ru Works in Wikitek Files on Wikimedia Commons
483cf9f2beafbf6f5dedda7ece6c65e7edcef3cb	Listen to the article · (info)
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1e6438233a65569105b1f62fff34bd810e0e2a7c	His plays, especially "The Seagull", "Three Sisters" and "The Cherry Orchard", have been staged in many theaters around the world for more than 100 years.
c50035c6d8c6af9e36b971134fefcadabf052cf3	For 25 years of creativity, Chekhov has created more than 300 different works (short humorous stories, serious novels, plays), many of which have become classics of world literature.
9b18f28ac65f82a315389ac460e1bddf6462e558	Special attention was drawn to "Steppe", "Boring story", "Duel", "Ward No.
9b55d338a66808704bc4b94b62bc68bf4cbbd1dd	6", "The Story of an unknown man", "Men" (1897), "The Man in the case" (1898)," In the ravine"," Children"," Drama on the hunt"; from the plays:" Ivanov"," The Seagull"," Uncle Vanya"," Three Sisters","Cherry Orchard".
d745b775009588b7f6731e7801692161e4e387e6	1 Biography 1.1 Childhood and youth 1.2 Formation 1.3 Sakhalin 1.4 Later years 1.5 Death
fbe99d619dea1cd03a6028d2e9f40ac38dd5f369	2 Creativity 2.1 Features of drama 2.2 Chekhov's pseudonyms 2.3 Bibliography 2.4 The meaning of creativity
599079381215f6cec12c3c7955cdd4cf922fefb2	3 Chekhov is a writer and Chekhov is a doctor 4 Memory 4.1 In numismatics 4.2 In philately 4.2.1 Foreign issues
66774f3b3da87e4679be57f730b0105ba7f5806e	4.3 Museums and libraries 4.4 Theaters and creative collectives 4.5 Sea and river vessels 4.6 Astronomical objects 4.7 Geographical names 4.8 Monuments 4.9 Monuments to Chekhov's heroes 4.10 Chekhov in art 4.11 Film adaptations of works 4.12 Theatrical productions
1422a682ac1970486541247fbded88b89abfcf88	5 Family, relatives 5.1 Pedigree 5.1.1 On the father's side 5.1.2 On the mother's side
4876d39dd5cc352656996381d829b1b3d518bd29	5.2 Parents 5.2.1 Mother 5.2.2 Father
642e4febc5e309243c8fd1e0fe1e74b821556f60	6 Moscow addresses 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 References
53c2de2d09cbdfd49e998fe7a94498fe7cf5beb0	Biography
9617cac0ed616fbb64192afb8f0c92cf30984d1d	Childhood and youth
fe263d33b674fea4dc32b80e320761e83503aef0	On January 17 (29), 1860, in a small house[5] on Police Street[6] (now Chekhov) in Taganrog, the third child, Anton, was born in the family of Pavel Egorovich Chekhov.
734475def8608809764da8c63d39abdb3d1b4968	In total, the Chekhov family had 6 children: 5 sons and a daughter[7].
884b42c752f755c2345d259900804f1822184e20	Anton's early childhood was spent in endless church holidays, name days.
e7a2a048d5fda1ac8aaee12c7df3ffb8347943ea	On weekdays after school, the brothers guarded their father's shop, and at 5 o'clock in the morning every day they got up to sing in the church choir.
89d0a395dfb94fa3ee38075ccc965474464f95b8	As Chekhov himself said: "As a child, I did not have a childhood."
b5232769ad04e99e97b1173a95a657bbe5514738	Chekhov's education began at a Greek school in Taganrog;
d8010e08a35e953dc4788a7c3f7e919daba96472	On August 23, 1868, Anton Chekhov entered the preparatory class of the Taganrog gymnasium.
1aa8b0fbd91ac8577888c4356aa37cd002fdc998	The men's classical gymnasium was the oldest educational institution in the south of Russia (founded in 1806 as a commercial one, since 1866 — a classical one).
e2e131027a9b17640952b24766d92a25ca7f8b10	At the gymnasium, his vision of the world was formed, his love for books, knowledge and the theater; here he received his first literary pseudonym "Chekhov", which was awarded to him by the teacher of the Law of God Fyodor Platonovich Pokrovsky; here his first literary and stage experiments began.
4aa96673c28a2703ab7bcb5aa84a6e0b62951cc2	The writer's father's house in Taganrog
1f3b6d8da2bd157036c0a929bd4ae0d07b6a9476	Chekhov in Melikhov with the dachshund Hina (1897)
4c9bc211a7bc6c1f3c6864187b8db1b256557161	Chekhov with Olga Knipper (1901)
4ee73525e400bb973b673684c6b1c6fde7e22cb2	The cover of the first separate edition of the play "Three Sisters" (1901) with portraits of the first performers in the Art Theater: M. G. Savitskaya (Olga), O. L. Knipper (Masha) and M. F. Andreeva (Irina)
322b76f955bce0ffebde421ab3d18da4d5a40403	Music and books aroused in the young Anton Chekhov the desire for creativity.
ca39ac3e44b5d03270fc7016580903b7137f3511	The Taganrog Theater, founded in 1827, played a big role in this.
b3042ec67c37418077e7c6d31cb83cea3247471a	Anton visited the theater for the first time at the age of 13, watched Jacques Offenbach's operetta "The Beautiful Elena" and soon became a passionate fan of the theater.
f0de5776166ec1c0a3a85e07e3d50c17bad0f574	Later, in one of his letters, Chekhov will say: "The theater once gave me a lot of good things… Before, there was no greater pleasure for me than sitting in the theater...
6ed23c158ce98fd33813ab795f7a9ee422f98fa1	" It is no coincidence that the heroes of his first works, such as "Tragedian", "Comedian", "Benefit", "No Wonder the chicken sang", were actors and actresses.
3bf7a3b1851d9441f1b61b14d68e087a03a53610	Anton took part in the home performances of his high school friend Andrey Drossy[8].
ff947d5458dcf29d462cdae37804f08f231bfe3c	Chekhov, a high school student, published humorous magazines, invented captions for drawings, wrote humorous stories, skits.
63f78d87c196e5c08ee59ce72dd36783d9d517ee	The first drama "Fatherless" was written by 18 year old Chekhov during his studies at the gymnasium.
9485b98e7c6f7651333955c3fbb436266bc8c9ba	Chekhov's gymnasium period was an important stage in the maturation and formation of his personality, the development of its spiritual foundations.
c1e1b8870a731fd8ff72e5cda7d9aacda452f869	The gymnasium years gave Chekhov a huge material for writing work.
e7699cc7bdda79500c93c9d80976607324d86267	The most typical and colorful figures will appear later on the pages of his works.
1108e7d9dec29c926df134264b867f88b8d2baf7	Perhaps one of these figures was his mathematics teacher Edmund Dzerzhinsky — the father of the future first chairman of the CHEKA[9].
f0d7a335d5c3436112805bfdf55cf039ab066636	In 1879, he graduated from the gymnasium in Taganrog.
343c1fc8963b1088541a0d9273552ae5e0092919	In the same year, he moved to Moscow and entered the medical Faculty of Moscow University (now the First Moscow State Medical University named after I. M. Sechenov), where he studied with famous professors: Nikolai Sklifosovsky, Grigory Zakharin and others.
55775028c9d84cb270a083ed03f3f6df0a300cea	In the same year, Anton's brother Ivan got a job as a teacher in the city of Voskresensk near Moscow.
032c5b9e0e8ca374f19fb5e80207906aa0a2cca9	He was allocated a large apartment that could accommodate a whole family.
bd431b4ff59a5c6108db35ab241389c27539f013	The Chekhov's, who lived closely in Moscow, came to Ivan in Voskresensk for the summer.
15a3f8a178bf596618291c1d31cdff16ece0518a	There, in 1881, Anton Chekhov met Dr. P.
d3e3ac40ff7f33a759e398be5693f2eefecd2320	A. Arkhangelsky, the head of the Resurrection Hospital (Chikinskaya Hospital).
133f79c6acfc91fbfa94930574b01ffb1ca8bcde	Since 1882, as a student, he has already helped the doctors of the hospital when receiving patients.
81f2397a66ed65c80e0f96897cb27adc71993744	In 1884, Chekhov graduated from the university course and began working as a district doctor in the Chikinsky hospital.
4bcbcee6b4506d8c3bcb61edf56bec8e58e4d7b9	According to the memoirs of P.
7fc7828f146e4a509a8c057aafbf934f526f74e6	A. Arkhangelsky:
0e7f849bcd212d2751d3e2f8c9a08dfa3ecc2f0e	Anton Pavlovich carried out the work slowly, sometimes his actions expressed as if uncertainty; but he did everything with attention and visible love for the work, especially with love for the patient who passed through his hands.
64239479fc197b95a2947df6368d6a9d301762ec	The mental state of the patient has always attracted the special attention of Anton Pavlovich, and along with the usual medications, he attached great importance to the impact on the patient's psyche from the doctor and the environment[10].
3055acdf096527ae6c957eb231eea04c83f684e1	Then he worked in Zvenigorod, where he was in charge of a hospital for some time.
467735ad910d1b4ae7169353ff507d0390bfe2e9	Becoming
8a06f9b9b940837c8c8870332ec86937d46527cb	On December 24, 1879, as a first year student, Chekhov published in the magazine" Dragonfly "the story" A Letter to a learned neighbor" and humorous " What is most often found in novels, novellas, etc.".
09e0b367109ce039f0e888391bc8be9b5675bd65	This was his debut in print.
076a8a60282c19c7230accbe4e6d2d299c5ece46	In the following years, Chekhov wrote short stories, feuilletons, humorous "trifles" under the pseudonyms "Antosha Chekhov" and "The Man without a Spleen" or their variants, [11] or completely without a signature, in the publications of the "small press", mainly humorous: the Moscow magazines "Alarm Clock", "Spectator", etc. and in the St. Petersburg humorous weekly magazines "Fragments", "Dragonfly".
244101211868c294c13911319f4326ce6a902656	Chekhov collaborated with the "Petersburg Newspaper" (from 1884, with interruptions), with the Suvorin newspaper " Novoe Vremya "(1886-1893) and with the" Russian Vedomosti " (1893-1899).
ec1a39025df8353d75356de778bf92237671dcad	In 1882, Chekhov prepared the first collection of short stories "Prank", but it did not come out, perhaps because of censorship difficulties.
9fe92dce0f8ff6ec209dbb131dea5b2a6cdf0ac5	In 1884, a collection of his short stories was published- "The Tales of Melpomene" (signed " A. Chehonte").
4550584d72cb6669ec54f8ef04a6ff3a91597721	The years 1885-86 were the heyday of Chekhov as a "miniaturist fiction writer" - the author of short, mostly humorous stories.
6934d31c414a5d9d45b95a1bdebe9a184f74003b	At that time, by his own admission, he wrote a story a day.
b1031bdd0a0c425b2802dc5f6fafd89dc09a0b9d	Contemporaries believed that he will remain in this genre; but in the spring of 1886, he received a letter from a famous Russian writer Dmitry Grigorovich, where he criticised Chekhov for the fact that he spends his talent to "PAL".
0cf74584733c7a9d40da0dbb4a39d62f79d38e84	"Fast is better, as we were starving, take care of your impressions of labor considered (...) One such work will be a hundred times higher than the estimated hundreds of wonderful stories, scattered at various times on Newspapers," wrote Grigorovich.
3a206ada44699166dcd402096d420f0c82a4d804	Subsequently, Alexey Suvorin, Viktor Bilibin and Alexey Pleshcheev joined Grigorovich's councils.
2396587ac8d1113afc60dcb20157f5402fb51572	Chekhov listened to these tips.
fed31c504ca9efaf48b2af3f885dbe8952ec8bd2	From 1887, he collaborated less and less with humorous magazines; his cooperation with The Alarm Clock was interrupted.
5642d09904468950cc43522f7a2a2f7f520063b1	His stories became longer and more serious.
d8c3f8db79c171147f661090784001efbc593bbc	The important changes that took place with Chekhov at that time are also indicated by the desire to travel.
960c787f152d2859d3909af42395e7e860693e14	In the same year, 1887, he went on a trip to the south, to his native places; later he went to the "Gogol places", to the Crimea, to the Caucasus.
4344720b1ddc2f5c891d120aaa8e5228dda78468	The trip to the south revived Chekhov's memories of his youth spent there and gave him material for" Steppe", his first work in a thick magazine — "Northern Bulletin".
85baf527c1fbc11e292aecc26bc39e7872fd2285	The debut in such a magazine attracted a lot of critical attention, much more than to any previous work by Chekhov.
628747c72f05abeaa953c270dc08df59f3304185	In the autumn of 1887, Chekhov's letters mentioned the work on the novel "in 1500 lines".
7e0cfc053d01c5cc9ad27a099b9423f3c48d275e	It lasted until 1889, when Chekhov, who was burdened with work of such a large size, finally abandoned his plan.
142b80f8cf595d7d2b44f12dbd1c178982267608	"I am glad—" he wrote to Suvorin in January— " that 2-3 years ago I did not listen to Grigorovich and did not write a novel!
a819e0a582b317d970b250a81c2e19fe1b5ab8b7	I imagine how much good I would have ruined if I had listened ...
157044c83fba70ad7525fb93f8e703528bf04da1	In addition to the abundance of material and talent, I need something equally important.
d4ffc0a37ae39b7a7589c2f68975c7ba71a24fc2	We need maturity this is one time; secondly, we need a sense of personal freedom, and this feeling began to flare up in me only recently."
609c5d791345ae79511a99f39f5490c2b87a4f31	Obviously, it was the lack of these properties that Chekhov was dissatisfied with at the end of the 1880s, which prompted him to travel.
1571e1da6d6eb384b5abe59275eee6280e5e2081	But he was still dissatisfied after these trips; he needed a new, big trip.
9048d52837f6e78f7f0618444c9668d3aca23d81	His options were a trip around the world, a trip to Central Asia, to Persia, to Sakhalin.
4fdb8af86f2dc5f8cef7de81a0dde606a5ede1b5	In the end, he decided on the latter option.
fb309a33dc0e944165456d7f31e515de51ab16d1	But despite Chekhov's own dissatisfaction with himself, his fame grew.
c75949a2439d031c7a33d87419e9494fe42b8d09	After the release of "Steppe" and "Boring Story", the attention of critics and readers was riveted to each of his new works.
1d2eab3e1fe9d34c4187a0924bc94b43eef13c07	On October 7 (19), 1888, he received the half Pushkin Prize of the Academy of Sciences for the third collection published in the previous year, 1887 — "At Dusk".
4acc663eed45b21cf9287408fbcf698d9200e5eb	In the corresponding resolution of the academic commission, it was written that " the stories of G. Chekhov, although they do not fully meet the requirements of the highest art criticism, are nevertheless an outstanding phenomenon in our modern fiction literature."
0d5ce5957911c8ef23292eaf9b87d183a10fbb56	At the end of the 1880s in the manner of Chekhov appeared a feature that some contemporaries considered an advantage, others a disadvantage — is the deliberate dispassion of the description, the emphasized lack of an author's assessment.
34499d903ec3870d10cd7143930f8043c3db40a5	Especially this feature is distinguished by "I want to sleep", "Women" and "Princess".
7abd6157cb00be62bf157604ead5b5db0f166c49	Sakhalin
5696e4950e659257d6ced89ef2de0fa68081373d	"Sakhalin Island" and the reaction of officials.
aaef033cfe96a7b8de3abf0ab7d531d8bc65f680	Russian thought, 1893, № 12, 1894, № 4.
c808e03de007faa12411287edcd647c906baf7e1	The decision to go to Sakhalin was finally made, obviously, in the summer of 1889, after discussing this intention with the artist K.
2d6848628bb5e75eb603bc559425ad554f6c30c3	A. Karatygina, who traveled to Siberia and Sakhalin in the late 1870s.
929be1248c5ce23b1cb55ec0a8e829910acafc6e	But Chekhov hid this intention for a long time even from the closest ones; after informing Karatygina about it, he asked to keep it a secret.
55d60c27ef69f1905acde936e517bb767b7195d2	He revealed this secret only in January 1890, it made a great impression on society.
f99d6f48ca14e7e366021cc03bdb1ffbab0203c2	This impression was also strengthened by the "suddenness" of the decision made, because already in the spring of 1890, Chekhov went on a trip.
3c0661b153e29eb3d3cd6fed5f761a2c2d38879b	The journey through Siberia took 82 days, during which Chekhov wrote nine essays, united under the general title "From Siberia".
b623d4f0fc731178f2c0df9cfef5b81dce370a44	Chekhov arrived on Sakhalin on July 11 (23).
53f3c4be14da626c94d2f7c492d7ceebeb4bb9ab	For several months of his stay on it, Chekhov communicated with people, learned their life stories, the reasons for exile and collected rich material for his notes.
6c24bdef764440fecfbaf4bf18ea7b552cef580c	He conducted, according to his own words, a complete census of the population of Sakhalin, collecting several thousand cards about the inhabitants of the island.
10343a64b4b012f458198d370247d78e4714bcf6	The administration of the island strictly forbade communicating with political prisoners, but he violated this prohibition.
e220851a55a2c89d1121dc84e6deda5db33e2198	(Also in 1897, for participating in the All Russian population Census as a counter, he received the medal "For his work on the first general population census of 1897").
616340b1fcaf845891e38dfe1e95f6280101abf7	Chekhov was returning from Sakhalin by sea, on the Dobroflot steamer "Petersburg".
0fdd61728398c2f7577b2ec291636c20bf34453c	In Vladivostok, where the ship was standing from October 14 (26) to October 19 (31), Chekhov worked in the library of the Society for the Study of the Amur Region, collecting additional materials for a book about Sakhalin.[12] Next — Hong Kong, Singapore, the island of Ceylon, the Suez Canal, Constantinople, Odessa.
37c4f344bc8aa962b8300fae6b3e7d0746af6c30	Finally, on December 7 (19), 1890, his relatives met him in Tula.
f84930f9f5d3f681a437c275deb3c938d440a488	In the next 5 years, Chekhov wrote the book "Sakhalin Island".
18ec7a11aa08a74ac4be1626753507ca2c7425a4	As for artistic creativity, the trip to Sakhalin, according to Chekhov's own admission, had a huge impact on all his subsequent works.
0fc46d7be083f6782a2a05e95054b2ce90340492	In 2005, on Sakhalin, for the first time in Russia, the materials of the Sakhalin census by A. P. Chekhov were published in one edition "Perhaps my figures will also be useful...".
2147ab1c775f6d7d353e837f5eddb12e8450acd4	The publication published all 10 thousand survey cards filled out by Chekhov's respondents during his trip to Sakhalin Island in 1890.
cbd33b9724c2ed61fc997d9a15a8f0ae9e70d445	Later years
b9f878233975eb8f4221e7c734e417f729cb8d4c	"Chekhov's House" on Malaya Dmitrovka, 2008.
6867337d6781d9a612fa903cd6930e778f996d69	Isaac Levitan Portrait of A. P. Chekhov (1885-1886)
bd20ab55f2f39084e8ba9bec81e3d49ca92e2026	From 1890 to 1895, after returning to Moscow from a trip to Sakhalin, Chekhov settled in a small two story wing on Malaya Dmitrovka.
a119221d5878d22ef1dfeae4fe57e79bb61aada1	Here he worked on the book "Sakhalin Island", the stories "Poprygunya", "Duel", "Ward No.
c50da59fdbc8113f4bb286b7dc9e756c8bd5925f	6" , and also met with writers V. G. Korolenko, D. V. Grigorovich, V.
e46af3d7af4a5b7206289911d8abe0c309a75287	A. Gilyarovsky, P. D. Boborykin, D. S. Merezhkovsky, V. I. Nemirovich Danchenko, famous actors A. P. Lensky and A. I. Yuzhin, artist I. I. Levitan.
c22e645b81a71e67999dd2b0fe63ee42f0bd3bf1	The wing has survived to our time and is marked by a commemorative plaque with a bas relief by A. P. Chekhov.
b34bafe4a3d46d3f611c62e973822a8fc8a0f7be	From 1892 to 1899, Chekhov lived in the Melikhovo estate near Moscow, where one of the main Chekhov museums now works.
fa1948d3d4ed9d8ccbbd4c79bfcf78c750b0031c	During the years of "Melikhovsky sitting" 42 works were written.
ba63c5e75cb18a5ed505844a6fd59dad7f406619	Later, Chekhov traveled a lot in Europe.
c663665bbe7b6b670b89d5f246166fb13a681815	At the end of 1898, the writer bought a plot of land in Yalta.
76969bf178227959dad3cb6a008959eb35bd9e9a	A garden was laid out on the plot and a house was built according to the project of architect L. N. Shapovalov.
6e1e6fce39bd33040e70d6106b9578a7a8591d2b	In recent years, Chekhov, whose tuberculosis has worsened, has been constantly living in his house near Yalta to improve his health, only occasionally coming to Moscow, where his wife (since 1901), the artist Olga Leonardovna Knipper, occupies one of the outstanding places in the troupe of the Moscow Art Theater (Stanislavsky), formed in 1898.
efc783a60f43641bfb97f1adf73809fbed2e63c4	In 1900, at the first election to the Pushkin branch of the Academy of Sciences, Chekhov was elected among its honorary academicians.
a0ef33b48e9f2b503f2a43deaee87a0de4f79703	In 1902, Chekhov, together with V. G. Korolenko, refused the title of academician after the order of Nicholas II to annul the election of Maxim Gorky to honorary academicians.
d8c7d877ba6139c4872450e3847613a50c79f4e2	Death
cea1b49655e753cd039f15772d680ab23983178b	Removal of the coffin with the body of A. P. Chekhov from the car.
9ebf9256fe10f5be2fe1a9682bdfba05580d79a8	Nikolaevsky railway station, 1904
535adaf7ae296e180792b195a8bb2a2cf2f9ad3e	Chekhov's grave at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow
6a1f69e73a3bbfcec52d4da12f055efc065df024	In the history of Chekhov's illness, which was conducted in the clinic by the writer's attending physician Maxim Maslov, it is recorded that during his gymnasium and student years, Chekhov was ill with tuberculous inflammation of the peritoneum, but he felt "tightness in the sternum" at the age of 10.
465cf6cae158df7fb3f52e68a0cbf2235efddb26	Since 1884, Chekhov suffered from bleeding from his right lung[13].
168752b42f26c4ff95f0dde68bb11eaa069045d0	Some researchers believe that a fatal role in the writer's life was played by a trip to Sakhalin — there was a thaw and he had to travel thousands of kilometers on horses, in wet clothes and soaked felt boots (Chekhov himself and his relatives associated the disease with the trip).
69710856a685baa76c5a0c06a93e973ec1fb3e83	Others called frequent moves from Yalta to Moscow at the most unfavorable time for health the reason for the exacerbation of the tuberculosis process.
ac6f08b05c3044f21673beb6c9bbd2844a0c749b	In the summer of 1904, Chekhov went to a resort in Germany.
1cbe6ed3553bd65f0ee9a2cbb003be8abe272904	Due to a sharp exacerbation of the disease, which he could not cope with, the writer died on July 2 (15), 1904 in Badenweiler, Germany.
c8c142f0ca9efaaf6ecbbce74ebb7a9b81b79965	The denouement came on the night of July 1 to 2, 1904.
1918d828a364f01ee754b7b7de858172abe5beed	According to the testimony of his wife Olga Leonardovna, at the beginning of the night Chekhov woke up and " for the first time in his life he asked to send for a doctor.
79e1e412304dc560859e6dc0707298108b56e2ba	After that, he ordered champagne to be given.
a72de1e71b88ba0f37040bd702a9fe483266a766	Anton Pavlovich sat down and somehow significantly, loudly said to the doctor in German (he knew very little German): "Ich sterbe".
92850487bc1708819de7a4803f414cc2cccd5944	Then he repeated for the student or for me in Russian: "I'm dying."
a2abbd33302499f9b9b3f9c211ff2f872050d81b	Then he took a glass, turned his face to me, smiled his amazing smile, said:" I havenot drunk champagne for a long time...", calmly drank everything to the bottom, quietly lay down on his left side and soon fell silent forever."
68c4c1a193be9527fe1df23fc8d42f144e576cb3	The coffin with the body of the writer was delivered to Moscow in a car with the inscription "Oysters".
f2e1cd1590ce8d79fd24d0893530b55c83875877	Someone perceived this as a mockery of the great writer, but at the beginning of the XX century, few cars were equipped with refrigeration units[14].
a05082ad7b085c675c144c48cd6715913714b638	On July 9 (22), 1904, the funeral took place.
6c51ad8d4851d577f04c08e24cc5e03add89f8f6	A funeral service was held in the Assumption Church of the Novodevichy Monastery.
d70392c2a121180b4d0eea455d0d0ec70429881f	Chekhov was buried right behind the Assumption Church in the monastery cemetery, next to the grave of his father.
e069d6d31de3367c918ecd9cd4cfc53d0e21bd17	A wooden cross with an icon and a lantern for a lamp was placed on the grave.
9a8f0f034e6c62eb2d74cea52df53e165d160b02	On the anniversary of the death of A. P. Chekhov on July 2 (15), 1908, a new marble monument was opened on the grave, designed in the Art Nouveau style by the artist L. M. Brailovsky.[15] In 1933, after the abolition of the cemetery on the territory of the Novodevichy Monastery, at the request of O. L. Knipper, Chekhov was reburied in the cemetery behind the southern wall of the monastery.
e7b010bd110b890c0b2834bbc3561b4afef5f502	On November 16, 1933, in the presence of a few relatives and close friends, the grave was opened and the coffin was moved to a new place.
419ae26dc5ee797c47fffaa8f108c908fe0a5726	Soon both tombstones were moved here — A. P. Chekhov and his father (while the burial of P. E. Chekhov was left in the old place)[16].
e13e0554f557ba882751e261b5a60777b337bea6	Creation
2fa2f0d05126300cb1766c6f15b7ebe069cfdb99	Features of drama
b38456cd632d18a32748151ac8c06a3ac2d957f6	The originality of Chekhov's plays was noticed by his contemporaries at the first productions.
02bdc8d88e506e58bed032729546f4dee2a0ab3b	At first, it was perceived as Chekhov's inability to cope with the task of a consistent dramatic movement.
c0d499f0fe437504cd1c87beaaad74cc2267634a	Reviewers spoke about the lack of" scenic", about" stretching", about" lack of action", about" disorderly dialogue", about" scattered composition " and the weakness of the plot[17].
61d6356e3e0304e7972cba38d80afe6fded62070	Theater critics increasingly reproached Chekhov for introducing unnecessary details of everyday life into his plays and thereby violating all the laws of stage action.
6ee72cca57c4a30c368ce91e892f897d09a5a923	However, for Anton Pavlovich himself, the reproduction of the sphere of everyday life was an indispensable condition otherwise the meaning of the whole plan was lost for him.
15260e7b32bb4d069fdeac49ba288af8957daed5	Chekhov said:
f91cbee3457b21bb6886ce52b26bbfca72e56393	They demand that there be a hero, a heroine who is spectacular on stage.
3d3baededf005ae56d7d9f35a03ca60c10063bfd	But it's not every minute in life that people shoot themselves, hang themselves, and declare their love.
672feeb313c08bc6179797380cc80ad89694ebc1	And they donot say smart things every minute.
064e1a154b3786cee1fc916e3394898e0fdada2e	They eat more, drink more, drag around, say stupid things.
07ce81f5abc61dea75843b38bccf90f0cb5f619c	And now it is necessary that this should be seen on the stage.
57f5f2c97981b8c340dbac9b8212b00dab90fe31	It is necessary to create a play where people come, go, have lunch, talk about the weather, play screw, but not because the author needs it, but because it happens in real life[18].
d5ca14051313d54b9fc02872010ca25307943e9e	Let everything be as difficult on stage and at the same time as simple as in life.
25b24ae160be8e64d473292c65d78f04780f530d	People are having lunch, just having lunch, and at this time their happiness is composed and their lives are broken[19].
4952619e41365e4e31e87d4c725f7739b907a97a	In Chekhov's dramaturgy, contrary to all traditions, events are relegated to the periphery as a short term particularity, and the usual, even, daily recurring, familiar to everyone is the main array of the entire content of the play.
7b1da63bd6283eeccda8b35a7af9cecf21f6d6d3	Almost all of Chekhov's plays are based on a detailed description of everyday life, through which the peculiarities of the feelings, moods, characters and relationships of the characters are conveyed to the readers.
069bf8303fd4635eda43be58403b57c096699ce3	The selection of household lines is carried out according to the principle of their significance in the general emotional content of life.
0d9e00ac1877b1577dd02896716ae2471398cb25	Chekhov often uses the so called "random" replicas of characters[20].
a751f6b835cd3e3cda89d776e9d1c8af88e36fd1	At the same time, the dialogue is constantly torn, broken and confused in some completely extraneous and unnecessary trifles.
b6f90a74e9deccde17bd923dec6720203504c424	However, such dialogues and replicas in the general stage context in Chekhov do not fulfill their purpose by the direct objective meaning of their content, but by the vital well being that is manifested in them[17].
a98041c35079ed981c4c2e2ea85ea64f14d401a2	K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich Danchenko noticed the most essential principle in the dramatic movement of Chekhov's plays, the so called "undercurrent".
d26f9cee423c7c8acb6cd5a12e654cecbdad4d34	It was they who first revealed the presence of a continuous inner intimate behind the seemingly everyday episodes and details they made every effort to bring a new interpretation of Chekhov's drama to the viewer.
6d3f0e501de3e7ea0aa5415aa03a9dac3247d191	Thanks to Stanislavsky and Nemirovich Danchenko, the infecting power of Chekhov's plays became obvious[21].
8e560d2360dae83ea7695320daf855cc37d40fc0	Chekhov's pseudonyms
7e0df2dfd3eb78c287a3f9af9eef12fb07e189d3	Like any humorist writer, Chekhov used dozens of various pseudonyms.
e5d68db34c6c9b42e43de9b092efd76b4640ca78	Until now, they have not been fully disclosed, since Chekhov himself, when preparing the collected works for A. F. Marx, could not remember the belonging of all his early stories.
5e7c9b417256497c17f7320efb1b160e978c0c24	The function of the humorist's pseudonym was not so much to conceal the true authorship, as to amuse the reader, to intrigue him (hence the variability, deliberate confusion — the reader had to try to guess the authorship of the story himself).
5df665b7bf91b1d8b15a44da3ce9a78b89a1632b	Often, a pseudonym is a necessary element of the composition of a particular story, part of a literary farce and cannot be properly disclosed outside of its context.
7d36b40a17963173e1b968140f257dfd48324d0a	In rare cases, the background of a particular pseudonym of Chekhov could be known only to a narrow circle of his acquaintances and required additional deciphering.
d2ec61bce12adfc35faa1a0b9a31b7042e75d495	Below is a list of 42 pseudonyms of the writer known to Czech Studies by the end of the last century:
4ec96616da92ecca2d3fd30d9cb19b3b005f1929	A. P., A. P. Ch v, Antosha, Antosha Ch., Antosha Ch.***, Antosha Chehonte, A n Ch te, An.
4db646b99dd35da5949c8698df8c047a0153cd65	Ch., An.
1e9c8ea2c2b13921db01ffdd3428359e608c09e2	H e, Anche, An.
c51485620fb736f04ad82e0dc11a8370635c8ee0	Th in,
c82be096ff48f8a4f5c219b391f8ce725980cac2	A. Ch., A. Ch. v., A. Che v., A Chehonte, G. Baldastov, Makar Baldastov, My brother's brother, A doctor without patients, A hot tempered person, Nut No.
e3b396bb9690f85fa3786d36daa76339b477b801	6, Nut No.
98d5ada5aa65bb072cbb46f17549143ad7279eaa	9,
42c8449e883888b3842da4d001f99511617ea901	Grach, Don Antonio Chehonte, Uncle, Kislyaev, M. Kovrov, Nettle, Laertes, Prose poet, Ruver, Ruver and Revur, Ulysses,
1e6c318001a372f289489b5e3b11bce90e3540ae	Ts., Ch.
b81aaee1a882331feb16375c6688b08fbadadc29	B. S., Ch. without S., A man without a spleen, Ch.
d8dbf726c28d069ab28d8103533a823080dc62b9	Ch.
958b9d3b31f66bd12287f74cf8f6c0c6c8097db1	Honte, A., Champagne, ...
5e54b0f839500b1974ef717ae2e8867b792cb8bd	V, Z[22].
e099ae27d3e1536bb70b5841b6a6e904d8232f80	At the insistence of A. S. Suvorin, Chekhov begins to publish his "serious" works in the "New Time" under his full name, continuing at the same time the tradition of a literary pseudonym in humorous journalism.
619d65e1ae1a2704aa306451ac2a75a0cde345a8	Bibliography
82dfa922d4e506972434bae9079357a2354c0043	Main article: Bibliography of Anton Chekhov
bcf257c3f186aeecb838d1911da24745cb4cc576	The meaning of creativity
02957811ebc0ce1f6aa6329345b18944a09ec6af	This section should be completely rewritten.
147c044b41e16616a9482e547e91bf9e864e515c	There may be explanations on the discussion page.
3bab41df38dba24689510f7f4c6a1f619dd4b138	Chekhov and Gorky
727b87a79b865a040114d4af0397a81431278f5e	The book "Sakhalin Island" became an artistic document of the era.
b93ef5aa02b9b17b4edcd2c09c4783d7e7460659	Chekhov stands at the origins of tragicomedy.
febe0cabeaf3c769e3740d1a2e3ebdcf31869b35	His work contains the best examples of all genre varieties of "small prose"in Russian literature.
7c9bff7caaab369aea6ec85361af2ce43d5402a3	Chekhov's drama has become the" calling card " of Russian literature in the world.
35d009f30ac5fe17369361916bd90d520d668277	Chekhov's call "Take care of the person in yourself"is eternal.
de8feb20df6cfbd28bf1fe8b5d847854ff443170	Chekhov's artistic discoveries had a huge impact on the literature and theater of the XX century.
99d2e225b94dc85a93e6bf4a728a8a9f237df310	His dramatic works, translated into many languages, have become an integral part of the world theater repertoire.
9eb6870539964a4ebd9f8efab17eb169b05d009e	Chekhov created new moves in literature, greatly influencing the development of the modern story.
76c0fc8841f5800202cd4e6bf5ec6740a6fa9906	The originality of his creative method lies in the use of a technique called "stream of consciousness" (later adopted by James Joyce and other modernists) and the lack of a final moral, so necessary for the structure of the classic story of that time.
3b66b233aa6a5d615271ddada9b6214c526197ec	Chekhov did not seek to give answers to the reading public, but believed that the role of the author is to ask questions, not to answer them.
6f641926c412f32cebdeba418259e44bdd8ec9e7	In 1896, after the failure of "The Seagull", Chekhov, who had already written several plays by that time, renounced the theater.
6657061c5c0f4d580bf8791d9d1c0028ec8ab4ec	However, in 1898, the production of "The Seagull" by the Moscow Art Theater, founded by Stanislavsky and Nemirovich Danchenko, was a huge success with the public and critics.
d37ac6f8e216a3be0dd298aae980bcea7d29354d	After that, Chekhov returned to drama and created three more masterpieces: "Uncle Vanya", "Three Sisters" and "The Cherry Orchard".
87343832a1d73a8504ff5bcf7a11ffbd10ccabc3	It was Chekhov who, for the first time in Russian literature, vividly demonstrated in his stories the image of a provincial philistine, devoid of any outlook, thirst for activity, good aspirations,
ab0de2c8d2ff35cb1499c9f8493cac5eb6b00fda	Russian writer, Honorary Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1900-02).
7d39cb97a4c9cbd5c464ea89b757821c58a0e024	He started as a writer of satires and humorous short stories (a pseudonym Antosha Chekhonte, etc.).
fb7713ffeda0f6c30731056bde3d7e82ee433ec1	The main themes of creativity ideological quests intellectuals, dissatisfaction with the humdrum existence of some mental "humility" before the filth of the lives of others ("a Boring story", 1889; "the Duel", 1891; "the house with the mezzanine", 1896; "ionic", 1898; "the lady with the dog", 1899).
b9c1f622c7e8f3d686c26e424df0e85f4790179b	In the stories "a woman's Kingdom" (1894), "the Peasants" (1897), "In the ravine" (1900) showed the savagery and brutality of rural life.
b4c0c00e6a2fed7677eac10af89de8c9b39d0e43	A great force for social and artistic generalization of the Czechs made up in the stories of "Ward No.
eafe6b19ae8d611ec122269635200b02411ae218	6" (1892), "the Man in a case" (1898).
1aaba27da17e4b4d3ca2cfab901e94ab8235c1d6	In the play "the Seagull" (1896), "Uncle Vanya" (1897), Three sisters (1901), the Cherry orchard (1904), staged by the Moscow Art Theatre, has created a disturbing emotional atmosphere of foreboding things to come.
6643f7a5e53a4eda163c6c7373242d898a359613	The main character of Chekhov is an ordinary person with his daily affairs and worries.
9b88f2cd4eeaff17b38857ab687b5eda450834be	A subtle psychologist, a master of subtext, who combined humor and lyricism in a peculiar way.
7231e9ce7968c798f0c8f86e6ab4f0e1d4fd6b26	* * *
05ac73f4a2f4cca1f871d21c2f3d6a7cd2f4d626	Anton Pavlovich CHEKHOV [January 17 (29), 1860, Taganrog July 2 (15), 1904, Badenweiler, Southern Germany; buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy Cemetery], Russian writer.
3d2d0528d8e94480f685c442a6809b20726a535d	Family.
282adb82b1c982dcbfb681189b5c5de28b8478cf	Study.
be63a5a8a114ef44918651e711cc0f169626201b	Antosha Chehonte
f592996eaa61206f3f45bd5119aeaabcf0a1ac4c	He was born in a large family of a merchant of the third guild, the owner of a grocery store; he studied at the classical gymnasium, at the same time helping his father in trade.
7f320eb016f300d618c65dc07673f6d08ccc4313	Chekhov's first literary experiments in vaudeville, scenes, essays, anecdotes, etc.belong to the gymnasium years; he sends some of them to the editorial offices of the capital's humorous magazines.
fc73ba241772575291eaed53ef3f5ea058254268	Entering the " big " literature
393e281578388bf60ae819c8291359be6d0795ac	Chekhov's artistic discoveries
497e8c627f2cb595f224610db879cc1c359aa8f9	A new stage in Chekhov's creative biography "entering literature" is associated with the beginning of his regular cooperation in the newspaper of A. S. Suvorin " Novoe Vremya "(since 1886), where Chekhov's works first appeared under his real name, and the publication of the collection" At Dusk " (1887), highlighted by criticism from the general flow of mass fiction (the writer's undoubted talent, his ability to draw pictures of nature and human types with a few strokes, to create a poetic mood) was recognized.
08ab19868fd5906608bc7ebb536024afae804fd8	In the same 1887, with the play "Ivanov" (staged on the stage of the Korsh Theater), Chekhov summed up his early dramatic searches, which had begun in his high school years, and at the same time laid the foundation for the poetics of the new dramatic art.
d1c8c2d19372787e02780dd4e77be23c86643ab1	The attention of critics, readers ' sympathies and, most importantly, support from leading writers (D. V. Grigorovich, A. N. Pleshcheyev, V. G. Korolenko) were regarded by Chekhov as an invitation to professional literary activity, which required him to reconsider his own attitude to literary pursuits as a way of earning money or fun fun.
640747b1eb6eb7d4815d53e1660793025ae0590b	In the story "Steppe", published in 1888 in the magazine "Northern Bulletin", Chekhov's main artistic discoveries were identified: the absence of a traditional hero for Russian literature expressing the author's worldview position; the reconstruction of the surrounding world, refracted by emotional human perception; the transfer of the mental state of the characters through "random" replicas and gestures.
fee9bec14be7e44615718f8052c16b63c390e115	Trip to Sakhalin
6608803169f4db041fd04961d9d343c7a3846a59	In 1890, Chekhov interrupted his successful literary work and went on a long journey through Siberia to the island of Sakhalin to "study the life of convicts and exiles".
342e7e5cc8ce89630941e9eaf27689247b07acb4	The creative result of the trip is the book "Sakhalin Island "(1895), written in the genre of" travel notes"; it is based not only on personal impressions from numerous meetings, but also on statistical data collected by him on the island.
cd08ce8f1a1067be621851251454ab7e0d58249d	Literary reputation
c881697802ae4707378b798167ef3cca5ec8c006	Russian Russian literature In the first half of the 1890s Chekhov became one of the most widely read writers in Russia.
91eb4102627fe5529e1fdf3efcaf2f34b32f6cec	His works regularly appear in the magazines "Severny Vestnik" and "Russkaya Mysl" (since 1892), the newspapers "Novoye Vremya "(until 1893) and" Russkie Vedomosti"; separate editions and collections are published ("Stories", 1888;" Gloomy people", 1890; Novellas and Stories", 1894), which are constantly reprinted, causing a wide resonance in literary circles.
9f8dc857fefc67492ccd66fdd38db11877c04832	Without denying Chekhov's growing talent, criticism is mostly unable to accept the peculiarities of his "objective" (as he himself characterized it) artistic manner, accuses the writer of indifference to social problems, the lack of direct author's assessments and worldview in general, that he writes "with cold blood", excessive "photographing", etc.; in the statements of the heroes, he sees the writer's position: so, the words of an old professor about his lack of a "general idea" (the story "Boring Story"1889) were perceived as an author's recognition and they were projected onto all of Chekhov's work.
5ed1c3e07830887e835b4d17551f5b94f1f5c67f	The exception was the story "Chamber No.
2693857b8ff447f1dc780119246d4d103c1798bb	6" (1892), for which an indisputable public significance was recognized.
911136a7bf9152457f2e6fd772bf15424629d5ae	In general, Chekhov gained a reputation as a writer who shuns social problems, a writer of everyday life and a master of subtle psychological analysis.
3535396bf094fad3f4d575ca74a7a115e3b369ce	Problems of short stories
bf4b2231ba263648ef5ce21bba8e81dd1ff62e3c	In numerous stories of this time, Chekhov addresses the study of the soul of a modern person who is influenced by various social, scientific and philosophical ideas: pessimism ("Lights", 1888), social Darwinism ("Duel", 1891), radical populism ("The Story of an Unknown Man", 1893); solves the issues of family relations that worried society ("Three years", "Spouse", "Ariadne", all 1895), abnormal mental phenomena ("Black Monk", 1894) , etc.
281be100808e600c66fc6687478fad195d882e1f	The basis of the plots is not the collision of a person with a rough social environment, but the internal conflict of his spiritual world: Chekhov's heroes are "gloomy", boring, people living "in the twilight", are vitally untenable due to their own inability to creative realization, inability to overcome mental alienation from other people; their misfortunes do not have a fatal predestination and are not historically conditioned, they suffer because of their own everyday mistakes, bad deeds, moral and mental apathy.
1b9b6ff84e7db33aaa5d3f5c292fd97d966e8dcc	The innovation of drama
550faab2338cadfee00833a30fa8dde4ba66fc27	At the same time, Chekhov continues to work in the dramatic genre, writing small plays, "jokes", vaudeville ("Wedding", 1890), the comedy "Leshiy" (1890).
5d2c4b8496aab06356b2d3fe434917ef456bd57a	In the mid 1890s, Chekhov returned to his dramatic search, trying to transfer the basic principles of "objective" prose into plays: the plot sharpness was replaced by an outwardly calm course of events, and all dramatic collisions moved into the sphere of spiritual experiences of the characters.
86d75dd038e606c3d4e1157639d9535c512d9ca1	In the plot, the elements of entertainment were weakened, which was made up for by the psychological saturation of the action, the tension of which was supported by "random" replicas that acquired symbolic coloring, as well as by non verbal means (pauses, gestures of the characters, "extraneous" sounds, trifles of the situation), which together created a psychological subtext that was extremely significant for the perception of Chekhov's drama.
6699d50a5d49685a6a82ee8be8e61e4d62449a47	However, Russian theaters were not ready for an adequate reproduction of the new drama: the performance of the play "The Seagull" on the stage of the Alexander Insky Theater (1896) ended in failure, and only the production of the Moscow Art Theater (1898) opened the art of Chekhov's playwright to the public.
dac06634375be93e041a90814e0fe93cb1fbca39	The productions of subsequent Chekhov plays ("Uncle Vanya", 1899; "Three Sisters", 1901," The Cherry Orchard", 1904) were performed only on the stage of this theater.
4fbc0624cb68aadc78a476108d721cdef10e0daa	The last period of creativity
3ae73d5ef8295645eb98c66c688cc20c7c18c75f	In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Chekhov was a recognized and popular master: magazines are looking for his participation, the appearance of new works is regarded by critics as an event of literary life, disputes around them develop into socio political discussions about the future of the Russian village, the role of the intelligentsia in society, etc. New themes arise in his work.
a00fa9804c8692f864e235126c46fa38397e0741	True to the principles of" artistic objectivity", Chekhov creates gloomy pictures of peasant life torn from culture ("My Life", 1896;" Men", 1897;" In the ravine", 1900).
0c41c648a9cb638a3992b3c3d36795d8f20499bb	The theme of moral degradation and spiritual emptiness of the Russian intelligentsia, its inability to social and personal life is raised in the story "The House with a mezzanine" (1896), "the little trilogy" "The Man in the case", "Gooseberry", "About Love" (1898).
0a3ae539709736bf68240c4907ac37c3e32ef528	At the same time many of the characters in his latest works harder experiencing "the yearning for the ideal", experience the desire for a new and better life ("For life", 1898; "the Bishop", 1902; "the Bride", 1903).
b01b25300deb4c7c37999de34846f409ef61c088	Alien moral teaching, religious sermons and social utopianism, Chekhov does not prescribe recipes moral improvement and social reorganization or spiritual transformation, but in the torture and agony of his characters, in their dissatisfaction with the meaninglessness of their existence sees proof of principle possible for a person to make a life truly worthy and happy.
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f89d0d274dd08e0d9a983a7d357f84d2c9cd6c6d	References RSS Biography of Anton Chekhov
e0015f2fda3fbd4429282a26e8ae5419592cfab8	10:2129.01.2015703183 January 29, 2015 marks the 155 anniversary of the birth of the Russian writer and playwright Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.
6dbddac4b7dee7755832aa43a4ad46dbcce179ed	© RIA Novosti | Buy an illustration
ced44b9fab5f60d92147a5b980475ae050dc696f	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born on January 29 (January 17, old style), 1860 in Taganrog.
af0127a65163c507338f66dab86385910efe5066	Your browser does not support this video format.
35009bb00d5725ace8acf568e5003e8ad21a7f5c	(3: 13 / 20.22 Mb / video views: 257) RIA Novosti.
b7171f32130f6239d100ada9e8ad3989dad9af02	© RIA Novosti Moscow by Dr. Chekhov.
93074df48960c9bb58649f1088ee5261281f3510	Archive footage
c4b7fc51e4653f8a7c6308f33cfb595c163b283a	As a student, Anton Chekhov worked at the Resurrection Zemstvo Hospital (now the city of Istra) under the famous zemstvo doctor Pavel Arkhangelsky, then for some time he was a doctor at the Zvenigorod hospital.
cc7c30c2307f92ae0c212c865a155be6603e8c3a	Chekhov began to engage in literary activity as a student.
15541c4fcd7317eb72dad1580197212a0e7ce700	In 1880-1887, he collaborated under the pseudonyms "Antosha Chekhov", " Antosha Ch.", "My brother's Brother", "Ruver", "The Man without a spleen"in numerous humorous publications ("Dragonfly"," Alarm Clock"," Spectator"," Entertainment"), especially fruitfully — in the magazine" Fragments", published by Nikolai Leikin.
d8faa5cc76d6bd93657697395c7ad37de7b97792	In 1884, the first collection of his short stories "Tales of Melpomene" appeared in the publication of "Fragments", in 1886 the collection" Motley Stories "was published, in 1887 — "Innocent Speeches".
c14d011028a61be2e94e8032ee8d97295987c789	In 1886, Chekhov received an invitation to work from the famous publisher Alexey Suvorin in the newspaper Novoe Vremya.
8fe5eef1240374a46d086bae45153eea79647060	With the beginning of regular cooperation with the newspaper, he abandoned the pseudonym and began to sign with his full name.
78022217fa078225861128452474aaed710f8e79	In 1887, Chekhov's first play "Ivanov"was staged at the Korsh Theater in Moscow.
ec44e6c957326f50a0c9db0ae6ca4b796baddca6	In 1888, for the collection "At Dusk" (1887), he was awarded the Pushkin Prize of the Academy of Sciences.
24828d58b5ab98fcfb939e944b40aea22e59df40	The collections "Stories" (1888), "Children" (1889), "Gloomy People" (1890) were published in St. Petersburg.
c5cbfb882d4941ca1acae2821459c22232a238a5	In 1890, the writer took a trip to Sakhalin to write a book about the exiled colony and penal servitude.
67049392390525cf63169fc5a3d48673fd614ee5	The creative result of the trip was the book "Sakhalin Island" (1895), written in the genre of " travel notes.
864e4d69c432d4ec40d4ea50ddc1bbb4ee4ab013	Russian Russian literature In the first half of the 1890s, the writer became one of the most widely read in Russia — his works were published in the magazines "Severny Vestnik" and "Russkaya Mysl" (since 1892), the newspapers "Novoe Vremya" (until 1893) and "Russkie Vedomosti".
d0a27cb74d115b9dea8dc624828068b9637255dc	His collection "Novellas and Short Stories" (1894) was published.
0227b4b0149623724bcdd8e97bba4a968dfd29ae	Chekhov gained a reputation as a writer of everyday life and a master of subtle psychological analysis.
621169b3e16ac7370753882dfa5872c88a2ee1aa	In 1892, the writer purchased a small estate of Melikhovo in the Serpukhov district of the Moscow province.
3535d009bbd958862a660a9297bba233ba95420a	In 1892-1898, he created "Ward No.
2583a93e918f51c737ee93b368e5dcf913c0f457	6", "The Man in the case", "Babye Tsardom", "A Case from practice", "Ionich", "Gooseberry", the story "Three years", the plays "The Seagull" and "Uncle Vanya".
90394d06ef0a090509bd07242b23cbb9967aba60	Tuberculosis of the lungs forced Chekhov to move with his family to the Crimea, where in 1898 he purchased a plot near Yalta and built a house.
bd238c75287a42ffeda4f19d33e7d5c8384d8795	In 1899-1901, the first collection of Chekhov's works was published in the Marx publishing house.
652c27d2d5b7b17a59ae9a073f40c9aa0c6a9c7d	In 1901, the writer married Olga Knipper, an artist of the Moscow Art Theater.
ccf8677eae425cdfae60037631473b7d438d2045	In Yalta, Chekhov wrote the play "Three Sisters", the story "The Lady with the Dog", the story "In the ravine".
237121edbb3bfb00b772465eaacce0343bcbc267	Chekhov's last work was the play "The Cherry Orchard", staged by the Art Theater in January 1904.
c541223e1f1d76811ed20ef0fff4276883cd6393	The writer was engaged in charity and social activities.
0c3192897c651536d7f08250f06004f2de5d3638	During his trip to Sakhalin, he made a census of the island's population.
a19cff0c9c76837a988d74f83f79c80d52f91e9a	In Melikhov, in addition to creating a medical center at his own expense and treating patients during the cholera epidemic, he built three schools for peasant children, a bell tower and a fire shed for peasants, participated in the construction of a highway.
b603f17cd22810868d4b75f45e74ce448d549939	The writer donated more than two thousand volumes of his own books to the public library of Taganrog, among which were unique autographed editions of museum value, and later replenished the funds with specially purchased books.
092c2a459f48921deccdadaca2cd97f8afbb0562	During the famine (1891-1892), Chekhov organized a collection of donations for the benefit of the starving Nizhny Novgorod and Voronezh provinces and went to the disaster sites himself.
4655a56c6951756be4454cfe295e439eada2085a	In Yalta, he was elected to the board of trustees of the women's gymnasium, donated 500 rubles for the construction of the school.
0a67fbce34a00dda6e1d302b0530bbbe6beda250	Being ill with tuberculosis himself, he worked in the Yalta Guardianship of visiting patients.
8baecb22962f2cb24d2119d2437539ad8b72fb26	In 1897, Chekhov was elected a member of the Union of Mutual Assistance of Russian Writers and Scientists.
de162f3c9f1cf70d195f7e82e5007dbe08c3e1f5	In 1900, he became an honorary academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the category of fine literature, in 1902 he refused the title in protest against the cancellation of the election of Maxim Gorky as an honorary academician.
d165b47f60acebd4c7793b51cfef6abd17362012	In 1897, Anton Chekhov was awarded a bronze medal for his work on the population census.
0ff92bc6070d00f548395dce0655566f6f53cb20	In 1899, "for his excellent zeal in the affairs of public education", he was awarded the Order of St. Stanislaus, III degree.
72363daf55562660bf8fd26e1d13662737cf21a2	In May 1904, due to the deterioration of his condition, Chekhov and his wife left for the famous Bandenweiler resort in Germany.
51839f926f027b77b3e8566876b5b6402e8e4ce3	On the night of July 15 (July 2, old style), 1904, the writer died.
824cffa57ddbf0c9d25184859abf93879bc98081	The first Chekhov Museum was opened in Taganrog in 1914.
a1d5229dee27f8a3f815fe2c31d98f651be3969d	Museums of the writer were created in Moscow, Melikhov, in the city of Alexandrovsk Sakhalinsky, Yalta and Gurzuf in the Crimea.
6bbbd0e9458a917ed76f7e1a98abd00ee55868fa	Chekhov's museums were also founded in Sumy (Ukraine), in Badenweiler (Germany), where he spent the last month of his life and died.
8f2aa5f61ecddcec4d9923fa2145ac4d12812d9b	In the late 1990s, a memorial room for Chekhov was opened in the Grand Oriental Hotel in Colombo (Sri Lanka), where Chekhov spent several days returning from Sakhalin.
bf64b4f00f030a5c63ff3cb74826c013ebb0ec7b	In 1954, the working village of Lopasnya, near which Melikhovo was located, was renamed the city of Chekhov in honor of the writer.
11bc8df5b88885c7b2e2959a5e903f67b0db99e9	A metro station was named after Chekhov in Moscow in 1985.
e87690e9eb601bb2427c4223596b1802ffcdd61b	Since 1987, Chekhov's name has been assigned to the Moscow Art Theater in Kamergersky Lane.
4f137196f40e34be598d6c1067fe7856295ac2a2	The wife of the writer Olga Knipper Chekhov (1868-1959) is a People's Artist of the USSR, she worked all her life at the Moscow Art Theater, last appeared on the stage in 1950.
4defc2641398c55576db06b0be105e6872ddbd4b	All Chekhov's brothers and sister were gifted people: Alexander (1855-1913) and Mikhail (1868-1936) were writers, Nikolai (1858-1889) was an artist, Ivan (1861-1922) was a teacher.
9e91d684b90f4001576c04f509115042fac686d8	Sister Maria (1863-1957)was a landscape artist, after the death of her brother, she devoted herself to collecting and publishing his literary and epistolary heritage, was the director of the A. P. Chekhov Museum in Yalta, which she created.
c01f579e0aa99527cad9f08ae1dac79a46f007b6	The nephew of the writer, the son of Alexander Chekhov, Mikhail (1891-1955) was a famous dramatic artist of the Moscow Art Theater, a teacher and director, later in the United States he created his own acting school, where many Hollywood stars studied.
985cd3c2ccb51ff64ae7ed798650e366662e0fd1	The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources
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53ac48ff7ebed6ebb92bb1aabe804f06014f7624	Biography of Anton Chekhov 10: 21 29/01/2015 January 29, 2015 marks the 155 anniversary of the birth of the Russian writer and playwright Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.
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f03654488712ffe9cb04c75c8aa04e04633a0ec8	The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems.
c907ee6e45d358190a12ed7e990496321e45bd27	This nation, which has brilliant creative abilities, is called one of the most outstanding peoples on the planet.
7995680474ac617440d5dba56c12a88a12a9e6ae	The beginning of its formation is attributed to the pre-classical era (2000 BC-250 AD), most of the Maya cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250-900 AD).
055bab43d1b5670b8f56ad79e89e442afbe019c6	The Maya built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited even after.
dccddac3d131b1e9e5a3052e180e06f635b99811	The calendar developed by the Maya was also used by other peoples of Central America.
79bfa4f6ac540cb05473aaabc1fa374ce6fd8ada	The hieroglyphic writing system was used, partially deciphered.
9e341224922274dac78ce2fc5bdbbd076d0b2d8b	Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved.
9a66bdd66a23eff4fb92fe8de50300832785fe1a	They created an effective system of agriculture, had deep knowledge in the field of astronomy.
874d6ca6aa70d80fd25bf698dabceeee84d2cfd9	The descendants of the ancient Maya are not only the modern Maya peoples who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish-speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
650d0de9ef392ce4ff4f68d286d18ee0ddbf25f3	Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Seren in El Salvador — a small Mayan village
7db2d0166f9999880b4f2adc5fe29d0fc488440b	The history of the culture of this people is usually divided into three periods.
7f41ddfedc32cc4fa0a7ecea3e65b7fb9e493093	The first period (from antiquity to 317) is the time of the emergence of city states, primitive slash-and-burn agriculture, the manufacture of cotton fabrics, etc.
8f0733d535483d52f3f2b92102a5b7143a8915b1	The second period (317-987) — the ancient kingdom, or the classical period, is the time of the growth of cities (Palenque, Chichen Itza, Tulum) and at the same time the mysterious exodus of the population from them at the beginning of the X century.
3ed684062a4395669260a11b3bfeadb71b23be98	The third period (987 - XVI century) — the new kingdom, or the post-classical period-the time of the arrival of the European conquistadors, the adoption of new laws, styles in life and art, the mixing of cultures, fratricidal wars, etc.
3b36ee6bebef134cde4553ed11d7fe874efd60c2	Currently (2015), the territory where the development of the Maya civilization took place is part of the following states: Mexico (Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
a48846d9eae96cd3c9c5d44526b61d31f968acde	Mexico (Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
3b465e38d79409f3679faa257414991f61642f3c	About 1000 Mayan settlements have been found (at the beginning of the 80s of the XX century), but not all of them have been excavated or studied by archaeologists.
b7a416f1aab014c54c9c01369ae646a03e9db9d4	At the early preclassic stage of the Maya development, settlements appeared and agriculture developed in the areas of settlement.
a57d27d63bf21ea29eb127e094dc1c0d9b318b13	The first buildings attributed to the Mayan civilization in Cueyo (Belize) are dated to about 2000 BC.
f27768ee9e2fd612eb07038870148dce5a408298	From this place, the Mayan tribes settled north to the Gulf of Mexico.
d0cb1fb248671372c6b42d3bbe685b83a6deb2f1	Hunters settled in Copan (Honduras) around 1100 BC.
e03b0d65382e9f18908379e32117d2da977465e1	At the early preclassic stage, the city of Lamanay (Belize) was founded, which belongs to the oldest cities of the Maya civilization.
fa320939db0fde0f974099d3497bb0feb27da819	Cajal Pech (Belize) was founded around 1000 BC, which existed until the VII century AD.
c9acfa8fb6e435b4e16f8084b8cf62ab56e04bbc	In the middle preclassic period of development, there is a further settlement of the Maya, trade between cities develops.
f302399881970dac4cda1863bc60d7b5a23d3b57	Traces of settlements in the Tikal region (Guatemala) date back to BC.
df038f4ca3e30ee76fd114e04ae68f42c32b6101	On the Gulf coast, the first settlements and temples appear around 500 BC.
ca9e760e103d1023876e84dd5ffe65cfc27599d2	The first major Mayan cities are El Mirador (with the largest known Mayan pyramid, 72 m) and Nakbe, located on the territory of modern Guatemala.
5f2a848750d43a7682dc463115997d87ebce083b	Around 700 BC, writing appeared in Mesoamerica.
4b769b37305b6af8b86fa04e830f9c79e30d0601	In the Mayan art of this period, the influence of the Olmec civilization, which arose in Mexico on the gulf coast and established trade relations with the whole of Mesoamerica, is noticeable.
91eedd6dbcd59d38a60fd48c94e09635798859b1	Some scientists believe that the creation of a hierarchical society and royal power of the ancient Maya is due to the Olmec presence in the southern regions of the Maya region from 900 to 400 BC.
b7d1325cd2f16763226580146a5a761ccd34f8f0	The image of the earliest Mayan solar calendar, carved in stone, dates back to about 400.
b09f797e5ebc74fa870b4ffa9de0cae3b3eaf27b	The Maya accept the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by kings and persons of royal blood.
ed9f8aac5518950c7cd91ceb065d9514cb664fce	The foundation of the city of Teotihuacan also dates back to the late preclassic period.
2cc03ce4cd6eb0648da0f2008630eeccf640a07d	Teotihuacan will be the cultural, religious and commercial center of Mesoamerica for several centuries, exerting a cultural influence on the regions and the entire Maya civilization.
dc0482ce69b97b7831da2abd0184fb258ebdad67	The earliest stele in Tikal, dating back to 292 AD, depicts the figure of the ruler of Kinich Eb Shok.
b8652398de2d75f3d801e3923eb22a2a84de222a	Around the year 500, Tikal becomes a "superpower", the citizens of Teotihuacan settle in it, bringing new customs, rituals and human sacrifices.
0b1ca9977eb1db3803c8f7b41b9702a4fe8243f8	In 562, a war breaks out between the cities of Kalakmul and Tikal, as a result of which the ruler of Kalakmul captures the ruler of Tikal, Yash Eb Shok II, and sacrifices him.
df6f9bd299f85aba2da3462edd1564171646869e	The Maya civilization of the classical period is the territory of city states, each of which has its own ruler.
42dc65300c3e4eb2a02419257a5a37d1751719e6	The Maya culture, which has spread to the whole of Yucatan, is experiencing its heyday, during this period the cities of Chichen Itza (circa 700), Uxmal and Coba were founded.
d76bea307337e189b5c8a8a4289f80da676cb6cd	The cities are connected by roads, the so-called sacbe (sacbe).
b43125c4f998ce3a97b7e954b0c197a5d82af640	The Maya have more than 10,000 inhabitants, which exceeds the population of the central European cities that existed at that time.
560b1d24dd67c5920c4cb92073ca383358ca24aa	Already in the IX century AD in the southern areas of the Maya population there is a rapid decline in the population
8cfa673a1256fcf92df56269621b72bca3051688	Residents are leaving the cities, water supply systems are falling into disrepair.
92a03b0185850b22dfa2767152cb5c6b37bb9ded	Since the middle of the X century AD, stone structures are no longer erected.
b804bf8a003f5fac033bf8b4b1d1147a795f2cc5	Until now, the disappearance of the Mayan civilization is the subject of a dispute among researchers.
300e2992afbd8148cda3e50b474140416034dd4d	At the same time, there are two main points of view about the disappearance of the Maya civilization — the ecological and non-ecological hypotheses.
46e5f21ab27aaa6307ecb1e83b64bd496f66928d	The ecological hypothesis is based on the balance of the relationship between man and nature.
f52c0e135939307a4a577aeba7f3ae2c015bb4f8	Over time, the balance was disturbed: the constantly growing population faces the problem of a lack of high-quality soils suitable for agriculture, as well as a shortage of drinking water.
f19eb8929b20da145a454da1ef285000d5c2ab24	The hypothesis of the ecological disappearance of the Maya was formulated in 1921 by O. F. Cook.
a4c2de10eaba33f31b199824f95b85e76d0c3de5	The non-ecological hypothesis covers theories of various types, starting with conquest and epidemic and ending with climate change and other catastrophes.
74af0cc33a73cf19b563aca393afa316a7e5adb3	The archaeological finds of objects belonging to another people of medieval Central America — the Toltecs-speak in favor of the version of the Maya conquest.
df35a6c80096f414ba4c4930c42c899cc384f68c	The assumption that the cause of the crisis of the Maya civilization was climate change, and especially drought, is expressed by geologist Gerald Haug, who deals with climate change.
efc6d1379f276ba18694fe1edb67e7ce9a5c0013	In 2012, scientists from Yucatan and the University of Southampton published the results of a complex simulation
8dc765b45ed1378023fc9cbb558ba5d75aaf1493	Experiments have shown that the lack of fresh water in this region could begin already with a decrease in precipitation by 25-40 %, which was observed between 800 and 950 AD.
e6649bad32587e2a6bbfd38d935cf475fffabede	Such a decrease in the level of precipitation led to the fact that more water began to evaporate than the rains made up for, and this, in turn, led to a decrease in the amount of available water, a violation of the usual foundations of life and to the mass devastation of cities.
a9856187b9d7ae2bf6fcd50cd63f51b84858c8dd	Also, some scientists associate the collapse of the Mayan civilization with the end of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico.
458526e4abd2b4935690bac8288d2f40dbdfacbc	According to legends, the Mayans came to the territory of present-day Mexico from Honduras and Guatemala.
44a560554e9d5ffbd77b4d669a7c52bf57953e2c	The widespread growth of their cities suggests an unambiguous conclusion: before their arrival here, the Maya already had a single and ancient culture.
702d507e32a95cd745d8a2322298e054771436d2	The Maya territory had the shape of a triangle.
57f2246cd26d56da41d35da829c82ae723be26e1	Its corners formed the cities of Vashaktun, Palenque, and Copan.
24bf9bb4ca4eae1ede7a96ca1aeac979b9859a22	The other centers that emerged later were located on the sides of the triangle and inside it.
24ca324a51f491017dc9be1719c237a0ff11d064	Then another specific feature of the Maya appeared - the expansion of the lands went from the periphery to the center, and not vice versa, as everywhere else.
29b610770b87e5af23799f720c4e97750335504a	The Mayan cities of the state (the largest and most famous of them are Tikal. Copan, Chichen Itza, Uxmal) were the center of power and culture.
5aaffd6dd9ab711b75a0f931d7d0361ac00c25da	They had their own building scheme.
5a2aa07a3d01a0123d71705112d441c69634ecf6	The core (ritual, temple area) was located on a hill.
eb44ff883ec0e078c7ed9027bdb8ecd07677083c	Around it were the palaces of the priesthood and the nobility (Amelchen).
25f5622963edd023a874f7e478ebfb8902fc4434	Usually they were monumental palaces made of stone and lime of one to five floors, located on terraces and platforms, with a facade oriented to the east.
fb699fc093103e7d959abb7aa83d0c251af4e27d	They had their own altars, baths, and were furnished with simple but comfortable furniture (beds made of twigs, wooden and stone benches, tables and screens).
e0abc17f4e88a3c585f4a26074c656218a0e9745	On the periphery, at the foot of the hill, there were wooden two - and four-room huts of ordinary citizens, covered with palm leaves.
7558d80b14e3aee8f906f161376578e591ee5e39	At the head of the city state was halach vinik (a great man). His power was hereditary, lifelong and unlimited.
66e6c96deefad7e9b3881c6d946541cb3af2ebe5	To emphasize the electability and exclusivity of the ruler, the embodiment of divine powers on earth, his face was decorated with a sophisticated tattoo, his nose was increased to the size of a huge eagle's beak with the help of a plastic substance, his teeth were sharpened and decorated with jade plates, and the earlobes were cut and stretched with the help of turkey eggs.
772aa2270f4ad8a1a20f5a31d5d0fb12c7933386	The costume emphasized the sacred rank of halach vinik.
5f5c7dc25d396a2ba181274df061416e85691b91	It was decorated with brilliant colored patterns of shells, wood, stones and feathers.
b422e8314d467866b5b27a5b232222af673ac979	Many belts, bracelets, breastplates, knee pads had sacred knots, talismans and amulets.
17a3394240f3177d57689a429b10782777f40002	His headdress, designed in the form of an animal, was supposed to symbolize a close connection with God.
90f74f826b2062fa2b6e06624541e352b69fecda	The Mayan nobility was called amelkhens-from the word "almehenob", lit. "those who have both names": by father and mother.
2087507d2bef1d55c64e43f44d424820c07b79aa	Men of simple origin bore only the name of the father, and daughters-only the mother; in addition, each person had a name given to him at birth, and a name that characterizes his appearance (nickname).
e6b26a54916cddcfcac2e4ec440bca770826869a	The commoners were divided into two groups:
9b694dba989b7c9a9203227177dc3025daec3afc	The lower people formed a neighboring community, jointly owning land.
c928b8ec5307bd63d69135e1624265431bd13724	Their occupations were mainly agriculture and poultry farming (turkeys, ducks).
777246c74e0849b6729c037b3d0ff2f3946f6b80	They built pyramids and palaces, laid wide "white roads" paved with stone between the cities.
a0ac1bbe8234cfa7fbd855f34b56e5ede105f2bc	On average, the roads had a width of 10 m and a length of about 100 km, were raised above the terrain by 0.5-2.5 m and were a straight line.
ac36f4364fbed7b178243d438c1cbc533ad3d647	All the Maya were religious.
d1850df19459b676129064a1e748f881ec6f4580	The world in their view was a complex formation, flooded with sacred forces.
602b6d327c7347cfa68b8d0d8fd7e15640e91295	They considered the god Hunab Ku to be the Creator of all things.
b610f5d9213395c28ea213d4dd96229f34566d5a	He had a son, Itsamna (the lord of the heavens and the supreme god-the founder of the priesthood), identified with the Sun (order, heat, light, masculinity).
bbbf5310ad8f7cd4a7e3fae7f2412833fee37438	According to the Mayan worldviews, the gods and man should mutually take care of each other.
06c8990fbee78a2a92352780f401ca6f6bc98dfd	The gods give people life, health, wealth and happiness, and people should give them their energy and blood.
fbfcf15695f35fd673039b38e329e5a397d31e6a	Hence the idea of the exceptional importance of any form of sacrifice.
9a6a1b18c1c740a371786c8a9f2cb5104fe65f4b	They could be flowers, food, favorite animals and jewelry, works of art and aromatic resins - everything that is dear to the heart.
a0adb4f91796eb31c55846ff4408ae036eff07f0	Piercing the tongue, genitals, cheeks and lips with barbed wire or female blood was considered a more serious type of victim.
057b0a91ffca74646a9405f7c62686fabc7bcff5	The Maya were convinced that the wounds in the human body served as a passage of supernatural forces and ancestors into the human world.
bc1968c2ab0137b672ec4cf06a64e8ebe6db9eb4	With their help, the energy of the stars and luminaries was transmitted to the earth.
cd698953e43bb6dd6ceeba1cc19c70d98ac5d576	This was how the real interconnection and unity of all levels of the cosmos and the earthly community were achieved.
578325b50138b477222e25e6bb8eae1267f4143b	Ritual murders and cannibalism were committed in particularly critical cases (natural disasters, political events, epidemics).
138a1c70de449c990b096adf1cd5e113b40a1be6	The daily ritual actions included the burning of fragrant plants, prayers, fasts (abstinence from salt, pepper, meat and sex), confessions (public stories about sins in order to purify the soul), cult dances and songs.
1849c410a048e2ad6418d1df1a882d6c0a22a202	During the ice Age, which began 70,000 years ago, the sea level dropped by 100-250 meters, which formed a wide bridge connecting the Siuki Peninsula in Asia and Alaska.
4a97917eae73d9271ba78a47e2ede5e81cfafb36	The bridge was first crossed by animals, with the help of which, as well as other biological processes, plants crossed.
adbb45d10389e823179b1436b952cc7d70561d0c	40,000 to 20,000 years ago, according to the latest research, this difficult path was made by man.
139708e2e3d1d52ebcfc0fa2e1da55b83e070f6f	Just like many other "American-Indians", such as the Eskimos or Aleuts, the Aztecs or Mixtecs, the primitive Tain from the island of Cuba or the surprisingly developed Incas; like all peoples, from the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego, the Maya people also descended from the Suiatic race - but not from the modern inhabitants of Mongolia, China or Japan, but from the ancestors of the forgotten tribes of the southeast and west-central Asia.
9afe3a6b0c4303a67dc27bca72376234e0377bc0	The Mayan culture extends over about 325 thousand square kilometers, which includes the modern states of Mexico: Chiapas (with a still high concentration of the Mayan population), Campeche, Tabasco, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, as well as Guatemala, Belize, the western part of Honduras and northern El Salvador.
06deaf5b8d58489c1bccadb6912f487aa4d71c51	Moving towards the northern part of the Maya territory, the climate becomes increasingly hot and dry.
08aabc300a1d38718ffe652f8f0efbbec1854e8a	Nevertheless, the soil of these places can be compared to Swedish cheese: when it rains, water seeps through the limestone rocks, forming underground rivers and lakes that come to the surface among the crevices formed in the stones.
a15e7eaca6a1bbd1de4b5c91d4227204b6a5148b	The wells are called "cenote" and they are the only source of fresh water in these areas.
3e396830df46c13403e20d71923a5a199a8bd966	The presence of a large number of limestone stones ensures the supply of material for construction.
3008cfd55f2d94dba6646e33db7ad40ed69c4c2f	Thanks to this, large ceremonial centers such as Chichen Itsa, Uxmal, Tulum and Koba, and many others, have appeared in this area, which is poor in natural resources.
66fbfc7ef0e31bd9aaf0e9c90f391e0e3f462d07	The exact opposite happens when moving south, the tropical vegetation becomes more fertile and abundant.
cf5d4b1a86aebf095b14217f6cc2b9a26b1726a9	Trees with valuable wood, such as kaoba, cedar, ramon and chicosapote, thrive on moist soil; the vegetation here reaches much higher heights compared to the maximum height of the jungles of the state of Yucatan, where they do not exceed 15 meters.
e37449c0b70032395ce01f5fcb3492a049b61f0d	Here, too, the big cities have reached their heyday: Palenque (Chiapas) and Tikal (Guatemala), located on the land crossed by the Grijalva Rivers.
ed8ef1f35311781822126d9f1bb037ccafa09ad0	In the jungles of the Maya territory, toucans, parrots, cormorants, pink flamingos (inhabitants of the lakes of the Yucatan Peninsula) and the magnificent quetzal live in the sky, which was very revered in this ancient culture.
a241989c0f5f383a423d22aa848eed23a0057e1b	There are 365 species of birds in the Peten region alone.
ab58d960cedade3160c0501c93737c989b48a6fd	Bats that have invaded archaeological sites populate the night sky.
651d8b09f5aa152924a2ca2ac0b73cd83c1694e7	Hundreds of species of snakes live on the ground among plants and stones.
c9eae7bd37f6692cc51a4ee0ddd117e79b7c85fa	Some of them are among the most venomous in the world: naujaka (20 species, in Mexico), cantil (4 species), coralio (25 different species) and, of course, rattlesnake (55 species).
a86ccf8d925657d990d074f166d08c33025a87b4	Spider monkeys and saraguato monkeys live in the trees.
5c747f0188e61ddd5e59389da574e2d154b0efcb	White-tailed deer, tapir (Mayan horse), anteater, armadillos and iguanas-the owners of ancient ruins-live among plants.
a45bc8c356f6d0c1fe01e5ee3eddf7b443583ad0	Among the dense jungle, various species of animals in danger of extinction, such as the cougar, ocelot and the sacred jaguar, have found refuge.
f0448b2f444114700719440b8053418ac32b8701	The majestic manatii (sea cow), which reaches up to one ton in weight, reigns in the lakes and bays of the Caribbean coast.
23420d302bd22d62bc9e9b8153e0ef9016d0325c	Mainly engaged in the cultivation of corn, beans, cocoa, pepper, tobacco and amaranth, the Maya peoples could devote a lot of time to studying the stars.
b994090d8338337e9a05bc3b9d8ebd6ed8c0f187	Among the factors that gave the greatness of this civilization are great knowledge in mathematics and astronomy, which, moreover, are supplemented by the only idea of time in Central America: cyclic time.
56b3bf4e7dd8cf7f5166e4ccaefadab171f0a4cc	Their calendars are surprisingly accurate: the solar calendar, which has 365 days (divided into 18 months of 20 days and one month of 5 days), the Sacred calendar, called Tsolkin, which has 260 days (divided into 13 months of 20 days) and the Venus Calendar of 584 days.
9f7a7c3f4d6c0894717d90c8aeeeab8cbefd614a	Using these calendars, the Mayans could predict eclipses with very high accuracy.
fd9bb4559951e0d7a07ba0b97f96a4de24242343	The history of this people, who never created a single state following the example of the Aztecs or Incas, is divided into three periods
78e8b6beb7555826b488c8a64645d01ffe4bd2c0	the first is the pre-May era (several centuries before the Christian Era to 317 AD); the second is ancient (from 317 to 987); the third is new, which is divided into the period of the "May Renaissance" - until 1194; the period of "Mexican influence" - 1194-1441 and the period of decline 1441-1697.
90f8f5c3f75322945323956eb687d60208e0ef21	The Maya lived in independent and independent clans, the main of which were: tutul shpu, Kokoma, Kanepi, Pechi and Cheli.
03c4ca6aee074d549b7dc345170b0d2b36ae9b0d	Each of these independent tribes formed a city state, also independent, with adjacent lands and towns.
2ebfc902926b04f145766aeb9074de404207b9cc	They were headed by a ruler — a "great man" who was elected for life and enjoyed unlimited rights.
fec43be2d66a4c20ba1b5887917c6c2f463fe6bc	There was a state council under him.
0b0cde56ce22f1b183e3fdb6482b33cdaaca8c59	The oldest Mayan cities were Tikal, Quirigua, Itza.
1a31ba33b39d3661efc040da1ab7a99aa5638d30	In the 10th century, the Mayan lands were invaded by the Mexican Toltec tribes led by Kukulkan, who merged with the local population, bringing their own customs to it.
51421bcdcc6f2074e862c288f88b49ea67ea52d5	At this time, new major cities of the state are being created — Ulimal, Mayapan and Chichen Itza.
ef33c69ba4e1dcb9daa8d9119e949dc051d1144b	In addition to these Mayans, dozens of other major cities of the states were erected, striking travelers with their size and beauty.
eec3000268fd6881d0b6f6a826bbd840782940f7	The Maya erected the most magnificent temples and palaces, many of which surpassed the Aztec and Inca ones.
743e74b1cdd32d9d25a3e0a55e8e76c52f43d8f5	The Maya developments in the field of mathematics and astronomy were hundreds of years ahead of their time, surpassing all the European achievements of those times.
e0aefa9626c02635aac265b8b343f1525769fe71	And many of them are understood and appreciated only in our time.
1b864f5371c0ecc4adabd968364d5d17c0798cee	It should be noted that the Maya first invented the digit zero and the numbering system.
eccb5e84f6b0348eadded0ce38e3fcc566a07216	Achievements in architecture also had no equal not only in beauty, but also in the correctness of architectural forms.
ea7711bbcd714bae84ab65ebd04ebbababdfc1d3	But behind all this was the sinister Mayan religion — a religion that can be safely called misanthropic.
2dd7ce735c0671bb223bf2a5dbdde587dec747c3	At the head of the priests was the priest "Prince of snakes".
4b89013f4932efafee363b7a100a453beba1ef54	He had an excellent staff of assistants who, before reaching the rank of priest, received knowledge of astronomy, hieroglyphic writing and astrology.
8ebecfc9dcae2c088f4c66406f8d4c54f6f485bc	There were even some kind of advanced training courses for the priests, where they were given special lectures.
1ced5c8cb1fe975611d1107c7b518871993360d9	The Maya gods were Itsaina-the God of the sky, Yum Kaam - the God of corn, Shaman Ek-the God of the Polar Star, Kukulkan - the God of the wind, Ah Puchi-the God of death, and for each individual day, and even for numbers, the Maya had gods.
833d251f9bc9e9c83ccaf1e3531c19e77426a4d5	The sacrifices of the Maya and their religious rites were even more terrible than those of the Aztecs, although in many ways they resembled them.
fb567fb5025715f1d5d292513dbd88d5c3b84769	Those who build their lives on the foundation of faith, on the living stone that is the Lord Christ, will endure any trials and tribulations with His help and will survive; and those who rely on their human reason and strength, sooner or later will suffer a complete collapse in their lives, as proved by three ancient American peoples — the Aztecs, Incas and Maya.
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6d059eec8e6cfbcba2210aa40ca799060ed9ce3d	Library > Culture of Ancient Civilizations > Maya Civilization
2663d897377394ad5ccc4d2c1e2cf048123aa76a	The Mayan civilization (3000 BC - XVI century AD) is considered the most original and highly developed among Mesoamerican civilizations.
23e23b8d9f923b4f2cc98da125b3706327e17939	The history and culture of the Maya people are usually divided into three main periods, the boundaries between which are very mobile: • the period of formation (1000 BC 317 AD) • * The Ancient Kingdom (317-987 AD);
369def4c2dd4973adbb554a83ee0cdcb5e38bc22	• The New Kingdom (987 AD - XVI century).
9ca9a54f6acae1e5031c226765bd788863b5e230	According to legends, the Mayans came to the territory of present day Mexico from Honduras and Guatemala.
5962a0c6425d05a076d907ae7cd855438319c3f2	On the periphery, at the foot of the hill, there were wooden two - and four room huts of ordinary citizens, covered with palm leaves.
fb07a8f47e08cb909e194a83e479ea47c3ece2ff	At the head of the city state was halach vinik (a great man).
1c90b8c99c3b090bce6edb066aeadad3c27c465b	His power was hereditary, lifelong and unlimited.
4efe5fc8d1b33ae9a9daebac1071d27a9c0fbdf0	The Mayan nobility was called amelkhens from the word "almehenob", lit. "those who have both names": by father and mother.
22dfbc8b5aedb4da500681e5ba8dd35f4bea3efe	Men of simple origin bore only the name of the father, and daughters only the mother; in addition, each person had a name given to him at birth, and a name that characterizes his appearance (nickname).
c2c2ec54949f95d4e7391f2a948d055cec6f025e	The commoners were divided into two groups: * dependent, but personally free farmers, workers, artisans;
3390e9a1ed18822858aaa44df134a7521c330225	* slaves, captives not sacrificed to the gods, debtors and corners.
8b14dfeb25d6ff1c282b2e6ddd1409a2b98b2a60	He had a son, Itsamna (the lord of the heavens and the supreme god the founder of the priesthood), identified with the Sun (order, heat, light, masculinity).
68bf145bb3e2290340b875a180f9a9409b1b2570	The ritual of cannibalism was carried out with only one goal - to gain the dignity of the deceased.
254c40a3a2618e2795f66551d8a7aa88a3f6cbe3	Cultural studies: Lecture notes.
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e05dd1e45e7a8d26dc216c124d469563d9a3f459	Oganesyan A.
359b95fc993a61265e75ae1ec47a8055e77866d9	A.). - M.: Prior,2001.
b7bd942d0888185991b8132265de98e2811ffab0	107-109.
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accd0e40fd4434c3baf31b48ba9b4e0a6d5596ee	Maya (civilization)
09eff44c3a4b2bbe5d69b0b96fa4dc591391e797	Edits to this page require verification.
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15c7ee39e2b41dd15378d05b3c6163936e6df0fc	This term has other meanings, see The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems.
be0a8e9003ff598bef21a0a090db666c297c731e	The beginning of its formation is attributed to the pre classical era (2000 BC 250 AD), most of the Maya cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250-900 AD).
dafd58e603d8eed7c10489d554ab4106d00729c1	By the time of the arrival of the conquistadors, it was in deep decline.
5ace6a42a1862eb3032b5fa0a42a1b4d1c2e7e7e	The descendants of the ancient Maya are not only the modern Maya peoples who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
c257cf101dd99ddd670b43296e1ba02947cb3095	Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Seren in El Salvador — a small Mayan village which was buried under volcanic ash and is now being excavated.
e5cd855887ccff3f05270ee4916783bec261184b	The first period (from antiquity to 317) is the time of the emergence of city states, primitive slash and burn agriculture, the manufacture of cotton fabrics, etc.
c13a84df3986b0073a9a3c00f715a8298e765fc5	The third period (987 - XVI century) — the new kingdom, or the post classical period the time of the arrival of the European conquistadors, the adoption of new laws, styles in life and art, the mixing of cultures, fratricidal wars, etc.
708bef5de3283be78d550c425bb38901b27bd59a	Content [remove] •1 Territory •2 History ?2.1 The early preclassic period (about 2000-900 BC)?2.2 The middle preclassic period (about 899-400 BC)?2.3 Late preclassic period (about 400 BC 250 AD)?2.4 The early Classical period (about 250-600 AD)?2.5 Late Classical period (about 600-900 AD)?2.6 The decline of the Maya civilization ?2.7 The post classical period (about 900-1521)?2.8 The colonial period (1521-1821)?2.9 The post colonial period ?2.10 Maya today
58019e39e9a7b13be28d23c72429b42b5bd0b53a	•3 Art •4 Clothing •5 Architecture •6 Trade •7 Writing and time calculation among the Maya ?7.1 The Mayan Calendar ?7.2 Writing ?7.3 The counting system of the ancient Maya
5d1b8a016715e7750832cf457bb6605e719937f9	•8 The Mayan religion ?8.1 Time, space, the cataclysm of the Earth and a new era ?8.2 Gods and Sacrifices
593c924e3e26ef9f06c585c2bf199082274845c3	•9 Political and social structure of society •10 Military affairs ?10.1 Civil strife and war ?10.2 Armament
b48662e07850e2689855cace93a252e7f9d86d58	•11 Mayan Cities •12 Mayan Kingdoms •13 Filmography •14 Notes •15 Literature ?15.1 Primary literary sources
29ec0fb1409b6e5c76f52eb84bba5f22d060c985	•16 Links
6e79b500083ac27086ee3d28d75ac943eaf57565	Territory[edit / edit wiki text]
fe554128a12b170c964b626c69dca1a859e53310	About 3,000 settlements were also found.
2d7af7518726a1b3721f2032a7ff4cabba336b76	See also: Mesoamerican Chronology and Mayan Cities
e91ed76113d805dd700e4cd2bcbb5e80295df589	Stucco bas relief in the Palenque Museum of the Early preclassic period (about 2000-900 BC)[edit / edit wiki text]
aa5727e51006fdefdb905a0820cfff405b072e93	Middle Preclassic period (about 899-400 BC)[edit / edit wiki text]
44fe562049972b2395c27ea4c8cc31b68f9cb7eb	Late Preclassic period (about 400 BC 250 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
c93cac134d67b97d6756a7be3d61d9f661e29fa4	Early classical period (about 250-600 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
711dc218830c68fd24178727cca81ba23fbb3771	The earliest stele in Tikal, dating from 292 AD, depicts the figure of the ruler Kinich Eb Shok.
a761c9d211d91e72837eb085a58b83978581fe36	Around the year 500, Tikal became a "superpower", the inhabitants of Teotihuacan settled in it, bringing with them new customs, rituals, including those accompanied by sacrifices.
a434b59809152ecb670a88be10a5b04162173634	Late classical period (about 600-900 AD)[edit / edit wiki text]
669059d446ae750f9d896cbfd58e69c9a148117a	The cities are connected by roads, the so called sacbe (sacbe).
af8efe46e257fbc8f34dddd26650b6f48223dfd1	The Maya have more than 10,000 inhabitants, which exceeds the population of the central European cities that existed at that time. source not specified 1987 days]
3b1a91ef7637a959004d6fdcee30a24f8a393c7f	The decline of the Maya civilization[edit / edit wiki text]
9a7559a66b3ca246bcd35cde337cb160b581b661	Already in the IX century AD in the southern areas of the Maya population there is a rapid decline in the population which subsequently extends to the entire central Yucatan.
43494e88e928e9cf5dc3d804241529051e5ba3a2	At the same time, there are two main points of view about the disappearance of the Maya civilization — the ecological and non ecological hypotheses.
acb7ef581fc36e9b3a24d2f3c7abd3d085e73392	Over time, the balance was disturbed: the constantly growing population faces the problem of a lack of high quality soils suitable for agriculture, as well as a shortage of drinking water.
8ee066aacd5dcab55e96da99a79f1bdeafa31a55	The non ecological hypothesis covers theories of various types, starting with conquest and epidemic and ending with climate change and other catastrophes.
121ae339a957616309b9479f7f49df08adfa1b5e	The archaeological finds of objects belonging to another people of medieval Central America — the Toltecs speak in favor of the version of the Maya conquest.
60fda9f0c8f70802f9b5488f1944d21d3383ce48	However, most researchers doubt the correctness of this version.
8e717d70e501168f3ea6a456029512bd7e5f9066	In 2012, scientists from Yucatan and the University of Southampton published the results of a complex simulation according to which the Mayan civilization could have perished even as a result of a small drought.
26e5ca18a75c1897ab94cf4b09192b92cff41e1a	Some scientists believe that after Teotihuacan was abandoned, forming a power vacuum that has an impact on Yucatan, the Maya were unable to fill this vacuum, which eventually led to the decline of civilization[source not specified 474 days].
de755d9645a9678a6b1cafe8a4b152adc401bae2	ElSalvadorP122-100Colones 1978 donatedth f.jpg ES100-1999 f.jpg Mayan Pyramid in Tasumal, El Salvador, on the columns
cbd638c682a9b9801cde18a51fd06f82ee76b861	The Mayan Pyramid in San Andres, El Salvador. 1999 Post classical period (about 900-1521)[edit / edit wiki text]
84a320d2d9aef5eb7bb3d7e235c9c095855d8826	Around the year 900, the inhabitants leave Tikal.
64febb43bd2a13fbcb9db3aa758be8b6ba51113d	The cities of northern Yucatan continue to develop, but the cities in the south are falling into decline.
c823cf6940272338ba74b05314bf8a2ba9ccbf7c	Around 1050, the destruction of Chichen Itza takes place.
0ce2bf72767ec89eb97e6daeccbf3218408aba31	In 1263, Mayapan was founded, which later became the main center of Yucatan.
c346b992a91599f76d148b243d006fd375102544	However, in 1441 there was an uprising in the city, and in 1461 the inhabitants left it.
a6e1e3e0244e172cfe54c691d8aab1ef9218b796	After that, Yucatan is again a territory of cities, each of which is fighting with each other.
5c6446df7e9cbd345ce6943d3852b5c8b81af7aa	Thus, the Chronicle of the Kakchikels describes in detail the history of the mountain Maya Kakchikels, their legendary arrival in Guatemala, the political structure, clashes with neighboring Mayan peoples, and also describes their capital Ishim, a general pestilence from smallpox in 1520 and the arrival of the Spaniards in 1524.
ad5ecbfb2517801d99e8b2954cbf3134b66cfb44	Colonial period (1521-1821)[edit / edit wiki text]
967d963bfea1ffd0da666ec5728e9fa67894d6dc	In 1517, the Spaniards appeared in Yucatan under the command of Hernandez de Cordoba[3].
a5d600237e741c27967c8927d41446532ca9d872	The Spaniards import diseases previously unknown to the Maya from the Old World, including smallpox, influenza and measles.
de6fa3bcc53196da0a7ef8bebbd8db26a62a0d9b	In 1528, the colonists under the command of Francisco de Montejo begin the conquest of northern Yucatan.
47deee4c722bc9fe1faf3aac3055e8496221a087	However, due to the geographical and political disunity, it will take about 170 years for the Spaniards to completely subdue the region.
7b52d67b057498d1daa24521fb40361714c4c47b	In 1697, the last independent Maya city of Tayasal was subordinated to Spain.
be148f410af6b32b90caffd36745678bdd512b8b	Postcolonial period[edit / edit wiki text]
ff6986d7851250101f30991636005b6e21141eb9	In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain.
59db96ebc51ba389e8c0d88e0a0ca520ced30f72	The situation in the country, however, is not stabilizing.
d79f8dcd90a820d95d08ae896b856357292b9b62	In 1847, there is a Mayan uprising against the authoritarianism of the Mexican government, known as the Caste War.
eeb8e527803cf1a7e45b4bf0ba886c5e5109b2a2	The uprising was suppressed only by 1901.
cccbc6727b42e3934055ad6b68daa3d8072c8fd5	Maya today[edit / edit wiki text]
dffe4dbe1b797c4bf6b8b8897214003bb358b807	Main article: Maya (people)
4c1d65786a058c20020d871827bcd09ac1ea9dde	Today, about 6.1 million Mayans live on the Yucatan Peninsula, including in Belize, Guatemala and Honduras[4][not in the source]. In Guatemala, up to 40 % of the population belong to the Maya, in Belize about 10 %. Today's Mayan religion is a mixture of Christianity and traditional Mayan beliefs.
65ba5acf743a10131a7dd1970d9ecd7a871260f4	Every Mayan community today has its own religious patron.
41c9ccd3bbf8a0413a9365a85ccdd1c357cfb282	The donations are poultry, spices or candles.
20f1102b3f0d28f2fafa547146b9049b4d59b41e	Some Mayan groups identify themselves through special elements in their traditional attire, in which they differ from other Mayans.
875d0da72e9ad7020d1105839b8781f6e295c890	There is a small video essay showing the real life of the Maya Indians in all the countries of Central America today.
437aa9d9a29362285fe0dfe012a1e491e4e862a7	A group of Lecandon Maya living in Chiapas (Mexico) is known as faithful to the preserved traditional way of life.
d0e5d0252784eaff0cb994c28cb2a5826c0f4fd7	Representatives of the group wear cotton clothing decorated with traditional Mayan themes.
62d7ea52883e8b85cce485467769011f7eb91587	Christianity had a superficial influence on the representatives of this group.
cbc8549b23276b9f7d231d196dd6ac1e3b8a60ca	However, tourism and, above all, technical and economic progress are gradually erasing the identity of the group.
c3003edb6ad57ec9991aeb8438ecb2fed0e66109	More and more Mayans are wearing modern clothes, using electricity, radio and television in their homes, and often cars.
e467ac24c6c1844efe88e5a3bdc673ce254718ac	Some Mayans, meanwhile, live on income from tourism, as more and more people want to get acquainted with the world and culture of the ancient Maya.
c5627114eb216a8abb729cf5da374e42dfddbfe2	A special situation has developed in Zapatista controlled villages in the Mexican state of Chiapas.
1d0e6e6a57254b086c93c6a004ca0b9ef025f622	These villages have achieved autonomy and self government in the recent past.
9aceab2720efa8234bf37f2c897813c9f99ac70c	Art[edit / edit wiki text]
c311016a121969eba1deaffd07ae51927fcd5bb0	Main article: Mayan Art
41e96b52ee31d155222259d6796f8b05c2ab2a92	The art of the ancient Maya reached its peak during the classical period (about 250 — 900 AD).
a85aaa59069e97af300ce3b3516b9fbe175ec6a9	The wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonampac are considered among the most beautiful.
ccc4ed867efec933cb68796a8e0254b1b375d761	The beauty of the images of people on the frescoes allows us to compare these cultural monuments with the cultural monuments of the ancient world, so this period of the development of the Maya civilization is considered to be classical.
30977423946215f0d6415b8b4b8cd53003e085b3	Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were destroyed either by the Inquisition or by time.
c2e47ca98eee42f56468c16e761a474b0594c540	Clothing[edit / edit wiki text]
042cbec3839646f86b0b78390f32c3b65affd235	Main article: Maya Costume
f129b6dda4bcd72c0631e6ff5826f0236db0d3a0	The main garment of men was a loincloth (esh); it was a strip of cloth a palm wide, which was wrapped several times around the waist, then passed between the legs so that the ends hung down from front and back.
f27ad1782c235c258c5797c77ea57bf4c7d17153	The loincloths of famous people" with great care and beauty " were decorated with feathers or embroidery.
3441d0976ae48bfcf4d69e96bbbd7d6d562c883e	A party cape made of a rectangular piece of fabric, also decorated according to the social status of its owner, was thrown over the shoulders.
0bb4c7f2a5d262b371b071f362964949e6f95f02	Noble people added to this outfit a long shirt and a second loincloth, similar to a full skirt.
7e3f721c1def80060b72ceaca74bf878b7d20d0e	Their clothes were richly decorated and probably looked very colorful, as far as can be judged from the preserved images.
d157bd5e8af51994d9a9be4f2a41ac4f117e66b8	Rulers and military leaders sometimes wore a jaguar skin instead of a cape or fastened it on a belt.
5a71c46c3a8c629bbed85eeef84ee16f7d9d9d67	Women's clothing consisted of two main items: a long dress (cube), which either began above the chest, leaving the shoulders open, or (as, for example, in Yucatan) was a rectangular piece of cloth with slits for the arms and head, and a petticoat.
7816e6ddbb45060b26319322d90368147804497a	Judging by the preserved images, the dress and skirt could be worn both together and separately; in the latter case, the chest remained open (probably, one or another method of wearing was determined by the social status of the woman or local customs).
83de34c53543c6a54856fba30301f7b9b69e9473	The outer clothing, like that of men, was a cape, but longer.
77652497e6e8b0afedd93a8ba38142fa50d74088	All items of clothing were decorated with multicolored patterns.
2283b975fe45ca6f975cff693e3a5871def6b332	Architecture[edit / edit wiki text]
85a660f79e88dc56667c8f2c4c5cd6fcb9e9a3b9	Main article: Maya Architecture
b5c3383fb14b1fa73f6cb2464d23eb897d613d3f	Maya art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas reliefs, works of fine plastic, paintings on walls and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes embodied in stylized grotesque images.
ed5a82797f2e56650b1e97ae74abbdcb72c1577f	The main motifs of Maya art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic elegance and sophistication of lines.
e266393636054290f2929724967b8d36e2ab259f	The main building material for the Maya was stone, primarily limestone.
452214b29447ab3cf07d7baa49ef0f2bd54af26e	Typical for Mayan architecture were false arches, upward pointing facades and roofs with a ridge.
0450a47fa95089b78a3dfbbdf29d6cd9b7795841	These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and majesty.
8481a4b6830284aa0cac2dfac144222183b5d756	Trade[edit / edit wiki text]
ec3fe632534102db817dc8fcdad42cf590f7ae5c	Main Article: Mayan Trade
66b6d4cd624f333b0c4efc7750a4ee29c6984cd2	The Maya conducted a lively trade, they traded both among themselves, between different Maya states, and with other states, with the Aztecs in the north, the inhabitants of modern Costa Rica and Panama in the south[5].
2174ae2f175d8e0b3fcd5b8293dad83f31c70e0f	Maya writing and time calculation[edit / edit wiki text]
473b1decbbcbd4eb9727d33349daebda72f1d547	Main article: The Mayan Letter
f9fd0ceaf8fe20952a969f8293d507489aeda44d	The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre Columbian New World were the systems of writing and time calculation created by the Maya people.
b5b9acf1026bda1af4d2b1e7f121da5570b73051	Mayan hieroglyphs served both for ideographic and phonetic writing.
a69ec4652028c6a70ac71c76cd59510d29842a67	They were carved on stone, painted on ceramics, they wrote folding books on local paper, called codes.
c454599e82c0b51b494389a37de94bdceb4f979c	These codices are the most important source for the study of the Maya script.
9ae88e48d7fa64e4ed43173aece238138a0cfc93	They were first translated by the German scientist E. Fersman in the 1880s.
8b177883ad464b73122184c778f0778dfdfd85dc	The recording of time became possible thanks to a combination of writing and thorough astronomical knowledge.
3fce495cdaab63522507933875b46abbd2f1901f	In addition to this, the Maya used "tsolkin" or "tonalamatl" - counting systems based on the numbers 20 and 13.
1151daad434c834e12fbf0056271a9d2d5a80058	The tsolkin system, common in Central America, is very ancient and was not necessarily invented by the Maya people.
5fa07316af66624172730500f2f91273db63e74c	The Olmecs and the Zapotec culture of the formative era had similar and sufficiently developed time numbering systems even earlier than the Maya.
17ea963cc64ff838603ecc23be9f290aeea71a43	However, the Maya advanced much further in improving the numerical system and astronomical observations than any other indigenous people of Central America.
463495021c76f52d330bfa9aa7ddd8f140947488	Mayan calendar[edit / edit wiki text]
dae7ef4cf1c13f8ec1318a6e0abce4d0d23d865a	Main article: Mayan Calendar
dd1f377391f79f4d15508f5e552c7426e447221d	The Maya had a complex and fairly accurate system of calendars for their time.
fbc52dcb79dbbc7bddd9be9fd2a86a1bf29da825	Writing[edit / edit wiki text]
534752b151643588defcb6089bbaa0ed3b65a614	Main article: Maya (letter)
ec533a259714683511a05ee311f2496229d17a15	The first Mayan monument with hieroglyphs carved on it, discovered by archaeologists on the territory of the modern Mexican state of Oaxaca, dates back to about 700.
decf34f3029d90801c18de3db6ce60849c1250ec	Immediately after the Spanish conquest, the Maya script was tried to decipher.
050dd5932352e4469556bd4278825b4dfe59f3da	The first researchers of the Maya script were Spanish monks who tried to convert the Maya to the Christian faith.
221b509e730bb8c62f09e93433c91a501a7467eb	The most famous of them was Diego de Landa, the third bishop of Yucatan, who in 1566 wrote a work called "Reports on affairs in Yucatan".
cb8dece3cf006d5ca5f33d62af5c9b72c9116b5b	According to de Landa, the Mayan hieroglyphs were akin to the Indo European alphabets.
410d6c27af204aba92edf25b541afce6e21e32fc	He believed that each hieroglyph represents a certain letter.
e22e3025bfb274832af0980ec9c67d79c375b6af	The greatest success in deciphering the Maya texts was achieved by the Soviet scientist Yuri Knorozov from the Leningrad Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, who made his discoveries in the 1950s.
885493498a3c9b5d3b3031c8e3fad8c246fd08fb	Knorozov was convinced that de Landa's list was not an alphabet, but he did not reject it completely for this reason.
528abca944fd98bc10e3ad917d57e5de149ba298	The scientist suggested that de Landa's "alphabet" was actually a list of syllables.
e3222548d3a4dca4a5341435a915af7bc3aca0a9	Each sign in it corresponded to a certain combination of one consonant with one vowel.
1c44a0d196f1c17cb4605e8271fd7a25dec250a4	The signs connected together were the background tic recording of words.
c042ebd5e32e233191b7fb6a956b1839ac964c2a	In the West, Heinrich Berlin and Tatiana Proskuryakova made a great contribution to deciphering the hieroglyphs of the ancient Maya.
0a6e33144617da15c023fb86491197fcc8e307eb	As a result of the discoveries of the XX century, it became possible to systematize knowledge about the Maya script.
62422bc0fd12fed8b557d80454fbff0115a96029	The main elements of the writing system were signs, of which about 800 are known.
3f26c6726ceec52a8177e33659bc35da071dbb7f	Usually the signs have the form of a square or an oblong oval; one or more signs can be placed together, forming a so called hieroglyphic block.
70977c084220cffa5d7b38029757ad6a29a184a9	Many of these blocks are arranged in a certain order in a rectilinear grid, which defined the spatial framework for most of the known inscriptions.
1bd5fde9fa6f1234370346a4e3b6a3622a34f088	Inside this grid, hieroglyphic blocks form rows and columns, the reading of which was subject to special rules[6].
e76a0956ca1b956255f077cd7995f9ddd02ecafe	Pictographic signs that depict, often in detail, animals, people, body parts and household items also have a great weight.
eec03c5a7eb2e8211f8cc5965140b9365f6c23ed	The counting system of the ancient Maya[edit / edit wiki text]
6893bf02128e7c58f4f8c5a55293aad0ca0f85ed	Main Article: Maya Mathematics
614f24d73ec393af65a7ad079d9693b5f943c68c	The Maya counting system was based not on the usual decimal system, but on the twentyimal system common in Mesoamerican cultures.
99f0cb63ec25d5e53b04f6f8162dde936c2ff58c	The origins lie in the method of counting, in which not only ten fingers were used, but also ten toes.
9e8525faf4e278f39952b226787cb2af7106b090	At the same time, there was a structure in the form of four blocks of five digits, which corresponded to five fingers and toes.
6a370fe7af1a84e2423dd54c27ff16d27b384db0	Also interesting is the fact that the Maya had a designation for zero, which was schematically represented as an empty shell from an oyster or snail.
8d467a17535740668d14b72db69f5330c58f1821	The notation zero was also used to denote infinity.
777d29c1d19e1e947938f0fa0fa693e5e3ea025b	Since zero is necessary in many mathematical operations, but at the same time it was unknown in ancient Europe, scientists assume today that the Maya had a highly developed culture with a good level of education.
69c82fa40c63a33d3da8ddde960c3d8aa6c582ca	Maya religion[edit / edit wiki text]
c882179218d548158d4fbe9397426227b122db95	Main article: Mayan Religion
0914f5ffda9b97e4fcb3c662707cf110592260a6	Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate.
6c91dec4116e7803cbda3cf3bd41cad2ac59935f	It is assumed that religion, together with the servants of the temples, played a key role in the life of the Maya.
2a99edfb54baf5b47a51f2eb4ffd3b70eaa9664b	In the period from 250 to 900 AD (the classic period of Mayan development), the heads of the cities of the states of the region were rulers who embodied, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function.
f712fedfedaa07430ac2e6e8878c28282384d3db	Archaeological excavations suggest that representatives of the upper strata of society also took part in religious rituals.
9ba4ff54f691fc45e2ab41d03add30d46af8bf1d	Time, space, the cataclysm of the Earth and the new era[edit / edit wiki text]
55d9ea8decf20e6587a164f9b4736f08a0b91cb3	See also: December 21, 2012
22b569fac1b1e1464354d3af34b2d53131f1a748	Like other peoples who inhabited Central America at that time, the Maya believed in the cyclical nature of time and astrology.
67abee8e169cf381c857e670a1f0ef5cf0b615a9	They imagined the universe divided into three levels — the underworld, the earth and the sky.
63d892e3a1b701a78d8f93214dc080cc82e614ce	Religious rituals and ceremonies were closely connected with natural and astronomical cycles.
23bacdf2311240edd752823d7d24a4bf7ec492d4	Repeated phenomena were subjected to systematic observations, after which they were displayed in various calendars.
0775df8675f0e4c8fe5379e9c41b53d2f5cb8b40	At the same time, the task of the Mayan religious leader was to interpret these cycles.
773697cc837ccff6c7045eff11e378e564279c21	In particular, according to astrology and the Mayan calendar, the "time of the fifth Sun" ended on December 21-25, 2012 (winter solstice).
48386b13fbf6d0e204a748dd451bf50178e40413	The "Fifth Sun" is known as the "Sun of Motion", because, according to the ideas of the Indians, in this era there should have been a movement of the Earth, from which many would have died[the source is not specified 1582 days].
8b30d15ee3f3e0223b513431eb8528c43c4e5aee	This date caused a lot of panic false prophecies and esoteric speculations[7].
98570f7ead8c579cdb9f15e6dd7a198ee844fbfc	This theory was especially popular in the New Era movement, where it was mixed with the Christian anti Pagan idea of the apocalypse[source not specified 1582 days].
4430aa4b32cb8459db7a2f0b80a3b5ab0264d329	Gods and sacrifices[edit / edit wiki text]
740a852fc70517ad50d81ac84c2b3e98ee78a464	As with other peoples of Central America, human blood played a special role among the Maya.
7b4c6f01a6ab369ee8832300cc018179bc973c6a	According to the various household items that have come down to our days — vessels, small plastic and ritual tools we can talk about a specific ritual of bloodletting.
337385e096b4ba08e31d68efc95256d9a39cc665	The main type of ritual bloodletting in the classical period was a ritual in which the tongue was pierced, and both men and women did it.
c62c6ded667d60bc3faa45652c42543fdd31ae26	After piercing the organs (tongue, lips, palms, penis), a string or rope was passed through the holes made.
2dc21b4abada023851a73b982e76464e3955da8d	According to the Mayans, the soul and vital energy were in the blood.
aea2ef66ca5457c4e37cee7797a2729b2aa0f499	The Maya religion was polytheistic.
a3b652aa1a1d025ebb48e91e18250d61b64eb6ff	At the same time, the gods were mortal beings similar to humans.
0c425b9f0e2e63163476d482fd5ad9a4a830ab78	This version is supported by Mayan art objects, which depict infant gods, as well as deeply old gods.
bb5e807b39c0869209d1b0fd52cdee0da3d939b4	In this regard, human sacrifice was considered by the ancient Maya as an act that contributes to a certain extent to prolong the life of the gods.
7ab001faebd9a6d92ba319f579c023ecbaff6b62	Human sacrifice was a common phenomenon among the Maya.
5015cb381cf83c020fad7c6d16066e37d6dd8029	A person was sacrificed by hanging, drowning, poisoning, beating, as well as by burying alive.
d7f3213fde489dc9badc7768d80fb1fc884640ab	The most cruel type of sacrifice was, as with the Aztecs, cutting open the abdomen and tearing out the still beating heart from the chest.
821c8e765ac6d88dd1ab7dd50f243a997e4f41d7	Prisoners from other tribes captured during the wars, as well as representatives of their own people, including members of the upper strata of society, were sacrificed.
523e0aaf0fa966700197f35f9eb39ffb511afac1	The choice of time, order and method of sacrifice is still not clear.
3f51157a2fb7023a656c9559d35bb734f82659ff	It is precisely established that representatives of other tribes captured during the wars, including members of the upper strata of the enemy, were sacrificed on a huge scale.
d0501f938e9d48401a48db76376119b8d0404145	However, it is still unclear whether the Maya waged bloody wars to obtain more prisoners of war with the aim of sacrificing them in the future, as the Aztecs did.
5dcb394cee1839e4d702dc1e269692754153c9ba	In the post classical cities in the north of Yucatan, the Mayan culture is undergoing changes.
7eb4d5cc61f52ed2bb6fe6e5fd371d71e9912453	Thus, the ruins of the cities of the civilization of the period of its capture by the Spaniards allow us to say that religion did not play such an important role for the Maya as during the classical stage of development.
e7f0bab773736ccc5ff54ea54718678f106bc9ee	The political and social structure of society[edit / edit wiki text]
db0ce21accf0223b19c83e6ed5bea23fbc8a98ce	The Maya were primarily strongly oriented in foreign policy.
4b1bcd96eb77a511b70e57bb654654abf0424596	This was due to the fact that individual city states competed with each other, but at the same time had to control trade routes to obtain the necessary goods.
ba3691f3eab7749f56d457693b9a4ad509834eb9	Political structures differed depending on the region, time and people living in cities.
f100d165e25199d2fb8b67cd33671905e1fb5e55	Along with the hereditary kings, there were also oligarchic and aristocratic forms of government under the leadership of the ayava (ruler).
94f9608f1ec954af2c8542758d17b10542d50c21	The Kiche (Quiche or K'iche') tribe also had noble families performing various tasks in the state.
0a7947079b7dedd3bd9fdbb5d562e65a1e4d38e5	Also, democratic institutions took place at least in the lower layer of society: the existing procedure for electing a mayor every three years, the "Maya mayor", has existed, presumably, for quite a long time.
0503f6ff308d7c5bf1cbb7aad58074faf64879d1	In the social structure of the society, any member of the Maya society who reached the age of 25 could challenge the tribal leader.
122f8806273f69b722c6bbdaca023ff0d68035be	In case of victory, the tribe had a new leader.
48f6e731d977ebb621c109551e5bdd6d02ab003d	This usually happened in small settlements.[source not specified 2445 days]
0fe3abcadf88dab100ce2fd8cfb0280b9014bbf1	Military affairs[edit / edit wiki text]
27025ebec2bcd5d225c1c1992281024065938226	Main article: Mayan Military Affairs
e24321d68044dc362ae2813275849f479a8ad72d	Feuds and wars[edit / edit wiki text]
46587cf67ad5c4b38f2525e78bcfbed6a09357ff	The Maya often fought with each other.
dc366a2a5d9bcc12cd0d2d1a3aa19ad8ee4a5af6	Some historians even see this as the main reason for the decline of the classical Maya culture.
c43b046412feee11d77cd698c9b2a431b3f7a4f4	Wars in the ancient Maya civilization were fought for many reasons that served political, economic or religious purposes.
63c5e6a46f78c028876ce046bb58d55c1b524503	A frequent cause of war was the control over competing city states, so wars were waged with the aim of removing a rival dynasty from someone else's throne, putting a controlled ruler on it.
53c9d9719e6f7bf66101eec9d18be5cef09aaa07	In a political sense, the main thing was the reputation earned in the war by the victorious ruler.
12fe9957347e4a9d1b934c8b4ac5694ee632a0f7	In the economic sense, the victory over the enemy gave access to new trade routes, and also a part of the population of the defeated city state was enslaved.
4e3a86b657932605fc0a98b57d5691cff59904df	For religious purposes, the victorious war served as the capture of new people, who in the future were sacrificed at religious ceremonies.
714010b290c6295b95fb69dbc7c1ff55a60af728	It is noteworthy to note that the wars of the classical period did not aim at capturing the enemy's territory and annexing the conquered lands to the victorious city.
ffbc977fc582703a7fc8ab760f0ce98c5c93a3c7	Thus, the formation of a powerful unified Maya state did not occur during the classical period.
072fe13f9cb1fb8bba43c272f5d9dbb80419070b	Armament[edit / edit wiki text]
433f9a9f9ebc53916f0745dce2926ed34cff5ba3	Main Article: Maya Weapons
2dabfaaffa077125dce37ca582fe68b0bf4f6aa2	Mayan warriors used war clubs, blowpipes, knives, spears, axes, macans and other weapons in battles.
f19099d7350f76f664a5cf45fb6ea2d108a1f9cd	Arrows and leaves were also used.
e6b46e9494d53ad0f509a0c6793b63dd92f27c36	At the same time, the sheet was twisted into a tube through which arrows were fired at the enemy, often with infected tips.
5e82bac99445e2593c811e632a80921b1f72001e	Helmets were rarely used by the Maya, but the Maya used shields made of wood and animal skin in battle.
841d0b3a1e01b4fad6eccb73ceeb75cdf8555da2	The Maya were also armed with wooden swords with flint blades inserted into them and devices resembling a sling.
a8f108e204d74d55abd3c01f74bd22362ca51900	Interesting devices, as a rule, are leather harnesses that were clamped with fingers or worn on the wrist.
6ec90329b8cfb335b69ea6e7eb74b39f22ee5377	They worked as an auxiliary catapult, for longer throws of short spears (darts), with the use of these devices, the throwing range was doubled.
aa9caadd7eab5b59689673a52e1fee3340f145cd	Mayan cities[edit / edit wiki text]
bc2cdc40c745fb8289cb1bbcd3e53e9fa670dac8	Main article: Mayan Cities
a777aa060758621972e3b036b8aaf22e689ef82e	[show] View this Mayan City template
de0fc7abafbdda0aaf545e490a0faea6a27ec07a	Chichen Itza 2006 08 15.JPG
c5611203b816457729b0b898bdbbd71053fa3956	The Mayan kingdoms[edit / edit wiki text]
a757d4a329dba5fd8725d423534b858ec14e792d	The Baakul, Mutul, Kanul, and Shukuup kingdoms are known, as well as several dozen smaller kingdoms.
d1920bfbf3ff54fe6d7a2d96afbf5c8aa9011518	Filmography[edit / edit wiki text] • "The Lost Kingdom of the Maya" — a popular science film made by the National Geographic Society in 1993 •Apocalypse — Apocalypto) - a feature film by Mela Gibson * The Fountain (The Fountain) — a fantastic feature film by Darren Aronofsky •2012 a fantastic feature film.
dd4c2bf6ef35d8ed25fafe95ab4ede040925a502	Director: Roland Emmerich • "The Mystery of The Maya" (English "Mystery of The Maya") — a documentary film by Barry Howells and Roberto Rochin, 1998 • " The Secret of the Maya rulers "(English " Treasure Seekers. Code Of The Maya Kings") is a documentary film made by National Geographic in 1999.
f45ac2f4c243d835ecec56820de19b153b0376e5	• " Time Scale.
e436e3168b6969f5aad027448df3563ff3b16e4f	The lost cities of the Maya" (English " Time watch. Lost Cities of the Maya") is a documentary film made by the BBC in 2003.
f99917ca90e0524721c97ee432fc9f3e9c32e337	1. ^ The cause of the death of the Mayan civilization has been determined 2.^ The messengers of the apocalypse were tortured by thirst 3.^ The chronology of the Mayans 4.^ Ethnologue report for Mayan 5.^ The Mayan people.
bacb8932baea7c160502c2efd7ecfbece91393f5	Rus Alberto, 1986.
c60e00d49cb3859ec5d3076b218e2439ae28c126	Trade 6.
095937dbc89121b42f0d6881c132b4447cb3c278	^ Maya writing 7.
a2d0ebb932d2a50f98909d45d8c60270c2d81384	^ Svetlana Kuzina.
27eb14668892a5221333e62368be18511f782759	Should we wait for the end of the world in 2012?.
28b878e5ecac609172f8d202ed336397b08df3fb	Komsomolskaya Pravda (May 4, 2007).
68ff28b9b4b711a440a59bbbe4ced0a260f3c07b	Checked on February 7, 2011.
165c3854d43c5ba0cd2e347877e703ba7b9c2656	Archived from the original source on August 27, 2011.
c7fe053727b25144e76b9e4ce643ae462840fcef	* Veretennikova, A.M. Mayan and Aztec cities / A.M. Veretennikova.
ccb305d77963ee628151681e96649f1cec1f8cd8	- Moscow: Veche, 2003 — - 208 p.
50f15a85f5f9e8b026064f9fa885e42d18ff6d49	— ISBN 5-9533-0062 X. * Galich Manuel.
85610a420a1dad9a27cd429ac9f025f41058182e	The History of pre Columbian Civilizations / Manuel Galich ;
490e31fc7d3a4f85bfcd375ada18e835fa1f9c16	Translated from the Spanish by M. M. Hurvits, G. G. Ershova.
82d4d1d6127f2b0ee615604bc36d526e9f99f09a	- M.: Mysl, 1990 — - 408 p.: ill.
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b390aa0dd5eaa8c35b0ac3d591666108c879a280	* Charles Gallenkamp.
46dd090c0d9959f78f607639b45e7cfee1b7b90d	Maya: The Mystery of a Vanished Civilization / Charles Gallenkamp ;
0d526f5be70f92ffff5bfd922f12d5bd44889d52	Trans., comm. and afterword by V. I. Gulyaev M.: Nauka, 1966.
56c1444802162fe47a94a5b1389bc4f0ba0e78b2	- 216 p.: il.
4f45f4ea5eb9aa574407376e3c9843360dfd8c20	* Gulyaev V. I. Ancient Maya: riddles of a lost civilization / V. I. Gulyaev.
d57261e7b3652a21b998ea86ce3951c913e8486a	- M.: Znanie, 1983 — - 176 p.
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9b140f79626b2584ac85e94039bba6504eb06198	- Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1984 — - 184 p.
af46a610fed034dd4eeec25734d935190466325b	* Gulyaev V. I. Cities of the Maya state / V. I. Gulyaev.
f47ccf003920a163fab9313160ebe28e9194dae2	- Moscow: Nauka, 1979 — - 304 p.
e713a23e8e41b1835651b57d73ae245b784d5803	* Gilbert E. Secrets of the Maya / E. Gilbert, M. Cottrell.
b4d4571fe61bafeda6f16a227381959fd32e30f8	- Moscow: Veche, 2000 — - 161 p.
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24c86d76497aa323812685e7a6f44b44f484ef9b	* Drew David.
beec9d43b6d4f06d8edd12197a997a3acd0675e7	Maya.
3b71fdbe50944a748463250b4a66541d9a7a0dc5	The mysteries of a great civilization.
2690a1fa98db45f3d015961a75afb15f682ce6c1	- Smolensk: Rusich, 2012 — - 416 p.: ill.
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58e024858cfb20236b6d98aaf8e7ae6fad849734	- M.: Aleteya, 2002 — - 392 p.
5c4e52d87ff254d7ec2d49f81a08357ec690ed4c	- ISBN 5-89321-092-1 • * Yershova, G. G. Maya.
4178eabcbd763c39f9cde9686719d6d5ee6b0449	Secrets of ancient writing.
affccf599a99febfa96339958c4f2f395a33348d	- Moscow: Aleteya, 2004.
625eb69c6ddc919392046ea4f5a0cd4abef9ea2f	- 296 p.
0b0636486aa623cef05cbaeeff78ee46933cebd1	- The "vita memoriae" series.
09c246ab719d71d6434f04efe7b8662bf0ceb0cc	- ISBN 978-5-89321-123-5 * Keram K. V.
13a3f9d18499648dbd17923303ebd0dc53ee2fd7	The first American: The Riddle of the Indians of the pre Columbian era / K. V. Keram.
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c35bcc747378965cd2def25fb447b6caf84125c6	* Daggers R. V. Culture of the ancient Maya.
85dae8a2a7831458724b8e701c3f46cfd70f1d53	- Moscow: Nauka, 1971 — - 364 p.
e6afaf8ea99b6524ce4c78a30bd7a586896aa72c	* Ko Michael.
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0c0112ed4672ad7df68ffa29ec7785fc4594173d	- The series "Riddles of ancient civilizations".
bf68640a96e923332a5e7e0d0fef0416c6646f30	- ISBN 978-5-9524-2806-5 • * Kuzmishchev V.
f63ffbc08e1508e8c29f402c5cb7a64a7e30e44f	A. The secret of the Maya priests / V.
cbf9b41b699dfbf4d82780d8b49b073bfe2e43e6	A. Kuzmishchev.
81c0d437a3a896b79f76bbf4b9dc55a4d7a9bec5	- Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 1968 — - 368 p.
dce9d6c672c6dcf486e8c6fddc3e2a0981cf68ed	— (Eureka series). * Leon Portilla M. Mythology of ancient Mexico / M. Leon Portilla / / Mythologies of the Ancient World / Ed. by I. M. Diakonov — - M.: Nauka, 1977 • * Rus Alberto.
3990fd65f2fcbd358c234922c8502d1aff1b0848	The Mayan people.
1ec3420dd33c1f1ee8954b8c4abe994fd8c04a2c	- Moscow: Mysl, 1986 — - 256 p.
8e3bbd4528980ff6a151d1aa2bb1a224531397d4	* Sodi Demetrio.
79073bc7f989ad0c7c4296a10db23359a1a69feb	Great cultures of Mesoamerica / Translated from the Spanish by Z. V. Ivanovsky.
ba02ad1a0ffd50dec9f57f99ca7c615810c26366	- Moscow: Znanie, 1985 — - 208 p.
9e8ca4bbdb6def8d1d7eeee92bab74166a95312f	— (Series "Translated popular science literature"). * Spence Lewis The Myths of the Incas and the Maya / Translated from the English by L.
aa4981113ed4f5b909312a63c8e8e36a3542f64d	A. Karpova.
f541f8baa9adc4e932f7c525310f7ee0242ec7db	- Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.
3757f246ce2432aead2cd4c6ea59b912bf649734	ISBN 5-9524-2004-4 * Miloslav Stingl.
cc802aebcdb7cc7199c2f929c9c25157a15a303e	Secrets of the Indian pyramids / Translated from the Czech by O. M. Malevich.
8a48951e5bbad972c45fde8a9801fafe85fb7fcb	- M.: Progress, 1978 (2nd ed. - M., 1982).
f530c08e001806161420fc11e077159e1c042b51	- 280 p.
f171b2a5beb97a5ce5dccb8cc02dcf51088f9425	* Stuflyaev M. I. History of the Maya Kingdoms.
5eb21d2ed8c8bc7001525753662c5e31caafe939	* Talakh V. N. America original: Sources on the history of the Maya, Nahua (Astecs) and Incas / V. N. Talakh, S.
aca9779cd275ad526584dbd2e4cd82e7fea08535	A. Kuprienko ;
2069971cfd2ba4f20a1d8466d2d95c6ea359acbb	Ed.
0cf0a07beceab60ff42ce0cef60e4292209ed588	V. N. Talakh, S.
99420af15fe0989958f2e352c00909286fecd07b	A. Kuprienko.
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1f8ce94b372bdf4b7b14f11eb5a72b260f35cad3	A., 2013 — - 370 p.
17fb3f380d5e9f8ec9ebe92335f66f506245b333	— ISBN 978-617-7085-00-2.
d65c54da645804187d19009ce1a7fc7298b7db14	* Talakh V. M.
242e4badcc31b8f00e787a47495a4dfd2f1a762c	/ Bible and Science | / < < < | table of contents / > > > |
3320311141bc1e781eee56e44420bdc9bdd9f944	Oparin A.
71aadd8ffa612ce9ce9c14a45475189ebf0f4e85	A. Ancient cities and Biblical Archeology Part III. Empires that rejected God
3a4b44ff1581826aa19840b7b88e89b76225f21d	Chapter 3
1b23983e13b49aacd906f85a0e4ba94cd9c056d1	The Mayan Civilization
5c44e8ad2d84b5439aa04a1f243cb10ccf157187	The history of this people, who never created a single state following the example of the Aztecs or Incas, is divided into three periods the first is the pre May era (several centuries before the Christian Era to 317 AD); the second is ancient (from 317 to 987); the third is new, which is divided into the period of the "May Renaissance" - until 1194; the period of "Mexican influence" - 1194-1441 and the period of decline 1441-1697.
28dabf3b29395bf2030236248a91483249a86dd2	Pyramid in Veracruz, Mexico Pyramid in Veracruz.
e99daafb414d5900f465b30588773cc8ec662116	Mexico House of three Windows "House of three Windows", looking at the sunrise.
76b88804886bb5c183297e414fda451c8648372a	Machu Picchu.
36c57243155b80cf350c59764354b20dde157333	Peru
b38ad31843d184e0f471f6ab2d67ef146236ed79	The Pyramid of Magic is a pyramid of Magic.
11a46e43a5ad7e0bb1f71d1d39f234bb29c4403a	Mexico Pyramid Predictor Pyramid Predictor.
41937b20fbe8c71d9c6c3346aff43c001aa25e33	Mexico
022dbd829f5b3cac94f3fc9e808a1b9765d8dd38	How it echoes with that ancient serpent Satan, who seduced Eve in Eden!
03767af2032517dc5141f02511175c167e463448	Pyramid I in Tikal Pyramid I in Tikal.
1e3bcb73c755ae67982c4a2d1f07130643ac4aa3	Pyramids of this shape performed a double function.
a0b2b1327a215766db41e56bb0c9048aa2798a89	They were temples of the gods and tombs of the rulers A sculptural image of the god Chaka A sculptural image of the god Chaka.
26414e770f8cee13fcd02de3a97f5c3d4226d8a9	Maya
5dd5dc49a91922c1dfb3d0c4e29a05754f374628	Statue of the god Chak Mool Statue of the God Chak Mool Statue of the God Chak Mool.
198332d854ce8a2ff49f55321e7156b7f68c0554	Each of these statues holds a dish in front of it, intended for gifts and donations
efac9c4ad6ad882a158abf51034fc69835d7bca0	The Maya gods were Itsaina the God of the sky, Yum Kaam - the God of corn, Shaman Ek the God of the Polar Star, Kukulkan - the God of the wind, Ah Puchi the God of death, and for each individual day, and even for numbers, the Maya had gods.
925f74fa66f6379e5f53231635b9c0d49ad2b992	The victims were thrown on the altar, then the priest also cut their chest and tore out their heart, sprinkling blood on the statue of the god, after which the skin was torn off the corpse, in which the priest was dressed.
900ac149cecec35a9143099d52d528b58026702b	After that, the human body was cut into many parts, which were immediately eaten by priests and nobles!
5257e8c7a5322b927f14ba53af97a678d8c22f1b	It was a real mass cannibalism.
48462f529a026863d42a5f2cbe0e8f2e95bfbddb	The number of victims reached tens of thousands on the days of big holidays and celebrations.
821b908d44e920ae5bb92dd0aaad594bfcd3a591	The entire population of the cities howled with delight at such ritual actions.
9071c080be6ef197ca80d6fa0940454852a9de4a	People were losing their human appearance.
41223b46d7dfc92f9aa033b9185db7d74acf2359	Immorality and orgies became more and more widespread, finally turning the once great tribes into little able degraded people.
23db65b7274d3938c36df253c82b27e5e932910a	Mayan Temple Mayan Temple.
661dffd54a98e0d95ac181b890b48ecb38bbe9e9	The human mind, separated from God, again suffered a complete defeat, showing its limitations and weakness.
01b94cc11676f3c35cd6edf8217a8c0fac7b09de	The Spaniards, having met with the Maya in 1502, a few years later, under the leadership of Francisco de Montejo, conquered the once great civilization.
02e5664b0cc7fbe95b1017978b439380636a8908	The Maya, who once built great cities, could not, being completely morally decomposed, resist the Europeans.
87221746cf5bc475b0acc10467d75b57382cc4f1	In 1697, the last city of Maya, Tayasal, was destroyed.
e01b827c4b9bf89fcba2e273307df22de4b12ffe	At one time, our Lord Jesus Christ, while on earth, said a parable recorded in the Gospel of Matthew 7:24-27: "And so everyone who hears these words of mine and does them, I will liken to a prudent man who built his house on a stone: and the rain came, and the rivers overflowed, ...and rushed on that house; and it did not fall, because it was founded on a stone.
caeb67cf11ccbbe2d9e2b5b560caadc6b54dc366	But everyone who hears My words and does not do them will be like a reckless man who built his house on the sand; and the rain came, and the rivers overflowed... and they leaned on that house; and it fell, and its fall was great."
a2a0ec0d5ea8c8821720af220776d8e7582220e1	This parable applies to both individuals and states.
1d784c2a2ae1123a31cc45c99b183074a0d6712c	Bas reliefs of the Temple of Warriors Bas Reliefs of the Temple of Warriors Bas Reliefs of the Temple of Warriors.
b223366b51a486f90ae1741289fb6b869e59a58a	Chichen Itza.
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a48542fbe283baa29d9acda12bf6a5bf8b6e4485	Maya peoples
0f7b6763a61c2a9ce11c51cbb437852181c2b949	Just like many other "American Indians", such as the Eskimos or Aleuts, the Aztecs or Mixtecs, the primitive Tain from the island of Cuba or the surprisingly developed Incas; like all peoples, from the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego, the Maya people also descended from the Suiatic race - but not from the modern inhabitants of Mongolia, China or Japan, but from the ancestors of the forgotten tribes of the southeast and west central Asia.
5980f3fd4257fd7df61d5eaba958bb0dd7617809	White tailed deer, tapir (Mayan horse), anteater, armadillos and iguanas the owners of ancient ruins live among plants.
6e2414c27b3abed35037e8fce7e8f7994a7ae78b	The Maya used a twenty digit system of calculation in mathematics possibly based on the number of fingers and toes.
5a990b93899fe460e49f269b2a69bad41f9b664f	At the same time, the numbering was based on three symbols: a dot denoted one, a line - five, and a stylized snail was used to denote zero or number 20.
b6ad82a1754001d3c1580baee9a79c9ad7652147	The Mayan civilization pioneered the use of zero in mathematics.
2febc7226876d9f797e7dfb5e6c9a30d9e29ad8d	The Maya language is one of a kind; it bears no resemblance to any other language in Central America.
1ceaaae5ea93ca73f1a901ed1186cc37859caa93	Their religion also has some concepts unfamiliar to their contemporaries, for example, they were the only ones who believed in the cyclic transmigration of human souls.
49424c0b893813f20f293a3322c35f2871f97579	For the Maya, there was no past, present or future, since they represented time in the form of a cycle; every 52 years they returned to the same day and the world began anew (it is believed that the average life expectancy also corresponded to this period of time or even was less).
1974d3f704cc65f58153152e353de370406ddd25	If we imagine the two main calendars Sunny (365 days) and Tsolkin (260 days) as two gears, one of which is slightly smaller than the other, and set them in motion in the opposite direction, the same teeth will touch in 52 years.
be80ee2c12321fd5c67d9c42add6b08f0abce85d	The main cycle of Maya time is determined by the eternal rotation of these two gears calendars.
c618e08eac605a784cde7c70c8fb89cf266ff928	The Maya also believed that there was another world before them, which was destroyed by the gods.
988ade00cd0c1b758ae0e8ebea5cfd9fb55fc208	The fear that their world could be destroyed at any moment permeated their way of thinking and was an incentive for human sacrifices, the main purpose of which was the constant renewal of peace: the offering of human life as a gift in order to calm the divine tragic fate on which the continuation of the human world depended.
3b286497d87f8d122f13b5370c6974c800fc26bd	The rituals of self sacrifice were partly intended to ensure the continuation of life through the symbolic multiplication of the divine "creation/destruction", as well as to provoke visions of other worlds, which actually occurred due to the loss of a large amount of blood.
23399e430fae402fa4f2b1354f7a3db695d71d85	This perception of the world put a person in a position of humility and deep respect for the existence of the universe and before his powerlessness in controlling his own fate.
777d84e8a4e3a735fa73a1ee63e4eaebc2a0893b	Their magical world was permeated with sacred energy, which was controlled by various deities who influence in all directions of the universe and rule medicine, science and life itself.
dcf1d8a08fa36fdd0a6a306464217a33ec574cff	Everything depended on positive and negative influences, male and female, and on the whims of the almighty gods.
f6fe76e415904e44c5436ecd1a0c9ca955187882	Balam, or shaman medicine man, was responsible for communicating with the parallel worlds of gods, spirits and ancestors (invisible to worldly eyes), from him they received instructions on how to manage society.
7f5c7248fcb7a4bc2ac2068c7e693d09c59823ff	Balam used all sorts of substances that cause hallucinations, for example, such as "teonanacatl"; evidence of this can be found on miniature engravings on stones dating back about 2,200 years, found at the burial of the Mayan governor and other archaeological sites located near the city of Guatemala.
c5ea0414932898037d7089820440ec4aa04af308	Of all the ancient Indian arts, none can compare with the Mayan art, not only because of its monumental structures, but also because of its mastery in all areas of art in general.
5a9f7449c6349027dc8102b8e5fad915789ed98a	In sculpture, they were especially famous for the luxurious details and refined style of their engravings; wall works reached their maximum expression in Bonampac (Chiapas state).
5b478772b247917ab7416657fccd120187e5274f	Memorial " steles "(plates with records of important dates) are real works of art and Maya pottery has no equal.
d0dd1ef8691c1414af666be3a77c36a1b0885d5b	The cities of Sayil, Labna and Kaba are evidence of the greatness of their architecture, which has reached especially majestic proportions in the cities of Uxmal, Tikal, Copan and Palenque.
22d1342990a4c6c048b51f96288c03b2f6a216e5	There is no doubt that the Maya architects were real masters in their field.
e9a8dce52617d7146c9507b8b33717e6b991e053	They overcame many obstacles to invent and build their famous arches; fortunately, their clear understanding of the principles of balance and geometry led to results that we can still observe today.
19e1119b36a22b515c9b18e02dbada54d9eb63c2	To build these arches, the opposite walls were gradually tilted, bringing them closer until it was possible to close the top with one stone.
8c866dee07a9a0bba04ae70a8f0db8da55d7ce71	The stone blocks were connected to each other with a special mixture made of lime and sand, which helped to create very strong structures.
4b1f88a2802d24c63eedf8f278fb64a6c4f7d157	The Maya also built long roads (sakbe): of the ones discovered so far, some reach 100 km in length, like the one that connects the city of Koba with Yashuna. close to Chichen Itsa.
9df6b2fe324dbd83049238746ccc58c08e7d4ed4	Nevertheless, for many years, archaeologists have been asking themselves why the Maya built them, because they had neither wheels nor animals to transport cargo, and the construction of these roads through the impenetrable jungle was a titanic work.
0b2f46d7ddf30f6758294e71f946854ecb94bcbe	All the Mayan cities were built basically on the same principle: the temples, platforms and pyramids that were used for religious ceremonies were concentrated around the central square, and this represented the most important part of the city.
42c70f6dd85dbef85599d2f9432d9aac19a0c95c	Then came the residences for priests and nobles, and after that, on the outskirts of the city - the houses of ordinary residents, built of less durable materials.
58644ada8f530647be2785318c8d49d60fbaabfb	Some of the cities had a complex sewage system, like the one found in Palenque, and systems for collecting and storing rainwater, like in the city of Tikal.
d02d085aea7938c6c144f9bca48602f16ea0d62d	Often the walls of buildings were covered with a thick layer of plaster, several well preserved examples of it are located in the city of Tikal.
42ad3d2351f60ed88bdc7f46c6be8c473dae3859	The building materials vary depending on the geographical location: limestone stone was used in Yucatan and Petena; there was a lot of volcanic stone in the Maya Kiche area; in Chiapas, the main blocks used in construction were prepared and fired.
33cde4c70c76b455a842353cd500b9eeb5046d56	However, in all the large centers found so far, the walls were covered with plaster and painted with rich natural tones.
f0897863c31ba3c391b46d3fc3379235d60ceba1	Maya cities mainly served as ceremonial and commercial centers, the main buildings were naturally not used as residences, since the rooms located in the temples were small, with very poor ventilation and poor natural light; hence, it was concluded that they were only used for ceremonial purposes.
0ece3c2c75a2e82256ebda479de7a1456b16628c	All this and much more creates an interesting contrast with the primitive technology used by the Maya, or rather developed in a different direction in relation to the technology of the old world, which is now used everywhere.
630c08f86bcf80add1202ea62753cd502e5f6770	They were not familiar with hard metal; they did not use an arch with a central stone in architecture, and it seems that the Maya did not know or perhaps did not use a wheel like other Indians in North America.
23b3a84beb4b8d70cbc7dee7c89d274cac523050	It is a culture of contrasts and mysteries; brilliant mathematicians and astronomers and primitive farmers, peaceful merchants and warlike sacrificers.
1cdbf692abd69d54114b0d1ffecb05089b5e2642	In short, it is a fascinating civilization that has puzzled people for centuries.
383ead459824bc71d57d33f7c94b105e4ca84ed6	The magnificent structures of the Maya, which pay a silent debt to the extensive knowledge of this civilization in astronomy and the abilities of their engineers, make us think about the destruction of American Indian civilizations, begun with great Style by the conquerors and the clergy of the great empires of European "civilizers".
ffdd3f4064f4b520eb450f2cfc609581a9d747c2	To this day, this destruction continues with the exploitation and denial of the cultural differences of the descendants of the Maya and other American Indian civilizations.
c754647f25623167a8523861faa0d51bff2c8c18	Modern Maya
73a7194d8ab7315339da4f851f64a2a82b3ae613	The population of the Maya has more than three million inhabitants divided into nine large groups that use 28 language dialects.
7d6943057f8c9885af06fe92b7342a038260a215	Their main occupation is agriculture, and they live in communities or in villages.
9cc38654a7bb1309e9d10acba35c99d54bf51d03	The Kiche group (1 million) and the Maya from the state of Yucatan (800 thousand) include the largest number of people from this race.
5f005c18fba0be0ef657af6052a857d7b32dc552	The Maya from the state of Yucatan live in an area that has many surprises: dense jungles, magnificent sanotes and caves, impressive underground rivers and a hot climate.
82f7f10da3b92a938c1513d6aa7ca8f769bb66ce	This is also the land where eneken grows, black coral is cultivated and where the first mestis appeared; people who sing about their glory and give their lives for this land.
18397eca84e57da68e1d06d2e4b195b0a6ba626a	During their existence, they have accumulated beliefs, skills in needlework, oral and written traditions, practical knowledge, which, combined with the need for communication, have produced various samples of culture.
908ba00ddca4b7e60098df4dc8ce6b8b80ef0f8e	So, the hardworking hands of needleworkers created objects of special beauty and bright colors, of various applications: decorative, household items and items used only for religious holidays.
97467ed8ac9d586095322b9f3b797bdc2de412a8	As for the traditions regarding national clothing, many of the Mayan women in our time still use a traditional white dress embroidered with bright colors around the neckline and on the lower part of the skirt.
9d6fb9f66638e708fa0dd9b9b1623d11e0867941	On the shoulders, they are used with the style of "reboso" (a kind of shawl).
21b4afce4969a4b6243ea0219ad9d0882e0f51c2	The hair is usually braided or laid on the back of the head, decorated with scallops made of metal, bone or turtle, beads, bracelets, rings and earrings of filigree work or very simple composition complement the costume.
95ebb290d1da4a415db50b997cf8bb022e174d05	Traditionally, Yucatan men use loose trousers and a "guaiabera" (a straight shirt with pockets that is worn loose) of white color, which is often decorated with white embroidery on the front on top of the folds.
0abd1ee635d7651ab9ef9a95f2837a837b7eaa7f	Their shoes are traditional alpargats with high heels and a hat made of palm "hipihapa" elastic and of the same quality as the famous Panama hats.
b304df6a711b856cb0e965a1b93c35ff121a5ea6	In the province, men have a habit of carrying a machete in a case made of wood and leather and a shoulder bag made of eneken.
39a7d715d3b28ca5a7c68a6e8048cc6635f209f9	The Maya live in houses of round, square or oval shape with walls made of "bahareke" (branches intertwined with reeds and clay); which are covered with a roof of palm or grass.
5ea5f60d3621e50a5813a0ef0a1a64d694530eca	Maya sleep in hammocks , woven from eneken, nylon or cotton.
79bde9d1b2802ba9c443fb1e8bfbb65887655a7a	Yucatans show their ingenuity and ingenuity, passion for their faith, love and respect in the family and society.
22b79d5a46b5c5f42696538f16f94e31dcad6d84	All this, in many cases combined with the religious traditions brought by the Spaniards and the faith and customs of a people with deep pre Spanish roots, is combined in holidays and fairs.
5ada2ae8d71ab8b4bb86d46297d3bf6b794a1c65	Dances and songs are one of the main attractions at the traditional holidays of this people.
690f39e49d316a25f63c87915111aea439f1269c	The music of Yucatan was not only influenced by the Spaniards - the importation of African slaves, as well as the creation of Caribbean music, especially Cuban, left their mark on the style of music of these places.
f059e7b29273c29050b94e9c400b4cb856550350	"Harabes", "haranas" and "sones" were the first rhythms that appeared under the influence of this mixture.
5996ffe47573382be26379672ce1368733d362ae	Among the most widespread and well spread traditions of Yucatan families is their cooking.
d89c74ef211732d30c9be465029474a96627509c	From the pro Spanish times to the present day, spices, dishes and desserts have appeared for the taste of big and small.
629947ea7f2c2a0c49074cca36455df671804ee5	Varieties of pepper, beans, corn, zucchini, cocoa, armadillo, fish, poultry and deer are the main ones in the litany of the Maya people.
b832a711cba0e38d1a6536b1af59f9e70774a116	This culinary tradition demonstrates only one part of their wealth and cultural heritage.
d9d1e15160af49a99b4f0fb5c0aefa3df74bfbde	Two dishes - "cochinita pibil" and "los papadsues" (which means "the dish of lords or rulers") - crossed the borders of Yucatan and even the country.
463d95e1e9850a28fa69368760d81223f21b423d	The religion of Yucatan is a fusion of the Catholic religion and pro Spanish paganism or "syncretism".
b2cdb4aa73cd219448cfc83f5c58bc966add53d2	The interior of the churches in the state of Chiapas and in Guatemala amaze visitors: fir needles on the floor, without chairs do not resemble Catholic churches in any way.
62f86d649d58fc07753dc2e6a4d5a9b2f0eab72c	Churches have their own crosses and Christos, however, they have never been entered by priests.
ee7ba201effb58c4e2dee18685c5aa5fb06482d5	Everything happens on the floor, between the believers and the gods with the participation of a shaman.
3bb4f428c4c3d3e886c1215c82e57ee6f345386e	Unfortunately, everything passes and changes in the universe.
a7df3f482ff177404ec7f702d2904f12e65fc68a	These constant changes may be gradual, imperceptible at a simple glance; but over time, sometimes after millions of years, they lead to radical changes.
63f7a799e06f1bc098670bb7465a2b313abf5ae0	Which stimulate the emergence of something new.
6dd92cf7cff0653fa3c35c058beec5bf958fe91a	The culture of the Indians is gradually disappearing, their isolation is becoming more relative each time under the influence of schools, radio and television; doctors are replacing shamans and healers, antibiotics are replacing natural medicine.
f8dcf79fa49bf32a2f6361c357745134af216b12	Nowadays, due to the excessive exploitation of natural resources, poverty is growing and the only way out is alcohol or the fanatical religion of sectarians, which has flooded the entire society and every day brings more and more people into its ranks.
13cfd7f11a6a5725b8d06ae91d708d8973ecbdda	Several thousand years ago, the Mayan ancestors observed this constant change and expressed it in the following words, full of wisdom and poetry, taken from the" Chipam Balam de Chumael": "Every moon, every year, every day, every wind moves and passes.
17845959c6b3f3e30d66b35c62b660bbb5af9217	Also, each blood comes to its resting place, just as it comes to power and to its throne."
5e4cc92374e59bb52153cad8992ed671bba123b8	The first evidence of the presence of the Maya dates back to about 2500 BC in Guatemala and Belize, but it turned into a complex civilization much later than that time.
d3a34580b8ebf9c259a15af190c97394c6e7f015	According to tradition, their history is divided into three periods.
cfadb12c1001d6edb37c05dd9ce584fa004808e4	The period of Formation (or preclassic) (500 BC 320 AD)
a65084369893ce5bb610ded50bae25290e02117f	This period is characterized by the birth of large ceremonial centers; a great example of the pre classical period is Huaxactun in the Peten region of Guatemala.
7fd790a8938a43a3741f6f580097b29887bdfa0d	There is the first astronomical observatory of the Maya, with the help of which the solar calendar of 365 days divided into 18 months was probably improved.
ffbc7c1856c85acb558977acc53540736ebf00be	Classical Period (320-900 years AD)
d79ef4c012c73bc24306ce2bd59ac3d255ceec3c	During this period, the Maya reached their maximum prosperity, as well as economic and social stability.
34393854da2888e08f2a2017f11e983c5a8284fa	Just during the classical period, hieroglyphic syllabic writing appeared and all the architectural elements typical of this culture were improved.
d9d0a7ec864d733b972f5681ae9e0849f600a364	Political stability has affected the well being and the improvement of commercial relations between the city states.
2fcb41f0dc962f5dfc9486faaadea1a63056d619	Big cities like Tikal, Dig.
b5d628475b84ef7c59864ec209eec57dbd2022f5	Palenque and Uxmal flourished thanks to the trade in cocoa, jaguar skins, obsidian, pepper, amaranth and quetzal bird feathers.
7194d5c5638bb2ddba4c7211130b61363f119e37	Post Classical Period (900-1519 AD)
aa60e3cf67470d0b5ce04291b23ce4a2629b2d64	It lasts from the beginning of the decline of the Maya Empire to the conquest by the Spaniards.
7012552232f5dc4c11b975b356f4ef77dc6c824f	After a period of economic prosperity between the years 900 and 1000 AD, the great Maya empire began to decline.
aad7342336eba3705d41346bf9f3f04172e700f0	There is no exact information about the reasons for this decline, however, based on the research that has been done about this mysterious civilization, several theories have been proposed.
a3e65bbc588559cf80e1ceba61002e5ae3810353	1) The population grew to such an extent that the Maya theocratic system could no longer control it.
ed875ba6d94a08650d227911057812a18299ae05	Having lost faith in the priests in power, the people rebelled against them and killed them, but then they were not able to control themselves, which led to an inevitable decline.
9332f23788407c322a3439a056a5be1d92dc5c34	2) To clear areas of land from tropical vegetation and be able to plant corn on land fertilized with ash, the Maya used the method of logging and burning (this method continues to be used today).
ca19a08fcc3e83e3046579418d31618e08d82117	With this method, the surface part of the soil (very thin on the Yucatan Peninsula), although fertilized with ash, loses the nutrients necessary for plants, after burning was carried out on the same plot of land for several seasons, the yield begins to decline, creating great problems for survival and as a result, economic and social disagreements.
ae2319d594c8ed4a0038fdb6a9c9d8f38ec33d90	3) Other researchers talk about the military and cultural conquest of the Toltecs (a militant civilization from the central part of Mexico).
7883f5446438b5f6c74197bbe5324f13cce1318d	This conquest actually happened, although it is not known exactly when and how exactly.
28a02800a73c04ad142a10e665eebd828a5ba1c9	While some southern ceremonial centers of the Maya empire, such as Yashchtslan (in the state of Chiapas), Tikal, Dos Pilas and Seibal (in Guatemala) fell into decline and were finally abandoned, other cities of the Yucatan Peninsula merged their culture with the Toltec culture.
896a648b1aa256e5f092b6763897808a3204da2a	The center of power was the city of Mayapan, but there were constant periods of conflict between rival cities, very similar to those that took place at the same time in medieval Europe.
a3828f59fde4fbbf27447a069cfaaf161bdd818d	Perhaps for this reason, as well as due to some internal political conflicts, the greatness of Mayapan fell into decline several years before the arrival of the Spaniards on this continent.
11b2842aff3535ea40b8ce370293f415627b13d7	However, the conquest of the Yucatan Peninsula turned out to be difficult and long because of the resistance that the local people had, as well as because of the natural conditions of these places.
6d65ead0b09bf8fc2f637bb07181af6f5d7f7155	Chichen Itsa (City of the Water Sorcerers)
5bb8ea60ba6cbd363c7974ffca51dd33561a5b0f	Chichen Itsa was one of the largest and most magnificent ceremonial centers of the Maya culture, which were used to conduct some of the most important religious ceremonies, such as the sacrifice of people, in the sacred cenote, and famous for its oracles, this sacred city attracted travelers from all corners of the Maya territory.
d04566a800d08a400b008512eddeee7a4fbbf75d	In the Mayan language, Chichen Itsa probably means "the mouth of the well of the sorcerers of water".
229b7b13efd2cbf102b9873a2f5b999a98b4bf75	The water sorcerers were the Itsa Maya, the inhabitants of Chichen Itsa and the keepers of the sacred cenotes underground reservoirs of fresh water created by nature itself, which are located throughout the Yucatan Peninsula.
ea33ec7f14061166c47e3692addae5fb1540f921	In this dry zone, where there are no rivers or lakes, these cenotes were a guarantee of life and the abundance of limestone stones provided an inexhaustible source of building materials for the monumental temples of their large cities.
a162a761ee4df8a88ddb4731a986f76707ef1e48	Chichen Itsa was created in 432 AD and restored around 987.
c92b5d8e4bfb0d27b0ecb165b8508a577ff78259	It was during this period that the Toltec invasion occurred, although researchers do not have exact information about whether this invasion was "cultural" pacifical or had a military character.
4c3246b2e10dbe22b966d8aa9a32e9eb2bf6a653	The city is located on an area of about 300 hectares and represents two different architectural periods: the first belongs to the V IX centuries AD, and is observed in monumental sculptures of the Puuk style (a special style characteristic of the Mayan culture of the Yucatan Peninsula); the second is more voluminous and tall buildings and structures of rounded shape (for example, in columns).
2999eb75609cd480143c1e2a39fc33ffb8b23e3b	In addition, this style is characterized by a large number of images of Catsalcoatl( feathered serpent), the main god in the Toltec religion.
d9e93b74c0e41581088c7c372f251216446d6b62	The statues of Chak Mol are also typical in the fusion of Maya Toltec architectural styles.
df48ec6ad08111845008583ac17809f6103b9d7b	With a population of 20,000 to 30,000, Chichen Itsa was one of the largest cities of the pre Hispanic period and probably occupied the second largest in the Yucatan Peninsula after the city of Mayapan, the so called "capital" of the empire.
4290d852db3233df92246ccd86f331e959088a40	Unfortunately, Chichen Itsa was robbed several times after the Maya left it.
f3116e2a9b8b56af0b17c90074fc0d1d9ca0e40e	Tikal (The Place of the Voices of the Mayan Souls)
b58b44a1a70b19764d532279673276250a63caef	In 1848, Ambrosio Tut, a simple chiclero (a worker who extracts resin from the chicle tree used for the production of chewing gums), accidentally discovered the remains of a magnificent city in the center of Peten (in the north of Guatemala).
6ebc0a5bfde776a32023d16d6ae8ba8702afb7e5	He immediately turned to the governor of this area, who then took the credit for this magnificent discovery.
af90932546099eb397afa96bfd7882896683684d	Tikal, without any doubt, is one of the largest ceremonial centers of the Classical Maya Period (300 - 1000 AD).
d5420290333a6d9aa2e92647c38b0d5f0ff4ca14	It covers an area of approximately 16 square kilometers and is located in the center of a national park stretching for 573 km.square in the tropical jungle.
cabb69661f43c272e1042f8007983eb4005ea13c	This city was inhabited until about the year 1000, reaching the peak of its glory in 700 - 900 AD.
7d66db6c7ba16b44ad27f661b18fd6299111e45f	A typical element in Tikal architecture is the jagged ornaments on the temples, consisting of a wall decorated in a special style, installed in a place subsequent to the ceiling to increase the strong vertical lines of the temples.
738582b108728f243b7b4976e4f22df5ea562aab	Most of the decorations of buildings are concentrated on the facades in the form of plaster, ras painted in different colors.
805da98cdf0dfd418badf2f5752956408ccb2c36	These magnificent temples rise dizzily to the sky from the dense jungle of Peten, as if in silent prayer to their ancient gods.
16964e9cc95f3a286db15efb4a76459d49aa6b16	Priests, warriors and merchants lived in the center of the city, while the majority of the population lived outside the city in huts with " palapas "(roofs built of palm leaves) The market and craft workshops were also located in the center and have always been a very active part of the city, because at one time Tikal was the most important ceremonial center in this part of the Empire.
b8e32a135e3bbe1eff1f66aa8bd8c3af23b9eb05	There are no rivers or lakes in Tikal; the city was provided with water through a network of stone channels covered with plaster, which collected rainwater running down between buildings into artificial cisterns called "aguadas".
03ed87f7ed25f0fd825bbf23fc552fbabbbe5c04	This water was used during the dry period of the year.
75a20bf1f838d042e4ffc75821443145d81eb75e	There are still three such aguads in Tikal.
d71f0b65cf7838a01533b5b434a28c549bf11b66	Palenque
d44bee1e1f9776757856c5925d8a0f7ff98b107c	From an archaeological point of view, it is one of the most important cities of the Maya states.
4bde8ef9345cf45aa0fb29050acd509e777da2a6	It is located in the heart of the Mexican jungle, surrounded by lush vegetation and crossed by the Otulum River.
338aad862b74113b6d9ec7750240b247d4d6ddef	Palenque reached the peak of its greatness and flourishing around the years 600-700 AD, more or less at the same time as Tikal.
b8f6c54c9a5dfb461b1f3ce820f40e3f9eaf517e	However, its architectural style is completely different - more elegant.
65a504761ed6ac73bf5e906cff4c65379bd4fdee	Its jagged ornaments on the roof are processed in a more open style like lattice shutters or fences that taper upwards.
4ec025e4b3d4649fe286cf3156b9ec522ccda047	In addition, they are built in the middle of the roof, and not on top of the back wall as in Tikal.
e402e4932c850b27ae36fb437707ec6eeecb17ce	The smaller weight of these ornaments allowed their builders to reduce the thickness of the walls, supporting the weight of the structure.
dc6234768127913cdb3bbfd1d6eea156201e432c	Thus, the architects of Palenque were able to create such elegant buildings as the Palace, which is one of the best examples of residential architecture of the Classical Maya Period.
311fcfc23c41c737a402ebe54800cb911870c67b	The creation of forms from gypsum mortar also reached its maximum development in Palenque, which is evidenced by the beautiful bas reliefs of the funeral chamber in the Temple of Inscriptions.
ac27581ea32c43e23d832901750cc2692d89a44a	Uxmal (Built three times)
af9ea2cb7909d76660d1467682b546046c2db621	Uxmal is one of the most important ceremonial centers of Mayan culture located on the territory of the Yucatan Peninsula.
f7957c3b89cbffe1945aeb1f43699f518342d41b	It was built by an unknown Maya tribe at the end of the Classical Period, between 600 and 1000 AD, in the elegant Puuk style.
877872bf604d8866041c77a42ebb91750e413537	Subsequently, this city was abandoned and repopulated twice, which is why it was named Maya Oshmal. which means "built three times".
4d5968c013eac9219978992bf4fa7b3b41504ebe	Located in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is very hot even in winter, the zone belonging to Uxmal has always had to deal with the problem of drought.
e2096374662f2f21f0c55d7fc57eafaaeeecc899	In addition, although most of the Mayan cities were built near the cenote (a crevice or well created by nature on the limestone surface of the earth), Uxmal was built on a hill.
cbb524c61aaadadedc2edd20ce3963493e1476b1	For this reason, its architects met with a seemingly insurmountable problem: how to provide the city with water?
e4fb54ac4dd2f9ff2491daee42246a9346f1c3ed	They overcame this obstacle by building funnel shaped cisterns that served to collect and store rainwater, which they used when periods of drought came, in the Mayan language they were called "chultun".
827944e3e4edc6b0e08a4b322e3458b4ce4299ff	The ceremonial center of Uxmal, covering an area of 1 km. sq., is the Puuk style's purest example in Mexico.
90e1ea52c12ee45c6568e7adc1ebcf6c723e55be	Therefore, since 1996, it has been considered a World Heritage Site.
75b6d4ec75e7ba33bdf19b046e9ffc7d3a6ae8bb	The Uxmal estate belonged to the landowner Simon Peon, who lived in the United States.
ca30a23096152735f24362111df230162616bbba	It is difficult to describe the constant looting carried out by grave diggers, who were hired by rich collectors and merchants living abroad.
4dca07b9e8612939b1382914770df3d4bb1c3c93	Tulum (Stone Wall)
eee5748deeb1e68d74fb7ea7dd59c79e92292b5f	Tulum is one of the most famous archaeological sites on the coast of the state of Quintana Roo.
2803ab70563f211c530d33183a9bd18ca1e0faa7	This city, surrounded by a fortress wall, is located on the Caribbean coast opposite the southern
8499642ca5a3f5c7b6ea56a2a9ab23a1e0960772	Mayan Tribes
e73c5a09780d1a8dd938059994d1e80782e06b10	Download The name Mayan Tribes Conversion date 25.02.2013 Size 445 b.
bebb7d5389477047212023eac568f6be66582001	Presentation Type
7b2eea228420817eaa42398ddf8fb2e7c8caaa52	Maya is a civilization of Central America, known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems.
5b8d55d9db16da62c1478245c57c08a1c1752649	It began to form in the pre classical era (2000 BC 250 AD), most of its cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250 AD 900 AD).
a48c4df45ecd08c979ae527c8a7fffc087c194de	It continued to exist until the arrival of the conquistadors.
afc78f6ce664529db65624806b5d3d8fe9347090	Some Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Seren in El Salvador — a small Mayan village that was buried under volcanic ash and is now being excavated
0d3d2aeb82f82ca8449a97644fb3d347bbe6249d	Currently (2010), the territory where the development of the Maya civilization took place is part of the following states: Mexico (Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
3ba1c14d9fe8a11e1f791c227cafc3fc7b8eb724	About 1000 Mayan settlements have been found (at the beginning of the 80s of the XX century), but not all of them have been excavated or studied by archaeologists, as well as 3000 settlements.
4b9fb9a7715e72b292bb1dbba85281ed70d3e919	The first buildings attributed to the Mayan civilization in Cueyo (Belize) are dated to about 2000 BC .
bd79f51459f44faf49fc5f0babbc2dd16821c667	In Copan (Honduras), hunters settle around 1100 BC .
f5054bca0ea12f85f92df81333068e8fc83411bf	The Maya culture, which has spread to the whole of Yucatan, is experiencing its heyday, during this period the cities of Chich'en Itza (circa 700), Uxmal and Koba were founded.
79485d3f727dacefa5c400ed82e7b16105d053d2	The cities are connected by roads, the so called sacbé (sacbé).
684814e6f8aaea5bcc20f9ee42c98374ea718bfb	The Mayan cities have more than 10,000 inhabitants, which exceeds the population of the central European cities that existed at that time
f331bddd08efd06c057c6acc3a57835e4d2a2659	In 1517, the Spaniards appeared in Yucatan under the command of Hernandez de Cordoba [1] .
00fa63b3438e8547251168b832e2b903655c3b9d	Mayan art, which has found expression in stone sculpture and bas reliefs, works of fine plastic, paintings on walls and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes embodied in stylized grotesque images.
4d6364524cf92d25d1d0adb450f0603d46ce48e5	These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and grandeur.
762911e3e279d90dcd353fb1621260eea13a4703	Writing The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre Columbian New World were the systems of writing and numbering of time created by the Maya people.
b54d2220f2f603a24abf69acc582aa52349c2b66	They were first translated by the German scientist E. Verstemann in the 1880s.
e468920d936552766d812f02be53c907c330da52	The fixation of time became possible thanks to a combination of writing and thorough astronomical knowledge.
06f568f4db76e5f26d0b75884e0e2ef9c2b9ee78	Ruins Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate.
c2b06dea3a269709b204a51aa6186b0e0f260458	In the period from 250 A.D. to 900 A.D. (the classic period of Maya development), the city states of the region were headed by rulers who embodied, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function.
e536e6eff61d02a87c619ea4e387c927f2faebb7	Maya is one of the most advanced colonizations!!!
ed45b0d820a4d0bbe4eabb4ab15f7184829b085e	Similar: Maya.
b4ae0c115c292c646618a19c1637411371deaced	The Maya lived on the territory of modern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Belize since 2600 BC.In the 1500s, the Spanish conquistadors conquered the local population of this region and destroyed most of its culture.
4d9519588d31e01295096b0d1bb56e0588737b6c	The Mayan books were ... the ancient Mayans – who are they?
201f565b1b31be0d4cd2593d1c22a33963bb1ca6	The Mayan calendar was based on the mythical starting date August 13, 3113 BC
9f785ce66d0a1e57bbcf08e1ec7c3a5c688ad2e2	What was the Maya script?
b556c9b5cc72fcf91b7f4748352094c6e00e564c	Yulia Noskova Until recently, it was believed that the Maya could borrow some elements, and possibly the basis of their writing from or History History Religion The territory occupied by the Maya civilization.
dadbbcfa1cace6aba9f14c8c81f3bde2d5d1b3e4	The border of the Mayan culture is highlighted in red, the territory of the Mesoamerican civilization is highlighted in black...
e4bebfbc8ee880c3f1e7b68bb14a4c4f4b705a21	The worldview and writing of the Maya.
64ca58d8504d8606977ff797d01002921e2953a4	Number systems.
72caf3a65a8fa987bd01c528c6d2d33b7e758fc0	A student of the 10th " A "class of the moe" Lyceum No.
ee51502829e7f7f4cf809ba891fd14607afb0cb0	3 " All this complex system was developed by the priests and used by them for their own purposes.
6816bc0bced5294b32591ea4bae0cee33865fc14	It should be taken into account that all our knowledge about the image... is Maya architecture.
9c139943419b386f683a20276af2469cc261a514	Chichen Itza Yucatan (Mexico).
1c6c92dab9de380b9c4235a46424852bac4133d8	The sacred city of the Itza people, is located 75 miles east of the city of Merida, the capital of Yucatan, Mexico.
48b1bde291027261e28c302a566ee268b8f3aad7	In translation...
fc7790dc9106408e66521960057d6ba8df9de6c9	Maya Journey into the Past Content Introduction Part of the Life of the mysterious Maya Would you like it?
f0d717461902312015d1b8f3bff808948285bf76	Yes, yes, to you who want to follow this example!
e2b3c68dad6202d7876924f80b6d6b04ec7113b8	"From the camel"!
7aaf200012c64b510ced895bbb24b6c81025e053	A nightmare!
bb7b3aa61bcdd748167799e78b3557cc5eff18ee	Yes, yes, yes... however, and with Polynesia very... lesson plan.
68345d50fecec7679d7ed578c5aedd98076949ef	Lesson plan.
8a5e5604e7b87d1c5fa46be76b82452bbfa7385e	Art culture of the classical period.
e3642e806288c5fd53f411fb16ce00aea8658273	The art of the Aztecs.
88bee5ddfadd58d8348c25ff9747e0670ebe2370	Mayan art culture.
c4c955ec1b6e29a1a89794f9ad1b6f9d9e4ff447	By the time of its "discovery", in 1492, up to 2/3 of the entire population of the continent lived there, although these areas were only in size...
84b61b14751801a21366936fdb9306a1e3142877	Mayan predictions for 2012, the end of the fifth sun
f4c3497ab689fe2f94e4d27b696a9ad7946e67a4	Writing and knowledge of the Egyptians Mysterious tribes
d6812e41c976aa46cf4a306937b33d06745dc175	Place the button on your website:
e8021050074de751fdc8a1bb0caf5a6b0f8bcd4b	dok.opredelim.com dok.opredelim.com
22836c5b4a6252796d621b46c3a14ae857b5eac4	The database is protected by copyright ©dok.opredelim.com 2015
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86de18d5d499b12a67a3879822f2e029e813b1fe	Essays Lectures Short Stories Reference Books Lessons Reports Presentations
5e2fb0c2c59448e1dec5df0f70ec85fcad1ca7b6	publish
9521dba25709a79ede4a34b50471419774c41099	Home page
aea4099e317f5e764e73756d9af8229535159256	The American company Apple Inc. today is one of the most famous corporations.
b3916b9878d1ee4e42c7ac8cbc2ffcd308336b56	Its products are known all over the world, and it's not just computers.
ba892497f466df70a462223b8fa090ed0587b74f	Today, the company produces mobile phones, tablet computers, audio players, and software.
d595840feafb4ab2408cbd9a65e70f542de67879	Consumer electronics manufactured under the logo of this company has a very attractive design, the most modern features and is manufactured using the latest technologies.
7ec360a0a18699e4803665a08f46bb99033c11f4	Therefore, Apple products have been and remain very popular and appreciated in many countries.
2576d691a960dbb7eb80415eafee3fcdbdfb0e23	In fact, Apple has managed to create a reputation so high in the consumer electronics market that it can be recognized as a cult.
154e3fa24937fb547c448ea8ab8c89afff47acc8	Apple was founded in 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne.
06e0ecd7fdc3726dad1bf5ccd66c1adae0ffc864	She has already crossed her 35-year milestone and can boast of certain achievements.
bcadfa66675ea6914b6322191f1098219605ce58	At the time of the company's founding, Steve Jobs was 21 years old, Steve Wozniak was 25 years old and Ronald Wayne was 41 years old.
c0fb1ca5df24b7f3c29516fb85fdc154845f798c	Many well-known global brands that are worth billions of dollars started their journey in an ordinary garage.
0eadc10f382832552940893ea896e5e52f051d24	Many newcomers who want to start their own business think that they need a lot of money to start their own business, that they need to rent a business premises, buy goods or equipment, hire a lot of staff.
c7d183a8c273aecac0e14be3042a4fc923f4c648	As a result, even at the start, a rather large amount runs up, which a beginner simply does not have.
426bd793fcde39d0baecab015e7f5d6d4598feff	And this amount usually scares a person away.
b74e90175d013aa3c68cda72ecb1bdc465856890	The history of Apple began thirty years ago, when two friends Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak decided to start their own company for the production and production of computers.
29f65c6dba75a3fad91fffdb60de848cb9908ed6	Officially, Apple was founded on April 1, 1976, and it was then that the hand – assembled Apple Computer I appeared on the market-175 pieces were assembled and sold for $ 666.66 in ten months.
24bac107e7ec65e5bb82b5045877d59bb0ac10ee	In fact, the Apple I was a motherboard without a case, keyboard, sound and graphics.
6daf98d90f1f4cfcf61bfad7bae2f65efd06cca0	In February 1977, Michael Scott became Apple's president.
b9886dbfee0bbe71b23dbf055a2fde53c6319c91	A significant step forward was the release in April of the same year of the Apple Computer II – the first personal computer with color graphics.
ba673195390ea6d1f8931159d7b0468b4beed5f9	At the same time, the logo now known to the whole world – a bitten multicolored apple – created by the advertising agency Regis McKenna appeared.
fc1e5c896d98f323e832ccc99864418a56ca2f83	All this "stuffing" was packed in a specially designed molded plastic case, which very favorably distinguished the new Apple from other computers that had the appearance of clumsy boxes made of sheet metal.
bc7f7c907fea1bdda696c37cfd0ecab55b07ac4a	In fact, you can easily write several weighty books about this company.
b21f9eb3273ac124419cbc428c2fe59e26708f23	It is no exaggeration to say that Apple is one of the brightest technology companies that appeared in batches in the 70s of the last century.
cb1f337f10653af92e26de0bad15ed85e84ce90c	The history of the "fruit company" contains a lot of folklore motifs.
66f3d92a66945d40ea79ce3cdf7875dc7952a388	Needless to say, the very first computer she created — the Apple 1, with which everything began in 1976, is now a real collector's value, estimated at hundreds of thousands of pounds.
4a3c94a04676917b6867be5d7e3f139f9c90fdd7	Many people are now surprised by this attitude to this freak in a wooden box.
e912c77760b3b1392d6f52aa664ea9244f5e21a6	However, it was this computer that laid the foundation of the industry as such, it was with an eye to it that numerous decisions from other manufacturers were subsequently made.
f6bd0bed237458a7820099f395c34f9e937365b2	The birth of the company came from the union of the technical genius Stefan (Steve) Wozniak (Stephen Wozniak) and marketing genius Steve Jobs (Steve Jobs).
e251e454edc8c360e0a59324d9b0c52128544101	Apple Inc. (MFA: [ææp(ə) l ɪŋk]; the official Russian spelling is "Apple" [6]) is an American corporation, a manufacturer of personal and tablet computers, audio players, phones, and software.
9c6963cf571127451268b24d78143a0f6a9bbbc5	One of the pioneers in the field of personal computers[7] and modern multitasking operating systems with a graphical interface.
8c703f7ddaf881b866fad38c1d6d4dec0dcd6c3d	It is headquartered in Cupertino, California.
fd0426348369c5fd233708d230502839d5ba0d27	Thanks to innovative technologies and aesthetic design, Apple has created a unique reputation, comparable to a cult, in the consumer electronics industry[8].
afbf7a4db0963435d5a16c42f93b88c566d1d30e	The company ranks first in the world by market capitalization[9], the size of which as of January 11, 2016 is 537 billion US dollars.
0efb2cc6c1eb8c43eef4c6867f9bceba3fc9cfc3	The company's name comes from the English apple ("apple"), the image of an apple is used in the logo.
75d94fc1bd5cb48280a28b128904860b99d02d02	Until January 9, 2007, the official name of the corporation for more than 30 years was Apple Computer, Inc.
b1fa836da0546ac0c3b356b1f8f2c7a447d3e8b5	The rejection of the word Computer in the name demonstrates the change of the main focus of the corporation from the traditional computer equipment market to the consumer electronics market.
e32f918fff4da69684ed476182aa4803cf507e57	The company was founded in California by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who assembled their first personal computer based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor in the mid-1970s.
8d6b48f20883c7298048f33b8bf1d0039a3b1dac	After selling several dozen of these computers, young entrepreneurs received funding and officially registered Apple Computer, Inc. on April 1, 1976[12].
e57d38af604c38196163737bb602a072fcffa3bb	The Apple I, released in 1976, was not the first programmable microcomputer.
80c66bb0f5dc20fec8ed4307334a9c31c5a072cf	The right of primacy belonged to the Altair 8800 microcomputer, which was created by Ed Roberts and distributed through catalogs in 1974-1975.
55d7a6aa8e063e903ecc6a78d7efeac4537b7bdd	However, "Altair" was not a "personal computer", since it did not give the opportunity to solve more or less serious tasks with its help.
bf72a21454b8ea218f43878c76c73df24795065c	In 1976-1977, several companies released the first personal computers, including since 1977, thousands of computers were sold by Commodore and Tandy Radio Shack companies.
050ed241bc28cdfc7134b173d41c70f511691b42	But the first mass-produced personal computer, produced by millions of copies, was the Apple II computer[7].
57678b3664a57eb00c70e0ee73e5fb8176aed0c3	From 1977 to 1993, Apple produced various models from the line of 8 (later 8/16) bit Apple II computers.
27ddd53e019eaf17e240a96d840001063208b970	In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the "Apple II" and their clones were the most common personal computers in the world.
d8d7ec576f52c6939dc48c34e14249e4ceab9024	More than 5 million Apple II computers were sold worldwide.
6506cde139f3c7d5795d634335f132fb2b23bded	The year 1980 in the history of Apple was marked by the Apple III project that failed for a number of reasons, but at the same time the company held the largest initial public offering (IPO) in history (after 1956, when Ford entered the stock exchange).
ff1317fe9bd442fa48a195c31b647ff41fa75012	In March 1981, Wozniak was involved in a plane crash and left his job for a while.
f9fa1fad204213db29f7990e2588548691fd9ffa	Problems with Apple III sales led to the fact that Jobs had to lay off 40 employees.
312cd89b9bd4c2d6d1559934c10971a64a21743a	The press has already trumpeted the imminent end of Apple.
812a9c46df3d091b77b512202326e85f02f9e41d	In early 1983, Jobs, unable to cope with the problems that arose, invited John Scully, who at that time held a similar position at PepsiCo, to the position of president of the company.
a6a4001765c0ec88ef8d67e43e28ddc35dbb22a2	In April 1983, Scully took up his duties.
bc58e9d6898b47faa9751b4a15e1de35a0352028	Steve Jobs experienced the company's failures as his own, so disagreements and friction began to arise between him and Scully.
b209d9a84723c39bc487411e1dcf0dabb8969259	In 1984, Apple first introduced a new 32-bit Macintosh computer.
b47e158b7139d41ecd067a43a49b2575ebe92228	Later, the production of computers of this series became the main business of the company.
ebc3290cb682c9e50b4b89f6b8caa9bbde11a7a4	For two decades, the company has been producing Macintosh computers based on Motorola processors equipped with a proprietary operating system.
67168901705115bdca0f79869ba7e1cd75254b6a	This platform is produced only by Apple — for a short time in the mid-1990s, the management decided to grant licenses for the production of Mac compatible computers, but subsequently the licenses were revoked.
37543816b438ada408f1ccfe39993df5052409f0	Traditionally, Apple has had a strong position in the segments of government and educational organizations, as well as in the publishing business and design, and later in the music industry.
47b1f25fd8b43c039dcea0e802204b79157ca75e	Earlier than other developers, Apple introduced a graphical user interface and a computer mouse into wide use.
7413078d044bb98b2d22d9235a9e820b0351d74b	In 1985, US President Ronald Reagan awarded Jobs and Wozniak medals for the development of technological progress.
41847467f181b5419c93090bca498c6ac89f5b5a	In the same year, one of the founders, Steve Jobs, left the company.
959bf0fa896da6464cd48eb75376ee54a428a780	By the end of the 1990s, Apple's business deteriorated sharply, by 1997, losses in two years amounted to $1.86 billion[13].
f175e83ff63c6594962e5d0124d8e1d1fe523055	The situation changed with the return of Jobs in 1997.
2521e69d7647597a561632d74751445ad6a9e36b	Apple has gradually begun to discover new markets that are not directly related to computer technology.
743bf56e01c05a20f002e13a46940eb533464c93	In 2001, the company introduced the iPod audio player, which quickly gained popularity.
6a65c506dd73682dcc032ae9cdc5fbfbd1a9c638	In 2003, the company opened the iTunes Store — a popular online supermarket of digital audio, video and game media content.
56185a472de7c751d754346d53025c68dee0d8e2	And in 2007, it entered the market of mobile phones with a touch-sensitive iPhone smartphone.
a83d537846ed700b440de809243f3b26dffac68f	In 2010, the iPad tablet computer was released on the market[13].
6108f1c203eb9b779ad5b9d3d3c17fad64d1ed33	The production of iPods, iPhones and iPads, which were in high demand around the world, dramatically improved Apple's financial situation, bringing the company a record profit.
feaffbfef5c9fd5e0df748381561efbf3dae01f4	In August 2011, Apple became the most expensive company in the world by market capitalization for the first time, surpassing the oil company ExxonMobil, until the end of the year they changed places more than once, but since January 2012, Apple has managed to gain a foothold on the first line for a long time.
134fd66e9f20fd28b1e218b666a6c7462abf827d	In August 2012, it became the most expensive company in history, breaking the Microsoft record set in December 1999, at the peak of the so — called dot-com bubble, and on September 21, 2012, Apple shares reached their maximum during trading - $705.07, capitalization was $662.09 billion[14].
4c784bab921b028ccb9332dc74798b92660f4b50	From the peak in September 2012 to January 2013, Apple's capitalization decreased by 37.6 %[14], which allowed ExxonMobil to compete with it again for the first place of the most expensive public company in the world[15].
acfa2613a3c9cd8f2aeb198dfe25014ef4005cea	On November 13, 2014, Apple again broke its record, its capitalization was $663.43 billion[16].
ce1e045d208d7fad528d4b7945947cc064f7dc8e	In 2014, the corporation introduced its first personal, wearable device — the Apple Watch.
18b6b280e7057170aba14f1dbb19f29aeba1f59c	Over the years, Apple has repeatedly absorbed various companies operating in the IT market.
ab72a619c4dedec1ffc80158e033bb001c72a486	Among the largest such deals are the purchase of NeXT (1996, for $430 million), P. A. Semi (April 2008, $280 million), Quattro Wireless (January 2010, $274 million), Siri (April 2010, $200 million), Anobit Technologies (January 2012, $400-500 million), Beats Electronics (May 2014, for $3 billion)[18] and others.
6043a85c57e51bdd97ed1d30c4c14621c4803acc	Apple is a public company, its shares are traded on the NASDAQ and the London Stock Exchange.
123fa4d678780eae5da8300ff49b5cac4f08422c	The total number of issued shares at the beginning of 2011 was 921.28 million units.
8a5d46dac7dfcad245b3833161276db6f525f6c7	As of May 26, 2010, the market value of the company (enterprise value) of Apple exceeded that of Microsoft [19].
68a71e7aa7cc9ef23e2865e660108bbcb0af271d	As of March 2011, the company's market capitalization was estimated at $309.5 billion[20].
9e7d0ab389365e756165f036f9963267c8578b9e	In August 2011, Apple became the most expensive company in the world by market capitalization, which as of August 10 amounted to $338.8 billion[13].
53550d988860bdc63b51f7f66c812a2ebded6059	As of February 9, 2012, Apple's capitalization reached $456 billion.
cd06fd9044b2e249074acdfc4577803957252360	This exceeds the total cost of the closest competitors Apple, Google and Microsoft combined[21].
39c4b1cfc12cb436fcf9ecd4e734c894e2754bff	In 2014, Apple regained the leadership in terms of market capitalization with an amount of $ 700 billion.
f9fa5e8a0cf767c0e64c5ac7b45c80c562452d95	The company sells some of its products through a network of Apple Store retail stores owned by it (more than 400 in total[28]) in the United States, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom and other countries.
1d7ccc5705c78f92a0e98f56aec4b866aebb8bd6	And also sells various products (not only of its own production) through its online stores (Apple Store (online), iTunes Store and App Store), which in 2013 brought the company about $18.3 billion, which put Apple in 2nd place after Amazon.com among the companies of online retailers[29].
31470836a844b241ba9f0cd3ae3753c8494678b7	Total number of employees (as of 2013): 80 thousand people[5].
aa010b96c6a45fef83a880686aacff42617c7e8d	Revenue for the 2014 tax year amounted to $ 182.795 billion, net profit — $ 39.51 billion[4].
e0cf94c10d9f855dc39d3dd10ed25516f7be34ca	In fiscal year 2006, which ended on September 30, Apple's sales in Russia amounted to $ 69 million[30].
2030e3b588899b000f6a7a9a87245ad658cf1229	According to the managers of Apple IMC Russia, 240 thousand iPod audio players were sold in Russia during this period (an increase of 6 times per year).
f990b3abc407c0cf423f52a89f3b4643b285accc	In 2007, the Russian representative office of the company was established, since September 6, 2010, headed by Alexey Badaev[31].
e0a6ad586c4aba8ff30513f54a44fba5d302a22b	As of 2008, there are about a dozen authorized business partners of the company operating in Russia.
f9eb83122f2ce4af2ec6afb267fe16100e78ee87	The official importer of Apple equipment to Russia was chosen by the company "di House", and in 2010 the second importer was the company "Marvel".
79165d5047b789c2a5211192c5a64ae367793c5a	Also, since 2012, the Svyaznoy group has been directly purchasing products from Apple, which makes devices cheaper in stores of this network.
b0df2f3ea41010584ef73c1d93b84299b30200c7	As of 2015, there is not a single Apple store in Russia: all the company's products are sold through an extensive network of partner stores at various levels.
7f8305e21dad204f432fc63155b274673767da51	Apple Corporation registered the Apple Rus company in 2012.
dc3cc1be2ac4bd2db9743443c4411d24acc52a1f	The main activity is wholesale and retail trade of technical devices[32].
53385a07cd79b3740322df6ea952fe48ca06b544	On June 28, 2013, the company launched the Russian segment of the Apple Online Store[33].
56be304efc6064e2cbac4172446aaa3172094a8b	Apple's marketing policy is quite aggressive.
56463ca6f0540cd5811d2622388936ab3358f3a7	For example, users of Apple products on the Microsoft Windows platform receive messages about product updates that they do not have installed; the installation options for these products are enabled by default.
3baf13b0cc3c3bbb0b58f013eaf11362fe3d39b8	In particular, Safari users are asked to install iTunes and QuickTime; to refuse this, they must uncheck the corresponding checkboxes in the update dialog themselves[34].
fa1aac291811d92c5997a2f278717173e8575b14	So, in March 2008, Apple began offering iTunes for Windows users to install their Safari web browser.
436b18ccd2bc1758495fe1db0ea50e8fc8dd6451	"1984" is a television commercial directed by Ridley Scott, dedicated to the Macintosh computer.
91cbcc9bab3dbdc2ee75a555e71257508e9e7061	First shown on January 22, 1984.
e43cb831f09a5167f95a29abd8b1ef214e1b2384	The title is used and the plot of George Orwell's dystopian novel "1984"is played out.
4794e1f72e1339cf9fe4226042a9752b69aa34e3	"Think Different "(eng. Think Differently) is a successful Apple advertising campaign from 1997-2002.
b6ed29e0df3dbe2518a8d87398fa3228976a6318	Apple annually organizes the MacWorld exhibition, where it presents its new products and updates.
fe4d38d57342cf2c97648830c1f3a9f2084f5495	Greenpeace launched a campaign against Apple because of various environmental problems, for example, because of non-recyclable hardware components and toxic substances in the iPhone[42][43].
50a3742d064f94bd889a80cf9afc569dd2d82f60	Since 2003, Greenpeace has been campaigning against Apple's use of special chemicals in its products, in particular, the inclusion of PVC and brominated additives[42].
175a9cc5db505dca6b987bfc9173867edd396ed6	On May 2, 2007, Steve Jobs published a report announcing his plans to eliminate PVC and brominated additives by the end of 2008[44][45].
2c16101aefff99e89e836f172caab641bef7091a	Apple has since eliminated PVC and brominated additives from its products, becoming the first laptop manufacturer to do so. [46] [47]
4b3755e978887bc5978ed079109cea44887a88ea	In the first edition of Greenpeace's "Guide to Green Electronics", released in August 2006, Apple received only 2.7/10[48].
236d2dcb38c26cfb24e695314a089f877dd7a562	The US Environmental Protection Agency highly rates Apple among laptop manufacturers, and gives the company good ratings compared to other manufacturers of desktop computers and LCD displays[49][50].
323432bc0ada44923d7461bb08ed24b00661cd4e	In June 2007, Apple updated the MacBook Pro, replacing the cold-cathode fluorescent lamps in the backlighting of LCD displays with mercury-free LEDs and arsenic-free glass[51], and since then has done this for all laptops[44][52][53].
13636297b780f1cae6a0ccbf916cc0baf30fff1e	Apple has also eliminated brominated additives and PVC in various internal components.
92552dbc47a41911874a478076610dc1ca9a7348	Apple offers information about emissions, materials, and electricity consumption for each product[54].
3f36a4ead6f7c575d2500fa98fb27e1b7e32685a	In June 2009, the iPhone 3GS was produced without PVC, arsenic, brominated additives and had an effective power adapter[51].
9ff3f58caa89f98b9f7d3348d3251306856600ac	In October 2009, Apple updated the iMac and MacBook, replacing cold-cathode fluorescent lamps in the backlighting of LCD displays with mercury-free LEDs and arsenic-free glass[55].
99e2ea99c0de309983f0e8f50017c05699026db9	This means that all Apple computers have mercury-free LED backlit displays, arsenic-free glass and PVC-free cables.
475d09cc12f583503b2809e2867a5e1460101383	All Apple computers have a Gold status according to the EPEAT version[51].
67569b40c82555592bc3a9f86535201988e6743d	In October 2011, the Chinese authorities ordered Apple suppliers to close part of their factory in Suzhou, after local residents discovered significant environmental problems[56].
a72a86a49eab7cb691b01167dfe98fd83c834085	In June 2012, Apple recalled its products from EPEAT[57], but reversed this decision in July[58].
eb380e27e98b82c53add4f99192a8dd8aad91f54	As of October 16, 2012, the company has received 5440 patents, including inventions (seven — digit number) - 4480 pieces, design projects (the letter D and six digits in the number) - 914 pieces[75].
0ca538201af460ce0fd4f1773071b64e2f732d31	In 2009, Nokia accused Apple of violating 10 patents that affect voice signal encoding, secure data transmission protocols and a number of other inventions used in the iPhone since the first version of the device appeared[76].
2d8fbd10df5c00712753556f39147966347b0c35	As a result, Apple was found guilty of violating these patents, having received an order to pay compensation to Nokia, as well as to pay deductions in the future[77].
e6e2965d5d41e1f85e4ad47c61260effbb9dac0f	The details of the agreement are not disclosed[78].
1ffec9f905f9099cfbcd418300549102d8a13e40	At the end of 2011, a German court found violations of a patent in the field of wireless data transmission of Motorola Mobility, obliging Apple to pay compensation for 4 years, and also securing Motorola's right to demand the removal of patented technologies from Apple devices[79].
202b3c928bbcf6bdfff13c0d82d1503c61bd2ab7	In August 2015, a court ruling was issued stating that the A7 processor produced by the company violates a patent of the University of Wisconsin.
5acfffb4d1656cc14e63d9f1aab239ef0abeec81	The court obliges Apple to pay $862 million in compensation for moral damage[80].
9cd9b0e3b03ae92214a54aa275737ce85be4f25a	To reduce the taxes that the company pays around the world, Apple has created subsidiaries in low-tax places such as Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and the British Virgin Islands.
6d68c13e8d5a0c1d9a394a41b76388663e9371a7	According to the New York Times, Apple was one of the first technology companies to launch sales on other continents on behalf of subsidiaries, bypassing income taxes.
1b25be0b5c1aa07a557457144f4e958a9e57a2eb	On April 21, 2011, Greenpeace published a report highlighting the fact that data centers consume up to 2 % of the world's electricity, and this amount is projected to increase.
6e224d5d7088f68cdd899e4605d1af0dc95d1b9a	Phil Radford of Greenpeace said that "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity consumption may drive us into a system of old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today"[36].
6e818dfa360137193aaa6ca7c338c7af1657e1a5	On April 17, 2012, after a protest by Greenpeace against Apple, the corporation released a statement that it was ending the use of coal and switching to 100% environmentally friendly energy[37][38]. In 2013, Apple announced that it uses 100 % renewable energy to power its data centers, and in general, 75 % of the power comes from renewable sources[39].
5f2348a10a6c3ea7fcc94358b5db4dd06915e2ca	In 2010, Climate Counts, a non-profit organization dedicated to directing consumers towards green companies, gave Apple 52 points out of 100 possible, which puts Apple in their highest category "On the Way"[40].
a9d4fe3902b50fa396f8680105e8fa4e34d1fcd8	This was a leap forward compared to May 2008, when Climate Counts gave Apple only 11 points out of 100, which placed the company in last place among electronics companies, after which Climate Counts also awarded Apple the "mark of slow-wits", adding that Apple at that time had "a chance to evade consumers worried about climate change"[41].
c84652d1999f60239ccead850bc5e983118b691b	In 2006, Mail on Sunday reported on the working conditions that existed at factories in China, where subcontractors Foxconn and Inventec produced iPods[59].
eb226ff01989a9fd469e8d7c44c2a28edac5a865	The article says that in one complex of factories where iPods are assembled (among other products), more than 200,000 workers lived and worked at the factory and constantly worked more than 60 hours a week.
6754015ad00a35f637d33df96e71ad2e795cfd28	Apple immediately began investigating and working with its manufacturers to ensure acceptable working conditions[63].
cddaae51865b51616972e00657f27694d28c659e	In 2007, Apple began an annual audit of all its suppliers about the rights of employees, slowly raising standards and weeding out non-compliant suppliers.
7b5251c8e8bd3862f998fef13ca6e713e71657c2	Annual progress reports have been published since 2008[64].
594ebaa6ae0d38b3e9fdd44a321a7fb91dbf31d2	In 2010, workers in China decided to sue contractors, iPhone manufacturers, because of poisoning with a cleaner used to clean LCD screens.
81bcc6988f1a43d7576b32848d2186ca10a17f01	After a wave of suicides at Foxconn factories in China, where iPads and iPhones are assembled, [66] workers were forced to sign a legally binding document guaranteeing that they would not kill themselves[67].
aeae74b8fa9cfe14b931c1ef8cb84b7adbb4d39b	BrandReport
da43c2eb4981de7c585679b44aefd400810f7cc5	Encyclopedia of brands
4d2632d7012abd20e5ea93759a05659a129407bb	Brands News Articles Success Stories Brand Knowledge Test Brand Ratings
476432a3e85a0aa21c23f5abd2975a89b6820d63	Apple
af9eda3ee47a1fadc68eda01ed77edabce78d2ed	October 21, 2011
e4d3d3f0fce651d09aee5480ec5e58268ccc2409	1976
3c4a80dbdfac57d174d1cab8d11d03ad91888820	1998
ff93b9c64e3812642c9208bffe2404ac847cc1f7	Slogan: Think Different
89c2eb7445b33b5c5f7d17aa40c7a9436bbdb368	Many seemingly simple events are retold in a variety of ways, overgrown with myths and speculation, turning into beautiful legends (which is only the story of the appearance of a bitten apple on the logo).
9cb2e518c058233316c629b1836069912d87e2c7	And this applies not only to Apple itself, but also to the products it produces.
57e28fc03071a2b7d0fbe179254ea0d061f194a7	They met thanks to Bill Fernandez, their mutual friend, who decided to bring future partners together, not doubting that they would find a common language.
c4c2729d1e42f529b3f767e00aeca8bb301d15e8	26 year old Wozniak then studied at the University of Berkeley, and the younger Jobs had already graduated from school and Pak still did not know where to hide.
527168d65186628f4cbee03fcdfd965360f12e46	They quickly found a common language — Fernandez was right.
c5afd3ad315baf499eb10781af8302944eb40a4d	Creating a computer that would later be named Apple 1, Wozniak did not even think about any commerce.
d5ab5f111bf00d929b800a77ab298871deece454	He just loved technology and dreamed of creating a computer that "any cook" could work with.
8069ab965e48b4eb003537ffe4c973ad5573fde8	It wasnot the first personal computer, but it was the first personal computer that had a monitor and a keyboard, and not a bunch of light bulbs and switches, as in the case of the Altair 8080 that appeared earlier.
56b27edcb9901e664e23531521e1e26912de3db5	In addition, the Apple 1 was sold as a ready made device, and not a set of "build it yourself", as is the case with other models.
47721e89c8dd5c029e0633ea89a0c6d21e3582ee	In those years, Wozniak was still working at Hewlett Packard and under the terms of the contract, all his developments belonged to employers who had the right to do whatever they wanted with him.
27cc4d15e48b52dd94297646f3f8c860d59354db	But, fortunately, the personal computer did not interest the company's management at all.
94e2362c7e081331166029a08a0a1bcada6dd5d3	The first order for $ 50,000 came from the Byte Shop, which is now revered as the very first computer store in history.
ca496dd57df2a5dd1860efb416699f9134a0974e	It has not existed for a long time, however, its name has gone down in history, which, however, bypasses the fact how profitable this transaction was for the owner of the store, whose name was Paul Terrell (Paul Terrell).
99b9fc44dcb1bcafebbfa16bb1cd5cad1b6d5e52	The selling price of the Apple 1 was $ 666.66 cents (the device cost the creators $ 500).
5d6f0cad2ed8f4f1fd8cdcb64fed5f525935b7ca	Such a strange price arose from Wozniak's love for repeating numbers.
17ea445516d295296f5f0c4031538ac298364690	To 500, they simply added another third, as a mark up for work.
a37b2a518cdbb070e1dd7f883a7f117542549b2f	Apple Computers was officially founded on April 1, 1976.
29ed03c1e8ab18ad25a13d37027776f08b99351d	In fact, there were three founders.
3c6643e19e899f5e88eca5aec049e22bca60c728	The famous couple was joined by their friend Ron Wayne( Ronald Wayne), who worked with Jobs at Atari.
390fe89eaae28bcd0ddbbd6541623d6ddd7089bf	At that time, he owned 10% of Apple shares and dealt with legal and paper issues.
9d90a4046043fdacb2ed1e6c3a5fde5dc5e300dd	However, he worked at the company for a very short time — as soon as the main legal issues were resolved, Wein left Apple and gave up his share (which was measured in hundreds of millions of dollars after ten years).
0b37821a81848c087da74ae855ae3d9df6b00bf3	The Apple II model (1977) turned out to be a real masterpiece.
9bf244e09b2f30cdd2c8bb212150d63e1a303d6e	It was the first computer that was mass produced by the company.
aa579a0de7c76adee09ce541ce78bfabd011ea56	Many other models of personal computers were subsequently created on its basis.
3ec2e61c13d51ec0d57c17fb3a98f69b062259f6	For example, many PC developments in the USSR were based on the Apple II.
cd246a02655c30028fdbb245b2e94c55fd11d1c9	The computer in the case, the forms of which were borrowed from the popular cassette recorder in those years, appealed to many users of those years.
9755aa31fd72f6d21bcf2b913baa7a631dc22a9a	He looked great both in the office and at the university.
e73af435a53a52ca6feaf6b086547e6ca8390116	The model was sold until the early 90s, with only minor changes in the design.
6020abb3f7450fe202a133638c8c2bc1ca4e4694	One of the modifications of the Apple II
f50d1645a6f50b3b85f0bdac0b83cc60abe10ee1	But the Apple III project (1980) was a failure.
c420d7359ea45b60d4146c9e03f240b4ee419621	Jobs insisted on getting rid of the fans, rightly believing that they would interfere with their noise.
1ab6b4c3d353c7ab6707cc600bdebae0249f4ff2	But the result was an extremely unreliable, overheating prone device.
2a4a801a37fcc6c9c8bf7a3c888b963dd785fc02	In addition, the haste in which it was assembled led to a sharp drop in quality.
024c499e5c44459c3e9e2a9fa01b386d31628140	All this led to a failure in the market.
35536e2de27ce63467f6918a3f239915048e103e	While Apple II brought money, the company was engaged in new projects Lisa and Macintosh, the main feature of which was the presence of a graphical interface, safely borrowed from Xerox (later, MS Windows will appear in the same way).
47ba99c84e42846aa08b11b0184fe5e6105ac1e3	The first project, named after Jobs ' daughter, has sunk into oblivion, the second, which was named after a variety of inexpensive but popular apples, was destined to become a new legend.
431a75ab08e80402d47b44e7423c22a56ef92012	Mas appeared on sale in 1984, which was preceded by the famous commercial "1984", which is still considered an example of what advertising should be.
8a431a02b0d1f2ac6641aefe3f9a0caa026d3419	The first Macintosh was not the most successful computer from a technical point of view.
f2a6b2b5f63d5bc6a713ddbebb6859161eaec550	Rather, on the contrary, beautiful in appearance, he was a real collection of problems, which took a lot of time to eliminate.
4b2ceff51eb45cec6ea1467f86c92597d25f1f23	However, the high respect that Apple enjoyed allowed it to surpass all adversities.
a56fd3c4c4ca0aad535ab66bcd8812d1de343989	And the gradual transformation of the "Mac" into a real working tool has made this computer one of the most popular.
e21edba15bd2367f8f2be43555731101c1493e5b	Such companies as Aldus (the desktop layout program Page Maker) and Microsoft (Exel spreadsheets) have created software packages for it.
efad5b718ce73c0f55ef3183245f2714e01c505f	Analogs of this software on the PC appeared only after some time.
3d62f75bf7e11054ce26fdf56a647a23ac614a62	In 1985, Steve Jobs left Apple.
eb4ce5ebac4134ba23fa7339a7493d8df9d18128	He leaves in order to return again after a decade and revive his brainchild, which had fallen into despondency by that time.
2ff4847c025dfe319a52fc84a08aa7c2353d5acf	However, the word despondency is not quite appropriate here.
d350c2c7f84c68357ca7e0404156df451748455e	Jobs himself later noted how surprised and delighted he was that when he returned to Apple, he saw that there were still a lot of really interesting people and the most talented engineers working in it, who at one time took part in the creation of many interesting projects.
33843e42c43b6ad5800049bb94bdfb9b6237a282	It is now generally assumed that Jobs returned to a company that was dying.
efb4c3767c60e908eb32b390519c5be102b19305	But this is not true.
7c635485ac3c733e5f83b2748c9f84b940efcf43	Yes, things were not going well for Apple, however, the then CEO Gil Amelio (Gil Amelio) managed to achieve a lot, the company had no debts, it brought, albeit small, but profit.
f30901c627e6481d3eacf1247c246a399bfea59c	During the absence of Jobs, the company has created solutions such as PowerBook laptops and Newton pocket computers.
47f1d1ef3f8f6392b9c4eb3070592188686d204e	The first are extremely popular today under the name of the MacBook Pro, the second was reincarnated in 2010 as the iPad.
498dfdd7c9d5a58cc031492e6d56eb0c79e59515	The return of Jobs led to the creation of products such as the iBook (now the MacBook), the iMac reviving the idea of a simple computer for everyone, as well as the iPod, which was destined to turn all the foundations of the music industry.
d3183368142feec5315eca0ec7bd9cb3cf5fd355	But the most striking event was the appearance of the iPhone in 2006, which played such a huge role in the mobile phone industry.
0430b00def551fae2518e0f6d7b488bc528f7971	This smartphone served as the basis for the appearance of many other touch devices and brought new manufacturers to the market, where there is no place left for such veterans as Nokia, Motorola and Sony Ericsson.
63406a9795fbd2dbcfb485e9dbe80a1c275c0c0f	Finally, it became clear who now began to set the tone in the smartphone market after the Finnish company, realizing that it was no longer able to create competitive devices, began multiple legal proceedings.
1a1d62d8e45fe37c23fbf22ade5651255b8820d9	By the way, since the company was no longer exclusively engaged in computers, in 2007 its name was changed from Apple Computers to Apple Inc.
52a5a5939a0bba890897670e9eca27e2d998dbb2	One of the important achievements of the company after the return of Jobs was its transition to the latest macOS X, which replaced the good, but finally outdated macOS Classic.
5aa87666a65a356c45801e30b6269dc59a978a17	Here Steve managed to get around Jean Louis Gassée ,a former Apple employee who at one time left and founded the company Be Inc., which was engaged in the BeOS operating system.
cca92519395e1a3f3a567701dd4726bab138b92e	The phenomenon called "Cult of Mac" is a real mystery for many people who consider Apple fans to be just a sect.
109e8c26375a0eca123fee4204cfb537c45d7952	Apple is loved and hated.
1d1bb10afab54fc863e7f1b912f00db0537eb12f	Moreover, it often happens that this hatred looks much more unpleasant than the fanaticism of any of the fans of "apples".
3c72673594dd387156041d81eb0e4b4596543772	Many people are surprised that Apple devices are more expensive with weaker characteristics, while forgetting that it's not just about gigahertz.
d251c79fd49ed4f55c3daa6b67a5eff6daf21592	Not everyone wants to sit at a faceless device just because its characteristics are full of beautiful numbers.
65313801540528ce3443cfed9eeadc9307407cef	The photo is outdated — more modern iMacs are equipped with a wireless keyboard and mouse, so there are two more wires less
8d503b55cbe258ca33f7b357f325d2ab1e16bbb1	In fact, this article is just a tiny overview of the most interesting events that took place in the second half of the 20th century, when an industry was born that was destined to radically change a person's life.
af35f4a7fd4300a0a58cfc87afb775bfe7e33d68	The computer is one of the most brilliant creations of Civilization.
b0584513643ea2a6ee57497cf3b35e27f57cb488	And the history of computer technology is still just beginning.
8432e460f49688a5a202fc092d1c8c5a62db8210	Now it is difficult to imagine what the future of Apple will be, but no one will doubt that the name of this company and the names of its founders are forever inscribed in the history of computer technology.
721a2b25000c6ea40731da3bf6558ced03423bb6	Steven Paul Jobs died on October 5, 2011.
a30d439170f941550e114596eb19ee6320b0ad95	The cause of his death was a cancerous tumor.
100c37c90f6f9236b0beb86fe1c6a8062c12a090	Apple in the ratings
40811e6499775c339d2f3857200e714b1a56a5c1	place rating, 1 year of 2015 the Most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2015 1 world's Best brands (Best Global Brands), 2015 5 biggest US companies (Fortune 100 U. S.), 2015 16 The smartest companies in the world (50 Smartest Companies), 2015 1 2014 Best global brands (Best Global Brands), 2014 1 the Most expensive brands in the world (The World's Most Valuable Brands), 2014 1 the Most expensive brands in the world (BrandFinance Global), 2014 2 the Most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2014 4 Brands of the future (The FutureBrand Index), 2014 15 The biggest companies in the world (Fortune Global 100), 2013 1 2014 the Most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2013 1 the Most expensive companies in the world (Financial Times Global), 2013 1 the world's Best brands (Best Global Brands), 2013 1 the Most expensive brands in the world (The World's Most Valuable Brands), 2013 6 Most large US companies (Fortune 100 U. S.), 2013 13 Most innovative companies in the world (Most Innovative Companies), 2013 19 biggest companies in the world (Fortune Global 100), 2013 19 simple brands (Global Brand Simplicity Index), 2013 22 Most "green" brands (Best Global Green Brands), 2013 23 Kids rating brands (Kids' Most Loved Brands), 2013 27 the Most significant brands (Top Meaningful Brands Index Global), 2013 35 the Best companies to work (Best Places to Work 2014), 2013 36 Mommy rating of brands (Moms' Most Loved Brands), 2013 2012 1 Most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 20 12 2 The best global Brands (Best Global Brands), 2012 5 Brands that can change the world (Planet Brands), 2012 5 Favorite brands of Russians, 2012 12 The "greenest" brands (Best Global Green Brands), 2012 17 The biggest US companies (Fortune U.S. 100), 2012 55 The biggest companies in the world (Fortune Global 100), 2012 2011 1 The most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2011 8 The Best Global Brands (Best Global Brands), 2011 8 Favorite brands of Russians, 2011 35 The biggest companies USA (Fortune U.S. 100), 2011 2010 3 Most Expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2010 13 Favorite Brands of Russians, 2010 17 Best Global Brands (Best Global Brands), 2010 56 Largest US Companies (Fortune U.S. 100), 2010 2009 6 Most Expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2009 20 Best Global Brands (Best Global Brands), 2009 71 Largest US Companies (Fortune U.S. 100), 2009 2008 7 Most Expensive Brands in the World (BrandZ Top 100), 2008 24 The world's best brands (Best Global Brands), 2008 2007 16 Most expensive brands in the world (BrandZ Top 100), 2007 33 Best Global Brands (Best Global Brands), 2007
715e38128ba1e4e56e3cb8e59b15caf9faf2c188	Category: Computers, Mobile communications and telecommunications, Software, Other, USA, Electronics
c8f984853d8fd22985ae62d8d17522aab9dccc7a	Placemarks:Apple, famous brands
a3ce9057f81d93a15731d10da392402f4a260bab	Read 12 more companies that have changed our daily life Land Rover Discovery Channel DHL Tiffany
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709a23220f2c3d64d1e1d6d18c4d5280f8d82fca	Name
26c7204a1aa360d6482d903b7b3bd46f0a2e1a14	e mail (optional)
b2ecbd422cc9dda4486d5e047ef52e37dc0bedb0	Fresh materials
140b85b364b966b9953d5116a0a0b016cee7a032	January 25, 2016
ede392c86799b773507d24593d07e337d4b02c90	Land Rover
e425bd3846234b99cff3560b48b8bb0f0ad9b6b4	Discovery Channel
04689dd32b1eec5485f672513b104f08bde46566	January 20, 2016
dc25fdc51ea081673e62b5853f16dc8e64e96d9e	DHL
ef598e86e46239f6808b1fff84da7d0da977fdac	The Motorola brand will become history
aaea6ea6fad2ff397a8fe9f722e8f3eddfa9a9d6	January 11, 2016
847761c5f1ea9a246b37c810658768acdebb1f4d	Tiffany
61e09a13f752d333a1152f6b97a4d763d6037a38	December 30, 2015
5175b5e39831f480204d58af3f09befeeb3f1696	Popular brands
9e5741df9cab9b2434505b709b02a63ed3dbcc55	Popular categories
804ca5ad4fb7c12721a76a8dd81e509661d246a0	Famous brands
67bd88029ff81cd26cdc45b69cbfb6b18e490cef	Italian brands
67104a963e233275c68605512030750c5168384b	Brands of the USSR
741e60867507d040959e9d7fe370dcef6073235d	Luxury goods
b3ed356117769493fb33e0484fd58cb6728f674a	Interesting facts
e1f05d45fd02f90b76a65a24dc77a6dcb1f78929	Brand ratings
eaea8144a3c2a9756f49380b9a13dfa5612e0138	Brands that can change the world
caf53d941cbc88db5b15657a607c79d9b3ba3d38	Favorite brands of Russians
8ea10623ff4b97ea13d9c98e5e2431bb7487355a	The most expensive brands in the world
858c5944d942f00dc85cac7ca223a380e089641f	The most "green" brands
58278faf959528cc5f9c4ab8c2adb5335e076466	all ratings…
b4e6ee835eb221f1dce540f85ed78c071ca15fec	Random brands
04fbd52a5fd14a1cf458dd248c3a815cf28eb5f4	BrandReport is an encyclopedia of brands, sub brands, trademarks, etc .Special attention is paid to the history of brands, their creators and their impact on our lives.
922abca793b197e452d8c7ab41f3a8a4a75cf202	The administration of the resource adheres to its own opinion on the topic of " what exactly is considered a brand?".
e9719040591c400e54359deae8567c597a4730e1	When writing articles, we try to "maintain neutrality", as far as possible without showing our personal attitude to a particular brand.
aa97f19c61cce6829c8b11eef9e6eb1a1569005b	Brands Brand Ratings News Articles About the project
b3162872d648829481e746bd8400ba00e922076b	Famous brands Italian brands Mobile phones Brands of the USSR
64766db230405a2ec00d19efe3075e80004ea59d	Brand Report - an encyclopedia of brands.
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a007b8add6f3c36ee23dad799f02e2fedc82cac2	The history of Apple.
e36b8e14c1386b720efcd53ca7e75443601df687	In this article, we will look at the history of the great Apple company, starting from the moment of its creation.
6b97612e50e1b3e97479e0c848a7e2932f9ae538	The high popularity of products under the Apple trademark is primarily due to the company's own innovative technologies
c644ee543d15fac0e2e915648f52dbbe5a601766	According to the value of the company itself, today it is estimated at an amount exceeding $ 500 billion.
cd4f5067ee68664e4c1d14e9431c6418255bef03	It is one of the most expensive companies in the world.
cee93e1cc0621b042e10626005a49967499d9576	Apple's competitor in the IT field at that time was Microsoft.
5f8c4803d187ec39d6ded12a0a59c89064e171df	The beginning of "Apple Computer, Inc." in 1976.
f8c893e08e1fbbe57455ebe9b57a07846b83fd39	Creating the first Apple computers
a8155032f56fa22d7f50a79a7f977f9ca5deecbe	Apple was born on April 1, 1976.
d22ac46b6ddb73ed0a67863c2e3d087277efc787	Its original name was " Apple Computer, Inc.".
7289e301ad538f8cb6c1d5f199753d102685a894	The company's logo was an apple, this symbol also corresponded to its name: "apple" is translated from English as "apple".
87a66686d8243714ac9d42ce6245fd68201e46c8	The company's area of interest for 30 years or more remained computer technology, later this focus became more blurred, covering the expanded field of consumer electronics, and on January 9, 2007, the word "Computer" reasonably disappeared from the name.
9672640ef08c7283ec371917432165a1b884a69e	(Interesting fact: the name "Apple" was chosen by Steve Jobs because it was higher in the phone book than the name "Atari".)
2914387a5e03a8001c53a1a3f44ac44411a71775	Having organized the company, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs began to assemble computers and sell them.
0cef63895ecd1e713bd8c21d0bf3b0d65657516a	Initially, less than 200 copies of Apple 1 computers were sold.
c16e84597cdb777cd7790dd528164a98885d7456	In fact, the Apple 1 was a board with chips.
19de4e367d0b6ee512c6d021e5dccf5df76c139a	And the next development, Apple 2, served as a personal computer, in the full sense of the word.
fc16b3e47c7d1c967b79810355ed014673f6af4b	1977.
57ea96be6c3128e4fbf1b63f69257789aa0ec2b8	Sale of Apple 2 computers
0b0470c1158d30df7f06f9bd2ac068e975060b9f	The young company was not the only one, Tandy Radio Shack and Commodore companies produced personal computers (and sold them by the tens of hundreds).
0cb059acfbb1ca6925d9d37675b1d4931fc53684	However, it was the sales of the Apple 2 that amounted to several million copies, making it very popular in different countries.
875b84d7c86cb4e15d083681180a1a5aff30c749	At first, Apple 2 computers had 8 digits, later production of 16 bit models began.
2897f2d2aa1006d0f913f78ddecc12440b4b87a0	It is believed that the production of personal computers, as a market segment, appeared with the Apple 2.
0c213b6b44c3cfb2fedb498d3c870bb750ea43e2	These computers had a power supply, a keyboard, and a color display.
f2774b4db51040bc6833d13f36343292de810791	They were in one piece plastic cases – this was an innovation.
dcd623aa39a45aa19f150dcf1f3ea6c5192d53cb	Apple 2 could work with both graphics and sound.
3bf7a54feb468e41857854d3280be83dc6959e48	From 1977 to 1993, more than five million computers of different Apple 2 models were produced and sold.
e2a63ac19b9d2ed36449cf4f6331fefc1a52d3bc	the year is 1980.
b8b3e0048fbe9ef601a2905707424c629361d4cc	The failure of the Apple 3 project and the LISA computer.
1d5f64c9ad739cc11e9fa5acf59dd4205991035e	There were two main events this year.
d4e4744e55a11c9fdce632198cc33c0beb51eeea	The first is the initial public offering made by the company.
fd61b29cf07b17ca2e10c51543073027f931ee0c	In terms of volume, this placement was the largest at that time.
b95f7f2046a69f28c0d03e2de494fea7bcf0eac2	This turned the company into a public company, its shares can be bought both on the London Stock Exchange and on the NASDAQ stock market.
4b3c55fd6f14fabc600431feb05ac7e792165dee	The second important event of the year is the failure of the Apple 3 project (the Lisa computer did not find success either).
7ef84573bac9956bdbb4f9a8c1304aaa8d2890a3	Serious failures with the sales of Apple 3 provoked journalists to speak about the imminent ruin of the company.
28dc99659dee2360ca40474820ca46716749494d	Despite this, Apple has maintained a number of strong positions in the market.
60709b7b888e8261a4125b686d9c0eecc2cd44a1	the year is 1983.
3f3be9f5c4fb2b71848ce97089d683e303f2e965	John Scully is the new president of Apple.
fcfc6ed56f306437933a99ca9bca6ae850231bbf	At the beginning of the year, a new president of Apple, John Scully, appeared.
3d8a2846a7eeb5ac9df0c0e2371f95b11577d63a	Before that, he worked at PepsiCo, holding the same position.
8410110bc48befafce603c3433a1331cc567e3ba	This personnel reshuffle happened because of problems in the company that Steve Jobs could not cope with himself.
0992cf361b4fac766599ac5e0675c3c4923f6696	the year is 1984.
ac1f2771f011d61a5072c816d60ee65aabba798e	Apple Macintosh Computer
05a3198260e64d4e7bbbfea8269c34e7a0dc6e8d	A new computer has appeared the Macintosh, which has been developed since the late 70s.
d099927c783dbe2028d85e99d38acc699280e919	This series of 32 bit computers was subsequently produced for almost twenty years.
cff092236017cda53b60c20fb9b9fa27b6612fbd	It was these computers that formed the basis of Apple's business.
79e75c943c13b3abd8a75fa5c4f3008fb2dcc6a9	Macintosh had the original operating system, and Motorola processors were used for their production.
bdd5dc2289c25b98426672a70bd072f3d73fd9d4	(Interesting fact: "Macintosh" is an American apple variety.
c43e3c9e1248847af9b677c2f7665dba32f3af9b	It was preferred by Jeff Raskin, a former Macintosh project manager.
c74c128365eb177d2b5fa1731f14af8899b13043	After him, the leadership position passed to Jobs.)
c0d65c25132b341168a6d22584bbdc2bd512afff	Macintosh computers differed from computers of other companies with a well developed graphical interface and active use of a computer mouse.
741e55faeb01ccf620105fe7ae31d824e5efb2b9	It was Apple that first introduced graphics into the daily work of users.
618095da2494db31dd686d0454ae6639a1c9ecf7	Due to the different vision of the company's prospects, there was a conflict situation between Steve Jobs and John Scully.
8bf0259d3b79260b228ebf0e017b058d615f3a17	the year is 1985.
f137ecc4823691ef4ab021b7b45c6ada4f77ed66	Steve Jobs has left Apple
262d287563882190d385c8160954c546f0364598	For the development of technological progress, Jobs and Wozniak were awarded medals by US President Ronald Reagan.
13495ee5215d5d73ba61862e74d4b44022aaa9f0	In the same year, Steve Jobs left the company and started working at a new company — NeXT, specializing in the development of software products.
07fceb8fc5f29142fc7051054dcb325df323bd6c	He was engaged in the development of animation projects.
00cee7870a9b3e56bdb4d05099a6869df3b80304	Over time, NeXT was acquired by Apple.
9795cb2f66abbff76b878fbc6e41b2d3f0ab84c6	1997.
93a00c935fab5643767c048b604798e78ce49de2	Steve Jobs returned to Apple.
d342d51932cbe79a23aea1688e5a6031062f8ba9	By this time, Apple's position had changed a lot – and for the worse.
8dcb4fda0a870d08b4476a79ede032c2233be1e5	The company suffered major losses.
c9819a8be330a862858a4da7bf3452e03cca9a9f	From 1995 to 1997, their amount was about $ 1.86 billion.
074573dd01b70f747f3fd2897da9d64d0ae77884	Then Steve Jobs returned to the company, and Apple's affairs gradually began to improve.
f7a00b8d3e2dd6c5359c552da000c58a470893b4	2001.
0d52c725fc49d6ba381ef390b81a322256fbd711	Presentation of the iPod music player
bc1abea1055f00ef99c4a528351cbe77ae3dc57d	Apple has surprised the audience with its new device the iPod audio player.
919583005460c059220006c5f43ab5458079406b	He actively gained fans, and as a result took a leading place in the market.
c5debc919039462f9126844dfa83702b0f5d18cc	2003.
cfb9bb4dc95ae5a9fe5a0ab6e56b253c17c39b50	Opening the iTunes Store.
432b004ebf3e198afaf356df313aa33088ba3642	In support of the audio player, an online iTunes Store was specially created, which sold digital music content for listening to the iPod for a reasonable price.
e7f104623c289ef8d09cb112bba34ce4c0910921	The average price was one dollar per audio track.
5f80cc36e21e59cdb6091fb2b47ff1266404a481	Ready made collections and albums could also be purchased.
65e00db5fca23d1d50fafb8e0ae2473f56d73f3f	In addition, it was possible to buy game and video media content in this supermarket.
0250df9f4564482a0892bb12a09cd04bf304b492	2007 The release of the iPhone.
138ca83e1d304ea17cd7de2dfd3375451ac05892	This year was marked by the launch of a fundamentally new product on the market – the iPhone mobile phone, which had a touch screen.
e77309e99ceff3a437042cac14b87e9cb06b8b2c	It made a revolution.
32600863438b144cc6135e1ce82566b094e492c5	It was assumed that users would want to buy and install useful applications on their smartphone.
2b6b48d0063f5f4a3be91245109d838dfdbe4a88	With this calculation, the iPhone operating system was made.
d32bd89d7311cec3c2aa916dd68b20d274d71291	2008.
771162278a0d1317fc4c30c1903b036f97b4052b	Opening the AppStore store
220d39d5403f13079ca735b6450c09421ed648d1	The company opened an online App Store, through which it began selling additional programs for its smartphone.
48c0ef1184371a8d37021e083b892eef1ce85071	The turnover of this store by 2011 was $ 250 million.
b9588323770246e4bb13006142ac60bdda2d05eb	Its payment system was no different from the iTunes store.
19127ae80e2d59f64bb41890d9e04447c1c20bf7	2009.
5c08b6208bf911a3c4f7e2c20b3154358f4e3414	The patent war between Apple and Nokia
fcdee7db7cda7d3727e9508230a0efd2f8c5eff4	Apple lost a patent lawsuit to Nokia.
0749366581f7428d949d803b8a3c944a76a8ef0b	It was found that she violated 10 patents by using some inventions in the iPhone.
ed2c0e1946016c37cec587dcd4df765763e43163	2010.
e947dae420b70a7f27a1e70e469f4b0f905d895a	The output of the iPad tablet computer
9712b42dda4bcbc3d4777bed98c1c412b863b706	Another new product was presented on the market.
bc62e97f23c45d8033c51b05c656da5b38bb9513	The appearance of the iPad tablet computer marked the beginning of a new segment of the computer equipment market, which the iPad headed.
75e15205ccf6ff251fbbe45c34ee87e14237ecf9	2011.
3e0b71f34f437f489e3ef56b97d37dcbca3d8310	Apple is the most expensive brand in the world.
003c6330b7dbeb951f71af2bcce5b06ce774ca77	Large sales volumes of three new products iPhone, iPod and iPad brought the company a very high profit, and its financial condition has significantly improved.
15f7540d44ab9b9628f3adf9ff6aed3d0a5cb488	MAY.
0feac61f7b1e92ce6fac2e56f8a32b44cc3fb1e1	Millward Brown, a well known international research agency, has made an assessment of the value of the Apple brand.
aa757ef62bf48064ae3e2b2fc702edd5b716517c	In the May rating, it was estimated at $ 153.3 billion and recognized this trademark as the most expensive in the world.
53cd14bbb5601a752e4ba83fb24a27b7f2315569	AUGUST.
e9ad3aff294f1159f9f18fedd5417e131bb869dc	The market value (capitalization) of Apple as of August 10 was $ 338.8 billion.
3c27841aa7a9ff0f25a3530bd6d21f06ed105a09	It managed to get ahead of the oil company ExxonMobil and became known as the most expensive company in the world.
7b212e4462a683c3a2644699331b55b43355c759	In the same year, Apple lost a patent lawsuit to Motorola Mobility.
3ecacebd6ae1e249200400f24dd34619cda7f8a5	It was recognized that she violated the patent of this company by using its technology in her devices.
6537fc674190c32da3a0f41a1bf28a0aa83950c1	2012.
872473956dd3e2387369958a88087c92cbe0f28c	Sales and patent disputes.
e7467314e660ca9fee70d203abe2bcdf5e4502e0	FEBRUARY.
f6911bc9d12f7d46edba0030294004459e0f9049	The total value of the company's shares at the beginning of the month was $ 456 billion.
24bcb299fce44cacd0db0f86edecbf568281d904	In fact, it was more than the total capitalization of Microsoft and Google (which are considered Apple's closest competitors).
3b771e665cafeac43889195a12d53f496792d1f1	And at the end of the month, Apple's capitalization was more than $ 500 billion.
f66b3eaa809a674b61c329ca3c0c5a5c1b5fa60c	According to the results of the 2nd quarter, the company sold 4 million Mac computers and 7.7 million iPods.
7b7a3a8737520179f15a696a7a7ee5b24af10c0c	Sales during the quarter of the iPad amounted to 11.8 million, and quarterly sales of iPhone devices reached 35.1 million copies.
ef92b721c3299f4a5d37c89daf304184b8517cba	According to the results of the financial statements, for the 2nd quarter, Apple's revenues reached $ 39.2 billion, and the amount of net profit – $ 11.6 billion (in terms of per share, it amounted to $ 12.3).
711ca708856ac6635214ac6340bd7ee6eb7d689e	Apple has defeated Samsung in a patent dispute.
68e0ce7b74cc1d2a9aa48b8d2cc9c66b0ae49205	After this event, the value of Apple increased and amounted to more than $ 600 billion.
d84a04a5d503588d7debb204e9a4d222ecc1c0fe	The company's share price was 1.9% higher.
c097655e1dab2e40e1a7c3f0e1216d4aa8d8a2ef	OCTOBER.
fed418b7165fe464553beafda8750a2aaa40470a	The number of the corporation's own patents for design projects and inventions has reached 5,440.
c0ad11be41a0d2b8ac5ef2d54279891ffc85e2d6	2013.
a23624c0e8b6c8058fbe7fa4f9cea22029c0f290	Release of 64 bit chips.
fafd9fe6a6f1c4d9847428fb7ff8d2d182696e65	Apple was the first company to launch 64 bit ARM architecture chips.
12202699b31124db9734848a16c9a22ee9f9d235	Today, the corporation has a network of its own stores in a number of countries – the USA, England, Japan and others.
9da1447f8de7734c8b7b903d98cf5282e5f16ada	Takeover of companies
c9819df1215da743f1905970ec5359f576f3ffce	The IT market is very volatile.
003e30c491acff090af146adff7312fcfcc6da32	Many companies appear and work successfully, and then they are absorbed by more powerful companies.
b4391cccd4bc43d284b7a32df24e724db51b8ca4	Over the many years of its existence, Apple has conducted many successful deals on the acquisition of IT companies.
aad7af801775fb5f9662e7b2c64388da3bc19ce3	The acquisition of the largest of them should be noted.
9c97cc27f62cba03fe89576a65abb8e058d99521	1996 NeXT ($430 million)
71b0648c923d287380f73c21512755f89f325d00	2008, April — P.
04179c20ba4f8f46f1dd7d70a0b41528d5623476	A. Semi (280 million dollars)
11dc81c4bc7bd2e14bf75ffb2dc1d6b3bee25922	2010, January — Quattro Wireless ($274 million)
5f8056d6641bd224241f89b2863d0aaf45db9ed6	2010, April – Siri ($200 million)
4234b546f40e54780dced8970ea5360b8225954a	2012, January — Anobit Technologies ($400-500 million)
c92a9dfa9a3101651647858410cf3ff048e3cb2d	Apple in Russia
f0a2393e8209d653658145d6617fd22b18bd812d	two thousand five
36508b2a520d238d506690e9dd9e7f71eac38fbf	The first Apple Center store in Russia has opened
3e451254a58986b0dd5f1199391d3a57b89476ca	two thousand six
890a8d3d9160307e068e312724a9b1e369a16e73	At the end of the fiscal year, sales of iPod audio players amounted to 240 thousand copies.
f5c247779583163fd37c38f51a82dfc12d5fcba4	two thousand seven
73610867063f3669ecd7e9951f216f097a714791	Apple representative office opened in Russia
3aef04c100b71161f0bea12bdb9e82972eb65944	two thousand twelve
42c1d375370b502a2ce29fe42a7fdf7afe90353c	The corporation has registered the company "Apple Rus", which is engaged in the sale of equipment – both retail and wholesale.
feded7823dc791ee1a0f28532b98de3a3f2b3469	Apple products today
ae401de6f5accee778489af61e3d8eab195680ad	Apple Corporation is known not only as a manufacturer of high quality consumer electronics.
fb3e4e50375d87698580fa73b61ad9de32ff74e9	She owns popular web services and sells software tools.
be1fcdfe9a34ec1ca9e7d5bb298796f702474cc3	The range of technical devices produced by the company is quite wide: multimedia e players and turntables, mobile phones and tablet computers, servers and monitors, desktop computers and laptops.
ef5066487186bebfbc47c4c8eb6e88951088b2e2	The acquisition of them for many is a matter of prestige.
f84dbedf6d2bb9cb86a43e2d1b5736a22d45857a	And Apple continues to develop, remaining a company with a high reputation and high profitability.
913ec3dbd3984595d1b9df3e705aad226ece318f	See the section of the article about information technologies.
503dc0d2f6bf75a82d60441c8cd5aea73b603e90	Go back to the main page.
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5e788ca58238652b61b62cede4023c9f82230957	The history of the creation and development of Apple, or how to become the most expensive company in the world Views: 1499
36f9b48915a151e87c823af73cc9b73b56b6b506	"The apple does not fall far from the apple tree," says the folk wisdom.
cfc3868c6b60d1575567e1839e15cabec3e9a0e8	We have a great reason to explore how right the Russian proverb is.
269919588f98d0e2c23b5b2ea2863a7192229173	After all, today's article is dedicated to the legendary Apple company (from the English "apple"), which was founded by the equally famous Steve Jobs.
2fd0e1dde21417ccffeb671e108475b3a1702246	We introduced this person to our readers earlier, and now it's time to get acquainted with his "brainchild" — Apple, the largest manufacturer of personal and tablet computers, audio players, mobile phones and software.
426cee12209c0e3c03dcd9fe2e70b841ece801e3	She has already crossed her 35 year milestone and can boast of certain achievements.
a83c6e6d5f2113c24893cfb9dc690987c4d11867	This significant event took place in the house of Steve Jobs ' foster parents, or rather in the garage:
187fa8a1309edf5c8b883a066e8356967b70bc93	Please pay special attention to this fact.
412b1cd4b6bc0148c7c4b6e5fd054c1398cacafe	Many well known global brands that are worth billions of dollars started their journey in an ordinary garage.
05a51a4b28c6640ba36bae3d2527c8b7e032bc1f	Of course, there are types of businesses that require fabulous money to open from the very first days.
d6064f539b0d3be637deaaba32a5ff7bb948a7ba	Look for ideas that do not need a lot of money to implement, and so that this business can be started in your parents ' garage or even right in your room.
74c940f03a4647f7d400235a5751b2d4c0fc3aed	But back to Apple.
7ccf70210402fba05c91354087329752a2c12d64	Apple is the most influential brand in the world and the most expensive company in the world In May 2011, according to the rating of the research agency Millward Brown, the Apple brand was named the most expensive trademark in the world.
42c8b4c12823c633a5046a3814ceb9b567cc540e	According to Forbes data for October 2012, the Apple brand broke out into the leaders in the ranking of the "most influential", ahead of brands such as Coca Cola, Microsoft and IBM.
6e1f394d998b8b40efb981a617cf3e0a470bace4	In November 2013, the company's market capitalization, that is, its actual value is about $ 472 billion, and the company reached its maximum capitalization in September 2012, when its market value was estimated at more than $ 700 billion, which made Apple the most expensive company in history!
363ebd851ddca05317e9780eee8f114658094b57	The headquarters of Apple is located in the small town of Cupertino, 75 km from San Francisco, California.
1d3ffd9407886709f3cdd3857f7a656122cd41f0	Interestingly, the number of Cupertino residents is even less than the number of Apple employees – the company currently employs 60,400 employees!
12f63f7224fb7521a532560b25b424b0f3f24752	What distinguishes the multi thousandth Apple company from its competitors and allows it to earn billions of dollars?
023226a986995d7d2829f79bc4b6e757369d115f	The company, historically a manufacturer of PCs and software, has expanded its market segments in the 21st century, entering the next development orbit with new audio players, smartphones and tablet computers.
af2eadc839a3710aeeeb38b6c60560572e6e142e	Apple is certainly a leader company, an innovator company, and in this it is very similar to its co founder Steve Jobs.
f634be5fd3f2d27206dd10b87261e11ec3cdf410	Apple's merits are undeniable, because the iPod audio player made a real breakthrough in the world of digital music, the iPhone smartphone turned our vision of mobile phones, and the iPad tablet set the vector of development of the digital device market.
423599d0fcabefcde95f89d374b0926dda2364c9	All these "ai gadgets" have become an integral part of the image of a business, solid and successful person.
c603370eb8cd22e0844f3bcacd2c8ea02365f957	I would not be surprised if intelligent "Apple" devices with an " ai " prefix will generally replace such names as "audio player", "phone" and "tablet computer"from everyday use.
5c3b8e0a69efe20a69fabcd8475dc5aaa2b1db3f	Tim Cook, Apple's CEO since 2011, said that he is very proud that the company enters the pre holiday season "with the best iPhones, iPads, Macs, iPods in history and full confidence in the potential of our new product line."
cc096a5a94e810ebfc45d8b7e3f405a57f582660	The production of these new products, which are in high demand around the world, has indeed dramatically improved Apple's financial situation.
5a158e6c5fbe6fe10cc209a0a232272e253287c1	As Steve Jobs said at the presentation of the first iPhone in 2007: "We did not create a new phone, we invented it anew” And at the presentation of the iPad 2 Internet tablet in 2011, Steve Jobs announced the advent of the era of post computer devices.
5042597b51413377c00c1cdb04ccfae1fe121e3a	According to him, they are simpler and clearer than the usual PCs and it is for them that he sees the future, while his competitors are only "trying to find the optimal balance in new PC models".
bcce06d70b40b57da834677a1081bead29c9ad20	And even if these same competitors in the person of Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft, call the iPad just "a good reader and nothing more," time will tell who is right.
9e0401c16406b36447244c825345b17a744a335e	And this is the highlight of Apple.
0ff121adaf30438fcaf33ddd7c33949ed6b09664	More precisely, one of many.
8df58b7a2b0e6ac57da9d3f5127a1b0cbff38733	After all, if you unravel the secret formula for the success of an apple company and master the art of creating such popular and beloved products and devices, you can fabulously enrich yourself.
9c4eb7262197fb496e15c184b07b81e0d472ed54	I note that some online publications after the appearance of the tablet began to develop special applications for it, for example, the most popular magazine in the United States, Time, developed a whole concept for its iPad version.
1c500fb674fc9366d8b6bc6cedc49629cfd7774d	However, is it really only innovations and high technologies that have helped Apple reach the pedestal on which the company is comfortably located today?
7b6054c3f10b47280cb65634ca8e55954d45f57f	After all, now Apple is more than new IT technologies and modern production.
cbff16eaba4aabce5b1d59de610c70b683f9e4a0	Apple is an aesthetic design, a unique reputation, a recognizable style, a successful image and a whole culture in the consumer electronics industry.
fb2d47c4661ba2a3a0e9d5ef84fc9034c3010497	In a word, Apple is a legend.
9f82b4824fa21321fb09f14b4824d093e1d93ba8	And let them say that "it's easy to find out if a person has an iPhone — he will show it off himself in the first five minutes of dating" and "the main purpose of the iPad is to show that you can afford an iPad".
9c7f0f3e69ef8f25e722837fd2ea90c8486617f1	There is some truth in every joke, and the fact that "apple" jokes have appeared indicates that all these "ai things" have leaked into our market, have taken root there and have fallen in love.
a1a53fb55a7b7f5aacb3787be90e227a84544d36	Although this is true.
bc2b1a90f8daac0432b19d9a79a7f46702606e8f	Today, Apple products are rather primarily a symbol of the wealth and prosperity of its owner.
2dace8395d628bebb81cdef8cf4c9ff3763cd090	People who buy an iPhone for the first time do it not because of its technical features, but because they want to get a status.
4760b17485959ed0735a7500e6676a76481f5923	After all, if you understand it this way, then for the same price you can buy a more technically sophisticated gadget, but whose name is not so well known.
bbdd0144e387a5cd6a06c8de9967e5b4106e3933	Perhaps, this feature should be adopted.
e469cccd15d05473c981d4b143dda73175e81263	If you are engaged in a business or are planning to create it, then you need to aim not only at the technical parameters of your product or service, but also at its social aspects.
8de44adf88ef9bf3441a308eb45db7b2d5f57257	If you manage to create a product that will be cool to own, then your business will go as it should.
026281586944c8dcdf2680092408119f44ec3c21	To dot the "I" in this "Apple" prefix, I will say that Apple is even more than a manufacturer of AI gadgets.
35bd364bd6838fcf4835187693359dfc75e34be0	After all, the company was at the origins of the creation of personal computers, its history is not easy and interesting.
9662e10ec41712860856a6cc09433fe784380a92	One of the merits of Apple is that it was this company that with its Apple II series of PCs paved a wide road before the production of personal computers.
da845a3ac6b06239632df2a32fef8ff2e90fc129	In addition, Apple saw the great possibilities of the graphical interface and the computer mouse before others, introducing them into its products.
a33cb4b86763b83cf73398b1ad0ec4a8468ca859	Let's describe in order the important stages of Apple's great journey: 1976 the year of the company's foundation.
895218b4f8f50395e5a745009581afc903c239e4	One version of the origin of the name says that Steve Jobs wanted to see the company on the first pages of the telephone directory, hence the name on "a", and according to the second version, he simply fulfilled his threat to call the company "Apple", since nothing better was invented.
d7e54666f69acb63fd42e059a3be1ee1404a5ade	By the way, this is how the first Apple Computer logo looked like
37c967a6ff7855c3abce4a8782ea79ecf926ca64	By the way, this logo was invented by the third Apple co founder Ronald Wayne (Ronald Gerald Wayne).
21a884e8f253500d769013857027cf0ceb176d76	He is also called one of the biggest losers in the world, because he lost a tenth of the company for just $ 2,300.
51123d228ed6e750bf4dd8f6c47e59cd89e82244	The fact is that when they opened Apple, Ronald Wayne did not have confidence in the favorable future of this company.
1415c2e4acff697a67f94eda3746fe1fb36a64c8	In addition, he had property that he risked if things went wrong in this business.
2555833f909e3c7c557be2c7dd3cdad96954d5de	Legally, all members of the company were responsible for any debts of the company, even if they arose through the fault of another partner.
f9c770b490df5f27c840a7e7cea7ab6632c4cd2e	Jobs and Wozniak still had nothing at that time.
2f1fe7e7aeef1467323be622716e93478feb87ea	They risked almost nothing, and Wayne could lose his property, which could go in favor of creditors if things went badly.
7a5bae5d518914bc2c227ec734c577d9ff873a7f	Let me remind you that Apple Computer, Inc. was officially registered on April 1, 1976, and Wayne gave up his share on April 12, that is, less than 2 weeks later.
86915adeba7c5210f94af9bb17b8fba367be025b	Thus, he deprived himself of a potential fortune of $ 70 billion!
850587810df432cfdbec6b757475a6b9f5e6f37c	Let me remind you that in September 2012, Apple was worth more than $ 700 billion, and 10% of this amount is $70 billion.
999919d1436c0d1acb1403852a26602206f6aec1	Well, as they say “ " If I knew the purchase, I would live in Sochi”" And we will return to the history of the company, or rather the logo.
872a472aec700483049714e88c8a57fa93a99c2a	The logo created by Ron Wayne did not take root in the company.
f4d02546439cb5cf4bae138f91d803b96a663c2a	It was used for about a year, after which they decided to replace it with something simpler and more understandable.
9dc94cdd3d6f5f6982b3b5e6fd59ae09af4fb794	As a result, Steve Jobs turned to designer Rob Janoff, who created such a logo:
1613a3d8e7f7943e99bfd11c9b1ba31b03c71969	This logo was created in just a week, and it was bitten in order for it to be firmly associated with an apple, because without a bite it could be confused with a tomato.
9648a93936b07a4818aa568ce198a18980d42fd4	The Apple logo is simple, clear and recognizable.
d19e37a558261fcd27f21fc7d2f974a08c35c631	He flashes in films, in meeting places of successful people and increasingly in everyday life.
6ac171eee230dfdd002a3e2e90b0d47c39262ccd	They say that even the president of Samsung, Apple's main competitor in the smartphone market, is afraid to eat apples in crowded places: suddenly paparazzi will take a picture of him with a bite?
741bbd812f9ddbd65cb9f8b9dc7c76f629803d02	;) By the way, this logo existed in the company from 1976 to 1998, after which it was replaced with a monochrome one:
563c73db8f012cd366faf451ba7596da16a0428c	Now let's go back to the Apple story.
71c3ebfc76c4563bf73d703503270bebf795e314	In 1976, the release of the Apple I programmable computer begins.
56b316bc985b3fc266ff567bb1faa685f5bc13df	1977-93 release of various models of Apple II computers.
f1517f0c7354ed3b34e79e90e954139d3203dd2a	It became the first computer mass produced by the company.
1ddb911d857a6928491c8e86182ef544393f2a55	1980 Apple conducts the largest initial public offering in history after 1956 (that year Ford entered the stock exchange).
02a7a1d5699aa7b78f0f4c7ece004e8cb4321caf	Thus, Apple becomes a public company, and now its shares are traded on the NASDAQ stock market and the London Stock Exchange.
e7e59c5786857dab73494a8d45c6cf2155c7426a	In 2012, the company's shares exceeded the $ 500 mark for the first time, and in the same year they reached the $ 700 mark on the NASDAQ electronic trading. 1980 characterized by the failed release of the Apple III PC.
260f8a311a26aa0039bd855fb31448d4f6ccedc7	This computer turned out to be quite raw.
3e124ff3b9da164ea3dd5a6f0a101cb7bc8017bd	It was constantly breaking down and besides, there were very few offers for it on the computer software market.
96c95317aa1288c1f393a76be22c01a864886448	Problems with their sales lead to the fact that Jobs fires 40 employees, and the media is talking about the imminent collapse of the company.
87ccbd7fdfc1cb1cd35eab3f78b75c2be009f8f7	By that time, Jobs had cooled down to the Apple III project and switched all his attention to the Apple Lisa project.
6df2a2e83a64de4314742ce4b9fb661331fd2c90	And around the same time, Jobs begins the first "grating" with other co owners of the company and the board of directors.
44dbda6541177cf731d93ebca40a15f8d6124497	Jobs was quite a tough person.
38a9b9204d934ef4005418691f814f031f49f0f9	He always wanted it to be the way he wants, which is why there were conflicts with employees, engineers and partners ami.
d1353437f4afa7df83b67a07cbbb5f0d9323c77e	The fact is that for the development of a particular project, companies like Apple create special working groups that solve the tasks set. Each group has its own leader.
86ea465ffef089df5fb7a1212e226517f1fdabec	And Jobs used to get into the affairs of a particular group and make significant amendments to previously developed projects.
0c03becae7bdf64a1d73e4572976469696300802	Something like this happened with the Lisa project.
e9f705472bbce76d2479a1e8a03a66e4aa847256	Imagine that a computer project has been developed and work is in full swing on it.
6cccbbc15a3759f09a1c2eec122a7984072f3db7	Then Jobs appears and orders everything to be done differently.
0336277701387df7e90f8e61a034e993b3151f38	Naturally, all this terribly slowed down the work, and since Jobs was a perfectionist, he did not calm down until he brought every little thing to an ideal state.
8c1b829ebb8302d182af2a329f9eb66c305c3670	This led to delays in the deadlines for the completion of projects and, accordingly, to a shortfall in the company's profit, which the shareholders did not like terribly.
d26ecc51fde23086f11838a1844750dec746a5fd	As a result, Jobs was removed from the Lisa project. which upset him terribly. 1983 Steve Jobs invites the experienced John Scully, at that time the CEO of PepsiCo, to the post of president of the company.
527ac9dd2114f6691720e2d0c639b62d1d3e1dac	The phrase with which Jobs managed to "lure" a top Pepsi manager to the Apple director's chair has become one of the most famous statements in business – "Do you intend to sell soda for the rest of your life or do you want to come with me and change the world?".
666e1db66a5e265b2eff6d29cebfc101d0723537	Scully chooses Apple and heads the company until 1993.
09424925228d174e2d24474d207262ce3e199743	However, Jobs will soon regret this, saying that inviting Scully to work was the most unfortunate decision in his life.
5399b06bd079acc12c27d3781cbc87809a4105ff	1984 Apple introduces a new 32 bit Macintosh computer, named by developer Jeff Ruskin in honor of his favorite apple variety.
3c71118582e6840adba7e7efa1436b9d2421acc0	However, Jeff led the project at the beginning, and then he was sent on a forced vacation, and the project was headed by Steve Jobs.
7c3b17b1a67c3ce98e74ad42bec9469d7b6b5285	The release of Macintosh computers strengthened Jobs ' position in the company, as thanks to the release of this model, it was possible to increase the company's profit.
02a97b30c4255fe9f2979eda5522a8bd5bc2b6ee	After that, the company stops producing an uncompetitive Apple III family PC.
48bdb4498f43f1302ae40c15afc493be372993dd	The Macintosh series becomes the main business of the company.
82e504b469afb4415356cf1f3570a1abc38e77e0	1985 due to conflicts in the management, the company leaves its co founder Steve Jobs.
dcff4736eab65bcce0d3b75022c569124789150f	Although leaving the company does not sound quite right.
c8b2cfbb728d9c79a1cb8c369753cc99c12e15a2	In fact, he was fired from his own company.
492ef57d158ee977750ebff42e614759d5db00eb	Despite the fact that the Macintosh sold, but not as well as planned.
cb1180fe2132ad87a4cbdbff57c76b2e65efa11c	Shareholders accused Steve Jobs of creating non competitive computers, and Jobs accused shareholders and company executives of overcharging the Macintosh.
2bc789337c1b2eba3cdc9e92fb7ebb3343c64194	Jobs considered Scully, whom he once dragged from Pepsi, to be the main villain.
22f4cdd8029517baf70ff2f49064630bbd225974	As a result of this confrontation, the board of directors chose John Scully as a more experienced leader who could improve Apple's affairs.
0d8c0712226bebd2b651cfbb6961c8e071ac3c3b	In the same year, Jobs founded the company NeXT.
6e2d7da4926fb43fc2e15a883d0a3dff2d05c108	Later, in 2005, speaking to graduates of Stanford University, Jobs would say that quitting Apple was the best and right decision at that moment.
468d4cf2a1f1cba050a0b39627b40e6e59582532	Cooperation with Scully does not bring Apple much success.
6b0a67593223590dc48d137222358fef6b5a9d67	All this time, the company is teetering on the verge of survival.
135e67c1afb1f78b0e41970a801049a8c76ec72a	As a result, after a significant drop in Apple's market value, the board of directors dismisses John Scully.
2c9e2c4d0d1e40c8e2f3ea29613d053eac45f922	At Jobs, things are also going neither shakily nor valko at NeXT.
45c9a753596e4ad9d02b3b08e89a02921b68565c	As a result, the new Apple management decides that the company needs drastic changes and that only Jobs can initiate these changes.
c7592c06662b4cb3bb32ba85a857ea9d5fb814a1	It is worth noting that NeXT's business was going so badly that Jobs had to curtail all computer production, leaving only software development afloat.
5771bba28a0a5e2f8e1cba8851cb5e6ff0eb8b22	Subsequently, the developments made became the basis of the Mac OS operating system.
c5e8dc1b2894bd9394d312f9ed122f8c8fb61352	1996 Steve Jobs returns to the Apple director's chair.
9192a3c872e6ca52cb7d6cd1cb1c3a26825321a8	The company buys Jobs ' firm NeXT, paying no less than $ 430 million for it.
fb73f455e05f77acad9de92380f4afb5b66856e0	I would like to note that over the years of its existence, Apple has repeatedly absorbed various companies operating in the IT technology market – Siri, Anobit Technologies, etc. From 1996 to 1998, Apple underwent drastic changes.
c858ad2469972198a6a2e0c7b91b78d580488215	It was decided to abandon many projects.
8f92e0373938563101920ccbf9b076ced548e0e5	More than 3,000 employees were laid off.
4eb71cc68750ac45f9b840e0c23e17e12cccfda6	The company has focused its efforts on four main areas: stationary models of computers for professionals Power Macintosh G3 portable models of computers for professionals PowerBook G3 stationary models of computers for ordinary consumers iMac portable models of computers for ordinary consumers iBook
241c4f403754c443d4326a1720355d1a20964aed	1998 – As a result of the work done in the arena of computer technology, a new futuristic model of the iMac G3 appears, which became the fastest selling computer in the history of Apple.
ac9921b982e27e9c19450f7565b6cdfb1dfe3fca	At the same time, Jobs begins to hatch the idea of creating his own chain of stores that will sell apple products.
61113ab51e4bd6741772666c81173dcd129e645f	He was not satisfied with the fact that Apple products are on the same shelf with other brands.
e8f4a1fcb5682896bf6655ef46195fb8be7f0d5f	He wanted his products to be sold in a special way.
209f784fbe8acc18849dc776431c0df238bfb622	So that sellers do not put it on a par with other products.
e044c7e3aec27ad27e3b05ac8e700ab737c9e526	And this is another highlight that makes Apple products higher than their competitors.
046e537d4281e53452bc7a5103d2bea52ccbb185	When you believe that your product is special and try to make it so, then it will be so.
f8aa47afcc7040aaa2aaffef83d26d0fbda45e57	Jobs didnot like mediocrity.
2b275655a2d069b294ad4318e66b884fdb4e1951	And I have always tried to combine elegant design and the latest technologies in my products.
c42bde1a812c6969f2cac9c1af27a5c770214a34	2000 the dot com crash.
076d24de7db6d194891ed802168ff35f8a22613a	Dotcom literally translates as". com".
597c708bbc10d338ef69f3c19b15c66439f3d52f	Dot coms are companies related to the Internet.
60b76fc7561d64fc2dd6632682fb8bcea9c18e0e	Apple has never been a company that can be called a dotcom.
fc40a3b56436ea9fbb6dd29b8b5eae3e21eb71e0	But it was very dependent on this market, because Apple products are aimed at PC users, and with the advent of the Internet in our lives, “computer and the Internet” have become almost inseparable words.
3b4bf5e84c57d4e723097814656af5973496687e	So, in 2000, there was a collapse of companies related to the Internet in the United States.
5334c3986088fae977411343d3966b1d09e47229	The share price of such companies began to fall, including the value of Apple shares.
ad7a93b5ba6554636344995700f582808b842144	This crisis has also spread to other sectors of the economy.
fd65679fd3ba337119fec82593866eeb9cbb520b	In general, there is an opinion that it was the dot com crash that provoked the subsequent collapse of the world economy in 2007-2008, the consequences of which we still feel.
bccf64516eca375814daca260e36f2deda73ee1f	I wrote more about the dot com crash and the crisis here: The Internet is the source of today's crisis How the crisis developed.
4a4eae0c1bbea8429fe0169609224f179a0ee5d1	What caused the demand for real estate?
06e23c23356eef147c416f870b10563cdca8ffc5	The causes of the global financial crisis, or how unscrupulous borrowers and greedy Wall Street dealers brought down the real estate market How did the financial crisis that arose in the United States affect Russia, and what does it threaten us in the future?
b50ab17213690623852f58f5b68b905da5b0e83a	Why am I even writing about the crisis now?
8bef56fdc9923ef8f1cadc320a3af1f5bee7ca63	What does the crisis, dot coms and Apple have to do with it, you may ask?
37327ee9d9760010429a109b7c7f8728eba5c863	In fact, this is very important, because it was the crisis that served to change the vector of Apple's development.
f82def7021cb2890dcab71e5b5210a5f3d3f8d0c	It was the dot com crash that forced Steve Jobs to look for new markets, thanks to which his company could not just survive, but also thrive.
33b62ccc2fd4a557c3e6eddfe9f803256fc62b07	As a result of the search for new technological solutions, such devices as the iPod, iPhone, iPad appeared, as well as various software that users of apple products love so much.
2667832d3c91d1a3b2e5054545d1600b5f894646	According to Jobs ' idea, the computer in the future should become a multifunctional complex consisting not only of a monitor, a system unit and a keyboard, but also of various peripheral devices, such as a player, a phone, etc. Jobs began to implement his idea with the creation of high quality software. among which I would especially like to note the appearance of the universal iTunes media player.
a6efe1c7a9a930b0bfa85b863efddf4824172233	It was with the advent of this software that Apple turned into one of the key players in the music market.
a7826031f74cebe20b2806454fd60e3a8f039c0e	The fact is that the music market was also going through hard times at that time.
b6e7a4f61007a8f6cbf39c56d2bcf9fffb7c1976	With the development of the Internet and the advent of the mp 3 format, pirates have strongly bitten the music market.
41bd28babaa261b29d3aa3090288d5731d057a95	And the appearance of iTunes, or rather the iTunes Store. which will be discussed below, allowed to increase sales of legal content.
d8f6437aeca184dc4382efe62409bc9a416e5e05	With the advent of iTunes, there was an urgent need for a music device that will work with this software.
6bfeb299a002238cceb7985b4bd6ad785039c9f8	That's how the iPod appeared. 2001 presentation of the iPod audio player.
ef2734c9f6b06cfc7decf12b037e6ad3940585ab	In parallel with the launch of the iPod, Apple opens the first two Apple stores.
e5bfb79a4702a7a21190541d386bac94d75fa733	Experts predicted the failure of this idea, but as of September 2013, 413 stores were opened and successfully operated in 14 countries of the world.
1014f0a1170309dcfc54c392e2d9a233130306dd	The Apple Store is not just a hardware store – it's a paradise for geeks! 2003 presentation of the online music store iTunes Store.
05d56028c88636ed049be3589a8aaa3788a0ee45	The key feature of this store was that it was possible to buy songs individually, and not the whole album as it was previously accepted, and also the fact that the main buyers were the owners of apple products.
fd1b564b65e00b81bacc705ca9d48ae6671106e4	The iTunes Store predicted a million sales in the first 6 months of operation.
70d69a27264b15907ec69a8914c14cb7575e52ad	As a result, a million songs were sold out in 6 days of work. 2007 the release of the iPhone smartphone, which was announced by Steve Jobs himself.
a3019665c167ab502de57e7e6ce901f3dd3c355f	It was under his leadership that Apple was able to discover new market segments.
3f0f49f9c70f8ac2789b2eb37c3de329f8ffa159	In the same year, the company changes its official name from Apple Computer to just Apple, in connection with the entry into the consumer electronics market.
273d73755b2ccf7f47357ab58173cf9a7b567162	The appearance of the iPhone is due to the fact that with the development of mobile technologies, the demand for cameras and digital cameras has fallen.
8e8a24e6902d6400ad86c15decc8e7f6aca8cc6a	Developers of mobile devices began to combine a phone, a camera and audio players.
e8c65d2039b05e77ab057be639fea5f281ecc6ce	Jobs understood that the audio player market was doomed and would soon be absorbed by phones that combined all these devices.
bb016f4922c2e1a8a59985f583b8c01a9b1fd9e1	And then he set the task to his subordinates to develop a new phone that will combine all these functions and, according to Apple's tradition, will be elegant and convenient.
fdf9f007a47ae2aa0e1ce8a33b00428b74f75a23	Time Magazine subsequently recognizes the iPhone as the invention of the year!
9ea5e7fa383caee5901d5202e9531fe301965994	2008 iPhone takes the 2nd place in the rating of the most useful modern technologies, according to the publication PCWorld.
136b861ed27269c859efcfa40ad9b308dd06ddb6	20 08 Apple releases the thinnest laptop in the world called the MacBook Air
93a10f22a818f58929a8018e658fb655b52a1391	The two thousandth became a real triumph for Jobs and his team.
f52af1885c1697f80740a81193f6c9491a48e27a	Apple almost every year surprises the world with something and makes its army of fans more and more. 2010 Apple releases the iPad tablet computer.
42a9866e0e36952084c72c49c9ef3d8f265f7e89	The most interesting thing is that the idea of tablet computers with a touch screen was proposed back in 1988 by students of the University of Illinois.
1964a12ce2c534b693076c65ee30578f63554bcf	At that time, they were working on the topic "What will be the personal computer of the year 2000" as part of a competition held by Apple.
6ed46c436c20b3681c6f15a7556a6bda382ab179	By the way, he looked like this:
780dc8990a8450c3dd33dc2584bd87cec0122529	In the same 2010, the iPhone 4 takes 1st place in the list of the best phones in the categories "Bestseller" and "Image" according to Mobile Review.com 2011 Steve Jobs leaves in August for health reasons, and in November he died.
2edbe25e3cb0585cfd35adfdffed4b88268fdbf1	Steve Jobs ' love for his business largely ensured the company's success.
76afdaf20b0a074d774c11fa634593c07c9c0c0b	Part of his individual character traits, the "parent" inherited his "apple" - this is a love of innovation, creativity, courage and style.
b967cfdad14efe0d3b0aebab5fa910bdc4ad3868	Since September 2012, the iPhone 5 has been on official sale.
bb8a18d12e3acf1c33d1ab26e13ff2545f7cfb94	They joke that the iPhone is the smartest phone, and it has the highest percentage of owners who are much dumber than their phone ) I donot know about the IQ of smartphone owners, but the fact that there are a lot of them is a fact.
182154ce40a18d6c1ceab3cbc96be1d9bb713449	The number of pre orders for the fifth iPhone reached 2 million in a day!
de407f7f16772f6a12c2c3c51509082626362602	Probably, among the happy owners of the smartphone there is also Evgeny Chichvarkin, the ex founder of Euroset, now living in London.
eee3715f65aa18f21812ef81b2d9ec5cf333c19e	According to him, he intended to change the iPhone 4S to the iPhone 5 as soon as its sales begin in the Foggy Albion.
41728ac06f00c243cce4fb4cbfade7a0ae07a52e	As for Russia, Apple smartphones have also won a wide audience here.
dcf30d653a9f50a584e2f8eaf435d1ecb7e100f9	Although some argue that the iPhone would sell better if it went on the Russian market under the translated name "yaMobilko";)
1ff778947db39265edfd83bd04b1cd88e06c63d8	However, Apple is already widely known in our territory.
6ef442c8d617ebd333d1102c870cd428b93c224d	It positions itself as a manufacturer of simple devices created for the convenience, communication and entertainment of people.
3f9f1ad738a297dc4d1e6be52e004931068bcee9	Although all this equipment of the future, sold already in the present, is very, very expensive.
1c25d3907134cda67e0ffaa96c4f7b3e5cb2bedd	If you look at the official Russian language website http://www.apple.com/ru/, then it can be traced that the key words in the description of the company's products are not dry technical characteristics, but enthusiastic glossy epithets.
e1b02baa2fa56b06e49609354d3b3f22f090423e	Apple doesnot just have "12 megapixels, 17 inches, 3 GB", it has unlimited possibilities, amazing quality, a magnificent display and the most advanced operating system in the world!
15899fc319531602200b854d52d91ca7d8e7d296	Everything from Apple works automatically, easily and imperceptibly laptops are "faster than you can imagine", iPhones "do everything for you" and iPods, with which "sword battles become sharper, and zombie hunting becomes more effective!"
59d6f9c84f0cf5bd7cecf1f623754add943100a1	Apple protects its technical developments very jealously.
3cff7a3da2180565eef102aa19734aae746decb1	The company monitors the quality of its trademark, opens branded stores and creates an entire ecosystem of software and numerous applications.
d4e56e34ff2fa370290a44c15237de09debaf316	Regarding Apple, they say that the company has " patented a patent for patenting a patent."
82a9381d2324b5bc8d6afc6ccc00c9c9d6f63adb	Quite a true remark, because as of October 2012, the company has received 5,440 patents for its inventions and design projects!
a678d2a9de6880931421733e3a0ba5f66532f3f8	Protecting intellectual property rights, Apple is suing one firm, then another, while winning lawsuits, then losing them.
21d01feea6173def56780420a561e4e5b1711d6b	So, Nokia accused Apple of violating 10 patents, and Apple filed a lawsuit against Samsung.
2f8a07f32a64f978e5bdad10861f7cf6c429ebe3	She, however,was found innocent by a British court, but patent battles continue.
9cddf56de90f181db1ebf5409ec9033d129c91d4	Now Apple has the highest profitability, as with the points
62da1965aefdd8332fcfd58b7f0fe6f5cf3bf413	Coordinates: 37°19 '55" s. w.
15217186a8d05fd84668790ee9b5a9c06bfb6e12	122°01'47" s. d.
5aa7dd437847483a2edc3c8c118cd35d7a522823	/ 37.33194° s. w.
f9101f66e7ea8509f32dc9450e842835dc77feb5	122.02972° s. d.
2995360391889bea7318c747e9b61ed96852c830	/ 37.33194; -122.02972 (G) (O)
1b3b5112c58aae1e1f6c71940065fcf1f15354d0	This term has other meanings, see Apple (values).
930ccb849232d29423fd7e4c44d4a89df50e4011	Apple Inc.
07c5c7666a912f9d4c017715ddba514514035014	Type Public company
a0788c770f00539284f3ee8e0e64ba0fa30ffb78	NASDAQ Listing: AAPL
d3e9c09c0ef00c97b25330505f7fd916ec59c9eb	Foundation 1976
3bb8c28583e7adcf485f9f2da394c3db297f4ecc	Founders Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Ronald Wayne[1]
e97bfc4e62bea412d9a273687cf1b46b1af21528	Location USA USA: Cupertino, California
a80c63e0a84b2bc3bdfd191bfff8bd7228549d47	Key figures Tim Cook (CEO)[2]
9caf49419927bcb2fb8a675201c03cd81f7e4265	Arthur Levinson (Chairman of the Board of Directors)[3]
55e93aa31f306229c38740fbf88bfd322c7c15dd	Industry Electronics, information technologies
ddb40265a7d67477ab8c5a078d7680ca1e965fb3	Products Personal and tablet computers, mobile phones, audio players, wearable technologies, software
0c942fa97bd6c6fa21490087cc02ffa737d6f275	Turnover : $182.795 billion (2014)[4]
99037f99f130c308bc980df683e0fc17a9c5c937	Net profit : $39.540 billion (2014)[4]
b1dbb3bdfdc57d69583216192ba94132ff534deb	The number of employees is 80 thousand.
ff68f3ca17c606b5e68038bc1c0fdd9c1db9c18e	(2013)[5]
4edf660149bda28270e6283da50076fe0686ac0f	Subsidiaries of FileMaker Inc., Anobit, Beats by Dr. Dre and Braeburn Capital
b57f0c4e2301c9e1a06ff0b448c94b534c61ac96	Website apple.com/ru
ab3ae8d33e0c7174978a3b9778d1695860011a8d	10]
292400515587fe770b5fcfd404208f57f108e526	1 Title 2 History 2.1 1970s 2.2 1980s 2.3 1990s 2000s 2.4 2010s 2.5 Mergers and Acquisitions
1cd88ceb7857863b734ed46071bfa9b9c5a08857	3 Owners and management 3.1 Board of Directors [22] 3.2 Senior Management[22] 3.3 Key figures in the company's history
ead2e38910c15eb5a2c6192a29ba18fa797a10b2	4 Activities 4.1 Products 4.2 Performance indicators 4.3 Apple in Russia
2ff327af2569a924ae5ce19818a83487ea6ec915	5 Marketing 5.1 Advertising video "1984" 5.2 Advertising campaign "Think Different" 5.3 Exhibitions
335bb2c6a735b2fd42179d62a4de904bff60d1b2	6 Criticism 6.1 Toxic waste 6.2 Working conditions
77cc6ecbb1df878d64a8de58c953dc73364e8997	7 Taxes 8 Apple and patents 8.1 Lawsuits against Apple
44dd3a488860827aa60e6ee59e2856b46fc5cc6f	9 Notes 10 References 11 References
768e0c1c69573fb588f61f1308a015c11468e05f	Title
46bca7f8798bf3034d702c3d8f1a848a03834602	Jobs suggested the name Apple because in this case the company's phone number was in the phone book right before "Atari".[11] Macintosh a variety of apples sold in the United States — is the favorite apple variety of Jeff Ruskin, who was the head and developer of the Macintosh project before Steve Jobs took this position.
69b1bf15ba343a310c92308d6d7da92369b18c5e	the 1970s
92c24b37f28d085c33c3ed25a8bc12a80b84d567	The company was founded in California by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who assembled their first personal computer based on the MOS Technology 6502 processor in the mid 1970s.
8f1011e838e2b9215a5af5d7dd8045ad9ef73965	But the first mass produced personal computer, produced by millions of copies, was the Apple II computer[7].
eaaeca850fc3f01d9329a096469b0c52d6e5147d	Now it is considered that it was "Apple II" that once and for all opened a wide road to a new industry — the production of personal computers[7].
8e70353bf589328124d6fef211cbc4b48726e103	Main article: Apple II
63fbb7a44bd9862043e8cf4651d7c4f9191990cc	the 1980s
4390938275fca9cd4f49e3792857e4f51895a357	In 1984, Apple first introduced a new 32 bit Macintosh computer.
9c0fe3881e967e549886303fe036786f335571f0	This platform is produced only by Apple — for a short time in the mid 1990s, the management decided to grant licenses for the production of Mac compatible computers, but subsequently the licenses were revoked.
380c1badf130bfadf0a292adf3cbb9b6f57048c7	And in 2007, it entered the market of mobile phones with a touch sensitive iPhone smartphone.
74865150c34b9f0e930b988625dcec0ded6155fc	In August 2012, it became the most expensive company in history, breaking the Microsoft record set in December 1999, at the peak of the so — called dot com bubble, and on September 21, 2012, Apple shares reached their maximum during trading - $705.07, capitalization was $662.09 billion[14].
65f4f58eda408a687a036cd60fced092c8ccd966	In 2013, Apple was the first to start mass production of 64 bit ARM architecture chips by releasing a 64 bit 2 core Apple A7 microprocessor[17]
9b9939276e99bbca7377e44c722c34e3ef4ad266	Mergers and acquisitions
31b738f5c280b7e6bf69b03ac8f20367da9e38e7	Main article: List of Apple acquisitions
76abd7e64b87b70d24a8564dc032346317b886d6	Among the largest such deals are the purchase of NeXT (1996, for $430 million), P.
3a1a04f3d003931a14cb7c8c6228f67dd577dae7	A. Semi (April 2008, $280 million), Quattro Wireless (January 2010, $274 million), Siri (April 2010, $200 million), Anobit Technologies (January 2012, $400-500 million), Beats Electronics (May 2014, for $3 billion)[18] and others.
bf608d2c67ed0f164377d7dac2d3f8dc441f4272	In 2014, Apple regained the leadership in terms of market capitalization with an amount of $ 700 billion. the source is not specified 426 days].
c22e3c3b11ad4024753c7dd394842746f295940d	Apple headquarters in Cupertino
a345a565f3bd232c3a1b004645b89a59b3ab370e	Board of Directors[22]
a644e179c9adf13170658b4c1a0e26f34db4adf0	Arthur D. Levinson — Chairman of the Board of Directors of Apple, Chairman and former CEO of Genentech.
0342b1aa6e9f7c8ab329b63786b5c1d4948c87d0	James A. Bell is a former chief financial Officer and corporate president of Boeing Corporation.
8a021c0f274907f21abf4f4c7dd651dc4494a4c4	Tim Cook is the CEO of Apple.
3d0a7bbaaf4f89ae466d3256fe7885b46cb13a97	Albert Gore is a former vice president of the United States.
8397e2c2c57d9cc9490d7b164133bfc3f4edfc40	Robert Iger is the president and CEO of The Walt Disney Company.
886be67196ae53a594edd7ac00bba07ec0679bf2	Andrea Jung is a Senior Advisor to the Board of Directors of Avon Products.
a4a214cb46bc94a19d1a5eb73e38c8da5c4df955	Ronald D. Sugar is the former chairman and CEO of Northrop Grumman Corporation.
0e1c5ffc12828a0353afdfb04e762798e06ee369	Susan Wagner is the former head of the investment company BlackRock.
ebf65deb2af309007b305be727150dd7ccc68064	Top Management[22]
9d7627ee06832e001e9c8b3e512a930283c97b31	Tim Cook has been CEO since August 2011.
f7f87eced49cbf1808082ab3f3a267c667e0c9f8	[2] Former Chief Operating Officer (1998-2011) [23].
cca797ee2ce14d435ea82269b0f5073fd5d673bd	Senior Vice Presidents
5d1c6b0d3da4b0b1f8fb23824ff01f74caa1c4cb	Angela Ahrendts is the Senior Vice President of Apple Store Retail Stores and Apple Online Commerce.
794ec088bc5ece61eb7c363ebdb327602275606b	Eddie Q — Senior Vice President of Web Programming for Apple Internet services (iTunes Store, App Store, iCloud, Apple Maps, etc.) [24]. Craig Federighi Senior Vice President of Software Development (OS X and iOS)[24]. Jonathan Ive Senior Vice President of Design[24].
986ce54e1871a0adf414492b141d45116a4e095f	Luca Maestri is Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
f6794e3609348ae261835c2e8a96d89fae14ef4e	Dan Riccio is Senior Vice President of Hardware Development.
1a056682b3f4ae3d673b45b80fee176fcb26e606	Philip Schiller Senior Vice President of International Marketing.
afd75b456defadc1fbc0b331030752a3c5e115f8	Bruce Sewell is a Senior Vice President and General Counsel.
c0434361398020f91aebc8d2f7e29a7839358d07	Johny Srouji is a Senior vice President of Hardware Technologies.
d3e910be4ea67ff4fadd98073ce5ad54e5a85fe5	Jeff Williams (Apple) is a Senior vice President of Operations.
09910b94c112c3712dc0abeac6e6c1919b89bedc	Vice Presidents[25]
2fc367451d5822ae7823e72b0c4b83d367cf2f5e	Paul Deneuve is the Vice President for Special Projects.
cf322515966d876f72d779d3e1ecf07903762b19	Alan Dye is the Vice President of User Interface Design.
0cf309ff4c6f35d36225b293a06fdcec7dc61b8a	Steve Dowling is the Vice President of Public Relations and Media.
0c43f44f3481a13bc33ba1e21db80821595efe07	Richard Howarth is the Vice President of Industrial Design.
6f43b5073a23d4844cc92cf8b263a68e4982ccb3	Lisa P. Jackson Vice President for Environmental Protection, Policy Engagement and Social Initiatives.
dde3637dea31f9ba4abab0426b1e3f8e3e4e3985	Joel Podolny is the Vice President and Dean of Apple University.
9a2c30efbe6ece0700403e63d4733c7897cee20d	Denise Young Smith is the Vice President of Global HR Policy.
608991b15b57e506096acc4e1a4bb0d707178994	Key figures in the company's history
9de7ea685637eef3f0bb5fb59564219af713d7c1	CEO:
08d1915f37e3ec95619575f78760c2235ae59637	Michael Scott First CEO from February 1977 to March 1981 Mike Markkula: 1981-1983 John Scully: 1983-1993 Michael Spindler: 1993-1996 Gil Amelio: 1996-1997 Steve Jobs: 1997-2011 Tim Cook: since 2011.
68c103e9e1cffd66819399ef00797611e167a1ed	Other persons:
0df2d4a21b4244fb1699a0926561ddd780d3702b	Bill Atkinson Bob Mansfield is a senior vice president of computer hardware engineering.
b01d67f263062f55898efe6251b9b72d3679b610	Guy Kawasaki is one of the first employees of Apple Computer, responsible for marketing the Macintosh computer in 1984.
6d6c01149036b12be6241903d71a553fcafeff93	Del Yocam Jeff Raskin is a developer of the Macintosh computer.
708caa8db0d350d2ab4f812af9032a9b6a7a7eed	Jonathan Ive is a designer who gave the world the iPod, iMac, and iPhone.
85ada80fd0c9a257fef7394c665f0316a08dbfb3	(1992 present) Jonathan Paul — eng.
c134cdda91ff08e9d12029a399179ce20c60b248	Jonathan Paul) - vice president of Apple, an expert in the field of industrial design.
c9e53d2bad6a2b27230a68c766dc41d3580365da	Jean Louis Gassée (French: Jean Louis Gassée) — Executive Director of the company (1981-1990).
011151aff38629426d6b0f8841dd3f3f88eac54b	Peter Oppenheimer Senior Vice President and CFO of the company (2004-2014).
ef68c0387f066075f1d31b27a709b1629ec371b5	Steve Wozniak
34eeb3b5960ba0a9e492552fb274e91bd86aec7a	(Polish.
36b5727cbbedd4d6a8e0660f6955f9ee9bd43402	Stephen Gary Wozniak is the co founder of Apple.
16c6ded8392a3acb02739027b35bfbf8e6e5a5ed	Developer of Apple I and Apple II computers.
79f11311e4ec8d2eceb9c4373365a18a179aa67d	Scott Forstall was the Senior Vice President of iPhone Software until October 29, 2012.
e51d8b9e2b5a7849f9e4f7a1d0fea1bb7f59fd81	Susan Kare is an artist and graphic designer who created many of the elements of the Apple Macintosh interface in the 1980s.
e82586ea3fe873fa054e22046fe37218dc21b158	Tony Fadell is the main developer of the iPod player.
77ed02c1e74a515546153369417694061d203937	Evi Tevanyan was Apple's senior vice president of Software Development from 2003 to 2006.
469082983d8f8b0071ac3c35d3a2f345773380e3	Andy Herzfeld is a senior OS software architect for the Macintosh in 1981.
b6f5c0b099b1edeee8e1cd5a7248117b7aeb3aea	Eric Schmidt was a member of the Board of Directors from August 2006 to August 3, 2009[26].
968bb85af54cbba086f9a45a77daaef963c9cf1a	Jerome York was a member of the Board of Directors from 1997 to 2010[27].
1e4a3ae7b133e7389eda8862bd61525079538105	Ron Johnson (eng. Ron Johnson (businessman)) - Senior Vice President of Retail business from 2000 to 2011.
81c0d915fa6d82fd30661c5e66e204cea52bb2b5	Activity
fe0a091fdbfb3e9c31b7a1bd7975974938e702fa	Products
50228aee7fcec2a454e44c6c9e4123d95d5737b8	Main article: Apple products
d08bc908ffa3df0e69eb83a4a7c7a0659c23fcbf	At the moment, among the main products produced by Apple:
7ea706ae223e704ff7d56781fd08f7142a439bc6	iPhone — mobile phones; iPad tablet computers; iPod shuffle, iPod nano and iPod touch portable multimedia players;
4543763653e32087f4d482f93ed902e8d8b9643f	MacBook Pro professional laptops;
9fb01592323fccef94098d9283ea93f3b4211729	MacBook Air ultra thin laptops;
529032bc8412740b31f4c16306a75ba090b7a25b	Mac mini system units of personal computers; iMac all in one computers (monitor, system unit, audio video peripherals);
8f63e61da325c771bcc81b983c50f67e42b3f68f	Mac Pro desktop computers of the "workstation"class;
82a47942e1015a79c79067001a846571482c1a9a	Thunderbolt Display computer monitors;
6545e6dea7d1a1ebe30707b6b3e79653d3ca2503	Mac Pro Server, Mac mini Server servers;
53f7cb1f2860cd25d926e08d89dd1f5b07d5c410	Apple TV multimedia players, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, etc.
e940deeac616aabdfd4ce50b729734a82eb8df36	In addition, the company produces accessories for these products, as well as software;
b1fd2161a219069b7fb88a171f16aba6f42761b5	Apple Watch is a smart watch.
65e9817c5501e28ddd64342aafde3a7feb2aa677	Performance indicators
b9227e372403ee4b0992481916b29d949777f688	The information in this section is outdated.
9ac735f4529e2bee2aa05875e58a9d5bb73068e2	You can help the project by updating it and then removing this template.
64bebdd886c727f8afe7cd1aa382f1e1464e7e33	Opening of the first Apple Center store in Russia in the Moscow Atrium shopping Center, November 2005.
06186752a438cc3639bda3f04730cda8957cd92c	The store is currently called re:Store and is part of the network of the same name
abde3fc47ed59f29e7cd04f02bb012928f78bd3b	At the same time, the browser installation option is enabled by default, and its description consists exclusively of advertising and a link to the site[35]:
a8bff52a0731d3c8a889c4931faa76c77a0f81c4	Promotional video "1984"
159d59739ece03c2af9380198a9913d6e4f3ffdd	Main Article: 1984 (commercial)
1803c3d5dcd1c9de9855e50b55182ed937d6eb7d	"Think Different"advertising campaign
22ff90e2873ff9d3900654c085e82a6247578468	Main article: Think Different
83b0e8f0e3ab1eac3bef6e1aa7ffa08576d617be	See also: en:Criticism of Apple Inc.
b10af1c681b4a5063806548fff572f1081f570a6	In 2010, Climate Counts, a non profit organization dedicated to directing consumers towards green companies, gave Apple 52 points out of 100 possible, which puts Apple in their highest category "On the Way"[40].
df6236fab9368bd199bd8495ae832731e95325f9	This was a leap forward compared to May 2008, when Climate Counts gave Apple only 11 points out of 100, which placed the company in last place among electronics companies, after which Climate Counts also awarded Apple the "mark of slow wits", adding that Apple at that time had "a chance to evade consumers worried about climate change"[41].
3b9d45c35f02aaab37e75aceeae420c9bcec52fb	Greenpeace launched a campaign against Apple because of various environmental problems, for example, because of non recyclable hardware components and toxic substances in the iPhone[42][43]. Since 2003, Greenpeace has been campaigning against Apple's use of special chemicals in its products, in particular, the inclusion of PVC and brominated additives[42].
d2d67a5f2211a4905c70d59a62f43dcf459aae85	On May 2, 2007, Steve Jobs published a report announcing his plans to eliminate PVC and brominated additives by the end of 2008[44][45]. Apple has since eliminated PVC and brominated additives from its products, becoming the first laptop manufacturer to do so.
248354b5071e10af01f0b1e1121e9acb7742e2bb	[46] [47] In the first edition of Greenpeace's "Guide to Green Electronics", released in August 2006, Apple received only 2.7/10[48].
9e592110201d3d7dc8b13b574d4bd5f30b766935	The US Environmental Protection Agency highly rates Apple among laptop manufacturers, and gives the company good ratings compared to other manufacturers of desktop computers and LCD displays[49][50]. In June 2007, Apple updated the MacBook Pro, replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamps in the backlighting of LCD displays with mercury free LEDs and arsenic free glass[51], and since then has done this for all laptops[44][52][53].
c6d6f1594b2304a245f1ebeb4a69e5b7fc6a093d	In October 2009, Apple updated the iMac and MacBook, replacing cold cathode fluorescent lamps in the backlighting of LCD displays with mercury free LEDs and arsenic free glass[55].
17d3eae179cd7b46d1f186dea6ad774ce88e2bbf	This means that all Apple computers have mercury free LED backlit displays, arsenic free glass and PVC free cables.
fa0c6d0bcb0662f181c35bdbc62ca95b28fb4565	The article also reported that employees receive about $ 100 a month and are required to pay the company for rent and food, which in general is just over half of the workers ' earnings[60][61][62].
dd25ab7df427ba26d43ab423fbc6d816c48d3643	In 2007, Apple began an annual audit of all its suppliers about the rights of employees, slowly raising standards and weeding out non compliant suppliers.
e011c72a1304d4c262c1e492a68f64b42c6c543f	One worker claimed that he and his colleagues were not informed about possible occupational diseases[65].
7b5800589a316998a40d38ef37bfae497db12fe7	In 2011, Apple admitted that their suppliers in China use child labor[68].
bde86c5cd9cae6b47ede9e07d5cc245cf2f646db	Workers in factories producing Apple products are exposed to n hexane, a neurotoxin that is a cheaper substitute for ethyl for cleaning products[69][70]. In 2013, China Labor Watch found violations of the law and Apple's promises about working conditions at facilities owned by Pegatron, including discrimination against ethnic minorities and women, withholding wages to employees, excessive working hours, poor living conditions, safety and health problems, environmental pollution[71].
7e36e3192e070589ecaba8c9792a4ed0ec4bc327	Taxes
467c2762027d471284c6d73c55e501734530779e	Total taxes paid by ASI in 2009-2011 [72] 2011 2010 2009 Total Income before taxes US$ 22 billion US$ 12 billion US$ 4 billion US$ 38 billion Total Tax US$ 10 million US$ 7 million US$ 4 million US$ 21 million Tax rate 0.05 % 0.06 % 0.1 % 0.06 %
9f01a62f0c1878c9eecb535d7e69e435af8589b5	To reduce the taxes that the company pays around the world, Apple has created subsidiaries in low tax places such as Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and the British Virgin Islands.
bd5f18547c6ce2d6e1521d891f6f6473cbd5089b	In the late 1980s, Apple pioneered an accounting technique known as "Double Irish with a Dutch Sandwich" , which reduces taxes by directing profits through Irish subsidiaries to the Netherlands and then to the Caribbean [73].
0ae827693f1433af9ef1701e2d370b6a96e75377	Charlie Elphicke, a member of the British Conservative Party, published a study dated October 30, 2012, which shows that some multinational companies, including Apple, made billions of pounds of profit in the UK, but paid only 3 percent of the effective tax rate to the UK Treasury, which is significantly lower than the standard income tax.
90f2273a6b6a34c1a6e09682f57812ce52dbf1a6	After publishing the study, Elphicke called on the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, to force multinational corporations, including Google and the Coca Cola Company, to report the effective tax rate they pay on their income in the UK.
0cedff2e9873b8e3b08e2167df9fb7e9412e92f7	Elphicke also said that government contracts should be denied to multinational corporations that do not pay their fair share to the UK[74].
b34ddd8af420d957fe3b5e36971b5cc90adc63d0	Apple and patents
70440046a3dc2e079f23ee1c57dfa76669b732aa	Notes
af35ad68df8a5d4703ce5b3f8e8b61ac10c1ae51	↑ Linzmayer Ronald W. Apple Confidential: The Real Story of Apple Computer, Inc.. - No Starch Press, 1999.
1cddb63184e7dee3bc9c4122bdd740507b4a0862	↑ 1 2 Steve Jobs has left the post of CEO of Apple.
99f7497a57f0bea43d982d45b59edeaf67807997	Lenta.ru. Checked on August 25, 2011.
b04bab1816313cf5e4100d0ad1148fbfbe3d1e85	Archived from the original source on February 4, 2012.
db89315a9b81db11812d2e1e903fc1ec644bd463	↑ 16.11.2011 :: voanews.com:: Arthur Levinson replaced Steve Jobs at Apple ↑ 1 2 3 2014 Apple Form 8 K (October 20, 2014).
a2d07302af0749816aa36976b9a28ed449aba56e	↑ 1 2 Apple's Jobs creation ↑ Vladislav Novy.
e965c6b2468f0f50b75234acfd934715b78a29b8	Apple will gain wholesale in Russia / / Kommersant.
508b0af2b627f1692c81fd3fbc948a55fdc17c96	- 20.08.2012. - Vol.
b8b9f1367ad6269845f5ec54d66262066092883f	No.
834799e7fbdd8d5132f79cd199150e6940d87a57	153/P (4938). ↑ 1 2 3 Meet: computer // Edited by V. M. Kurochkin.
9c9628a282c68c4fa0d5d18ee38450cbe70a1271	- M.: Mir, 1989.
c6343e651b7bdab4e862dce5f47896bd5bb560d1	ISBN 5-03-001147-1 ↑ MacNN Staff.
61aaed017fc8062525d372e98585ab4d4997a4e1	Apple, Google tops in loyalty survey.
6263a3de3e8fc3051eb4510d285533fae7c19a23	Macnn News.
166f4a8d4cb03897a8c886e2b4f1f801efb9fdf7	MNM Media, LLC (June 11, 2006).
3ec8aebc882cbad7c1cd159b7ead2656a0cff346	Verified on May 19, 2010.
4324c68b8d12f6bb1565d837b3d94639c4bdc7f2	Archived from the original source on August 24, 2011.
d2be66ffd97eb28d07ed0cd7274ee9e7ba7bd7a2	Apple Apple and Google have become the most expensive companies in the world.
98e888b40de68e03c7e35c8a64c3d9886a150113	/ / vedomosti.ru. Verified on February 13, 2014.
a00377912fad55e76a862f4d9d314e1dbaababa1	↑ Apple Inc.: NASDAQ:AAPL quotes & news - Google Finance ↑ Meet: computer.
c374d8ea8b5e4555fcbd234a393cb4a238251f5a	Trans. from English.
72a600bc0c02fc8fb0ade82693cca45ada22028b	Ed. and with a preface by V. M. Kurochkin.
d7335b22bed3f627f69befcaed934ca83f751b40	- Moscow: Mir, 1989.
c9d5869489ad1a9792ed7bd43f92692a3744f1ac	- 240 s, ill.
bc1f34d7b94b6cd16e89d38a1ee40c37f040d4bc	ISBN 5-03-001147-1 ↑ History of Apple: 16.02.2010 :: History of Apple ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Oleg Salmanov, Alexander Silonov.
13d9aebe7fcb87fe6256afe0079713de2fd5acfd	Apple has repeated the success of Microsoft and Cisco Systems.
e4373a72ecddcbd46404b3861145e822f40be29f	// vedomosti.ru. Verified on August 11, 2011.
b85f801264a86375ebfa8283b2a264289b563a54	↑ 1 2 Apple has ceased to be the most expensive company in the world.
261e8c00d74b1c94018a37a8125866cc2ab8705f	/ / Vedomosti ↑ The most expensive companies in the world: Apple, ExxonMobil, Samsung.
5723f051f1d70e1185def6c4e548a4c2db170920	Business and finance on interfax.by ↑ Apple's new record: the company's capitalization has exceeded $660 billion ↑ The largest manufacturers of mobile processors will follow Apple.
bc65be67dc3f86980fd08482b83feb3ffc622e8c	Официально Officially: Apple bought Beats for $ 3 billion.
c12be9daa51a0efbc3a4a8e1cacaba1af895e031	CyberSecurity.
1d9f6baa9b97e7ed505a8a30f2bdecc2325ffb3e	Verified on May 29, 2014.
4a9394bd02db702057245439e0d503ba18060047	↑ The market value of Apple exceeded the market value of Microsoft ↑ Apple lost $17.4 billion in the earthquake in Japan ↑ 10.02.2012 :: cnews.ru:: Apple is worth more than Google and Microsoft combined ↑ 1 2 Executive Profiles and Board of Directors.
f76101e74940b5cd1bd4e6ba1e0838233af62b72	↑ 15.03.2010 The interim head of Apple received a bonus of $22 million.
e5bc9e3858fa6a3c75cc456558fa0fa8f86ab4dc	↑ 1 2 3 Forstall and Browett are leaving Apple.
c84b72ab3ba531742c67e9c98011ec81bd51c3c1	↑ There are 5 new names on the Apple manual page.
9675ee82d04f7eff25eb51976ca201fc9df58f14	The CEO of Google was fired from Apple.
fd1a55feaeaab30cd8d1660d90c0acea361c4e45	Jerome York, a member of the Apple Board of Directors, has died.
affb51b243fcafd04618f6fbf7132c71188d2899	The head of the Apple Store will receive almost $ 70 million.
14edf54d868433c781864980685256b1003bf90c	Apple Apple has become the second largest online retailer.
8930e7a2caba43564b752566250e75bb00950049	Бут Butman E. Retail from the first person.
207828621bf2c60b32faea4d926e187cbeebcc61	How I built Apple's business in Russia.
b698befb4fafb59a643498ad02db5d23eb8f7e13	- M.: "Mann, Ivanov and Ferber", 2013. 256 p., p. 137 .
9af456bc9ee1abe7bf48f3982e5e9ef67137d952	Алексей Alexey Badaev headed Apple in Russia.
536fd77c1e053140bc8985059d8996fd7703a66f	// ibusiness.ru 06.09.2010 ↑ [1], Apple will gain wholesale in Russia, Kommersant ↑ "Apples" in Runet: Apple has opened an online store in Russia:: Economics:: RosBusinessConsulting ↑ Apple iPad (Russian) (September 21, 2010). Verified on September 21, 2010.
cbe9d99334c6e2786e1cad0f5ee30032b51fae2f	↑ Martin LaMonica.
2299862ed7c789717b9c7f91cdf189631ae446da	Apple pushes Safari on Windows via iTunes updater .
49ed43dc21618082e3d58cbcc50afd9e45260708	CNET (March 21, 2008). Checked on March 21, 2008.
84b0546ba66546d8a31607c843f2db0bc4f4afd6	↑ "Dirty Data Report Card".
6b573bb8d4975620edf754a01d2f4e3f57a22371	Greenpeace.
cd8080f5419e4a358206d1086f4b38f2dce391da	Retrieved August 22, 2013.
601270561d5fc2e35e62178534f48f219dc7f433	Mc McMillan R. After Greenpeace Protests, Apple Promises to Dump Coal Power (English).
5026619c6d600acd1cb015333ebd3532947cd2af	Wired (17 May 2012). ↑ Powering Our Facilities with Clean, Renewable Energy.
6e8b924c7e40e52804dcc59a863f19ebc7754a9b	Apple Inc. ↑ «Apple Says Data Centers Now Use 100 % Renewable Energy».
2a6f4cbbb5fb8074b2e30d9eed5bf7d8970b293b	Business Week.
cb1a190171a8793c1ee08aa5b16e2aa4ac841c01	March 21, 2013.
e366f085e89052a5628c4bed94eee57b6d9d1310	Retrieved August 30, 2013.
496b801ea73d126f7b17d2c4e5e17cabf31d34ae	↑ «Climate Counts scorecard».
9318ff1ef492b21f63c3ff01266572fa1ced5bb7	Climatecounts.org. Retrieved October 7, 2011.
1c4acf66726b7cbed153a43d561a6fc13a1571f9	↑ «Environmental Group Hits Apple».
98be18f868d2c20924f1f3d2d9a69c0c3193e4d0	↑ 1 2 «iTox + iWaste».
c52afe764dbb3fb64d2582152f0f8dd1542e7f3d	Archived from the original on July 21, 2008.
91dac8c91d01233991521a7662eaa0d5627254d0	Retrieved August 12, 2008.
f5b8b495ae1c6154064b690e9f33aa787ad36a45	↑ «Greenpeace Slams iPhone».
07be9f479fa0918e36d4acd6308db81a0a2e4dc9	ABC News.
93c7f8ec3eaeafcce7fde71fd539f41104039ad4	Retrieved November 22, 2010.
07822094a296a7cd6cedb22a0ef21f7c1ea6871a	↑ 1 2 «Apple — A Greener Apple».
afd7cc0e5f3439e405bcaf208c1c5577ff72fa3a	Archived from the original on July 25, 2008.
b1d4b1bd77ea028b9d22a68985e6667551b7a8dd	↑ Tasty news from Apple!.
3658b2c611fa0da8bb0998924a7b5909c83f52a2	Greenpeace International.
dc9fe2be3dd61f9a7194df452ecb3cb773143d0e	↑ «Apple — Environment — Update».
e2f52bedb1cc8642b86661ea8c7e3651da270da8	Apple Inc. Archived from the original on November 22, 2010.
e91044054318462e7f241ee725f4e1f8d3bee78a	↑ «Which companies are phasing out PVC and BFRs».
2abf9fbc88372d4e0cac881e9a2c249e8c8b3985	Retrieved January 13, 2011.
2719eff57d6916764c7e5617d8f248fa4a705d08	↑ «How the companies line up».
5af1d1e2ca7327383466a4dde59dc8a3a8a8ccf3	↑ EPA Gives Apple Silver Rating on Environment The Mac Observer.
bcf1b5b231b59f545243fdf309b10faa26b10fcb	↑ EPA information should make GreenPeace red faced over Apple targeting, Ars Technica.
bab302031050e3351bacac501d31ecbf30e1af80	Retrieved January 8, 2007.
0a7e18c27b6b59aeb9438ea75caea553a9b87932	↑ 1 2 3 «Apple — Environment — Environmental Progress».
6d93538d4980d0e2be5aa2504bfbc7d34879f2f2	Archived from the original on November 22, 2010.
ac9cd964bb7b2961246659a64efc0059b985ada7	↑ «Apple — Mac — Green Notebooks».
493b0aa159559eb3157b61c5a394ea9fe23afa52	Apple Inc. 2008.
d8d4e0ad075fa9ad2d2ede40c29f5af4a8688c16	Archived from the original on December 22, 2008.
f938eac3b72751843ccd7c9829e9990497e81c84	Retrieved December 24, 2008.
02cd799581877338cb298cd3fcaddaff9ccce993	↑ «Apple: MacBook Pro Graphics».
7282d9d3ab6b7ec7574b20abe6f338536b4e33f0	Archived from the original on June 2, 2007.
dde822cbaa0e68896378a6665b74de894d1517cc	Retrieved June 8, 2007 ↑ «Apple — Environment — Reports».
d5808e480effcee674ea0105446e21c583397064	Apple Inc ↑ «iMac and the Environment».
f32c39b8e80df57675c885103c824e9597cc5c5e	Apple Inc. Archived from the original on November 29, 2010.
1b171c0c63a05051771fe25d731fd870ba1073cc	Retrieved November 29, 2010.
d4399a3a403bb80a0504eb14967e080d62429ed8	↑ «China orders Apple supplier plant closure over environmental concerns- The Inquirer mobile».
0dacb6b0d54596b5395d40cb9fc96bf717be3e84	M.theinquirer.net. Retrieved December 24, 2011.
d55ec03963f852b88ddf96117966d74f8b248ef6	↑ Joel Schectman (May 22, 2012).
17b90af9363b1fb4140e081685a479af28aa2848	«Apple Removes Green EPEAT Electronics Certification From Products — The CIO Report — WSJ».
975e563bfd85be703f7f589b8500088259e0017e	Blogs.wsj.com. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
d02d61a86c818532c60b5efbefe55f90b0bceaaa	↑ «Apple u turn as Mac maker rejoins EPEAT green registry».
e30abbcfbd44755b610fc95d5a5a003c53fdaba9	BBC Online.
5d351c34205f61c51c3258249bf9203127770bdb	July 13, 2012.
1f07b82673d1a12c881f820d749f103fb93db456	Retrieved July 17, 2012.
5459b3e178a98e3081f306c5d61a1f47c5381cd8	↑ «The Stark Reality of iPod’s Chinese Factories».
d33c71eb9ec32c1ffd5216c87fd4f4b301fa7301	Daily Mail (UK).
ee053c7b092e17f07ced383b7c3cd6505cdf2e4b	August 18, 2006 ↑ Musgrove, Mike (June 16, 2006).
ba339da429b066e4908d5d00cc0c42bd80635cb4	«Sweatshop Conditions at IPod Factory Reported».
e66965dd549ec9a983f2a40b0aef4c60f42261ad	The Washington Post ↑ Kahney, Leander (June 13, 2006).
15f17a596ec77e99419f41b1b36c3eaaab493ca3	Judging Apple Sweatshop Charge.
cc9bfca7827ac0ca7aef5fff981ce38809dc99c9	Wired ↑ Dean (November 2, 2010).
f53358650de90d6bf6a5fc699f257b4211934456	«The Forbidden City of Terry Gou».
4d6dbfbf318b743d1fb0a30f0157680ef8a09839	The Wall Street Journal (Wired).
6b85348fd81cc17e8ab47443a455cb8525da9f0c	Archivedfrom the original on November 4, 2010.
afcfbdedb176ceae177b459355a424f4d87a9c2c	Retrieved November 13, 2010 ↑ Morphy, Ericka (January 31, 2008).
b8d23f3219a96259ac351c9aff8d4c3820315ae3	Apple, IT and the Specter of Sweatshop Labor.
a0339f2749514750683b70a2d2dfb99abe574735	Mac New World ↑ «Apple 2010 Supplier Responsibility Report» (PDF).
623bfc85985cf763682b8c773d20f986587ed16a	↑ Chen, Brian X. (May 14, 2010).
7a1c668fe398fb28c791b3e59d0f49c85af6f2fd	Workers Plan to Sue iPhone Contractor Over Poisoning.
674ebe6760012bb9c0151bcb87afa22539ad7372	Wired ↑ «Suicides at Foxconn: Light and death».
901b7df0ec90c7cc13bda70e9fc4dcc93249e68e	Economist.
e508baaad2dcaf4784869e0da9e55dfd36bfc37c	May 27, 2010.
3304bc796673e2e352da60f67925310cf76792c0	Retrieved April 24, 2012.
a37c7ea1143d007e0c1e83611746dbe282d40f31	↑ Malone, Andrew;
52567b6cdbf5ef7eddf788efa051ec08df24e380	Jones, Richard (December 6, 2010)."Revealed: Inside the Chinese suicide sweatshop where workers toil in 34 hour shifts to make your iPod | Mail Online".
99b0e6869134b4b68b8827d8f1239de5558f533a	Daily Mail (London).
59a3a6b67557f1d636972b40e68af1d99e273ab6	Retrieved October 7, 2011.
734572031ec556a2b158ba4d4004a1dfa0dae504	↑ Apple (February 15, 2011).
151164fbb91d2fcf85ac4b2fb0267fdf506d8030	«Apple’s child labour issues worsen».
cec68273eea5a4262868168b7c7c90e93491c791	London: Telegraph.
e32bf9759dfee1bb07bf26b5363eeac4d78f4d0a	↑ Workers poisoned while making iPhones ABC News, October 25, 2010 ↑ Dirty Secrets ABC Foreign Correspondent, 2010 Oct 26 ↑ Apple Supplier Accused Of Labor Abuses By China Watchdog (VIDEO) The Huffington Post.
83f5c76befbdef0d3f15a376b0cc2d18a023036c	Retrieved July 29, 2013.
f91439cdf31bbbfaade90c2f459d4221540d0ad4	↑ «Offshore Profit Shifting and the U.S. Tax Code — Part 2 (Apple Inc.)».
d0c2767cf36ce61484973b300cbe76cc90be4246	↑ Duhigg, Charles (April 29, 2012)[ «How Apple Sidesteps Billions in Taxes.»]
30a8ea20c2ad54dbc58cc57813cd83a62a81ca18	New York Times.(Retrieved 4-20-12.) ↑ Ebrahimi, Helia (November 2, 2012).
5278d235a15d4c149dc39492ffbe2df012045c2c	«Foreign firms could owe UK £11bn in unpaid taxes».
b326167c5bedc0fe2b727e7f6f7ec176ed2c8e0b	Telegraph.
81e55e65b55007c2287faef2f7abc39c3c019570	↑ Patent Database Search Results: AN/apple in US Patent Collection.
f10153488908626635fd951baccd8112abcc443c	// patft.uspto.gov. Verified on October 13, 2012.
ff5176ebddefe6aea5dc72139df8357c757507a4	Archived from the original source on October 16, 2012.
1039dd4fd7352bd38012ce3def7d0c0c878b3fee	↑ Tony Bradley.
0696bb701a3b6f66357a7d41f52e746a340f3479	Nokia Files Patent Lawsuit Against Apple .
fbbd94746e70b3143f41b5a40f3468c104de3c7f	PCWorld (22 October 2009). - "Nokia claims that the technologies, ranging from speech coding to security to wireless data transmission, have been used in every iPhone since the iPhone has existed" Verified on June 14, 2011.
83822cbb87785c0e2f7e16583345e32980fec7b4	Nokia Wins Patent War with Apple--You're Next, Android .
d1c1714175389650bdca50cca903b8cb8ad4bbd1	PCWorld (14 April 2011). — "statement from Nokia says that Apple will pay a one time lump sum up front, and ongoing royalties as part of a licensing agreement between the two."
4bcf5340b3e3cc94565ba3f97147b66ae7fbafd1	Verified June 14, 2011.
8d7c602d3aa5a80b598d60f6e8dea7fc977879ad	Nokia Nokia enters into patent license agreement with Apple (English).
d34b0c0821bf08b315e07cacb778079ddaf5c34b	Nokia.
5ccaab943d9aa74b6727b5c3465f9e1251b7eea8	- Press release.
13971271fc131a63ea59480eab009fdc596502f9	— "The specific terms of the contract are confidential."
bd6325a243c8925647abd3a47b8e7b1969acb2d4	Checked on June 14, 2011.
eec8dfbad647149d9213db965e2a2007bb8f42c7	Motorola Motorola wins Apple wireless patent fight in Germany (English).
8f73769e622cddb150dc37fd3dae7648e27d4767	BBC (9 December 2011). — "A German court has ruled in Motorola Mobility's favor in a patents dispute with Apple."
e3780a84111eb0bd6c4ea8fd2d2f0778ac405cee	Verified December 11, 2011.
d567a6f713246c46c1c5daa5ad91090f03e9583e	Apple Apple will pay millions for patent infringement :: Overclockers.ru
c17e5c9d2507136080093320a0436a57b3618190	Literature
53a710016978deab93a9b536094732edc3df6bff	Morozov Roman Dazzling whiteness // Iron: magazine.
b4ffabadacdfe0a922dd849ca37d592bc8af0ce6	- 2011.
b03caa4d52b35f8fd60121b72617e67d5aa80b19	- January (No. 1).
91a5e19e2f18fa749201cf1e25af463007940364	84-87.
ece97e0fada65697d5d7daebf33a3da818b91eb5	Yevgenia Savchenko The Era of two Steves / / ComputerBild: magazine.
ae0f6e7f3f0dc76242ac1968cc439cb80f417df2	- October 24 (No. 24).
6a61d4008425c3f72c8bf063e0ca5d1b05c24059	22-29.
7534e4e9635d085fb915c09be8a9a29ec68a6ed0	Adam Lashinsky.
3759a4c340a2d22e6866255b3e9ff3373c8691f8	Inside Apple = Inside Apple.
77f074feb77a9ace880b57c59b34949b3da1ef45	- Moscow: KoLibri, Abc Atticus, 2012.
392efbcf6029e81a874c41b2f5279408ba92ca2c	- 304 p.
c4cd84adda7ee58922f3034306a5a4e3b9710f71	- 10,000 copies.
141471d2b6da476573077d42dd42fae427efec3a	— ISBN 978-5-389-03423-5.
014bcd654c60d5250fad2123b073b9c0ac3340f6	Links
cc72096242578cf40f5e75bd71c2fca33667df77	Apple on Wikimedia Commons?
71937a6dcda76b1fcd0604b2d06461874ac7cdd7	Apple in Wikinews?
ea1fcb35f2073cc9a2857aeab810c35066263c91	apple.com — official website of Apple (English) Russian version of the official website of Apple (Russian) Apple Inc — - article in Lentapedia. 2012.
e76125ded2582a4094f9569d638b70d46f8e5535	Key people in the history of Apple Corporation Steve Jobs · Steve Wozniak · Mike Markkula · Jeff Raskin · Andy Herzfeld * Bill Atkinson · Susan Care · Jean Louis Gasse · Del Yocam · John Scully · Michael Spindler · Jonathan Ive · Gilles Amelio · Avetis Tevanyan · Tim Cook
e7a510af81e767fdfcc3773623891db417ec987e	Operating Systems for Macintosh Classic Mac OS (History) System 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 · System 6 · System 7 · Mac OS 7.6 · Mac OS 8 · Mac OS 9 Mac OS X (history) NeXTSTEP * Darwin · Public Beta · v10.
d724f73a43c19099ce03276861879fdbedd2650a	0 · v10.
1c8ec9a078251e4556624542442889d1ed2933dd	1 · v10.
3ee32f4d4b414bd213dc7bacca6cf67231244fa9	2 · v10.
5bb4fec42ec0c67ee09667c2b6318538e3329e8a	3 · v10.
d11cfa7a02dc97f8b7d4a13689e94751357fd08b	4 · v10.
44dbdce6f92bab59642304b059f2f3cced281b01	5 · v10.
da9dda6b0f247275acaa9213077978c1e04a6c16	6 · v10.
9c7dad36c8e08e41322991e3d70d9e6371401171	7 Server OpenStep · Rhapsody · Mac OS X Server (Mac OS X Server 1.0) Other OS projects A/UX · Taligent · Newton OS · Copland · MkLinux · iOS
ba9c77c50948d7f7900f0a8f5f3b94ed385b436e	Apple software Operating systems topics
90ad50bb9554daef36459f7677780889c6e8e4df	OS X (iOS • Apple TV OS • OS X) • A/UX • Mac OS 9 • Mac OS 8 • GS/OS • ProDOS • Apple DOS
0c707f2781a489cf7e4ea7d11c190f8dfe3a0bf0	Consumer
25ad1af04e4332fe11109316857c0490206a675f	Mac • iLife • iTunes • iWork • AppleWorks • iPhoto • App Store
bbce1280f8a745622184a970d3e272400a37377a	Semi professional
edf4d4e50484057a87e6344dc9d85f821db735ad	Final Cut Express • Logic Express
6f719fb045c0b6fc89e44e33177ba6d4c3e21055	Professional
eda647931b3c0501cdcf2a463ccae64905d3b28f	Aperture • Final Cut Studio • Logic Pro (Studio) • Shake
6b0c36de2782ab0cd42c4e961cd1fdc4ad97bcbc	Built in
b796917c1fe1e1c77b76ac494cac852216cf69f4	Address Book • Dashboard • Front Row • iChat • FaceTime • Photo • Photo Booth • QuickTime • Safari • TextEdit • Core Animation •
ca7646045bd114335a4473cb2df4fbc234ba73cb	Server side
002f22b8d894f7a9e0a79430ee770b35423c28ed	Apple Remote Desktop • Mac OS X Server • WebObjects • Xsan
1d4086e1e1be860d634b6d4c4d3144753f12cca7	The past
7425c98f4ab2cf26c6d016d313d46682591edaa0	HyperCard • MacDraw • Mac OS • Sherlock• MacPaint • MacProject • MacTerminal • MacWrite
f65455048019461dc7db0c872fcad9420e7d3c92	Apple Company Board of Directors
fc2468c80fb2ad1d24bb2b965ece5a172b67fecd	Arthur D. Levinson • James A. Bell • Tim Cook • Albert Gore • Robert Iger • Andrea Jung • Ronald D. Sugar • Susan Wagner
36155d48f460d339ac29c2069ba7e011cbc7b0b7	Equipment
c1b5f4e30b49c6b1f65a1bede1e69e2524b796b7	Apple TV • Apple Watch • iPad • iPhone • iPod (nano • shuffle • touch) • Mac (iMac • MacBook (Air • MacBook • Pro) • mini • Pro • Xserve)
f3b50cd53cc460af678081e2d995abc79aac7fc1	Accessories
324c495b69c0ff723c1f171138966248a46f0e12	AirPort • Cinema Display • Pro Mouse • Mighty Mouse • Magic Mouse • Time Capsule • Xserve RAID
db6c3680e796d186bacd567e56bd94289dd8ed47	Services and stores
79f1bcdfce88939e734c140215a4bc2aa4d355ed	Apple Developer • AppleCare • Apple Specialist • Apple Store • Certificates • Genius Bar • iTunes Store • App Store • iWork.com • MobileMe (.Mac) • One to One • ProCare • iCloud Drive
bcd357d674e75a110706b8187c9af26553031a3d	WWDC • MacWorld
a62e2e9e17ee2b38d6b3f0a30075c8f723dbe095	Steve Wozniak • Steve Jobs • Advertising (Get a Mac • iPod • Slogans) • Braeburn Capital • FileMaker Inc. • History (Acquisitions • Unreleased products • Litigation • Fonts)
894a400f18196b0f949afdc1bb57d28f1cd0b504	Listing on the stock exchange:
66141d2db44f2336fa78581c1094ab34965f551e	(NASDAQ: AAPL, LSE: ACP, FWB: APC • * Website: www.apple.com
2d812ff12139f3e004b4e8a780b9e801c25dcb13	The base for calculating the NASDAQ 100 index of the NASDAQ Stock Exchange
9046737bd8dabb5916088bb76b44b398de40c8e8	Activision Blizzard · Adobe Systems Incorporated · Akamai Technologies, Inc. · Altera Corporation · Amazon.com, Inc. · Amgen Inc. · Apollo Group, Inc. · Apple Inc. · Applied Materials, Inc. · Autodesk, Inc. · Automatic Data Processing, Inc. · Baidu.com, Inc. · Bed Bath & Beyond Inc. · Biogen Idec Inc · Broadcom Corporation · C.H. Robinson Worldwide, Inc. · CA, Inc. · Celgene Corporation · Cephalon, Inc. · Cerner Corporation · Check Point Software Technologies Ltd. · Cintas Corporation · Cisco Systems, Inc. · Citrix Systems, Inc. · Cognizant Technology Solutions Corporation · Comcast Corporation · Costco Wholesale Corporation · Dell Inc. · DENTSPLY International Inc. · DISH Network Corporation · eBay Inc. · Electronic Arts Inc. · Expedia, Inc. · Expeditors International of Washington, Inc. · Express Scripts, Inc. · Fastenal Company · First Solar, Inc. · Fiserv, Inc. · Flextronics International Ltd. · FLIR Systems, Inc. · Foster Wheeler Corporation · Garmin Ltd. · Genzyme Corporation · Gilead Sciences, Inc. · Google Inc. · Hansen Natural Corporation · Henry Schein, Inc. · Hologic, Inc. · InterActiveCorp · Illumina, Inc. · Infosys Technologies · Intel Corporation · Intuit, Inc. · Intuitive Surgical Inc. · J.B. Hunt Transport Services · Joy Global Inc. · Juniper Networks, Inc. · KLA Tencor Corporation · Lam Research Corporation · Liberty Global, Inc. · Liberty Media Corporation, Interactive Series A · Life Technologies Corporation · Linear Technology Corporation · Logitech International, SA · Marvell Technology Group, Ltd. · Maxim Integrated Products · Microchip Technology Incorporated · Microsoft Corporation · Millicom International Cellular S.A. · NetApp, Inc. · News Corporation, Ltd. · NII Holdings, Inc. · NVIDIA Corporation · O’Reilly Automotive, Inc. · Oracle Corporation · PACCAR Inc. · Patterson Companies Inc. · Paychex, Inc. · Pharmaceutical Product Development, Inc. · QUALCOMM Incorporated · Research in Motion Limited · Ross Stores, Inc. · Ryanair Holdings, PLC · Seagate Technology Holdings · Sears Holdings Corporation · Sigma Aldrich Corporation · Staples, Inc. · Starbucks Corporation · Steel Dynamics, Inc. · Stericycle, Inc · Symantec Corporation · Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. · The DIRECTV Group, Inc. · Urban Outfitters, Inc. · VeriSign, Inc. · Vertex Pharmaceuticals · Warner Chilcott, Ltd. · Wynn Resorts Ltd. · Xilinx, Inc. · Yahoo!
c72795657c1c5c9ac678c8c8fb36245221261644	Inc.
8255d789e0848dc00008155dc9a06415750b582c	The base for calculating the Dow Jones Global Titans 50 index
e773b6d833d3b1487112b05751a269d3791bf683	Abbott Laboratories · Allianz · Apple · AT&T · Banco Santander · Bank of America · BHP Billiton · BNP Paribas · BP · Chevron · Cisco Systems · Coca Cola · ConocoPhillips · E.ON · Eni · Exxon Mobil · France Télécom · General Electric · GlaxoSmithKline · Google · Hewlett Packard · HSBC · IBM · Intel · Johnson & Johnson · JPMorgan Chase · Merck & Co. · Microsoft · Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group · Nestlé · Nokia · Novartis · Oracle · PepsiCo · Petrobras · Pfizer · Philip Morris International · Procter & Gamble · Roche · Royal Dutch Shell · Samsung Electronics · Sanofi Aventis · Schlumberger · Siemens · Telefónica · Total · Toyota · Verizon Communications · Vodafone · Wal Mart
b46e1b2f07ca285cc0a66a789989a78f59935191	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apple&oldid=75708489"
71b4e31db176eec74fe1f553cce259b37c261d33	Categories: Companies listed on NASDAQ Companies alphabetically Companies founded in 1976 Apple Software Manufacturers USA Computer Manufacturers USA Companies USA Cell Phone Manufacturers
d7176af4d9fb10e59a013119efa0baeac2a10732	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:No sources since November 2014 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:Articles for updating Wikipedia:Articles whose neutrality is questioned Articles with links to Wikinews
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befcc89ad83e5cca4bdbfff65dc3d5da3e9fe688	Last modified on this page: 00: 02, January 12, 2016.
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44c47f4f4afd1cd115670d0a5cdb5d82f457c34c	Adidas Puma Reebok Nike New balance Levis Lee Wrangler Mustang Lee Cooper Coca - Cola Pepsi Fanta 7up Sprite McDonald's Burger King Starbucks Costa Subway Lipton Ahmad Tea Brooke Bond Nescafé Jacobs Apple Microsoft IBM HP Intel PepsiCo Unilever Nestle Mars Kraft Foods Philips Samsung LG Toshiba Sony Chupa Chups Kinder Surprise M&M's Skittles Mentos, Fruittella Barbie Lego Teddy YoYo Rubik's Cube Audi BMW Mercedes Benz Opel Porsche Volkswagen Ford Nissan Toyota
f4d341285b0971a184c18f85af354d4782207e24	The XX century is usually called the century of aviation and cosmonautics.
ea8f38565f951a0d9e6d06e55d5c875120cd5873	But the 70s of the last century can also be called the era of the formation of the modern IT industry.
c14037d5ef5005e216cc1bf19bca8c624742e982	And Apple played an important role here.
e139ffa9dcdbf3f5e6a9d9a02734cecb19fdbc3d	how it all started:
86e13d382adef6b0b858bcd36242c6bfb1d43513	Officially, Apple was founded on April 1, 1976, and it was then that the hand – assembled Apple Computer I appeared on the market 175 pieces were assembled and sold for $ 666.66 in ten months.
2bdc5905c4dd61251662c480c580537dbcc02de3	There was support for displaying various colors on the screen, commands for working with sound were developed and, therefore, there was a built in speaker and keyboard, it was possible to quickly change the image on the display, there was a power supply, etc.
fb3d3347d5956cf11c5d32759ce441fbca92993f	In May 1979, Apple employee Jeff Raskin began working on a new all in one computer that was aimed at the average user.
0f54f19ecd692fede0c733434061270de187e1f5	It is this period that can be called the beginning of the birth of the first Macintosh.
9d0f9b2e8d9b67072e95cdbe5e4e715f40597c5c	In 1983, Apple released Lisa – the first personal computer with a graphical user interface, named after Jobs ' daughter.
b87d01c7331c755a450a2242ca12e8d03a838eb3	But due to the rather high price and a limited set of applications, this model has not been widely used.
655381757a5c7ba690d41b51ea55c5ffffcb97dc	Although from a commercial point of view, Lisa was a complete failure, nevertheless, its release was not in vain – the Lisa 7/7 operating system used here had a window interface, a buffer that allowed data to be transferred between applications, and much more.
b4cb9bec46904d4935e8d3f189bb5f26ffc0dd8f	Apple officially introduced its very first Macintosh on January 22, 1984 with the commercial "1984", based on the plot of the book by D. Orwell.
b4369a559e4245bbbd283da391b8060a992705e4	This clip was named the advertising clip of the decade, received the Grand Prix in Cannes and is still considered one of the most original in the history of advertising.
62ee2a2b755f35d285b630d4c937177110c08fee	This event was a significant milestone in the history of personal computers.
18534d4e635130ef91bfa9601c8ababcfeea0f8a	With the advent of the Macintosh, people's perception of computers radically changed, and the foundations were laid that all computer companies began to use in the future.
3f6e16c5d687f26208d6ae9be579222a52218968	In September of the same year, Apple begins selling Macintosh 512K computers at a price of $ 2495.
cebc1c070923b20063c06ebdf09e5cc08d22ec05	Years passed and, naturally, the computer industry also did not stand still.
a6bb1474316c2d852df0e63bb35678aeca8d183f	During the entire time of improving Macintosh computers, their Mac OS (System) operating system also developed, that is, new features were expanded, its individual elements were changed and new technologies were introduced.
8bc59d1cf3ea89c5e5d70cda77cb74ff76503ed5	When Mac OS was first introduced in 1984, it was the perfection of modern programming for that time.
3ad9a9654ea4498b6ee675aecd28a0a329b9b567	The system was developed from the very beginning with the expectation that any user who does not have the necessary qualifications, sitting down at the computer for the first time, could immediately start working on it in a few minutes, without delving into the technical parameters.
f090c37cdf40b99e4f02f62df7edaf29c65edeb7	Operating systems for other platforms that appeared a few years later offered things like protected memory and multitasking, which ultimately gave a better user experience.
9212f2240662ec001c115fce693de12968ac1190	Apple did not embed these things in Mac OS because the microprocessors that were available during the development of Mac OS were not powerful enough.
d67640ba7108d4515a2cad20a82d24bc1459d260	But over time, Mac OS acquired additional functionality, and at the same time remained the easiest to learn and use.
a3a48f5b9ddb8c4109ec33f037883f6ae46ba823	Convenience and ease of operation in this system were one of the main goals of its creators, and the internal logic of interaction of individual parts of the operating system was primarily subordinated to these requirements.
45a5fa175453c96e13547522207105e0f0c96818	When Apple faced the question of developing a new generation operating system, after weighing all the pros and cons, the company decided to use the developments of NeXT, which used operating systems under the general name UNIX, as the basis for the new Mac OS.
17886beac8d417ce7f34fa948698f7a23eebe388	It was the OpenStep system (NeXTSTEP) that became the basis for building a new Mac OS.
359e9783bebd596c0aa058dba16c7041fb4f6ca5	The developers of the new Mac OS had to ensure a smooth transition from the old system to the new one so that users could still work with a large number of existing programs until more powerful and convenient ones were created.
03e98cd84c613a913604dba2bed88374474358de	This is how the new Mac OS X system appeared.
7cf14de97e7fc1b40c1e689d516e00fd40f81cde	Interesting facts about Apple
d460cbfee1161cfe6d53a0b6ec626ca9b3d13009	Apple was founded on April 1 on April Fools ' Day.
d36775d8af134c91abc848104d05e83894263030	The first Apple logo depicted Isaac Newton Apple Store on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan is considered one of the most frequently photographed attractions in the world.
e6759244dfa0d0d6e536facc70e964873e84b4ac	Apple has more than 35,000 employees worldwide Apple was the first company to introduce a mouse and trackpad.Apple.com it is one of the top 50 visited websites in the world.
19f90858419ce1694cbdeb0d1d5456f4a6a78f55	The longest lived first Apple computer, which went on sale for almost 11 years.
76ffa23984948378a17e8403eccd48e03ee9a98b	The average PC owner spends 50 hours a year troubleshooting problems.
58e4810ea35aba398774e62d2d26202e0fef1595	The average Mac owner spends only 5 hours a year troubleshooting.
f7b1efb0d92b408b0ae5164a85a038035bb13586	Teachers and students find Macs more than 44% more productive than PCs.
0492f575bd630429fa8029afac36fcb645cdf094	The first image shown on the Macintosh was the Disney character Scrooge McDuck.
6340c2cbc737bf79b21229eada4dd7cbb6becc81	The first Apple retail stores were opened in Virginia and California.
5bc02b95196692c90b4179cde686ef39be7ad5d5	The fact that Steve Jobs named the Apple Lisa computer after his daughter is a well known fact, but few people know where the name “Macintosh " came from.
2e79f71cd2f4015cd1aad79712869b014a7bf191	This name in honor of the favorite apple variety was given to the new computer by Apple employee Jef Raskin (Jef Raskin), while beautifully beating the fruit theme of the company.
786d703c480158c4a5f1eb66372e3141aa51ea5c	The first color "soap dish" appeared in the United States in 1994 and was made by Apple.
51898ee8a2adbfd39413d3a89153b66b42b9605d	On the Apple QuickTake 100, it was possible to take 8 photos, and it was connected to the Mac via a serial cable.
440359a19a075a6760c5d433a6eb3d4e6ec069de	As a standard wallpaper in Mac OS X Lion, a processed photo with the Andromeda galaxy M31 from astrophotographer Robert Gendler is used.
8d65dc3912c0839ea73676279697c3d37e1b4225	Apple designers decided to edit the image to their taste.
23bf9e8e13c180193169cc900d7c4eadbb9acebb	They got rid of the entire galaxy M110 and removed several stars.
21e1ec61249eea7985b06d1b41af67d04455abbe	Apple has started working on the iPad, before the start of sales of the first iPhone.
c898d5417c9c91e65d70eb1243197643b2ac6e55	The iPad, however, was released only three years after the iPhone.
cf61367300528e92258ffd2ffbe0b7cf6378d014	Despite the fact that Steven Wozniak has not worked at Apple since 1987 — he is still on the staff there and even receives a salary.
3aa8c7b222aeb6dbf8517709bfcbf97328ee133f	When the Apple II computer (first introduced in 1977), with the most advanced GUI for that time, gained popularity, Steve was only 25 and he became one of the youngest millionaires of his time.90% of Apple employees have never met Steve Jobs.
dd91c8f0a2e38f7841e459021ddf639a91c2152d	Many interesting facts have surfaced during the lawsuits between Apple and Samsung, but the plans to create a car from Apple look the most shocking.
85d4bfae64024bd436416c440ddb10c242d412a2	According to Autoblog, Apple's vice president of International Marketing appeared in court yesterday.
716b3f2b7c616c7d66bbb4ac5527812a21b0c4ea	While most of the statements he made focused on smartphones and tablets, as well as on defining what intellectual property is, he casually mentioned one surprising fact.
e0353433edffe98e78f270ac3ece9b26b0f93592	Apple, apparently, considered very diverse projects before the company began to engage in the production of smartphones.
b7216f473916439c8f0643721b2ed9cda0ee992a	Among them are cameras and a car.
ec8543a424f33f52792e4722cfa036266e4ce8dd	Schiller made these statements during his speech, in which he accused Samsung of copying and stealing the design developed by Apple in the process of creating its own smartphones by the Korean company.
6f6e31b5485afaa0be6d629c9c1d625e737b93f8	Now Google is one of the tech giants involved in the automotive business, thanks to the company's autonomous car, but in what direction Apple would go in this industry, we can only guess.
3ee3d713d19684ac4b5ddb564a76cac95d3f3338	Knowing Apple, the company could well have developed touch based car control.
5ab2ddf273a392d189b8fb48a0559603049920c7	However, at the time when this project still had a chance to be implemented, it was still too early for this.
7e84ef1d76fd716dce1052de66efa115b5eb299d	But, thanks to the widespread use of the iPhone and iPad, as well as other Apple products, the company could give this project another chance.
f49ec301240e91dbcbc9667553375d4a0694668b	About the company | Data protection | Site map History of trademarks, logos. the history of brand creation, the encyclopedia of brands, the best original advertising from around the world.collections of famous brands and trademarks.
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69680988afff2b54cac19dd13e278b8811193ecd	CITATNIK :
7256fd31424b92b9d69c6056ed0347d5594c1def	If you have enthusiasm, you can do anything.
557d422d7211d3dc1477e78154742f329bca19c1	Enthusiasm is the basis of any progress...
e83ea87f9255d0aa68b41e7b7b8794d7606ec173	© Henry Ford
da95db8f90c1966556b8074781c1a595b51eb641	There is the main secret of success, with which no one can fail.
a6f924f8d3c44bbd819e39c79ee279b5227d343d	Its name is simplicity, reducing every problem to the simplest.
1fd9a49ed5e97dc53076408dc92c54a9fb7f14b2	© Henry Deterding
977e017334d20554b0ea364b3beedf16a541a5ce	A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single small step.
c3ab8ff1b3dc72d645a458668404a627a08cbd88	© Lao Tzu
8ea0bed71c9943ce1651846ed5ae4fcc151a79b9	Never, ever, let anyone tell you what you can and canot do.
ec34b436eb5084c48e48fd58d17f1cb85bea1098	Prove that the cynics are wrong.
68f779183d5b106d91d64ce1dfd7aefc1159b117	It's their problem that they have no imagination.
25781ed77eb4626ece5e0625eeccecb5d4042766	The only limit is the sky.
603b8995afa37edc9456f131e12156c5c9c9d38b	Your sky.
8f51ca7b61d919909cb91854104adfbdd4c14cc6	Your limit.
772e43f5844922a695428d3ec9f7ad6bebb1779c	☆ Tom Hiddleston
b7313797eb6a58a4a3ab8b94f0d7f5b577d90817	If the problem can be solved, you should not worry about it.
97aa820a4d0cea132329558b4476b946d488c5b2	If the problem is unsolvable, it is pointless to worry about it.
6d5cb817dbfcd8812a1433ade39d1c42369c21a3	© The Dalai Lama
1d5da443b7d1965a37dd2cf9d7691d05d8a93758	When you climb to the top of the stairs, the most difficult thing is to break through the crowd at the first step.
6c9537a65a320cfd24eb9b89286a006034b2a58a	© Arch Ward
69f4cb383b07e4f2e0e5a450c3b62964ff3038c5	"You laugh at me because I am different from you, and I laugh at you because you are not different from each other..."
54693f82622157c4719e32dc7ccc9e6957738632	© Mikhail Bulgakov
a14a2c12341b158813421c82c4bacf342a52cafe	"Success does not come to you by itself... you go to it..."
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ed14228a3586dd7bbc922c52eda9be655d69124c	Ancient Chinese mythology rekonstruiruet the fragments of ancient historical and philosophical works ("Shutszin" is a Book of History, the oldest part XIV XI centuries BC; "Ching" is the Book of Changes, the most ancient part VIII VII centuries BC. "Chuang Tzu", IV-III centuries BC. "Le zi", IV century BC-IV century ad; "Huainan zi", II century BC. "Critical judgment" Wang Chong, I century BC).
983c8d4054c612b1b021f08af36c247d30d13b1a	The greatest amount of information on mythology is contained in the ancient treatise "Shan hai jing" ("Book of Mountains and Seas", IV II centuries BC), as well as in the poetry of Qu Yuan (IV century BC).
22ff7fbcf53a172fce47faaa701efc2d2de8063e	One of the distinctive features of the ancient Chinese mythological historization is the (euhemerization) of mythical characters, who, under the influence of the rationalistic Confucian worldview, very early began to be interpreted as real figures of ancient times.
d9f3f29c40900c605feee449d071bb2005b1c596	The main characters turned into rulers and emperors, and minor characters turned into dignitaries, officials, etc.
38f41e7fbeaa1bbccc1dd9da8600cabb6d6165f9	The euhemerization of myths also contributed to the process of anthropomorphization of heroes characteristic of Chinese mythology,which continued in folk mythology until late.
90d71619709ad6b1df4d7661666806f47b73958e	Totemistic ideas played an important role.
602649a7bc82740634b73aba38342a2596fefb12	So, the Yin tribes considered the swallow as their totem, the Xia tribes considered the snake as their totem.
4ad17cda9bdde149f39b91324f90613241cbbdca	Gradually, the snake transformed into a dragon (lun), commanding rain, thunderstorms, water elements and connected simultaneously with underground forces, and the bird, probably, into a fenghuang-a mythical bird-a symbol of the sovereign (the dragon became the symbol of the sovereign).
e5f12281b1e0f987eeb0732ff4c28ca129b747b5	The myth of chaos (hun dun), which is a shapeless mass, apparently belongs to the oldest (judging by the hieroglyphs of hun and tun, this image is based on the idea of water chaos).
527e0613e8fc787b1faf507d2ac78497f96a87d7	Signs of undifferentiation (fused legs, teeth) are also found in a number of mythical first ancestors.
858b98558b30e4a36e6910dc7470807fac69d8cb	According to the treatise "Huainan Tzu", when there was still no heaven or earth and formless images wandered in pitch darkness, two deities emerged from chaos.
39073396cf01896dcc6f9a4086bc226af4955991	The idea of the original chaos and darkness is reflected in the term "kaipi" (lit. "separation" — "the beginning of the world", which was understood as the separation of heaven from earth).
a9ca536d865e8ff979673e7c995d9434ee163646	In the "Chronological Records of the Three and Five Rulers" ("San wu li ji") Xu Zheng (3rd century AD) says that heaven and earth were in chaos, like the contents of a chicken egg.
303c70f768af446892eba819698cc7015d128a0c	The separation of the sky from the earth occurred with the growth of Pan gu, which is also associated with the origin of natural phenomena: with his sigh, wind and rain were born, with his exhalation — thunder and lightning, he opens his eyes-day comes, closes-night comes.
638f007654f795700cf62e7d76102275ecf2ed4d	When Pan gu dies, his elbows, knees and head turn into five sacred mountain peaks, the insects on his body turn into people.
065750d2711d39150602bb0e864629fb1fd7c2c2	The myth of Pan gu testifies to the presence in China of the likening of the cosmos to the human body, which is characteristic of a number of ancient cosmogonic systems, and, accordingly, about the unity of the macro-and microcosm (in the period of late antiquity and the Middle Ages, these mythical ideas were fixed in other areas of knowledge related to man: medicine, physiognomy, portrait theory, etc.).
66051a089a9eb08a712c91cde3408c756c6941f7	Apparently, the reconstructed cycle of myths about the ancestor of Nyu Wa, who was represented as a half-man, half-snake (or dragon), was considered the creator of all things and people (but the myth of her creation of the universe is unknown), should be recognized as more archaic in the stadial respect.
8327ea438d7a8a2ca22617de8f417da7c489c00e	According to one of the myths, she fashioned people out of loess and clay.
9b9375e305b1cee00fa8e5a4b77a5def75a3b1e2	Later versions of the myth associate with it the establishment of a marriage ritual.
d5666244cd341514def510aedf29323df92e50f0	If Pan gu does not create the world, but develops himself along with the separation of heaven from earth, then Nu Wa also appears as a kind of demiurge.
b405bb8274d5048b24c6ea92665872eb8f22f605	She repairs the collapsed part of the sky, cuts off the legs of a giant turtle and supports the four limits of the sky with them, collects reed ash and blocks the way to the flood of waters ("Huainan Tzu").
ef1800f913bcacfc3e3db0808a72f57ceba0c3d8	It can be assumed that Pan Gu and Nyu wa were originally included in various tribal mythological systems, the image of Nyu wa appeared either in the southeastern regions of ancient Chinese lands, or in the Ba culture area in the southwestern province of Sichuan, and the image of Pan gu — in the south Chinese regions.
521b34b81f7117644f7426d868bb088657ae1ac7	There was a time when the earth and the sky had not yet separated from each other and, fused together, formed something vaguely resembling a chicken egg in appearance.
7d2969399eee8db2acf30a43ca90da349d6a7594	It was here that the first man Pan gu was born, like a chicken in a yolk.
0e4508d9a9a7dcd0135ae28fc6acef9c6babef52	Eighteen thousand years passed before he awoke.
92ebf5de23464245ac2da3cc651dc28a21896810	There was an impenetrable sticky darkness around him, and the man's heart was numb with fear.
d79e9bb5cc238e6badb3f157e5b990466a31e526	But then his hands found an object.
40979f83706a79ecf4c25d4353af35fca6e5b972	It was an axe that had come from nowhere.
84c9703cc95fe328ed707678b86abc156a76daca	Pan gu swung with all his strength and struck in front of him.
6d8feaf1336d07400e1bbf05a302d9ef718670fa	There was a deafening roar, as if a mountain had split in two.
c9ef767c920a86e6bda7afe1678db216afd876f1	The motionless world that Pan Gu was in began to move.
9e535158b78c3150a6c3a8d4d8aeea3fdb73976c	Everything light and clean floated up, and heavy and dirty sank to the bottom.
8abff9b9f7057148625488fd3d7dee7327501a8e	Thus, heaven and earth appeared.
5393942dfe7e82bbf83b223b03ddb8e1c87db511	"How long will they remain separated? Will the sky be able to hold on without support? " - these disturbing thoughts flashed into the brain of the first person, and he immediately rested his head on the sky and his feet on the ground.
855529b446aca6ce8af73bac2bdab2c6c3659903	With each passing day, the sky rose one zhang1 higher, and Pan Gu also stretched one zhang. For 18 thousand years, the first man was between heaven and earth, until the distance between them was established at 90 thousand li2.
201d652bb6d31aed218e32e85e45e9572f98eeec	After that, the sky stopped rising, and Pan Gu realized that the world was over.
bdcdadf1d56f3fc985143f336d9becc9afb4ee4b	He sighed happily
2527717a400030024b9e7e243bf89c79ee0d0554	With a sigh, the wind and rain were born.
10d69162fbead6e80c11711706ec7319763f7657	He opened his eyes and the day began.
539dee4806bed71b707c4b09d63f8a7bfe5e8162	He would like to live and live, rejoicing in the strength and beauty of the newborn world.
4291b0d2bf5a8d0a6680491e3b983e328f6b07cf	But his life was in growth.
73a7a7a99359542b3583f5d92116d110225af2eb	Having stopped growing, he had to die.
7893d1fb9f7151d06b934e0c7e537e64af9c8846	Pan Gu's body became light and life.
312f318895b3e161c8add8e6bd1497b61be54bfa	The left eye shone with the sun, the right eye shone with the moon.
3519acf614a6a2c4a9f03299481aa5f4ee7a5bed	The four limbs and the five internal parts of the body became the four cardinal points and the five sacred mountains, blood-rivers and streams, veins and veins-roads that covered the earth, flesh-soil, and hair on the head and mustache-vegetation on it, teeth and bones-gold and stones, bone marrow-pearls and jade, the death sweat that appeared on Pan Gu's body became rain and dew.
e17472503510edca1fbb2804ad3b0a5d9f2f8266	Ba Xian ("The Eight Immortals") is the most popular group of heroes in Chinese Taoist mythology.
45f8b08b2a91715c03a9ed9396519b17b8e758b9	It included Lu Dongbin, Li Teguai, Zhongli Quan, Han Xiangzi, Cao Guojiu, Zhang Golao, Lan Caihe and He Xiangu.
87d84a0ed6207c3f6dda2093e9b7f10f86ed76eb	They lived at different times and had various wonderful abilities (for example, the ability to walk on water).
aa2c39b0e5899045fd1957c771f35dc77d74008a	Each of the Ba xian represents one of the states of human existence: male, female, old age, youth, poverty, wealth, nobility and insignificance.
59ce0e10c05b5f1c89637683ca8aad4da5e84119	All of them were a little strange, and probably that's why stories about them were listened to more often than others and passed down from generation to generation.
ec6b9c212d9e1d201926547ef7f7e7c6c1347c60	He was wandering around the country in a blue torn dress, with a boot on one foot and the other barefoot.
7a03e04fbbabc45f8aa760df306bf80d7bab9476	In summer, he insulated the robe with cotton wool, and in winter he lay on the snow.
9287ffce2fb8c539594ea0e8619524b055b5d55c	He wandered through the city's bazaars, singing cheerful songs, and for this people gave him coins, which Lan Caihe strung on a long cord and dragged behind him.
a6d52b668fa8669ca384ebff1a4f0e2aa165b836	But when he met with other immortals, he gave them his castanets, leaving only a basket of chrysanthemums for himself.
cd186a0c9e5306c2e9366349088e7377a5177d5f	Therefore, he became the patron of gardeners.
cc6cb5f765b9def50b3405b4fefc730272c4f1e0	But in Lu Dongbin, it was difficult to recognize an immortal.
3c1619f2ea150893b2e24372835e89a4ea15770a	He rather resembled a spirit: he had the face of a dragon, the neck of a crane, the body of a tiger, and the back of a monkey.
064cd67094a7d2e6fac1765fcd100ef4460dc074	But this amazing appearance helped him to get close to evil spirits and successfully fight them.
5a6011627904bea0bd996343d552b294c9c69c96	In addition, Lu Dongbin had a great memory.
bb1b8e4122d4eb2a7a741b771ce6e96556d5b728	In one day, he could memorize ten thousand hieroglyphs!
a3fa753de14807ee068fdc08c32e27ac6eaff723	Tall and handsome, all covered with tattoos, Zhongli Quan could perfectly write hieroglyphs and ... command troops.
e67ede6ab13ff1031d55df4b73a3f42bdc26116a	He was invincible, but one day another immortal, the lame Te Guaili, told the enemy how to defeat the commander.
8299d4a9808f380d8c54860888795a74a33681d0	He himself, leaning on an iron stick and waving a gourd in which he kept medicinal potions, went to the river.
d5a1752e3948c3961e8695bd75fac59cece240a6	There he sat down on a bamboo leaf and calmly swam to the other side.
96d723a31ea546ba752e5664293331d6fccd975c	And Zhongli Quan was defeated and fled to the desert in disgrace.
832bebd2b8963c72aca4716f01cb623ac1623727	There he hit a high wall, which split.
5c606e89d66f50b463b2a118aa7dfbe8c7f1c75f	And in the crack was a jade box.
587ad4c0abaa680c31b4a8f2219db56cddfbefff	He opened it, and inside there were instructions on how to become immortal!
be0dc3078ebea087ae8681e69b8d94c8db0b40a9	Before Zhang went to bed, he folded the donkey like a piece of paper.
b50e3a515a1411728f166cbee0e054622b1c2be1	But the next morning, as soon as the owner sprinkled the bundle with water, he straightened out and turned back into a donkey.
e1c54fb6d5eee00fd2ea1be2407fdcf09979d6b2	Zhang sat on it for some reason, facing the tail and continued on his way.
9b9d644f9791fa2773fea9950a3e37dcefa02c45	Once, at the request of the emperor, he caused rain and snow during a drought, but... he managed to leave the estate of his uncle, with whom he was in a quarrel, without a single drop of precipitation.
3ec5529bc96cd062dbd32300d127e873e8200360	And another time, during a feast, he filled a basin with earth and, in front of the eyes of those present, grew wonderful flowers, the petals of which were covered with golden hieroglyphs.
01ef07e9d610562583cb8e84d7dbed687129b5e8	And Cao began to sing, dance, make amazing faces.
b2bcf52061ae91f750d6adf99b8a643ff124ec92	All artists consider him their patron.
28a6bffdbbef8a3f76dd99cee7ada111c653f0ba	Among the immortals, there was one woman — He Xiangu.
0aa3ebf610d6f0c0373a40fe33b35275661b756b	She knew how to do without food, predicted fate and patronized the household.
a0a9ed0b4e838f97accfbf17ae8dc35fcbc5bdbe	From time to time, the gods instructed her to sweep the flowers at the heavenly gates.
cfb5b042ead1676821e127bf2a6b4c7f8e8ca5c7	After working in the sky, she again descended to earth.
d209acebd2ae49162868cdbc6fc72d9e73a7aaa3	Once they were invited by the queen of the West, Xi Wangmu.
9617b49665c6dea9132e583fb6ca089e29836453	There they feasted to their heart's content and went to visit the lord of the East.
82dc05fcc0ef909d1f2750249acff79669dc20f2	On their way was the Eastern Sea.
6977b5b14177365348fd34c37b0513227865af2c	But even the watery abyss was undisturbed by the immortal.
a5637f17eea252808a3e3a50bdc43985f4c93060	Everyone started swimming on what they owned: some on castanets, some on an iron stick, some on a basket, some on a donkey.
bf25489f89bb8211c80c3c4143daad18c39bd955	All this turned out to be unsinkable.
a814425b028fc055e1102b9949f85c16177c294c	The hieroglyph "lun" (dragon), which is a pictogram depicting an animal with a long body and a head crowned with horns (or a crest), has already been found in inscriptions on fortune-telling bones of the Yin era (from the XIV century BC).
a99f85869132f44e0b424bca8816b43d3b0ca485	There are suggestions that the prototype of these pictograms was a lizard, as well as the connection of the image of the moon (dragon) with a crocodile.
492cc3e1c6544b835ab81166e1a44d250c7f40df	The dragon was depicted in the most bizarre forms.
daaa05db33ff82307130c29012b4a3b259acb3ad	But in all cases, the appearance of the monster was majestic, stern and warlike.
ec057c408e32f47c717146a95a25130140a23cfc	Here is one of the descriptions. "The eyes of the dragon are like those of a rabbit, and the ears are like those of a cow; long whiskers grow over its mouth; the body is like the body of a snake covered with scales; the four tiger paws have eagle claws."
c7346398aa58eb3182950c7e0bd0ecf2368789c1	Sometimes the dragon was also depicted as a large snake or an animal that resembled both a tiger and a horse.
0f21cccf48faaf5743e3befb417aded106566159	The dragon was depicted in clouds and fog or in raging waves to create an idea of the extraordinary power and ability to cause wind and waves.
692fd06ca8801a3093a2c12c3ef2384db5307e6b	The dragon soared into the sky and soared in the clouds, baring its fangs and releasing its claws.
c41749a79d7880de4ccca2107a9131c93ad69942	The dragon had the ability to reincarnate, he could run, swim, fly.
95cb13c0e586e672eb5efe0b541fc0d1d2c7984f	The dragon served as a heraldic emblem on the banners of noble families.
5a67eacab30b529108ff32df2cd8c21e906ca5b3	In medieval China, the dragon was a symbol of the emperor, it was depicted on the throne, on the emperor's robe.
a2f25fc3ffa8f0b14d7f93eb9b0bc00d60833840	There are many legends about the dragon king — lunvan.
242fc999557aca77603ee9da754ce50e95666d56	According to one of the legends, once the dragon king fell ill at sea.
b30aea1b888d1d09efb240316ca210eb9057e811	There was no doctor among the inhabitants of the water kingdom who could cure him, and Longwan had no choice but to take the form of an old man and go to people.
823863fffbda0f7bcc9c9c5dd9c8a3497f1d8098	The lord of the sea visited many doctors, but none could determine what kind of illness he had.
924de7c50630920dfa30cd1abdb6a7b649719c8d	Finally, he got to the famous healer, who, after feeling the patient's pulse, was very surprised to find that the heart beats quite differently from ordinary people.
cb2404f24fdc2d21b0913ac69a0330c86dc93c79	The doctor told the old man about it.
7ef73f4a40c28b4d40ced33a888b509e5d39c6a5	And he was forced to reveal that he was the king of dragons.
138ef9793259acfe536c6dbc0e6cd4965bd1239e	The doctor said that he would be able to determine and cure the disease only if the old man turned into a dragon again.
74d4fc41cab45770214bfa57561642834254b9df	Although dragons are usually not shown to people, this time the lord of the waters, in order to heal from the disease, agreed to fulfill the healer's request.
f0dafdd5b600e69bcf72d1af7dde873e26be39da	On the appointed day, the doctor came to the seashore, and the dragon appeared above the waves.
44b4374562d79bf4c69c1254628589638ca86b2c	The doctor examined him and found that a scolopendra had crawled behind the scales of the dragon on the lower back, which caused him severe pain.
69e44222d86bf6ba38f5428a9cd7096cf278e79a	After removing the scolopendra, the doctor smeared the damaged scales with ointment, and the pain passed.
a885b45c90f4c9ebe99791367c39aa143fe0bdaa	As a sign of gratitude for the healing, the dragon king promised the healer to send down good weather, blessed rains and complete well-being to people at their request.
c8353196e59383d3089a5fcbc0d390676e77c458	Since then, every year on the Day of Healing, a dragon dance was performed throughout China.
828f7697e0f26f7fb4c1dd0b5a62b83a58bf6de8	According to traditional ideas, the dragon symbolizes happiness.
a6800e3246bbf512abb52be0def6047430e4940d	Drought and flooding brought ruin, poverty, and hunger to the Chinese people.
203d0ccd212473904da77b7f057bf380e7042ff7	Who could help in the fight against natural disasters?
445b7c1a7b91df5bcf8240eb68f6ebd3b8e80d23	Of course, the dragon king.
c689930fa9a22e4b61b3aa87b1446ca71f5cccc5	If any area was exposed to drought or flooding, the locals performed a ritual dragon dance, begging the lord of the sea to send down rain.
4cd6826aff342922ff26aa21fb6f1ab5814b12ad	A prolonged drought was seen as the dragon's refusal to send rain.
9c64b8fb446af8b661de5678be3c6b9a8152d093	Then prayers were held in front of the image of the dragon.
71f2dd7f9c2c110363b2b1c29f4f8387504906e3	The cult of longwan was extremely widespread in old China.
bcc9a6a628495f63d7d3aea18b3f3fd7c63f8352	Temples dedicated to him were built in cities, villages, near rivers, lakes, crossings and wells.
52a67f2a5219024634e6b4671c6371bedf124215	His intercession was requested by sailors, fishermen, farmers, as well as water carriers, who believed that the underground springs in the wells were controlled by longwan and connected underground with the sea.
0e162d3bb34e4e841943002df15d03d3bc58bc15	During a drought, the statue of longwan was taken out of the temple and placed in the sun, and during a flood it was carried around the neighborhood to show Longwan the extent of the disaster and to reprove him.
ea6cb8c1385bd82dcc72833c2107cb3d50a7cc96	If this did not help, then the statue was drowned in water.
e78a964b06ddcaae9781b247065ed53eb6f9145c	If the fields remained dry after that, then the rite of "flagellation of the dragon" was performed: a dragon image made of clay or other material was struck with a whip or a bamboo stick, demanding that rain be sent down.
55f9b549a1273744c104c959fb8e2679f90a9076	There was a young man who lived on Sungari.
a834b1e64c9d6e7ab9e378619ae6b75a8bca3ea6	His father had made a decent fortune by fishing, and therefore the son, although he continued his father's occupation, did not because of need, but only out of love for the business; and therefore he sometimes allowed himself various whims.
1e90d6353d04e8155e9c81a8ee1a019debd9094f	Often his workers fished, and he wandered through the mountains.
6028c92749c885e0387d75c65f0ff2baa6a88137	One day, he wandered into Longtang Shan and saw a magnificent swimming pool there.
949afff14b3ff44819e8705524b15949639ca26f	For a long time the fisherman sat on the shore of it, and suddenly it occurred to him: if only a good fish tank would come out here!
ba4964fc0be22679ef7060a3e62423380c5f9dee	Conceived - done.
954a48304ebe0d1cfd3636230e6f3579605a137f	He returned home, chose two dozen of the best fish of different breeds that do not interfere with each other's life, took them alive to Longtan Shan and let them into the pool; and to distinguish his fish from the offspring, he put a copper ring with his name on the tail of each fish that was released.
0a41715bc5679c4bec84c629e22a2db78c036d5d	Once his workers were taken to sell fish in Ulagai and suddenly they see that local fishermen have caught a couple of fish with copper rings.
45464f2cbb648bab25733efd496f99b31eb7b82d	The workers took these fish and took them to their owner.
9f57217974510273b2ee84f1ee758aa9ff0309ee	He looks-yes, these are his fish, which he let into the Luntan...
a72ec6af4917c3000acfc215d6e3494f56caf9ab	A fisherman went with people to the mountain, threw a seine into the Luntan, but did not catch a single fish there.
ae1b6c71705a25cd09b3833d1786b5c31cc5032c	It is clear that there is a passage between Sungari and Luntan, the same one that the dragon once walked on.
265bb2573c089a339aa27918e841e7b1c8adabcd	Yes, Luntan is a sacred reservoir; it is not for nothing that when the governor twice a year, on the days of changing clothes (summer to winter and back), in full dress, kneels before the sacred tree and before the pool, all the duckweed from the surface of the water immediately gathers to the opposite shore, even if there was not the slightest breeze...
4fe7f1764feb10cdbdc262bed37bf9be0adc9778	And the most amazing thing is where does the water come from in Luntan, on the very top of a high mountain?
d3194bc8025f619e1a240295c339ab2355c530bc	A lot of water should evaporate, especially in hot weather , and yet the water in the pool never decreases by a single inch, although no stream flows into the Luntan…
98e426534b283c712380f68a13cac9c1fc4a6470	No, Luntan, whatever you say, is a sacred reservoir; this is the entrance to the dwelling of Lunvan himself, the prince of the dragon!
57218c316b6921e2cd61027a2387edc31a2d9471	
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98b21297df887efcd56a78a74f5a9682e10bd564	MYTHS OF THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD
48c15231d77cad6ad5a7bc54617fd1ce84b9fc4d	CHINESE MYTHS
fc3199bed5eaeab94462d87000199d14ce5935b5	Myths and legends about dragons
a2f9eebca2f4851191826d24926f398e53556901	Of all the mythical creatures, dragons were the most popular (even reverent) among the Chinese people.
16637f7a9b099aca0c04eb5255a9d0589c09b4b6	The hieroglyph "lun" (dragon), which is a pictogram depicting an animal with a long body and a head crowned with horns (or a crest), has already been found in inscriptions on fortune telling bones of the Yin era (from the XIV century BC).
da24f3d23617a19ed429bc1c07426f811c52a464	Here is one of the descriptions.
e6f90dba79318e02d8eca2c097ae6b8e9d3e778c	"The eyes of the dragon are like those of a rabbit, and the ears are like those of a cow; long whiskers grow over its mouth; the body is like the body of a snake covered with scales; the four tiger paws have eagle claws."
7ef74bb05aac445ead35580d131935a975c04b3b	The highest dignitaries and courtiers wore robes with the image of a dragon with four claws, and only for special merits did one of the dignitaries complain about the right to wear a robe with a five headed dragon as on the emperor's robe.
26f634794e4deede3ccaa72565f4c5aa8d52be57	The cult of dragons was associated primarily with water.
a1163498c5284cb2095eedcf7741ec77a97273c5	Dragons, who represented rain clouds that brought the rains necessary for sowing, were represented to the Chinese as benevolent gods who bestowed "sweet", "bread" rain.
b647e498728c9590097f55c0f5bac092dd63018c	They also acted as benevolent gods as the personification of rivers, lakes and reservoirs, the waters of which were used for irrigation (artificial and natural).
a0ab1f6e2e64fd123d95680998f0dbf4f54c8fad	The dragons of the rain deity could at the same time be the culprits of heavy rains that are harmful to crops.
3d23a931b6b48976eb3d978c7f22df1825937229	In such cases, they turned to people with their "dark", "evil" side.
3b1c7d28f9b15636266420f07d4ee143794a562a	But the dragons of the river deity were especially terrible.
45144bbe3aa849ad5c376d9b20a258e87d3ad18d	They, according to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, were the culprits of the terrible floods, for which the Chinese rivers are so "famous", floods that sweep away hundreds of villages on their way, bringing death to crops and thousands of people.
9a4e9d76bb15119fa5adf50c89dd2446f3d918d6	This is where people's ideas about the viciousness and bloodthirstiness of dragons come from.
bd1f1380408786f7d7a4a4454be370c59e77f744	The fear of the river deities explains the sacrifices to the masters of this terrible element and, in particular, the long term preservation of the custom of bringing them human sacrifices.
dbe742ae80197371deb147e2d1d0ddd27918c59f	The incredible and inexplicable power of dragons contributed to the extraordinary popularity of these creatures in mythical legends.
c397c868dda23b517ffa463ee09ea13a1fd9b2d1	At a later time, the motives of curbing the dragons of the gods of rivers, the single combat of heroes of fighters against floods and floods appear in folklore.
070d5b296c2ac5f0cf04e72b99d1f85d028f70c3	As a sign of gratitude for the healing, the dragon king promised the healer to send down good weather, blessed rains and complete well being to people at their request.
662eaad4a76abacbc0a03987073041ec4ebc1ae0	And finally, speaking of dragons, one can not help but recall the spirit of Zhulong a Dragon with a candle from Mount Zhongshan, who, according to one of the variants of the creation myth, was the creator of the universe.
9ff6916b1d4abeae12fc97f5666dedca0b7104c1	The story about him is recorded in the ancient "Book of Mountains and Seas".
74fdcdb204e10b07bf979134e18fdd9917fa9124	This spirit with the face of a man, the body of a snake and the skin of a red color was a thousand li tall.
acf15a211a9a5759dcd1a96b93301d1233f462c6	He had eyes that resembled two olive trees.
2115f2b8c5d7401922450229430a63dd9fa12e77	When he closed them, they turned into two straight vertical slits.
d219939db4156c977425c1117d646eff2c15f917	As soon as he opened them, day came in the world, and when he closed them, night descended on the earth.
e7ad9a41d5a92e08ba8dea5e61d93c42137f24ee	As soon as he blew, a veil of clouds appeared, heavy snow fell in flakes and winter came.
13df7eb431aa55e340c22b08032656e5d0404772	It was worth breathing the heat — and immediately summer came, and the sun began to scorch so that metals and stones melted.
5b0ecc917dc3e23ce0e5b9c47902d8428fe2e8c5	The dragon lay curled up like a snake.
f3c15bed2c15dae258ee9b99486d06784cefc7d6	He had no need to eat, drink, sleep, or breathe.
99fc209dd0bba8d3dd21b575dfd8a0dd6a6532dc	But as soon as he took a breath, the wind rose for a good ten thousand li in the area.
6e2c9493ac014b136ffd364f75a409874627207c	With the light of the candle that Zhulong held in his mouth, he could illuminate the highest spheres of the sky and the deepest bowels of the earth, where eternal darkness reigned.
93a48d819397fb00934febdc8d5745e00a192b86	And since he always held a candle in his mouth and illuminated the darkness in the heavenly gate in the north, he was also called Zhu yin, i.e. "Illuminating darkness".
a49589c06bfa43d58f32b90d1c17e1d04986476e	(The text is based on the book "Myths of Ancient China", author V. V. Yezhov, preface and notes I. O. Rodin, M. "Astrel" 2003).
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a310a931e4b2ebcb69f9a03b869759de193a1e1d	Chinese Mythology
bbf1659af853f5b80652e63b151831eb58fc1c5d	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on May 30, 2013; checks require 14 edits.
3a2640d88a0526fdbbbdb882999459e6e7684a72	Chinese mythology is a set of mythological systems: ancient Chinese, Taoist, Buddhist and late folk mythologies.
2464607cc264d21fa9899ecd24715241e4ceb28b	1 General overview 2 Myths of China 2.1 Creation and ordering of the world
8d11a52458d9a3f20a9b305e55e5ee7091ec7e1d	3 References 4 Literature
56e40d6c7edaed275bb77858c2b191df4603cfaa	General overview[edit / edit wiki text]
340b3fc8fe5ee3648657166c9fa1eaf45b7c1221	"The Gods of China", a Chinese engraving, reprinted by Athanasius Kircher in 1667
93973c2c54418da6ffe3a6f13c74e8b28dd18c2a	Ancient Chinese mythology rekonstruiruet the fragments of ancient historical and philosophical works
b668757e16f073c668c294490bf4105b26f385b9	("Shutszin" is a Book of History, the oldest part XIV XI centuries BC;
65366ce4428550ad7d3b4aa08aaf302729af9e56	"Ching" is the Book of Changes, the most ancient part VIII VII centuries BC.
89334a6f59aec413fdb81f722568cccb703d7b8a	"Chuang Tzu", IV III centuries BC.
55c0a74ed8009cc2280d366c8182bd81b6190510	"Le zi", IV century BC IV century ad;
ccecbe45e7b916cd58f5fdb5dd4b3dbd6cc8cc11	"Huainan zi", II century BC.
2652de1dcb35818edb9d09cef4d76b98bf99d965	"Critical judgment" Wang Chong, I century BC).
b9d92a15e50de91b6d106024449fae43f6354568	Gradually, the snake transformed into a dragon (lun), commanding rain, thunderstorms, water elements and connected simultaneously with underground forces, and the bird, probably, into a fenghuang a mythical bird a symbol of the sovereign (the dragon became the symbol of the sovereign).
b08443fd2fc367cefdfc5f22fd4188a168cc2706	See also: Symbolism in Chinese Poetry
dccd88a58b687ea9fa0381436df72d4240921e4c	Myths of China[edit / edit wiki text]
a10999d4c366f5a3bee637b0f882986ae79f773b	Creation and ordering of the world[edit / edit wiki text]
4f514aff22b8ebf33905cf17bec9669802326d67	Fusi and Nyuva
388f1c3507d1902fd09b06f47b38c075b91764e6	The separation of the sky from the earth occurred with the growth of Pan gu, which is also associated with the origin of natural phenomena: with his sigh, wind and rain were born, with his exhalation — thunder and lightning, he opens his eyes day comes, closes night comes.
0d161b19793ae02587e4e6aa4b8ab3d6c57d4e96	The myth of Pan gu testifies to the presence in China of the likening of the cosmos to the human body, which is characteristic of a number of ancient cosmogonic systems, and, accordingly, about the unity of the macro and microcosm (in the period of late antiquity and the Middle Ages, these mythical ideas were fixed in other areas of knowledge related to man: medicine, physiognomy, portrait theory, etc.).
58c70ee1a8f86c38ac0e6a7e206ba95d92c60b6d	Apparently, the reconstructed cycle of myths about the ancestor of Nyu Wa, who was represented as a half man, half snake (or dragon), was considered the creator of all things and people (but the myth of her creation of the universe is unknown), should be recognized as more archaic in the stadial respect.
fdc808d826e59ad4dafe45823567ad27c3b29b0c	Chinese mythology.
d9c7fc7bf39b5f64ad11c3f7080769134ceff966	Encyclopedia of mythology with illustrations.
b284675c3c369e27793de22c240837b1a539769d	Articles on Chinese mythology.
d2dc1eec6ed9c350f6832127aa053742b0c918f1	Georgievsky S. M. Mythical views and myths of the Chinese.
26176531b8d63ba34d1fa6bf630e710c54b9779a	St. Petersburg, 1892.
4e116724627fc5db21476cddb1e3d0e3bf2565a7	Bodde D. Myths of ancient China / / Mythology of the ancient world.
f7d8953015531bab7e663bfcd40709b7bcbb64ee	Translated from English M., 1977.
3bb6062140c57b5b1283cea8878244406d9138e9	Ezhov V. V. "Myths of Ancient China", Moscow 2004 Evsyukov V. V. Mythology of the Chinese Neolithic.
4ede409504482680206228d36d6c1aa2e2f7d424	Novosibirsk, 1988.
4eb728122522ac4327a90fbd4e940102fc88597f	Kulikov D. E. Ornithological motifs in the Shang Yin culture and their connection with ancient Chinese mythology / / Society and the State in China.
ba75a70130a591f82e2f47c0a862615aee07aacb	XXXII Scientific Conference.
7a52f60b2a91dfc9b64bd3d4db3d9ef37d7acfbf	Moscow: Oriental Literature, 2002.
fabd7740a28a33232efdf6a090bb673b1f049df9	Kulikov D. E.
a49350e71d3eeffe68650db5013d280d0e813e0f	On solar elements in Yin religious and mythological representations / / Society and the State in China.
5a4a9e19b77e29bf4fd10b504bc05d615b3582bd	XXXIV scientific conference.
aebc331044c77000e86e94578e6fa46ec94c2f4d	Moscow: Oriental literature, 2004.
7c7cadc06b27feb9e548b7aed3989e00526e4fa3	25-44.
c5a14d807bea90f910311ab7a652f5fb442e36b1	Lisevich I. S. Modeling of the world in Chinese mythology and the doctrine of the five primary elements // Theoretical Problems of Oriental literatures.
b8350857ba40ec6342975511e3aa7db2cab88547	M., 1969.
9a4fc4a4d6d6eb37877f1794caa354add1ae353b	Lisevich I. S. Ancient myths through the eyes of a man of the space age / / Soviet ethnography. 1976.
8b599067a7fa5002f338fd55e8800bfe5a0fd006	2. Riftin B. L., Mythology and the development of narrative prose in Ancient China — - in the collection "Literature of Ancient China", Moscow, 1969.
41abe5bbcacc02104f1b188bb1e14d033f93f61d	Spirina I. V. New materials about the Chinese mythological tradition in the monuments of the "animal style" / / Society and the state in China.
bd1645ef593ea0035ab704944e3f8652400ca2c8	XXII Scientific conference.
9185c384077ae3da68c9364c5eb912836639b394	Moscow: Oriental literature, 1991.
86f15e8a13f8c61f00bb5a5eb02c468952f506c3	117-120.
8580328c7b3e85503794f6103e55045dbd9f98a6	Fedorenko N. T., Thematic originality of Chinese mythology — - in the collection " Historical and philological studies.
b9c37897730d5629d8ac69324f3aa4895e9c52d7	To the 75th anniversary of the academician N. I. Konrad", Moscow, 1967, p.
1edd6acecfd719d2f5a717f2170a6f2cc74dd963	381—390.
7921112a7f54fdf0ff11b172daa2cbf78ca6f852	Yuan Ke.
267c41bcf9cb2d7762e3c747df4d0ab856c61ead	Myths of Ancient China.
e8922a0521fb0659053327bcd9241bb33800461e	Moscow, 1965.
3912b4e6bf8768568df762ab32ed6a29d9da82f2	Yanshina E. M. Formation and development of Ancient Chinese mythology.
10c58dfb7ed2b5b12652d13eeabbfe5f3b4e40f9	Moscow, 1984.
58d59489e47d2e14271f5f111e30a2ceaab468e3	Yanshina E. M., God fighting motives in ancient Chinese mythology — - "Brief reports of the Institute of Asian Peoples", No.
44624500f742522b6939ae667b111f10a7a1b99b	61, Moscow, 1963.
1115cd57d136265551b575658414258b50d54eb0	Allan S.
40aba0712caf97b0ae66070933289f14ba39b546	The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China.
b649f3776aa04d96472d121e2d7523bb098d0142	New York,1991.
2a99993754df9969131b02cf2cb6aabfbca923d0	Birell A. Chinese Mythology.
95a9120a2126cfdc3a155b44b0aed3f7f47f640f	An Introduction.
9baced2cbae49ab35f07cf110bc9362baa69c87e	Baltimore and London, 1999.
2e6b74ef03f4dec9693fddc12e67413a2cfa7c6e	Birrell Anne «Chinesische Mythen», Stuttgart 2002 Anthony Christie «Chinesische Mythologie», Wiesbaden 1969.
332f87d721a1629feeeb7baf3f481d9556a89b2a	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese Mythology&oldid=75304809"
12897398323e74c5719daf185d8f84c3c3c5f2d2	Category: Chinese Mythology
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0062adc297c11ff19127be4cd44d09f8739bbbc7	Myths of China
426778c2876b57b8f7c3783eb32bb70f696c0938	Gods, deities and other mythological characters
7786cd651eb9a98ca675a57df2f2a6495a371158	Monsters, monsters and fantastic creatures Animals and plants Natural phenomena and the structure of the world
dfdfd80f30ce3099a0a3a95f634bf258d33b26ba	Life and Death Treasures Children Legends of cities, houses and other places Legends of priests, healers and other characters
cc10afc404afd66017055b9ef71dd387dd96d15c	The Birth of Pangu
461bac64cb7e16b1edc8ea40795fa955480c8ff3	Seven holes
cd95d0b39ca791967aabcfee94b1205eae5ae397	Heavenly Authority
56e8c7f4d5a27539c1270805eaa88d8fbfb0aba9	Heavenly Empire
249a58bacd246819b920bb533d90dd7ecd18c97c	Si min the ruler of life
63e1894eb50126ba962d5de60a8b4136545fc4a5	The Earthly Abode of the gods
fbbcfdc7778e318fcd8301f5afa036320180e449	The Celestial Palace
9619165399522764ed57f55446782bf1dd417665	Diyu — "the underground court"
2037684a68221a68f19803156ad9f1df1e39da16	What did they eat on Kunlun
1c02bbd6da936d30c8fde9de5da3abf0c6a234be	How many spirits and demons are there in total
24ce7ca3b80ba5238926fbcc6b52488be466c742	The Great Review
8e89f341f877c768f41f5854e92e613241d7f2d7	Di Jun and the Fenghuang Bird
513c4157a5e23d697084e3c92e49ea4b62bd0fbd	The good Yan Di, nicknamed Shennong
69f2d365d882cd1ad02235b6f83e2c05b1d3081a	Bird Government
61344758d049104030f93af0ed6640b9d9a7f52b	How a person appeared
bbb209cfad1a636f75f594bba783f2b3c1ad33d9	How Nyuva repaired the sky
c3908afa3afc17480513e6218ee61efcb951f7e2	Why doesnot the sea overflow?
c0e8c307540bf73f7570d5aab397c1acd480fa13	Modest Nyuva
b9320dcb823200b4de9ea598452dcf3eb07fe6e6	How the human race was preserved
7f096358208609fec33115b992cdfa49594a0564	How Fuxi taught people to fish
9464d201e80e6f8241f090289a3b62237cb34101	Lights of Suimin country
dff9564a799c6e8c14a8d0328c3bd8f644e6470e	Five floating Mountains
96ba5b99771f13d6b73b8166f1bda2c28a04275d	Where are the fruits of immortality?..
53f7711410e459ae1627e9f372c111cd4284150e	The Eight Immortals (Ba Xian)
0f2eb6e18df9b1b24bd5a726a848015a95ec33b7	The beginning of the Great War
78accb1e590a1dc20fcadf6c34254d5ea7493f39	Banners of the Chinese army
9abefdd5092b30d0ceb22c09e8cc96b3327248cf	How was Chiyu defeated
223842468eebb71ac1916ec0299627525b82fee2	Indomitable fighting spirit
9cd3de5bb51ac08e8299a07f45428c7a5a86bb8b	How Huang Di ended his reign
890b7323d5b05f6ad35d15d833c21aad7434ac26	How Zhuangxiu brought order
2b2167fa379c74cc753fd28ff1879367a50219ee	Ten Suns
ebca8fe1b1271708db3bc89485cee1067932476f	The daughters of Sovereign Yao
af45d7e8f53e18831fce5de2738214004cab5b6c	Swallow's children
47c80db874c8f9a56f66b03d935013181d7457df	Azure Dragon
f01e57e6be0e2636f18be4fa60456d53f9eac6f9	At the bottom of the Eastern Sea
8ae05027ea9cbd4246f610e4d3073e599ea9b5ea	Dragon's Treasure
1572461129faf9700e7409c2a19af6ca3525526c	The princess and the musician
af37a3ccb9358c3e5eb0229033ef6ee7060e4c68	The Glass Palace
a90aa2e5ce40e1b968446c2fbd67ada3d06d2746	Mrs. Cuttlefish
21440683c8cdcd0a001036e5604316bbf27faa17	Bai di
bae7a7feea96bfefdd19db0eb6ecdb8778d00bd0	Bi Gan
2d98cddbeb2364983336b084e9904f38fedeb37d	Wen Chang
c8e54d59753f6d924edbc4c38bd6ef4765d6c436	Guan di
d28fd9dc00ea025427fcd9be4a3a602e351ddc6c	Guan Yin
24bb1e2f24d83fc94b0c2f7b89e0b55a3db8f7a7	Gui
7440320b3e3c1735d59bc460b3b99dbd1873f382	Gun
5c396f062b499e31a7f8a68fe1d786d832b9000d	Dizang Wang
46a73b80b6139298d1c9e2a0a19623db28465677	Dou mu
0bbe1ee88f544c3ffa74e191a32eb4606300fa73	And and his exploits
b6b900e6504a072ace01401861545960b6d95295	Ki lin
c359e0d6503c17727da89e964774db68236cc936	Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva
92eff53972a6f29b0e58ae4669d0627aa2987e59	Lao Tzu
28e701e87192f86bd0a0ffb10b3de8e18338e630	Lun mu
7d90215fa4c49f55d8080670cc555742c03c0fec	Ne ja
5409d5cf01e10b47dce1cdc8d2316d741fc9fc5a	Nyuva
1050686565a1a0f8462fd08c271578ac9b2067e4	They
6ddab908626c515ecb43bf4c944f9ef0a089c060	Pan Gu
ffd21bb249207764c5170dd7c897000ae162b176	Poof
e5b1b841562f74fd712cec71e5d6fadfd9f31481	Tian Hou
1015155f825b6a427287c26f92450936b5b9ef4f	Futsanlong
c9aa8c4b9d262389ece83d3ef4367a5aa9884244	Tsao Wang
e25d4f1a2c311c4f5b85efc7ecd4f58bbe4d4d07	Zi gu
18c14c0707e5cdaeb7975576fa54a4346d154619	Qilin
a6260bf2fdf1a3fa7ef8b3e691cbdf71c85d1b65	Zhong Kui
4c71985d9ca49c35c70efc625bae6915e7b35a22	Chiang Shi
76aba91fdf654ef5fcfb70bef622a9ef84167335	Chiyu and his brothers
9cd4ffa4d5a09f6f35473f5a0cbe3e3c2eb6c8d5	Shenlong
b7b0ae2d994ae44dd519e1a76d572978b7ec39c4	Yu Emperor
1932542937eec464a4d7ff934df4ffde54738215	Yu the builder
ee0ed7f8fa7235cab6850605c9d0572cc6983f90	Yuqiang
e2fa2c1f2589756e8d20e75ade675435a2793af5	Yanlo Wang
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cc3fc6739d66e869f37509b19d4e8bc0048b78da	Myths of ancient Egypt Myths of the ancient Slavs Fairy tales and legends of the northern peoples of Russia Fairy tales and legends of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East Fairy tales and legends of the peoples of the Urals and the Volga region Fairy tales and legends of the peoples of the Caucasus Myths of Japan Myths of Western and Southern Africa Myths and legends of the Gauls Myths and legends of Australia Mythology of Polynesia Myths of India Myths of Ancient Greece and Rome Myths of China Myths and legends of Vietnam Myths of the peoples of the Two Rivers Mythology of Vikings Mythology of Eskimos Mythology of Latin America Myths and legends of North America Folk legends of the Netherlands Legends of Ireland Legends of Iceland Folk legends of Norway Myths and legends of Sweden Folk legends of Denmark Legends of Northern Germany Medieval epic of Southern Germany Legends and legends of France
0a9322dc2e259b4b02df89a49011290399313b10	Eight Immortals
d2d6403f7e75aaafde09c8ff43810ed9a3f4f43a	The eight immortals were very much loved in China.
ad11acac7ddb2507aa1b55bab6234263278f3003	Once they actually lived in different provinces of a great country.
fbdba9b435f11e9410ea4b7a50febb2733ac7eea	Lu is often depicted with a boy in his arms, because when he meets men and women, he wishes for sons to everyone.
30bfb5d471296c74bd3fb73563ce2a32b6de9bd1	The magician and wizard was Zhang Golao.
0de9c05894775eefd1526da2ec4bd1a8c017aa26	He owned a white donkey that ran ten thousand li in a day!
5e204a04dd9c28ec726633815561dbdcf22e533c	All the emperors used the services of a magician, because he could predict the future and remembered everything about the past.
558d1d7fe1b3058ac3f78a186d85fbd679ec3f9a	Han Sanzi was also a magician.
54b44dac39fc1c679841e0e28325bcf692df2eb5	Cao Guojiu alone did not know how to do anything, but just wandered around the country.
71f2fbea9b877b22e0233c0e0c5ac9dcbaf8266b	But one day Lan Caihe gave him his castanets.
b45b93f2c5d074444791224beb4b02a4c7bd3b62	Each of the immortals lived on their own, but sometimes they gathered together.
46ccef5e6755e126dac692140934cfafb71a4176	About the project Our friends Feedback
9df918b69941227b3c45ac7f4cdfa9dc7e2e348e	Fairy tales and myths of the peoples of the world, fairy tales and cartoons, audio fairy tales, author's fairy tales
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f1339fcd7bf646a4a03b6119277a203b513060e5	Catalog "Myths" Myths of Ancient China
51de870d589c6480de3cbe585f415b6f79528ffa	Myths of Ancient China "The first man Pan Gu"
eabda2701a55a335a498b147fcdecd76f0b04883	"How long will they remain separated?
b65a820641680c75aec22b59a4b4228cb4cc3b6d	Will the sky be able to hold on without support?
69597f25275ae84715c4ce75eb97926b8d9d9671	" - these disturbing thoughts flashed into the brain of the first person, and he immediately rested his head on the sky and his feet on the ground.
ec7abe102f2967de7925d252e63e27e1ccd524e9	With each passing day, the sky rose one zhang1 higher, and Pan Gu also stretched one zhang.
44fe7614736bec36f5287ca2f26fb94f02d41b9a	For 18 thousand years, the first man was between heaven and earth, until the distance between them was established at 90 thousand li2.
46e763859956f00f1989ca7db8c620d0bc220d53	He sighed happily With a sigh, the wind and rain were born.
939b5d0c13d564bd010d1a0df9843470c931d85c	The four limbs and the five internal parts of the body became the four cardinal points and the five sacred mountains, blood rivers and streams, veins and veins roads that covered the earth, flesh soil, and hair on the head and mustache vegetation on it, teeth and bones gold and stones, bone marrow pearls and jade, the death sweat that appeared on Pan Gu's body became rain and dew.
356a192b7913b04c54574d18c28d46e6395428ab	1
a176f4068dd496926278f6adf23ed9c1ac013f34	Nyuva the progenitor
55fb5b67e97f9f4a070273f75fc05a71f7970e69	Statistics:
07cf7c643346cf44247544131c324b1f76f9b763	Published on March 01, 2011
01ef52b2321c1e4e225b4ccd0bccc6f77d022791	Views: 22092
74a853e494d659c1a8f7463768cdd0b14e26ad7b	report a bug
7f11b84f5ef8525096f227386f8fc73626c22a76	more left more right Read also in the category Myths of Ancient China:
5e92d17890c8176c1f9bc85af5b42e5c7cfc44fb	The first man Pan Gu Nuva the ancestor of Fuxi The ruler of millet The Impeccable Shun The Divine cultivator Huang di Huang di and the iron headed Feats of the arrow and Gong and Yu are the winners of the flood
f9cacf9a298670e98b76e18cd3b42fcbbb7f2b77	Meng Jiang
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99a7763292ace8fab5d7751e1b163ed944da2dd5	The project "Hobobo Fairy Tale Library" was created in 2010 for parents who read to their children and children who read themselves, for those who love fairy tales!
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1334352691cc7e8299a435b3daccd25a45884fc8	Myths and legends of China.
c1489970f6dfd2ba678aa49442242c6b068f8075	Find Your Favorite Parable
ec7401ccbf023b76d44c6fecc91018cc6b17bcc2	Myths and legends of China: Longtan
2f3345a3d3604f1fbaeec471b23fc3dc5f0dec21	Proverbs
00b01c39c02abf02c7fcabb2a0479d5f38bdf2c3	Buddhist Parables Vedic Parables Jewish parables Myths and legends of the Celts Myths and legends of China Parables of Zen Buddhism Parables of India Parables of Rumi Parables of Love Sufi parables Christian parables Japanese myths
4d3353ae836ec966f62661e700515fcbe86eea82	A Random Parable
6f443aaf4ad88ffcfdfd323833e2ec3acc984812	A man came to Saint Ramanuja and said: - I would like to find a way to God.
57ae6a99adf022f874d1b65839f8d1a91549ce59	Help me.
b53268459b2f5d9d968a9f873b0eabb0b0004476	Ramanuja replied, " Tell me first, have you ever loved anyone?"
17c23947258641ef477b9153aa9eb41a68dd4369	The man replied: - I'm not interested in ... read the Parable in full
11bf2cd5b0aaf44f9e504371e25d510c44a7a253	Parable: Luntan
8eee54c5d427543174ee7185709a7499a42ae16e	He looks yes, these are his fish, which he let into the Luntan...
9638ba9843a82af1f208145d1639057cfa30ad30	A lot of water should evaporate, especially in hot weather , and yet the water in the pool never decreases by a single inch, although no stream flows into the Luntan… No, Luntan, whatever you say, is a sacred reservoir; this is the entrance to the dwelling of Lunvan himself, the prince of the dragon!
c7beb45ed0a05114b26ff4f2868ba66ea59247aa	Rating of the Parable: 3.625
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13468364f79ec9d421a5fb57d84a59e933536fdc	Other Myths and Legends of China
eb8c961b60bf33e10ce0854dc9ff0cd6f614ed73	Io Fei Longtang The Just Emperor The Maiden Voivode Ti Tai Tai and Ko Ko o
be2b7790a4ea7f4ad9082bc44ab1b12a6d5fe898	The Three Best Parables
b4475c6b4b130dc27d44b95f331641eed314658b	The First Best Parable
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83bf86fde65ea85d572abe5b0fdd2d26a94029c7	A long time ago ... a very long time ago there was an island where all the Feelings and spiritual values of people lived: Joy, Sadness, Knowledge and others.
0e0feb00fcd31320747e79b4dd78ac13b4f30a3a	Love also lived with them.
640658c72a51ecdb46e2eceddc146083648eb229	One day, the Senses noticed that the island was submerged...
1222906c52714017456d3c64042f8e81fa6f3b7c	The Second Best Parable
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9fd49fe267e9728b1769433e880913ce313b0dff	One day the Senses noticed that the island of Pogue...
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7aa06ac93608a761254839acd6337c32c0f72ca9	Where does love go? little happiness asked her father.
3b63d99cec16c9dfb00393acc023cc65293dde06	"She's dying," my father said.
ef925662f661694f9000df8d7721da503f000486	People, my son, do not take care of what they have.
eb5fd085cce58423d475034aa0936ca05b55432d	They just donot know how to love!
a64b17f8a3aa1aabd2e183f6135e4e73ec49f42d	Little happiness thought: Here's V...
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8eaeeeb57c7ad3a4cad585321c1e7e3c8238da9c	Funny Parables.
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2ad628b2a7c40950a5a17cccd30e9d36069d2d87	Salvador Dali (full name Salvador Domenech Felipe Jacinte Dali and Domenech, Marquis de Dali de Pubol, cat. Salvador Domènec Felip Jacint Dalí i Domènech, Marqués de Dalí de Púbol, Spanish. Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, Marqués de Dalí y de Púbol; May 11, 1904, Figueres — January 23, 1989, Figueres) was a Spanish painter, graphic artist, sculptor, director, writer. One of the most famous representatives of surrealism.
ea410a584808edc50d324fcb2b521a43c446e7cd	Salvador Dali was born in Spain on May 11, 1904 in Figueres, Girona province, in the family of a wealthy notary.
f83fc2791ccba5aa436e928a2d516938ac5e6cec	By nationality, he was a Catalan, perceived himself in this capacity and insisted on this feature of his.
da4285e9fede6280dbb89d2a7c98ee452759cc70	But, like any person, experiencing sensory hunger, he sought emotional contact with children by any means, trying to get used to their team, if not in the role of a friend, then in any other role, or rather the only one he was capable of — in the role of an outrageous and disobedient child, strange, eccentric, always acting contrary to other people's opinions.
9a4e9eab7df60feb11c5e0779e4506d8687fd425	Judging by what is known about his early youth, he was motivated by a desire to differ from his contemporaries, and at the same time he wanted to be recognized by them as a dominant personality with his always correct views.
5d49ddd9a59b460cd7b00816e4cf70aa19956bc5	The psychological explanation-Dali himself liked it very much-could be that he was clearly aware of his own inferiority, which he needed to somehow compensate for.
28579428edd4ff79a11f53449cef2bf3d0ce9121	But if this was the case, where did these feelings come from and how did they develop?
9e38ab57cab2447fb6a44ce3846ef1d3b30a8886	Dali was undoubtedly an intelligent young man, although he liked to say the opposite.
036b73f6433f2c065f2581586ceb76967fa5a182	He had a natural talent for drawing, which was reflected in the drawings on the margins of his textbooks and cartoons that he drew to amuse his sister.
9bbd004a716bcf39cb2c0d7b1f3ddf158ea68096	Most of Dali's youth was spent in a family house near the sea in Cadaques.
7651a4d5b3506438a8a4f3d937ba9b3c4cbe6532	Here the imaginative boy interacted with local fishermen and workers, absorbing the mythology of the lower strata of society and studying the superstitions of his people.
c6530e2cf813291824ebe4626ac2b93c8404c514	Perhaps this influenced his talent and became a prerequisite for weaving mystical themes into his art.
499e189cd39fe84af6813c1b17be8c7f3d249174	In 1921, he entered the San Fernando Academy.
f42b47491dfc4888ae48414a504d8a544ac0b704	The drawing prepared by him for the exam seemed too small to the caretaker, which he reported to his father, and he, in turn, to his son.
36bea061757f650dab50d852943ee1c04b5abe0e	Young Salvador erased the entire drawing from the canvas and decided to draw a new one.
4f4f132a5ace2f414085a2a0240e522a5cdd0694	But he had only 3 days left before the final assessment.
4a68d44727a80e86d68e63e8f44921a8dc48a785	However, the young man was in no hurry to work, which greatly disturbed his father, who had already suffered from his quirks for many years.
d5c747fc149688920658e94473c98871eb1ae197	In the end, young Dali said that the drawing was ready, but it was even smaller than the previous one, and this was a blow for his father.
5ca05753d917b24ae5c1fbfb856c4e1b0ec1a9ac	However, the teachers, due to their extremely high skill, made an exception and accepted the young eccentric to the academy.
6ee805c3c1baafc8719550b157c84e833d4e693f	Studying at the Madrid Academy from 1921 to 1925 was for the artist a time of persistent comprehension of professional culture, the beginning of a creative understanding of the traditions of masters of past eras and the discoveries of his older contemporaries.
8ab61b928ee49911ec381541622f6aa6f680c58a	During his first trip to Paris in 1926, he met with P. Picasso.
a0815079e500cd9e7f1c7d149d2133b52256d542	Both Bunuel and Lorca were part of the new intellectual life in Spain.
dbc5be5d95a74b08d6b060f824259fc1f4c1ecf8	They challenged the conservative and dogmatic doctrines of the political elite and the Catholic Church, which mainly formed the Spanish society of that time.
01ac6e0783b94f88461690971dfe9a607f86b149	New ideas stimulated Dali's already radical thinking.
80d0f47a9955fa8918a2c5c35774ef77b1ffc980	His work was influenced by the works of Freud.
efb2835e353a4457d83754523c0d81891cfb755d	The key to Dali's world was Sigmund Freud, whose research of subconscious sexual traumas in his patients with the help of psychoanalysis opened the doors of the human soul wide.
00b93e7183187de628dafe93eb2a17e36ab0ac36	The plot of a large number of paintings was based on his complex problems of sexuality and relationships with his parents.
f7c38166070fc809c015e3553e7818567701cbdd	In "The Great Masturbator", the head, like a soft version of a rock on the coast of Cadaques, grows out of a massive block.
28e05116e6f41a4e013bca5bcabc8dd86b0aa476	The neck passes into the female head, whose lips tend to the obscure genitals on the man's shoulder.
c72a9ec4b7ed4b753828966636c753f2f51bd4db	But in 1929, an invitation came from a friend of Bunuel, which the artist could not but accept.
ee9a6206c180ed28a2b5e497a0426f98160f74b3	He was invited to Paris to work on a surreal film using images caught from the subconscious of a person.
c051aef45b76163c962194244946aad8c45ab26d	The film was called "The Andalusian Dog".
34eec0bb3a16f79568f096455d0ad82d55071a08	Now this film is a classic of surrealism.
99a08087f76923dd7ee78e22f370f61743d6d9d5	It was a short film created to shock and touch the bourgeoisie and ridicule the extremes of the avant-garde.
b82ee91550c5335a2e3d6dcae0e0092914db8e0a	Among the most shocking shots there is still a famous scene, which, as you know, was invented by Dali, where a person's eye is cut in half with a blade.
9607df532e09a37583f78e5600fbcae614cdd942	The decaying donkeys that flashed in other scenes were also part of Dali's contribution to the work of creating the film.
3bdb2c03147aa3a78b1cb308af051f2cd5273a3c	Another factor that influenced Dali's way of thinking at that time was his lack of real interest in the development of new aesthetic approaches in the technique of writing.
a5f8a06567644bd88abbcd14c854236538aaf518	The perfection of technique achieved by Renaissance artists, as he soon admits to himself in the depths of his soul, cannot be improved.
bdee4373068ec211ef8e4ac5595535958e7a9756	Dali's approach was different.
6a4b6dcf7d4443a2834213506a658dbdd12a7627	He drew images familiar to the mind: people, animals, buildings, landscapes-but allowed them to connect under the dictation of consciousness.
6cd44c1834b4130af063552c1cbd7bc7fe32e317	He often merged them in a grotesque manner so that, for example, the limbs turned into fish, and the torsos of women turned into horses.
4b143c4acd12115f75df5738acce231898b3a42d	Subsequently, Dali will call his unique approach the "paranoid-critical method".
a3df759e665154ff1952721bad8430e5a159feb5	As the artist claimed, he was freed from subconscious images like a madman.
22b817fae736613e0671e44d55cd356d07bd3813	The only difference between him and a madman was that he was not one.
0fcc67172bfc6904f512e85130d9a68e649c93ef	Russian by origin, an aristocrat Elena Dmitrievna Diakonova took an important place in the life and work of the artist.
0d22eae4fe0aeca0acc506c0b690c13b29e97a31	The appearance of Gal gave his art a new meaning.
6cf47c26283c8fcf4312376e0ffd49baccc5fc2e	In October 1929, he married Gala.
b4f3745415b0955923c2bc33bbd55c5599b857ef	Marrying Gala awakened in Dali an inexhaustible imagination and a new inexhaustible energy.
a976c98485f3478e6f5f4e5a0f2ec8876d3ece27	At this time, his personal surrealism completely prevailed over the norms and attitudes of the rest of the group and led to a complete break with Breton and other Surrealists.
aec32ea6176120035c352798eff6c362464bbae2	Now Dali did not belong to anyone and claimed: "Surrealism is se mua" ("Surrealism is me").
9fc39a06e9dc04fc003d9edf56e887f3c2b5978a	Some art historians claim that the era of his surrealism began a little earlier, with the painting of paintings in 1927 and 1928, which depict arrays of elements with sexual overtones that differ from the Cubist approach.
2c599666be430cb87ce9cd89e3b624f9a0f88da4	These canvases contain the first glimpses of the landscape peculiar to Dali, which will turn out to be one of the most characteristic features of his own form of surrealism.
5902d0f20250639c58a93f10d30fcf884c8241b5	But he used extravagant forms and inventive ways to compose a completely new, modern and innovative style of art.
7363614e6e9b57474b3914b418b1211ace2983ba	His paintings are distinguished by the use of double images, ironic scenes, optical illusion, dreamlike landscapes and deep symbolism.
5c498f35a0c6d5227f257be03ead86da0c5e0a1e	Now Dali had several ways in which he could release inspiration from the subconscious: the Freudian - sexual theme, the paranoid - critical method, in which he thoroughly stirred his thoughts like a madman in delirium, and the theories of modern physics.
96fb6479b6f8c9dd353ed2ca630f59dcd63677ad	In 1930, Dali's paintings began to bring him fame.
0e85747058bb5b531908942617db1810c77b48dd	In his paintings, he reflected the sexual experiences of people, as well as destruction, death.
0d253303115a6f33a0db38cc6a41a543bce35969	His masterpieces such as "Soft Hours" and "The Constancy of Memory"were created.
bcc1cddde2fd1ec9daead2425eae516e5687b5b2	Such themes were characteristic of Dali's works of the 30s: he had an unusual weakness for images of grasshoppers, ants, telephones, keys, crutches, bread, hair.
e2ee108b9385c96cc94a7da0c789ee0fd27c0231	Dali himself called his technique manual photography of concrete irrationality.
dfb02100014ebd23fdb22f7c674be6946c25cbc0	It was based, as he said, on associations and interpretations of unrelated phenomena.
7f6fe8586c416e45a5375409bee827a2fe85d1ad	Surprisingly, the artist himself noted that he does not understand all of his images.
93ec02ce2747122563ab82c8702da7d456171eb8	In the master's book " Dali by Dali”, he gives the following periodization of his work: "Dali-Planetary, Dali-Molecular, Dali-Monarchical, Dali-Hallucinogenic, Dali-Future"!
3f7dfc843a4511f0c2f68fa856648ab477b65505	Of course, it is difficult to fit the work of this great improviser and hoaxer into such a narrow framework.
edb83ef8ffba662d04d8fdd54f4e269f5b3d2b28	He himself admitted: "I do not know when I start pretending or telling the truth.”
969d072c8a94a7926d45ca478c665dc854c8818a	Understanding the place of Salvador Dali in the history of modern art is similar to the perception of his paintings - tangible and clear images are at the same time full of uncertainty and ambiguity.
57454f5f91b9939ac917868196c883ee7f443123	Salvador Dali enjoyed the shock caused in society by both the "Andalusian Dog" and his paintings.
0253446253041ff93356a58a14e51a35eb9731bb	But at the same time, his painting "The Sacred Heart" caused undesirable personal consequences.
43c65f8e954b667c2ad397bb48f6042bacaddd8b	What may have been intended by Dali as a small advertising joke seemed to his father to be a desecration of the holy memory of his first wife and the mother of the family.
bc004b68cff72642be6a4a947db4d3d96842d96b	His dissatisfaction with his son's paintings was mixed with disapproval of Dali's connection with Gala Eluard.
9ffade23a3d141d3a8d66c14efaca016101ebc1c	Having freed himself from the threads that bound him to the limited world of his home, he was a free-wandering explorer of the universe created by himself.
b90e6daddba9ec8d3936e41a274f0d36554059cc	A characteristic feature of the great figures of modern art is that they are convinced that they have a personal view of reality, and thanks to this belief they leave their imprint on the world consciousness.
14071c799efdefe15b268a3f147952adc91b9df9	Many expressed this confidence with the help of their own visual language, creating a modern writing technique for the development of individual means of expressing feelings and ideas - without resorting to literary explanation.
3632cb1feb3dcb49386bd63fdbd9bfb7d1db0722	However, Dali did not pursue such goals.
258313bf63da79117dce405e6a347d93414f79e2	However, what he wanted to say remained to some extent a mystery both for the audience and for Dali himself, which, however, did not prevent him from creating strong images that are not inferior in their expressiveness to the courtiers of Philip IV Velasquez or the clouds and weather of Turner.
024d98ccf766dcdabe92469a268bade295a1ba6a	Dali's path to artistic expression lay through the liberation of ideas hidden in the human consciousness, especially in his own, which was a mysterious world of memory and life experience, sometimes real, sometimes invented, but distorted with the help of a magnifying glass of his phantasmagoric vision.
9a5742cf1d5d3a34948eb3aa04b2dd632043dc58	This method is the only way to get what he called irrational knowledge and explain it.
b0efab710d1245501f18fab64188334f899de49b	The artist was firmly convinced that in order to release deeply hidden thoughts, the mind of a madman or someone who, because of his so-called madness, would not be limited by the guardian of rational thinking, that is, the conscious part of the mind with its moral and rational attitudes, was necessary.
1aee11232bf69cbd010fc6dcfbe8d4a3d953838b	A person who was in such a delirium, Dali argued, was not limited or constrained by anything and therefore simply had to be crazy.
7a2ba28181ba1e1036d36c65d08b645ac5828c64	However, as Dali assured his viewers, the difference between him and a madman was that he did not go mad, therefore, his paranoia was associated with a critical ability.
a60958a1ea0ef638a10334ee5618eb9b72df38d2	This paradoxical statement became the foundation of Dali's work and created a sense of indisputable statement and ambiguity in his works.
efdd56d7a3d20c1fe7fa7c10f3106bb2f75f926f	The uncertainty stimulated the imagination of viewers accustomed to the world of calm landscapes, portraits or groups of classical nudes.
514997ab8f1dfa44c33280a2299fd30272d59d91	In a world that usually depended on soothing labels as props for reality, Dali's approach was a public insult and incentive.
c855166f2605a2985076a766f40ce303e41bde81	For Dali, the discovery of the subconscious had three advantages: this gave rise to new themes for paintings, allowed them to explore and explain some of their personal problems, and was the explosive that could destroy the old order.
79edf640368126bdad5755ce73072ca139fb64d1	Dali's desire to be recognized in a society that, in fact, was indifferent to art, especially modern art, caused him to have a natural tendency to attract attention to himself.
4a245643c2988034a704c4a1c0d966b5ad586430	It was at this time, around the mid-1930s, that the artist began to create surreal objects, which became his most famous works.
0c16785766ff6791debba286fb57a409cca0f0e4	He made a bust out of a barber's mannequin, putting a French loaf and an inkwell on it.
f47cdcf85e8431d5d2e8255b8cc0610d6727b9ef	This was followed by a shocking and provocative aphrodisiac tuxedo, hung with wine glasses.
fba339cff62a0c471381c537d066bb9740b94a86	His other memorable works were "Telephone-Lobster", a composition created in 1936, and the shocking "Mahe West Sofa" (1936-37): a wooden frame covered with pink satin.
09e3ae6295276bc0c0c75a3504f541953dba5793	But it was not these strange objects that attracted the most attention to Dali, but his lecture at the London Group Rooms, Burlington Gardens in July 1936.
dbe2c2dbb88ccc956b3ba68f0b7129876681c3f7	This lecture was held as part of the International Exhibition of Surrealists.
8624ac3170f0f281f412ebc81d1f9e7854f6b3e6	The artist appeared in the costume of a deep-sea diver.
ecce4e1fc4f6f1bb4441f9c805d3e2a7af0b4bdf	The costume was suitable for immersion in the subconscious and was met with noisy applause.
b5680b95cb33d83386b15959a76bec2986cb7153	In addition to advertising the exhibition, the incident with the diver's suit attracted the attention of the publishers of Time magazine: his photo was placed on the cover of the last issue of 1936.
f050ee77206ec4dba118e00c923198805f1de5fc	Under the photo taken by Man Ray, there was the following comment: "A burning pine tree, an archbishop, a giraffe and a cloud of feathers flew out of the window."
9651d6a37146862d2cc8eca74084b3c2cff0c2b9	After returning from his next trip to the United States in 1937, where he visited Harpo Marx in Hollywood and took part in the work on the script of the film, Dali participated in another international exhibition of surrealists, this time in Paris.
a5745bfdf1bb6eceb678f3821fcc8f81c15f4382	Now he has created a surreal composition "Rainy Taxi".
413a203f483262c6841c5d455e49b581f7f883cc	It was a taxi with a naked mannequin (such as are usually displayed in shop windows) in the back seat.
376e1792d9e9d9056fa438abc8219fca648b4fda	His body was covered with live snails.
e18576879022e8da1b4cfede6a2b219db47632c9	In addition, water was pouring into the cabin from holes in the roof.
206f699f6b403c675f3dc239f1d33d657a9a2abb	The work caused a lot of noise and the anger of critics.
58ac0dde74fdc4baa0edb51aa94b0a2f29dc6763	In the world of artistic intellectuals, Dali's reputation has always been low.
53fecedcd5f7523e783c96e1f3f7b7d370a4ec71	He not only behaved provocatively, which brought him some advertising dividends, but was considered by art lovers as a simple antics to attract attention to his works.
62f31441e23ac8b0040f18add51aee453c651fbe	He has not yet worked in the existing art directions.
e4cd1a5a5502f9091b4ea36655f690015ce0c5c6	More broadly, most artists and amateurs saw the art of that time as a search for a new language with which modern society and all the new ideas that are born in it would find their expression.
dd9883cd76337a61f850482cd3b1ef8be822ef93	The old technique, both in literature and in music or plastic arts, in their opinion, was not suitable for the twentieth century.
51308449f8085b66dfd36583205b5d73b2283bb2	It seemed to many that the traditional style of Dali's writing was not combined with the work of searching for a new language of painting, which was reflected in the paintings of such masters of the twentieth century as Nicasso and Matisse.
288532427a19d3670cf9bc96d6b834e9a3163957	However, Dali had followers among European art lovers, especially those who were interested in the Surrealist movement, who saw in his works a unique way of expressing hidden parts of the human spirit.
7c1524c6b175a7862f2c53a9957d0c4e0a56931e	From his safe haven in Virginia, and then in California, Dali began a triumphant conquest of the art world of a new continent.
6a5096a605eeb54b1c4b2b872763254c5173fa65	One of his first orders was the design of the Venus Dream pavilion at the International New York Exhibition in 1939.
5a9267e6718c1e4ad1e4d2dcb232af08634d4518	Dali planned to build a swimming pool inside the pavilion, in which he intended to place the mermaids.
9222cd9a13e8947b63574c2a0333ede61d3b4691	On the facade, he wanted to depict the figure of Venus in the style of Botticelli, but with the head of a cod or similar fish.
87a65d5ed26bd583e65f22b14b3179c5a3918fe8	The management of the exhibition did not approve these plans, and the pavilion was not built, but Dali had the opportunity to publish his first American manifesto: "Declaration of the independence of the Imagination and the rights of man to his own madness".
071c6e2df78339be23e4c5282e8752535c1fcac3	The case of Bonuit Teller occurred before the incident with the International Exhibition.
6b7f2564f7033fcd9e8b7199db7dbbf9213be0e1	Dali fulfilled this order in his inimitable extravagant style, exposing a black satin bath and a canopy made of a buffalo's head with a bloody pigeon in his teeth.
1b293e400444677d89969105c5ea95c4b4b55c0f	This composition attracted so many people that it was impossible to walk along the sidewalks of Fifth Avenue.
ff9eaa00679e9484f431c57fdbad1a5f8a1132f3	The administration closed the composition.
49e39567731b644837ff57b922dc5f8108f973ea	This upset Dali so much that he turned the bathtub over, breaking the mirror glass of the window, and went out through it to the street, where the New York police arrested him.
fcadf8de093bc3bda5bbfb98bf14b7999df54c3c	This attracted so much attention to his personality that his next exhibition at the New York gallery was a huge success.
3b86d9606ac7613b50c45184e104210e1c575229	Such cases, sometimes shocking, created a good advertisement for Dali among the ordinary public, who saw in the artist the embodiment of personal freedom, which the United States was so proud of and which, as he stated, can be found only in America (that is, not in Europe).
8f9ff25593bb8cac79eb4734e59ab8e10bd53693	Responding to an article in Art Digest asking if he was just a madman or an ordinary successful businessman, the artist replied that he did not know himself where the deep, philosophical Dali begins and where the crazy and absurd Dali ends.
0d7b9b19e2aac671bf9b7640df918b7b5c2d5347	Realizing new ideas with his usual inexhaustible energy, Dali created several more ballets, among them " Grape Pickers "and" Ballet for Gala", for which he developed the libretto and scenery, and Maurice Bejard - choreography.
087bedd91268b84f44948093592a21c4e8ff447d	He continued to surprise the audience with his extravagant appearances.
a4d1f6a5b658ee100dc9d93746a0687b2933d625	Most of the spectators who came to see Dali's performances were simply attracted by an eccentric celebrity.
4d4b08b0641db85911d1d0511bbb787090e64e60	However, his real fans did not like these antics.
84c0855604bf6db90a45462deca8c2bcc599ab69	They believed that the showman casts a shadow on the artist's work.
2457dfe552f513d53b2ba37095a104fc37a40c49	Dali himself was involved in a scandal in 1960, when he signed many blank sheets of paper intended for creating prints from lithographic stones stored at dealers in Paris.
7fb18a3fc1aa24a6b4dbe82c5ddc99f9978d575b	An accusation was made of the illegal use of these blank sheets.
a71a6bdf9bd8721a73212406a751cc66df9853f6	However, Dali remained unperturbed and in the 1970s continued to lead his erratic and active life, as always continuing to search for new plastic ways to explore his amazing world of art.
a08e20c33e192fa08bc19b4aeded46ecfff10804	At the same time, it is sometimes impossible not to think that Dali imagined his life as some kind of catastrophe.
e7bcbee6a3b909ab00b8df30b6485f8440eab2c0	Blessed with titanic energy and a lively creative mind, he was simultaneously cursed by the natural talent of the ringleader and the joker, which cast a shadow on his reputation as an artist.
19e4fd90ce9ee7328cb518f787b345c95b01d0da	Sometimes it is simply impossible to distinguish the truth from deliberate lies in the name of advertising.
138e7e06237aba2257bccca9b8a41856182890ac	While working on his last painting, Dali once admitted to a rare guest that he was going to write a series of paintings based not on pure imagination, mood or dreams, but on the reality of his illness, existence and important memories.
43616246439e38b93721ba865de44919c0a447c6	Salvador Dali, with the strangeness peculiar to him during his lifetime, lies unburied, as he bequeathed, in a crypt in his Theater, the Dali Museum in Figueres.
307b57bb67f1248322bb2f8b8e9bcbb3022e54d9	With his own hands, Salvador Dali created a myth about himself.
ea4b7b09bc9b58b46cb914a8f305353a06b47204	And, as you know, legends are just legends in which the truth is dissolved in fiction.
b61e3511c7e50c01b95abd878eb529aa362353ed	"For fifty years now, I have been entertaining humanity," Salvador Dali once wrote in his biography.
66a36b19d583efa7aea381a24b9c2ddbe7666b9d	It entertains to this day and will continue to entertain, if humanity does not disappear and painting does not perish under technological progress.
11ec980172c289fa2630fcf4eed165b9416334af	http://cameralabs.org/4913 salvador dali salvador dali i ego syurrealisticheskie kartiny
7a33faab9dfb99cd57717fc20f11cfacd0f53cb7	Salvador Dali is the most famous surrealist and one of the most influential artists of the 20th century.
672cf6af3ce80b83b0468b4ba7a9ec7b24e80d4d	He was brought to fame by his eccentric character, unique talent and extremely creative style of painting.
715dd6d0f23788964ebc275daa1150af1b234386	The formation of his artistic skill took place in the early Modern era, when Dali's contemporaries largely represented such new artistic trends as Expressionism and Cubism.
54b307e212d92ec58997efa7067ffeb7782ee044	The young artist recognized the powerful force emanating from the works of the old masters of the Renaissance and, after experimenting with modern expressions, joined the Surrealist movement around 1929.
2ac3d1d242495270bbe8134b350abba790997825	This year marked an important turn in the life of Salvador Dali, because at that time he met Gala, who later became his mistress, wife, muse, model and main inspiration.
51ff4e6eaae7c722bcca9a9fbb81a8a1bfa6a599	These canvases contain the first glimpses of the landscape peculiar to Dali, which will turn out to be one of the most characteristic features of his own form of surrealism. 142) Dali as a screenwriter collaborated with the famous director, Luis Bunuel, who made the films "The Golden Age" and "The Andalusian Dog".
1c1ae6606c01db9176ab86dff34caa65880feb5c	They displayed strange movement and unreal scenes, reminiscent of Dali's animated paintings.
45a6d4261395935bbe6ae5f0d015e5d27f9f3810	In 1934, Salvador Dali was expelled from the official Surrealist society due to disagreements regarding the war, but he exhibited his mostly surrealist works with international Surrealists until 1940.
98fa3f1f1b5787b7cb62be46ae3bee438c940d51	Then the faces in his paintings acquired recognizable stylistic features, but mostly with a pronounced subjective study of science and religion.
ccfa92dc4e3f556f059912b237090a6ce0f4df48	One of the outstanding paintings of Salvador Dali of this period is "The Permanence of Memory".
20b944c739d9aa65e98545dfc372c518b969dfa9	It depicts the inevitability of the passage of time.
1109f109942ce8d086fe2ddf8a03df0bfd8df004	To create it, Dali was inspired by a piece of melted cheese.
b500e1df5c96ffeba37b2eca158f880039e8f6c4	The painting turned out to be shocking, successful and one of the most famous works of the artist.
27a99ab784a4c991d192c1a91f8b8cd7c022ceeb	Since he was a brilliant draftsman and colorist, Dali drew a lot of inspiration from the old masters.(138) But he used extravagant forms and inventive ways to compose a completely new, modern and innovative style of art. His paintings are distinguished by the use of double images, ironic scenes, optical illusion, dreamlike landscapes and deep symbolism. 140) Throughout his creative life, Dali has never been limited to one single direction.
c21db31d83cb2f754481bd87c6832fdd3211f32f	He worked with oil paints and watercolors, created drawings, sculptures, films and photographs.
d4e412955e96a3e4f8bede118b92f625f24b217d	Even the variety of the form of execution was not alien to the artist, including the creation of jewelry and other works of applied art.
0d9b36bf7b62473d12dc04f132254f8aa61fc3fa	The highly prolific and extremely gifted master left a huge legacy for future generations of artists and art lovers.
5574337d49c514c83b4467b035bc43ddf435aa0c	These 17 examples of his surrealist paintings testify to the fantastic talent, imagination and skill of the eccentric Salvador Dali.
3e8cd939fd1bb22e27eaf0a612cfbcbe0dd6dfe4	1. "The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft, which can be used as a table", 1934 This small painting with a rather long original title embodies Dali's admiration for the great Flemish master of the 17th century, Jan Vermeer.
fdff7afaed77b03b2fad3ea2cb97ea8b7e1afb91	Vermeer's self portrait is executed taking into account Dali's surreal vision.
792afefdf740248614558595cbe462ee3f897f88	2. "The Great Masturbator", 1929 The picture depicts the internal struggle of feelings that arose regarding sexual intercourse.
ccc6c867752edc6e6fcd356902b533d5553da0fb	This perception of the artist arose as an awakened childhood memory when he saw a book left by his father, open to a page with images of genitals affected by venereal diseases.
fca06fd5a4162a1c9614266e70d07826cb23887c	3. "Giraffe on Fire", 1937 The artist completed this work before moving to the United States in 1940.
fd0a2d412de2e3ee5d93d96b1c8d998a63596b0a	Although the master claimed that the painting is apolitical, it, like many others, reflects the deep and disturbing feelings of anxiety and horror that Dali must have experienced during the turbulent period between the two world wars.
6808a5b8184379daa19072de07eae597872aeb6e	A certain part reflects his internal struggle in relation to the Spanish Civil War, and also refers to Freud's method of psychological analysis.
fd57f1c4cd86509a8c5bfc5a598d011bca7c8c84	4. "The Face of War", 1940 The agony of war was also reflected in Dali's work.
acfae95927aa58d7d39c0296556d82c5bfeddfbb	He believed that his paintings should contain omens of war, which we see in a deadly head stuffed with skulls.
ccd0857a6f58fba6a7ff783d6af883004a6321fa	5. "Dream", 1937 One of the surreal phenomena is depicted here a dream.
0ee41374047fef4c78b2bfdea2711c33e6edf85a	This is a fragile, unstable reality in the world of the subconscious.
b293fe564030f95ff31d8989b414e1e29993e732	6. "The phenomenon of a face and a vase of fruit on the seashore", 1938 This fantastic painting is especially interesting, since in it the author uses double images that give the image itself a multi level meaning.
93fc1e00b2c38a84c4e9c235070461ad60f91d5f	Metamorphoses, amazing juxtapositions of objects and hidden elements characterize Dali's surreal paintings.
c79f0550975bb29f47eacf78b62676d86dab71b1	7. "The Permanence of Memory", 1931 This is perhaps the most recognizable surrealist painting by Salvador Dali, which embodies the duality of softness and hardness, symbolizes the relativity of space and time.
b1735945e5569e63e4dcad045bc5c9af7cfc9e79	To a large extent, it is based on Einstein's theory of relativity, although Dali said that the idea of the picture was born at the sight of Camembert cheese melted in the sun.
ab1ebc11ca258b973a720274976c494ed9b19e72	8. "The Three Sphinxes of Bikini Island", 1947 In this surreal image of the Bikini atoll, the memory of the war is revived.
9e252bce75edd5ab37e4c0d670e64def7bbe622a	Three symbolic sphinxes occupy different planes: a human head, a split tree and a mushroom of a nuclear explosion, which speaks about the horrors of war.
f49f0661115764d35a4b263623b82b185cfcc444	The picture explores the relationship between three subjects.
974f2967cb13b11a3077507117bde199424094b7	9. "Galatea with Spheres", 1952 The portrait of Dali's wife is depicted through an array of spherical shapes.
89fc365341223739f320016b0cedc6354d36bc2b	The gala looks like a portrait of the Madonna.
040694b6e0e78160174e73155cba21792146410b	The artist, inspired by science, elevated Galatea above the tangible world to the upper etheric layers.
09d024446ff1219444b262b0a209238d775cf754	10.
4904fdb1df1d608e8f65c1c3e03f6433e9c845ad	"Molten Clock", 1954 Another image of an object measuring time has received an ethereal softness, which is not typical for hard pocket watches.
f7629dabfcbdae576adcd4692b0bf8658cc65230	11.
bf38a77b16cf28dda23585ac081c62171fbe3677	"My naked wife, contemplating her own flesh, turned into a staircase, into three vertebrae of a column, into the sky and into architecture", 1945 Gala from the back.
7840931d069106d9c0b05e53757ae34c29dee695	This remarkable image has become one of Dali's most eclectic works, combining classics and surrealism, calmness and strangeness.
bd0eb8527e5e47f7601d819319a9a0df9621886b	12.
06f6e1bf223d8206bb7aeafd9553556150a3a301	"Soft construction with boiled beans", 1936 The second title of the picture is "A premonition of the civil War".
441533567e9121ef17917c2538092da3d399a39b	It depicts the supposed horrors of the Spanish Civil War, as the artist painted it six months before the conflict began.
c3a79201fe3afcef26e6e1a89cdebd44b061fe8e	This was one of Salvador Dali's premonitions.
f5804170baf84607e9300e97149aad4d379c2a22	13.
52fbb33b3542371c30a119852ac0aef35ea57f3a	"The Birth of Liquid Desires", 1931-32 We see one of the examples of a paranoid critical approach to art.
ad1b3566400b942fda0d67ecc9c5ec07aff59b18	The images of the father and, possibly, the mother are mixed with a grotesque, unreal image of a hermaphrodite in the middle.
335e63f406c793a6815d4d148417ad7bd85e338b	The picture is filled with symbolism.
bbbb8e4c6ca95414c1b0459b01128cccb2d7d6c6	" The Riddle of desire: My mother, my mother, my Mother", 1929 This work, created on Freudian principles, became an example of Dali's relationship with his mother, whose distorted body strongly affects the Dalinian desert.
8d89c34dc2c52858c88bbb336f5688e62f31e4ea	15.
f00920da3a7dba087a7821f10a93efba6d85785c	Untitled Design of a fresco painting for Elena Rubinstein, 1942 The design was made as a matrix for the interior decoration of the room by order of Elena Rubinstein.
568255e757a6d5ae8ca4671829a41ecd34bdf9dd	This is a frankly surreal image from the world of fantasy and dreams.
b6d18538aab7a3e0ef935a06709a59fb3da2741b	The artist was inspired by classical mythology.
a2781076d8400a1febd6582a390532e751b48a0e	16.
3f70ad9a03c931e5f7e0d0e914fd18e1fe3ad369	"Sodom self satisfaction of an innocent virgin", 1954 The painting depicts a female figure and an abstract background.
f62819d513b107943f42f6b3380b3830861eaa81	The artist studies the question of suppressed sexuality, which follows from the title of the work and the phallic forms that often appear in Dali's work.
f2cb7f68e063b25aed5a41f0fc4c63447fbcafc7	17.
00176e1f3aaa7bbf12f83d2f46dd7b65a9d1af0c	"A Geopolitical child Watching the Birth of a New Man", 1943 The artist expressed his skeptical views by painting this picture during his stay in the United States.
c1dc508338377db244c98a11492ed10673251db2	The shape of the ball seems to be a symbolic incubator of a "new" person, a person of a "new world".
31dd8aeb101e4d4b106c66e26a26bcab49f8188f	http://cameralabs.org/4913
3bc15c8aae3e4124dd409035f32ea2fd6835efc9	-
98ac177e5ce7190d101150b0bffa6dca0bd0984b	salvador
603ae0f0fee3d423c77bf8c432d413ad87ae0b44	dali
042dc4512fa3d391c5170cf3aa61e6a638f84342	i
c13571dbffa0eb89c7f8eebdce482897b0f5a685	ego
dbb85fbfc9670c7a9c5acaf057a3b197890ddcd3	syurrealisticheskie
376930629828b3d15b84267647b88f144c445cc0	kartiny
769d887aa9208f07385c686d640b40a330814c42	Salvador Dali
23091c9c762ef51c8c5567d8970237d6c2a299b5	the most famous surrealist and one of the most
139d03fd07f76452ddc43bef0843a3a8404d11d5	influential artists 20
ba06dbb77768b888f0b5f477ea0ddd4b4d720d61	of the 20th century.
a2e30dcd99d47681fb47f865edeb405e205155f3	He led him to fame
879f14a7be64c758ffb86b5fee19235a38277780	an eccentric character, a unique talent and extremely
b6b93d00df20993d79a92b879f9c093a1882d8ef	creative style of painting.
9fba41c238b4bda97d8b1cee12038d7a6e4ffa61	The formation of his artistic
2bdbd0ba46b490f24a1ec55a60264ad124e890a7	the event took place in the era of early
1731f648290f734518e02dd4cd7ee8bfd054a369	modern, when
22105b583b6ca2ac5aa10b68a5b247c3a047314e	Dali's contemporaries largely represented such
e374169695c22b854771e9b9fe33ff7e96d70b4f	new artistic trends, such as expressionism and cubism.
00186fe63e8b4a9637b2ace5f82791597cb9b71d	The young artist recognized the powerful force emanating from the works
237401ad7e05c6e6d5014bcefb8d59632cc82995	old masters of the Renaissance and after experiments with
863bb069b00cadea372c829049d6d95a17494180	we'll lie
1b6b54837a372f02aec8c31cb586a9ad24499f58	with expressions joined to
6815f2882ea2de4215a9ffe19965139fb5682bd8	the surrealist movement circa 1929.
7971e6a051104074fdae0f02322417b6eb5695a2	This
9abaf7bc673e81aaf62683054613ed8e12c6871a	the year marked an important turn in the life of Salvador Dali,
9137a1cfb1208a1ce6797cdfbb84bb82f86cee68	because at that time he met Gala, who later became his
676dc8768a206f1c18b168fe5591ecebf1569252	mistress, wife, muse, model and main
645a46a482b02fd1368053a8ebbae53633179d1e	m inspiration.
19a2c0835e261d19a7568c56be022cb8940d793d	Some art historians claim that the era of his surrealism has begun
97cbfa5caa038e89f134a44d34bb5e1a81007320	a little earlier, with the writing of paintings in 1927 and 1928, on which
4e0d9cf165e7e2b765119752f4badf06aad0e478	the arrays of elements with sexual overtones are depicted, which differ
c588823ec787c9d45bc8ba8f7e010028dd739661	from the cubist approach.
cf2a085e7efa4e3ad7c35cc9c74a3fcacd6f9ea8	(141)
a37deea6b8f68371431de479a7c38640cd4cad48	These canvases
18f05cb85f3ec78367dbb1319cd45c8d4e79be7d	and they contain the first glimpses
046219ee0a94c7f8e7bf91c339dcdc3f7178ddb9	a landscape peculiar to Dali, which will turn out to be one of the most
708535d03ce21056ba12737833512eca4241c139	characteristic features of his own form of surrealism.
40e600e1e612703ee43e0aa2bb770076203bf4ea	(142)
fa65687797556daff86d0a952bc5747022307b7c	Dali collaborated as a screenwriter with the famous director, Louis
c63e91f6c1ef91b9c4a6b2b1f3d4f49a633d80f6	Bunuel, who directed the films " Z
3a59cafa1a11fb9130246905ba0486b65b0e95fe	olotoy vek" and "Andalusian dog".
aef36502d67b0520654deb764dd055a7e905cfdd	In
7c2d0c013838d166a30cdc85fd4ac5ba29b597df	they displayed a strange movement and unreal scenes that resemble
31a0005b4256953f589005bf3df911a5c222fa8c	dali's animated paintings.
432937f20295aa5c427cdfacb09feca7a2cb10b6	In 1934, Salvador Dali was expelled from the official
92bbbc9ebfa02361732aa6aff0375ad2a13256f4	surrealist society from
52b3acca14fdff788e68c7cffc94d11fa9b85d3f	for disagreements regarding the war, but he
b053ab9a9d772877649b3117a14aad87660e5e0c	exhibiting
13b39347b2e179c3b6ede2b95ad4957cbcf52f72	l his mostly surrealist works with
f5f3109a3789ba0be38c10b9b469c9b9ce3e5c17	international surrealists until 1940.
a260b3ddeeed2a9989d7e7ac651fe8ae7b08d3dc	Then the faces in his paintings
454fc029903a0a3370ee57f44a7c2024ecdd9fcd	they have acquired recognizable stylistic features, but mainly with
3c47bb8249e61a686da029e716a2152eda74dbce	a pronounced subjective study of science and religion.
3cf3aa71b74f804579258311455a2ca1f171015d	One of the outstanding
c3576ce3c203bdd43226a69eb664f3576748616c	I have paintings by Salvador Dali of this period
c7b51783abceea0f0d3e7c2b99637b818f5a7425	"The persistence of memory".
8ae5d402038dc345be00661f66d20373c4372f82	Salvador Dali is a famous surrealist and one of the most influential artists of the 20th century.
8c523e584a7d77bb0f47005bcaa323e0f100f252	His eccentric character, unique talent and extremely creative style of painting led him to fame.
96273db45272e712b3f4fa28b3bcfa4b0d04fcc6	Some art historians claim that the era of his surrealism began a little earlier, with the painting of paintings in 1927 and 1928, which depict arrays of elements with sexual overtones that differ from the Cubist approach.(141) These canvases contain the first glimpses of the landscape peculiar to Dali, which will turn out to be one of the most characteristic features of his own form of surrealism.(142) Dali collaborated as a screenwriter with the famous director, Luis Bunuel, who directed the films "The Golden Age" and "The Andalusian Dog".
909b1a3fb1eb15154543d60a5dba21d074273d2f	One of the outstanding paintings of Sal The name given to this period is "The permanence of memory".
cac87e09f0fad7449e703882e970cdf5f4077025	http://www.mir dali.ru/biography.html
758edd578ce18592b8a03301402ac23857ef8eb9	Biography of Salvador Dali see also Gala Dali All books about Salvador Dali A lot is known about Salvador Dali, but even more remains unknown.
1e2b28d599baf9f8510d62241e8c61e086793e75	Being a narcissistic egocentrist, a real narcissist, the artist talked a lot about himself, published diaries, biographies, wrote many poems, articles and other literary works, but all this only thickened the fog around his life.
0e8b2e28555eae8cbccb91193f0e9adaa6a94d41	And, as you know, legends are just legends in which the truth is dissolved in fiction. the Spanish master defines the method he invented as "paranoid critical activity".
f25fd8413c86a408d7a8a4c809eb29ce63b879da	Dali's break with the Surrealists was also facilitated by his delusional political statements.
9ce9b880e8a038677b2e8391bb4141aa7b0b0318	His admiration for Adolf Hitler and his monarchical tendencies were at odds with Breton's ideas.
8559bf3befb011be1acaa6f8ca637432860d0d55	Dali's final break with the Breton group takes place in 1939.
7b0da3e3bfe4aa003a2f971dcb19533b8903d56b	The father, dissatisfied with his son's connection with Gala Eluard, forbade Dali to appear in his house, and thus initiated a conflict between them.
2d57e7e83549c67fa5312a35c35ce04ff69708e0	According to his subsequent stories, the artist, tormented by remorse, cut off all his hair and buried it in his beloved Kadakes.
41f36e182d9306a9f5603f2371e0e68aec8c6581	" ... A few days later I received a letter from my father, who informed me that I was finally expelled from the family...
c8cb60259a3bd346d2d45631002edfb8199a8b0c	My first reaction to the letter was to cut off my hair.
e56779cdbfb63e7fd3b38198046b0c70ee7e9c78	But I did it differently: I shaved my head, then buried my hair in the ground, sacrificing it along with the empty shells of sea urchins eaten at dinner."
36396baf96486697b4be1e7d35a8f784e43ef156	Almost without money, Dali and Gala moved to a small house in a fishing village in the Port of Ligat, where they found a shelter.
aa7da6cb242e974d8416e2ffbaa58a01594b1724	There, in seclusion, they spent many hours together, and Dali worked hard to earn money, because even though he was already recognized by that time, he was still struggling to make ends meet.
612dbb7eeb87d9ece10b791ac2c4fdc10b4aa487	At that time, Dali began to become increasingly involved in surrealism, his works were now significantly different even from those abstract paintings that he had painted in the early twenties.
7a748a1b017a7346b52d8022e1f7f5cdda6e7194	The main theme for many of his works is now the confrontation with his father.
8c97d810b3cf0a99fbe0920bbe52fbeb133715aa	The image of a deserted beach was firmly planted in Dali's mind at that time.
3944f174b3d60e7acc96510e839739764c320f24	The artist painted a deserted beach and rocks in Cadaques without any specific thematic focus.
fef567377b92b58d7d94a1d5d323660a1dd8bec5	As he claimed later, the void was filled for him when he saw a piece of camembert cheese.
9cd059b520489446c9b832dd0725bd3ee79226cc	The cheese became soft and began to melt on the plate.
27d37a4d29daf1a3277fb5f6f004420f92c67a05	This sight caused a certain image in the artist's subconscious, and he began to fill the landscape with melting clocks, thus creating one of the most powerful images of our time.
71d02e5a428c95cfb86fb0161e657c424b5876df	Dali called the picture "The Permanence of Memory".
9d5f4609c80c0e2b55b41ac2184c826bb93fd9e1	"...Having decided to write a clock, I wrote them soft.
52fe417fb8aad46b422a127de3e494d9ef9c14fa	It was one evening, I was tired, I had a migraine an extremely rare malaise for me.
a647fea46198f2d21e8a0f979388b65e632d7a24	We were supposed to go to the cinema with friends, but at the last moment I decided to stay at home.
9d29cfa455b7b43e3bd8e283afc0b6abd16f171f	Gala will go with them, and I will go to bed early.
f722f7974857323657aa98adb36e2d900bdc790a	We ate a very delicious cheese, then I was left alone, sitting with my elbows on the table, and thinking about how" super soft " melted cheese is.
0976f116f1d092a4dcdc6f8ef5de3d005271a6ff	I got up and went to the workshop to take a look at my work, as usual.
40b2a92d5063087529a9b3c1b277f2324e1d7893	The picture I was going to paint was a landscape of the surroundings of Port Lligat, rocks, as if illuminated by a soft evening light.
049d87c972d42244e602e5f5a3720e06396a2cb3	In the foreground, I sketched the chopped trunk of a leafless olive tree.
821919648f2d3747522908bc00b224ff1f3569cf	This landscape is the basis for a canvas with some idea, but what?
129a5d519451f0d286dcd41d14b746a76a6d5854	I needed a wonderful image, but I did not find it.
01f700cddc1c5af6fa4565a0fa965d0cd07f4c20	I went to turn off the light, and when I came out, I literally "saw" the solution: two pairs of soft watches, one hanging pitifully from an olive branch.
70dd529a761a46a14016c54e2b1f201fe3c39700	Despite the migraine, I prepared a palette and got to work.
3b1455ad1506ef22672ae8c50fa6aae7da48ea12	Two hours later, when Gala returned from the cinema, the picture, which was supposed to become one of the most famous, was finished.
314e6dac9e63a2e54740b7a1bafa01950e9ad7fa	"The Persistence of Memory was completed in 1931 and has become a symbol of the modern concept of the relativity of time.
f37aac09ec394d04130e6f2191496415e213329e	A year after the exhibition at the Pierre Colet Gallery in Paris, Dali's most famous painting was bought by the New York Museum of Modern Art. Unable to visit his father's house in Cadaques because of his father's ban, Dali built a new house on the seashore, near the Port of Lligata, with the money received from the patron of the arts, Viscount Charles de Noeil, for the sale of paintings.
0b7afe5b351b751734871356a007b5305875f99f	Now Dali was more convinced than ever that his goal was to learn to write like the great masters of the Renaissance, and that with the help of their technique he would be able to express the ideas that prompted him to draw.
d303db9d14007ac4f5cd2cd29d9d9ee6c238c34b	Thanks to meetings with Bunuel and numerous disputes with Lorca, who spent a lot of time with him in Cadaques, new broad ways of thinking opened up for Dali.
2a6a1e19c1661fc0377b488f0b299acabd5abac2	By 1934, Gala had already divorced her husband, and Dali could marry her.
9e950d6099759afffbc1d1033fc9a72476b94604	The amazing feature of this married couple was that they felt and understood each other.
f61b2f7cd7258eb3f781827dd6291645ac698bf0	Gala, in the literal sense, lived the life of Dali, and he, in turn, idolized her, admired her.
1e2f71942472bd0d92fa54e330a33b0b003a8991	The outbreak of the civil war prevented Dali's return to Spain in 1936.
7876beb6f8eff22ee2e58580353e9599f17cf2d4	Dali's fear for the fate of his country and its people was reflected in his paintings painted during the war.
6541c3ac28b580b755716ce39a8e347a316473d1	Among them is the tragic and terrifying "Premonition of the Civil War" in 1936.
06ff89f58c5f017c968d6af3fad63a1422a99a85	Dali liked to emphasize that this painting was a test of the genius of his intuition, since it was completed 6 months before the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936.
d35616f40431b116d2e39ef12c6ea7a4de7759f3	Between 1936 and 1937, Salvador Dali painted one of the most famous paintings, "The Metamorphosis of Narcissus".
1cc19efbcb25d6b15f633e93fe3202c7140ad5f4	At the same time, his literary work entitled "Metamorphoses of Narcissus.
d26ee012f125fc656fcbcb605f8b02e77e2f4874	By the way, earlier (1935) in the work "The Conquest of the Irrational" Dali formulated the theory of the paranoid critical method.
e7ff3a613928ef02bbf20c66b34bc2f8e52e1098	In this method, I used various forms of irrational associations, especially images that change depending on visual perception, so that, for example, a group of fighting soldiers can suddenly turn into a female face.
c3c0840fe1615efa572121f4264465cae80d8643	A distinctive feature of Dali was that, no matter how bizarre his images were, they were always painted in an impeccable "academic" manner, with that photographic accuracy that most avant garde artists considered old fashioned.
c431f67f1cb2422d13b6ab9b8bd80718fcfa46cb	Although Dali often expressed the idea that the events of world life, such as wars, had little to do with the art world, he was greatly concerned about the events in Spain.
7de294f667d2b9ca4a41dd0f896e76db14163f3f	In 1938, when the war reached its climax, "Spain"was written.
6607c4ad5a8e96e0a0bddf1b8a0a490002556501	During the Spanish Civil War, Dali and Gala visited Italy to see the works of Renaissance artists that Dali most admired.
cd9f191e3620d78cdcb33b472c8c095b499ca0ba	They also visited Sicily.
1d62883344046a5a4ece18ad05ae7a175a9df8ac	This journey inspired the artist to write "African Impressions" in 1938.
4296dfed909957947aa85e9c13b4fbe6cbae8746	In 1940, Dali and Gala left France on a transatlantic flight, ordered and paid for by Picasso, just a few weeks before the Fascist invasion.
0065f443b98646689b8079fe9189e22908183c5f	They stayed in the States for eight years.
db42f903a81aec78760a80249647fe5296a85b9f	It is there that Salvador Dali writes, probably one of his best books — a biography — "The Secret life of Salvador Dali, written by himself".
f13d73ceb8a9585b04657638a23631178ea8b737	When this book was published in 1942, it immediately attracted serious criticism from the press and supporters of the Puritan society.
d746dd774a7fe690cd4a0eaf0030087cacc88f9d	During the years spent by Gala and Dali in America, Dali made a fortune.
c25f0a237353b96ceda2fc29bf7ceba59bad2d88	At the same time, according to some critics, he paid for his reputation as an artist.
04c22c2b25f0d8672e19b63aeff458fd9f6423ad	Among the artistic intelligentsia, his extravagances were considered as antics in order to attract attention to himself and his work.
068d2f84caa59e4ad95944e3f4f4e5af1d9fd9b4	And the traditional manner of Dali's writing was considered unsuitable for the twentieth century (at that time, artists were busy searching for a new language to express new ideas born in modern society).
079f0392bbd63877e6a0144a71129f7a78fb2406	During his stay in America, Dali works as a jeweler, designer, photojournalist, illustrator, portrait painter, decorator, window decorator, makes decorations for the Hitchcock film The House of Dr. Edwards, distributes the newspaper "Dali News" (in which, in particular, the Hieroglyphic interpretation and psychoanalytic analysis of Salvador Dali's mustache is printed).
c1e8fd95a345109c6c4698b8515f4a8af065b01f	At the same time, he is writing the novel "Hidden Faces".
775d2e7ca435bcfb9917cfa00d46fe6e7015bae2	Its efficiency is amazing.
4a67a014192941b1067359f70fed0d02268dda6a	His texts, films, installations, photo reports and ballet productions are distinguished by irony and paradox, fused into a single whole in the same peculiar manner that is characteristic of his painting.
4b30233aed4cb721ea9c1065db02ca39eebb2e29	Despite the monstrous eclecticism, the combination of the unconnected, the mixing (obviously deliberate) of soft and hard stylistics his compositions are built according to the rules of academic art.
d4d782f0866788d014401d71113a2c889712e74d	The cacophony of subjects (deformed objects, distorted images, fragments of the human body, etc.) is "pacified", harmonized by jewelry techniques that reproduce the texture of museum paintings.
19173b4091c572d0b3620d833cf81b1b464db7d7	A new vision of the world was born in Dali after the explosion over Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
43b3e1201935c08c50ad0be29400f1423f030e27	Having experienced a deep impression of the discoveries that led to the creation of the atomic bomb, the artist wrote a whole series of paintings dedicated to the atom (for example, "Splitting the Atom", 1947).
88b2109bad9c5f6c56a55c3c9e48f4aea13a5fa4	But nostalgia for the motherland takes its toll and in 1948 they returned to Spain.
9c54ec91378ba2acd63df48065d64ea47cd53034	While in Port Lligate, Dali turns to religious fantasy themes in his creations.
cdc20b8b5dfb5f7924f79ff89327759139992ec0	On the eve of the Cold War, Dali develops a theory of "atomic art" published in the same year in the "Mystical Manifesto".
0807579ef51681616bdd9425daee4b48e77458f7	Dali's goal is to convey to the viewer the idea of the permanence of spiritual existence even after the disappearance of matter ("Raphael's Exploding Head", 1951).
f159bb1b8a05420c1b218b82019e74a2dec2d11f	The fragmented forms in this picture, as well as in others written during this period, are rooted in Dali's interest in nuclear physics.
5920607e50ee545bc89e37e4ca853989f2cd5dbe	The head looks like one of Raphael's Madonnas - images that are classically clear and calm; at the same time, it includes the dome of the Roman Pantheon with a stream of light falling inside.
522e9918adf61e40600132950ecfe128ac6d09cd	Both images of horsho are distinguishable, despite the explosion that breaks the entire structure into small fragments in the shape of a rhinoceros horn.
bfa2d48c29d7bb5fae3564c2ae13c6256be82793	These studies culminated in the "Galatea of Spheres", 1952, where the head of the Gala consists of rotating spheres.
fd134c0148d92aeb5223c3d300893cd469e9ee94	The rhinoceros horn became a new symbol for Dali, most fully embodied by him in the painting "The Rhinoceros Like Figure of Ilissa Phidias", 1954.
2e33dbdedd0c5707db51a5999a57bd5357437bb1	The painting refers to a time that Dali called " almost divine in the "strict period of the rhinoceros horn", arguing that the bend of this horn is the only absolutely accurate logarithmic spiral in nature, and therefore the only perfect form.
e2eace0b1a83f2ca50f3af7f564ad6673430931c	In the same year, he also painted the picture "A young virgin, self sodomized by her own chastity".
134ab629e8657b60b8bc450f416696d7edee6fd4	The painting depicted a naked woman being threatened by several rhinoceros horns.
774fe09a20e16a7452f5e7f0195e3644ee236362	Dali was fascinated by the new ideas of the theory of relativity.
5b1d8ea009c49be48fe7a523517ea417c32a2d3e	This prompted him to return to the" Permanence of Memory " of 1931.
32c91f6f0a464c069ddba048f641a994005578cc	Now,in The Disintegration of the Permanence of Memory, 1952-54, Dali depicted his soft clock below sea level, where stones like bricks stretch into perspective.
2d67ebe18d5e8d6999180b88ab4d32c46639a090	The memory itself was decaying, since time no longer existed in the meaning that Dali attached to it.
d0b159a8234b0a974a1a3b3bdd5b1d790ad5c441	His international fame continued to grow, based both on his brightness and his flair for public taste, and on his incredible fruitfulness in painting, graphic works and book illustrations, as well as as a designer in jewelry, clothing, costumes for the stage, store interiors.
99f887aab666c27627366ada824d8d4739933f72	For example, in Rome, he appeared in a "Metaphysical Cube" (a simple white box covered with scientific icons).
f8d94a037477ae3dcf8277e8f9ab1a90ab132bc1	In 1959, Dali and Gala really set up their house in Port Lligate.
03f767ce628ce4d47cb7bb1886010fb499f6726e	By that time, no one could doubt the genius of the great artist.
f6ab0f1aa7d0497d60bf551bdac94fb5604311d1	His paintings were bought for a lot of money by fans and lovers of luxury.
48f0e702107c423beed9127d30bd1e5b9efc5017	Huge canvases painted by Dali in the 60s were estimated at huge sums.
88b87c835333a44fa115f8579668a6ed2d7a501f	Many millionaires considered it chic to have paintings by Salvador Dali in their collection.
424d56f8e29fab2a8d9531624a1153d37ca2d7c1	In 1965, Dali met a student of an art college, a part time model, nineteen year old Amanda Lear, a future pop star.
4ba89bcfa68b3c0e6cdaa8a715261dee3d28d731	A couple of weeks after their meeting in Paris, when Amanda was returning home to London, Dali solemnly announced: "Now we will always be together."
8a54020687f567c761bef035fb2b42146352eccd	And for the next eight years, they really almost never parted.
c99191c75a5022c08a908a8ed862d9921bf76e85	In addition, their union was blessed by Gala herself.
4348dddc3d4a6ad7ce4403b9dd0b5cd8da36ce36	Dali's muse calmly gave her husband into the caring hands of a young girl, knowing well that Dali will never leave her and to no one.
f28fb1d61ba52e268bd1e2b858f97578d51c60b7	There was no intimate relationship in the traditional sense of the word between him and Amanda.
f452944bb4139535d511504aa3a7f633f5448769	Dali could only look at it and enjoy it.
fa1261ff389c0f14dca5ffd4d868abeda82fd7c0	Amanda spent several consecutive seasons in Cadaques every summer.
6c1468c11d42071b72988e4bfbde154107967175	Dali, lounging in a chair, was enjoying the beauty of his nymph.
01f31a1fc063f65e58e131d17a9b050d96e09d7c	Dali was afraid of physical contacts, considering them too rude and mundane, but visual eroticism brought him real pleasure.
e88d57926775323035f07f6f96aa7c1c9ad22144	He could watch Amanda wash endlessly, so when they stayed in hotels, they often booked rooms with connecting baths.
97872a08411c0052f878b6bfa4af1d518deb1567	Everything was going great, but when Amanda decided to step out of Dali's shadow and pursue her own career, their lovingly friendly alliance collapsed.
af93452b0057dc1fb53e9c6aa54ac841809ae772	Dali did not forgive her for the success that had befallen her.
46185249b4d9881f2ffb5f2041240bf6748f7e62	Geniuses do not like when something that belongs to them completely suddenly floats out of their hands.
161d16eba7df1ea772353f9c65230e80f61a5e44	And someone else's success is an unbearable torment for them.
01491d882342aaaeb11db2acca7e4892710c3dee	How is it possible, his "baby" (despite the fact that Amanda's height is 176 cm) allowed herself to become independent and successful!
ea40f89c8851a12da09135a6d85985e7ac6adbfd	They hardly spoke for a long time, seeing each other only in 1978 at Christmas in Paris.
5503d5353f920925cd0f7f34ca16ec61a6bb2488	The next day, Gala called Amanda and asked her to come to her urgently.
c8f9cef43b35efeb8b85aea6d1e366d85403e104	When Amanda appeared at her place, she saw that an open Bible was lying in front of Gala and there was an icon of the Kazan Mother of God, taken from Russia, right next to it.
122d26d3d6e991af7219b14f4fcec746723f1e28	"Swear to me on the Bible," the 84 — year old Gala sternly ordered, that when I am gone, you will marry Dali.
9895136bdfa38573730692d02bacb72de9138210	I canot die leaving him unattended."
d0164bdfb70170b9ce6cd2e42d396504babf2845	Without hesitation, Amanda swore.
4856405c450830408d8240f0e5807c63a6a6dbdf	A year later, she married the Marquis of Allen Philip Malagnac.
ce69d19ca0149bce615e3629d543b7667687a469	Dali refused to accept the newlyweds, and Gala did not talk to her again until her death.
3282557b5391321186ec75096d8790bd09bdac99	Starting around 1970, Dali's health began to deteriorate.
ba6f7ebddc79828c60a406f820a321e5cb0edcf2	Although his creative energy did not decrease, thoughts of death and immortality began to bother him.
272fc41432a48d62f27f29665ca22c9dd039c93c	He believed in the possibility of immortality, including the immortality of the body, and explored ways to preserve the body through freezing and DNA transplantation in order to be born again.
98366e9975d12d46cc06538d2714e2bd3f92ce57	However, more important was the preservation of the works, which became his main project.
468ff5671124702bd3e484e5597cecdd47a7ce1b	He put all his energy into it.
2c3278a6f435b6c25b799aa23a94fce666693105	The artist came up with the idea to build a museum for his works.
38fa5c0ab97714e195948a72068286bfc11b90e6	Soon he took up the reconstruction of the theater in Figueres, his homeland, which was badly destroyed during the Spanish Civil War.
3ea1023180a610ad3844ff9f84891deaf594b88d	A giant geodesic dome was erected over the stage.
b019d977c3a00fc09fc71b73d7f009a299970a4d	The auditorium was cleared and divided into sectors in which his works of various genres could be presented, including the bedroom of Mae West and large paintings such as "The Hallucinogenic Bullfighter".
72139d98e8884dc95b53c8a620ba723e362c07d0	Dali painted the entrance foyer himself, depicting himself and Gala washing gold in Figueres, with their legs hanging from the ceiling.
8abb13ed9de9e15ecc8b13ccf376036fe7b29a9e	The salon was named the Palace of the Winds, after the poem of the same name, which tells the legend of the east wind, whose love married and lives in the west, so whenever he approaches her, he is forced to turn, while his tears fall to the ground.
2379b5e556a25c37d347482188a9078dcdc3a5bb	This legend was very much liked by Dali, a great mystic who dedicated another part of his museum to eroticism.
3231e45f41e3f9084ecc3e539372d3050196a42d	As he often liked to emphasize, eroticism differs from pornography in that the first brings happiness to everyone, and the second brings only failures.
14f79481670eae1cbfab2b11ac1b385777e3d978	Many other works and other trinkets were exhibited in the Dali Theater Museum.
5aa69031ca2f17c6d65344a5a39c39ac0cb47e3a	The salon opened in September 1974 and looked not so much like a museum as a bazaar.
ed99539116ded733bbc42a954c56b0a47ecffaa1	There, among other things, were the results of Dali's experiments with holography, from which he hoped to create global three dimensional images.
9c4a61addfe8931dcbd2e1e08fd830247bccca1d	(His holograms were first exhibited at the Knedler Gallery in New York in 1972.
4123a9ee0f74e59188225ef830cff90866ca1827	He stopped experimenting in 1975.)
56ca5ed899934b010cdcb304c1f9ac9a69ae4ddd	In addition, the Dali Theater — Museum exhibits double spectroscopic paintings depicting a naked Gala against the background of a painting by Claude Lorain and other art objects created by Dali.
5677ea9d2d62bf1775fb7560b26b2a14299ed08f	Learn more about the Theater Museum.
a63bcf941953f524e300ace43f5c8a942b7bd9a2	In 1968-1970, the painting "Hallucinogenic Bullfighter" was created — a masterpiece of metamorphism.
b48fe0a8a251946abea47644d6bd7d26ec260fcf	The artist himself called this huge canvas "the whole Dali in one picture", since it is a whole anthology of his images.
643f4306080eb9d6ec761290636ba5b1599008db	At the top, the whole scene is dominated by the spiritual head of Gala, in the lower right corner there is a six year old Dali, dressed as a sailor (as he portrayed himself in "The Ghost of Sexual Attractiveness" in 1932).
6fbaf81eee78160aa533caedc9df875113f1e994	In addition to many images from earlier works, there is a series of Venus de Milo in the picture, gradually turning and simultaneously changing the gender.
c495ae6c713979196bff82d6e7a4ccb658a20f92	The bullfighter himself is not easy to see — until we realize that the naked torso of the second Venus on the right can be perceived as part of his face (the right chest corresponds to the nose, the shadow on the stomach corresponds to the mouth), and the green shadow on her drapery is like a tie.
85d421e06161629dc642a78a5eb09125b4ae19f9	To the left, a bullfighter's jacket, embroidered with sequins, shimmers, merging with the rocks, in which the head of a dying bull is guessed.
112c334eaceaa362649fd58850b23f4938836fea	Dali's popularity was growing.
dfa8de68b1304525d93e7389a7bdd0032b5d0666	The demand for his work has become crazy.
dcce07830bfe96620bfb2e6c5dfdae8e1efcc0b2	Book publishers, magazines, fashion houses and theater directors fought for it.
1bd18a278b1136278c1aba9487f51743a37b4efa	He has already created illustrations for many masterpieces of world literature, such as the Bible, Dante's "Divine Comedy", Milton's "Paradise Lost", Freud's "God and Monotheism", Ovid's "The Art of Love".
cfd7942e3b005d0eb6ff1d6d9fe1c6b2dd4a0c7c	He has published books dedicated to himself and his art, in which he unrestrainedly praises his talent ("The Diary of a genius", "Dali by Dali", "The Golden Book of Dali", "The Secret Life of Salvador Dali").
5322463950b23797b5586a8d7cae12fa206b8b9d	He always had a quirky manner of behavior, constantly changing extravagant costumes and the style of his mustache.
76e67df2c0201f185aa9da299a5ee044a9423b42	The cult of Dali, the abundance of his works in different genres and styles led to the appearance of numerous fakes, which caused great problems on the world art market.
5207790c156665be4dc43c1eda1891ce0490319e	In the late 60s, the relationship between Dali and Gala began to fade.
39ec60cbdb9988fba203d9ba3c7893b1decf7b25	And at the request of Gala, Dali was forced to buy her his castle, where she spent a lot of time in the company of young people.
6d649c665f2b3f698bc3b5f099413e4794df14ae	The rest of their life together was a smouldering embers that were once a bright bonfire of passion ...
111264361e8c1ff93bdf3f6fdfedbcfd964d8488	Gala was already about 70 years old, but the more she got older, the more she wanted love.
a8ebaaee7b2aa717fa231d702c4d2a35ae746799	"Salvador doesnot care, each of us has our own life," she convinced her husband's friends, dragging them into bed.
00b38a8c82dd6e3a852ce199ed242a37d635d474	"I allow Gala to have as many lovers as she wants," Dali said.
e12422f0c1a687a27a418fb8a9d2581ccc6d4916	— I even encourage her, because it excites me."
843497fb78d452ac6e38b6d9cf9fc295c250f28c	Gal's young lovers mercilessly robbed her.
8cceb7e6ac72425c888ffab6f6f0caa71f1bff9c	She gave them Dali paintings, bought houses, studios, cars.
1b63fa61dc85c6d495192e3ff56ef2a4087ca545	And Dali was saved from loneliness by his favorites, young beautiful women, from whom he needed nothing but their beauty.
3e2af0c33668e661de08f1d5115bae95c2267333	In public, he always pretended that they were lovers.
72370a72d1c781e4abf9b3ea423df81052190e99	But he knew that it was all just a game.
9ed4c236bb6f90c98d6258dde371a65c77560750	The woman of his soul was only Gala.
774270645220c83fba0fbabcd16273ca5f7c2812	All her life with Dali, Gala played the role of the gray cardinal, preferring to remain in the background.
4a47851836b5d04e1283f58f8444d5bbea4d78d1	Some considered her the driving force of Dali, others a witch, weaving intrigues ...
791fe8f9e1f816d5c9586dbd8ad51438e94b333e	Gala managed her husband's ever growing wealth with a quick efficiency.
ab7f914f674305b9859ec5962f8b1e415ae0628d	It was she who closely followed the private and deals for the purchase of his paintings.
d1c65f4d35ddf8cd444173077294b605bf7560ab	She was physically and mentally necessary, so when Gala died in June 1982, the artist suffered a heavy loss.
d3eee152b601cf386a7bca983c450cc05f9280e8	Among the works created by Dali a few weeks before her death is "Three famous Riddles of the Gala", 1982.
28141ebf5174f868423b072596335d7a40f6fbbf	Dali did not participate in the funeral.
6101b62514fe2a0580adbc73eeeeb5233874b047	According to eyewitnesses, he entered the crypt only a few hours later.
7fa38ef57dc1fc63471dcf475ef9b9267967fbe5	"Look, I'm not crying," was all he said .
dd38c46bf5a3c6c595d3b2c7b7766875edc0b606	After the death of Gala, Dali's life became gray, all his madness and surreal fun were gone forever.
3ca0be6ec94e62c2db2d8a8da28655e8bd91acb8	Only he knew what Dali had lost with Gala's departure.
b39c1668bcab5885bf2241ea3735f9a03494137b	He wandered alone through the rooms of their house, muttering incoherent phrases about happiness and how beautiful the Gala was.
4c96b8a7e3508008957566854490437474f5e356	He did not draw anything, but only sat for hours in the dining room, where all the shutters were closed.
d0f467159555601e0b546b9fdcbe096c2cdfdc8b	After her death, his health began to deteriorate sharply.
1020a61fb417ee2291c7836849b6c907c1dd1466	Doctors suspected Dali had Parkinson's disease.
35145b9d573c660ba746eea194f19692e00f17c3	This disease once became fatal for his father.
44dba5eb13922403bd253c7adbb7a3ebc8b4b1b0	Dali almost stopped appearing in society.
12ca704abdbf349149afd2017fc7b79fc2dd7422	Despite this, his popularity grew.
74464869e1da19fa6915b93d38465d75b209750f	Among the awards showered on Dali as if from a cornucopia was membership in the Academy of Fine Arts of France.
bee7e8135dcb0a6e45ef17ef7a2a29fd6dd39cb9	Spain honored him with the highest honor, awarding him the Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic, presented to him by King Juan Carlos.
7875901bfaa985a8e2ad8fbb6560f88b62f9c415	Dali was declared the Marquis of Dae Pubol in 1982.
92e34f97fe6e6885d5463262773dc0319945330f	Despite all this, Dali was unhappy and felt bad.
6c7984f8cd6760706e23ef900e4d4df30f875098	He threw himself into his work.
2bb95a04884a3b2281143352a497cd702ccd8900	All his life he admired the Italian artists of the Renaissance, so he began to paint paintings inspired by the heads of Giugliano de ' Medici, Moses and Adam (located in the Sistine Chapel) by Michelangelo and his "Removal from the Cross" in the Church of St. Peter in Rome.
06ff0e14a7baa725c70542a5ee76c45309880bb0	The artist spent the last years of his life completely alone in the Gala Castle in Pubol, where Dali moved after her death, and later in his room in the Dali Museum Theater.
80160fd8d137329d1392dff6cd3ce9b291f530eb	Dali finished his last work, "Dovetail", in 1983.
68921baaeeda29fb2f597a911e9cde4a0c39c421	This is a simple calligraphic composition on a white sheet, inspired by the theory of catastrophes.
939ab4cdeeee53ef0350b7ff0e1fab2913ffb470	By the end of 1983, his mood seemed to have lifted somewhat.
a9cb9bb21a747a2b4b19d647d0c6ba0666d3862e	He began to walk around the garden sometimes, began to paint pictures.
7d1ebd2a55c2ec5381aeaaf82c18ec0a46b2bfd6	But this did not last, alas, for long.
9e5967d9e9c6b595f0212aaa316a65e00af62f96	Old age prevailed over a brilliant mind.
df138fee997e7a1318defdf8a65f7e8c9420d677	On August 30, 1984, a fire broke out in Dali's house.
cc6811d47ab507ac2ac30cc8312e2648637b5503	Burns on the artist's body covered 18% of the skin.
857c7a157cb699969437752ef12470530a64f724	After that, his health deteriorated even more.
43d5c566b2ac7772371300b52de6d40c3eb2287d	By February 1985, Dali's health improved somewhat and he was able to give an interview to the largest Spanish newspaper "Pais".
0a448560a84bfd786dc9e9dfbe9c3b8bb8897742	But in November 1988, Dali was admitted to the clinic with a diagnosis of "heart failure".
c08b2f4c495802d652c021241ccd49d187f1860f	Salvador Dali died on January 23, 1989 at the age of 84.
0776802f538a9e272ed19e6e0f6f7ac1a1c47147	He bequeathed to bury himself not next to his surreal Madonna, in the tomb of Pubol, but in the city where he was born, in Figueres.
490f8d08fa95882d50555d69792771d9984980e9	The embalmed body of Salvador Dali, dressed in a white tunic, was buried in the Figueres Theater Museum, under a geodesic dome.
949df93843812700aa91eda7b3ce6d482682ec48	Thousands of people came to say goodbye to the great genius.
5543e6c0a3b4dfe4acae0f9d1f744819b99c08d8	Salvador Dali was buried in the center of his museum.
2af490b3024ad801153906edd902be95ed3f6ce5	He left his fortune and his works to Spain.
5eac02fda7a7ad334bce0b2ccd34ab5e3275b873	The message about the artist's death in the Soviet press: "Salvador Dali, a world — famous Spanish artist, has died.
e67f434e21a6a742bb82289e30d328bb43e730b5	He died today in a hospital in the Spanish city of Figueres at the age of 85 after a long illness.
664f2323bf7dd7aede797165c17fefe65ea89c59	Dali was the largest representative of surrealism an avant garde trend in the artistic culture of the twentieth century, which was especially popular in the West in the 30s.
bc5338901d48b2da6a2d8a5e59429accd77f402f	Salvador Dali was a member of the Spanish and French Academies of Arts.
6ed5848cf5cd1c4127d86c725b4a5570a5bb572f	He is the author of many books and screenplays.
35887dd49727a286409920a1b2d7962b69278b5f	Exhibitions of Dali's works have been held in many countries of the world, including recently in the Soviet Union."
c634a21f70b5a9b50e787a5535665bc88f4ab091	It entertains to this day and will continue to entertain, if humanity does not disappear and painting does not perish under technological progress. 137)
b2f29b068dbd824bd3fbba202b2d6403e695f743	http://www.m
aa1553beed5d8173d357b4addbc617b93e32118e	ir
3a2bc8c9c1d497cb4509e2eef15beaa4263da745	dali.ru/biography.html
6f072b7dfdc291705547b9246c393709be596394	"...The designated child was born on the street
a797069e371b952dd4d18489b62a39651a17af58	Monturiol, 20, at 8: 45 on May 11 of this year.
86a0ee03544cb8c4dad6093180386ff7055ce86d	He is now named Salvador Felipe Jacinto.
752d872555ea5852f7f49b2808d2d9aa44371d38	Constitute
fb6dbd81382d78f0f0633759a9c6033858e445b5	behind
08400c7c57f4acebccdd2f696d2bffea3572a715	the equestrian son of the applicant and his wife Dona Felipa Dom Domenech, 30 years old, a native of Barcelona, also
611a3e5e58808260116b5a6f4492bd4e6364b1e2	living at 20 Monturiol Street.
1caea1a159b09309d0cbbcb42506ffc37c51d52c	Paternal ancestors: Don Galo Dali Vinas, born and
545e63ae756314425278df3bf2979d3228fc2d2c	buried in Cadaques, and Dona Teresa Cusi Marcoe, a native of Ro
e2ea1e6f11be9f59414c0db969750735cc5f6637	sasa.
625e3f23922fed3fda447cfd9b10af47c197d1ba	His maternal ancestors:
8da2e7109e957c76bb927e0233d4240266ecb94a	don Anselmo Domenech Serra and Dona Maria Ferres Sadurni, natives of Barcelona.
dd5d9de6480df1b16240baf1b90c257481e10aae	Witnesses: Don Jose
ff5992d773ac03360f379cb21cf2168a15a6c67f	Mercader, a native of La Bisbal in the province of Gerona, a tanner living on the street Calzada de Los
bb114d5c5d480213aff6088a4cd55a20e62f3c32	Monjas, 20, and Don Emilio
66eac4b6449292785e7ceac31ddf3138fe250a86	Baig, a native of Figueres, a musician who lives at 5 Perelada Street, both
43ad45b29e00ed4fafe9b64b109b46091b94f9e7	adults".
1c2c20835263dd8acf1af20c4fc1b65251281b55	(here and further:
f14b85e65417af8b10f994da1fcd3d374e06490f	"The secret life of Salvador Dali, written by himself"
7fbb1a5a5e4c1c02bda866738a38f623916b9af0	, Salvador Dali, biography
e7064f0b80f61dbc65915311032d27baa569ae2a	)
ba3553419ee1d22bbaf1cc69709ba01c0613fd4a	"...The said child was born on the street Monturiol, 20, at 8 hours 45 minutes on May 11 of this year.
f733654e134cfbd6d6a64ccf2b9bb6120ca01fee	He is the legal son of the applicant and his wife, Dona Felipa Dom Domenech, 30, a native of Barcelona, also living at 20 Monturiol Street.
27b4a91a8e838dca143b436533d9f1a8bca6818c	Paternal ancestors: Don Galo Dali Vinas, born and buried in Cadaques, and Dona Teresa Cusi Marcoe, a native of Rosas.
fcd0a6f279a0d1132b24dc247ceefd4d5985df9f	His maternal ancestors were Don Anselmo Domenech Serra and Dona Maria Ferres Sadurni, natives of Barcelona.
2478512083b694d8cd946a576b526b910afa97cb	Witnesses: Don Jose Mercader, a native of La Bisbal, Gerona province, a tanner living at 20 Calzada de Los Monjas Street, and Don Emilio Baig, a native of Figueres, a musician living at 5 Perelada Street, both adults."
02fe7c1fd4bd4b69cf33efd1eb2f7bcac5b061bb	(here and further: "The secret life of Salvador Dali, written by himself", Salvador Dali, biography)
71be4ceff665fe9a9a68ccf71c6e597093e87ba4	http://gruzdoff.ru/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80
51c2f63b68d34d32b16098b25f63605399a7ed9b	Dali, El Salvador The query "Dali" is redirected here; see also other values.
918a364b22fc4369662f23737ac443e6accb8966	Salvador Dalí
5d881f6804982c0912fb01625c349e61f8d20181	Photo by Carl van Vechten, November 29, 1939
4e936297789d312cba90c9827c77eb8940ad27ba	Birth name: Salvador Domenech Felipe Jacint Dali and Domenech
41b9bb25f385d4b954dd8e4df5d275afb1cf63b9	Date of birth: May 11, 1904[1]
44690a5a6ef5ce77af2d2a193b60bb39d69e4b7d	Place of birth: Figueres
29368320b198b6f8cbdae480d8d0566f9f41abc7	Date of death: January 23, 1989[1][2]
f745458a083d10f3c5c9a2162290dcbfbfecfd23	(84 years old)
7e73fcb8813fcddf289b43cb6a9650c443f008d0	Place of death: Figueres
f4b70b5ca7f5eb95b1a13cce400af6399ddd88c6	Country: Spain
ccb99dc4c3606f63f8e3fb9e2d2a587c53035d31	Genre: artist, painter, graphic artist, sculptor, director
a27c4e3616ad6d5d2c0cdca2845e59788faeab47	Study: San Fernando School of Fine Arts, Madrid
886ee32ad28990192e105bbcb73da41ca66e0556	Style: Surrealism, Dadaism, Cubism
a30a419d504b92d2d97f8a40ea9fdecc130141a5	Influences: Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Pablo Picasso
6c23e6b91749d541d43b685aac36c74de404b31c	Works on Wikimedia Commons
6ee0bf889acf0d3fae84fe9976aa542fc7ed3ca6	(full name Salvador Domenech Felipe Jacinte Dali and Domenech, Marquis de Dali de Pubol, cat.
3bf3b68cd2fd692e2931597166f379724eee8651	Salvador Domènec Felip Jacint Dalí i Domènech, Marqués de Dalí de Púbol, Spanish.
8760c4384d8b56702bb8e6ff5b00215c1a0b4728	Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, Marqués de Dalí y de Púbol;
0d18173fcf70b18ff9df5ac7d03962d79f1f9627	May 11, 1904, Figueres — January 23, 1989, Figueres) was a Spanish painter, graphic artist, sculptor, director, writer.
6a331dfa07bc82f6506145faa340dac5b51f414a	One of the most famous representatives of surrealism.
8221e254eb65cfb674a4c46b116b8af49d177051	(1) Worked on films: "The Andalusian Dog", "The Golden Age", "Spellbound".
ad24c2391a153ab2ac1fb9c0a37dafcdc6200781	He is the author of the books "The Secret Life of Salvador Dali, told by himself" (1942)," The Diary of a Genius "(1952-1963), Oui: The Paranoid Critical Revolution (1927-33) and the essay"The Tragic Myth of Angelus Millet".
be4e7b18e54a9bea4f67edf2f1f288dadf1cbd11	Contents · 1 Biography · 1.1 Childhood · 1.2 Youth · 1.3 Young years · 1.4 Break with the Surrealists · 1.5 The evolution of creativity.
6112d3e2d70e9863c39a28ace41409aec0b306aa	Departure from Surrealism * 1.6 Dali in the USA · 1.7 Mature and Elderly years · 1.8 Recent years · 2 Works · 2.1 In Theater · 2.2 In Cinema · 2.3 In Design · 2.4 Sculptures · 3 Interesting Facts · 4 Dali's image in Cinema · 5 Notes · 6 Literature · 7 References Biography Childhood Salvador Dali was born in Spain on May 11, 1904 in Figueres, Girona province, in the family of a wealthy notary.
e557e6d589d2381aeec8d8e604430944b2940ad0	3) Had a sister and an older brother (October 12, 1901 August 1, 1903), who died of meningitis.
04f6e4ec2744171f55af8a400a9963b8a5e26402	Later, at the age of 5, at his grave, his parents told Salvador that he was the reincarnation of his older brother.
42407574eff7a64618f919bd1eace62d33b6d950	As a child, Dali was a quick witted, but arrogant and unruly child.
ffd257e32cc9d8c3eaf877245d8de0f77c2abea8	Once he even started a scandal on the shopping square for the sake of a lollipop, a crowd gathered around and the police asked the owner of the shop to open it during a siesta and give the same naughty boy this sweetness.
3ef716a81b7fda950e83338b66466d01717ea709	He got his way with whims and simulation, always trying to stand out and attract attention to himself.
55c5fc37bdca5ef5fbfd9cbbfedadc24e61422cd	Numerous complexes and phobias (fear of grasshoppers[3] and others) prevented him from getting involved in ordinary school life, making ordinary friendships and sympathies with children.
68da7f2b8f737c33a0be0ee772c33eb6a456a860	4) When he lost in school gambling games, he behaved as if he had won, and was triumphant.
803174f59aa849ccf4656ba6568bfcefb4aa862f	Sometimes he started fights for no reason.
678c0603e55d2e1d0faf40b81eca7b2a9a893bd9	In part, the complexes that led to all this were caused by the classmates themselves: they treated the" strange "child quite intolerantly, used his fear of grasshoppers, slipped these insects into his neck, which brought Salvador to hysteria, as he later told in his book "The Secret Life of Salvador Dali, told by himself".
1ce551195d86fc9e5a3c406284ce672f0578ff59	He began studying fine art at the municipal art school.
141cb6332c8b90ee6eee1cc769ff14d665e5f7ad	From 1914 to 1918, he was educated at the Academy of the Brothers of the Marist Order in Figueres.
775a254eee99b6202da252a1a4fd0be5cb236cf5	One of his childhood friends was the future football player of FC Barcelona, Josep Samitier.
6f373bfa15637ce43cd8e5b17ad83e391a522309	In 1916, with the family of Ramon Pichot, he went on vacation to the town of Cadakes, where he got acquainted with modern art. Youth In 1921, he entered the San Fernando Academy.
07031d93731786150d5c7ce6dc149d61fc50817b	11) In the same year, Salvador Dali's mother dies, which becomes a tragedy for him.
8733d2110c3f7cac7d84a2fe69e70f1d520f5c17	In 1922, he moved to the "Residence" (Spanish: Residencia de Estudiantes) (a student hostel in Madrid for gifted young people) and began his studies[4].
a9aaee3fac611bf0c39ee415217225c206e3c3f3	In those years, everyone notes his panache.
abd78652e0e080262b318fa2a087016bb857c89b	At this time, he meets Luis Bunuel, Federico Garcia Lorca, Pedro Garfias.
b3be1395ccf1067d5f702188057f93ebfae4ad84	He reads the works of Freud with passion.
a8965bf0416d385dddf1de185e6f4947b17dcb54	Acquaintance with new trends in painting is developing — Dali experiments with the methods of Cubism and Dadaism.
e68600ce462ff90df25ed64ed19a2656067754bf	In 1926, He is expelled from the Academy for his arrogant and disdainful attitude towards teachers.
6bd3993b0af23837f743b28ff744ae94215102f3	In the same year, he went to Paris for the first time, where he met Pablo Picasso.
b9d588279cbe2c6bfe365b484b1665d98c39f21a	Trying to find his own style, in the late 1920s he created a number of works influenced by Picasso and Joan Miro.
9329c7b3ca01d43b9d78f838da81aa8ba41b8040	In 1929, Together with Bunuel, he participates in the creation of the surreal film "The Andalusian Dog".
99c9841c3fa62f2b5a879d3da057ade77be878b3	At the same time, he first meets his future wife Gala (Elena Dmitrievna Diakonova), who was then the wife of the poet Paul Eluard.
759bb5fb5bec8b99d61c504839f956d87eb27ef9	Having become close to Salvador, Gala, however, continues to meet with her husband, starts passing relationships with other poets and artists, which at that time seemed acceptable in those bohemian circles where Dali, Eluard and Gala moved.
63e1f44f068b69154df348953833f1bae72905f4	Realizing that he actually stole his friend's wife, Salvador paints his portrait as a "compensation".
ff974c922cf17c23358aee585b1479333a1f0449	Early years
fc976d0d5b27a8444429aea4600510fccc6e4760	Dali in 1934, Dali's works are shown at exhibitions, he is gaining popularity.
b6b4391343e3bd94e6ea551f107ab0bca33d1e03	In 1929, he joined the Surrealist group organized by Andre Breton.
7079c8ea455a269841df7547adda0a3886d1b64d	At the same time, there is a break with the father.
fa42c3363f30d5beac022899c93b6a6fa90c97f1	The dislike of the artist's family for Gala, the conflicts associated with this, scandals, as well as the inscription made by Dali on one of the canvases — "Sometimes I enjoy spitting on the portrait of my mother" — led to the fact that the father cursed his son and threw him out of the house.
d6ccda3def4beb78d62ccbcb73590e4a8164feb3	Provocative, shocking and seemingly terrible actions of the artist were not always worth taking literally and seriously: probably, he did not want to offend his mother and did not even imagine what this would lead to, perhaps he was eager to experience a series of feelings and experiences that he stimulated with such a blasphemous, at first glance, act.
9c2c3f4644c3ec7036d7584ed810e7fb5a474574	But the father, saddened by the long ago death of his wife, whom he loved and whose memory he cherished, could not stand the antics of his son, which became the last straw for him.
6d0667c91bee07471b1d96221a8e59d59a121c9f	In retaliation, an indignant Salvador Dali sent his sperm to his father in an envelope with an angry letter: "This is all I owe you."
4bfc9504da7c37cbe5bd0dc512fc8fd38db81f26	Later, in the book "Diary of a Genius", the artist, being already an elderly man, speaks well of his father, admits that he loved him very much and endured the suffering caused by his son.
c9462a3bb91a117513dc5348a1dc32452e3d3f0a	In 1934, he unofficially married Gala (the official wedding took place in 1958 in the Spanish town of Girona).
b3c5d0ae6b7d2554047bec02dcd7465a4b2faa5b	In the same year, he visited the United States for the first time.
5f1971d9a0855c07b6814b5082aca9214ee5376e	Break with the Surrealists After Caudillo Franco came to power in 1936, Dali quarrels with the Surrealists who stand on the left, and he is excluded from the group.
23c295fee4b2fb690cf46cf1cda7c1806a2e4701	In response, Dali, not without reason, declares: "Surrealism is me."
b16af449ad3d84bcd02d0fb3b9d2b98c32d5d8b9	Salvador was practically apolitical, and even his monarchist views should be understood surreal, that is, not seriously, as well as his constantly advertised sexual passion for Hitler.
45fedf6f1f39c22f28cc00b2633125ceef152e9a	He lived surreally, his statements and works had a broader and deeper meaning than the interests of specific political parties.
4a6a09f7c986fd52e8a133d21e25b12998df7baf	So, in 1933, he painted the picture The Riddle of Wilhelm Tell, where he depicts a Swiss folklore hero in the image of Lenin with a huge buttock.
747be8a2e268a6ef8a387de3d7ffeb8a3872643b	Dali reinterpreted the Swiss myth according to Freud: Tell became a cruel father who wants to kill his child.
11753abb7d64d86fda71930d554495f34b24bb9a	Personal memories of Dali, who broke up with his father, were layered.
54e5aa629a0f21c16646a50f43927ed05a89e142	Lenin was perceived by communist minded Surrealists as a spiritual, ideological father.
e8a4c3caa8c3b70ba48c5657b104e1ef329fe88e	The picture depicts dissatisfaction with an overbearing parent, a step on the way to the formation of a mature personality.
7ce7f3d732f9f55a8124048bfb6a8e8f2e0b079e	But the Surrealists took the drawing literally, as a caricature of Lenin, and some of them even tried to destroy the canvas.
49e9a0a4eeb8c07001394ef02fa066d6c0bbab25	The evolution of creativity.
e1f9b4333649b7c0b1db86c07b4239c2e8fccc8f	Departure from surrealism In 1937, the artist visits Italy and remains delighted with the works of the Renaissance.
255877e76cefcc6568c0d01ec2fa419e9157267c	In his own works, the correctness of human proportions and other features of academism begin to dominate.
3a3e393661bb72d41f7b38c980e0b1694d4b1809	Despite the departure from surrealism, his paintings are still filled with surrealist fantasies.
e6750bf88ad17268b0f02b48421b46ded89ec123	Later, Dali (in the best traditions of his conceit and outrageousness) ascribes to himself the salvation of art from modernist degradation, with which he associates his own name ("Salvador" means "Savior"in Spanish).
1d06812e7780912c20a50880f44af707fde21908	In 1939, Andre Breton, mocking Dali and the commercial component of his work (which, however, Breton himself was no stranger), came up with an anagram nickname for him: "Avida Dollars" (which in Latin is not quite accurate, but recognizably means "greedy for dollars").
29432afbd6d68a1003a05cb8c542f1d9fce310e3	Breton's joke instantly gained huge popularity, but did not harm Dali's commercial success, which far exceeded Breton's commercial success.
ca0faa084c52c0e76e30ee9753f0e88b253ab941	With the beginning of the Second World War, Dali and Gala left for the United States, where they lived from 1940 to 1948.
2178d4275b1690a63e02ded926d147f2e98b4948	In 1942, he released a fictionalized autobiography, The Secret Life of Salvador Dali.
a77457e5ce264bec46938813ed16c75baf25d602	His literary experiments, as well as his artistic works, as a rule, turn out to be commercially successful.
0302028e0ee1a3d0dae556ec47abef268dfe874e	He collaborates with Walt Disney.
c2ff5685783eee68ee484c8ebc9934431a822529	He offers Dali to test his talent in cinema an art that at that time was covered with a halo of magic, miracles and wide opportunities.
d9fa5639df6a9d5bf7f0758f02ad37301f0dd0c5	But the project of the surreal cartoon Destino proposed by Salvador was considered commercially impractical, and work on it was discontinued.
b8c3906398e5bba8e51098c946f1fe974a71f547	Dali works with director Alfred Hitchcock and draws the scenery for the dream scene from the film "Spellbound".
a7966fac6e95c43c13328356417eef7b150ebcca	However, the scene entered the film very stripped down — again for commercial reasons.
4c0c558aeced798c8b2071fbc38341c013810d97	Mature and elderly years
36b0241a1ea3ae1f54a43337f782f7cbbc746d3b	Salvador Dali and ocelot.
7804fdbccd1ec8e95df01fcb66b7b41e4b32974b	Salvador Dali in 1972, After returning to Spain, lives mainly in his beloved Catalonia.
a11c5a0caf87eb135c970619be425cdaff0f9ef7	In 1965, he came to Paris and again, as almost 40 years ago, conquered it with his works, exhibitions and shocking actions.
6e9d55f4e68eaa16afff2476c3977be8e38d215b	He makes bizarre short films, makes surreal photos.
7890ca32c616df372c6d2c054e57bcb639e70799	In the films, he mainly uses the effects of reverse viewing, but skillfully selected shooting objects (pouring water, a ball jumping on the steps), interesting comments, the mysterious atmosphere created by the artist's acting makes the films unusual examples of art house.
af65d0d325016eb24db4d63ae85b074c5cf5917b	Dali appears in advertisements, and even in such commercial activities, he does not miss the opportunity for self expression.
abc8091fad13b456a6aa9deec77762c0ea6a12d5	Viewers will remember for a long time the advertising of chocolate, in which the artist bites off a piece of a tile, after which his mustache twists with euphoric delight, and he exclaims that he has gone crazy from this chocolate.
4f15a48ca274a4f48fc3b1dec447be88f655d4be	His relationship with Gala is quite complicated.
38c126a97972b815afd5333269325195bd71ff3d	On the one hand, from the very beginning of their relationship, she promoted him, found buyers for his paintings, convinced him to write works that are more understandable to the mass audience (a striking change in his painting at the turn of the 20-30s), shared with him both luxury and need.
951a73f75c538731a0e6fb4bf973dbf943985201	When there was no order for paintings, Gala forced her husband to develop product brands, costumes: her strong, determined nature was very necessary for a weak willed artist.
d9ea5448c3003188418a9ae8e4c7c3e958a14c78	Gala put things in order in his studio, patiently folded canvases, paints, souvenirs, which Dali pointlessly scattered, looking for the right thing.
18e6fa26c8228daf295c1f001981149b6e9004ff	On the other hand, she constantly had relationships on the side, in later years the spouses often quarreled, Dali's love was rather a wild passion, and Gala's love was not devoid of calculation, with which she "married a genius".
03855d50520e869935e6c9197e563488090283bd	In 1968, Dali bought a castle for Gala in the village of Pubol, in which she lived separately from her husband, and which he himself could visit only with the written permission of his wife.
bea33b38b5f9014b2bb53360fd56e342ea50785e	In 1981, Dali developed Parkinson's disease.
8452767d727a9dc9177059e480bd3109dbb8cddd	In 1982, Gala died.
7c8248cfbe31a35a99de67645741bb3434ba2b5f	Recent years
1f2838c371a39886fe6ef1148c3f4c90810975de	A plaque on the wall in the room where Dali is buried After the death of his wife, Dali is experiencing a deep depression.
4c572261fae9e388bdae318e7fa85c8af5690db5	His paintings themselves are simplified, and for a long time the motif of grief prevails on them (variations on the theme of "Pieta").
20a9b49336d88b26a1edd1998b8681275f957bba	Parkinson's disease also prevents Dali from drawing.
72572091959d8b29a507e477826fd2523eb0eb02	His most recent works ("Cockfights") are simple squiggles in which the bodies of the characters are guessed the last attempts of self expression of an unfortunate sick person.
927a1b44af7a0c38b6881c9ebe38c2c49bcfc816	It was difficult to take care of the sick and distraught old man, he threw himself at the nurses with whatever was handy, shouted, bit.
f80e48dca9d17c64ccac9dd30ae011b5dcaf20a9	After the death of Gala, Salvador moved to Pubol, but in 1984 there was a fire in the castle.
4c2682531397f7ec539686eba8ef163d5c3a70d6	The paralyzed old man unsuccessfully rang the bell, trying to call for help.
d1e30831694001249a63c40fb1f9b9f7c0d51760	In the end, he overcame his infirmity, fell out of bed and crawled to the exit, but lost consciousness at the door.
506908e1d0bd1949ce0cd5e625e29bb52946d9e4	Dali was taken to the hospital with severe burns, but survived.
642630b9e31dbf226f2250bca7aa5500937e370a	Prior to this incident, it is possible that Salvador planned to be buried next to Gala, and even prepared a place in the crypt in the castle.
d9afdaf7aa55a32e8a1bbbe1108edc66f202d6d5	However, after the fire, he left the castle and moved to the theater museum, where he remained until the end of his days[5].
86ff810ef770fd9614ef9586f5bf6e19851930fd	A sick, infirm man, Dali died on January 23, 1989 from a heart attack.
610f797ca49ebe57a42447f6e884c958e63882e6	The only intelligible phrase that he uttered during the years of his illness was "My friend Lorca": the artist recalled the years of happy, healthy youth, when he was friends with the poet Federico Garcia Lorca.
2faaeb88b666b7ca2a22b763bc234ba19d6a23d5	The artist bequeathed to bury him so that people could walk on the grave, so Dali's body is immured in the floor in one of the rooms of the Dali Museum Theater in Figueres.
7ca55bab79b980ef008e3da687f619b168b3496b	Works · See.
46e18bb671ef1c3b51ebd8f03d549989215c1897	List of works by Salvador Dali In the Salvador Theater or Dali is the author of the libretto and design of the ballet "Bacchanalia "(music by Richard Wagner, choreography by Leonid Myasin, the Russian Ballet Monte Carlo).
23a3c522c222f48f79d5a7b4484dc20e85517a59	In the cinema In 1945, in collaboration with Walt Disney, he began working on the animated film Destino.
a05f693c8d29f8a84248abef4dc5910627e3e30b	Production was then postponed due to financial problems;
c4eb7e0445d2ca473f48fb3d39527a9e866e48b6	The Walt Disney Company released the film on screens in 2003.
dd94c62ddbfbfe558a490dcfb94fd9a870406af8	In design, Salvador Dali is the author of the design of the Chupa Chups packaging.
c166254eb050459ef623d320a721cda632276ff9	Enrique Bernat called his caramel "Chups", and at first it had only seven flavors: strawberry, lemon, mint, orange, chocolate, coffee with cream and strawberry with cream.
4485e2c2b9449836bdb3e10956139182bf274479	The popularity of" Chups " grew, the amount of caramel produced increased, new flavors appeared.
a37e77d9cf40deb42ffc6cf2a4dd818862688f1c	Caramel could no longer remain in the original modest wrapper, it was necessary to come up with something original so that everyone would recognize the "Chups".
23f3c0cfc5d8ca5372fedcce1b5721bb5e9ac7d0	Enrique Bernat turned to his countryman, the famous artist Salvador Dali, with a request to draw something memorable[6].
0d80dffe857f25e099e2fe8a68ce2714b920437d	The brilliant artist did not think for long and in less than an hour sketched him a picture of a daisy "Chupa Chups", which in a slightly modified form is now recognizable as the logo of "Chupa Chups" in all corners of the planet.
a5d667797d7a8d44c78878942bc3ff049ec02f6c	The difference between the new logo was also its location: it is not located on the side, but on top of the candy
c5e1539b72d4755ff023aec962a6362c328a5b13	http://gruzdoff.ru/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B
1694131ef33045c49ea60cf6e5538ff8841a9728	2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80
0a2b1fc17db44b09dbbce7e1b91f2cad4df07db6	Dali, El Salvador
b47a913fafae8bf6ecfe44d1b4199a3ebd813a0e	The "Dali" request is redirected here; see also
35bb2f774af435a1b0473f18a2633888d87c9ad4	other values
3a52ce780950d4d969792a2559cd519d7ee8c727	.
5f126c5742546995c30f56bb6b1916d768624929	Carla
fd5b1497ca5a7c1c3dccf9a31f26f11acf37e830	van Vechten
2c0f509e690e4dff7961be6c90de8129644aa20f	, November 29, 1939
8e96dfd32d80072b0994bceaf69f7bc9696536c8	Name when
28aea7cd9c4fa101cbcdf1845f995689f4cc6856	birth:
bf3509f16c19d5943e7f5c7a7847e4cd8a08aa7d	Salvador Dom
8ceb984a7a74b7d97837de704b0189f965d415f9	́
f8a917ed3d43bcb6294284c0cc511468a8cbf67e	nek felip jacint dali and
d72c64cead6c1c5953ca0c0eb65599f27868d4df	The house
698d17cb3ecc18d358b4f32d0cbe575321081b64	nek
537ad5166fb90c771148e1d414d1e345b67ad859	http://gruzdoff.ru/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B 2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80
56c963c030d572b1f1592d542a5a599131c9cb68	Salvador Dali Salvador Dalí
eb065a2147ff8b0fc78148226d1b4d315d607756	Photo by Carl van Vechten, November 29, 1939 Birth name: Salvador Domenech Felipe Jacint Dali and Domenech
b905f0071fecb227d302f84de88ccfeef72b006e	http://allpainters.ru/dali salvador.html#top2
c6b26d1de0961a424d48a0636a5fd84df8933355	Salvador Domenech Felipe Jacint Dali and Domenech, Marquis de Pubol (1904-1989) was a Spanish painter, graphic artist, sculptor, director, writer.
bdeea14f78475624a4cefbdc2f9cc01e69c766fc	CONTENTS Biography of Salvador Dali Creativity of Salvador Dali Interesting facts from the life of the artist Paintings of Salvador Dali Quotes Dali Bibliography and filmography BIOGRAPHY of SALVADOR DALI Salvador Dali was born in the town of Figueres in Catalonia, in the family of a lawyer.
efbb752afb22c82e3019e94a179b6dc53b8a996b	He showed his creative abilities already in early childhood.
81732fb85d1ca1a76685eaea82302dcd531f1145	At the age of seventeen, he was admitted to the San Fernando Academy of Fine Arts in Madrid, where fate happily brought him together with G. Lorca, L. Bunuel, R. Alberti.
914fd5eb0ad4ca1377deb389bdc46a07b810670f	While studying at the academy, Dali enthusiastically and obsessively studies the works of old masters, masterpieces of Velasquez, Surbaran, El Greco, Goya.
40680dbd5bf3ed4426359483e0d9658ea0a248e9	He is influenced by the Cubist canvases of X. Griesa, the metaphysical painting of the Italians, is seriously interested in the legacy of I. Bosch.
045265ac72059af1d13e83c019e159375a88a072	13) Under the impression of the meeting, which changed the direction of the search for his own artistic language corresponding to his worldview, Dali creates his first surrealist work "The Splendor of the Hand".(14) However, Paris inexorably attracts him to itself, and in 1929 he makes a second trip to France.(15) There he enters the circle of Parisian surrealists, gets the opportunity to see their solo exhibitions.(16) At the same time, together with Bunuel Dali, he makes two films that have already become classics – “The Andalusian Dog” and "The Golden Age".
0bdb15929c1ba97628abcef2b9ee569720850ef5	His role in the creation of these works is not the main one, but he is always mentioned second, as a screenwriter and at the same time an actor.
8026835f91bdd2dc8817d745d91fff3bb156b036	In the master's book " Dali by Dali”, he gives the following periodization of his work: "Dali Planetary, Dali Molecular, Dali Monarchical, Dali Hallucinogenic, Dali Future"!
3d19187d992a64d6934001cb7cd6afb829e63dac	21) THE WORK OF SALVADOR DALI Around 1923, Dali began his experiments with Cubism, often even locking himself in his room to draw.
66ffb7fef6b75f3a3c8de1a776cebe0e647ee9fc	In 1925, Dali painted another painting in the style of Picasso: "Venus and the Sailor".
dbfa25d04a15333973c600b6cb606dedc7fd1d65	She was one of the seventeen paintings exhibited at Dali's first solo exhibition.
88b03c080fe51b7b283ec78098dfae33fa4a5b63	The second exhibition of Dali's works, held in Barcelona at the Delmo Gallery at the end of 1926, was met with even more enthusiasm than the first.
3ec3f7d1168477deedf0762b6612cad7489f5f13	Venus and the Sailor
252c143486540cc98c8069e8dfe230d3edb10140	The great masturbator
82775cf67ede6500109b34665b1cd5e10d1f2c66	Metamorphoses of Narcissus
d2808ad019ad0098e424fef4ba1f701e96e75fd3	The Riddle of William Tell
dc0e2faad5bf962680078cf02532989f045258a0	In 1929, Dali painted The Great Masturbator, one of the most significant works of that period.(22) It depicts a large, wax like head with dark red cheeks and half closed eyes with very long eyelashes.(23) A huge nose rests on the ground, and instead of a mouth there is a rotting grasshopper with ants crawling on it.(24) Such themes were characteristic of Dali's works of the 30s: he had an unusual weakness for images of grasshoppers, ants, telephones, keys, crutches, bread, hair.
75e7a8778c38bd182b5ade54746d97f7f82d4fbf	28) Although Dali's work was well received by critics who predicted a great future for him, nevertheless, success did not bring instant benefits.
09536216bee16ae224ad8928b09053076a0a21b2	And Dali spent days driving around the streets of Paris in vain search of buyers for his original images.
e6e1af247a77414e6051937c8af3e88a17c45a0f	They, for example, served as a woman's shoe with large steel springs, glasses with glasses the size of a fingernail, and even a plaster head of a roaring lion with fried chips.
3564c7db3498f9ddb501fb7c1c00e0cdc5d56e8a	32) Dali also creates numerous layouts from various objects.
b7b6f4a6a56a833660e5bc6d9ec9457d12fd1c2e	Between 1936 and 1937, Dali was working on one of his most famous paintings, "The Metamorphoses of Narcissus", and a book of the same name appeared immediately.
718824e8e42993fdf478380d5bf28ceb0c7b697b	In 1953, a large exhibition was held in Rome on its own scale.
0835262dc749271abd2c1f52e8cd160262d2a6a7	He exhibits 24 paintings, 27 drawings, 102 watercolors.
556d3a8876b1599afc64baa11450d9e0776e9dce	Meanwhile, in 1959, because his father no longer wanted to let Dali, he and Gala settled down to live in the Port of Lligate.
b2e215149fd586e14112fdac671ba575a0980b61	Dali's paintings were already very popular, sold for a lot of money, and he himself was famous.
c5d2b06ec671a50b2742a804fba71a1bc9025b35	He often communicates with William Tell.
25aa80f1c7c4a6e1c520e889a4f14efdcd01f258	Under his impressions, he creates such works as" The Riddle of William Tell "and"William Tell".
7148f02c6acbc2723b0a72971e770313e6c3d805	In 1973, the "Dali Museum" opened in Figueres, incredible in its content.
08579af6822a71a4aeb1a89552b9c302c3981047	Until now, he amazes the audience with his surreal appearance.
798f64147b045a590a04e7233c8ff361aec5d0b9	The last work "Dovetail" was completed in 1983.
b9929d7608ad3ae57108e2104e50a9637536771b	INTERESTING FACTS FROM THE LIFE OF THE ARTIST Salvador Dali often resorted to sleep with a key in his hand.
4e4136ed8521d21932ae536cd567babf606ed9af	Sitting on a chair, he fell asleep with a heavy key clenched between his fingers.
7e2c364079f6ed454a42faf2fb5b972fbb54e9d2	Gradually, the grip loosened, the key fell and hit the plate lying on the floor.
0c67caed6fef29eb3cbc6ccbc0b95c680d83d276	The thoughts that arose during the nap could be new ideas or solutions to complex problems.
3fdabf51cf93be551adcc5ce6bf71f3d2d1e3238	In 1961, Salvador Dali drew the logo "Chupa Chups" for Enrique Bernat, the founder of a Spanish company producing sweets on a stick, which is now recognizable in all corners of the world in a slightly modified form.
2d7bf7b026eb412d4c3f2a63154a75d25a38edb4	In 2003, the Walt Disney company released the animated film "Destino", which Salvador Dal and Walt Disney began to draw back in 1945, the picture lay in the archive for 58 years.
d5621fcb9ad140ab776723ed27b48addea746815	A crater on Mercury is named after Salvador Dali.
6a8a202657b91f3586c7a42f5082f66a6044911f	The great artist during his lifetime bequeathed to bury him so that people could walk on the grave, so his body was walled up in the Dali Museum in Figueres.
140d15d5ff4d835e5db0925d67fd7ba0f3df835c	It is forbidden to take photos with a flash in this room.
ffe91a2ba25f7f2b4a972fa3398d3e636cb779ab	Arriving in New York in 1934, as an accessory, he carried a 2 meter long loaf of bread in his hands, and while visiting an exhibition of surrealist creativity in London, he dressed in a diver's suit.
f818a27d7512ee64ec904ac6ba5b7fe84808cad8	At various times, Dali declared himself either a monarchist, an anarchist, a communist, an adherent of authoritarian power, or refused to associate himself with any political trend.
2eadcea10ddd99b8c77b66fcb2b8f067d5689034	After the Second World War and his return to Catalonia, Salvador supported the authoritarian regime of Franco and even painted a portrait of his granddaughter.
c712b7c5ef71b3079270da5ace00699f9e0942d4	Dali sent a telegram to the Romanian leader Nicolas Ceausescu, written in the manner characteristic of the artist: he supported the communist in words, and there was a caustic irony between the lines.
e7cf8f171562012d586049d30dd6947deef0309d	Without noticing the trick, the telegram was published in the daily newspaper Scînteia.
754f7af48770bafc9cde71d8584a1b8ebd03de3c	The now famous singer Cher (Cher) and her husband Sonny Bono, while still young, attended a party of Salvador Dali, which he tripled at the Plaza Hotel in New York.
2d72e30c58c82f479acab5ef95bf30ad540c1d5a	There, Cher accidentally sat down on a strange shaped sex toy placed by the host of the event on her chair.
c7d04b656546f0518e1d1dd1a0ab69d2bc680014	In 2008, the film "Echoes of the Past"was made about El Salvador.
7a3b9ab84bc9db03a0e0cd7a3a094038261a2881	The role of Dali was played by Robert Pattinson.
6b8b93fc3ea9e73c926d272cfd8892ce6ee62946	For some time, Dali worked together with Alfred Hitchcock.
d25fbeb558e23990fc120fa3fff1e6b12dfc1ba7	In his life, Dali himself completely completed work on only one film, "Impressions of Upper Mongolia" (1975), in which he told the story of an expedition that went in search of huge hallucinogenic mushrooms.
427b3be3bde4bcdea2a1ce2b005ee3b5acc444c8	The video series "Impressions of Upper Mongolia" is mostly based on enlarged microscopic spots of uric acid on a brass strip.
d745361102078c48f23828ebd283fd19e7a34857	As you can guess, the" author " of these spots was the maestro.
2b23bdbcd02835c690789557ebea4db0f532d959	For several weeks, he "painted" them on a piece of brass.
8c240adaccf9bc3ab96d394db4cb014c3c74da00	Together with Christian Dior in 1950, Dali created the"costume for 2045".
f9cbd1e64d3fd2c4626f36b0be8b1a8b0997a12f	Canvas "The permanence of memory" ("Soft hours") Dali wrote under the impression of Einstein's theory of relativity.
21cc1dc36844f4c2b8943b90ac54ae7cd9b0ea6c	The idea took shape in Salvador's head when he was looking at a piece of Camabert cheese one hot August day.
2677afd2237e04172fa4afda5365f45e7da181be	For the first time, the image of an elephant appears on the canvas "A dream caused by a bee flying around a pomegranate a second before waking up".
e847fc1da87ced33f5dba660a41c011f344fbd49	In addition to elephants, Dali often used images of other representatives of the animal kingdom in his paintings: ants (symbolized death, decay and, at the same time, a huge sexual desire), he associated a snail with a human head (see portraits of Sigmund Freud), locusts in his works are associated with waste and a sense of fear.
49c06322bed7a7075d7f30a2f71c8154b14f7f7b	The eggs in Dali's paintings symbolize prenatal, intrauterine development, if you look deeper — we are talking about hope and love.
bcf16112cf710e75d054e858faeeeaa5966e2cf2	On December 7, 1959, a presentation of the ovocypede (ovocypede) was held in Paris: a device that was invented by Salvador Dali and implemented by engineer Laparra.
87cd06eea69895802c796f8b0061c876a6671648	Ovosiped is a transparent ball with a seat fixed inside for one person.
1e9a1f5341c57f08360a26a248473c80ae10635e	This "transport" became one of the devices that Dali successfully used to shock the public with his appearance.
b457ff556ec051912a86482e574fa531132c6579	QUOTES FROM DALI Art is a terrible disease, but it is impossible to live without it yet.
4edad5aab03e4a9076b0f005f7f598a3cedf5362	With art, I straighten myself and infect normal people.
3b24fb04320a79b113196cdab24597d4a57f4a61	The artist is not the one who is inspired, but the one who inspires.
a8fbf0e06266fdb20e4ae606e9fb34ccca9d0bce	Painting and Dali are not the same thing, as an artist I do not overestimate myself.
e92e82f62583a3c68cfad752f218261d043082a5	It's just that the others are so bad that I turned out to be better.
6260524d00ff80c40b1e8080a205af3878000fab	I saw it and it sank into my soul, and it spilled through the brush onto the canvas.
efca9d441b4d9c8b697859a2202c5093eaaa7aaf	This is painting.
4fc1974f4bce2cfd5806b96847e6dee13d6f6f62	And the same thing is love.
860de396a98e87c0e40731c46a53971a4f1ecae0	For the artist, every brush touch on the canvas is a whole life drama.
3be9a9ad94fcc10f602e6b02c25635a4ed27e2af	My painting is life and food, flesh and blood.
dd33c1d46483b258db19a9693dc25db30b812736	Do not look for either mind or feeling in it.
81e802c3a9501aa9eac512dd4d377d6f2fee03f9	Through the centuries, Leonardo da Vinci and I hold out our hands to each other.
84cbb4dc542881b19a6ee675fd277ed41d13963f	I think that now we have the Middle Ages, but someday there will be a Revival.
a8e0c8a2a40fbc71736fa31f7baeeefeac9d8072	I am decadent.
26d48bb2d9bf8e9dd1a25ea2262b072749acb27d	In art, I am something like Camembert cheese: a little too much, and that's it.
81ab9649e1d37eb0841e339e611b1d3203c813bd	I am the last echo of antiquity — I am standing on the very edge.
af9682ac50ff4c035692d31ffe3ea7b86ad23c53	A work of art does not arouse any feelings in me.
c9f7f91cac2a57a6ae45af29798c80b655a6c60f	Looking at a masterpiece, I am ecstatic about what I can learn.
c49320f9c18c25a8cac56c3a72c4cf35fea9a888	It doesnot even occur to me to spread out in emotion.
a260723442fa6623186ed62e750a1881005955f1	Landscape is a state of mind.
84433425f5db24b708a05b91d76703d0c9ce6419	Painting is a hand made color photograph of all possible, super sought, unusual, super aesthetic samples of a specific irrationality.
71f9dbd64aa0a4ce5aa5174de56ba223cdc48bf9	The artist thinks with a drawing.
302eeeb961c047995029545cd7ff31a67a1602f6	It is good taste that is fruitless — there is nothing more harmful for an artist than good taste.
e2aa41a62d2815bf7ff2744ba59583080ceba2c1	Take the French — because of their good taste, they are completely lazy.
d730d6ca31bb2f0ef25af6bd402071fa33e8c6bc	Do not try to cover your mediocrity with deliberately careless painting — it will reveal itself in the first stroke.
e024881e7f7ef0a3b6a8d719b700e3a2b1828fd8	First, learn how to draw and write like old masters, and only then act on your own and you will be respected.
ece083c861d48fcf9f3282349b95513a6cc11fbe	Surrealism is not a party, not a label, but a unique state of mind, not constrained by slogans or morals.
c646eef9a9542e05079a09382be57f69abaa7f2b	Surrealism is the complete freedom of a human being and the right to dream it.
93ba7ada33db4ee942a468e9daa424be3ea8ceef	I am not a surrealist, I am surrealism.
be9606faaf8c570ed8d7202936060d643da783e9	I am the highest embodiment of surrealism — I follow the tradition of the Spanish mystics.
53f3164c18895b0d56a3dabfd7cdacac4369d748	The difference between the Surrealists and me is that I am the Surrealist.
d87532a314b9e84a1de5ac9bc201db327b330eab	BIOGRAPHY AND FILMOGRAPHY OF SALVADOR DALI Literature "The secret life of Salvador Dali, told by himself" (1942) "Diary of a Genius" (1952-1963) Oui: The Paranoid Critical Revolution (1927-33) "The Tragic Myth of Angelus Millet" Work on the films "The Andalusian Dog" "The Golden Age" "Spellbound" "Impressions of upper Mongolia"
f14c84f9e85fab260fa20d10f816a46fa7c4a0da	http://allp
0e2c6a966b1603a8a3260e98ad714a1da456299a	ainters.ru/dali
8476b58ee7985805091ce0ac7523388419c27e1d	salvador.html#top2
55fcdde1ba1e18aa27c036a4944fd4a86abbb969	nek felip jacint dali and dom
3cc558d85e68c839ac2c63fd692295e05986d2ac	nec, Marquis de Poubol
f1e3e7844749cd5c31f280ab3a3e000aa7be0fea	(1904
1b93795b9768a163eed85c20387244b0ce76679a	—
6405306d56c212fe29aa79e1bf25321d370dd239	1989)
64c7dce6110848b805bf31be87d01aa98b23ebd4	spanish painter, graphic artist, sculptor, director, writer.
b24b187b9eb47e6d858e37b9fbc33a046bcbb93b	One of the most famous
84b225d42a13d433f48eeeb23a602d65315545e2	representatives of surrealism.
238a131a3e8eb98d1fc5b27d882ca40b7618fd2a	CONTENT
de5782693038cdcdca3436118298409187ea6f25	Inter
15433a9cabb2a39fffd4b7547a12af4bd28119ce	interesting facts from the artist's life
ce007250641f041c1f6ef3b76aab1197bf91b2f3	Paintings
d2d7f5bc727594296c949bb71e61a4d263de3b24	Quotes were given
2560c4a817930466a37b5a967f7c0fef1093e498	Bibliography and filmography
5aecdfc5681fd6ff062141ace3b7f6cfaf7dee0d	BIOGRAPHY OF EL SALVADOR
567b4934b7875f02085ff768475cc901ba3658b6	GIVEN
eba95de3b4b7091416577fbc1fbd141f106797c3	Salvador Dali was born in the town of Figueres in Catalonia, in the family of a lawyer.
ee56d0bb53798fb1fbad9096a2f029b185d7d971	Creative abilities
7403d6afc1e50f60cd107b64ea4d292355dcab34	they appeared in him already in early childhood.
7549d4538fed263dd5df5ca7fa024dd5c1346f4f	at the age of seventeen, he was accepted into the Madrid
1e1e034c59bf444f5f6c048cd7828efd51ccf017	the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando, where fate happily brought him together with G. Lorca, L. Bunuel,
8bd14b896766751e504654da9ca9bcc276df51fe	R. Alberti.
fa1fb55451e18036873530738f40a640314d8e3e	While studying at the academy, Dali enthusiastically and obsessively studies the works of old masters,
b249d2213e5e0d77640b924caf1c614b10602632	masterpieces of Vel
9dc604dceaaa0700dd12b9462d2e9d8610e75652	asquez, Surbaran, El Greco, Goya.
2aa1f69b953c33cbe4b0c52f6b35ca962f4d3de6	He is influenced by the Cubist canvases of X.
7fe2a318764f92cf554d8a58240fda8aeb6664d5	Griesa, the metaphysical painting of the Italians, is seriously interested in the legacy of I. Bosch.
b488dba134dd3e3d4462aa6e96eb9023a2df80bf	Studying at the Madrid Academy from 1921 to 1925 was for the artist a time of persistent
1478c028a16709cb32d8b1a69ccca032ca1d9ef5	pos
0ac205994eb5865ab7b83a682d5bac52882445b6	the achievement of professional culture, the beginning of a creative understanding of the traditions of the masters
c2fdc3ddbfa22230d286e3d28529a8c3c5fff398	past epochs and the discoveries of their older contemporaries.
e8d72c8c1b7c08efb597d670fee3d587eb73c970	(12
59c8a1e08c3ef69f2048a6f056d39ba772f53408	(13)
b4506d0c94e0260d54f84e0aa8d1a6eea08a8f67	Under the impression
7b3207296ad1e5558b23cd3692a73b35dfc2ac4a	the meeting that changed
297e3d2f92ef9973fc3b13a295d8f4fffc4bbc18	the direction of the search for your own artistic language corresponding to
126689fe857ca29eb4375ec8075cdd492db3479e	according to his understanding of the world, Dali creates his first surrealist work " Splendor
ee2e4437cc87ab8bc44f06034366dddd998596b2	hands”.
47db3274399b37a9aea76c4d95b7519855633a9c	(14)
fc8abe31a4d59a7520258a73930e483e0aa20fd0	However, Paris inexorably attracts him to itself, and in 1929 he makes a second trip
6028ed41acebcc55ad49047927e71c4bc0d4b1ae	vie
c98cebb4ece56348442b9fb484a5f1b2c5d41c66	to France.
51e73a22fc1aa79649e780bf05ff339a673ddbbc	(15)
d841ba32e75f7b0b0fd907fb91dbecfaf1428d75	There he enters the circle of Parisian surrealists, gets the opportunity to see them
1c8af7842cb9a95593ecafe7d892ca4a422a29e2	personal exhibitions.
b1ccca558b0d8ce14088205fe141dc8e9eafd093	(16)
265e66b6412ee3fb1a4735714f44446503a1b23f	At the same time, together with Bunuel Dali, he makes two films that have already become classics
0e467cbe430412b91e1bae0a4b949c8a3f628855	–
709b628957b0bd55ea2f7ecda4b087eda73ff5fd	“Andalusian
2f3489f25c5dcb6bf0da6309cb7fa8736c758643	the Dog” and "The Golden Age".
618f38c1bb6149aed73cafa31cab75e7ecc8f9c3	Its role in the pops
4057308cbd90c2a5c8cb632b12295efc75209e6d	the purpose of these works is not the main one, but its sun when they mention the second, as
d36302ebe668be4856064b30cbdf0052078bf531	a screenwriter and an actor at the same time.
a5ddef7f21112db880e0e2dcbe51b15914a5afb8	(17
ccfd293cb6e6f5e7ad2f63c23585e95aba093c07	Russian by origin, an aristocrat Elena
f0621bc49816e874532efd8ff8ed2d8423cffc58	Dmitrievna Diakonova took the most important place in the life and work of Hood
e6c8f4951a3eaa1cc324a82e25e6317e67ed0b1a	ozhnika.
5bcad28918dcf216ba3f66a5e94e68bd4a22aa5d	The appearance of the Gala
18116b3560ff1122480c6de270755468e0e4574c	it gave his art a new meaning.
c33403dbc1828160307e0c13c5d41dd7717e9109	(18)
a1820732be529dc0bb749e0b682e47c448e6a636	In the master's book " Dali by Dali”, he gives the following
18b26a70428bbba48095d0f4320613813322310b	periodization of your creativity: "Dali
0368f092dda1a9cf5fe1809c1fb3fe238d02f5bf	Planetary, Dali
7e0d3a25c2ecec96b09c092cfb1c292b2cfce822	Molecular, Given
29795ad17de4c5f7c03a5cf0c133222f95a088ad	Monarchical, Dali
a250dbcab8bc15d0a0db97f712f47d35ce98d7ce	Hallucinogenic, Given
39c66c61d51c651005a420dad80b857a81e8a23a	Future”!
45abb8e6db9c5656d0c178ec3a306489652b79a8	(19)
f6b38904cc0da7828feea802c2bc7123fb8a090a	Con
a6955f3e5e70b3361a10e356a47ce8ae8b180b09	yes, it is difficult to fit in such a
269692211bba3ac6ce3747f0bc4709f054f3d4e0	narrow limits are the work of this great improviser and hoaxer.
c7ab4d87d7e74dcd7b0f309271544fb936c7d6cb	(20)
a7510f329b09260cb8454b49b674b92ba48f4644	He himself admitted: "I
887f431fa33b403250391e1d0b82f2a974d8fe9c	I donot know when I start pretending or telling the truth.”
099bcc9eff3fb774fb5ff7057cc929abd2dc9e17	(21)
91280274ea4499215b09713758860b5292a9e92a	Studying at the Madrid Academy from 1921 to 1925 was for the artist a time of persistent comprehension of professional culture, the beginning of a creative understanding of the traditions of masters of past eras and the discoveries of his older contemporaries.(12) During his first trip to Paris in 1926, he met with P. Picasso.(13) Under the impression of the meeting, which changed the direction of the search for his own artistic language corresponding to his worldview, Dali creates his first surrealist work "The Splendor of the Hand".(14) However, Paris inexorably attracts him to itself, and in 1929 he makes a second trip to France.(15) There he enters the circle of Parisian surrealists, gets the opportunity to see their solo exhibitions.(16) At the same time, together with Bunuel Dali, he makes two films that have already become classics – “The Andalusian Dog” and "The Golden Age".
39abe4721d6f2f22f4cac10bcf2fd177eae8874a	In October 1929, he married Gala.(17) Russian by birth, an aristocrat Elena Dmitrievna Diakonova took an important place in the life and work of the artist.
18e44eef0d958d180c28c82700cb9b00d9087cb6	(18) In the master's book " Dali by Dali”, he gives the following periodization of his work: "Dali is Planetary, Dali is Molecular, Dali is Monarchical, Dali is Hallucinogenic, Dali is Future”!
2daecba3c06d6f8e724a0bcac111dc7cce85d97f	(19) Of course, it is difficult to fit the work of this great improviser and hoaxer into such a narrow framework.(20) He himself admitted “ " I do not know when I start pretending or telling the truth.”(21)
87e24b5f6a944687cad02b363741835780797ca6	http://www.staratel.com/pictures/dali/biogr.htm
c99ec4857923483970917165059de5ca1c0689d0	About Salvador Dali Introduction
00883cb9702db706258bfcb632eef736cfba7978	The psychological explanation Dali himself liked it very much could be that he was clearly aware of his own inferiority, which he needed to somehow compensate for.
b4a5d264e1b5654d6ad3b45e06f11144e1738203	(36) His life in the small Catalan town of Figueres in northern Spain seemed to be happy and typical for a native of a middle class provincial family.
92c23137563e9da8af5c47d357a1abe7740b1fad	The beginning of Salvador Philippe Yahinto Dali and Dominic was born on May 2, 1904.
dade5b476257788c1bcfd0b1879b83bf3ff68ff6	His father was a notary public in Figueres.
7dd8600bd07c96365b3540a7809528faf9c5b873	He knew his place in society and, like many Catalans, was an anti Madrid Republican and also an atheist.
c7615b12ac5120cedaf2d338b3e0d0b41bab46d5	Salvador Dali's mother was also a typical representative of her class.
12f62388c65a15f033f3d3ed1b4c8234a78fe828	She was a loving wife and a staunch Catholic who, no doubt, insisted that her family attend church regularly.
ebd8c7ba5e31df98a1c1247682c1c57c54257617	Both parents loved Salvador and his younger sister Anna Maria and provided them with the best education available to them for that time.
ce7039c9081fd8f3a19526651429272d98ca0839	Soon Dali had a firm opinion that his parents did not love him at all, but his older brother, who died in 1903, a year before his birth.
b3bcd3be1fe92ee54f210ae3933990e3082de926	This revelation appeared in the Unspoken Revelations of Salvador Dali, a book published in 1976, after the publication of his three previous autobiographies.
3634b297a09eb702789297b5884a28ade44d2c99	Whether it was the expulsion of the consequences of trauma or the fruit of the vivid imagination of the artist, who all his life created hidden and ambiguous images, the author of the so called process of paranoid critical thinking, we can only guess.
2f61714226ac40990e1eb34dbe13cc1514ad4356	38) His talent was developed by Ramon Piho, a local impressionist pointillist artist and a friend of Semidali.
f60b16555b678933ef6092cc3fa355503777e0bf	Perhaps this influenced his talent and became a prerequisite for weaving mystical themes into his art. (41)As Anna Maria claimed, their house was the same as everyone else.
6bdb6139f85459e78802790db99570b4dceb2189	Life seemed happy, although the death of her mother from cancer in 1921 was a huge emotional shock and a heavy blow for the family.
065cd43cd79430b26c1498ee011fd581e1d6a83e	When Dali turned seventeen, he had already begun to gain recognition in the artistic circles of Figueres.
13445c613bfaa2c4a8c85159c4124bcd9f50a964	He left home, persuading his father to help establish his art studio in Madrid at the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando, one of the most famous directors of which was Francisco Goya.
c1365a8fc6200a7342eff97b45b065ca48ec8d20	Salvador Dalio went to Madrid in 1922.
079a24ea542f6dad0234c0983667f03dcd405556	He was full of the self confidence of a young man looking for adventure, but knowing that a quiet pier awaits him at home.
5c14ac906b93ac57a579514729d552ea8e9dc25e	However, this belief was subsequently greatly shaken.
8afad578c8bb6b51f1b1c894d8cd6de7e9ab4767	Influence on Early Creativity and Intrigue Four years after the death of his wife, Dali's father married his brother's ex wife.
7d32a1f3729371211b9907503abf1d1b76fd1c1f	Salvador Dali considered this a betrayal.
50a69b4b7d05cc2f43d948189350f414301071eb	Thus was born one of his very first allegories, based on the story of William Tell, whom Dali turned into an Oedipal father who wants to destroy his son.
708448c7e37e6b8407d32a72c70108524ed450d5	Dali has used this theme in some of his paintings over the years.
e0cfe367c479aab9a23e693a877d069af06a0658	Sometimes he included his wife Gala and Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, whom Salvador Dali considered an inviolable father figure (as the Surrealists taught him).
0a8c84b56446148273e98cccec1cd2551c8b5c97	In Madrid, Dali met people who had a great influence on his life.
54773a9aa51e68fd9383b2ebd985ced7297d3946	One of them was Louis Bunuel, who later became one of the most respected film avant gardists in Europe for the next half century.
9a30728f72e127a321b36bdbdf16841bb96df760	Another great friend of Dali, who had a huge influence on him, was Federico Garcia Lorca, a poet who soon became one of the most popular playwrights in Spain.
c8ea0e5c7796a80a1d60da94d6698398fa9f0108	During the civil War, he was shot dead by the soldiers of the dictator General Francisco Franke.
9ea3e7504352c2472058cc3ad9b92283cdbcad9a	The relationship between Dali and Lorca was very close.
36ad6679d4dd3230fa41dfb2ed970272e4a18c7d	In 1926, Lorca's poem "Ode to Salvador Dali" was published, and in 1927, Dali designed the scenery and costumes for the production of Lorca's Mariana Pi Neda.
019371c0dcbf731dbd68420a4b9c4f37465dd1fa	44) This led him to disagree with the methods of the Academy of Fine Arts of Madrid, where he began studying and from where he was expelled in 1926 for inciting riots among students.
5ce44460e7ecddca55312a418fa13f1c5367f262	By this time, he had already had his first solo exhibition, held in November 1925 at the Delmo Gallery in Barcelona, where it was favorably received.
f123352f4434f218ef810b7aa3d4bcc1afd0bae0	Most of his works at that time were made in the spirit of exploring new trends that prevailed in the art world of Paris at that time.
f7c22033dbff94f94ffe10c09ab12c9edfe3cb47	He tried himself as an impressionist in the "Self Portrait with a neck in the style of Raphael" (1921-22).
a946f7b874467e41a276a914bb4a1d984ba994f3	The mountains in Cadaques in the background of the painting became a typical landscape motif of Dali's works.
0cb94649e62aa7dc72a8c5a771b2c06cdbcfbc71	Then there was an attempt to create a picture in the style of cubism.
219f5e3f59effbe37d6ff4659072f9c13e111b20	Imitating its founders Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali wrote another self portrait: "Self portrait with La Publitat" (one of the Barcelona newspapers).
e2ca30e88755eae932f67e37f061c179eb5bbe0f	It was one of the seventeen paintings exhibited at Dali's first solo exhibition.
43f00c4e1645c33d1317d0a6a4d4dedb8f57b580	Salvador Dali has not yet seen anything new the originals of modern paintings, although an exhibition of modern art was held in Barcelona in 1920.
460c70da7fc2aacb2a5b166941a22cea8ad21cab	At that time, the artist was greatly influenced by magazine reproductions.
68f8850cc280e0ef1b775d6cf7f276d33571cbdb	In 1926, Dali and his family made a trip to Paris, the world center of art. There he visited the studio of Picasso.
f3143a63657bd0f102edd6bf692bee7bad9c2396	However, Dali was in no hurry for the next trip to Paris.
db4c86ccf5ace715d839e2d98e7be51f929d1718	Perhaps he wanted to understand what he was looking for there.
40a14d09cfd16e533dd6ea7b004001da0c201beb	But besides, as it turned out later, when he had to move often to support his growing world status, he did not like to change the usual environment of Cadaques and the Costa Brava in Catalonia.
daec74f325322512103d201c5a6fb4f1d602d881	46) This assumption was confirmed after a trip to Brussels, which he made during a visit to Paris.
480321c6fa4b6f240be71d3f388f8e9ff112c8f0	The art of the Flemish masters, with their amazing attention to detail, made a huge impression on Dali.
8fd4f6d70961a8eaebd887360b97898014b6264e	When Salvador Dali returned to Cadaques after being expelled from the Academy of Arts, he continued to write in his own style.
3a8fb37b78d14f1a1cd3e19d47297f62335de555	In the painting, "The Figure of a Girl on a Rock" (1926), he depicted his sister lying on the rocks.
d2bdb7c496dd13380815ec0456778a52b4eda93f	Outwardly, it seemed that the canvas was painted in the style of Picasso, but it did not resemble his works in spirit and was just a realistic study of perspective.
f5fd0599ab34f65179d51d33cd02760bc19e24b1	Perhaps thanks to this, Dali's father somewhat came to terms with the shocking exclusion of his son from the Academy, after which any opportunity to make an official career disappeared.
d967b7c592490ebe831deda6ba5421b8f3dae63c	Salvador Dali returned with pleasure to the admiration of the masters of the Renaissance and for a while forgot about Paris.
8e3ce88033308c84415f0ee73da873c85e11d045	It was a short film created to shock and touch the bourgeoisie and ridicule the extremes of the avant garde.
674a6c3c2fd4affb69c24a2ae887d42f9f999fa7	47) After the first public demonstration of the film in October 1929 at the Théâtre des Ursulines in Paris, Bunuel and Dali immediately became famous and famous.
6b9c3eb0401aeca965a30b541abc28290a655135	Two years after the Andalusian Dog, The Golden Age was released.
16f0a4fe544e9f027509475455dd77f900a71c09	Critics received the new film with delight.
e3e28fcb97286587762eb252f483e7e2a7b101ec	But then he became a bone of contention between Bunuel and Dali: each claimed that he did more for the film than the other.
6a2a3ececf2ea37f0c3cc96d2a7b96654c6acca6	However, despite the controversies, their collaboration left a deep mark on the lives of both artists and sent Dali on the path of surrealism.
0156107182f6552568d5e1f953fc251d1d70f660	A realist and a Surrealist, even before Dali's trip to Paris, surrealistic qualities were manifested in his works.
bcda99ec7eef8243e8344770484b42afbaec771e	In the painting "The Figure of a woman at the window", painted in 1925, the artist depicted his sister Anna Maria looking out of the window at the bay in Cadaques.
f1761896a924d6271b53e53b51386b1c25efb2ce	The canvas is imbued with the spirit of unreality of a dream, although it is written in a meticulous realistic style.
fd29485d57810dad6d2db92190674eaaa62dc32b	There is an aura of emptiness and at the same time something invisible that lurks behind the space of the picture.
fc650965e830ea26eaed1a68df6cf9ada392ed9c	In addition, the picture creates a sense of silence.
ca940226e3d92d6639283f76bc1954ad3bcd88e7	If it were an Impressionist work, the viewer would feel its atmosphere: he would hear the sea or the whispering of the breeze, but here it seems that all life has stopped.
a8d946b3d3310a4cf5662cede553fd5e301a0ff0	The figure of Anna Maria is isolated, she is in another world, and her wide ass, a part of the female body that Dali was obsessed with, is devoid of the sensuality of female images of Renoir or Degas.
70bd8d478fae3d5960a674266e3b317add3e0612	Most surrealists, such as Andre Masson, Max Ernst and Joan Miro, began exploring the subconscious by freeing their minds from conscious control and allowing thoughts to float to the surface like soap bubbles, without any consciously established sequence.
ec344abe6ee2f687f93837c67569abaf0d62576d	This was called "automatism", and when writing, this was reflected in the creation of abstract forms that represented images from the subconscious.
7f824007094cd5260396065ef1d3e03b3df793e0	He drew images familiar to the mind: people, animals, buildings, landscapes but allowed them to connect under the dictation of consciousness.
e21e807c8e17c785bc9f415d0948d38ae1db4af3	49) To some extent, this was somewhat similar to the surreal automatism of writing, where words were familiar, since they were used in everyday communication, but they were lined up freely and without restrictions to express free ideas.
de7656f4d8845474a9dabd639ea6b47f5062858f	Subsequently, Dali will call his unique approach the "paranoid critical method".
9401e3f89c46d85993615e6a6cbb91a0c47693b5	52) Salvador Dali was not yet a member of the group of surrealists led by Andre Breton and Max Ernst, but thanks to his friendship with another Catalan artist and surrealist Joan Miro, he joined a new movement that began to influence the artistic and literary circles of Europe more and more.
62d036cd04b9567753dd0a593d74f412f8baa599	Breton, who studied to be a doctor and made an in depth study of the works of Sigmund Freud, was the mouthpiece of the Surrealists.
2f29bc6f3ac11aff6888a93faf9b171386897a0b	From Freud, Breton took and developed the idea that by unearthing unspoken thoughts hidden at the very bottom of the mind, Surrealism could break the chains of European thinking and create a new way of life and a way of perceiving it.
203431908166bfb295225cc3123be84e88144a86	The first step in this direction was taken earlier by the artistic movement known as Dadaism.
f022a90237475ad6fb046d110d124899ddce354b	The purpose of this art form was to destroy or make meaningless all existing generally accepted truths.
5c5bc24b0afe3f062b5a78750da093333a5cc24b	Among the leaders of Dadaism were Francis Picabia and Tristan Tzara.
ea0836c6d376f997536b1ca8db8abce9108938fd	Surrealism gave Dadaism an inner content and, according to Breton, helped in the destruction of the political order.
a72931b18feba589446cef87b6f634980cb48215	This could not but push Breton to combine surrealism with communism, which was at that time a lofty ideology designed to create a new order in the world.
67328bdc86dc68bef54ee73433b33e7ee1205da3	As for Dali, his interest in this quickly faded.
e694aefad29f61c88f9496bfe1133d626c7223da	However, despite this, with the support of Miro, Dali was accepted into the ranks of the Surrealists in 1929, immediately after his arrival in Paris.
4ab5ada53e2403b86738676ea7a104ba4d44764f	Breton treated this dressed up dandy Spaniard, who painted rebus pictures, with a fair amount of distrust.
16bebf8781db89fc3d6cacadb90149fb303d7a26	He did not see the benefit that Dali could bring to their common cause.
d4387e64f236bc80832da874e0baf9da0ede4123	The year 1929 was fateful for Salvador Dali.
991acd1249543455fa785b41478a3b1c417c5731	After finishing work on the "Andalusian Dog", which he created together with Bunuel, the artist returned to Cadaques to work on an exhibition of his paintings, which Camille Goemans, a Parisian art dealer, agreed to arrange in the fall.
053b959e8fb3610b8c339c4fe54f485db329cd1c	Among the many guests of Dali that summer was the poet Paul Eluard, who came with his daughter Cecile and his wife Gala.
9e506bd16b661946b3eceaf2731e00d2758df496	She soon became a mistress,and then married.
3844c5112bece6597999657caa45ae96476b8f31	Salvador Dali worked a lot.
429816229376e1902c2507bdf791cddb20649d3d	55) His bloody knees suggest some kind of bloodshed, perhaps castration.
a6996d2f066ded31b3a5b5599ed88b168cf38d10	This picture became a milestone in Dali's work.
d1ebe40cf648fca7059d2b5bc2dbdee646b34b76	In it, he expressed his constant concern about sex, violence and guilt.
f0d5b6e95d6cf157cc32b624997a1c521a068157	The picture also features a pile of rocks that will accompany him throughout his work, and such a typical image for Dali as locusts - one of the insects that inhabit his nightmares.
2e96e98f071ba1455402dc7c064cd48bb826a61c	Ants crawl along the abdomen of the insect, which suggests the idea of corruption.
1ccd85c1ff345f5d2536d8c983a636347b37178c	Just below the female head is the calla lily, whose yellow pistil in the form of a phallus grows from soft pale petals.
fddf20f758ebd0da725fa5eb619172f6e19a0241	This deeply personal picture is very important.
922d65a7c9f97cb71c99ac8388c7a2f3d88d96aa	It is inspired by Dali's own subconscious.
90878a45c33965c4728a3cc59327cdfb95aa7bbb	In another painting of this period, "The First Days of Spring", the artist enjoys his sense of freedom.
2ae693e2260fe410a82032fd227596a0ec244567	The diagonal lines in the center of the canvas look like a road or steps leading to the horizon.
de7552caff5871b94029d557210ee506183d89aa	The figure of a man sitting alone on the left hints at someone who has turned his back to the rest of the picture, which, among other things, has a small photo of Dali - a child and a woman with locusts clinging to her chest.
1e6bc7f76809f1cdc29fcbfe3bfabdc068d81eaf	In the foreground we see a couple.
a9a963fd990ff36d7cb9e579a2dd868a155d2dbc	A man puts his burning hands in a bucket, from which the figure of a phallus grows.
cc5635aaacb65a49cba9b59beb8ca2d2cb5fc382	A similar vignette appears in "Illuminated Pleasures", where a woman from a couple has bloodied hands.
02884e78002a82233ba897a43769adf44a2f2e97	(57) In the center of the painting was a silhouette of the Madonna with a Sacred Heart, Around the silhouette was roughly scrawled: "Sometimes I like to spit on the portrait of my mother."(58) What may have been intended by Dali as a small advertising joke seemed to his father to be a desecration of the holy memory of his first wife and the mother of the family.
4589fa27515bc5c82a961c0e69d8ef08608bc157	60) As a result, the father forbade Dali to ever visit the family home.(61) According to his subsequent stories, the artist, tormented by remorse, cut off all his hair and buried it in his beloved Kadakes.
69103dfd2d63e7e9c8fb5b12af226ff749cd3461	Gala Eluard (born Russian Elena Deluvina Diakonova) was the mistress of Max Ernst, the founder of Dadaism, and then Surrealism, even when she became the wife of the French poet Paul Eluard.
05e09f2aefcbb0b203200a31a391d416aaa7343c	Her meeting with Salvador Dali in the summer of 1929 was fatal for both of them.
2f124d122ca2efcc5b59d60b03c1b7c9b601db04	Gala, who was almost ten years older than him, seemed to Dali a refined, self confident woman who had been moving for a long time in the highest artistic circles of Paris, while he was just a simple young man from a small provincial town in northern Spain.
58bcb9b4547ad478e20e3f147641011e48e7d9c7	At first, Dali was struck by the beauty of Gala and burst into embarrassed hysterical giggles when they talked.
b7bbb73527e058ff3fa983cb004a292f8a40e09d	He didnot know how to behave in front of her, although he secretly admitted that she turned him on.
254e5800af4b61bcb488bfea62f06dc18defcf54	In turn, Gala was confused by this tense young man and his preoccupation with masturbation and castration.
bd458d7275456ceee2d4d65472a86aa2e3ec55a5	When Paul Eluard returned alone to Paris, Dali and Gala found a way out of the current problematic situation in sex.
b70d27f2e9090a58cde30a1b0d7781807d956be3	"The first kiss," Dali wrote later, " when our teeth collided and our tongues intertwined, was only the beginning of the hunger that forced us to bite and gnaw each other to the very essence of our being."
6dc32673022431896f8f806465c229a57e59d5d5	Such images often appeared in Dali's subsequent works: chops on the human body, fried eggs, cannibalism - all these images remind of the violent sexual liberation of a young man.
38e5ffaf702bd12b803252e9a754264c732b7934	When the couple first ran away together, they locked themselves in their room at the chateau of Cary le Rouet near Marseille and cut themselves off from the rest of the world.
34cc3927374dd4f076911767c65f333fe8bd93c8	This flight lasted all their married life, even when Dali became infamous.
933728a4e5b05b60894810ce3de21c20da67cd94	Gala - whose reaction to Dali's violent passionate love was, as they say, the words: "My boy, we will never part" - became for him not just a mistress satisfying his passion.
dd1ed6cb37862522352dea2a8cc553e34150c002	When she eventually left her husband and moved to Dali in 1930, she proved to be an excellent organizer, business manager and patroness.
18b20e9d6bc6203d14bc336c951298d3efd856e2	And when they finally got married in 1934, Gala's ex husband Paul Eluard was one of the witnesses at the wedding ceremony.
e3907b595fd66b2e106fabe1341fbc64c38fb83c	To express his feelings for this amazing woman, Dali depicted her in the form of Gradiva, the heroine of the popular novel by William Jensen, where Gradiva appears as an animated statue from Pompeii, with which a young man fell in love, which ultimately changed his life.
4c461ec7070f04dc533edd08bc4db717cbb6d32d	In the painting "Gradiva rediscovers anthropomorphic ruins" against the background of rocks, which the artist was inspired to paint by the rocky landscape of the Costa Brava, Gradiva is depicted in the foreground, the model for which was Gala, shrouded in a rock on which there is an inkwell, perhaps as a hint to her ex - husband, the poet.
f1c41148f623aff9e169b75bdf1e18117bff62d5	A lasting Memory The image of a deserted coast read stuck in Dali's mind at that time.
f9326de6a86b27b836563c0491cf1431c8db368b	"The Persistence of Memory" was completed in 1931 and became a symbol of the modern concept of the relativity of time.
069ae53a925a987baa14d8a5f65c2374cf2fcd2f	In addition, the picture causes the viewer to have other deeply hidden feelings that are difficult to determine.
56bfb7736c8c4cfd7504f711aae38a322a82effa	A year after the exhibition at the Pierre Colet Gallery in Paris, Dali's most famous painting was bought by the New York Museum of Modern Art. Unable to visit his father's house in Cadaques because of his father's ban, Dali built a new house on the seashore, near Port Ligat, with the money received from the patron of the arts, Viscount Charles de Noeil, for the sale of paintings.
4669c4e0d65e822d2b51b9332031943d6793b84b	Remaining true to his instinct, the artist reluctantly parted with his beloved coast and family nest.
e591640a2f6286dc128cbf1563e149a9c5f98634	He began to create paintings of three themes: the legend of William Tell, Millet's "Angel" and Freud's subconscious world.
172a559076d85447d71b65257274db448fee1534	Wilhelm Tell and Lenin For Dali, Wilhelm Tell symbolized the complete rupture of the symbolic umbilical cord that connected him with the house and everything that was connected with it in terms of totems and taboos.
97ebf78ee64308cb1a221520cda324fe0606738d	The artist's first painting dedicated to this topic was simply called "Wilhelm Tell" (1933).
6807db5b422052c1bcd1dec5104b168e24c7e10f	In the same year he wrote "The Riddle of William Tell".
ca677a0e2c10f9a0c08bc65cf7ba345098f2f6b9	In it, the legend of William Tell is mixed with the life of Lenin.
520be602f30f63c0bceb7d18a719023ee821a5c2	Dali had already painted a picture in 1931 using the image of Lenin: "A partial hallucination: the appearance of six heads of Lenin on the piano", where the head of the Russian revolutionary is depicted in a shining halo on the piano keyboard in a dark room.
2a90f3793fb4c8bf9dd1db9b25e3d4ca7852f477	There is only one father in the room, contemplating something.
8ebb4d54367494ea461099775fc3b36f849918c6	His hand rests on the back of a chair with cherries.
892d703cc823b95f84c3632850a0fe85ab927dac	This is a subconscious image of Dali's punishment in childhood, his father's fear and the memory of a plate of cherries in the punishment room.
84cf1da5d57b301c497e5e33c7bcd254eef0031d	In the picture" The Riddle...
517a75d2d85a2712d7b9e4325b42624e334a7d8f	" Lenin's surprisingly long buttock is supported by a crutch, while another crutch supports the long visor of his cap.
973a9d0e42bf57f3369148ce4334552678108df8	On the ground, which is about to be broken by Lenin's foot, there is a child in a baby carriage.
76b91c8a09ea9f6ff976ade963c85dc20686bd3d	Lenin, obviously, is also holding a child with a cutlet on his head, which he is likely to eat.
abbee9cd838584b9c390f9886026ff99c3d31057	The general meaning of the picture is that the child is in danger from the father figure, and perhaps it expresses Dali's feelings for his father and for the Surrealists, whose rules began to oppress him.
b9e8cf606cf174a9d7c19172944dc4977de669ed	Some surrealists saw the painting as an insult to Lenin and tried to destroy it.
3fba25756cbb3e69e13c340b5c743d42c1570e73	But Breton and other important members of the movement did not care much about this.
14cd8dc246b47b29f7cbb23274c48a8831ff889d	From their point of view, more important was Dali's lack of devotion to their political course and what they considered a freedom in art: his visual puzzles and his obsession with jokes.
e81d119ee59e98700c305aef1bce3931b1801a96	Dali's newfound confidence in himself and in his work appeared thanks to a relationship with Gala, a woman who completely satisfied him.
67a311203fd4c29495e52136c00fcefaf09a1b2e	But he was not so blinded by love that he did not see another meaning of their connection.
94518fd3d2770a81b163232919b2b384d7c82a98	He expressed this in his new mythology of the Angel, the most famous painting by the French artist of the nineteenth century, Jean Francois Millet.
49bf1abf703c0e8c8551f4e962fa1975fce34485	This famous painting, much loved by Victorians for the noble feelings that permeate it, depicted a peasant and a peasant woman bowing, as if during prayer, after work.
8754622f7167a1431d31351188ad4cf48e10c348	In his works, Dali gave a completely different interpretation of the Millet scene.
1a37e326c331a435610a3a8a4369bde35831762c	The woman has become like a bird of prey, she does not give thanks for the work that gives them daily bread every day, but is going to attack her companion and eat him.
7c17242f74c4873bb82393454d7707b20116ef15	Millet's" Angel " actually appears in Dali's painting "Gala and the Angel "by Millet shortly before the phenomenon of conical anamorphosis ("anamorphosis" - image distortion, often optical), written in 1933.
622ff12e0e574d3b2aebb2043b90196b85411ee8	Here the Gala is depicted in a room, in the doorway of which there is a figure of a sitting Lenin.
99397ab16d3f1767b8c1679e1697ac643495b367	Maxim Gorky with a lobster on his head looks out from behind the door.
2b81541daf0d6bcea4d558bd3ea90060cd9c3291	Millet's "Angel" hangs over the door, so again the two mythologies are merged together.
ec763beec6d87d110611df809f8bf2334ca735c3	"Surrealism Se Mua" Marrying Gala awakened in Dali an inexhaustible imagination and a new inexhaustible energy.
130e1c7740b63e90f0bd366b3148ee165efbe782	61) A fruitful period began in his work.
d0f1390c02ffd02d7b1114b60abd9c1572c948ba	63) In addition to his research, Dali began to use the dual image technique, in which objects could be considered as one or as two objects.
3130ebc9a09b42be08601e8ee03aadf5eb892419	One of the simplest whists for this new field was "The Ghost Cart" (1933), where two passengers crossing the Ampourdan Valley near Cadaques on a covered cart drawn by a horse also turn out to be the towers of a distant city, and the wheels look like sticks sticking out on both sides of the road.
118011e6647149d238080bd1354680bcf603a1e4	In the left corner of the picture there is a broken amphora, a hint that the destroyed Roman city of Ampurias is located near Ampurdan, which is also present in another mysterious picture called "The Chemist of Ampurdan in search of absolutely nothing" (1936).
d0ebfaadc18297921e405b4d7ef03b1629da38d0	Having freed himself from the threads that bound him to the limited world of his home, he was a free wandering explorer of the universe created by himself.
39cb983221d4f425cec5bf42caac3260810e432a	65) The last daring look at childhood was reflected in the film "The Ghost of Sexual Attractiveness" (1932), where a young Dali in a sailor suit against the familiar landscape of the Costa Brava looks at a female figure kneeling and supported by crutches, whose breasts and stomach are made of gray stone bags.
34563383103615029e54a9617706cdb93532bfd7	The woman's head passes into the cliff behind her.
ef4b3cf56b490f0dd48229ee150e33fa27de518d	Gala was also almost always present in his paintings and sketches for paintings.
27451236a240a9a97113e550ae0451d6c1ec4b5e	For example, in the painting "A dream puts its hand on a person's shoulder" (circa 1932), it is depicted in the form of a dream, whose head is made of flowers.
3ea72cf32586a1b539724c10ff741374205199aa	As if to confirm his personal orientation, Dali wrote a frank "Portrait of Gala" (1935), where the "Angel" appeared again.
adcafb6cd56981729c8521196f9c426f8d87d19e	Here, however, the foreground is filled with Gala's back.
0f3dfce42eecbd5250f884be62352fe5513974b4	She is fully dressed and looks at herself sitting on a wheelbarrow with an "Angel" over her head.
b749f35017febe163aad9a84abcf51d94358a16c	This painting, filled with the calm and balance of the Dutch interior, is a statement about the relationship between Dali and Gala, to whom the artist was grateful for her help in achieving "the sublime transition of bad into good, madness into order" and for making their contemporaries accept and share his special madness.
a8ed15d1d0e628892fe24d63d951ce77fa455ded	Despite the infidelities, the relationship between Gala and Dali remained very important for the artist and until the death of his wife in 1982 was an integral part of his life and an important factor in earning a living.
e2f0b843ca7683d7936c5ec8a1d49ffbe0340c65	Her feelings towards him are less clear.
933a3f15a4fe44d06fed875fe4d315362af1338d	She never expressed her views and opinions, but she had a huge influence on Dali even when, according to rumors, she had several other lovers.
bcd0cda83b72a434c0f2765f0058d4401e0bb70d	It was noticed that the husband himself encouraged his wife's infidelity, arranging, as they say, orgies with various sexual perversions.
720c1ec6de8305d9b852a207e3af56e26bd26df1	These statements, like most of Dali's personal life, are usually only assumptions based on published stories and his reputation - but they must be based on real facts.
7566e196f9f7d8c79d496891e707dbd0f0cd2318	Paranoid Critical Method A characteristic feature of the great figures of modern art is that they are convinced that they have a personal view of reality, and thanks to this belief they leave their imprint on the world consciousness.
c47a6f5efd3e7bcde8680d582570007e10946eb6	68) After a brief encounter with the technique of pointillism, cubism and the style of his fellow Catalan Joana Miro, he decided that he was more interested in the content of the paintings, for the expression of which the technique of such great masters as Botticelli and Velasquez was quite enough.
71539d664fc35aad3b57a26de6a8a0b7a20186aa	70) Dali called the new method of studying pictorial subjects the paranoid critical method.(71) This method is the only way to get what he called irrational knowledge and explain it.
87906d01d84c38bcefe66e2b09e1b9f0328ddc77	The artist was firmly convinced that in order to release deeply hidden thoughts, the mind of a madman or someone who, because of his so called madness, would not be limited by the guardian of rational thinking, that is, the conscious part of the mind with its moral and rational attitudes, was necessary.
00f80dd4121a1fa96c454425d8402a9c6f43f5d0	77) Their interest was attracted and excited by puzzle pictures with frequent erotic and bestial hints.
28d886caa84ef37a2cf077aad8c6c91c8e4c438b	78) The sexual nature of his works, with frequent hints of castration, masturbation and sodomy, challenged not only society, but also the art establishment, which he despised for the progress of technical enlightenment that distinguished twentieth century art at that time.
0130741a5dd4b8526a0a741558ef2dfda91f8eb7	79) This was as shocking and incredible an event as the discovery of Charles Darwin half a century ago.
0153942445d612cc0d0ac88021ab5bc06cf7e1b0	(80) In addition, it was an excellent means of advertising creativity.(81) His first attempt to give the idea a tangible form was the painting "The Invisible Man", which he began in 1929.
adfc2e88665c2598d176b4fd4e0b2be32983d45b	However, the work was not completed until 1933.
74c56a3f6d06e0e6f5cad53700fd9e4d3ec56cce	In this picture, the figure of a man is hidden behind a lot of architectural details and other objects, phallic symbols, characteristic evidence of Dali's fear of castration.
6586c7fa1936906908d8e43c2880f8928c71e831	Dali laid the idea of the existence of a whole world of the subconscious in 1936 in his work "The Suburbs of a paranoid critical city: Noon on the Outskirts of European History".
a602ab13d738f80da1ec64f6c1a44180ed03f05a	At first glance, this picture shows a typical city.
9346f688c728eb5e4133bcfa73b792d3867c3832	Annoying details do not immediately cause a feeling of surprise and shock.
e5f946cfddfd2b73e0be38d57c3456a5b2f69bbe	However, soon the viewer begins to understand that the perspectives of the individual parts of the picture are not connected with each other, which, however, does not violate the unity of the composition.
96a8d5fe4a44cfdf2ee5a557685d81932531e9cd	The depicted city seems to have emerged from a subconscious dream and has a certain meaning until the viewer begins to critically examine it.
e7c7859a7a5e683413e69eef7140632e0ae3c8e2	In addition to the details inherent only in dreams, events occur in different parts of the city that are not related to each other in any way, but are the real fruits of Dali's memory.
7b94358dc40fbaa210e09089b0e1b2d04bd677db	Gala holds a bunch of grapes, which echoes the partial figure of a horse and a classic building in the background, which, in turn, is reflected in a toy house placed in an open chest of drawers.
33732e4074580a3dfac47578e6d426692738e41e	In general, the finished, but disjointed plot is explained in the subtitle of the title of the picture: this is really the story of Europe that has passed halfway, breathing nostalgia, regret.
014d80eb757447cfbd46ff8f159aa4ef61cf9cb2	Art Objects Dali's desire to be recognized in a society that, in fact, was indifferent to art, especially modern art, caused him to have a natural tendency to attract attention to himself.
bfb9c4d33967f98c03a25e203d6f6bd34d9f7893	It was at this time, around the mid 1930s, that the artist began to create surreal objects, which became his most famous works.
01b5113aa5b55cd65c419910e5e5935b9776af95	His other memorable works were "Telephone Lobster", a composition created in 1936, and the shocking "Mahe West Sofa" (1936-37): a wooden frame covered with pink satin.
758e728a6261183dbe52514045042aee7d581822	The artist appeared in the costume of a deep sea diver.
cbd4eadff71024bd2d76007010ee34344d70713d	90) However, when Dali began to choke and began to gesticulate frantically, the applause was replaced by fear and confusion.
7f428d31ae0aee0d7148f7cbf6b4e62183ac9855	This was not exactly what Dali intended, but the attention of the general public was attracted to the first exhibition of surrealist works held in London, at the Cork Street Gallery.
2120da6994ab245f8d91902936ebd6ea618f6cbd	The exhibition, which is very popular, was held by the American collector Peggy Guggenheim.
38ed78be1469cbaad2ba216ea901fd18d89f335b	92) Miss Guggenheim became the second patron of Dali from the rich New York patrons of artists (before that, he lectured on Surrealism at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1935).
81db92121d360d138a67039151fee47beead5c78	Soon these patrons became his most ardent supporters.
954f3015235b43ecb33bb5aff7dcb277b7cb6056	Surrealist Celebrity After returning from his next trip to the United States in 1937, where he visited Harpo Marx in Hollywood and took part in the work on the script of the film, Dali participated in another international exhibition of surrealists, this time in Paris.
19bb4b08c32425f267c75889941710b4496a0803	98) Dali reconciled himself to his new status of personality, which was expressed in his significant picture "Metamorphoses of Narcissus" (1936-37).
837d8541fabc3272306205ddffe5faebed3685cd	It was his most successful painting of that period with two images.
508e1f768f8bdbd14e136e201259e7dcc5823b92	At first glance, it seems that it depicts the limbs of two figures on a normal background.
f4eac6b735b188466e7c3d15475f4b520b10fcb1	But then you can notice that the limbs in the left part of the picture belong to the figure of a man partially hidden in the shadow and looking into the water, which reflects his image - the image of a Narcissus.
4fd3376fa4b4d0e756dc19d5308028d3106b3290	On the right is a set of similar shapes, but now the limbs are fingers holding an egg, from the cracks of which a narcissus flower grows.
8fc70479338e0df9942815393d18cbce4a6ef8a2	The myth of Narcissus is interpreted here by Dali as the story of his own transformation through Gala.
7bf3f2021c7c672b096d5134b92cb220d6922323	The self absorbed young man, previously preoccupied with masturbation and castration, has now become a member of a normal sexual union, depicted in the background of the painting in a style reminiscent of the active world of Renaissance works.
ae26cce3f8bbdb5f459dd16ed5c4d6942925eacb	Even the chessboard was borrowed from a Bellini painting.
6df95e690c8ffc87541f8ca4fe4b5831e5b006b0	Art and the Civil War Dali's return to Spain after the London exhibition of Surrealists in 1936 was prevented by the civil war, which began with the uprising of General Franke and his loyal troops against the people's government.
de6f38ee08eb01246aec8c6ac890c5881aec9e9c	The government was forced to flee to Valencia, and then, when the city began to be threatened, to Barcelona, Dali's Catalan homeland.
762f4f7c0c4730c653da0e8b8fe61b27a66ec81d	Among them is the tragic and terrifying " Soft construction with boiled beans: a premonition of civil War "(1936).
1173945d8a7a971f642bdfdc2f1fbd40e01a65ee	The feelings expressed by Dali in this picture are comparable to the stunning" Guernica " by Picasso.
41ed2836c06ba128ac34d0629a2628102549133e	But it is less in line with public taste because of its obvious sexual overtones.
488441e7b2bb53df880a4ac9a171b685b9264cc6	The picture is dominated by a fragment of a naked female body.
0306bf48f3d402b66f9ebfa6e5eea03b246ff6b9	The chest is cruelly squeezed by a knobby hand.
55c0960e14f30ca5058ca0d8f1d30a8ece2697a6	The audience was indeed more horrified by Dali's realism than by the symbolic abstractions of Picasso's painting.
0d929f0d41489c29c6be76d6025c770c96fd441a	In addition, Dali managed to find a strong image expressing the horrors of war, symbolized by simple boiled beans the food of the poor.
4cdeb6cf5393b73876652a3e32fbe4533cc65f0a	In addition, behind the crooked hand in the foreground, we see a small bent figure - the figure of a simple man, depicted by the artist and in "The Chemist of Ampurdan in search of Absolutely Nothing" as a symbol of the nihilism of modern life.
0f5c532649712ade5082f9e73d29d2746767c69f	He expressed his persistent fears in "Autumn Cannibalism" (1936), where intertwined fingers eat each other.
2c699e0beed097fa41be4f1ed745933ce9aded39	The artist's horror is softened here by the familiar landscape of Kadakes in the background as an expression of the idea that such events, even the civil war, are transitory, but life still goes on.
8c6e12f126f9baa38645e6c965cad84c36c356b7	Dali's commentary on the Spanish Civil War was called simply "Spain".
2e87e782f2070e3075a40a17ba356a8c3e4b7fe7	The picture was painted in 1938, when the war reached its climax.
053eb0a5503ff20aa91a05b923d748727836464d	This ambiguous, paranoid critical work depicts the figure of a woman leaning her elbow on a chest of drawers with one open drawer, from which a piece of red cloth hangs.
ee31f32614a79faeb9ae8aa69ac5d42043b80c41	The upper part of the woman's body is made of small figures, most of which are in militant poses, reminiscent of the groups of Leonardo da Vinci.
8af4e53e709596ba54657eeda9ab1be14abc92e3	In the background, a deserted sandy plain is depicted.
1221c9dfcf35cb7b2e1f8cf7035dc4d4eb4ec7d3	Many of Dali's friends became victims of the civil war in his homeland.
83764a3846170e9126a996e38616c0f16fd382ad	Out of habit, he tried not to think about the bad things.
11be017feb1ba91493d92e22d8a41f4740198046	One of the ways to forget was the anesthesia of the mind, for which sleep was ideal.
b380b66d7a7b8c0de50e77b33b04eb7ecf06e569	This is reflected in the painting "Dream" (1937), where the artist created one of the most powerful images.
cd2049ce72ff41264a9f3da2344195079ca627a5	The head without a trunk rests on flimsy supports that can break off at any moment.
6beed091749a8920cf755fe089fd6a1522416168	In the left corner of the picture there is a dog, which is also supported by a prop.
81503508dd82f212bdf79f1ec9c420ffa3be04b0	On the right, a village grows up, similar to one of the villages of the Costa Brava.
ebbea315f3937a61ef445ffa308a9ddeb55be430	The rest of the painting's space, except for a distant small fishing boat, is empty, symbolizing the artist's anxiety.
87e2b1ce47c1b28d601143da30ac828aff0a814a	In another group of paintings, where Dali's concern about the clearly approaching world war was manifested, a telephone theme was used.
96cb78393fce7a2feed1021defde20f909915291	In "The Riddle of Hitler" (circa 1939), a telephone and an umbrella are depicted on a deserted beach.
0bf4660bcb513c520a8ec921ca4f9d193a55c16f	The picture hints at the unsuccessful meeting of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain with Adolf Hitler.
9e23eb41ff3f34165f76c46a120df29de879c36b	Both in the "Sublime Moment" and in the" Mountain Lake", written in 1938, the artist used (in addition to the phone) the image of a crutch, a typical symbol of bad forebodings for Dali.
5534b41cee4055b271181f3b22bff110cb6b4378	This trip inspired the artist to write " African Impressions "(1938).
1825eeaeddf56b6afea40887b2bfaebbae782076	The couple returned to France, where there were rumors of an imminent war in Europe, and found time to visit the United States again in the first half of 1939.
f0fa8a9417d6976b74852a398fa589a1b2579a27	The inexorably impending horror worried Dali.
4f32ef0b03c263cbc471e0b9fd846a592aa327b8	Immediately after the outbreak of war in September 1939, he left Paris and went to Arcachon, which is on the sea coast south of Bordeaux.
9c5f6eba2772f53976210a8f7753f418b689c3a7	From here, Gala and he moved to Lisbon, where, among those fleeing from the war, they met the famous designer Elsa Schiaparelli, for whom he had already designed dresses and hats, and the film director Rene Clair.
26732b3341e7d403fb3d542247c6556882509d04	The anagram "Avida Dollars" was made in 1941 from the name of Salvador Dali by Andre Breton as a mockery of Dali's vanity about making money.
f0c4632bf0caa6709a68317196727d81d48af532	But it concealed something much more than a pang of envy caused by the growing success of Dali, whose rise began in 1936, and the surprisingly warm reception given to the artist in the United States by both rich patrons and ordinary viewers.
7e5c4289f072daacad5933d27f08f98a4c042131	In the artistic circles of Europe, Dali was not considered a serious contender for the crown of an aesthete, since he was immersed in exoteric theories of art. But in the USA, where art was still guided by traditional attitudes and millionaires and business kings were hunting for traditional European art, Dali was greeted with enthusiasm.
e33b160c1b173285c4a628afcfd5b348d5d4d330	His paintings, although with mysterious content, were accessible to visual perception, since they depicted understandable objects, so this impulsive personality, repelled everywhere and irritating everyone in Europe, was accepted in the United States, which was proud of its frank, firm character, comprehensive personalities and showmen.
53ab5fcfd44ee878f1ef84ba7402c8440187b02a	Dali and Gala reluctantly left Europe, but soon settled comfortably in Friedriksburg, Virginia, at Hampton Manor, in the house of Kareya Crosby, an avant garde publisher.
a592d9ecabc4af4d056472c718664b71acba23e3	Here Gala began to build a cozy nest for Dali, having requisitioned the library and ordered the necessary accessories for painting from the nearby city of Richmond.
a280f4764459234c20bf43d659b983883a5a7a0a	The writer Anais Nin, who was present there, watched and later recalled her troubles.
6a9583932762921ccd5fc91ff1e0e2f87a518be8	A year later, Dali and Gala moved with Mrs. Crosby across the United States to Monterey, near San Francisco, California.
093c8414f1c8ee033752e12649d2a46e1c0b4068	The house in this city became their main refuge, even though they lived for a long time in New York, basking in luxury.
2dba7cadf72b042fa059252a0d91fbe354a8e9f6	During the eight years spent by Gala and Dali in America, Dali made a fortune.
35fce5ccfd1ef0f763036ebecf31804e84b901d6	However, Dali had followers among European art lovers, especially those who were interested in the Surrealist movement, who saw in his works a unique way of expressing hidden parts of the human spirit. 105) American Incidents Dali during his stay in America participated in numerous commercial projects: in the theater, ballet, jewelry, fashion, and even published a newspaper for self promotion (only two issues were published).
904ff84e897fd409e5a1c4780df7976eec7b15e5	As the number of projects grew over time, he seemed more like a mass entertainer than a serious artist engaged in the study of expressive means.
b7155242b604edb50bfa0c04c2be60ad7eed13f6	Although his popularity grew, Dali began to lose, at least in Europe, the support of art critics and historians, on whom the artist's reputation depended throughout his life.
db6c99f1b533bc39b39de0fac5443444bcbb7c45	(106) American friends were ready to continue to help the artist in his career.
4dbf1ec955dc5d4860cb9410c07740e36f27ef0a	The case of Bonuit Teller occurred before the incident with the International Exhibition. 111) Dali ordered the design of the windows of the Bonuit Teller department store in New York.
b3548dd03c30e89b6815aa714ec0905690566122	(112) Dali fulfilled this order in his inimitable extravagant style, exposing a black satin bath and a canopy made of a buffalo's head with a bloody pigeon in his teeth.
2b6fbd235c84c9f3c59dd7ebaf45ae366113b0a3	This upset Dali so much that he turned the bathtub over, breaking the mirror glass of the window, and went out through it to the street, where the New York police arrested him. 116) Gave a suspended sentence.(117) This attracted so much attention to his personality that his next exhibition at the New York gallery was a huge success.
aa297e55401a7e71e87142699952d25188b72846	Such cases, sometimes shocking, created a good advertisement for Dali among the ordinary public, who saw in the artist the embodiment of personal freedom, which the United States was so proud of and which, as he stated, can be found only in America (that is, not in Europe). 119) When some journalists questioned Dali's sanity and the expediency of his antics, he accepted the challenge.
5e5055ae38d7c8ac0b9eace442980b10a0173002	Responding to an article in Art Digest asking if he was just a madman or an ordinary successful businessman, the artist replied that he did not know himself where the deep, philosophical Dali begins and where the crazy and absurd Dali ends. 120) The World of Works All this was part of the spirit of the New World of that time and made Dali a popular product outside the field of dealers and art galleries.
fcfb284d370067e88f5340ad92b1b0dd90881ffa	He has already developed models for Elsa Schiaparelli.
9f9b1f0633295c10879ea3d0fe82347f6fa198fb	Now he began to invent more fantastic fashion items that got on the pages of Vogue and Harper's Bazaar and won him popularity among the rich and refined public.
9110786c9a8fe5d9c54b8e773e0893e249eb9fb2	The Marquis de Cuevas, the founder of the Monte Carlo Ballet, also introduced Dali to his world by ordering the design of the stage for the "Bacchanal" with costumes from Coco Chanel.
db1652bb08a823b625032fc36156bc0f6149dd90	Other orders for the design of the stage for the ballet from the Marquis de Cuevas were " Labyrinth "(1941) with choreography by Leonid Massin," Sentimental Conversation, a Chinese cafe "and" The Destroyed Bridge " (1944).
44f102d78409894f1ae4233aa330a92f93297ce2	In New York, the St. Regis Hotel became the haven of Dali and Gala, where the artist created his studio.
0713a196ac24823908388aa15b5b49b679764900	There he worked on portraits of Mrs. George Tate II, Elena Rubinstein, the queen of cosmetics (Dali also worked on the design of her apartment), Mrs. Luther Green.
281601b4e57ff08c496dd50db2c15a6f1196fb33	In addition, Dali was again involved in working on films.
4c22fd74527577534519b48bba97eb1b60e32915	He enthusiastically welcomed this way of self expression, in which he saw the kingdom of creativity of the future, despite the fact that later he belittled the contribution of cinema to art.
6bde679009a4262017b3e938a8eed221e6d98dea	It was he who created the famous surreal dream sequence in Alfred Hitchcock's film "Enchanted" in 1945.
e1b1a81917c0b4c83257ba7242c8620f3f51a6d9	Hitchcock wanted to create the first film about psychoanalysis at a time when the teachings of Freud began to have a profound influence on the thinking of Americans, so God himself told him to turn to Dali.
4d13a3eedf7830aeaf86796cd1590efcaaaa0061	The following year, the artist began working on the Walt Disney project "Destino", which, unfortunately, was not completed.
6e84d4a6c793afacfaccda759b82b453b8de7650	Only one more full length film was created based on Dali's script "Don Juan Tenorio", made in Spain in 1951.
1ef63173a1c13041eb2cadbbbb174d591a7477c8	Dali, as a rule, liked active activity, and together with Gala, who was constantly near him, he became known throughout the United States of America as the king of modern art. He even found time to write a novel "Hidden Faces" about a group of aristocrats on the threshold of the Second World War.
5edc85574f7c114b3d6b8565cc6f5442522b106b	Anxiety and Seduction, meanwhile, large sums were laid out for Dali's paintings.
3b7a63ca5faac4fdc6f4a34945a23068650fe89a	Their popularity was partly due to the fact that they looked like the works of old masters, carefully and conscientiously made.
ec5718d73bbe4c4f5ba6be6c71f0ae57d2caa0cd	It was also important that they were written by a person, although sometimes eccentric during his appearance in public, but cute, well mannered, well dressed and most likely not a revolutionary or a communist.
8fafc04e149fe3b9b6874c9cb47265214f4c512c	Such a significant work by Dali as "The Slave Market with the disappearing bust of Voltaire", written in 1940, was filled with echoes of the latest European paintings.
e560e0f8a4dae5251c7dbd75c384f2a3af1a5c59	The picture looks like a scene with a half naked Gala in the lower left corner.
1a94062b736daf6dfc5de30abe6fdfd0ca49d0a6	She looks at a group of characters against the background of a destroyed building.
eae8fc7ceb6c3ed0c9532eaa1b725e3ad2e9bc90	Among the figures, two women in Dutch dresses stand out, which, thanks to the artist's excellent ability to create dual images, are also a bust of Voltaire by the sculptor Houdon.
57a2290d8f40474656f3987893f8d65d093f4096	Behind them are the slaves depicted in dark colors, which are mentioned in the title of the picture.
882beb3351f9c66c41d8bc97a74dc86361ab3a62	They indicate the mood of Dali, Full of Voltaire's self doubt, before the influence of Gala gave him freedom and self confidence.
83ba6bb925d4358fb0adffbe1e3f8557f6ae7465	Another picture, indicating that Dali did not feel completely free away from the familiar landscape of the Costa Brava, is called "A dream caused by a bee flying around a pomegranate a second before waking up".
348d1e67da53d26ffa33f1e342605a0679f7f044	In this painting, painted in 1944, Dali depicted Gala lying on a stone slab.
2f18164fabfeadaf1ec214f7227cf87a8a5e8e96	The work resembles the portraits of his sister Anna Maria, painted in Cadaques.
aeac41a5967614665f02e266ad34fcfcea70a0f8	One tiger jumps on the Gala, the other is devoured by a fish.
bfe49c0e29495242d5617c8933496e37c799010c	All this is a typical nightmare for Dali.
c469c73a176508812bd1d23d4a831ab8b6fad5d5	The whole picture seems a little light, like advertising graphics.
36a9c51e979a6ff87752ab348f7a5b2c17280772	The picture suggests that Dali temporarily lost touch with the subconscious layer of his inspiration.
d9d1b916869a6056cfe89dbb44c059d5baf285ed	However, it was soon restored when the artist took part in a competition for the best picture for the film "Bel Ami" (translator's note: "bel ami" - in French means "dear friend"), organized by Loev Levin Studio os.
ee83b698fb321d10a05f6a0ef8f31a39366a1fa7	The subject of the painting was supposed to be the temptation of St. Anthony.
e5e8fd61755ddb7bf09bf441f4d50ae9337800e6	And although Max Ernst won the competition, the artist had new ideas reflected in a new series of paintings.
2d202546e023fbb327c71269aeb14e176d1a2566	In The Temptation of St. Anthony (1946) Dali placed the saint in the lower left corner.
93df2040f753f72fe9ec83858cdd784f34b5a2ac	Above it floats a chain of elephants, led by a horse.
762ab77d111ffc94c16a5f5bc4880eabe762316d	Their long, dangling, stilt like legs make them look like balloons.
864057443f8ee26456ec6edee7b7cd9d4ec58b41	Elephants carry temples with naked bodies on their backs.
0ec560feb76f04530dcf88c34c33a65f35670b2f	Apparently, the artist wants to say that temptations are between heaven and earth.
391e7c924db186ec67b7a6729cb22282b51c41ef	Now the meaning is not so difficult to understand, because for Dali, sex was akin to mysticism.
eeaf5e94bcf1f6c1db9437b115ec5a555454c1c5	Another key to understanding the picture lies in the decent appearance on the cloud of the Spanish El Escorial, a building that for Dali symbolized law and order achieved through the fusion of the spiritual and the secular.
56754a30dd7871ae821061364cc93045a6a7e616	Thus ,the "Temptation of St. Anthony" is the key that opens the cosmos of Dali, as this picture confirms the artist's growing interest in the world of spirituality and matter.
3387d330fad19f7518b942d6d540b1084b270b05	The roots of this dualism lie in Dali's family upbringing in provincial Figueres.
4f6b65a4c9e9234b06be9abdd85f570d803a8e4f	The new vision of the world, as Dali claimed, was born in a flash of enlightenment, which was another consequence, besides the roar and radioactive glow, of the explosion of the atomic bomb over Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
ea4788466ea353116917c65624644cb09c3c7664	Dali was looking for a mystical answer in the black clouds raised by the explosion.
3c3fab2602806f28cecf60f57ca4415144a2cdc4	An absolute vision of the meaning of all this should be granted, as he believed, by the grace of God and the grace of truth.
b82fd909421612ba42b05eeaa09ef57992709f37	The idea of God's mercy was nurtured in him as a child during his religious upbringing.
ed1dcdf4bf67d8e6b5dd3cda7247aa3ecaf750c3	As for the grace of truth, the artist hoped to find it in the discoveries of modern physics.
b650f8609a43deaf4a90eb99daaebb4bb6e5adc9	Although Dali's ideas about life, God and modern science began to mature in the artist's brain back in the United States and began to manifest themselves in his works of that period, they finally matured and began to bear fruit only after returning home to Kadakes in 1948.
caee62b8eb281dc792b071dc9f0655991b1fdf27	The brain of the Mystic Dali was so shocked by the atomic bomb that he wrote a whole series of paintings dedicated to the atom.
75c1087853bb7c9bb4756240066b67eb1f505618	The first of this series was the "Three Sphinxes of Bikini Atoll", created in 1947.
248f4b06fe7cf7192e4041aa0f994284bf8e01ca	"Sphinxes" are three mushroom shaped bodies, similar to a mushroom cloud formed after the explosion of this weapon of mass destruction.
33fa84c6dc32672f014ccaa652a95de9e4be2d80	The first mushroom in the foreground grows out of the woman's neck like a cloud of hair, the second one appears in the center and looks like the foliage of a tree, the third, the most distant, cloud rises from behind the landscape of Kadakes.
1ca1ceacc932199fffd5685321c3c32151dcc30f	This was the first work from a series of paintings and drawings, with them Dali turned to the destructive post war world, which the artist looked at with concern and which pushed him to a mystical approach to work.
05961149315833fe64279e52637eacd60d4c5317	This was one of the sides of Dali's personality, which was manifested even in the "Temptation of St. Anthony".
1980f0bfd32f954a9920e08aff7e8ba08106faa2	After the end of the war in 1945,Dali decided to stay in the United States, where he was preparing for his artistic revival.
7a445e70f8c4b463cc721d3d9d3d8e2285433f46	Now he was more than ever sure that the artists of the Renaissance period were right when they painted on religious themes, and in the way they did it.
fd996d2c7cc1448e5f8b482844b04db54d9f62cf	He declared war on the academic style of writing preferred by traditional salons, on African art, which had a profound influence on such important figures in European art as Modigliani, Picasso and Matisse, and on the decorative plagiarism of artists who became abstract artists because they really had nothing to say.
a365155c14e546bb240d3faff5e8f32e3034ce78	Dali said that he was going to revive Spanish mysticism and show the unity of the Universe by depicting the spirituality of matter.
a145b4a881b80d605756e534a4e582ce1e4b617d	One of the first paintings that carried his new vision of the world was "Dematerialization near the nose of Nero" (1947).
a67a4540c4029a1a4bb50596f8f913b9a49d7bf0	It depicts a dissected cube under an arch, in the bend of which a bust of Nero floats.
13915e66ffb54814d81246fdce519b8cac7f1a7e	The dissection symbolizes the splitting of the atom.
3d65ed38efe313db62265f88565e87c4dd56e7e2	Dali began to constantly use this technique.
22618a0c2057f385dd1e5327df854a458b64c0ee	Shortly after returning to Spain, Dali began working on two orders.
0626ec904ef99caf85e5b875417a5c7c8fe434ca	For Peter Brooke, the English theater director who directed Strauss's "Salome", and for Luchino Visconti, the Italian film director who is making a new version of Shakespeare's "As You Like It".
6005b445d1c92767cf7043e839c2b37d364b7706	He also worked on sketches for the "Madonna Port Ligat", where Gala was depicted as a Madonna.
1d1f7ecd768a05dbb1234478b933397eda933019	However, first of all, he completed his other important work with the image of Gala: "Leda Atomika" (1949), sketches for which he began to make since 1947.
697361b223bc45eebae24854b968c9cdf0d849e1	In addition, there was an unfinished version of this picture, which was started in 1948.
cd73c84765d68052ccf662e6292e478e80c5c264	In" Leda Atomika", a naked Gala hovers on a pedestal.
ada8a9d4bfc62af78b4dec84563bf8fcdea83aa2	Behind her, the wings of a swan are spread out.
d06377e768884d8016e0a41bcc95460a0d0bcddb	Weightless objects hover under and around the pedestal.
63101307452ccc54f446cb49ed98df932beab6d1	In the background, the cliffs of Kadakes are visible.
a7716132aac8ab7e879d7d3ba68c6b751eb74d7f	The myth of Leda was very important for Dali, since he identified his relationship with Gala with the marriage of Zeus and Leda, from which the swan gave birth to two eggs, and from them two pairs of twins were born: Elena and Polydeucus and Castor and Clytemnestra.
f6dfe91a9af3724729e586b1b0016883e3344df0	Dali saw in himself and Gala two twins who have one life and memory for two and are not able to exist without each other.
bc2554b9c10246d5adf23b4eb877332f147cbc0f	In the painting "Madonna" there is a similar composition: the Gala is dressed like a traditional Madonna of the Renaissance.
7620de483c6633dd7dfce671e1448655601f86ce	The subtlety of Dali's dual image technique is clearly visible in this fragment, where the dying bull is part of the matador's cloak, the bull's eye is a corpse fly, repeated to create the illusion of sequins on the matador's costume.
1e2032a3b4dd641f9733fcde8b9cc9a97840007b	Flies, spangles and dots resemble flying particles, which is consistent with Dali's ideas about physics and the nature of matter.
9ce29c5874e6a3b9ee9809464a413cafffc27d25	The central part of her dress is open yta.
818e03ff9baa07fc1ca7f40d233bcd1e0b61e126	In the resulting opening, the Christ child is visible, hovering over a blue cloud or pillow.
540bda68e80272506203fbbf3f66ac2feb1ee1a3	The Madonna is sitting in a split arch.
d0df00c223d72b7388a58adbe768cee809c017a9	An egg hovers over her head, and above it is a casement shell, symbolizing St. James, who arrived on the shores of Spain on a shell, as Aphrodite arrived on the shores of Cyprus.
7481830e2c08e68ff9f081f4c9e78539c937c311	Other objects floating around the Madonna include shells and fish.
2b463f4d71b6cc9692fbeaefc5179d3275a00909	The coast of Cadaques appears again in the background.
b178157d5d81231c41f8a0ce201c49e5153e6a61	The picture is painted in a frank style, without the effects of a paranoid critical method, a dual image and the illusion of reality, which confirms Dali's stated intention to work within the classical framework, which for him was the highest point of artistic development and from which any new art should begin.
c7c9dc7c0faf15248dda3c079c123cddfa896fc8	Dali has moved far away from his radical social and political views of the 1930s.
04748aa77978cb307ed1d716bd369562564b8e42	This was also emphasized by the fact of his audience with Pope Pius XII in November 1949, during which he asked for the blessing of the first version of the"Madonna of Port Ligat".
4824def80ae5e5b63646856e6d389f4bc11d53bc	One can only guess that the pope did not know that the Gala who posed for the Madonna was a woman who was promiscuous in her relationships, and Dali considered her divine.
90b3521e2f8905fbb8cced40144ce4977bf53ea0	Dali painted a later version of " Madonna Port Ligata "in 1950, using the same composition as in the first picture, but adding more important details for himself and for Gala, including rhinos that appeared in his" Lace Maker " and a series with rhinos.
0f0364c6f048019a702fb9c267eda83ce6a6b11c	At the same time, Dali worked on several other projects, including the scenery and costumes for the production of Manuel de Fall's ballet "El sombrero de tres picos" ("The Triangular Hat").
4ea800ad05d3ed5518451be2d582e2747379c8e8	Dali placed sacks of flour and trees floating in space on the stage, while the miller's house itself flies apart with slanting doors and windows, one of which flies into the sky.
bc6b26454e9b8c40dae342abd8785615f6a3ed4a	Dali also painted many portraits, including a portrait of the art collector James Dana, made in 1949.
f82426060dea85f798cd2755aaa5bc2b0c61b764	In the 1950s, Dali painted a number of beautiful portraits of theater artists, including Katerina Cornel (1951) and Laurence Oliver as Richard 111(1951).
883426839d8dae65d87547ad60ccd26ceb271d40	Portraits, as a source of great income, were in the first place with Dali until the 1970s.
891d9ad46bf342eff44ebd30cc23485ab614eb49	The portrait of Francisco Franco's daughter Carmen Bordiu Franco was presented to the Spanish leader in 1974 at a special ceremony.
9b9d65b81b33c5f528a41408698445dec9988727	Dali's most significant painting of 1951 was "The Crucifixion of Christ from St. John" with a crucifix hanging in the sky over the Port of Ligat.
26b2e33423d507de7413b0fb5b8ea1f638417765	This immaculate and unobtrusive painting without any surreal overtones, was sold to the Glasgow Art Gallery.
0500f786fe698e37cd9b05fc5b2f2e395cd8816f	However, immediately after she was hanged, she was cut by a vandal protesting against the amount of 8,200 pounds paid for the painting by the gallery.
0ef8f8a7fdf9063e54da732ce75cb059141cd470	(For five years, the gallery has returned this money from interest, the sale of entrance tickets and the rights to produce reproductions.)
d378e4691215935f4cb71de906981b0df0e25f70	Another painting with the same simplified visual approach is called "Eucharistic Still Life".
5c9e3518e95dbc77ae50c2a8c1165631e6085ab5	It depicts a table covered with a tablecloth with bread and fish lying on it.
adc3c25ac8c2b47421359bd4f9f97ee70b503d9b	Both of these paintings breathe an unusual simplicity for Dali.
27591832029aeb8dd202c4882ee485ee7c2aa5fa	Perhaps they reflected Dali's joy and gratitude about his return to his native land in the Port of Ligat.
23e338d89d39420b608acf26bb11eafad998f013	Now Dali's main concern was the development of his views on mysticism and science.
bdeae6a63893eee1bfa6400b7e0190aa8a97647c	He made several drawings of a decaying Raphael's head, which looked like the Pantheon in Rome.
7a2d733219684b4fdf32cf1237d09613de6d1c14	His constant research of a new direction - disintegrating or explosive paintings - culminated in "Galatea of Spheres" (1952), where the head of Gala consists of rotating spheres.
99a9d09eb574630d185f28aa604d73f4a69c8c18	He also portrayed himself naked and on his knees before disintegrating head gala, and called it "Naked Gave speculating before the five regular bodies, turning into particles of which suddenly appears Leonardo's Leda, chromosomically face gala" (1954).
3ba6bf9a70c21834396146c2dfd32c178612339c	His concern with the new ideas of the theory of relativity led him to return to the "Persistence of memory" 1931.
d1205955f889a8468f62a0a4a26273dd66724643	Now, in The Disintegration of the Permanence of Memory (1952-54), Dali depicted his soft clock below sea level, where stones like bricks stretch into perspective.
a719d4c3301d76dbe4fa4f920cc25bf78cbef684	Dali, who painted on religious and scientific topics, needed rest.
fd71d7637d7cae3e0867f06fccbf105d3e898fd5	The artist also rested, creating erotic works and works with black humor.
d164bd6caabf50a6ebdde30206388d4b800b4382	Together with his friend photographer Philip Halsman, Dali published a book in 1954 called: "Dali's Mustache: a photo interview".
4cb814fd96a36b7cfcb2dd0c87ac08bcc4956d96	"Am I crazy?
b82df981d4ee4b21726f6fc8aab98269b821d629	Yes, I am much more normal than anyone who bought this book" - was a typical phrase of the artist at the presentation of this book, where his famous surprisingly waxed mustache, called by himself "antennas for the perception of art", was praised.
7c1c77fbd1843bd434cf76e7560aaa84fd9ecdee	In the same year, he also wrote "A Young Virgin, Self sodomized by her Own Chastity".
7f72cd317dba45aa040cb5aacc976d993a86639f	The rhino horn became a new symbol for Dali.
2515ae6e46865a1534a1c2d828a456c6e3383fde	The artist associated it with the" Lace Maker " by Jan Vermeer in several of his works in 1955.
8f629a74b5baf40c02d96e83236225997e221cd6	This idea was also used in the film "The Brilliant Story of Denteliers and Rhinos") shot by Robert Desharnais, where Dali reproduced a picture of Vermeer in a cage with rhinos at the Vincennes Zoo in Paris.
c05f48d7a735f8a0aefd5b61d8603b383d96c782	This incongruous juxtaposition of a lace maker and rhinos meant Dali's return to his paranoid - critical world.
4a6361046de060b5b40fd16372ce152357c0767f	He made a fortune from this by attending his lecture on the "phenomenological aspect of the paranoid critical method", which he was supposed to give at the Sorbonne, in a limousine (Dali called the penis" limousine") covered with cauliflower.
776256c25e32ff1dc7241cb192a3135e782789d3	But Dali did not give up his desire for religion, which was bursting out.
edc7beb6b7686ac9f2dcc7d9a65e2e1ff45fba3b	It appeared again in 1955 in the "Last Supper", where kneeling figures wrapped in cloaks stand around a table in a room overlooking the bay of Port Ligat, from the waters of which an almost transparent Christ grows.
a803251def2b8e7d643707f98b686a1fe8f7b523	The religious theme is also strong in the "Ecumenical Council" (1960), where Dali also placed his image.
0c79d5088dba36f6870e20c0a4ea9ffd788c3654	In the center, Gala holds a cross.
caac961d98e93d28cf72605a33088b9016cf7618	Behind her is some kind of misty scene with figures above which a white dove hovers, personifying the Holy Spirit.
2b7890b888aa86d8ca902e41e21857b39c356870	Numerous works of the artist of that period are distinguished by a variety of styles and approaches, as if he had not yet found a new path in art, which mysticism and science pointed out to him.
7486d24e386917215ee06d8ed5cca8f04479b94c	The perfection of his technique remained unchanged, as, for example, in "The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus" (1958).
3f20a56c0b99e334418999a8798e2ba2b1bcbb95	This masterpiece depicts the Gala and the ship of Columbus in a complex blue - gray composition.
5c3ada9838e1e1ae5638f7a78deeb1beb25331ec	Or in "The Holy Virgin of Guadalupe" (1959) with her pyramidal composition: two priests kneel on clouds, from which a delightful cassock grows, crowned with the Holy Virgin and a Child.
976204b92f4abb2662be0bbfec453c887ddd3f2d	Dali was also looking for new approaches in the technique of writing and even experimented with a specially made gun, shooting nails and pieces of metal from it according to drawings.
bdf838f58f27c9b81e27951b11c06eec72610ced	Drawing History and Trains Realizing new ideas with his usual inexhaustible energy, Dali created several more ballets, among them " Grape Pickers "and" Ballet for Gala", for which he developed the libretto and scenery, and Maurice Bejard - choreography. 121) The premiere took place in 1961 at the Venice Phoenix Theater.
ea85ad11fc671655a0f0604f53d2e28e08bcffd1	He continued to surprise the audience with his extravagant appearances. 122) For example, in Rome, he appeared in a "Metaphysical Cube" (a simple white box covered with scientific icons).
78e4cf22c836df668e43046d7b8d180166af0e4f	They believed that the showman casts a shadow on the artist's work. 125) To this Dali replied that he was not a clown, but a terribly cynical society, in its naivety, did not suspect that he was playing a serious play to hide his madness.
52f49617c778b07c0dab6ebbd1237981b80075b3	Criticizing modern art for leading the public to a dead end, Dali spoke favorably about such once beloved, and now unpopular French artists of the historical genre as Jean Louis Ernest Mesonnier and Mariano Fortuny, who painted great and noble epic scenes for buildings where power structures were located.
246aacc0bec75332191bac133fce722022254054	These artists, whom fans of modern art called "pompiers" ("firefighters"), according to Dali, wrote in a good realistic manner.
31c491610b4e4c0963febffe20d68949042da896	He demonstrated his ability to write in the same spirit in the big picture "The Battle of Tetuan" (1962), which was placed next to the work of Fortuny at the Palacio del Tinel in Barcelona.
e59c3fca837bd55387ba9ebb5b1d9ddd4e289e0d	In this painting, Dali felt a strong influence of the style of Eugene Delacroix with his numerous battle scenes.
4379aa818a79022daa9a67e874511e106f9231f8	In addition, the artist worked out the details well, made the plot active and effective and, of course, put the Gala in the background.
3168372799bff91ee0ebc570e3ce8d7425178f7e	After one of his regular visits to the United States, where his fame had already spread around the continent, thanks to which the sale of paintings went more successfully, Dali returned to Europe in 1962 with another scientific development for creating paintings.
b5961c50e7ba83c12f8101c91ae62d7178901a82	The device was called an "electrocular monocle" and allowed transmitting an image using a television signal to a telescopic tube and seeing both the object and its surroundings.
1c603a111da39cb693d08febe34bad731afd01fd	This device, Dali explained, was a response to his method of dual image and paranoid - critical method, since it was intended to help expand vision, while others used drugs for this.
d70e26203fc238780aa99804816bedc6d218ad26	It is not clear what caused this, but Dali's paranoid critical method was again forcefully manifested in "The Railway Station in Perpignan" (1965).
3839d488d098ee0718dbc1045c8adff88e505924	Perpignan is the first railway station in France immediately after crossing the border of Spain, so it has a special symbolic meaning for the artist as a point of entry and exit to the rest of the world.
ee7ab250e0b64995966151335abac9ea5f2c73f3	But it was here that he once remarked that "when Gala arranges for the delivery of paintings by train after us, the most unusual ideas come to my mind."
1441e1e784b2a84d42684b626c504b0ea27169db	In Dali's image of this important place, the railway station is an indeterminate place.
bf24dfc5fec8069448ef20ea322243ed05aa1796	The train hangs over the void, into which the weightless figure of Dali himself falls or floats freely in it with his arms outstretched in front of the ghostly figure of a man.
2b922557b5effda30e0edcb14685fb59b3474b16	On each side are a man and a woman from Millet's Angel.
35402aa33b33db9712117e95eac39806a93a9f74	Behind them is another couple, united by a sexual theme.
9ff83ce1c5640e3dd1847f6b2f82234624cabea5	The revival of the Representative Art "Railway Station", the meaning of which was very important for Dali, since it combined the symbolism of the "Angel" of living together with Gala and his deep attachment to his native places in Catalonia, became the catalyst for his creativity, the fruit of which was the ambitious "Tuna Fishing" (1966-67), the second title of the work "Tribute to the Due Mesonnier".
29fc8957f8401c1aee29a70e4171c51328129fcb	The subject of "Tuna fishing" is simple fishermen catching tuna.
26ed43bd46620b7df22f2f167cfc10595bbce93d	However, Dali used the painting to create a new basis in the technique of writing, leaving his clear Renaissance style and mixing pointillism, favism and other techniques with a universal, almost anarchic freedom of brushstrokes.
80546d11ed72480d401cd3eb615f8302c5a5c234	The composition consists of groups of fishermen surrounding flocks of tuna and killing this fish with knives, swords, harpoons and other devices, which expresses the cruelty of hunting.
94d5818ec1890d1617a367105e79649478b75b46	This moment in time, the artist said, is the meeting place of the finite world.
6f32bfd8013781495ec97a8721f2f7add5bdb0a8	Dali dedicated this painting to Mesonnier, because, he claimed, it was a revival of representative art. After finishing this work, which took about two years to create, Dali began working on another picture: "The Hallucinogenic Bullfighter" (1968-70).
2029a7f0eb9a4322caeaa0c25310fa9856f5edea	Here the technique of the dual image and the paranoid critical method were revived again, but in a new, more refined manner.
407b21620ca3da2d1f3b74a143d9fca371f6e1f0	Many traditional symbols for Dali were revived, such as the Venus of Milo, Gala, the rocks of Cadaquez and Dali's boy in a sailor suit (as he portrayed himself in "The Ghost of Sexual Attractiveness" in 1932).
a8d36e00ffbc6ff7c344fb6ec97b514af94cb9cc	The hidden figure behind the Venus de Milo is Mano Leth, the legendary Spanish bullfighter.
8b708c10c481675d8e1e944ea196046e2db92012	He is also Dali's dead brother the poet Lorca, and the ghost of friends who remained only in Dali's memory, causing him the fear of death and destruction.
21bb7100fcce9ba49e51b0b51b88dfa3b7ec1207	At this time, Dali's creative energy pushed him to create many other works, including erotic drawings, a series of horses and drawings of Gala, which remained for him the center of the Universe, which was reflected in his painting "The view of Dali from behind, writing Gala...".
642096e97a42131ea4fa06f2d891dfdf9217c876	This became a kind of anthem of their life together, which lasted for more than forty years.
9bd8809748df4bddcd16a4c9de939fb56ee5b97d	The painting is a flawlessly painted double portrait that fully meets Dali's requirements for the perfection of the Renaissance technique.
7746a44c16f63ba3a96d6fa234fd1b6ab7d78262	Dali Theater Museum Since about 1970, Dali's health began to deteriorate.
87abe31206250188e1dbb499721c10a8e4eef6f0	In addition, the Dali Theater - Museum exhibits double spectroscopic paintings depicting a naked Gala against the background of a painting by Claude Lorain and other art objects created by Dali.
7cd678fafb0de425db9760c7974f111c976b7865	The demand for Dali's works has become crazy.
0317ae0b6c7b34f3e4f4f20e3c31dc79a6ae9a50	He also created surreal compositions, such as" Napoleon's Death Mask on a rhinoceros"," Hallucinogenic bullfighter "with drums, scissors, spoons, soft clocks, crowned with a crown, or"Vision de l'Ange with the thumb of God and the twelve apostles".
917656f317714d909ffc4c82281a69870b1342ed	The cult of Dali, the abundance of his works in different genres and styles led to the appearance of numerous fakes, which caused great problems on the world art market.(126) Dali himself was involved in a scandal in 1960, when he signed many blank sheets of paper intended for creating prints from lithographic stones stored at dealers in Paris.
b35a23c80af766bd85d882b507bc4c7cef098542	However, Dali remained unperturbed and in the 1970s continued to lead his erratic and active life, as always continuing to search for new plastic ways to explore his amazing world of art. (129) The End of a Dream Salvador Dali had two dreams: one was born from the ideas swarming in his head, the other was the result of youthful dreams to live a full life with the necessary amenities.
b13858c3047dab5a7ef2fc38c693abe162721179	The first, completely his own, sometimes opened slightly and allowed the outside world, which never fully understood the riddle of the artist's mind, to catch its reflection.
392b155b37da314b55c1db0f65b70be16a49e58d	The second was cherished by Gala and friends who helped him gain recognition and achieve world fame.
6f429d05127c5daf13bc48f4239843f8f5118afa	Dali constantly expressed recognition of the important role of Gala in his life in his works.
41303b6888d95cdf68d7c6824f8a1435d01c3577	Her influence, as a muse and model, was very important for most of his paintings.
d1651bc052a95279c0a85de89d5d30aa0c9f2fd0	In the late 1960s, Dali's gratitude took a more tangible form: he bought a castle for her in Pubol, near Figueres, decorating it with his paintings and providing all the amenities and making it luxurious.
6a8aea4ab7602127a612887a47ea02b38214ba2f	It remains unclear whether Gala wanted to have a castle.
95a8ec5df7c26cbb2176ea777875991cca88ac48	Many believed that she would like to live in Tuscany.
e08e241fc08f4221ffe226bde1a5e191253f9ba7	It is also unclear whether the gift to the wife of the castle meant the beginning of a separate life.
fe9be08d3e74044c2c8d92dd69edb02744b0cc0f	The life and business partnership of Gala Dali were so inseparable that it was impossible to imagine their complete break.
f4418f39d2f314ba1dddbc9fc49eb72136e14855	Some considered her the driving force of Dali, others a witch who weaves intrigues.
879c6011e72f6f17ec7572058a3b8701c91a3146	When English TV journalist Russell Harty interviewed Dali for a BBC TV program in 1973, Gala reluctantly agreed to appear in the doorway for a few seconds.
be99079f8c184d77027ee2b0650984a9d08a32c7	But when Harty's film crew was about to follow Dali into the pool, she disappeared altogether.
f010d585d83831f5eb941ae9703abb58d86acf7f	Perhaps now she is tired of the antics and tricks designed for the public.
e6497820271adfbd5a66dfee0b545c63c14e9535	Gala and Dali have always managed their affairs and his ever growing wealth with efficient efficiency.
0e54c3ed58e9a7febd72e0df238e7f6110c0cef0	It was she who insisted on taking money for his performances in front of the public, and closely followed private transactions for the purchase of his paintings.
4d8bb41b7b15c67ccb7f0dbae392db502590eef1	She was physically and mentally necessary, so when she died in June 1982, he suffered a heavy loss.
b2705edd6a2723ae3803a6374e7e82434562820b	Driven by a strong desire to be close to her spirit, Dali moved to Pubol Castle, almost ceasing to appear in society.
435413e63423e64754b6681cfd899f3e54ec5a8c	Despite this, his reputation grew.
e305c1c5bd10424cc4c60fa34ccc1a363e377cea	In 1982, the Salvador Dali Museum, opened in Cleveland, Ohio, and contained most of his works collected by E. and A. Reynolds Morse, moved to an impressive building in St. Petersburg, Florida.
6df05b0b99eecec86c27a115b1818959a4376e09	The Georges Pompidou Center in Paris staged a large retrospective of Dali's works in 1979, which was later sent across the English Channel to the Tate Gallery in London.
2d66c5425b946e9d9031ffdb071a1a9178cd3a3c	The double screening of the retrospective allowed a wide segment of the European population to get acquainted with Dali's works and brought him great popularity.
363743e6026ef4bab905b7ffea345ba27125c4ef	All his life he admired the Italian artists of the Renaissance, so he began to paint paintings inspired by the heads of Giuliano de ' Medici, Moses and Adam (located in the Sistine Chapel) by Michelangelo and his "Removal from the Cross" in the Church of St. Peter in Rome.
6dd54a6b673f01ab8f0bbb61240b6c142d72d9de	He also began to draw in a free style.
4f71481d545ea992a51a3dbe8d47f4d2cfbc81f2	The linear, expressionist style of writing, reminiscent of the manner of Vincent van Gogh, was manifested in his painting "The Bed and the Bedside Table violently attack the cello" (1983), where the clear classical lines of Dali's early works give way to a freer, more romantic style.
db003ebff149d72144a15871956bd306f821277b	And in 1984, Dali almost lost his life.
f1404693c9587b6e0136f841227c2bf3ebbda3a1	He had been bedridden for several days when the bed somehow caught fire.
ad0f067a465663acffa9cc68081a1b3064130d4e	Perhaps the cause was a faulty lamp at the bed.
6b1d408055d3b9633ba587393f8e7d3ba978d9ba	The whole room was ablaze.
70fd43a2241442ea6f10fb164578dd069a5e7e63	He managed to crawl to the door.
fdad2f2542b883a44a6d25cca7973cb9e330b0dd	Robert Desharnais, Dali's business manager for many years, saved him from death by pulling him out of a burning room.
b6f2eab264b5fed48da92f60adbf7e569448e7a0	Dali suffered severe burns, and since then little has been heard about him, although in 1984 Desharnais published a monograph "Salvador Dali: a man and his work".
3d241d6a2edec54e32e9e4b61fd7e0e74a3231d4	Soon the inevitable rumors began to spread that Dali was completely paralyzed, that he had Parkinson's disease, that he was being forcibly locked up.
37111c24e867c35a2411de3b89203d9711e1d963	And even about the fact that for several years he was physically unable to do those works that continued to appear under his name.
c93a3f90c80c816eb2ddb9c6ff369b84e68213bd	The real Dali Salvador Dali, Marquis of Pubol, died on January 23, 1989, six years after completing his last work "Dovetail", a simple calligraphic composition on a white sheet.
c3f2c42f9e07f653f6158c28685e0411c53c8c00	The simplicity of the painting is reminiscent of the work of Paul Klee and is touching, like the music of a violin.
dfbee347666db9257295922b3a223f45f748c8ea	Was it the real Dali?
a081cb24037b26f940ab5e208d972a49c711c10b	Was there a simple village philosopher with instinctive wisdom hiding under his mustache, which a journalist from a French magazine once asked to shave off in order to see the real Dali?
30f8dcf5068f1ffbba82a7ca47ff5ea5a356b57c	Many people think so and regret the appearance of a sexy tuxedo, lobsters symbolizing puberty, sodomized pianos and the "Kara n mehra" ("Shit and eat") system, with which he constantly attracted attention to himself.
81084f7be9fd9c487e336e4e46fe134660a83a7a	Blessed with titanic energy and a lively creative mind, he was simultaneously cursed by the natural talent of the ringleader and the joker, which cast a shadow on his reputation as an artist. 131) Like most artists, including such modern masters as Paul Cezanne and Claude Monet, Dali most likely felt that he did not express everything he saw that burned his soul.
5d41839b398bd88c1535640bdfa89086eace63d6	But his indisputable skill, which he developed, and the power of his most expressive images touched the strings of the soul of many people belonging to the most diverse cultural strata.
fa90f89a92abde3cd485e2f5a8068f2485052e4a	His memorable images are among the symbols of the spiritual pantheon of art and are likely to remain persistent milestones of twentieth century art.
85332c8250f5cdf15d50659032dec7af1cac9811	Salvador Dali, with the strangeness peculiar to him during his lifetime, lies unburied, as he bequeathed, in a crypt in his Theater, the Dali Museum in Figueres. 132) He left his fortune and his works to Spain.
b40ce08e7047769f1fcb6cad9ab576a5efc01ac5	About Salvador Dali
2473e96bc614a911821242119918a241a41836d6	Introduction
97e349a94f4d64ca07b8e63afa8035806dce74e0	Understanding the place
8fbea376095f0eb00f628f6b064d5b1117795ee3	in the history of modern
595fa2ccd4d0159e1a4fc9fd8fb83996d01f4c4a	art is similar to the perception of his paintings
330e66038ec1023ba6d767c3c7e096e3c43f2e52	tangible and clear images
527797a2fd64b926c8594115336c51c6777f35af	they are simultaneously complete
64066f6cf3382ec31e838dc929fd44167c1ba8f1	uncertainties and
972ed39b3cfcf91048c9e21e40463b5777838b35	ambiguities.
27e3c8aeedffedc04f1f3f47d50ff8fac5a9d5c6	(33)
b6335b491c814a09331e6594c49629345969b9ab	Judging by what is known about his early youth,
4f26dd8c460fbc7997b75d127e63cbf84eb1c928	he was motivated by a desire to be different from his contemporaries, and at the same time
5d9ba75bc082b4b1c6993a7eb611e7858fdbe9ef	time for him to want to be recognized by them as the dominant personality
894a78c422c08111645cbb47ef6f76744767eab3	with their always correct views.
81687d60575f15fd2c26f531a6aee5211872a175	(3
a730deef4cf975955cbb1956f02c903443fc5073	4)
00f3a9f562b70952a1157b0b4d6f4063fbcb224c	Psychological explanation
fc030456061d484465118d0455e744307b302019	by yourself
6839d82e03f5268d9a7cc97802db76c48c8cce6e	Given
481868a4bdb1b8ba70fef83476d421dd93091c47	I really liked it
fc500f16f3e17d86c9cf94f386ac3300cebf62b2	it could be that he was clearly aware of his own
fc079d65cb57d1e09ea770917252bb673cfdf902	the inferiority that he needed as
297ce0ebe992fb00c819f9db635aa1d77204dbd1	then compensate.
05dcdaf9acee26f281a03c6bfd7770ebb58872a1	(35)
842ed5a16d0954491d4a5d196cb54b5516e7de0c	But if this was the case, where did these
dd577bb25e8d53312db129be979fd397bae33369	feelings and how
61adc299c698510d7989444b2a758ad48185ba81	have they developed?
8fe710405da520ff9390bc1010a0d55d017c67ea	(36)
80e369a91c29646cd6d2a8377afe103181b65827	His life in a small Catalan town
2e82f4a15bba95da93f4744d5af92959d743636c	Figueres in northern Spain seemed to be happy and typical for
ad58d12dfc3c5e5778c7736c64768caeae2d0744	a native of a provincial family of average income.
4373e9d7d1074ae02ebe9b9428d9db6df361ccb5	Beginning
a5af5e48298316754b207261189eda93dd115435	Salvador Philippe Yahinto Dali and Dominic
8618ec75580f46b12e65923f7ab320dd00cb11f3	born on May 2, 1904
7c361f68948f40decf330dc870322819f9c6adf7	years.
52cf53789a808579407b6a3e5d43ebfcebed30b2	He knew
5225d3216e5e788c1c8c035593b1230dd7989fac	his place in society and, like many Catalans, was anti Madrid
25c092554bc347bbbc7b9c5d0971b61ca9a924f1	a Republican and an atheist, too.
79da9eaa3469eabd7dd1afb249048331b2d64341	Mother
09706c418809f1f4cfda992435ca1438eddaaeed	also
c5bd635817bbe42e71c738ca64a83d751f92b48a	she was a typical representative of her class
1bafde936bf7e2b9e133834e42fa48f50758836b	sa.
81eef095fc0bd9012f8a104a2b91a9d3cf74ba66	She was a loving wife
f734f1375318e9cad08c13c3cbc346e7e1288e32	and a staunch Catholic, who, without any doubt, insisted
af8f27e9759a04450275b957f198fe99d38eb87e	on the fact that her family regularly attends church.
c95741f9a564fe64f0597656c36f85d469f76ffb	Both parents
c03a4ae9773394836614d630a399ad5a3b2430f1	they loved Salvador and his younger sister Anna
1e4a009f905e24072d2edb29e4834f9be8e16581	Maria and provided them with
2eb635b911adbe273cfbb45a4c0cdaefc04da405	the best for that time about
b0aee92388c3e4294b08768531307fee7760c7a1	the knowledge that was available to them.
fa48871e3a3d20c403598fb5b18d583c63e3d4dd	Soon at
ae245d0632126cec25644b86b54eb8097b202a2d	there is a strong opinion that parents
cac0f04f412d0f8d112feabac3f1b3928c668b1e	they did not love him at all, but their older brother, who died in 1903, a year before his
5851f4d29811ab31a0e8ce580a2d8f3b32348d23	births.
b89e0127f21b33725b9f0193960bcdf8fe934e29	This revelation appeared in the Unspoken
9fc7829a6feb10eab370692b59b17256e49bf553	revelations
5c10b5b2cd673a0616d529aa5234b12ee7153808	,
89ae3104ff07bcecdcac6dbfa0e37650196f637d	a book published in 1976,
43ab73b1fa1172c31f59c28f7c4266bb0ae7327d	after the publication of his three previous autobiographies.
6cd2c8400a08efc07278f248e6a1495ebe2dba38	Was it
384b39c61e26986359e8d9591bd8f19563689a33	the expulsion of the consequences of trauma or the fruit of a vivid imagination
1bc58657d736a345930023232140f6f389033f20	an artist who has spent his entire life creating hidden and ambiguous
5b3970680f4a62ee8f058b63dd0eb0acbb380745	Understanding the place of Salvador Dali in the history of modern art is similar to the perception of his paintings - tangible and clear images are at the same time full of uncertainty and ambiguity.(33) Judging by what is known about his early youth, he was motivated by a desire to differ from his contemporaries, and at the same time he wanted to be recognized by them as a dominant personality with his always correct views.(34) The psychological explanation Dali himself liked it very much could be that he was clearly aware of his own inferiority, which he needed to somehow compensate for.(35) But if this was the case, where did these feelings come from and how did they develop?
07c4796645641e14961d2af8df3597f9dc9a61d5	Was it an exorcism of the consequences of the trauma or a figment of the artist's vivid imagination, who had been creating hidden and ambiguous images all his life
15429958375077cfc852cdddd06ed7f888ed8c64	Cleopatra VII Philopator — the last queen of Hellenistic Egypt from the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty (Lagids).
83f8c0427c20a1958fd450af16ac9781feaacaae	She became famous thanks to the dramatic love story of the Roman commander Mark Antony.
6712c3569af36f63cecd758b2d1be7a5e2a62e9e	During her reign, Egypt was conquered by Rome, Cleopatra herself committed suicide in order not to become a prisoner of the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus.
c3c55a23da73b83c46abb75b62fe158bb2dab8e2	Cleopatra became one of the most popular ancient characters in films and literary works.
65150f2c1f51dbea3a8affc66c9a4bf8a8fe6ef9	For more than two thousand years, the passions around the famous queen, who became one of the odious figures of history, have not subsided.
a78f760d88be99b25800f0ca91c50ab8aaf63bd8	Even the ancient classics mentioned her in their works, later her image was sung by Shakespeare, Pushkin and Bernard Shaw, and today many stories, novels and, especially, notes in the press are dedicated to Cleopatra.
2ef6e000d6266b98943bc99a996cdb0e6531edd8	Cleopatra's father was Ptolemy XII Auletes.
fdc6d423734776357266ce70ca2054ebd671e5f1	In total, he had six children: four daughters (Cleopatra VII was the third in a row) and two sons, who later became Cleopatra's husbands in turn.
3f4c8ff0b7f367541bfb8689f79842ffc8b3a157	Cleopatra received a classical education, was brought up in the best Greek and Arabic traditions, knew several languages.
7286713579ca7406b2c0497c26ba6c553a4296f6	51 BC-Ptolemy XII dies.
7f91a56e650b3fa7b28804ef99b79c21f3b5064f	In the will, the deceased ruler declares Rome the guarantor of the Egyptian state and asks the Roman people to take care of their family.
09f9bbf60345d5153a25acc3a63e92d30ade3e72	The Roman general Pompey was appointed executor of the will and guardian of the tsar's children.
22ec82facd7eb730943ac9e04e46c0d09283ae3c	According to the custom, the eighteen-year-old Cleopatra should marry her own brother, the ten-year-old Ptolemy XIII, and rule Egypt together with him.
9f0322acf17d3ced9b9edbaa7286a5fe76e1b3c0	The actual rulers of Egypt in the first years after the death of Ptolemy XII become royal dignitaries: the teacher of eloquence Theodotus, the eunuch Pothinus, the commander of the palace guard of Achilles.
ea45eafee78ba23aaaccd2f2802822db660663a5	They manage to quarrel Cleopatra with her brother-in-law and provoke an uprising in Alexandria – it was announced to the people that Queen Cleopatra seeks to rule alone, and for this she will resort to the help of Rome.
811c5333dfb6dbda95a6b7db74dfb1f3c608cf0f	Cleopatra flees to Syria, the dignitaries begin to rule on behalf of Ptolemy XIII.
f1611efa6650cfb30c19108399361f2dc66d73e4	48 BC-Cleopatra manages to gather an army on the border of Egypt and Arabia.
85b0dd1b836c0cd78c0b8d540ade38d260dd5238	She opposes her brother.
07acf6571311eb29ee040accb79dc32d81a4dc59	The troops of Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII meet at Pelusium and are ready to start a battle at any moment.
0ece290e4be6234af43ae5c1a885992920746551	At the same time, the Roman dictator Gaius Julius Caesar arrives in Alexandria.
1902b60c726562d3daca09ed85532771d669d6a2	He claims that he has the right to resolve the conflict between the brother and sister as a representative of Rome.
d542ab4c686b60bd3df45c88c42b0901f360489a	Cleopatra realizes that she needs to meet with Caesar.
1c408fa694dfe824c231456338c5357c1030f7ab	At night, she secretly arrives in Alexandria, accompanied by only a few servants.
7c418fb419b2946b19e713894e812d916055edc4	The queen orders to wrap herself in a carpet and take her to Caesar.
06201d68d052b3fab1269351f2ea493b099cfa6e	The next day, Caesar publicly reads the will of Ptolemy Auletes and declares that Cleopatra and her brother should reign together.
6d394bfe5f90ce2c31dfa20c049493407d8c3025	47 BC-Pothinus and Achilles cannot accept Caesar's decision.
a2556c31031a949378283c1bf62f663b077ba541	They raise an uprising (known as the "Cleopatra's war"), secretly proclaim Ptolemy Auletes ' youngest daughter Arsinoe as the queen of Egypt.
718310f793d104750edff59c2312dab555a71047	Caesar wins this war, Arsinoe is captured and subsequently flees from Egypt to Rome.
25ccd46e327be0735c88cb0669b5241090b0e7f2	As a result of the uprising, Ptolemy, Pothinus, and Achilles are killed.
b8d61383e85c968b9da9c71023eb04163afebd8b	After the victory, Caesar forces Cleopatra to marry her second brother, 16-year-old Ptolemy Neoteros.
96b4a85c9dd0832d87ef3e1b4eb4265773fea6cd	Cleopatra agrees, but in fact reigns alone in Egypt, relying on Rome.
eb43ea74629b29830d16529538531c8520f10b1f	At the same time, the love affair of 52-year-old Caesar and Cleopatra from the secret becomes well-known.
dad19ff9177fa4cb881a67127edb4fbf427fa490	A few months later, Cleopatra and Caesar have a son, who gets the name Ptolemy Caesarion.
3c63d67606ca32396956d7c5d22a3e741b834166	Caesar, who already has a family in Rome, is looking for an opportunity to marry Cleopatra as well, making Caesarion his heir.
24d40c846b89f96f93b62462a1cc93823b5e8351	46 BC-Cleopatra, along with her husband, Caesarion and her retinue, moves to Rome and settles in one of the villas that belonged to Caesar.
2adb7a9886d54e465f9bdfa7b7ce64c45563757b	She is officially declared a "friend and ally of the Roman people".
9de875a68ae725aa96680a455760131497c27e73	44 BC-Julius Caesar was killed.
a81eb3c89dd6c4efd0fab8ed959f87e611ce96b5	Perhaps one of the reasons for his death was the suspicion of his desire to marry Cleopatra, establish a monarchy in Rome and subjugate Rome to Egypt.
6a0ade5d6c79ea937dc1bf29556cf3dfefb142dc	After the death of Caesar, Cleopatra returns to Egypt.
3ed9aab6d41eb85ccaf6679919f411fc549b4265	43 BC-Cleopatra's husband Ptolemy XIV dies.
a88837a9b2698d4deb7fda931de7106266297b4a	There is a version that he was poisoned on the orders of his wife.
bb119e63bef3946006416e92d3f90775453a1fd8	Cleopatra declares her son Ptolemy Caesarion Philopator and Philometerus as the king and pharaoh of Egypt, as well as her co – ruler (the latter names mean "Loving father" and "Loving Mother").
ffdf5da157f02ad1846557eccb613f610e513a3a	Cleopatra supports in it the followers of her beloved – the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus.
3ef9120215b3693c062bfcaab83f3746bf91e3bd	She sends Egyptian warships to help them, but this fleet was intercepted and went over to the side of the opponents.
e88db78ba953c7f5bfbe4b079b9346f0490aed0d	The second fleet sent by Cleopatra in support of the triumvirate sank.
af7d6f95df8354318c93e3f7e24456938004d9eb	42 BC-the triumvirate wins.
77e7e3968705a6ee003764e956b069b36672189a	The new ruler of the eastern part of Rome, Mark Antony, calls Cleopatra to him to give explanations about the support of the enemy.
6be98d7374d8ee673691e78accaa6ba6812f7d4f	Antony also intends to make Egypt a dependent province of Rome.
993686a437bf4cacb80d02cb9ba6e3b6308a6dda	41 BC-the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra takes place in the city of Tarsus in Cilicia.
7b436c382987cc9544d7bfb6eb6484c7a2d09e0c	Cleopatra deliberately delays this meeting for several months.
15664110558e823043c38c73c82af5bc9976437a	She comes to Tarsus in the dress of Aphrodite, on a beautifully decorated ship.
444c5307d000fa33599f874afac9482e8d2fafd0	Antony was received on Cleopatra's ship, and she acted as hostess.
ac7efc1c43a4e49e2c2ee2612494ae7de64a2b2e	After the meeting, Cleopatra gave a sumptuous feast in honor of Antony.
e14a02711dcfb9f928f4f3cc5438d0a98ae2a064	As a result, Antony falls madly in love with Cleopatra, and Egypt remains an independent state.
a31d287412707fef4042c1a6f148012c426b2f81	The same year – by the hands of Antony, Cleopatra gets rid of her enemies in Rome.
11758342a89cc60c94e4508129e5bb6b94c62288	By order of Antony, her sister Arsinoe and several other rebels were executed.
909fbebf2729cad4cad9ab9bdbd381f4d288c1e3	Soon Cleopatra and Antony leave for Egypt.
0abbccf9c715e8a8ef5f7df0dfc434e3a08ee977	40 BC-Anthony returns to Rome.
6b7eca1170e44530557b7aa4d856f3f18242eb6e	In the same year, Cleopatra gives birth to him twins, who are called Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selena.
f57be3ae1adc99583902b26961617d0b02e3980f	39 BC – an uprising against Cleopatra rises on one of the borders of Egypt.
27d81c99cf246149f7093f5df32bb31e6a1206e4	Her troops are suppressing this rebellion.
1bfa63db7029a0ff70965ce507d8f3f26d7fed34	Antony's promise to marry Cleopatra became an indispensable condition of this trip.
218229d6d71d8a32abe1af56fe1920535bb1cef9	36 BC-Anthony fulfills his promise and marries Cleopatra.
c3eec7efb2e6d926b34ce6fa4fe7faa362e1ed4b	They have another son, named Ptolemy.
960ef05fa8e64d6fee9cbbd088c0790d4ac81d31	34 BC-Anthony conducts a successful military campaign in Armenia.
c5dbeff800a777e674c71c8276d2747e83a1c3b2	The triumph is celebrated in Alexandria, where the winner gives Cleopatra and all her children new Roman territories.
b8fd6012c8c2456ee40396fc9ac869cfae811269	32 BC-Rome is outraged by the distribution of Roman lands to the Egyptians.
70136850d91522f87109566496dffb62adb9a908	At this time, Anthony is fighting in Media (he dreamed of implementing the plan of Alexander the Great and becoming the ruler of the lands from India to the Atlantic Ocean).
b07b827949e2430002bcd06227ee5877cc3cadd7	Cleopatra comes to Antony, she is ready to provide him with military support.
026616a96aa1b5c21955a555806ca15476ff64a9	Because of this, many allies turn away from the latter – the Egyptian queen did not enjoy special respect from the Romans.
8168767bb43ec4256c749fcc1aed25e47a24d5a5	The beginning of 31 BC-Anthony divorces his wife Octavia.
d4ad9d898171e3ff3258df3d5714ea8413051877	He proclaims Cleopatra the "queen of kings" and writes a will in which he declares Cleopatra and his children from her as his heirs.
46070dacaa912ce362a35d2977b3e47668546402	The same year – Antony's will falls into the hands of his main opponent in Rome, Octavian (the brother of Antony's ex-wife Octavia).
11b2ec4649a5704ee79420d06387e8b6e0ce66eb	September 2, 31 BC-the decisive battle of the war took place at sea near Cape Aktion.
9a46c28f723b549e08b376f206f221e445da744c	The fleet of Cleopatra and Antony is defeated.
486c99aac04b7708154dadd97b865ba72216c5b0	Antony returns to his legions, and Cleopatra returns to Alexandria to equip new troops.
728d88db48020121ebb1b2894f99c772f08fbd37	Octavian is negotiating with Cleopatra.
cf118bbd3762cb395908ef15d6678045d25d98cd	She offers to give up the Egyptian throne in favor of her son Caesarion.
4871d67f8c79c150ca3d1feea03871cdde4e33d5	He demands that Cleopatra kill Antony – only then can he guarantee her life.
83a036e10b349b0c03ee12d19403b686cc3aef37	Antony loses the battle of Alexandria.
9ce598a80141f6a85cdf8b1ad7d0d5c5a6e4338d	He arrives at Cleopatra's palace, but on her orders he is informed that Cleopatra has died – the queen hoped that after hearing this news, Anthony would commit suicide.
4296c027fd5241eb428303378c47680c025bc109	The queen herself took refuge in her own tomb.
61f8b9fdf137ec8b47dc87df15a8ed539be85924	In general, her calculation was justified, but Antony's suicide attempt ended with his severe injury, and he died only some time later in the arms of his beloved.
11cca7a462e96acb490f62724a92adc806ccdc15	After Antony's death, Cleopatra tries to starve herself to death, but Octavian threatens to kill her children, and Cleopatra is forced to continue living.
45ebc21950ea252daaa4b2195679f4b728d52cd5	August 30 BC-Cleopatra learns that she and her children will have to" decorate " the triumph of Octavian in Rome.
4d2ca99775c856f23ca2e6a97dca165ac5c8e5e2	This meant that they would be held as prisoners in the triumphal procession.
0f1eb82666ea87ceb00ec6e65fcf9ddfad61c9ae	August 31, 30 BC-Cleopatra decides to commit suicide.
971576d1e1d8ab5d840b8b1e9a6188b086a18555	She writes a letter to Octavian, in which she asks to be buried next to Antony.
2ee24dfd137025a554c640f276261987deee9708	After receiving the letter, Octavian immediately sends a guard to Cleopatra's chambers, but it's too late – she and her two maids are already dead.
6e2d821839267978bb18a4a4e886e8b12ab97bfc	Two snake bite wounds were found on Cleopatra's body, but there was no snake in the room.
7b8b8d4f628b557be7f6dbdea186eb49a547b4e4	According to the most common version, the snake was brought to Cleopatra by maids in a basket with figs.
af975ded4b39766dc6402bd7616351c5d47d611d	It is difficult to say what guided the actions of the queen – great love or sober calculation; rather, the latter is true.
daf9661c7b811c28740b772c5716d72e069c38f4	However, she proved to be a very wise and subtle politician, betting on two of the greatest people of her time – first on Gaius Julius Caesar, and then on Mark Antony.
a439a432f7aeb0f8a175653183c8b7130656d99f	Be that as it may, Cleopatra VII Philopatra was one of the most remarkable personalities in history.
c56cfe5314f458706762af253c7181f543e202bb	A woman on the throne, you will agree, is not a very common phenomenon (for all its existence, Egypt has seen only a few queens, the most famous of which were Hatshepsut and Cleopatra).
77fbb3eb834221988ea9704a66bf3bcd6d2f4592	The true appearance of Cleopatra is not easy to see because of the romantic flair surrounding her and numerous films; but there is no doubt that she had a sufficiently courageous and firm character to bother the Romans.
bff2212f24b889775b3e3c3c35f89905327c52f2	There are no reliable images that accurately, without idealization, would convey her physical appearance.
08a3805036cbac8abacaacf1fdae3f9e931210ec	A damaged bust from the Shershell in Algeria (the ancient city of Caesarea Moorish), created after the death of Cleopatra on the occasion of the marriage of Cleopatra Selena II, her daughter by Mark Antony, with King Juba II of Mauretania, conveys the appearance of Cleopatra in her last years; although sometimes this bust is attributed to Cleopatra Selena II, daughter of Cleopatra VII.
7ea060a95c1c56037292c69fe69d4c4923081b09	The profiles on the coins show a woman with wavy hair, large eyes, a protruding chin and a hooked nose (hereditary features of the Ptolemies).
a7ea90c4b770bb2bf1bd7b3ad1f702d526f55281	On the other hand, it is known that Cleopatra was distinguished by a powerful charm, attractiveness, perfectly used it for seduction and in addition had a charming voice and a brilliant, sharp mind.
4f6e4eb7742d2c4c3d2e6108e95751563cb7ddef	As Plutarch writes, who saw the portraits of Cleopatra: For the beauty of this woman was not what is called incomparable and strikes at first glance, but her address was distinguished by an irresistible charm, and therefore her appearance, combined with a rare persuasiveness of speeches, with a huge charm that was evident in every word, in every movement, was firmly embedded in the soul.
0fe81c08f8fb9beb1e945eb4d51d3b3e62526912	The very sounds of her voice caressed and pleased the ear, and the language was like a multi-stringed instrument, easily tuned to any mood — to any dialect…
e44b7a3ae09eb5e3b616abd0ec9f3083fb3cecc7	While the Greeks usually neglected the upbringing of their daughters, even in royal families, Cleopatra clearly had a good education, which, superimposed on her natural mind, gave excellent results.
5256eedeb7b42d4101019d78a3f5202efbd9b7e2	Cleopatra became a real polyglot queen, owning, in addition to her native Greek, Egyptian (the first of her dynasty made efforts to master it, perhaps only with the exception of Ptolemy VIII Fiscon), Aramaic, Ethiopian, Persian, Hebrew and the language of the Berbers (a people who lived in the south of Libya).
b19ee38efb74c2c520b042e9ec02a87264594603	Her linguistic abilities did not bypass Latin, although enlightened Romans, like, for example, Caesar, themselves perfectly mastered the Greek language.
7a09dee353b72ed6d3daa950d4d5e1673b6cb826	Cleopatra revived the rituals of the ancient religion of Egypt, adopted the symbol of the Goddess Hathor-the daughter of the God Ra and believed that she was the representative of the Sun God on Earth, an intermediary between man and the Gods.
22632a09c913923a86a59b62d2c07684a0c7ac3c	In the later years of Cleopatra's reign, events were dated, counting "from (or after) Cleopatra's union with Amon".
cb48f640e33f1cc8193fb1e0b99e53a9be6a2ec1	The myth of Cleopatra's divine connection was not something surprising or original.
3ef8814e71a46e0354a4406ffaca4cfcf04142c0	Mythological fiction of this kind was used in ancient Egypt in relation to the births of Hatshepsut and Amenhotep III.
48bb15fc14565837d0b0b753a18e6369a8c14aff	She became a queen at the age of 18 and until her death (at the age of 39) remained a person about whom the most beautiful and most mysterious stories are told.
35f8f70ce0c0257776b85b8406edfb7d85e40bc6	There is a legend that one of her famous pearl earrings was cut into two parts and decorated the ears of the statue of Venus in the Roman pantheon.
c6b798d57ae2ebade92554799a17c14fcb1cffe5	Coins were found on which Cleopatra is depicted as Aphrodite with the baby Caesarion, who personified Eros.
7c62f323c840869d8435859f3d998bc6e0aeaf45	In the ancient city of Ephesus (modern Turkey), the tomb of Cleopatra's own sister, Arsenoi, was discovered.
baf1bacccc9af76b2cbe9bf5ce18e98bd8a6c00e	Analysis of the remains suggests that Arsenoi's mother was African.
2ccfbf10300d2631bd124b26483adf49620567d7	Scientists suggest that the mother of Cleopatra and Arsenoi was a concubine of Ptolemy XII.
8843ae236b6d891353404704eefb4bc146a1cfb9	Perhaps Cleopatra had African blood in her.
2a63b122c3f396b487bd62784c77ddd402af588c	However, as Arthur Weigal writes in the book "Cleopatra. The last queen of Egypt", "Cleopatra probably had a bit of Syrian blood in her veins, since her grandmother, the mistress of her grandfather Ptolemy Latyra, was from this people.
c9d9567938e34fb87412ce495a67cba37ec70b66	Cleopatra undoubtedly had Macedonian, Greek and Iranian genes."
5bc4d766ef219f1c0da748c43472db0ab3557af3	From the story of the ancient Greek philosopher Plutarch, it is known that Julius Caesar was "conquered by the proof of Cleopatra's brave mind" when she ordered Apollodorus from Sicily to roll her up in blankets, tie her with a rope, and so carry her through the palace gates to meet Caesar.
ead513ca72aa64e070e4d5cec82259c55f1da943	The Julian calendar, on which our current calendar system is based, was developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sozigen and introduced by Julius Caesar on January 1, 45 BC. Thanks to Cleopatra's proposal to invite her court astronomers to Rome, who introduced a new calendar system based on the Egyptian calendar
6b1c298fb5109dab9ef943733ea652bd11ba9706	Historian Christopher Schaefer believes that Cleopatra did not die from a snake bite, as was commonly believed, but from a deadly cocktail of opium and the hemlock plant.
d1bbc20081d39184af5b4cdaf93056ae6f00013e	After studying ancient medical texts, the scientist reported that death from a cobra bite occurs within a few days, and spots appear on the victim's body.
30adf721b1d4661de04bd695f71a0b2c0fe33f1b	Cleopatra wanted to remain beautiful even after death, so she used a mixture of opium with poisonous plants, and died within a few hours without experiencing any torment.
5057dcec87f5090d23bb58c591333345163497b9	However, among all ancient writers, the question of the deadly power of a snake bite and the alleged use of it by Cleopatra was solved by Elian Claudius , an ancient Roman writer and philosopher, who wrote: "it is extremely difficult to detect the manifestations or traces of snake bites, and snake venom is surprisingly fast-acting.
a90b01de1f0ee7203ed5545f811737228f504faa	When Octavian's courtiers noticed two tiny punctures and the trace of a snake in the sand, they realized that there was no snake without it."
352cc799f0610d0079e574a7adffb40ae3daa680	The death of Cleopatra was a kind of ritual action with a deep meaning, a rite subject to a strict canon.
fd7ef901eae75ad9a3f8532b5e238b93428a7e29	Cleopatra asked Octavian to allow Mark Antony to be buried in Egypt.
b5a7fa6cef4a519747e3175d2c9772aae1656b53	She wanted to be buried next to her husband, because she wanted to reproduce the myth of Osiris and Isis.
d1cf9411f2fd0a985c44ccb05eb4c283cb942935	How the Queen of Egypt Cleopatra really lived and died will always be a mystery.
d592585191c5c044e1e405ab59b0e7d17f798304	But one thing can be firmly said that she became one of the great legendary women who is remembered and solved to this day.
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c8baff4be1954b020c8c9131b2b330bcec25b358	Cleopatra: the Last Queen of Egypt Elena Kosolobova Myths For more than two thousand years, the passions around the famous queen, who became one of the odious figures of history, have not subsided.
ebbe212a00773616516f0e29a046fbb01db6608f	To be honest, after reading the reviews of modern authors about Cleopatra, it becomes a little insulting for the queen... and for the poverty of our thinking.
a6e2ddb92be334b723a3c644e622607646b77039	It seems that our contemporary is not interested in anything except questions of appearance and intimate life – these topics are most popular.
1bd5e1476ff06797281033bce07fc664ce477173	It's a shame that the image of Cleopatra the queen and Cleopatra the politician somehow got lost behind all this.
318d6424dc7fdc5c4c88c40bfecb60acac1f5104	It is difficult to judge what the Egyptian queen was really like after all these years.
d6ddeed907186fdc7e855258d093ba8931b40a7b	The real woman has long disappeared under the mountains of rumors and speculation.
5189edb279f052adb6bb03b080a5c57511135a72	Unfortunately, first of all we learn about her as a great courtesan, about a woman of rare cunning and promiscuity, about whole legions of her lovers who are ready to give their lives for a night spent with the queen (the concept of "Cleopatra's night" has even become a household name).
b2ecfe6e1211dea58a2e9fd61475c83669cf72c5	We are recommended exotic cosmetics that the queen used (probably, this increases their popularity), and so on and so on.
9f87f8a4f3608582cefc6ad51a06d72bd55469cb	We are dealing with the Cleopatra myth.
bcd5b52f7a3b83e48cdfbbe367853c40671c4749	And as it happens with every myth, it changes over time, "adapting" to the views of society.
536d0a07a7ab39feba73db5959c122cbd2334c66	Recently, an exhibition dedicated to Cleopatra was held in Rome.
4888b41bf33e9bac92e70a036d856e2feb60c63d	Its organizer, Susan Walker, an employee of the British Museum, expressed the opinion that the beginning of the "legends" about the queen was laid by none other than the Emperor Octavian Augustus himself, who hated her and not only greatly inflated rumors about her promiscuity, but could influence the opinion of Roman authors and historians.
ca50d68f78dbe7491b5ccbd17850cdf3c1ab0cf6	But, for example, in the Renaissance, with its ideals of sublime love and chivalry, Cleopatra became a kind of standard of virtue, because she preferred death to life without a lover.
5deff15619d8806676a5613e703587f141ee0d39	Love and honor are the ideals of a true lady, and the queen avoids the dishonor and captivity that Octavian threatens her with at the cost of her own life.
49bfb353058f3dba44450500ebcb942bc9424309	Regarding the appearance of the queen, the opinions of modern authors are divided.
194934f82f2dd967a8af399844ee5ff8e48bed90	Some of them claim that Cleopatra was as beautiful as the Trojan Helen (as well as "smart as Aspasia" and "passionate as Sappho").
479cbfce8b00bf0310101a36d709c652455f2ab0	However, to great surprise, there are opinions that the queen was not only ugly, but very ugly (some even mention a long hooked nose).
3f6646acbe8d3370d1ea337e1488f62ee341480f	The funny thing about this is that there is no reliable description of Cleopatra's appearance.
b4b8b35bf571842b78554408a80fdbfd889f0df4	Ancient authors only mention that she had an extraordinary charm and attractiveness, intelligence, talent of a true diplomat, and also had an unusually beautiful fascinating voice.
9858ca16db99bd0f7a06c70e5ea8668ab5b85703	Therefore, the source of information of modern authors is, apparently, fiction or some images of the queen preserved on reliefs, coins and statues, which are striking in their diversity and lack of similarity to each other.
7464c1f02e7957bb3aad04f8e1db1bba193124b5	In the XVII century, paintings depicted her in the image of a lush blonde, dressed in a dress with figmas.
eb05c6d3ed914911f13ae199e4425d696b2507eb	Bernard Shaw's Cleopatra becomes a sweet and capricious dummy.
71e1b027f8dcf5d8d61036f9df153721788036c1	In the XX century, she is both a vamp woman (who, if not her?..), and the first decadent, and a symbol of tyrannoclasm: after all, passions and pleasures can become a way of fighting against imperial rule no worse than armies.
ce018e9264a6e688e1a7033e2ba8304753aa405e	Today, Cleopatra has become a kind of ideal of a modern woman who skillfully combines the management of the state with the upbringing of four children, who at the same time has enough time for her personal life and for maintaining her own attractiveness.
f8951f16da74f646b1573deb93509bf6e789dfa2	A symbol of female luck and success!
2f674e83a01dd9d9095fb68d89d5013d448899bb	It is curious who she will become, say, in 50 years?..
05161a86e8212413775af7870412eac875578e0f	What does history say about Cleopatra?
c8b69644ca0af11a74a468192fc5818efc0e1c72	History Cleopatra VII Philopatra was the last queen of Ancient Egypt.
356ba9ba3e0e393d83222057930d324c0df1721c	After a galaxy of weak and weak willed kings (one of them, Cleopatra's father, for example, was famous only for playing the flute well), a strong ruler finally reigned on the throne of Egypt.
df427c1fca5b9e8e8f771b6b5bf1ac7b069e4063	However, Cleopatra came to power when the star of Egypt had actually set. Rome played a decisive role in the world, which captured neighboring states and turned them into its provinces.
f40d3c3b0e7211304daaee287b0d466010c2b550	The days of Egypt's freedom were numbered, but Cleopatra, realizing this, nevertheless fought, using every opportunity, for her throne and for the independence of her state.
9108ffcd4a6965e9b1a1903d80e93c43bf714863	By the way, the last Ptolemies (Ptolemy XI and Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra's father) literally bought their right to power from Rome.
3d46c56888f1bd4a52383baa49e3081fa78a50ef	Egypt did not have a strong enough army to fight with the Roman one, and could only buy its independence (there were still legends about untold Egyptian treasures in Rome), as well as show loyalty to Roman politics by supplying its fleet and troops to Roman generals.
33dd14b8603a009807b3c7e4c2c57e1738ee1599	Rome at this time was experiencing a difficult transition from the republic to the empire, accompanied by a struggle in the Senate and between the consuls.
d2d4cc87800a27ff21a17802b2ca4f098c561685	This was what the queen used to win back the independence of Egypt.
a8df6744047236a6dc83ec548b25b489a9199e9a	There was also unrest in Egypt itself, and Cleopatra had to fight a fierce struggle for the Egyptian throne with her brothers and younger sister.
0094545377f9d1ace9070706bb2a4a90c15fdc82	According to Egyptian laws, Cleopatra could not rule alone – her younger brothers were her co rulers.
7530a735c66a19bd0ab31b04c30598d260552d73	The acquaintance with Caesar occurred at the moment when the eldest of the brothers, Ptolemy XIII, expelled the queen and she was gathering opposition troops in Syria to regain the Egyptian throne.
f326bc47b622e504bf7350db8fffbe2855a55497	When Caesar met Cleopatra, she was a little more than 20 years old, and Caesar was over 50, and he was reputed to be the greatest man of his time.
578154115ac971af6b87623e8efe051517a2108c	Apparently, his feelings for the young woman were really strong.
887a2b50058c79136d555af4dfbaa8e30ee0c227	Historians testify that at a time when every day was dear to Caesar (just at that time he was fighting for autocracy in Rome), he allowed himself to spend several months with Cleopatra in Egypt, traveling to the upper reaches of the Nile, and later invited the Egyptian queen to Rome, where she lived in his villa.
8cec3c99d2250a4dd6824cb235b7fe50fb02054f	The dictator hatched plans to become the ruler of Rome, and to make Cleopatra, a descendant of the true ancient kings, his wife and co ruler.
47dbb9981bfb767a933360f1469644274df67329	By the way, the young woman who charmed him so much was not only attractive, but also very educated for her time, she easily spoke many languages (despite the fact that most Greeks in Alexandria did not even know Egyptian) and was certainly an excellent psychologist.
2d174b86a5a7bdd86217496752e62a010f777b01	If the dictator's plans had succeeded, the question of Egyptian sovereignty and royal power would not have stood for Cleopatra; moreover, Egypt could have become the cultural center of a huge Roman state.
c8cffe9dc10b673bad334f5bdf7fae0d47ae9872	At the same time, Caesar did not intend to divorce Calpurnia, his Roman wife.
c998e16a33b53385932fd06c5897432c3e1e8197	There were rumors that he already had a draft law ready, according to which he – the ruler of the world monarchy – was allowed to take as many wives as he wanted for the birth of heirs.
dcab5d27e18b1ba0c5442dfafe1c45c4402b1731	Thanks to this law, he could adopt his child from Cleopatra (who would soon become Ptolemy XV Caesar, the mother's co ruler).
3648cb22b1abc2d3c35d5c07a7972db92c55681c	However, the Ides of March in 44 BC with the murder of the great Caesar put an end to the queen's hopes.
d05f3bc83d7c9003a01fa8af0d7f78b7b9e693d3	Then Cleopatra's choice fell on Mark Antony, the best Roman commander at that time.
4875f99cf0994edea3e0c12916beb100b23e60a2	After the death of Caesar, power in Rome was divided by his two "heirs": Octavian took control of the west, and Mark Antony - the east.
4c8dfa1715686b4a60dde9cb40774ac405fdae94	It should be noted that Mark Antony, judging by the descriptions, was a simple, rude man, a lover of drinking and smoking, which is why he was dubbed Dionysus in the east.
a4e42c843678da7b55f712ea042f288a301f902a	Taking advantage of this, Cleopatra managed to present her visit to the governor of the East in such a way that a rumor passed that "Aphrodite herself is marching to Dionysus for the benefit of Asia."
5f9725177d9ed91ac6bb70402fd8f49b9567175b	The stern was of gold, and the sail of purple.
ab2c6171877f5b65a8ba12834ff06265050a8e65	There the aromas burned, and the wind froze with admiration.
19ad3ef596a6f346073efab69264636b3f19e8a4	To the sound of flutes, silver oars rose in harmony, and the current Followed the music with a rustle.
e52d46471df42ae1cc11c0c2c4a392231463f180	You canot describe her in words.
72f13fe7b343efcb2f671181b38af579b9d06737	She was lying in a golden tent slimmer than Venus, and after all, the goddess is not an authenticity, but a fairy tale and a dream this is how Shakespeare describes the royal visit.
8a12b484425fcaf5cc8e268930aaaf0b28ecaf47	This alliance was beneficial to both Antony and Cleopatra.
b52d571fc3d7bedcaebda667744a575e72c4840b	Antony needed Egyptian wealth in his struggle for power in Rome, and for Cleopatra it was another chance to become the ruler of the Roman state.
67392abb1811e083f9a07f1d14ea878b967471e0	There are even versions among historians that if Antony and Cleopatra won, not Rome, but Alexandria could become the center of a huge monarchy (or it would be an empire – who knows how the course of history would turn then?).
e3819e483c43f9fce09d9f7efa992752d221c3f0	The world famous novel of the commander and the queen, in fact, served as a source of subsequent gossip.
ed158784786021eed0476e2cd3754019013f7774	Of course, there was no nobility and sublimity that distinguished the relationship between Cleopatra and Julius Caesar.
8cc1fd2f6503dc7d57e84d17253b0caa6cda9cd7	But the queen, who perfectly understood human nature, could not help but see the cultural level and interests of her lover and willingly played along with him.
34e3fa8ca2b31796652f164fdceead15d73cdc2b	Historians also mention the magnificent feasts in which the royal couple spent their time (by the way, the myth of the pearl dissolved in vinegar and drunk is of later origin), and royal amusements, like walking in the clothes of commoners around the city at night.
6f90a6cc07c515e3eb978513e6a9efed842d948d	The romance of Antony and Cleopatra lasted for almost 14 years and could have had a happy ending, but fate decreed otherwise.
6eb3cffadd6b62c8911d9b726a591970ab31ba87	Blinded by love, the triumvir made a series of rash steps, giving away to his Egyptian wife and children (Caesar's son and their own children, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene) most of the Roman possessions in the East.
a81941434283f27c8a07807b110a90cd32d287e3	Octavian, who had long been looking for a reason to declare war on Egypt (and Cleopatra and Antony), published in the Senate the will of Mark Antony, where the Roman citizen and commander asked to bury himself in Egypt, next to the queen, named Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar as his heir and recognized Cleopatra not only Egypt, but also many other possessions with which he endowed her.
aa3f7a461011d1b4258b7549fc1090201a2ebad3	This will was like an exploding bomb.
8065d340138ecb56cf15650c8bf0400a15566cdd	The Senate allowed Octavian to start military operations, but since the civil war in Rome was very unpopular, war was declared on Cleopatra.
21e58f70af9cf7768ded0dd5489d5cd10675e320	The tragic ending of this story is well known to us.
f4558020f9b5281ff16e05dd6eba02875f4b78b9	After the death of Mark Antony, Cleopatra committed suicide to avoid the shame of being held in triumph, chained to the chariot of the winner.
e9a0d5feeccb4c60321abba6609b9ca9fec15136	Or maybe because she understood perfectly well: with the death of Mark Antony, the fate of her and Egypt is sealed.
1ca1eb06c588f8e6e74f08829376cadf483fbbee	Point of view Be that as it may, Cleopatra VII Philopatra was one of the most remarkable personalities in history.
dc43f132d027a8e6b2761849a52e49e11d368de7	Cleopatra is on a par with the most famous politicians of her time.
550f09d7c6f5864911c36bb4cea8149da2301072	In modern terms, she was playing a "big game", the stake in which was the Egyptian throne and the freedom of her state (and, if successful, perhaps the entire Roman Empire – today we cannot know for sure).
0382aec2c843dabb1c13d6e46f0ba6069021dafd	Yes, she lost, but even the fact that for 20 years she managed to maintain the independence of Egypt from Rome meant a lot.
52ca2b89b135d39324768fc97d69a1f37a800f6e	How pale the previous Ptolemies looked against its background, who groveled before Rome and actually made Egypt its province!
dca29931771ab8b0f626fffbb3805c42487b42e0	Judge for yourself: if you look at who from the Ptolemaic dynasty left a mark in the history of mankind, we will remember Ptolemy I, an associate of Alexander,
9e22898c16e519dadedc57146eafe02a4163f12e	Ptolemy II, under whom the Library and the Museum were created – and Cleopatra, the last queen.
ddf8a618ae61ecafd0068e5fffb98c9919176c29	And finally, you must agree, it is not easy, being a queen and a strong politician, to remain at the same time a woman whose charm and intelligence have become a legend.
69dae2505db46f0eb1154e2a7bc4a80c2e49d721	Perhaps this unusual combination caused a special protest from male politicians and the "world community", giving rise to gossip (and it is probably not necessary to explain how terrible evil tongues are).
113c8d788200a46b2688a09d924185b7781af86c	Cleopatra, of course, was a famous woman and conducted her politics as a woman.
e5a72465d9e6533038fb5e8147460282a93d4f55	But what else could she do?
8e761688db3566401aa886cc5d27e88d40b13f55	Gather a weakened army and go to war on Rome?
d89c0fd348f1d1dc3c4ccc2683ed73839bac8946	However, what the queen was definitely not going to do was to buy and beg for freedom and the Egyptian throne, as many of her predecessors did. ...Both Ancient Egypt and the Roman Empire have gone into the past, but man has not changed: both two thousand years ago and today, when faced with an outstanding person who does not fit into the generally accepted framework, he tries to belittle him, find some rational explanation, some hidden motives of his behavior, shortcomings and complexes.
5fa7f988a88c2050a9d47ef535e88cf25a621c83	How easy it is to say: "Augustus was, of course, a great man, but physically weak, it depressed him, and therefore he decided to become emperor" or "Cleopatra was one of the most famous women of antiquity, but she was famous mainly for her passionate character and immorality".
4a6ac1fdaedfdd6a2fd90f794989f60ce52f5910	Why do we so readily believe gossip and speculation, but do not notice genuine selflessness, valor, love, mercy?
6fc393d88295a2e8775ea8758b9ee02647c87247	Sometimes the thought comes to mind: maybe if we had more spiritual nobility in us, many things would have presented themselves to us in a completely different way.
1eb0662e8aeb0ce2c158ae98852a876420830b27	And maybe then the last Egyptian queen would have become an example of greatness, beauty, wisdom and strength of spirit for us.
2506c265558c780a664651bdb8ee2b72e09e1cf4	The original article is available on the website of the New Acropolis magazine: www.newacropolis.ru
f62f2d5952db9361059545dc52bb55d60d524d9a	See also: Ancient Egypt
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5fd1e447ed2ef7a2f0afe99a2b62d547b4fee5ab	Political figures / / Biography of Cleopatra
3e9d8c37a0f48fb0ecbb75b8c5c84e7358eb10a1	Cleopatra (Cleopatra VII)
271d99ccfd1a0577c95b02a937d51d4778dbcc5b	Queen of Egypt (51-30 BC)
063cfd91766f877931d71345f2f933e8e25e13ed	Cleopatra VII, the last queen of Egypt, was born in Alexandria in 69 BC.
b2c46e7cbf8827293ec0632aa53bbc01111aceef	The Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty was founded by the military commander of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy, who took possession of Egypt after the collapse of Alexander's empire.
d7e3324175a8253c71f8ac470a015f867a6a8534	Little is known about Cleopatra's mother, and biographers only suggest that she could have been Queen Cleopatra V Tryphena – it is precisely established that she was the mother of the eldest daughters of Auletes.
ff3296978c115aa50c6ac942d31cc8a351c2f1d7	Tryphena disappeared at the beginning of 68 BC, and since bigamy was forbidden in the Hellenistic family, she was most likely the mother of the last queen of Egypt.
de0a06320e1a176ca43bbd791239d7f5870c8635	51 BC Ptolemy XII dies.
59d592da72d0cc465de7beecf97276764dc4e927	According to the custom, the eighteen year old Cleopatra should marry her own brother, the ten year old Ptolemy XIII, and rule Egypt together with him.
bf3ab396d35662224bb4836c429de8f3540df629	They manage to quarrel Cleopatra with her brother in law and provoke an uprising in Alexandria – it was announced to the people that Queen Cleopatra seeks to rule alone, and for this she will resort to the help of Rome.
02bc607051f433700e239c458d81f875f8c78d24	Cleopatra flees to Syria, the dignitaries begin to rule on behalf of Ptolemy XIII. 48 BC Cleopatra manages to gather an army on the border of Egypt and Arabia.
ed4258c715fb892415aadf4e529ae2c3502e666c	47 BC Pothinus and Achilles cannot accept Caesar's decision.
292847a38f10d108c40ccb27461d7175f9191e1c	After the victory, Caesar forces Cleopatra to marry her second brother, 16 year old Ptolemy Neoteros.
835369bb13f0786010d8dd4fc3b52067c84ac5e6	At the same time, the love affair of 52 year old Caesar and Cleopatra from the secret becomes well known.
1940e456308d054c93f0b94dc10c0bb8d838bbe1	46 BC Cleopatra, along with her husband, Caesarion and her retinue, moves to Rome and settles in one of the villas that belonged to Caesar.
ba6100c772e24afe03752771a79951e6c23526b9	44 BC Julius Caesar was killed.
cdf19379b74f36dd42f36f1d491158cd675a36af	43 BC Cleopatra's husband Ptolemy XIV dies.
eb210b1d382ebb0421c367de8c69a12ccd8c8ccf	After the assassination of Caesar, a civil war begins in Rome.
b6f8508a09c63802419ea9d167adcb025ebd7184	42 BC the triumvirate wins.
298ff077e87581c465afc4f5eb74342a3176660d	41 BC the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra takes place in the city of Tarsus in Cilicia.
df8c6a2c5bd0ed88e79c12ea27fdece352f14118	40 BC Anthony returns to Rome.
3352e28cfa11aa6580024b0e84d6c207c13dbc63	37 BC at the request of Antony, Cleopatra goes to Laodicea to provide food for his army.
2fa7ac6528d156434ce64ab4a338b9b2759a35bf	36 BC Anthony fulfills his promise and marries Cleopatra.
f0a67c38a0bce84890e83256c3637f5ae34a3d2f	34 BC Anthony conducts a successful military campaign in Armenia.
1e134e11920fd433b303050cb4cf08a3b3ea7611	32 BC Rome is outraged by the distribution of Roman lands to the Egyptians.
05d27a06c9089fc6a41adabe4c72e6ad52c43322	The beginning of 31 BC Anthony divorces his wife Octavia.
6f6b15f21cf0442c4a38f0b9fbab3e414c3ce993	The same year – Antony's will falls into the hands of his main opponent in Rome, Octavian (the brother of Antony's ex wife Octavia).
486203b98786ea27a8bc8e67a38905414e7cc182	Octavian immediately publishes the will and finally sets the Romans against Antony.
75cc853b23c9442c441b6101e37b5c4bb785582a	War has been declared on Cleopatra.
13c09cf9416befa0ef192d15e34161ecde25db22	September 2, 31 BC the decisive battle of the war took place at sea near Cape Aktion.
548437d02f6bd4d9688ae99338aa24ec3b5d2f16	August 30 BC Cleopatra learns that she and her children will have to" decorate " the triumph of Octavian in Rome.
36989436b38c445c147027ce52fa420a191b65c6	August 31, 30 BC Cleopatra decides to commit suicide.
223b5d5fd25f989408094f80a6415672345a9366	The mummy of Cleopatra is now kept in London, in the British Museum.
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33b39c5346311e129c94476bb90d96fefe429387	Cleopatra
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485f8ff84d45f6f01caee4fb1e032a7be45adc2e	Cleopatra VII
83dbe5626581d4dccf5dff51bfd701cf7ae68a76	Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ
b1f7c34725977868da28b5f0124f9093eb2f1706	Bust of Cleopatra VII from the Shershell in Algeria (Berlin Antique Collection).
e4bb364258affe698f7ef175f77b78d2d29f6df0	Cleopatra is wearing a royal tiara and a headband on her hair.
fb37b39cf9660cbd40637bf7cd9db509e3200404	The Queen of Egypt
ceae01080fce7988900021df4fa66acfe344f73c	69 BC -30 BC Corulers: Ptolemy XIII (51-47 BC),
72733de163a3210b753219c5227b7191732b974f	Ptolemy XIV (47-44 BC),
43af71cf20383d50db879d40af6d335ec3dfe32a	Ptolemy XV Caesarion (44 — 30 BC) Predecessor: Ptolemy XII Successor: title abolished
bfdb60baff5775ed38181b22e60a17bdab407c4a	Birth: November 2, 69 BC (-069-11-02)
e4ca8b050eb1a6d78a832cdfeb6dde8bc78a89e3	Alexandria Death: August 12, 30 BC(-030-08-12) (38 years)
8c67c9c052e69ab1f8889fd12c50bdab938cae22	Alexandria Birth: Ptolemy Father: Ptolemy XII Mother: Cleopatra VI Husband: Mark Antony Children: Ptolemy XV Caesarion[1], Alexander Helios[2], Ptolemy Philadelphia[3], Cleopatra Selena II[4]
39c2753ee80f078cc3a78e71f594be3268daf4e8	Cleopatra VII on Wikimedia Commons
668a05fd1a5e8fd966e92ad16921d89a2385ce8a	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the name Cleopatra.
3d103b1185c1c888f0ee46eec124f3982fb5f258	1 General information 2 Origin 3 Identity 3.1 Name
5034334016034fb48dc525e34616f507e89ce768	4 The Way to the Throne 5 Cleopatra and Caesar 6 Stay in Rome 7 Sovereign Rule 8 Cleopatra and Antony 8.1 Meeting with Mark Antony 8.2 Restoration of the Lagid Empire 8.3 Children of Antony and Cleopatra
237633c7d1a05ada2cf6083f8a7b929d78b75027	9 The Wreck 9.1 The Battle of Actium 9.2 The Death of Antony and Cleopatra
e001b2c6ef53a65e43e7d1c4a1001f232a2da7b7	10 Cleopatra in art 10.1 Cleopatra in cinema
544802e7aa5b1d5b86a54e6b7659405258f2ca35	11 Cleopatra in Astronomy 12 Notes 13 Literature 14 References
bbea7181d1c4ffd9ba0798a7d50cb3db7011dd45	General information[edit / edit wiki text]
e891d9c6c7c5fefba2bbc8195cbbb1c664c0d77b	Cleopatra VII ruled Egypt for 21 years consecutively in co government with her brothers (they are traditionally formal husbands) Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, then in actual marriage with the Roman general Mark Antony.
c325a716e529811436899e03ec1219ff1ed960a6	She was the last independent ruler of Egypt before the Roman conquest and is often, although not quite correctly, considered the last pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
88e5bb8858286b3e78246513af140d3615f5d29c	She became widely known thanks to her love affair with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.
6fd91211e91f362468fe971d5ea718f62c3b7b7f	She had a son by Caesar, two sons and a daughter by Antony.
66795d65dbdd8e6a64cc811e24e9518ce50b6c20	Sources on Cleopatra — Plutarch, Suetonius, Appian, Dion Cassius, Josephus.
5d0adcb93c345a0851f1b0d0ad2e8dd66fec1b88	For the most part, ancient historiography is unfavorable to her; since "History is a policy turned to the past," there is an opinion that the denigration of Cleopatra was carried out by the victor of Egypt, Emperor Octavian Augustus and his entourage, who sought to denigrate the queen with all their might, presenting her not just as a dangerous enemy of Rome and the evil genius of Mark Antony.
4667a2a26b6c1b2afc9fccacc97c08bdf1fe1a33	An example is the judgment of the fourth century Roman historian about Cleopatra.
9ff711114c46b127e55437e923dcc0d960af8f74	Aurelia Victor: "She was so depraved that she often prostituted herself, and had such beauty that many men paid with their death for possessing her for one night"[5].
8f778e5bfc47d181a4c9f60c262348e772f7fc67	Origin[edit / edit wiki text]
cbf0608c386c9a333d1f54cdf5343ac14142cdfb	Marble bust of Ptolemy XII Auletes.
bd25a2014e3cda25ac141049614152e56739b45c	The Louvre Museum.
22390ad11c32faec43fc61555b53607660b3c185	Paris
6838b4212f41cbe9a8d7d743aed7cdd163214214	Cleopatra was born on November 2, 69 BC (officially the 12th year of the reign of Ptolemy XII), apparently in Alexandria.
56802d1a8a85c5970a40dc434a58249943e05f54	She is one of the three (known) daughters of King Ptolemy XII Auletes, possibly by a concubine, since, according to Strabo, Ptolemy Auletes had only one legitimate daughter, Berenice IV, a queen in 58-55 BC.
856075514b912aaba5ec36ed57f41036bafef226	Nothing is known about Cleopatra's childhood and youth.
84d7febe62fcbddd267820450e7c3a10b7d334d7	Undoubtedly, she was greatly impressed by the turmoil of 58-55 BC, when her father Ptolemy XII was overthrown and expelled from Egypt, and his daughter (Cleopatra's sister) became the queen Berenice.
dc72781084ff3204b1f5664b13dcb7cd696d3f5f	Restored to the throne by the forces of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius, Ptolemy XII throws himself into a massacre, repression and murder (Berenice also fell a victim).
496d72f0d480386ea4c6f6fc8dc3fd796be7972a	As a result, he turns into a puppet, remaining in power only thanks to the Roman presence, burdening the country's finances.
fd032b4cf79ef1b9c817907d64545d486e4900ba	The troubles of her father's reign taught a lesson to the future queen, who used all means to get rid of opponents and everyone standing in her way — like, for example, from her younger brother Ptolemy XIV in 44 BC and later from her sister Arsinoe IV.
ab58cc657e199eb502c30c25d1156dcc6ac16401	Personality[edit / edit wiki text]
664f16954c10ec66aeab1b284b54fdd3ef1e3a3d	A damaged bust from the Shershell in Algeria (the ancient city of Caesarea Moorish), created after the death of Cleopatra on the occasion of the marriage of Cleopatra Selena II, her daughter by Mark Antony, with King Juba II of Mauretania, conveys the appearance of Cleopatra in her last years; although sometimes this bust is attributed to Cleopatra Selena II, daughter of Cleopatra VII. Cleopatra VII is credited with Hellenistic busts depicting young attractive women with typically Greek faces, but the persons from whom the bust was made are not precisely identified.
aa49f417bc1adee8baee390a8a14e25bcbff2726	It is believed that the busts depicting Cleopatra VII are kept in the Berlin Museum (see the screensaver) and the Vatican Museum, but the classic appearance makes one suspect the idealization of the image.
1a51c259f99e5eb003948ec8294698bd17feedfb	Egyptian statue of Cleopatra VII made of basalt
bfac4c9842b749ac7960b00b3d87bb6d748821f1	The very sounds of her voice caressed and pleased the ear, and the language was like a multi stringed instrument, easily tuned to any mood — to any dialect… While the Greeks usually neglected the upbringing of their daughters, even in royal families, Cleopatra clearly had a good education, which, superimposed on her natural mind, gave excellent results.
843a714fbf49a621c891fabe6a4cbadf3ad6a61e	Name[edit / edit wiki text]
64637838025cd22655b55ac8c8e9c5777c732065	Name type Hieroglyphic spelling Transliteration
e30fc089f7513fa28ad464dd9c1620d9a1ce6402	"Choral name"
4a391d84977a9327e7bd32be70fb6c557ed63f38	(like a chorus)
f7f78ae7be33f638f1b9c8ea1402419bea7f261d	[7] wr(t) nb(t)-nfrw ȝḫ(t)-zḥ.
45ce709ca460c896a81e9d558f4275715688a6aa	[8] wrt twt n jt.s.
bca3968945dc936d17779a32fe37728b0889abc6	"Personal name"
ee86cacfbd9682786fcded4cb83fa630bbb42f47	(as the son of Ra)
505a4ea9ec882c8e684093d42f2a43efbee88f5c	[9] qlwpdrt Ep. nṯrt mr(t)-jt.s. (Κλεοπάτρα θέά φιλοπάτωρ)
cb76d932e07d11e68b9988d4ea0ef134aeb060fd	[10] qlwpdrt Ep. nṯrt mr(t)-jt.s. (Κλεοπάτρα θέά φιλοπάτωρ)
6c152935b0eae751c334b81f1dce23037ad8891c	Epithet
dd924b8eb5228a5c8fe3056c87c11ffba58bdfc7	[10] nṯrt mr(t) jt.s.
ad1803decd6756db00206900f1234f416065e72d	[11] nṯrt mr(t) jt.s.
8249a483646e8de2a97b1269aaebc0a6d2ec215b	The Path to the throne[edit / edit wiki text]
725f21b8a0c69c95aa6e669ef2de5e4e9edb927f	The will of Ptolemy XII, who died in March 51 BC, transferred the throne to Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII, who was then about 9 years old, and with whom she was married formally, since according to the Ptolemaic custom, a woman could not reign independently.
2378580bc343b231e082e82e76f79842f18724b8	She ascended to the throne under the official titleαΑ Φιλοπάτωρ (Thea Philopator), that is, the goddess who loves her father (from the inscription on the stele from 51 BC).
b9d089945c7dd15c110daa65bb4f5ba8338ec604	The first three years of her reign were not easy due to a 2 year crop failure caused by insufficient flooding of the Nile.
3920bdf7dda0f170ebf53e37ee4b6e5e43d88976	With the accession of the co rulers, an underlying struggle of the parties immediately began.
f5426183c3be160c69e10e1c0ca3d49573f5fd45	Cleopatra first ruled alone, having removed her young brother, but then the latter took revenge, relying on the eunuch Pothinus (who was something like the head of the government), the commander Achilles and his tutor Theodotus (a rhetorician from Chios).
68cac03097d1b8ecea0d21cfc1cb7510f9ea0c09	In a document dated October 27, 50 BC, the name of Ptolemy appears underlined in the first place.
1306b1e32126b74ffc075f815e6fceea6f880559	In the summer of 48 BC , Cleopatra, who fled to Syria and recruited an army there, at the head of this army set up a camp on the Egyptian border, not far from the fortress of Pelusium; her brother also settled there with an army, blocking her way into the country.
6ad32989543d52c76ba835148477736f2ad62bb0	The turning point was the flight of the Roman senator Pompey to Egypt and his murder by Ptolemy's supporters.
a2ed344f1daa7e77b11c1909db13565ce45d95bc	Cleopatra and Caesar[edit / edit wiki text]
f5726512a7fbac7d84e59d597832f325a864df59	"Cleopatra and Caesar".
081991db2276248ee157ef817098bbef6bd6c180	Painting by the artist Jean Leon Jerome (1866)
310d5fbe8e7896f06d3a3e81729df6adf8514732	At this moment, Rome intervenes in the struggle.
2b3bb97de630adde9cc3ac71239b9b2a8391cbb7	Pompey, defeated by Julius Caesar at Pharsalus, appears at the Egyptian coast in early June 48 BC and asks the Egyptian king for help.
8901deaeaa916c41e59146b7126e8e4488735c0e	The young Ptolemy XIII, or rather his advisers, hoping to get generous favors from the victors, give the order to kill the Roman.
e916472f524826121b65d56dbf42b2d8554fdabe	This was done, barely Pompey stepped on the land of Egypt, in the eyes of his entourage (July 28, 48 BC).
9485312a1d16edb3c93c13c529cf229af59915a5	But the king miscalculated: Caesar, who, in pursuit of Pompey landed in Egypt two days later, angry that violence and buried the head of Pompey the walls of Alexandria, where he erected the sanctuary of Nemesis.
30ef336842d651a051573c87ffbc214128e954af	Once in Egypt, Caesar tried to replenish his treasury with the help of debts that Ptolemy XII had made to the Roman banker Rabirius during his efforts to restore him to the throne, and which Caesar now recorded on his account.
72bbcd6fe76d3b36c159c7e605dc63299965d3b5	Suetonius writes that Caesar "did not dare" to turn Egypt into a Roman province, "so that some enterprising governor would not be able to rely on it [a province with huge resources] for new troubles."
edf2685ecb91aabdf59c5ca15ba7178379fc7505	However, Caesar announced his intention to act as an arbitrator in the dispute of the kings.
47d4b08e9458ed684a7c8efcfb329b1574af7b1d	Ptolemy XIII was already the de facto ruler, moreover, recognized by Pompey; therefore, Caesar was interested in Cleopatra, who could become a puppet who owed him power.
cbb3c3173d86574134ad79e4b8bdd442d5f0e46a	Soon after his arrival, he calls Cleopatra to his house in Alexandria.
cae2d761d272ac1aa9dfe1d3c4b618a4a350cf5e	Getting into the capital, guarded by Ptolemy's men, was not an easy task;
2f98c868b25c5f94db4cc747e275e418d615ae69	Cleopatra was helped to do this by her admirer, the Sicilian Apollodorus, who secretly smuggled the queen in a fishing boat, and then carried her to Caesar's chambers, hiding her in a large bed bag (and not in the carpet, as it is prettily depicted in the films, see Cleopatra's Carpet).
e41b81be4fc17ce21f7215d979f2002f5e72c189	From this fact, we can conclude about the fragile physique of the queen.
f45cceba0fc242dcad20356424a4d5bde5d8a522	Throwing herself at the feet of the Roman dictator, Cleopatra began to complain bitterly about her oppressors, demanding the execution of Pothinus.
95c9d9d6c301e6ca297fa057e8aba022dd43eb78	The 52 year old Caesar was captivated by the young queen; moreover, the return to the will of Ptolemy XII corresponded to his own political interests.
a71130b630528b5f918080d8c7b9ded66752677f	When the next morning Caesar announced this to the 13 year old king, he ran out of the palace in a rage and, tearing off his diadem, began to shout to the assembled people that he had been betrayed.
9d18cf97919a15cb70b4fd85f88825a982cb23e0	The crowd was indignant; but Caesar managed to calm it down at that moment by reading the tsar's will.
e8b72a62b7040ae0c9aacbccfc6433ec70275da9	However, the situation became more complicated for Caesar.
35aaab82e2fc9cb95655d659f7ecf9b59c2abe29	The detachment that accompanied him numbered only 7 thousand soldiers; supporters of the murdered Pompey were gathering in Africa, and these circumstances aroused in Ptolemy's party the hope of getting rid of Caesar.
efd914cec2b8e0558a1f1bb238c65b8117ea51e2	Pothinus and Achilles summoned troops to Alexandria; the execution of Pothinus by Caesar could no longer stop the uprising.
d83ef2cb25ff3ce0f6976bb7316ae8cc83a8da11	The troops, supported by the townspeople, outraged by the extortion and self will of the Romans, received a leader when Ptolemy XIII and his sister Arsinoe fled to them.
4dbb725c1251dbfc14c88c36301b8eb0f5777900	As a result, in September 48 BC, Caesar was besieged and cut off from reinforcements in the royal quarter of Alexandria.
606d65af6c2cc0606f4f15af0c04d77b6e83965f	Caesar and Cleopatra were saved only by the approach of reinforcements led by Mithridates of Pergamum.
99ce923da924158ba24b2705cb5cc25b161c3518	The rebels were defeated on January 15, 47 BC at the Mareotian Lake, while fleeing King Ptolemy drowned in the Nile.
f04e66384e92d79ef14752a7dc2240c7c40e803e	Arsinoe was captured and was then held in Caesar's triumph.
1bf9446361fde251704a6da895b66d66e7f3031c	This was followed by a joint journey of Caesar and Cleopatra on the Nile on 400 ships, accompanied by noisy celebrations.
de74381acf7f24bd68d91d423e99d92dfbc5c427	Cleopatra, formally combined with her other young brother Ptolemy XIV, actually became the undivided ruler of Egypt under the Roman protectorate, which was guaranteed by the three legions left in Egypt.
a8b0952d94469c290103be9285c0fcaf4815a158	Shortly after Caesar's departure, Cleopatra gives birth to a son on June 23, 47 BC, who was named Ptolemy Caesar, but who went down in history under the nickname Caesarion given to him by the Alexandrians[12].
e30f93e03aed6db875c7f9798f3e47df777b5007	It was claimed that he was very similar to Caesar in both face and posture.
e96e3bb3af44152d5644b605c189b7f6b555c162	Stay in Rome[edit / edit wiki text]
a7133c256c6edb466915ecc0bf92de365461f5ff	Caesar fought with the king of Pontus Pharnaces, then with the last supporters of Pompey in Africa; immediately after the end of the wars, he calls Cleopatra and her brother to Rome (summer 46 BC), formally to conclude an alliance between Rome and Egypt.
8c4d5dc63883a2581d314448f5ac400ba1dfec32	Cleopatra was allocated a villa of Caesar in his gardens on the banks of the Tiber, where she received noble Romans who hurried to pay their respects to their favorite.
3587c80def1ecd8a5b53569319511011cfd498cc	This caused extreme irritation among the Republicans and became one of the reasons that accelerated the death of Caesar.
d3150a879a748842bb6e6f82b2fe9ecddbbabf4b	There was even a rumor (transmitted by Suetonius and indicative of the general mood) that Caesar was going to take Cleopatra as his second wife and move the capital to Alexandria.
5efd453bb57aecd366325b1e39440c8d3e77a519	Caesar himself ordered to place a gilded statue of Cleopatra at the altar of Venus the Progenitor (Venus as the mythical ancestor of the Julian family, to which he belonged).
2196120a58eab940528d1331436be361d066e994	Nevertheless, Caesar's official will did not contain any mention of Caesarion, whom he thus did not dare to recognize as his son.
afc390fd843edec3eff8f43eebdabd9a408937eb	Sovereign rule[edit / edit wiki text]
bf84b2c6754f124f3c46e651e7cb17d33fd10269	Caesar was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy on March 15, 44 BC .
7733d294f9f33c076782dd8547fa12a04399c91d	A month later, in mid April, Cleopatra left Rome and arrived in Alexandria in July.
66218f8fb7a836b534ff4cd79f552bc92b16278d	Soon after, the 14 year old Ptolemy XIV died.
0d2355398f6595682c4cda31b843362dbf00ee4d	According to Josephus, he was poisoned by his sister: the birth of a son gave Cleopatra a formal co ruler.
1cffa355267ee66659ba9c577f3a5f7309b22e37	In this situation, the growing up brother was completely unnecessary for her.
2c62c79f1974a4cef76c6fd9e4bd2fc7282abde1	In 43 BC, a famine struck Egypt and the Nile did not flood for two years in a row.
c872c5a04d9bc622e34b468874749c48c223f590	The queen was primarily concerned with the supply of her capital, which was prone to rebellion.
9a322aa562a650fcf3101f5b16a6972cca31636b	The three Roman legions left by the late Caesar rampaged until their withdrawal in 43 BC.
741f146567b121fd000e62c47aed7bb7397b6807	The war between the assassins of Caesar, Cassius and Brutus on the one hand, and on the other hand — his heirs Antony and Octavian, required the queen to be resourceful.
38a9068661b3b036400c755fbd32a0478005ffa1	The East was in the hands of Caesar's assassins: Brutus controlled Greece and Asia Minor, and Cassius settled in Syria.
b0ca5bea95d162c3db27b34cb6a9197e86e74107	The governor of Cleopatra in Cyprus, Serapion, helped Cassius with money and a fleet with the undoubted consent of the queen, no matter what feelings she had for the murderers of her Roman patron.
b3dc93120f84f3365be5bb1a5cfad90f3c139c7b	Later, she officially repudiated Serapion's actions.
d93e93adae6ebe5794b830bf1b697d9149fb1a90	On the other hand, Cleopatra equipped a fleet, allegedly, as she later claimed, to help the Caesarians.
383a3a10051b7dc0aff996693f0e9ca4b6ad6162	In 42 BC, the Republicans were defeated at Philippi.
33e4b8437093e06492f67d9ad74303e3db4fb5ce	The situation for Cleopatra immediately changed.
0876ebb96c77b07891f106ea79187f6a13006f7a	Cleopatra and Antony[edit / edit wiki text]
07bfdc78eaae4f0ea9c4bd4fd65a1c03acba31b2	Meeting with Mark Antony[edit / edit wiki text]
43b64096cc69fbc2c533bee92a4a20e2ab01bcf4	Cleopatra is on a luxury ship heading to Antony.
1039fc428c853125ae117856f53dc769bc35185b	A shot from the film "Cleopatra", 1963
842f033fbfbed860c1ebf565e822c0129f301960	Cleopatra was 28 years old when she met a 40 year old Roman general in 41 BC.
def4c19fe518118b2506d0f04c022af9ce371308	It is known that Antony, as the head of the cavalry, participated in the restoration of Ptolemy XII to the throne in 55 BC, but it is unlikely that they met at that time, although Appian cites a rumor that Antony was attracted to the 14 year old Cleopatra back in that period[13].
14c6c667aa5e53759cdabd81715593db7f9d945e	They may have met during the queen's stay in Rome, but before their meeting in 41 BC, they apparently did not know each other well.
7436395a806f26829e31bb03c3b186b798bd6e48	When the Roman world was divided after the defeat of the Republicans, Antony got the East.
fecebce3dcf17b8c59d9a91796dcd3684f867553	Antony decides to implement Caesar's project — a big campaign against the Parthians.
12b7cbb4906fb79137c4f0981b0893e9eccbcce3	Preparing for the campaign, he sends the officer Quintus Dellius to Alexandria to demand Cleopatra to his Cilicia.
b2f9c481fbc64b21c428658f8656326789a340f8	He was going to accuse her of helping Caesar's murderers, apparently hoping to get as much money from her as possible for the campaign under this pretext.
ddfc6729dc852a791955bfc0f61b784c5d960302	Jan de Bray, The Feast of Antony and Cleopatra, 1669
87d642ea16df95424c8723cb968b0fbc01df0d0a	Cleopatra, having found out through Dellius about the character of Antony and, above all, about his amorous nature, vanity and love of external brilliance, arrives on a ship with a gilded stern, purple sails and silver plated oars; she herself sat in the dress of Aphrodite, on both sides of her stood with the boys plowed in the form of eros, and the maids in the robes of nymphs ran the ship.
505d7a1d552589fe780ad9b250eaaa981fb3057b	The ship moved along the river Kidn to the sounds of flutes and kitharas, shrouded in the smoke of incense.
734d029b9363bac5f8d4f979c79d08c3cf250ec1	Then she invites Antony to her house for a luxurious feast.
9d68e44ff349304b29822debab170e9d94f94be3	Antony was completely charmed.
2bdb88319aad2d2ba96288f8f4857324160907c5	The queen easily rejected the prepared accusations, stating that Serapion acted without her knowledge, and she herself equipped a fleet to help the Caesarians, but this fleet, unfortunately, was delayed by contrary winds.
f842f85db6b2c849760f0d0c3741965fbfb1e8cf	As a first act of kindness to Cleopatra, Antony, at her request, ordered the immediate execution of her sister Arsinoe, who had sought refuge in the temple of Aphrodite in Ephesus.
8cc8ceeca5882894bbca3c64128db8b8e9d06cce	Thus began a ten — year romance, one of the most famous in history even though we cannot judge what was the share of political calculation in the relationship with Antony, which was necessary for Cleopatra to carry out her plans.
8fbe296cee582d32f2651c9b3a81ff8387a585a5	For his part, Antony could only support his huge army with the help of Egyptian money.
96f893e7f70156ce1fffc9b411a60eb1f5405e39	Restoration of the Lagid Empire[edit / edit wiki text]
dabe791776ee09cffbcdc3e6a7d44badb3353332	Antony, leaving the army, followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, where he spent the winter of 41-40 BC, indulging in drinking and entertainment.
2ece343f215a3da6e2b0124f0c007fd579b3fcd4	For her part, Cleopatra tried to tie him as tightly as possible.
640f6c26adf28936ea136b5787b070c195acb941	Plutarch tells:
ff1872cb8ffcfca52de03fafef77c88f9cbd1a24	together with him, she played dice, drank together, hunted together, was among the spectators when he practiced with weapons, and at night, when he wandered and loitered around the city in the dress of a slave, stopping at the doors and windows of houses and showering his usual jokes on his masters — people of ordinary rank, Cleopatra was also next to Antony, dressed to match him.
c3fd8b12d10f9ade04f0ff17bfdeb0d0dd9252c8	One day, Antony, having planned to impress Cleopatra with his fishing abilities, sent divers who constantly put a new "catch"on his hook;
01f375f722e92a6b215453e86507d925caf774b9	Cleopatra, having quickly figured out this trick, for her part sent a diver who planted dried fish for Antony.
ecbd46fd0c5f994eac45cce9bc82c01cae1aab11	Portraits of Cleopatra VII on coins
192503ffd3c89d004c5237d16ec533a3a2e37042	While they were having fun in this way, the Parthian prince Pacorus went on the offensive, as a result of which Rome lost Syria and the south of Asia Minor with Cilicia.
59ce1a5acc1b8140db74777769bdb41b2c27f313	Antigonus Mattathias, a prince hostile to the Romans from the Hasmonean (Maccabean) dynasty, was confirmed by the Parthians on the throne of Jerusalem.
9067f58d27105f6c15999f6d793c867bd78cd1b9	Mark Antony had a short counter attack of tyre, but was then forced to return to Rome, where, after a collision between his wife Fulvia and supporters of Octavian peace agreement was signed in Brandisii (October 40 BC).
bbb649e189b46d095583357ae04a067cf55542cb	The collision was caused by the fault of Fulvia, who, according to Plutarch, hoping thus to tear Antony from Cleopatra.
d904fe83e1fd378e6831d174642f2b52b9cd68c6	At this time, Fulvia died, and Antony was married to Octavian's sister, Octavia.
5e375222a32e9cfd04a814bd0d6325be277da72e	At the same time, in 40 BC , Cleopatra gave birth to twins from Antony in Alexandria: a boy, Alexander Helios ("The Sun") and a girl, Cleopatra Selena ("The Moon").
be85241f4957f1e3c398748e6cb3eac9e437962c	For 3 years until the autumn of 37 BC, there is no information about the queen.
4d4ca0258a34d6c876fea354f102095fc0048ef9	When Antony returns from Italy, the lovers meet in Antioch in the autumn of 37 BC, and from that moment a new stage in their politics and their love begins.
944f798900d0a4a7f4bf7d9b9c529034809c3016	The legate of Antony, Ventidius, expelled the Parthians;
81345a81e79fab4ef2d2a4aa7618185692155c52	Antony replaces the Parthian proteges with his own vassals or direct Roman administration.
26763fc18da9b3fafad77ac050ad5de4f573e695	Thus, the famous Herod, with his support, becomes the king of Judea.
299626f620863961aadfe5486bda61471555d467	Something similar is happening in Galatia, Pontus and Cappadocia.
8529e79727412149034ee45a4cdec517a97d8e82	Cleopatra directly benefits from all this, since her rights to Cyprus, which she actually owned, as well as to the cities of the Syrian and Cilician coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, the kingdom of Chalkidiki in present day Lebanon are confirmed.
b0fdce80d0b91302cde68201c97f26f32e3f760d	Thus, she managed to partially restore the power of the first Ptolemies.
911f342c249215ad9ce13606a779659f8c7cf1e7	Cleopatra ordered to count from this moment a new era of her reign in the documents.
71864805e235471e1a512879d4080ded1fbc17ec	She herself took the official title ΘΕα Vεωτερα Φιλοπατωρ φιλοπατρις (Thea Neotera Philopator Philopatris), that is, "the younger goddess who loves the father and the fatherland".
e48c0512a48541cedd8a069eb7000ef695f9ced9	The title was intended for the attached Syrians, who already had a queen (the elder goddess) of Ptolemaic blood Cleopatra Thea in the II century BC, the title also indicated, according to historians, Cleopatra's Macedonian roots, which was a weighty argument for the Greek Macedonian ruling class of Syria.
636f201c573cc72a66819790e1eea33c899d28c2	Children of Antony and Cleopatra[edit / edit wiki text]
1b4e2d940ac3c7312c892216fa0984d31e8f2fbe	In 37-36 BC , Antony launched a campaign against the Parthians, which turned into a disaster, mainly due to the harsh winter in the mountains of Armenia and Media (north west of present day Iran).
65a03fdfc0bdfda947611bd080655e5afc2dc3f3	Anthony himself barely escaped death.
39de99f2ef957d4b39b756455c0077b3e4e9d7cf	Cleopatra remained in Alexandria, where in September 36 BC she gave birth to her third child by Antony, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
26fc9c7f84fdfa7d75d147e4b76eed51c4607574	In Rome, they begin to consider the alliance of Antony and Cleopatra as a threat to the empire and to Octavian personally.
ae93902b1aef3d226e5eac7d426f1d5dc18fdde6	The latter, in the early spring of 35 BC, sent his sister Octavia, the legitimate wife of Antony and the mother of his two daughters (Antonia the Elder, the future grandmother of Emperor Nero, and Antonia the Younger, the future mother of Germanicus and Emperor Claudius), so that she would join her husband.
926131955086f25c85c6cf5a0ef73f1e1c5423c8	However, as soon as she reached Athens, Antony ordered her to immediately return back.
21c9c131aea87e7227325f8cf8ac17096778012d	This happened with the participation of Cleopatra, who threatened Anthony with suicide if he took a wife.
511c8363c3be10f856b29fdbcf1161409fd753f6	Antony wanted to take revenge for the defeat in the war with the Parthians: in 35 BC, he captured the king of Armenia Artavazd II, concluded an alliance with another Artavazd — the king of Media Atropatena and celebrated a triumph, but not in Rome, but in Alexandria with the participation of Cleopatra and their common children.
d64e7fd413e4e4265a5c2d67a18a6be25513a209	A little later, Caesarion receives the title of king of kings;
5c842bb51099ad397b7b46d4d524463940bb8163	Alexander Helios is proclaimed king of Armenia and the lands beyond the Euphrates, Ptolemy Philadelphus receives (nominally, since he was about 2 years old) - Syria and Asia Minor, and finally Cleopatra Selena II Cyrenaica.
863f3c99bb0acd95cabec997ffcac18dd3d4c053	Not all of the granted territories were under the real control of Anthony.
995de9383f0ed589cd9fd2f63095702498a16e45	Josephus claims that Cleopatra also demanded Judea from Antony, but was refused; however, this report is questioned.
bca66630d7978eaa04f1fb78beea44f5531377d2	The news of the distribution of lands caused the strongest indignation in Rome, Anthony clearly broke with all Roman traditions and began to play the Hellenistic monarch.
2bc7a6844c6e7d06954ebc24a4813232f8f2df1b	Crash[edit / edit wiki text]
b04c706e63d85bf62fee3fb683613eb6f6323ff5	The Battle of Actium[edit / edit wiki text]
d24747026ef30aea8722e53a359134346a8f5cf6	Main article: The Battle of Actium
d6bc3e605178e12ccbc1385fcadabecd23a29e38	Antony still enjoyed considerable popularity in the senate and the army, but with his antics in the Eastern Hellenistic spirit, which challenged Roman norms and traditional ideas, he himself gave Octavian a weapon against himself.
65e797597a415c4e3dfa8b3cb3ec6370fd716bd6	By 32 BC, it came to a civil war.
bbc1d49e7763fbd1b890381f6b6e540375be250c	At the same time, Octavian declared it a war of the "Roman people against the Egyptian queen".
7f3df399b298d3f66e51dba842154deea3c80f39	The Egyptian woman who enslaved the Roman commander with her charms was depicted as the center of everything eastern, Hellenistically royal, alien to Rome and "Roman virtues".
c32ac863774a5df3093a39cf94603741f9f80f1e	On the part of Antony and Cleopatra, a fleet of 500 ships was prepared for the war, 200 of them Egyptian.
1251715639fdee743dbbcd75d17c1a585798564c	Antony led the war sluggishly, indulging in feasts and festivals together with Cleopatra in all the passing Greek cities and giving Octavian time to organize the army and navy.
68fc9ce15adc13d00ddf1269b9fe56351292bbbe	While Antony was gathering troops to the western coast of Greece, intending to cross to Italy, Octavian himself quickly crossed to Epirus and imposed a war on Antony on his territory.
0d361ca96f4cadd7449f81ed62212449cebe3182	Cleopatra's stay in Antony's camp, her constant intrigues against everyone in whom she saw her detractors, served Antony a bad service, prompting many of his supporters to defect to the enemy.
ba4fe05f2203aedf2f687c8556fe94241184edfa	The story of an ardent follower of Antony, Quintus Dellius, is characteristic, who was nevertheless forced to defect to Octavian, because he was warned that Cleopatra was going to poison him for a joke that she considered offensive to herself.
72fa51053ce075e3e7f97c8d67cdcf05eece8fe4	The defectors informed Octavian about the contents of Anthony's will, it was immediately removed from the temple of Vesta and published.
505701ed8f897e0b8b037a3823b94f40ca8f72af	Anthony officially recognized Cleopatra as his wife, her sons as his legitimate children, and bequeathed to bury himself not in Rome, but in Alexandria next to Cleopatra.
1841df6494215c24368067661ea12166672f3023	Antony's will completely discredited him.
7b3f1f3ccb91d4c2b88d044cc324df19cbbc8680	Octavian, who was not a major military commander, found in the person of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa a competent commander who successfully waged war.
d615b83d99dddbd9e091e6bd9283462f62fd0bdf	Agrippa managed to drive the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra into the Gulf of Ambracia and blocked it.
5f95e73afc56098f5b7c5eed7f51d5f9265d44c9	Their troops began to feel a lack of food.
0715ddd363329e11192f9c1ed689a3c15914f46b	Cleopatra insisted on a sea breakthrough.
280a3433068de3c5e00f9f4dfd86f7b77a501d9a	At the military council, this opinion prevailed.
980cc9a84c14c25ed425f4afff3d83f19053f0c6	The result was the naval battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC .
acb58c1eef4219067372905f3b8b7ce1418bb978	When Cleopatra was afraid that victory was slipping away, she decided to flee with her entire fleet, trying to save something else.
7efd101dbd3f23c2fc9383c19c647e48a629eda2	Antony ran after her.
1458106fefd2b10a09649012f2bf4bc7cbbdf5d1	His defeated fleet surrendered to Octavian, and after that the demoralized land army surrendered without a fight.
2cf777bd2af17bf938329541fd49a1ce3d1a9eb1	The Death of Antony and Cleopatra[edit / edit wiki text]
76f1b5b9a4fd73c49c22e6c7dcaff39cb66eb843	The Death of Cleopatra, painting by Reginald Arthur, 1892
d94230b47c512df1545f00514f1d8038f166879e	Antony returned to Egypt and did nothing to continue the struggle with Octavian.
4b460ea1dc7310c1959035374e77a9e8c2581401	However, he did not have any real resources left for this.
4e4229b55ed4d2b612d4933c9662c75c69ae2970	He wasted his strength in drinking and lavish celebrations, and announced together with Cleopatra the creation of a" Union of Suicide Bombers", whose members swore to die together.
5fc91895b741ac40fda2a65291b9092ddf7f5e95	Their entourage had to join this alliance.
8bd926dc84de645da5f6b38d8df181e70eb5373a	Cleopatra tested poisons on prisoners, trying to find out which poison brings a faster and more painless death.
27ddba77e6b7f82cde5fa198d0ffb01857c2852c	Cleopatra was concerned about saving Caesarion.
dd4cf725ebdb997362907b5daeafae7803bdbf83	She sent him to India, but he then returned back to Egypt.
01c49076750762bc3aa3d13e68b6470234a9ea72	She herself at one time was running around with plans to escape to India, but when trying to drag ships by dragging through Suez the Arabs burned them down across the isthmus.
b5ea53dede3ab5f5a940d3ca83c53e038d3ff71a	These plans had to be abandoned.
44d4c65756bb317dae3d0d7cd0ab96f896b8c409	The Death of Cleopatra, a painting by the Hungarian artist Dula Benzura, 1911
ae50a6f27eb55428007a5322ab1e47b95650020c	In the spring of 30 BC , Octavian moved to Egypt.
df594fd561d18dd105b411162375d4acb1449175	Cleopatra tried to protect herself from treason by cruel measures: when the commandant of Pelusium, Seleucus, surrendered the fortress, she executed his wife and children.
fd4c441e09299dced67564bf939324342b6a48ca	By the end of July, Octavian's troops appeared near Alexandria itself.
ff959599d46e1a8dcfc542e8c40dad132830a306	The last parts that remained with Antony, one by one, passed to the side of the winner.
9c91113718dcd63783e0d5af27e9ccbcb194c16f	On August 1, it was all over.
49b823fce37722742cc405bf4643b31e3b453bd3	Cleopatra, with her trusted maids Irada and Charmion, locked herself in the building of her own tomb.
7529a6b1613b406ddc388a2640c129d24f152591	Antony was given false news about her suicide.
8afd8f5c4aec2b513305a1968d87afd720059580	Antony threw himself on his sword.
7dcda67e5ad358b085d90c9245a56e20a43060ee	Soon, dying, the women dragged him into the tomb, and he died in the arms of Cleopatra, who sobbed over him.
8fbdbc9dcc8221d352f0c71b19facc046d3b17f1	Cleopatra herself, holding a dagger in her hand, demonstrated her readiness for death, but she entered into negotiations with Octavian's envoy, allowed him to enter the building of the tomb and disarm her.
27adc485e0288bc57236c4f2642ee5b885503a2b	Apparently, Cleopatra still retained a faint hope to seduce Octavian, or at least to negotiate with him, and keep the kingdom.
4ce05fc772b2c978fc6f703ce441cf5980ddcea5	Octavian was less susceptible to female charms than Caesar and Antony, and the charms of a woman over thirty and a mother of four children may have weakened somewhat.
198673aae3718d20fdfbaaad29b97dab0571d7b1	The last days of Cleopatra are described in detail by Plutarch according to the memoirs of Olympus, her doctor.
d52d0d2e60d4a929bae7464bf3c0b6af9d2f586f	Octavian allowed Cleopatra to bury her lover; her own fate remained unclear.
b9ebf124145ad4a2f8a24f03a2905d102aee8476	She claimed to be ill and made it clear that she would starve herself to death — but Octavian's threats to kill the children forced her to accept treatment.
7bd318db3aa0234e344b85e884705d033b48e7c4	A few days later, Caesar (Octavian) himself visited Cleopatra to console her in some way.
72d23f7a1cac47f3271260c1ead4dacba79d741a	She was lying on the bed, depressed and dejected, and when Caesar appeared at the door, she jumped up in her chiton and threw herself at his feet.
210af0805a6625b3766bf0eaa2527dbcb3b2183d	Her hair, which had not been tidied up for a long time, hung in shreds, her face was wild, her voice was trembling, her eyes were dim.[14]
c3369d5707d63abca219dbe1468a7e7ae7ac807d	The death of Cleopatra.
aca4a73f612a76196cfcb4bd1555c2da7056f2dc	Painting by Jean André Rixens (1874)
d9943ecb20fd641467e921caec66430ac15476b8	Octavian greeted Cleopatra with encouraging words and left.
6d3cc73ac0a4c4f54680a0dca1e59d9171a93fef	Soon, the Roman officer Cornelius Dolabella, who was in love with Cleopatra, informed her that in three days she would be sent to Rome for the triumph of Octavian.
05e0670534f1635b52b64262876cbdf13313f825	Cleopatra ordered to give Tom a pre written letter and locked herself in with the maids.
864053fa6bb8f8122c76312031aa88dc45036761	Octavian received a letter in which he found complaints and a request to bury her together with Antony, and immediately sent people.
584982c5e58b89036d5ea3f0d85b608b30480adc	The messengers found Cleopatra dead, in a royal headdress, on a golden bed.
1612bc7af172a423fb664ce257850c4410820bba	Since a peasant had previously passed by Cleopatra with a pot of figs, which did not arouse suspicion among the guards, it was decided that a snake had been carried in the pot to Cleopatra.
fadc20bbdb7bb89068c6eb7bfe27c809b99901de	It was claimed that two light bites were barely visible on Cleopatra's hand.
7b23acef8888fefdeec8885237208ce8515b9333	The snake itself was not found in the room, as if it had immediately crawled away from the palace.
b23f56077a937c75ef8edeb0679ac3330afe256f	According to another version, Cleopatra kept the poison in a hollow hairpin.
2a7068fb9126d7f16441ccae63cbb9e5738ae96d	This version is supported by the fact that both of Cleopatra's maids died with her.
c24960b7e185c352fdfa312553107ea54b11266e	It is doubtful that one snake killed three people at once.
3b1ffe3b6830fd4cbb40b028a90b334de9ea8158	According to the historian Dion Cassius, Octavian tried to revive Cleopatra with the help of the Psylls, an exotic tribe that could suck out poison harmlessly for themselves.
a1e926d91605436ab9569bf448827c7c71d8a087	The death of Cleopatra on August 12, 30 BC deprived Octavian of a brilliant captive at his triumph in Rome.
ac08b8ef61e82b0963b32b480e7293587d80ecef	Only her statue was carried in the triumphal procession.
b54b875bbf9cb9a6432d957a15def0bc9b4c51ef	Caesar's adopted son Octavian executed Caesar's own son by Cleopatra Ptolemy XV Caesarion in the same year.
ab88ba3d3a2ffc0cbe524770e6047621dd7033f1	Children from Anthony were in chains at the triumphator parade, then they were brought up by Octavian's sister Octavia, Anthony's wife, "in memory of her husband".
d305d6da4d0d275cab5ffd51720601ab15d0ad43	Subsequently, Cleopatra's daughter, Cleopatra Selena II, was married to the Moorish king Yuba II, thanks to which a bust of Cleopatra from Shershell appeared.
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0e74aa5dff4e67cb15c03d14a7ac05ece95a20af	Queen Cleopatra – legends, myths, facts.
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b5c83565ff893c9ba5ad60a4056ae173e0ab1087	Wed, 27/07/2011-13: 40 — Valentina Zhitanska
144b441aeb9fd64f21b05729a655ac06a033a9af	Julius Caesar | Plutarch | Osiris | Mark Antony | Cleopatra | Isis
7a9eac97d1742c9610ca26253406c5b4b90877d8	Cleopatra is the last of the pharaohs, the first of the female politicians who dreamed of the Egyptian Roman empire, which became a real fact after the death of Cleopatra, with the only difference being that the monarchs of the empire were descended from Octavian, Caesar's great nephew, and not from Caesarion, his son.
4ae04f76c41ec961e9be13735f64ab368894eb96	The story of Cleopatra's life, her love and tragic death remains unraveled until the end.
d4e8dbcf90534a79c2d800fa3d7fcbcf7e67a244	For more than two thousand years, the image of Cleopatra has been shrouded in a romantic halo of mystery.
8bfc75bcec82197605dad9dcc3a2b2b5469c7c73	Historians, both ancient and modern, agree that Cleopatra was a woman of exceptional intelligence, power hungry, charming, daring, ambitious, unscrupulous, shrewd.
d15fc3d1a064c9d4fcdabe0dc0a92aef3062772a	She spoke seven languages, was the author of books on philosophy, units of weight, measurements and the coin system, as well as books on hairstyles and cosmetics.
9109063819b27139196e989308053f8b0b13f39c	Cleopatra revived the rituals of the ancient religion of Egypt, adopted the symbol of the Goddess Hathor the daughter of the God Ra and believed that she was the representative of the Sun God on Earth, an intermediary between man and the Gods.
dbcb0bf801914ef6c69c5e228c10e8b5c402a531	Bas reliefs depicting Cleopatra conversing with the God Amon are made on the walls of Egyptian temples (Dendera, Hermontis).
84c36139a05e4e42cc7b934e7e9ad1a9f4d0314a	Cleopatra achieved the desired result with her brilliant mind, courage and boundless optimism, with the help of cunning, games, tricks, intrigues.
3358e8e78a6b4a75196108a4fc6036120be63bd8	As the esotericists say, "she launched thought forms or thought images into materialization, "and then" let go of the situation" and achieved what she wanted.
5ce4123eea389ec1b13723cba97a81800f51f0f0	For the ancient Roman poet Horace, Cleopatra was a woman " crazy enough to harbor the most fantastic hopes, being the favorite of fate."
decd2348487c091cfe5d27e3c25f4acc4583ccab	Cleopatra was the last queen of Ancient Egypt, one of the daughters of King Ptolemy XII. She became a queen at the age of 18 and until her death (at the age of 39) remained a person about whom the most beautiful and most mysterious stories are told.
b92471d592c282224d6ed4dcf61ee76679c5e9f4	Here are some of them:
d5ad7ed0e8f3ced8653d6a3daae1b4ced21ccdb3	* Cleopatra was identified with Isis, Venus Hathor, Venus Aphrodite.
95341f0d195292dfe48a07501a6fd3e08944ae6f	Scientists suggest that the mother of Cleopatra and Arsenoi was a concubine of Ptolemy XII. Perhaps Cleopatra had African blood in her.
3dc43ca63012ea3132ef4ed78b5a8220c866f77b	However, as Arthur Weigal writes in the book "Cleopatra.
73bca68efd8fd0a50eded035a70e25c1a7fc0189	The last queen of Egypt", "Cleopatra probably had a bit of Syrian blood in her veins, since her grandmother, the mistress of her grandfather Ptolemy Latyra, was from this people.
6941522913e947d87a2639218b0279392143ce35	The Julian calendar, on which our current calendar system is based, was developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sozigen and introduced by Julius Caesar on January 1, 45 BC.
1a5246063c87022d94da8dfc608473703de0f10b	Thanks to Cleopatra's proposal to invite her court astronomers to Rome, who introduced a new calendar system based on the Egyptian calendar
60c1176d10956fc3ea6f337d38fb70b31223390b	* When Mark Antony called Cleopatra for the first meeting, she postponed it several times.
62a0d978665fa4449b8985d1c1b1b61342b8c14a	At this time, Cleopatra was secretly building a grand surprise ship.
3f5936ab540813cc8e8456e2be62b0337c96581f	A huge vessel made of precious wood under scarlet sails, exuding a fantastic fragrance, sailed to Antony at dusk, to the sounds of the most delicate music.
5d4f38af8db80e9061b7ca3a3bc872294e8482a9	When Antony came to himself from the shock, the twilight deepened, and a grand illumination was lit on the ship.
b56ccef90258026a8d74f47aca2dd00cc06cf3b5	* The historical chronicles mention Cleopatra's bet with Antony, the essence of which was that she herself could easily spend an amount equal to several hundred thousand sesterces on one meal.
4d7fccb4fa2918d0f6504f27d748fb1487506f4a	When at the end of the feast Antony calculated the total amount of expenses, Cleopatra said: "Now I will try to spend the agreed amount on myself."
fb49db2d0bb9c2530f4de65da7fc9fe1d3e474cc	The queen took off her earrings with two huge pearls, each of which was worth more than half the amount declared in the bet, took out one of the pearls, threw it into a bowl with vinegar and drank the contents.
6b89ea32f398decd556243f12190f0a0202c3472	* According to Plutarch, at the end of the feasts that Cleopatra organized for Antony, the queen gave each guest a sofa on which he reclined, cups that stood on the table in front of him, and the most important guests - palanquins along with slave carriers.
03c43ea1be7885cecd334677fcbd4b5199d68d49	She provided less significant guests with horses in golden harness.
17f1231c1f1bc605074353ee0ffcefd7dffd0fda	* In memory of the marriage of Antony and Cleopatra, coins were minted, on which their heads are depicted and their names are written.
35be1a8fc580e4eb3ecb0557986b895bdd4bce83	In honor of this event, Cleopatra began a new chronology of her reign, and on coins issued six years later, next to the heads of Anthony and the queen, there is an inscription: "In the reign of Queen Cleopatra, in the 21st, which is also the 6th year of the Goddess."
6d55cfee0aa622501c743fc834b8bd5967ff4d3d	* For the entertainment of the Romans at the feast, Cleopatra once ordered to strew the floor in the banquet hall with roses half a meter high.
71e60c63a35ebf2295f734ab9839e596c177e764	The flowers formed a solid carpet thanks to the nets that were stretched over them and attached to the walls, and the guests walked to their couches on a fragrant carpet.
9a14a0caa956614239a1c3327ca4ec58c8f83ceb	* Since Cleopatra's extravagance knew no bounds, and her wealth seemed inexhaustible, the alchemists of those times believed that the queen owned the Philosopher's stone, which gave her the ability to turn simple metals into gold.
1ea59d5231920a61f9c250d6fc3b61179ec39a16	* It was said about Cleopatra that the queen does not get drunk thanks to a magic ring with amethyst, which has the ability to expel wine fumes from the head of the one who wears it.
e8a5b3fbc52d1b3856a22f0b546350948dd6242e	* Galen (an ancient physician) has preserved a curious recipe of Cleopatra for the treatment of baldness.
ecec6c4d8b38527d8036f4c988b3579a2f699710	Perhaps this was the same recipe that she had drawn up for Caesar, hiding his bald crown under the emperor's laurel wreath.
8ca9cab7dbed47456b0bf987671588356175fff9	As a treatment, Cleopatra advised: "Grind red sulfur with arsenic and mix it with oak resin.
7414425deba87259da688b8a502d980cafc9ae0e	Put the mixture on a cloth and apply it, having previously thoroughly soaped the bald spot."
93acc54798eaa104a67d30a2dfe1ea7b8ea26d55	* Cleopatra collected collections of all kinds of poisonous potions and often went to the dungeon to conduct her experiments on convicted criminals there.
f3ad415fe435745265868d2cbad9c50c04211a9e	* Of all the stories told about Cleopatra's great scientific curiosity, the most unusual is the story set out in the Talmud (Niddah), which tells about the experiments conducted by the queen with her maids who were sentenced to death.
86df6ed4bb5bb8575dfeda0b64e8ac8141dcc857	Experiments were conducted to determine at what point the fetus in the womb takes shape, becomes an embryo, and to establish when a person is really born by entering the soul into it.
50166de4e7a7752bb8709e3cddf7d30a1c387359	* Historian Christopher Schaefer believes that Cleopatra did not die from a snake bite, as was commonly believed, but from a deadly cocktail of opium and the hemlock plant.
45207ad7023ef9fc722d2a3dc9a2d0e9e78b73da	However, among all ancient writers, the question of the deadly power of a snake bite and the alleged use of it by Cleopatra was solved by Elian Claudius , an ancient Roman writer and philosopher, who wrote: "it is extremely difficult to detect the manifestations or traces of snake bites, and snake venom is surprisingly fast acting.
8d400732d466c1fe006fd27206e7725ef7383bab	From the stories of Plutarch, it is known that the tomb of Cleopatra was part of the temple buildings, so that the remains of the queen rested on the territory of the sanctuary of the Goddess Isis, with whom she was identified.
4a07087b5639d3e60f6fac07b20c03eaa0c3239a	The mausoleum was striking in its height and was built of precious marble.
b8a3bb378b9a41479b947d9fb0527c6b4f618be2	Plutarch reports that by order of Octavian, the last queen of Egypt was buried next to her defeated Roman husband.
abe1f89f5aaa9b2864e89851f71d3a53878ab1c4	The Roman historian Dion Cassius claims that the body of Cleopatra, like Antony, was embalmed.
7e49dc33418bdeb369ec758f904783cadae55c82	Only here is where the grave of Cleopatra and Antony is located, no one knows.
ae57f7b7442a051fcc156017b36b0ca0f3e89b0d	Earthquakes, tsunamis, and armed conflicts have wiped out the ancient quarter where generations of Cleopatra's family lived for 300 years.
a3309f791b5afef57b95af1a2334fb8dde16985c	Now the greatness and glory of ancient Alexandria rest deep on the seabed.
ea15a617f89aaf5f03f3e8f65f45ac20340c06fd	In April 2009, the Minister of Antiquities of Egypt, Zahi Hawass, reported that a radar survey at the Taposiris Magna temple (modern Abusir) showed three important anomalies, one of which may be the tomb of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
39771ffef75aceca7e096bde8eaa86e021047fe9	The Temple of Osiris is located 45 kilometers west of Alexandria and was built during the reign of King Ptolemy II.
869740c1ed1145ab77f02d8b3fb3986e2c2e85ac	This sacred place is one of those where, according to legend, the body of Osiris (or one of its fragments) was buried.
7cf33721e2822a4d343932373981e301165ee319	A 120 meter tunnel filled with sand was discovered under the ruins of the temple.
aa170bda157797bf361795ea942826eb369b3c62	After cleaning it, scientists found a death mask of Anthony, a statue of Cleopatra and 20 coins with her image, minted in Egypt during the reign of the queen.
bc849d1c1780dfcedd4d788a2677ecf85cae0473	Cleopatra had planned everything in advance - how she would live, how she would die, and how her sarcophagus would be found.
cd1f4d09194c66e855e99dcfcd0d30c1bc5c3d4e	It remains only to wait for the completion of the excavations.
27f936015d70e48a8bfc3601c1afb0e1c032427e	To comment, log in or register 64786 views
907b61353e0cd3ad602f8faeb5ea3f5c98276879	The secret becomes clear...
70d00c6ddae744549452be478e364ed84fa632d7	sergey - 24 Sep 2013 - 12: 15
44c4b732421f0d507324ba9d02be02e36a9c06d0	In the video, Cleopatra's head clearly resembles the head of Valentina Zhitanskaya, as if it is the same woman... probably Valentina knows more about this, but modestly hides it from us... in any case, the secret becomes clear... now we know who Valentina Zhitanskaya is and why her craving for the secrets of ancient civilizations is so obvious... after all, she was there and knows a lot about it without intermediaries...
38697e34b9ae6271f68f1700092c2168412da60b	Thank you and I admire you, Cleopatra, revealed to us in the new modern image of Valentina Zhitanskaya!
8df82c180e4742c83ce177bd7ea96efa662ebb1d	To comment, log in or register
a13571550c44f99ad1cd57a0f0e6c0a21374553a	The statue of the children of Cleopatra and Mark Antony has been identified
d4404f84bdac9eb5150a3c61f55e68c902c6d40c	Skarlet - 26 Apr 2012-20: 26
eba71480aa318fb6499528408a684e3dbbcd2a13	Almost a century after the discovery of an Egyptian statue depicting two mysterious figures, it was possible to decipher their identity.
7426cd77af4128751d73dbf39278dfed0ff86db4	Unknown were Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, the children of the legendary Cleopatra, the last queen of Hellenistic Egypt, and the Roman commander Mark Antony.
001f0425608b4fbc06f8343ed28b02495156dcae	Discovered in 1918 on the west bank of the Nile, near the Dendera temple complex, the statue was kept in the Cairo Egyptian Museum.
eb6a7917d8c2a4d596e506d0b0e880e0fbaced9d	The sandstone sculpture, about 10 meters high, depicts two naked children, a boy and a girl, whose legs are entwined with snakes to the level of their thighs.
bb451dc36d9cb4c85e28fb506014747ef69cd88d	Cleopatra had four children.
b2bf351ff30037679cce3b221aa83789e993eda4	The first son Caesarion was born from Caesar.
fda24ba1ce7112b890d42706339e6e1c4317c006	After the assassination of the Roman dictator, Cleopatra had a long term relationship with the commander Mark Antony, from whom the twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selena were born, as well as the youngest son Ptolemy Philadelphus.
98b18036141ec45c3aa6d2d1247a4ed09c72f421	The statue was studied by the Italian Egyptologist Giuseppina Capriotti, a specialist of the Italian National Research Council.
4fce1f19df66ef887eac2d9836c19028466e5bca	It was she who established that the images of Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selena were carved in stone.
6767a41ba383a5ec939e83eb9c6c6ee553e5017a	Source: http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=780888
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44652ad36760baac52e89356bf081fc4338ac7cf	9%
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554145fe554176e4c4fd1c0deac8c6bc3335b9ec	7%
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dbc377c226914a2f1f15dffb5e40913ce777f766	HAPPY NEW YEAR, VALENTINA!
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199bf60b8e6125ac11a5f81e6ee5d8e13e9ff42f	☭ Pulya.NET Youth Internet magazine № ❶ ➽ Celebrity ➽ Interesting facts about Cleopatra
5fb057d1ec6412eed6efc7d9e27f370db069bcb7	Interesting facts about Cleopatra
817db16cdb73cd6797d008d3343a1744214b14b5	More than two thousand years have passed, but still the image of Cleopatra is the standard of female beauty, which came to us from ancient Egypt.
750a5036238197d45aa7627e90c2a28f7b3826f5	Her life was rich and bright, she broke a lot of men's hearts.
ab40d20abd1b8320d6cba88a9218dd44efbe4934	Her death is still not completely solved until the end, although it is said that she died from a venomous snake bite.
640f42d1b22d5642028338b0ec9476242dc8b2f5	Queen Cleopatra was an intelligent, domineering, strong, charming, insightful, daring, ambitious and fatal woman.
69d9e11e18b0db6c5b9436bb87653e3fbdfb830c	Many people admired her and still admire her.
23585d334eacfeab58f43735ac5e3c41f3522b02	Perhaps she was not as beautiful as many models and celebrities are now with the help of plastic surgery, but the Egyptian goddess knew how to take care of herself and how to properly present herself to others.
25b6561ea62af0a0e9f5eda787eea8339002e9bb	The life of Cleopatra is quite mysterious and it will not be possible to fully reveal it.
01bc8bb00effb1844b8de2073c99c37105475c6a	But we will tell you interesting facts about the legendary woman Cleopatra.
02838bf5890414e2428c1ccd47d8e30c77534576	The full name of the Egyptian queen Cleopatra Thea Philopator VII – she was the seventh ruler of Egypt with a similar name.
568d8cb225a7dcf607f10be7bab63306f3047c02	She was very educated - she spoke several languages fluently, studied philosophy, read literature and played various instruments.
149f3b32a636ec21d344e1016efa4f82a41e9655	Cleopatra was one of the daughters of King Ptolemy XII and was the last queen of Ancient Egypt.
1ac74b33f83177a537a012fcdf0db5be7997dd43	She began to rule at the age of 18, when her father died, and until the age of 39, when she herself died.
f5ab787e3368cb1d993887b6a8eb6c8d63e3ea17	She was the last pharaoh in Egypt, after her death Egypt became a Roman territory.
3ab53d272e3945a2d4714cd995ddd78c465cbdef	She had three sisters: one younger and two older (one of them was named after her mother Cleopatra V).
2c43ad5677e6f3162efe828ed0f438718a74c50f	The tomb of Cleopatra's sister Arsenoi was found in the ancient city of Ephesus.
e91d44fad861606220eb23a0eb92518bb35f7641	Scientists, having made an analysis of the remains, suggest that Arsenoi's mother was an African and a concubine of Ptolemy XII.
d1f61b22067d09a0665c037ecc1ea49f534deb4c	And perhaps there were African roots in the blood of Cleopatra.
e7fcebb01608e04fd289e93f74248e39b39e8def	She married her younger brother Ptolemy XIII, he was 12 years old, and she was 18.
1e9622613b9fedc61693ee9ba9cc88626a348238	Together they ruled for 4 years.
c157144d9030aa44767eda2d1471cb2c72540ac7	Then her younger husband drowned.
b705ff31353404581e02a8eb866fe1fec145640c	Julius Caesar was won over by the courage of Cleopatra's mind when she ordered the slave Apollodorus to roll her up in a blanket, wrap her with ropes and deliver her to Caesar himself.
d8d0c64b725ebae8c3bbe3c8ce243ab615eb9018	She wanted to become the Queen of Egypt again, and she achieved this, because Caesar fell in love with her.
52cfb6c91709a1652da9302e5ef294dfa2502b28	Later they became lovers.
85396b0c07a88b99ebf858b1f1f6db0c7ce711ce	After the death of Caesar, Cleopatra and Mark Antony fell in love with each other and soon married.
7a28aeb10e16e5abdda0ee669e14bd2a97e3fa94	When Mark Antony invited her to his house, he wanted to humiliate her in front of everyone.
edd8c850246e2ce6e25b3d34b20a8f598aaffea3	Cleopatra refused several times and postponed this meeting.
2775a37dd0ebbfb39d1e31fd9b299bfb65d5bb3e	And not because I didnot want or was afraid to go to him, but because at that moment a huge ship was being built from very expensive varieties of trees with beautiful scarlet sails.
1139787a77396ae247da5fe5b9ee51d5008d9643	And when she finally sailed to Antony at dusk on a magnificent ship strewn with rose petals, to gentle music and descended to him, then at that moment Cleopatra captured Antony's heart.
d163ffa153cc9c3094d72a6ebacc5bfd5c201b57	Cleopatra had a brilliant mind, cunning and dexterity, thereby she always got what she wanted and was able to convince people.
af12cae5fe1cf5a11ecb62b915320ecb0e5aa634	She had four children: Caesarion (Ptolome Caesar the son of Julius Caesar), Cleopatra Selene, Alexander Helios and Ptolemy II Philadelphia the children of Mark Antony.
d33357be0da157ebf79441d7bf156eb6da61b8fc	The ancient physician Galen has preserved an interesting recipe for Cleopatra from baldness.
cc42c122a59576850cdaca4416fd8b0687633247	As a treatment, the queen advised " To grind red sulfur with arsenic and mix it with oak resin.
37ecc16ae739cf17bf501eff54cd42249b582100	Who knows, perhaps this recipe was used by Julius Caesar himself.
7038e9bc1945671310ad40ed8be20052f65c2a6f	Cleopatra owns the invention of waxing – the modern name "epilation".
c2fc949d31c15dc0eca7f48a6686c154b6612372	However, at that time the queen did not use ordinary wax, as many women use nowadays, but a special mixture of resins.
62e522ecd9426d0820745bb699d5e226f9e2565d	But still, the female half should be grateful to her for this, because the first mentions of removing unwanted body hair came from her.
f9b74a35fc930cf4ea52afe46d0c915d5df2cf94	Cleopatra created her collection of various poisons, testing them on prisoners in the dungeon.
6d225d212c5b3a4b1022d6e0f4729cbf7d5dbdee	Mark Antony committed suicide as soon as he learned that his beloved Queen Cleopatra had allegedly died.
50269b0598c859a628cdf46d06b929fb59b7a898	Upon learning about this, Cleopatra ordered to deliver her lover alive or dead.
8f0f4cf2326567f9cf46e5e635bbfc4af7f5c829	The mortally wounded Antony was delivered to her, the queen showered him with kisses and he died in her arms.
ae781538be76713303e4ecc15e044fbf426575e4	After his death, having fallen into complete despair from remorse, Cleopatra decides to commit suicide.
d91e3809a7cfde0ee5a7fe25244bb6cf7eefb700	The next day, she arranges a sumptuous feast, dresses herself in royal robes and puts a crown on her head.
f61d46a11da5bdba3ea9e649826e16afa0fa2db0	When a fruit basket is brought to her, where a snake was sleeping at the bottom, having pricked it with a needle, the queen dies from the bite of a poisonous asp.
5f56d27229c0afbceb9f05b3663540f2264519d5	There is a claim that Cleopatra did not die from a snake bite, but from another poison - opium with hemlock plants, which does not leave traces on the body, and after all, the queen wanted to perpetuate her beauty and body by dying in this way.
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af18e6d16f6e7f3d87e4a927d98f2792fdccd9e9	Who is Cleopatra?
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c4fce129b3b6f8dbdbf5fac233b1899e91ca7dfd	Cleopatra (Cleopatra VII Philopator)
807fcbfcec0ab2cb624347f0e89571d69bb9cf15	- the last queen of Egypt (51-30 BC).
c8748a6c83b3561247b6b5111d9ca78c6886f3f4	Cleopatra was born in Alexandria in 69 BC.
1983732da33965f846409108e92e1a48a5afb1ea	Her father Cleopatra was Ptolemy XII Auletes.
fe9df832f2608fb2dc069175fbeb8b9e80f530ec	Little is known about Cleopatra's mother, and biographers only suggest that she could have been Queen Cleopatra V Tryphena — it is precisely established that she was the mother of the eldest daughters of Auletes.
9246ee83f7a9f879f333ecea83707a87bde96578	Cleopatra received a classical education, was brought up in the best Greek and local traditions, knew several languages.
e949b0f4a647bbb8b7557f935856f4073a4d8569	They manage to quarrel Cleopatra with her brother in law and provoke an uprising in Alexandria — it was announced to the people that Queen Cleopatra seeks to rule alone, and for this she will resort to the help of Rome.
d679dd085b5e1d832a43e785778da9f2989f04a6	48 BC Cleopatra manages to gather an army on the border of Egypt and Arabia.
40129775772fdb1b21907829c0bdcea17ed261da	Cleopatra supports in it the followers of her beloved — the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus.
4d9a4f8954ba690f972a7c1dd406e86690e0aaf0	41 BC the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra takes place in the city of Tarsus (Cilicia).
1110da55611ec163817d606cd03519bff1b70c86	By the hands of Antony, Cleopatra gets rid of her enemies in Rome.
aebbb795cac06ffeb864fc4e7c765c12a9e3b504	39 BC — an uprising against Cleopatra rises on one of the borders of Egypt.
f065d495d448b29780364ae40e875dd8d4f13b21	Her troops are suppressing the rebellion.
e9e70406c3d5fe370f6b7b08d1dacb570d99092d	Because of this, many allies turn away from the latter — the Egyptian queen did not enjoy special respect from the Romans.
9662e30389d1fb0eeb8c783e21eb20e177269e30	The same year — Antony's will falls into the hands of his main opponent in Rome, Octavian (the brother of Antony's ex wife Octavia).
79a75e65434fb416c7d57ceabad825153e5a1944	Octavian is against it.
5cd934793cf29a9e153fa69e94bad5bc5c2afac4	He demands that Cleopatra kill Antony — only then can he guarantee her life.
fcd760833eafaeb1be27b7a0ce151e1eee036c72	He arrives at Cleopatra's palace, but on her orders he is informed that Cleopatra has died — the queen hoped that after hearing this news, Antony would commit suicide.
f58b6c488abe887cee5b09a381eecdacf557ddea	After receiving the letter, Octavian immediately sends a guard to Cleopatra's chambers, but it is too late: she and her two maids are already dead.
f6e4eafaa7a15ea29784e5d82f396398751a474b	Sources and additional information on the Internet:
a8e6b4db06da4298984926e42593c81de38d07f9	biographer.ru -biography of Cleopatra; peoples.ru -biography of Cleopatra; krugosvet.ru -biography of cleopatra;
d0b135d144665d124f2585200f0f44fb5e4af0e7	A treatise by an unknown author "Notes on the Alexandrian War";
515cdfa429107e87fa0ef82b00849861c203ab37	Appian.
191d305aed5a72418138715b7c797a0010a1d8b0	"Roman History";
db3f413df354fd0fbe291cafe944390204d8b524	Plutarch.
ca888c702b6d71d6cb577d98396038e61258c419	"Caesar";
8a17ea70f14f5029064023d198485b56bbe5d209	"Antony"; slovopedia.com -the article "Cleopatra" in the" Dictionary of Ancient Greece, Rome and Mythology"; hrono.info -biography of Cleopatra from the book by K. Ryzhov " All the monarchs of the world.
d831d5c73694c86cb839fee0f1e6ef6d04425ef2	Ancient Greece.
2274021ea1ef80d8ffb0897dbeb6c261ce0f4928	Ancient Rome.
9828af6ddbe58875bb52146768edd6e8cee32fa2	Byzantium";
fa1997bef64ea1633b8ce6bab5e998c57d93ae3a	"Cleopatra.
905f7487724c994ae8869b0bd6559dece809fab8	The Fall of Egypt " - article by A. Shityakov; wild mistress.ru -Cleopatra: The last of the Pharaohs;
ea49fca4a029fd02981a44d47ed0643bccde9597	Note "Archaeologists found an alabaster head of Cleopatra in Egypt";
bd133eef0c9ecad2661f24fc99bd1d51951263fa	Note "The real face of Cleopatra will be shown in the museum";
3638c0fc399a9095209c7f82b3abf9042d120d1b	Note "The Cambridge Egyptologist reconstructed the appearance of Cleopatra";
5a78a5e396cc7419c64ff51bfec7f4f3855e2c1e	The article " Was Cleopatra ugly?"; the article by A.M. Petrov "A few pages in defense of Cleopatra (a historical source and literary injustice)"; vceknigi.ru -M. Grant's book " Cleopatra.
3f5b125900ae9fe387d8caa7fd3e74742f207bfa	The Last of the Ptolemies" in. pdf format (registration is required on the website).
f40c4c41eebbf1726c7cb24be9793d96570478a4	Additionally on Genon.ru:
821f0e62c97c9653ba8a8348dffb3074d2c0a4b5	Where can I read a summary of the tragedy of W. Shakespeare "Antony and Cleopatra"?
410f798cec47dfed7e65ed4996babb13695ed22c	Where can I read a summary of the play by J. B. Shaw "Caesar and Cleopatra"?
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6925bcc0e1be9d4b902b0c0ea4ac596416e3161d	In 2008, the documentary "More than a Game" was released about LeBron and his school team.
061ac69dce7581686579ee83ccfaa2ade01a4886	LeBron is also the most productive player in the history of the Cleveland Cavaliers.
71f06f53df2439a6cd364e9599b4a8abdc16f9be	In 2015, he starred in the comedy directed by Judd Apatow "A Girl without complexes".
a342cb90a385dd6f223beb55511c8609f5769541	In 2003, James put himself up for the draft.
85e767173a66f5b6b6a42bcf2957e0ce0fc6da04	James ' competitors in the draft were 2006 NBA champion Dwyane Wade, Carmelo Anthony, Chris Bosh, Kirk Heinrick.
0a4116f6b04cbcf169b5d0cf7ea7145b1cdb0485	The NBA fined the owner of" Cleveland " Dan Gilbert for a letter addressed to Cleveland fans for$100,000.
d8d4184592f3fee9e9cc25c695428b13897c3cb9	The first triple-double in all-Star games was made in 1997 by Michael Jordan.
d21ee1b0da97af40ecfb32bdd63d2a8f1541ee7e	In early April 2011, LeBron James became a minority owner of the Liverpool Football Club.
6b5c99879da46a998ed9b14e63194b615a957c7d	Previously, only Michael Jordan and Kobe Bryant achieved such an achievement.
8b0cda7d5479e53f9cd3164e284ccf929b6c5feb	In June 2014, LeBron James took advantage of an option in his contract and became an unrestricted free agent.
3ac17e60041d41903b7bf6cac61c3c394603545d	He became the second after Michael Jordan to make a triple double at the 2011 All-Star Game.
d533a89a3406ceffe99d159b60f89d815d9496ec	The youngest MVP of the all-star game (21 years, 51 days).
5b1b1e925206942ae6557c80aa454887db90d81a	The youngest player who scored 25 000, 24 000, 20 000, 15 000, 10 000 points.
876763135619f29623fc4ef1a9739e243d59f1f7	Everyone was looking forward to the arrival of LeBron James in the NBA, and they had been waiting for several years.
4f2d707ce6c652fcf312b394e94ccbe3370e1ee8	Naturally, a recent student still needs to adapt to big basketball.
8d8f6ddaf9423f7f7a026034e28ef225441a1277	So many basketball experts said.
6097c3ead8de2d1db49b0d4a6a68449f2206d874	His mother, Gloria James, who was not even 17 years old at the time, was forced to take care of the child alone.
8bb6b93b4600a4455d899d9c2b8cfc9ced8dd850	LeBron himself was head and shoulders above his partners, both literally and figuratively.
6a864a76ca376c59c1d73cd23133ea7d7d745d69	And our hero scored an average of almost 20 points and was in the leaders of the team in almost all statistical indicators.
7eb2ae4771e78d57e12fb71c7f49aa8ea7924103	In the summer, the basketball prodigy did not lie on the beach, drinking Martinis, but lit up in various camps.
1b8e4c8be5375e26a15ac52b1e66579c36abf0bc	However, even here he managed to distinguish himself and attract everyone's attention.
953f564d8bc748cad4490e28187fcb0e0fbfe99e	The third basketball season for "SVSM" was less successful.
1c6aa4758694d38bcd745679ab9de9195a850815	In addition, he was again awarded in various nominations for the best basketball player.
95695a51bdc34605c448787d7eedc723eaea5ea1	One day, LeBron was training in one of the Ohio school halls and almost got a dangerous injury.
51aa54f18a52610b2d326a177165a8a74f78ad00	That's what "LeBron fever" does to people.
b6d60478ae5f5f05f80a69b943338a11541dcf3e	LeBron's fourth and final season on the school team has started.
db00b9dfea411342a8600119c152ab31fd5aa75a	In addition, ESPN2 has agreed to broadcast the game "SVSM" against "Oak Hill".
47dc6da77c57bce354dcd493404a3958bb2252a9	Then James performed in the McDonald's All American and EA Sports Roundball Classic All-Star Matches.
042b046fb31492c37f9933780d507b4d8ab5fce7	For example, quitting smoking or going to school regularly was much more difficult to choose between the NBA and university."
2d567606fdea3283057cf4cd7d2923aeddd36e30	It seems that the phenomenal basketball player does not suffer from an inferiority complex.
4c1470104cbb87e70f4fd3fec0d2259b0d059422	And, I must say, he has every right to make such statements.
47958fe37e89081af0e47bd6de1a73195686327b	Because in a single month, he earned ten times more than Michael Jordan in the first years of his career.
2478d11190c4d3ef485552117703184bf5bd2166	His athleticism and outstanding physical qualities are amazing.
286198e355fce3a25a996dd8998188d7bc0299fc	He could have won the NBA slam dunk contest right now.
6b4e13ca4eb6c5f6f517ee9a0b16a1d2d637cf10	In general, a miracle, not a player!
5438e76fa8cab3d463c88b2be8b0318d5a4b3c04	This season, the US national television has included as many as 13 matches in the broadcast schedule!
5d2f464178fe2a952ef6a644037eed3e3a8cc2b7	Everything went as if according to a pre-developed scenario.
e173fd717072b79b99049c0c73242a17089545d9	The hysteria around James has reached incredible heights.
86fc9d3350cefd2d93cc5e3d99075fa3600c69ab	James LeBron is known as the star defender of the Cleveland Tigers of the National Basketball Association.
0faab02dfa2389d98a87da732183a1fcd299db37	Many doubted whether LeBron would be able to continue playing basketball as before with his turbulent public life.
fa303bd712866e4374f0724510d82ef42493d3fb	In 2004, another important event occurred in the biography of James LeBron.
4b56688ae8875951ac95e68d3d85cec507896255	And in 2006, the athlete was on the US team at the World Championships.
25f814bf052dbaf4e1cb6f5d69c1a4d4cf2b0862	For the 2004 Olympics, he chose the number 9-Jordan wore it at the 1984 and 1992 games.
5ea0bf8b52d1e77ab6b5b8516a23ed7fa19c7978	In 2006, the Cavaliers reached the playoffs for the first time since 1998.
24284a7558e3dfcd0001eb124933096d75b9c706	It didn't take him a season to "swing", because he had been preparing for the NBA all his life.
42ff8e89c83e3c0d053e6ed37d875722a512447e	Together, they made their school team one of the best in the state.
6f94b18d46d36ff6be2a55428248c7cb9800abe4	Less than a year later, LeBron's team reached the final of the national championship among eighth graders.
70ad9c6bc0bd5d5557391408ceeb1e4d33ba2760	It was then that they first started talking about James as a future basketball star.
fcde9d3c0f32ec9739a7e63562151c4055d35532	To take a break from the sudden fame that fell on him, LeBron switched to American football for a while.
558ec0c3f3c70a2ace49518959bd76d13154e886	James surpassed the record of Kobe Bryant, who scored nine thousand points, being a year and a half older.
8fdf27be7d8a7a0c9c3dbbabed19c5d6e2d10aaf	From his early school years, James was the object of constant attention of the American media, who praised him as a future NBA star.
50b66c18b64384716aa401b9e6acb459ddd55f19	LeBron's childhood was spent in constant traveling from place to place, which greatly prevented him from studying at school and making friends.
1a735748cbed5648d4fdcf6a8036f05395e585ee	LeBron became friends with Walker's son, Frankie Jr., and with other guys who loved basketball: Sian Cotton, Drew Joyce, Willie McGee and Romeo Travis.
d522dd13116b9233874faecbb963c8bfa4a6ed73	Moreover, the young star pleased her fans not only with incredible slam dunks and assists, but also with the withdrawal of her club to the NBA finals.
d47dfee303eddc4d3aca8b8b6702e4a0adfff65d	Gloria James gave birth to LeBron at the age of 16, raised him herself and gave him her last name.
b4830d04120d5e9caea6e4503863a24321e9f6d8	She is still the closest person in LeBron's life.
60d58beae6956d9134753e7662e76be3f9537057	He was so ashamed that he did not go to school and missed most of the classes.
267625c3413db54d1e7f39a99270ae2dc304be7d	The first game in which James was successful was football.
efe9c0b28cb86b94be3e958eccba2d561a427db0	After that, the coach helped Gloria pay for housing when she had financial problems.
3e01e3c022addf1c8b23a889007e5debbb49ece6	James received his first lesson in basketball wisdom at the age of 8.
980ca0a14c330f9ba82452d5591c2889f1f8a54b	To all his protests, the coach replied that he would definitely get his own, but one should not forget about the partners.
b1838c2f9ecab2c6643ef6f11d86b1010f186b4a	Sporadic trips did not interfere with these relations too much.
8782145dc2f659a6f973a295bb262817119c8c56	When LeBron was 17, Jackson gave him his first car – a Ford Explorer of the 95th edition.
cc9076e1513e5f324bbf8d1cc963cefc93a4e54e	The last time we heard about Jackson was last fall: he was arrested for hooliganism and vandalism in Akron.
a5911ebb2ca0219fea6e174b4e30e884037d6baf	Everyone knows that James ' favorite player is Michael Jordan.
8d23dd67fe6dfd854340da0d6f80cb157ae27858	Another of those who influenced him the most is Dr. Jay.
7dfe691471d1493828454782fa87bce63db7b759	Rather, he is simply interested in the process itself.
071607402fd69f0041bc22e20e9c4fb754b67e2f	Although, of course, we are "witnesses of history".
d4a835da3659ebbc4acf3a0292181493046b1879	In 2002, during a practice game in Ohio, James broke a shield and almost broke his neck.
514db047605e0ab4d456a995c70c146c06fdf8c0	The forward did not even raise the issue of the fee, as he himself considered it an honor to be invited.
2300f2bf5a814473f5c8d1c47172e2d0ccb8a474	After five years in the NBA, LeBron underwent surgery-laser keratomylosis – with which he corrected all the violations.
0cd9f97b91ff23db48a3e1751309fc81acc37583	Since then, this two-wheeled mode of transport has become the most preferred for him.
fa964313aecd87a4419c69df19a4a90990e8beb2	LeBron James ' Twitter account has over 9 million followers.
e10077e8a541f6eb32da2abd3c9d0e0d50073a4d	LeBron not only leads Twitter himself, but also, as they say, reads the answers.
f636a04742fa19a5047a2e4a9b66fdba89784cda	They looked askance at tattoos there, and therefore they had to be glued during matches.
d684b78a59c75d25578507f01ae4db0e01badfe7	At some point, it began to seem to him that he was being watched permanently, and he relieved tension in the same way as his less athletic neighbors in the ghetto.
8b49c2fbbbd571b284261d83f176fbe7234916fe	The confrontation with Oak Hill was shown all over the country by ESPN2.
9f1954b15e81b9861595cbb116b870f270fb549f	As a result, he missed only two games.
7c0e7c8186cb0d474697b393d02ed13d95bb6377	James broke his left hand in the summer before the 10th grade.
7bdc0836779e3dbc1479ecefdb5f5580c41dae16	During his school years, James was a member of the state football team as a receiver.
3b8124f7c6cca1c734cfce1a9c798fb34c5af7ea	This happened in 2008 and turned into a scandal because of the racist background.
b73e304042de59e44db2af33087802f5c43780be	Before the draft, clubs are allowed to conduct a limited number of viewing trainings with players.
8f48103b8b39bcc6c28fcc381d1c0966954bb7d6	The tradition goes back to the time when James lived with Coach Walker.
6f4e9e4c448454a03ebaf656a443974b6e565702	After not playing a single minute in the NBA, LeBron signed a sponsorship agreement with Nike for $ 90 million
459a1c1270e050ee45c95053ed46b2df9c1bc48c	Even in his failures, James is successful: the project helped to raise 2.5 million and use them for charity.
16e9b0c49808ce82635e2e86edafef8e257dba0c	It doesn't sound very good, but James preferred the book to TV for a while and, he claims, learned a lot from it.
08a21fc1f61ce78bd28ec6bde747221e0b94d506	After the practice matches, Jordan gave James his mobile number, but lost it.
7d36b43101edd14b94f32410fc3a51476a7a4665	Then they said that no one tolerates James.
2df4b92e61c4fb15d775dca82def413b6078bdc7	James ' earnings for the season amounted to 66 and a half million dollars: 17.5 million salary and 39-from contracts with sponsors.
609f8da3bb4a87498c3f8189d01a9aee4e23cfba	LeBron missed the presentation ceremony of the players in the second game of the Heat in Cleveland, as he went to the bathroom.
79bd8ae5aa8681898c7a010f4e817fa3c7924744	James and Jayzee have a secret handshake.
d9b248adc1d1b82d86c75965d4c43096a5da4c42	LeBron James is an outstanding athlete...
c08bccefac8477d23ea189de7a68e028aa64fbe5	Physical superiority is felt at all ends of the field ...
f8964f2254431b992a9919a251fe0f7ad139d48a	LeBron James is able to hit an incredible shot.
6c98cee08f24002dae559205b669c3c034463849	If you sift through LeBron, there will be his four years in Miami.
ce1bc6f4e71afecd9025b09b4b7558e18b625f76	His basketball skills have no analogues, by and large, he is almost the first player in the history of basketball who cannot be measured by relative parameters.
188b8f92bd35096cb287862dc84376471bd0c72d	Things could have been different if LeBron had been judged solely on his actions on the basketball court.
4cdaa3067e3e62138fe75503bba1121c7bb2ae3f	Speaking about the positive qualities of LeBron, they always remember his playing advantages.
6e34226eac6f3e3e694e4f090e7471be1ebd2345	Still, it's hard for me to refrain from discussing James ' daily life outside the rectangular parquet floor.
809c190600aa719f75ebd3a77d57ac08ce541af4	After all, if you think about it, he is not yet thirty years old.
95d32d2e2a6261d99b44fc51d86639df35664920	My favorite stage in the development of a great player is the years of his career that he spends as a living legend.
90b40c49c14ba99968723603505aafabd3d4d350	We will talk about true greatness a little later.
1ef614b5ff904a204be6ce6550c0b90f76cc2120	James is the first and main star of post-Postjordanism, an era whose importance will be judged not by us,but by future basketball fans.
7c9db196f83f9ad92c9b5111b417425e59703e72	Before I got into basketball, I was just an ordinary kid from Ohio.
dd623ec81ee0900ec04e46417242e7c5b3b853c7	If I had a chance to make a choice again, I would have acted a little differently, but I would still repeat my choice.
69589d8fedb6756331fc8adcd4a9a4cc30cb154b	I will not organize a press conference or a party.
7f60ac309b4c24c24ce487757edb4fec1f458304	I always believed that I had to return to Cleveland and finish my career there.
83c28c14b54c1dfc6df9bbaab4b486243cafc0e9	I thought about how my family would be respected in my hometown.
5b4214e7331955fc2bb49ffd231664766e63e88e	To take this step, I needed the support of my wife and my mother, who can be very strict.
bfff54190fa1dd80770593abb34272d514867ec7	I see myself as a mentor, I am happy to lead these talented young guys.
49ced70437a916fe529e008ef84f262601157f7e	I feel that it is my vocation to be here above basketball.
e4a4b4028f964ef05c47f6a62e6dcd27fc5905f0	Maybe some of them will return home after studying and start families or open a business here.
4174f147c08359cc274bfe76cd70e6769a95c92c	After this statement, it's time to get to work.
8fb67caf927cd19f0df79f18a45c42f5d212a71e	My relationship with Northeast Ohio is something more than basketball.
bedcbfd723d1ffd7abfb7f3ee089ddfb040107ee	Without the experience I got there, I wouldn't have been able to do what I was doing today.
c40b6088e189174b5ed7d5f141aaa56bf8658c88	I am doing this essay because I want to explain and dispel all misunderstandings.
e5586a5fb5c839f702c77d4f971ebfb7b94b5766	The Heat failed to become a team.
18aa1c808c924b31612ba0d28bb1a147c7d423fb	What if I was a child who followed an athlete who had a positive impact on my life, after which he left?
e276f6db2dceb3fbbbb12ee0a96c072f0eefa89f	Who am I to hold a grudge?
958f5db00c86dd213f3a1d9bd579714e5654adc5	Their passion for sports can go beyond.
9dcb85a96adeaf81aa167d2664b5b04344225322	This all holds a special place in my heart.
9773fb12e48bbf8d63b4e9454db912823ec8734f	I grew up in front of my fellow countrymen.
869e20c4d5ef86e8941474940945a8ecb80ab5de	This is the place where I cried.
c09c4fc1f6ea87b1c3bf99dd02f8995544687bb2	This is the place where I lost blood.
357bd865f04d49ca502798e37993089cc906a1d6	This is the place where I took the first step.
a41f7e09f256b083aafd24fa3ac1802639d4e33d	This is the place where I ran.
73a99c27658697bb2f219fe849c5abdc641ecb0a	The best player of several seasons.
6a5a452ad396351691f851902f986a38345d105e	Inflated self-esteem.
16ccfbcdcdde4e540de2db7ac1d30cebcfbdd269	In Cleveland, James immediately became the leader and soul of the team.
339ee01732fb705635e97a2e8c0a3d5cd08f8470	With him, the team played with new colors and gained new fans around the world.
bafacae0475f03c1062b1b0a39b9553518c25069	However, LeBron started playing, and immediately became the leader of the team.
d2958d7c52322e812a1976009909bcaacf705b9f	And everyone who bet on an unknown schoolboy, remained the winner.
600dd8f9890063de099073620c77208c6a99767f	Michael Jordan heard about him and invited him to his training.
c1eba769e936adb6c52ec77c66cae1e937ab6d5e	The Cavaliers coach also invited him to watch.
d860323f6aa121b1c33afebf7845440975f4f58a	The audience became animated, there was interest.
17ab684ce6180d3e48d1336bce6d1f942537cd81	The publications appeared in larger newspapers.
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b5f1592a8330249d5022f76bdb3b84caba381d55	Fantasy
28a289baa7178a54a0949dc3a878b090cacf4777	Comments Forum
1681a9e444cf8f0410f9ef430358b680213b3823	Your thin podtyr is not clear to everyone. http://imageh...
ceda97879b3e6448e1ece77a8db0da5d17affd95	By Lutik that aggravated at the end By the MAD EX Toronto struck stability and nerves of steel By them motherfuckers Teodosic in the end risk transfer through all floors...
7240db99ed4f597f49a2bba66099fd352572317c	By andyandy he would have a little bit of confidence, and hardening in Kacha...
653f8f261390ac1fb1db9aaddf5449b9a110f757	By MAD EX to watch today's game, it's time for bed room...
9732254910842d940c3a8f8dc9ae51c6c02ba868	By LosVik Memphis KF.
4697304f80279cc0e8521b0373c8ae1cd77d4443	1.70 (FROM) By Diablo Huston (so) wimps.
a6651ee9062516202e2f12adee773bae4f0c88d8	Except for Andyukhu grab...
68a704c4c9d922de06c5fe909cd6920679ae88f1	By Mr. deewest
781bcf2d4baf0e957b9a96f46f3ac626a0cae375	Forecast for the match Baskonia - CSKA (1) Santi Mineiro (20.01.2016 23:38) Forecast for the match Panathinaikos - Lokomotiv (1) Santi Mineiro (20.01.2016 23:13) Forecast for the match Milan - Neptunes (1) Santi Mineiro (19.01.2016 00:25) Forecast for the match CSKA - Barcelona (1) Santi Mineiro (13.01.2016 23:34) Forecast for the match Espanyol - Barcelona (1) Santi Mineiro (12.01.2016 22:39) Forecast for match Villarreal - Sporting (1) Santi Mineiro (10.01.2016 01:47) Forecast for the match Sampdoria - Juventus (1) Santi Mineiro (10.01.2016 01:07) Forecast for the match Milwaukee - Dallas (1) Santi Mineiro (08.01.2016 22:05) Forecast for the match CSKA - Real (1) Santi Mineiro (06.01.2016 20:47)
caf3f3ef8c3b8b9dacb3b538543af61df28f5c6b	Points Rebounds Assists
d246aff2e32afc69d2d2d9ed1c0c603be4a05777	The player Points the environments.
01fdcca432a6287aee2cd421866c52433efa2e96	Matches 1.
81ca5386d933a1abd07b94a69b2c4aa1244b0757	Stephen Curry 29.88 41 2.
5406144f127c97fad101c3fec7236d799f7833f2	James Harden 27.59 44 3.
2d6c804168552acafc7e31de5f6141b906e06f41	Kevin Durant 26.54 37 4.
bd78ca0c548f60bc3ab46cc14dcb59c0f30af62d	DeMarcus Cousins 26.18 33 5.
70f23eef979c840fa2fe076cfc771f2b9c4cbc35	LeBron James 25.08 39 6.
f2b1e2e057ec052bbbb07b66011f19bb622fc65d	Damian Lillard 24.21 38
4ebc8368ace8a87f91bccdd273d320412c232d8a	List of records All player statistics
89f29833cc4fea14f42565f4787451230100ea43	Player Selections of environments.
54302d81069e3e4ec52d273fbffe253c7f8f95bd	Andre Drummond 15.38 42 2.
b5cc76e186ec28bf9a556baa1305897e97223fcf	DeAndre Jordan 13.49 39 3.
2ef436c924096b75a2c9e0587e5e2630e31543ee	Dwight Howard 12.08 37 4.
541dc353c190f03cc49f98c210e662b16a3e2317	DeMarcus Cousins 11.21 33 5.
807ea901d785edb1687886a72c5dc0b4cbbc6b8e	Hassan Whiteside 11.2 41 6.
a6595ffa7cdb2c4afbd45995dd82c7bb475f9fde	Kevin Love 10.85 40
5195d006c92cb15c9d6b3b668c900e388a564737	Media Transfer Player.
25149781440a92923831d4a0b000293da4799fa4	Rajon Rondo 11.67 39 2.
e79ebdc3259046eab8b7054f0f1d6bf94c485097	Russell Westbrook 9.84 44 3.
1e0549f0b1b4ba6697d75797b0fa06065c21e2ec	John Wall 9.68 41 4.
284589bc94d313f2c56d5b02355f490e0154e712	Chris Paul 9.58 36 5.
882e1fed801edf5bbc88a1824c23337c25ae8015	Ricky Rubio 8.47 38 6.
d54fe9b3a653b67bc84e809333e5b409816af8db	Draymond Green 7.4 42
0789b236d72b3369cbc693416981954b4e90c9f3	Calendar Results East West
b148528cb229e23890a33ec8cfaf3ea84f6e7231	NBA 15-16 (Calendar)
b34faf202934c4a85ce5d8ba7e5f1944c6d42c50	22.01.2016
81252564ae438b987d3900acb6495d1d8c10a614	( 6) 04: 00 New Orleans -: -: - Detroit (32) 04:00 Cleveland -: -: - Clippers ( 4) 05:00 Denver -: -: - Memphis ( 3) 06:00 Sacramento -: -: - Atlanta ( 4) 06:30 Phoenix -: -: - San Antonio Euroleague 15-16 (Calendar) ( 0)
a92b9ab351ad2a6acbbbe5133e97d322223f2694	20: 00 Khimki -: -: - Brose ( 0) 20:45 Zalgiris -: -: - Olympiacos ( 0) 21:00 Darushafaka -: -: - Fenerbahce ( 0) 22:00 Crvena -: -: - Unicaha VTB League 2015-16 (Calendar)
a39c834043c4362cf5f4ac19944f290c09021cec	23.01.2016
09386e25d4bb180f5282897724bc4b3045e86adf	( 1) 20: 00 October -: -: - Zenit
303786fa74505706bd54d2fc9ab96f8b698eaada	NBA 15-16 (Results) 21.01.2016
3666f61a610c0c1a75785d7c43a050435f7cd856	DL HQ HL Washington 106 - 87
09e75be884f18f9ef46b72cb9b843edc7ef97fd9	Miami
a9bc16a9354c45184d8dd3a8b211e6130c891822	HQ HL Orlando 87 - 96
70ad097f49cd2f413ac1aa6541b4dca5e3119e9f	Philadelphia
fd9e38581eaaa3c9ba6fd5e5f44f9f7f4939663b	HQ HL Toronto 115 - 109
1e377a41311efa24c1f994065c8ebcedc9ffd85a	Boston
c5a4cd3dafabd6da5d28516cbd3e008f907ddeae	DL HQ HL New York 118 - 111
2ff606f5bbdaacc091df7cb49a15e201040dcd56	Utah
9c7781b21e45a78c797c0a9311babab4c04f6b1e	DL HQ HL Brooklyn 78 - 91
23b1bcb69bb91dec50bb13e875fb9401ed3d2cf6	Cleveland
702a781a65eb61ee77e3384f4cd4f4cdcd7f2574	DL HQ HL Oklahoma 109 - 95
aa56e0633b77f2d774246f6bd0e5a83ae7344f4c	Charlotte
2505cbb4d274985f2d5b12f24f51266f2bafb836	DL HQ HL Houston 114 - 123
d7da5fa95e28a15c83e79f6e492546efc890978f	Detroit
6eb1b0f807d7ed6c58afb1b6fcfc8b0b6a7bfcc5	DL HQ HL Chicago 94 - 125
218852cd0d3f4a2711663fb44e487d91aa69a5bf	Warriors
41fbe2187343fa99e54a7729f70e4304b28c23bc	HQ HL Dallas 106 - 94
60590f7c8d85b8f61da2cfa9e4012d72bcbeb7a5	Minnesota
c10d1c96ec67cbe0154934ac822d2f927fe1f6c9	HQ HL Portland 98 - 104
72af4c87c538932b684a4ea55682e350d0da9451	Atlanta
9141dc2d569b60a8f4bdefb377b2c99281dd6bd9	DL HQ HL Lakers 93 - 112
14b4fd4d090080c55b50f1114592511d6f89641a	Sacramento Euroleague 15-16 (Results)
07fc8dc3ffb334d9162bc107e1563257e673f88a	HL Loco 76-67
ee355588cba62669d8d2b697f7fdbc6f7b6c6a72	Panathinaikos
b6e0d969ec8db4eeacbeb92dbd8a84910ddaa65a	HL of Cedevita 84-80
b04486c37a83e7090ce3e570026478f748659f38	Ephesus
a2b2c9216825cfbc87604f7920e546117b903ac3	Kakha 81-71
8c005dfa7ee10ccb37f1c9cec5d56e723751ef19	CSKA Moscow
f23362d3d375c784dc6ee064a844e734a711a42e	Real 86 - 87
db7717215ae90c6a602b40ff85545a98e8bdc05a	Barcelona VTB League 2015-16 (Results) 17.01.2016
cf130f5ddc35e600eaf052187ccf67d0a9d5f127	Astana -:-:-
39b46357bca933c2514618e9cc25ef6690682cc4	N. Novgorod
7ff6c400435353c227d9b154cc9e694527f7aa92	UNICS 82-72
75f664a17c3a02102bb4674a4eb03d3728570bdb	WEF
8754b7cffcc7e653a60b76b092581397bbe85bcd	Baizons 82-98
9b5fe6a4c6e302ba0ea78147e7321d64be44fe1f	Zenit 81-64
52f5f77d6d77b28e1e3a83cdf91631ff7d2cc20e	Yenisei
811f93ae9a1936779f20daf70f5f3f06e2bc4de8	Kalev -:-:-
1173d65cba65fabc066c3a629c9ec1c28c4be406	Nimburk
30323705df37c8f1d5ceaa9014f53306ed43c92a	Minsk -:-:-
8264fd8da5fabc98f775a63396f8553aa4669e39	Loco
bc3eec9e4670105e9090df68e0edc7f7e6616488	Avtodor -:-:-
b371b6fb096769035bcb68fd6a3e2aaacb4d64d3	Khimki Eurobasket 2015 (Results) 20.09.2015
9cdfbed1eafd701ed9270312c0e4db1431df90fe	HL France 81 - 68
6d31bf00d7eddc6a617a6b16699f8ba91794e2fd	Serbia
fb90860b1ccb8a5e5da42233faeb0937c0e3429f	HL Spain 80-63
74a788cee27d549015a0786732c662e05cdd7567	Lithuania
d25cc2d07c74433745c875cbaed49fddf89ea83e	NBA 14-15, East M In Percentage.
eac4a6778b470e8b23642a95f6e55c0d030058da	1 Cleveland 40 29 73 2 Toronto 42 27 64 3 Atlanta 43 26 60 4 Chicago 41 24 59 5 Indiana 42 23 55 6 Detroit 42 23 55 7 Miami 43 23 53 8 Boston 43 22 51 9 New York 44 22 50 10 Orlando 41 20 49 11 Washington 41 20 49 12 Charlotte 42 19 45 13 Milwaukee 44 19 43 14 Brooklyn 43 11 26 15 Philadelphia 44 6 14
1805f58f4e206e45364baeb23d98317ca0c782c2	Full table
d2f739e325c999408b32a8db44631bc725e5ae2d	NBA 14-15, West M In Percentage.
b2989816e8cbb582c473ace9212bc8581e309383	1 Golden 43 39 91 2 San Antonio 42 36 86 3 Oklahoma 44 32 73 4 Clippers 41 27 66 5 Dallas 44 25 57 6 Memphis 43 24 56 7 Houston 44 22 50 8 Sacramento 41 18 44 9 Utah 42 18 43 10 Portland 45 19 42 11 Denver 42 16 38 12 New Orleans 41 14 34 13 Phoenix 43 13 30 14 Minnesota 44 13 30 15 Lakers 44 9 20
996754b6335d7799c40554a66a9ebd368dbe01c4	Do you respect the way DeAndre Jordan acted regarding the signing of the contract?
0079bdeba712f09d321d665c79a7f8282b79976b	Yes, you can understand him, he changed his mind
e27dfae550ba8f72c6cc3a81c9d0b647d54bb83b	No, you need to be responsible for your words
d4bc0f80961b74fa504e6c36d8192203fd700826	No, there was no need to put on this show
cfca6590ace1984f44da7e9f49d29ca1c91289c9	Related news:
916fb0248e8d41d4898dc8aa30eb122ce11c767c	Regular season.
d19d30392fe0d4f50d99e758519323f95c7025a7	"Cleveland "beat" Brooklyn "on the road," Golden State "defeated" Chicago " and other matches
f788f02aa84f01668021821fa35eea72d4995d2f	"Cleveland "beat" Brooklyn "on the road," Golden State "defeated" Chicago " and other results
41d1793a010849c95926e99bcaa509dbd2196e19	Hassan Whiteside could not finish the match with Washington due to injury
ec22a3cc2a6d5c298e9ed6c941df4f2ebedc0189	James failed to score 20 points in two consecutive games
ee5fac4aeac47da8d48f90cf40e047fbd6f34ef5	Miami is interested in Tony Roten and Dorell Wright
d71ab75617ffc3b16f631aad617a623ef14f83fd	New Orleans will host Detroit, Cleveland - Clippers and other matches
7aa35e8669d64d5144396f0705fedf2b032f4805	Memphis signed Ryan Hollins to a 10 day contract
63cf83adaf22fa432645a5ea29582da74199bdda	RuBasket.com
a21f3da0d3151c23be5acf98c31162f1122b9421	RuBasket.com NBA Articles
8c1f5341888b14384d60120ee2fba12689af9845	 NBA
15c1fa56b7b7851266737e46b194c112e866482d	Tournament| / Table|| Calendar / / Records| / Players| / Player Rating|| Stat.players|| Stat.teams / / Transfers||
c71c5fc92a611480561a339442adc0fd50690f44	LeBron James on his return
ae804de4f780e060df456401e5b1f38ee6a6c3d7	Author: vk.com ;
762d50a7b2ada8eac4e22c36c886313f3953a000	11.07.2014 21:56
2f89eef618fd437342f43d7f35b667fd7ad71abf	Likes: 5
69b3dccf6d1ca859741566a8944b3a2ab91b3604	Donot like: 0
f3cb7916a8281f3becab19322464ff9f9ee7d38f	I'm going home.
f2c4a758f4b616b7ae2632e45b9d7b22daeda3b8	But that's what turns me on.
d018d8f725fa6b801474ba911dbdff088fb18f34	I want to give them hope while I can.
2b8f69c1fa51cb7c9a47619da8ad044ddadd64e4	I want to inspire them while I can.
3d10a703a9bcd7243bb24182fe5bf7e24dd7807c	I didnot understand this four years ago. I understand now.
c9caddfc48bf7e4f1e9f447116f80b973bb04012	Remember when I was sitting in the Boys & Girls club (the "Solution" place) in 2010?
80cbf5590176d8a7f392692d469b25971c8f7827	I also realized how hard it was.
93741585f2ecd85d461ae62abf8b83084f738f08	I felt it.
fd3a13d44e21e899616741dcbd74096ead7b1ced	I left with a feeling of a lot of time spent creating an opportunity to win.
b2cfe46eeaed461902f889d1239e3b41cec0cb33	Miami, for me, was almost like college for other guys.
f8099c05869dd39639029dcccb34cb89e6509890	These last four years have helped me become who I am today.
734631a8633980c2a18e66a1cfc632cc65fbfb3a	I have become better as a player, as a person.
0771aff91ca32e464d0df0aaadbfcdd41c8068c3	My time in Miami gave me a great experience.
177180974f47d2eb1afdb0efb052c4f8bbf73485	Miami will always remain my second home.
4225e399d54e14291e07cb2e1b2b0e5b4691bc38	Without the experience I got there, I wouldnot have been able to do what I was doing today.
5f372d57152fd73d3a0505789b60fccc37421dbe	I moved to Miami because of Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh.
6ef65784110841f797c25d16ecec99bc19392d28	We made certain sacrifices to save Yudonis Haslem.
b2d5c2c5ef9bec55d86a8a1e9ffa13f5571af3f8	I am glad that I have become a big brother for Mario Chalmers.
4f2e2a98bb6960dade9f7e967ae168e7ee5204a9	I believed that we could do something magical by coming together.
53740d46a8bd07fb2cbf7a64ee63f08495649f89	And that's exactly what we did!
f14700d7128e718e70270aa15b72a6daa14ebaf0	It is very difficult to leave what I have built with these guys.
7789a9143a6541384faf7b9f27b73ac1929b4949	I have talked to some of them and will talk to the rest.
2fb8974abe7bc234ded867129bc956b6e1a264c9	Nothing should ever change what we have done.
3046fc4e54dd51e9706d9d8ce8dfaf21d3a12acd	We are brothers in life.
92d8e69b5f5398387169bc87a1423a2b8a9edc41	I also want to thank Mickey Arison and Pat Riley for giving me an amazing four years.
2159569d25d9650715ad0505e61259830d913c66	I donot want anyone to think that he didnot get along with Eric Spolestra... didnot get along with Pat Riley...
c0a071a6ab4cdcfa7c8f5043a1e31322fc29e1b1	This is absolutely not true.
7d84714752d50b94511a06b75d5df9a20b3f047b	When I left Cleveland, I had a mission.
4bbb3b264271caf1633d22dbe675f0be132f4395	I needed to win, and we won two titles.
edbcda72f360d872c9cff8da3f307c9a400461a9	But Miami was already familiar with this feeling.
400ca95b2c1ebda240ea2af788a1385ec6417351	Our city (Cleveland) hasnot felt this for a long, long time.
2f6dc236a64adcf081e7b43e5cc45427484724bb	My goal is still the same - to win as many titles as possible, for sure.
ec7c0a236c94c9aa21ef588f2b9cf23980e77f0b	But the most important thing for me is to win one trophy for Ohio.
a9045489dcbf72faade3ee4f740f96132c21d515	I just didnot know when.
c62f3e40059cba28d84b23361b42de1b67c93195	After the championship, there was not even a thought in the off season.
c5366baa138a88a9326ee95ee2ba1cd5afee11f0	But I have two sons and a wife, Savannah, we are expecting a girl.
88413a03b44f0c4e7e0d2f3d814828b26194f09e	I was looking at other teams, but I wasnot going to leave Miami for another team other than Cleveland.
f31d443c436c2f74da771ff999589df0e9305020	The more time passed, the more the mood in the city changed.
76aa283e0231e868e1b5a57f8ad0e5c1a7eaf8a1	This is what makes me happy.
0ba8252ac65895b27f83e0c3ce95a812fb075e98	The letter from Dan Gilbert, the booing from the Cleveland fans, the burning of T shirts it was a difficult ordeal for my family.
7f0f7ab58ef97da73dfbc411ac7939950938daba	I had mixed feelings.
6676f3ecd562eada268c3d3f08296a622c160539	It would be easier: "Okay, I donot want to deal with these people anymore in the future."
eb4f43c90d453b54de72648cd42db57993ae5f10	But then you think about the other side.
29a574be12c4474443c4d9b419165b1740ac3701	How would I have reacted then?
d49b0ef309d65c56851a16f3c659e748c1256635	I met Dan Gilbert, face to face, man to man.
2bc673cb1c134e37a6c17585f94c5b6df38bce7b	We discussed this.
e97108b241e70360e1cba629a74b315c9cce0e0b	Everyone makes mistakes in their life.
867817276fdf34fe131c8a651f215be47c33e3f7	I also made mistakes.
0c3ce1819f5a722fd5045cf789b0769199d6e144	I donot promise to bring the championship.
3b3194a3796f742f1b7ac752627f44a9e75a4d16	I know how difficult it is.
91703113d8a27720142e90ee0628561a6619510e	We are not ready now.
6ccb7a3502129fa435b33140bff534a2d03e8125	Of course, I want to win next year, but I'm a realist.
bdf8db0818a49bc743c24c06d3292001b6cff323	It will be a long process, much longer than it was in 2010.
bc994acb0b742481b3ac23632838f197efcecca7	My patience will be tested.
8c93a055dfa46b232b30697888d058b2906c5da6	I understand that.
4a1b4dee53dd836e3607479b200784a3a0eace51	I'm going to a young team with a new coach.
2a7aad1d6dd363c1856375a4834e2502ebd3a38c	I'll be a veteran there.
b079ef6bca27aa3e0c594ac5a9ee57b5e6ef0aed	But I get a thrill from the fact that I have to rally this team together and help them reach previously unattainable heights.
321b340ccdbb0f3986f8e881262c8371261553e3	I think I can help Kyrie Irving become one of the best point guards in our league.
14c1e2930e032fadedd8dfd92de5b21b3a667702	I think I can help Tristan Thompson and Dion Waiters become better.
775b2ff38deccc24061601d9e53bd345bc76c6f8	I canot wait to reunite with Anderson Varejao, one of my favorite teammates.
079868ac582f5d1922bd90a35af0d45f39f8066d	But we are not talking about the composition or organization.
9e14edb060bc8a6ac926150c1453b4c465af20e9	I have a responsibility to everyone who believed in me, in different directions, and I take this very seriously.
569a7f13ba5bcd3820f64917b61799b2b9f3a92f	My presence may affect Miami, but I realize that it will be better where I come from.
f52c02c64f1ba9fbcc597e3febad1597f7e765b6	I want to raise children in Northeast Ohio, like hundreds of third graders in Akron, whom I help through my foundation, to understand that there is no better place for development.
5b5bcd502d58beb17a1d0f7171a3c94488a82a4b	It would make me smile.
65683a08f863a75a5f6a8aa2278bec8eab3464e0	In northeast Ohio, nothing is given for nothing.
e1777ebd088e8947a9268268fae27aa367952b6f	You need to achieve everything yourself.
47f54864e4733a8d88b2a3f249a5b6d39626aa15	Everything that you would not want, you need to earn.
e31fc84c10f49c4a769a3a619b38b9ca7976a48b	I am ready to accept the challenge.
712a75c5ec9cafe9e4b789ece290ce1a886d3d9e	LeBron James ' Essay to Sports Illustrated Magazine
5a6d84348daf14a172a8bbc625a396e2efcec8e9	Translation: Emil Kairov
7103ba850769c96c5e7ac5e9c3f2e29c9f5ad42e	Taken from the public Where Amazing Happens
d95a153a7cacb3ae4c03e7e135a0c3367462003f	Tags: Miami | / LeBron james | / kyrie Irving | / Cleveland | / transfers || andrew wiggins ||
b6589fc6ab0dc82cf12099d1c2d40ab994e8410c	0
65c5ecd35b7fbf6002b50bc704793eb8de0ecbd6	Users who viewed the news: skripka15 | / k r i t | / S@D | / SK2011 | / diamas86 | / Niyazbek 96 || larionov. s. s.
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e6ca9da76d870b8d69445140ec5ea64e36ba6a99	Discussion in the comments ...
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f511669021a464cfe5319ecd0830b0a830ff9cc5	LeBron James
fe7ab884f11eeb577375179d778fdddcb9a2577d	Birthday: 30.12.1984
d8fd8262e8be2922319cf28605692abe3d33ae52	Age: 31 years
99e2f0ef26c982cb65cf6e9a98580213c047d711	Place of birth: Akron, Ohio, USA
7c0510fcdc69bc6b98a6977e180cd4169d65c8ca	Citizenship: USA Height: 204 cm Weight: 113 kg
c62a4f8b5447dd2a357b6ea62ec2d0f892982b5d	Similar: LeBron, James, LeBron Raymone, LeBron, James
fb1dac1cb69407edb99174a3d77c48473d898be6	And if it were not for the age restriction of the Association (a player cannot nominate for the draft until he turns 18), then, undoubtedly, LeBron appeared in the NBA a year or even two earlier.
365b29814f6b54492b3546ee274dfb3da8826a5f	Website: Celebrities
ea5f524b552966c8c22b1c4c7a079e50a240bbcd	David Stern did not want to change the League's constitution for a basketball prodigy, so it remained only to watch James smash his school rivals on the playground.
0e39f4c7d321ab43f23f0a8842f8d255a1f8b332	But now the cherished moment has come: the Cleveland Cavaliers team, which has launched a real battle with other outsiders for the last place in the NBA at the end of the regular season, selects LeBron at the first number in the draft.
9bc75c25644a113e690352831829e2bb743d0132	Naturally, he will not be able to perform at a high level right away, because it took Kobe Bryant, Kevin Garnett, and Tracy McGrady 2-3 years to play in the NBA for real.
9f80e719cbe574652efc9cb67c1431281e4435f3	But the hero of the occasion himself had a different opinion on this matter, he decided to do without a grandmaster's pause and literally broke into the League.
27f5a6c984ecbb1eb5b4b5c3e76d3b39222355a1	It was necessary to pass a strength test first, when in one of the preseason games he received a knockout blow.
dad19c0efb8bdd9558422cc196abb413e35b507c	oktem in the chest from Karl Malone.
f658ae6cd5f3d082bbc7c2bcdf32cff67fc59e16	James passed the test, and after the match he said: "Well, welcome to the League!
2178f866377b8c658bf724c3164b46c8948e0d3f	If I survived a blow from one of the strongest basketball players in the NBA, then I will be able to play at a decent level."
28d03b240d2eefb6f780749c6b1f6c872cd25538	And he could.
dbedc74824de6baed0171daa6d9e575bf529a30a	Having scored 25 points, 9 assists, 6 rebounds and 4 steals in the first match, LeBron silenced the skeptics.
0fec5e4d33e32f1d33b99463c8a53b21fe0a1ed5	It didnot take him a season to "swing", because he had been preparing for the NBA all his life.
d1d5768b1628eb1817dcd432a9b9c6a1b789df28	James was born on December 30, 1984 in a small town
0ccea1643a360cd8dcd1318dc2817e3cd367f6b4	Akron, located near Cleveland.
db5f0f15fe91e16450fef1cceb9c28ce559dc3e7	The only thing that has always been with young James is basketball, which, like American football, showed itself quite early.
81d0888a8266ce328c3be64493ee1034b8542c7a	Subsequently, LeBron's football coach Frank
5652bdb77cb333cd9135e631e8d86c58a5dd7dae	Walker sheltered his ward at home, thereby ending his endless moves and skipping school.
5c834be6c14cf29a99d499773999b75e23f6e374	By the eighth grade, he had grown to 185 cm, could play on
2b1f7dc53d54e196fde51ad042dfd4da48fea4a1	all five positions and, according to his coach, had a basketball sixth sense.
0126c857f1b5ab6b69d058cad6ab52eb6426eb07	Some time later, LeBron and his colleagues in their favorite pastime decided to continue their ascent to the basketball Olympus together and moved all together to the school " St. Vincent St. Mary."
f49996faa4049c6266db61d8f7a88895fd505b61	And immediately the basket
3bf9a4788352d68eac9a776723edef28e7d98aab	the ailing team of this school, for the first time since 1984, became the state champion, winning in all 27 games of the season.
e0280d1b627ac731ed3ef46764bce0246a4843cf	Successfully playing for the football team, LeBron nevertheless did not forget his main purpose, and the rumor about the basketball phenomenon gradually spread in the district.
1ea579b95c3da67da5294c3b9a1e5a07bc9a346b	School games began to be moved to more spacious arenas, and if LeBron had not
3ea34f2bdf1e54422448a827d9cc3e37a6d6ec27	if I was so focused on the game, I would have been able to see the gazes of the NBA scouts directed at me from the audience.
30b05837acef37a7b4e1c52fea6e96e3cd2d9b4b	Thanks to winning for the second time in a row the final match of the state championship, held at the arena, the capacity of which exceeds 17,000, LeBron was ranked among the cohort of All Americans (along with Eddie Curry, Quomi Brown and others).
e7e90a17965e453b77365d177ddccf9f4525adbb	He especially distinguished himself in the famous
f539f5345808a53bb8c8cee6260e6286ce6bbfdf	Adidas ABCD Camp, which opened the world to all the same Kobi, Ti Mac and many others.
4ebbe42a143cb4fd2118bce5755f87c18f0d83b6	After seeing what James is capable of, ESPN reporters, through screeching and sobbing, vied with each other to compare the schoolboy with Jordan, then with Magic Johnson.
04521fe2cbc84600953c68780ab41a17c82d188c	Meanwhile, Jordan himself immediately invited LeBron to his private training sessions, and the schoolboy tried not to get lost between different Antoine Walkers, Michael Finley and Penny Hardway.
23ab943a3f4e5cf2dc7303bc7f0114abcc3edb43	By the way, it was here that LeBron became good friends with Walker, who later became an hour
df2bb64d8d48493aa3780228ca8b1a97f93b74ba	tenko called him to find out how he was doing, how he was behaving, etc.
7bc7cf1ac9f8eab8f48e55f5088378a501d60baa	Some even claimed that LeBron would be able to play in the main US football league, the NFL.
ca19d1bfa0211cfaee25f28da1008a8277a691aa	Despite the excellent game of James, his team could not defend Che
b33ce66f24c3e03fd474f56f256296df3dbaa51d	the champion's title and lost in the final.
921dac34b42911013a67bf6c5491123631e3379c	But Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal personally came to look at LeBron, and this could not but please the young rising star.
ea6b262511be068780f0c52ab3f6e66b1c6c0bc4	Ignoring the rules of the NBA, the head coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers, John Lucas, invited the 17 year old phenomenon to train with the team before the start of the 2002-03 season.
60da5153fbec32f7619f294a29e7041381b51144	And Lucas was not even confused by a fine of 150 thousand dollars and a disqualification for two
b32178db305996a8e612765aa27df0b33c85f469	games.
cd3cdc76b9d331a56215eab6d8f3b9cabefeced1	After all, he got acquainted with the possible future of his team!
af36dd6339acf63d099618e89a548efaac0aaf56	This future has butchered some negligent Cleveland players, scoring a couple of times from above through the hands of Chris Meem and Jumaine Jones, as well as distributing several mind boggling "blind" passes.
d3e3fa8af783a3a2b705303a30556c7e8314477e	When he scored another powerful dunk, the ring could not withstand the pressure and broke, and LeBron collapsed with him
289f22bdeb4888a45bf62476ebb896ce18790861	on the parquet floor.
56f770000b3fb9dbd7f162c0d99354cbc888a678	His school coach ran up to James in an instant, and the school's physical education director rushed to the ring lying next to him.
a2d0d5f29fe5e7acc4b4d6577f298384e21e6e73	The ring that LeBron broke is money, it's thousands of dollars lying at his feet!
8095abc12c3d7293c13a8d4754495aa506a90618	Knowing this very well, James ' foster father, Eddie Jackson, also ran to the ring.
180faca9b0871fac143b2dfda74c49b685dd802f	There was almost a scuffle between him and the director, and the following dialogue took place:
4efbe167f453e8aeb44973f0e33d54fc7586f126	- Give me the ring, please.
bd8c5cb400715a3baa8944bb7ed3cb3ce4ea25ea	— I wonot give it back!
ccf528d3f8cae362f0a19943e5641131db7aa040	- Give me the ring!
b7787f5de4dc60721398e4fdf35386f725fdb50a	- No!
0d654576ea7aa6c6c294f8dff969e12f139db7e4	It's mine!
9c31d652a54a3baddd9d9970248a5c478aad79b8	- Yes, we will sue you!
3d34321d5c0935ed618f09abf074c4e7f6674731	- Donot
9c6d4f3879004774a95898a508383a859f95fe35	I will give...
a8c242d7d21a1c2978a0c88f500b9b7abe53814e	- It will be a merry Christmas!
4f7b6d9620a85beb8048b1201401d2b48c6e8418	Let's be nice.
ce0a6490fcd92c3a479b7ea398a5889697200732	- Well, only in exchange for the six goals signed by LeBron.
f0394d29c4cd698183f6f15e0548836288aa617a	- Okay…
bfbb2d474fed467c5e96a6098cc52754f2411c1c	And it's better for James to insure his health well, because no one guarantees that the next time a basketball rack will not fall on him.
0a9f54e7c6f4d4e51009e862470e43ea2b9b0433	He had to appear on the TV screens of the residents of Ohio 10 times, that's how many games with ucha
341b26f245ed9b44984c15b856b41f7797b5d9d7	it was decided to broadcast the King James style on a local channel.
1295934da3dacee3e0fc0d4d8092d7b71475ff4c	Everyone already knew LeBron and everyone wanted to see the gifted basketball player firsthand.
b4c70e40cefeb33f4bf378198b8e4e53f03c77fb	The largest sports firms "Nike" and "Adidas" launched a battle for him, offering more than $ 20 million for the contract.
40ac54ccccbe23f7912423c46511655d61ceff6d	LeBron took a year to think about it, but he did not refuse gifts from the companies.
8743d7c8b77ef5440cfa336b28bbd3c1f845e328	December 30, 2002 to James is
aff697e45694759a629acfdb795b05c96bef3e9a	it was 18, and Allen Iverson himself congratulated him on this significant date.
f76e2560131eaa4c0b40e793b03e9464756ee2e1	LeBron's mother prepared a truly royal gift for him: taking a bank loan of more than 50 thousand dollars, she bought her son a Hummer car.
7db8ecd7d0c28eecdb711b8d1cf572eadf9ad148	The School Physical Education Association of the State of Ohio (Ohio High School Athletic Association, OHSAA) portrayed dissatisfaction with such a gift, but did not take any action.
0f18e23e0975e935ddd1d6e6f845b314f9d3588c	However, when LeBron was given another gift, two rare jerseys from sports
ba099d3ff3f3e8e8b63303de21177e95124f40c4	in the case of a store worth$ 875, the OHSAA suspended James from participating in school competitions (the fact is that the Association prohibits students from taking advantage of their sporting success to accept gifts worth more than$100).
949375f49580516a9fefccc952fe3a828b172064	However, then the suspension was lifted, and after a short absence, LeBron immediately reminded himself of himself, scoring 52 points in one of the games — the same as the entire opposing team.
b2e1456d25ab4dee7344de63383fcb728da08ad1	Then James performed in the McDonald's All American and EA Sports Roundball Class All Star Matches
d6aaf9b108a772ebab75cd97ca8c3279c85f4a6b	ic.
8118d970b19bc2863cbf83a76bca6da52611db73	Having already refused to enter the university in advance, LeBron made it clear to everyone that he would put up his candidacy for the next draft.
2eb885d228c63996042bcea13994dc75e408ab53	He told about his decision as follows: "I made much more difficult decisions in my life.
ec29d1383def4011d542f068a4783bd0795c4d1f	In this regard, several NBA teams launched a serious struggle for the worst result in the League, but Cleveland succeeded the most,
14f0ffd34efeeccb700d141c356d035b30fd9181	who eventually got the right to choose first.
02c59a6fe1cc09f3569925bedb0d8bb19583014b	By the way, most likely, the club's management deliberately gave away its main point guard Andre Miller in the middle of the season in order to worsen the team.
309db7f667fd618f561510638f5c98dc87e9dfd9	If this is the case, then it is worth applauding the managers of the Cavaliers for such a radical step, because it is obvious that LeBron James will bring a huge profit to the owners of the club.
a5481c57a9ede0131ec0c64a8d5abb30f7fce48e	"50 posters of Jordan in my room, posters of Iverson, Kobe, Magic and McGrady, and a poster on
4632c52a3a8e0b269bfd9f6347f1c88546d6b500	that's all you need to know about me, " says LeBron.
c6ff89a07a5b9d0c12dbe3fa6f7b58dabd6aa048	"I want as few people as possible to know what LeBron James really is.
abe02e4f8f5273986162420d5bb86cbd31948d39	I'm a superhero.
9bf2c1214b4404c880e39a1ff5a1e2c9f6e93890	Call me the Basketball Man."
b3c921cf70a3ae042ef707a69df445f83dfa0954	Because he is "the best high school student who has ever played basketball."
83e41d5c6bf4188bd3d5a93647502845dcf2e9b1	Because he appeared twice on the cover of Sports Illustrated magazine
bac9ef48a2f702fe0f7ddb890d57db158c4deac2	", and they write books about him and make TV shows.
a2322c7c2ec5632d95862e8c99a1da31fc0e53d0	Because, according to the number of requests on the Internet, his name stands above all the NBA stars, above even M. J. himself, and there is already talk about including LeBron in the American Dream Team for the 2004 Olympics.
54d241de74593df95392cfc794cee3a32c2a67fc	He says this because he was always better than the others, he scored more, saw the court better than anyone, higher
cdc2a506be7b714e5c5e136630ca678edf7f193b	he jumped everyone, he always had the 23rd number on his T shirt.
578ce1810cd30f867f1dc7210e67c5ba449aa77c	LeBron "reads" the game a few steps ahead and distributes the most beautiful passes, without looking like Magic, like Mike, he attacks the ring and hangs in the air for seconds, as Tracy deals with the entire opposing team, as Ivy bursts into the three second zone with a pass.
edde697253830da914426ae893f05e10f5d45bb6	James wins rebounds from powerful centers, but at the same time likes to act as a point guard.
8a8f0b1e7d8cfb173dd31e768d5351bd48e3eb31	He could
60633a02b2cde017bf04f707179957ba9f790582	I would like to win the NBA slam dunk contest right now.
64d866c698ecdf676479bd5396eeae73f894d4a3	It is worth remembering how he repeated the famous trick of Kobe Bryant, Vince Carter and some others, scoring in one of the school championship matches from above, having previously passed the ball under his foot from one hand to the other in the air.
6cc86657fb4cfd40cacbad7d0abe8fa756537d93	And when LeBron soars up in a quick break, it seems that just a little more and he will hit his head on the ring.
b3b4453a862f6f84481ee8e7ff49205723c670f5	But most of all among the others, he stands out for his extremely high basketball IQ and not
130222f6352abf8e1ea2954a797a3215d8478542	they have a flair for the Game.
1c3ba8dbf17e01930ced02e2b95635e4458a16ac	Reflecting on the question of what is more in LeBron James — commerce or talent from God, it is impossible to come to a categorical answer.
157d6d139fbb93875c1b32c0b99c20910ce2a4de	On the one hand, after three months of the regular season, there is no reason to doubt the incredible talent of a rookie: no school graduate in the entire history of the NBA has ever started his career like this.
903cd0a736709def35eef0ceeba12c4d815b81d2	Kevin Garnett scored 10.4 points and 6.3 rebounds per game in his debut season, Kobe Bryant scored about 8 points per game
fb2c710b4bc546035484ba93f405afcdf7b7727a	the game, Tracy McGrady and even less.
fe13639e31cdd8b6f62fa7d6ace2fdd8b6eaa416	LeBron's stats: 20 points, 6 rebounds and 6 assists.
b133b56ab412235324945438ec67c96b007b3308	These figures alone speak volumes.
17eda0f17840372e4c21f7edd0c49b005a6fbe6a	But the game of James itself speaks about more.
d46fc054d09eea49f03384c8b0f9de3ef9d7fdb4	On the other hand, we can safely say that LeBron James is already a hyped brand.
97827c51237ca25768a09263ff9495a0e67374f1	Before playing a single game in the NBA, "golden boy" James has already earned more than $ 100 million on advertising contracts with "Niki", "Coca Cola" and several smaller companies.
094ff8a24d63d5481b53b0d5a728607466fb696c	T shirts with the name James are sold out by mgn
5d64e95a8e0153190d5b9d7947677e96ce4bc8cf	of course, his personalized sneakers, which went on sale shortly before the Catholic Christmas, are even faster.
d22683907d5b825f4f16d2ce7c97acc055183112	Before the arrival of James, the games of "Cleveland" were shown quite rarely by American TV companies.
1dbd1c30ace7707e31e412c876caa7092f9ea7ef	Obviously, this is not an idea of some big uncle to "promote" LeBron and force the audience to watch his matches.
7e46efe4b298c7cc3845bcd26112ea63fedc06cc	The demand is growing — at the same time the supply is growing.
8f80b2be0549c76ad72ae99a776619296f902f0f	This simple economic formula is very
eea9f4c945f73a04bbd0db3d4211476f734d4cb6	b is well shown in the situation with all this marketing fuss around James.
de1242d0b947681fed939077337c345b49d2634f	At first, some journalist was lucky enough to write first about a talented schoolboy who lives and plays basketball somewhere in Ohio, in some local small circulation newspaper.
b0d32029d28230b0f9dc60066df7d4129ffd0e06	Gradually, readers wanted to learn more about the young guy who is being read the laurels of Michael Jordan.
c2eb717e00b773a8ee47f0f076b70bd461f31dfe	And off she went.
487f5a614b4eeab695222ee8926e45a24dd349e5	More and more people learned about LeBron and bol
3b43057034d2f7cb4985153b1ac9ebe11521e296	ьше people, more and more told about it.
765f8caaf95765368e6553c6f71791f5bde204d3	Scouts from universities, managers and coaches of NBA teams became interested in him.
bb2aa33a9eab348c6ed4cea430b26324528540a5	The companies "Nike" and "Adidas" offered him contracts.
8328b312a3da80e575a8572ccde2d9529cfa4aa2	The smiling schoolboy appeared on the covers of "ESPN" and "Sports Illustrated".
27e307f28dad432e19ca763d64b008ae36f68ee0	In two or three years, LeBron James turned from a schoolboy unknown to the general basketball public into a machine
0e774772902394832c9b1d3e00bd0ae5761f1125	on earning millions and the main newsmaker of American sports.
ec6e450f945a255f30ab672f17c0d3f63ab92171	Everything went as if according to a pre developed scenario.
ad57e7946807033ff0701e3a33664bb989c24c1b	The leadership of the Association was already eagerly rubbing their hands in anticipation of the loot that was coming right into their hands.
5b2f52c8d8ce59a823c923a3ba5ab87daae5d16c	America was swept by a wave of "lebronomania".
0f201223a7758cfa1349a0ffaf5a73d59cc5c550	The hysteria around James has reached incredible heights…
5f9093ad17bb6bfead1be12af46f464f27dbebf8	What if LeBron couldnot perform at a good level?
79ef6d7e7eac24f4ea291b2612393129765faff1	If, after several unsuccessful attempts by the club to pull the reputation of the player by the ears, James would not have played
c30bc634e7798c16db8328d810c7ccf5c81785e4	would rahl be in the League?
e1e910216167ed3843c8142496883719af518918	LeBron's failure in the NBA would be the failure of the Nike company, the failure of Cleveland, the failure of the Association, the failure of the TV companies, the failure of all those who lifted the unknown schoolboy above the heavens.
663750fea957af1da9307817749a3557f122f6ef	Basketball fans would come to the conclusion that they were deceived, and LeBron is not a second Jordan at all.
acd27054f5a10791cee521b437a9c8e22a1e9154	Accordingly, the reputation of the NBA would be damaged.
0d555460feac6d196c190dc9218789e59fc94197	And everyone who bet on an unknown schoolboy was the winner
968cf81bacae68bff8299a8dc8b7fed95b110c10	The best days
5f0125af22f8ee1ee936b4ac921d91dfe1d90978	Hundred percentage Hits Visited:205 Self critical and insecure actor Visited:190 Osip Mandelstam: Unequal Battle of the Nutcracker Visited:179
a3a3906540be9579e73d32eede04146eb6fa8d0b	Date of publication: 02.02.2002 01: 02:03
d70e9e0c876564670c094a1a4fe2b75b29889a60	Tell me what you think...
cfd732a1880b287d57443b69470d2c29d3852491	LeBron BlackStar 2009-06-05 12:49:48
2c3f48965610a5ee1dd7965d8fa142c221306871	This man is a legend!
b3958ad560a3e4b32327b6636133da2dfe27cc78	My idol!
c63628fd0ffe858180358204bf34772150c32766	The best player!
c31100e5ee81968be3608d87da622a3b42c02825	Lebron james cool Dj uri 2009-08-10 09:13:32
49fc040e9637d9e56f8a845bb3506dd7c6dac3d7	This is the best player in the world, on a par with Jordan
e0965edc1d54e045290dc99b0093dbbeb7a965ec	LeBron Neomasters 2009-11-16 14:03:49
7feb79a599b2ea4e283eda8334ac955e1e219041	LeBron is the best basketball player in the world and in history
c7b055ad6c223e51bbe4dbbbbb99bfb5430cf557	Your name (*):
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748d72e293a8bdfe985256572bfd1ac17c068a8a	The best weeks
1af693a78d7ada04641ad381dfe0bfdc58783c6c	12,000 gallstones visited:767 Hilary Mantel: The Power of talent and imagination Visited:894 Chameleon of rock music Visited:929
0861da642e14cf0a75b3e32c4135cf486823d998	You may also be interested...
ae46926a6cf180ff4adb9aee9dd8dec5051389f0	Jim Kelly, American athlete, actor and martial artist Lamar Odom, American professional basketball player Robert Orry, American basketball player veteran TV, rock band Zara, singer Dom, rock band
672247dc71a95039d9a4454bd1693c92d88b9957	Phrases: meaning, maybe everywhere, good, omen, gloria, omena, istra, danko, statements about, m and v, dishes, oh, statements, rules, see, by the way, a and n, rabat, talent, I, people, jackson, keep quiet, lagoda, good
2d43c9bf4f96c840c28e99440517a7182e9ef14e	About the celebrity: An American professional basketball player
d2e1907231594b465fd7fc91fbee6ea24757daa7	Heat time
1b167e62ab6c1a1738e2583a3651bed921e57046	There are few people like Kirilenko
41a846de05c00d340aea893071e1fd608e61cf83	Photos [64]
de2da8c1f042b88a9be24739e9d7f96f74933b4e	LeBron James quotes
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30328437282ebecb79ff3a75b731dbb83c716969	SLANDER!
95b912122401bcafb6f7365c164d39ed92640d8d	[ Alexander Popov ]
1435fd1d9eb9d2bf9047ed56a59778e3421c8fb9	Alexander was not born in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), but in Sverdlovsk.
40b5ffb0736666a45e0d81671cbca56c497ed721	(now the city of Lesnoy Sverdlovsk ....
b6f740d81f5de473c597d954816ba14713de33c0	Natalia Dudkina super!
ed4a2c83f3a9e2314fad3d6d8c573333a1a119d0	[ Natalia Dudkina ]
adb3a4f3e6bc6f5d1fca7faa6cf7652ce7279d0d	I fell in love with Natasha's voice while listening to a cassette with her songs in the trailer of the GTI (Geological and Technological)....
ddb6e88afe85007c36b7256920316ab203782991	Football News
0acc527af676ceca1266745e0a8d4a75b503195d	[ Arsene Wenger ]
20fbc73cc09d3a855ba0707fad1415d13330d7f6	Arsen kept his personal life a secret, which naturally gave rise to various rumors, and the English press ....
2ce9274d46d511d2a188ae6c5c07cb06269e2688	To my comment
a5f4af9a4967ebc5749f7cf77acac432fde9bbdc	[ Maria Gulegina ]
818159d07747993cd24405500b9965f6c7313c1d	In my comment, I forgot to put the word rendered in quotation marks.
1752ef386966f4bddf3f4875eb622fb71d728bbd	Madame Broshkina: No, not a conspiracy, but ....
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e4911f5423c51fca2694466335c67803193faac8	Ilona Novoselova a man?
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9aecfcda6e8c1c1aee2f1f6d3a86192b4ed08d1c	Per day
1ea2de7681bc946917b6d0eef109c2764a575506	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [96] ivanihina [50] miloshevich slobodan [48] Levitsky Sergey [48] washington isaiah [47] champollion jean franzois [47] samoylovich [46] zorrilla y moral [45] Ingvar Viksel [45] vishnevskaya [43] laxmi narayan tripathi [43] Keith Tkachuk [42] arrillaga john [42] stuart wilde [42] Putin [42] udugov [40] gigant gonzales [40] kambarova [39] jack lord [37] kaupers [36] Rosa Mendes [35] Manet Edouard [34] udo kier [34] harris [34] Spiegel Boris [33] incognito [33] yingyuan [28] Wickham Williams [26] avstriyskaya marianna [26] geidel [25]
6a29d4654654b5d4dc9f6d2f246ff6846cb8acee	For 1 day: 22337
76c86c06f4045d01baa54c0165f946a97d18eeb7	For a week
bf4ebf3a66bf331c1be10a91f3779907dd01e334	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [636] Putin [238] MISHKA YAPONCHIK [151] hitler [89] SOBCHAK [82] Lyubov Sokolova [80] anastasia pavlyuchenkova [70] meek [68] bertini [67] chernysheva [67] goloviznina [65] chelebadze [65] kasatkin [65] harvey [64] alexander negodaylov [63] Lyudmila Vlasova [62] anatoliy pahomov [60] shumei zhu [60] Timothy Cook [59] lyapidevsky [58] Yuri Solomin [57] amina umurzakova [56] sergey iliyushin [56] vladimir iorih [55] kaladze [54] kessel [52] mamaev [52] prince harry [52] xianxiang wang [51] ivanihina [50]
5445607a749ba8cbb20a9e7744b447258118b6e1	For 7 days: 39937
40d69781a778cea009138ad295ab3baaf51a17ea	Whole
ff585e811b79e864825ccece09fbb90a443a051c	Putin [74600]
696d1a43f02ac5768bd294b3c3efa1543982c25d	sobchak [46663]
172577ff0ae929a2f6b3d9090504fc41c92d897c	hitler [45249]
547d6167866e73dbbedbd340a5ba56a409c64072	Stalin [34417]
52e36635c015bc921504e8411a2df1695a727d99	Che Guevara [30581]
9131296cae58be8ac5e3a4ade464d43dce854f26	medvedev [23465]
1a9417e56a931e76147b1dcc07a6d9f252b3a53b	Mironov [22965]
182fcf23d8bde6dcb14c2c8c5856e61d1c5f6515	Newton [21651]
a4b7bcf00d5f0016eb1217ae215e7e8fad6efd05	Ivanov [20206]
5f5637e48cec9ced23197537acd63a892170b953	Lyubov Sokolova [24061]
76e156aa1a2b34939f7edcbc0e15601d72fb56c4	Total: 36485682
32f5fd9d2689206f68f021b59bb192f42d23fe8d	Popular queries:
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bd7948b056e68a8199031c0f112bec661fa3b370	Guess...
c12e2201f3ef8e5c78234baac9ba8384d09202bc	Why did the 26th US President Theodore Roosevelt receive the Nobel Prize?
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0ea6a8f201e822f18aef23f78c23368f91177835	Self critical and insecure actor/Tom Ewell [190]
b34b38e9bae08ac0a2658d47720dd1e09b43c391	Osip Mandelstam: Unequal battle of the Nutcracker/Osip Mandelstam [179]
d6c4c26465fea4f95795791d1e7a6d94a09c6f52	Who built the Regent's Canal?
fffb948a107c5d7471da898c33131e2a0f6c5776	/John Drinkwater [118]
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69c1dc1e1c19bb4167cfe744d271b071568cec46	The most useful player/Joe DiMaggio [107]
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685a9623c530149d2d0e4873d096224d4f173d5b	Virtuoso cellist/Alexander Baryansky[534]
5a55e0efe7b94f9409f4a1f48a0a5c6bf045cbac	The best months
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f7c478c677f7cb045b297a856caa35809b2a5793	Natalia Varley: Strong and beautiful/Natalia Varley [3098]
dfbc19f23015906b45602b8505925abf14ba395e	Killer of old ladies/Juan Barras [2910]
684cd876bee7ec16981d6b9b00b83b8b74920a5f	FGF21 Hormone: Salvation for a sweet tooth/Matthew Potthoff [2766]
b765e46a5d3c3758138d329583c7b00604b02332	The boy with the Pinocchio nose/Ollie Trezis [2676]
ec3ac85a5b3eb7e837449e8efabd4160cc90b39a	The 'alcoholic' secret of longevity of a 105 year old Scottish woman/Ina Carrafers [2612]
6f612f0f23c72894ce15bb5ce46e4bc433db59f7	Yuri Yakovlev: 'I'm a guest in the cinema, I'm on equal terms in the theater' / Yuri Yakovlev [2478]
ea0390a7ab860e1c582ae61eda1bed2631c7e355	The most charming pirate of all time/ Jack Sparrow [2357]
9b5b7ef7a87949af1034c15ac5999cfe31e7b43c	Alice Freundlich: The secret of everyone's favorite/Alice Freundlich [2184]
e8602c4736c403c0bbca80c018ad49294950f585	Tatyana Vasilyeva: Master of the past years/Tatyana Vasilyeva [2137]
10a6e20e9f8d10810cc261600159d5333604173d	Alexander Demyanenko: A hostage of one role/Alexander Demyanenko [2021]
d179d68418e7e86697cfafacd22b35a5385d61b6	Travel in Africa/Mary Kingsley [1834]
34126316e8b97843656d0958918f3b2c7797d79e	The Story of the Monster Truck: The World's First 'Bigfoot' / Bob Chandler [1819]
d6d1ce70e345fa99df996131f6cd7338a80d1d2d	The suicidal courage of a machine gunner/Jack Glennon Hanson [1795]
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87160fe3dae36ba2d0364eff69f22aabfd472715	Patriotic American Superhero / Captain America [1675]
a8ab5a1a67fc3dbe6b53341458ad00a6e815f346	Fire baba/Julia Kogan [1654]
2225b81c24d02ec43c21157d148ee039ed35835c	The Hiker's Killer/Ivan Milat [1638]
34c808d0a63f277e04fb23a5f76cc83d0a3e024b	News
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f939cd7ec85c42ed5e5b2dd00131f8f25cab051d	Editor's Choice of the Week
1a1ea2aaf29893342a99fe525b35126608f097cd	12,000 gallstones (Minati Mondal);
c71bd51becb993f9c940b1e60548d83647125cee	Life Before and After anorexia (Gemma Walker);
0934df8454f3ca10f355f5eb6ae32bf46aebbede	Public Execution (Eugene Weidman);
074c92dc0efc5ddc894106f9f3a6840cbd98e499	Brittany Fulfer: Live without joy? (Brittany Fulfer);
0ea8f3aac8b52826563074ef3adae4b94d709638	Jeanne Louise Kalman: The Super Long Livers of the Earth (Jeanne Kalman);
35002e3a25164d295fb917e219460f31689a2a30	Damaged Reputation (Carla Franklin);
2e405d9228fcc2c08fd3a1b07fd3fcc83d02533d	Random jokes
537324ff81312d528fb09fa590ce499466a9da2d	[ Evgenia Vasilyeva ] At first, the court really wanted to punish the defendant Vasilyeva severely, but she said: "I wonot do it anymore," and the prosecutor began to cry.
00431fb21788c595db50df830c536bc1ec7615b4	Add · More...
1eaedab82357e04d89ccd1de6a81fdcc2b4f30cd	New articles
1728953002c01e209512885b287482a6edb02a93	[ 17.01.2016 ]
3af74fa1aee15d208f75d544b10e38cd278cf10c	Viktor Gostyukhin: A short life or an advertising move? (Viktor Gostyukhin);
9fee44cc247b432d5e2f45781ab90f1ea03f7558	Chameleon of Rock Music (David Bowie);
2589877bfeb73aa60a38f9b4d74b49215337092f	WWF Team Champion ( The King);
b0de1e7880f4ee9e86e3c8a5ed1d7a8a7ba81b99	Her shows are doomed to success (Lily Donaldson);
54323f56d6254c0e1cb400802f68a230650eb6d8	Republican Senator (James Pearson);
813734958a928f2e20159552e8eb40f13b280088	Fraud in 35 episodes (Jeffrey Keith Skilling);
f813e09e83b8740ce0cdb3e812df961a07f41f1b	The screenwriter of the drama ' The King Speaks!'(David Seidler);
78ecf782d9be8bf2e5668b4fa35053e77eea2bcc	The Man who counts the fastest in the world (Alberto Coto Garcia);
e77693385cc729cf6f87c75e5bfc28ca7d4841e7	Susan Turner: A sign of support (Susan Turner);
af59eec9ea3a852156a6d042ef8da734b21fd694	[ 18.01.2016 ]
d0272c862325e0b278cbf3276e7c3ee0337b61ff	Vladimir Gostyukhin: The Best Traditions of Russian Cinema (Vladimir Gostyukhin); (Gladys Hooper);
a652cac85cf1f0208337bf4f5273c5490a25e305	The experience of literary biography (Lev Losev);
1fd4a54fc37b074c6ff2a27e9b3b5f16c0a7a88a	MCW Champion Title Holder (Adam Flash);
35533c8ae4e9e84816b5eda0e58dcbe466159c0b	Master Drapery skills (Yigal Azruel);
dc9a4f6d6fb24a6c7c946046a4f49dbbb7a0eff4	Talented in everything (Frederick Sommer);
1966253f1e603a1407f5bf026f611c6b361707e6	2 years in prison and a $ 5 million fine (Rajat Gupta);
afb26761d6280397823a6159a3a3492054be86e6	Chantel: 'The Enchanting Bully' ( Chantel);
1088097b9b0acd7d12062dc789a3930a44ea1d65	International 'Revolutionary Terrorist' (Carlos the Jackal);
93f64f7fb31e31eadab0bda909fdb7e113068512	Mick Fabar: Eco building in Australian (Mick Fabar);
7e7d9b85b5f6af20f97267b815886fdf7250013e	[ 19.01.201 6 ]
b1f96bf08939963a356a666d0a0c341890426fec	Four myths about physical activity (Kornil Vandelanott);
a0302e3552045b1603d5bb490392a94668ff7e72	The camp of barbed wire (Mikhail Karyakin);
1d789c5896e3ecfa8c0d5551bbf350b94b94e31e	The leading philosopher of the Third Reich (Alfred Beimler);
6ea85abfc0b3af545893a3c921934e637542c424	The leader in the sale of escalators and elevators (Alfred Schindler);
ab908f0720e416b92a4f71125d2ed9513a00b5df	With a guitar for life (Julie Doiron);
e06a8f1bfe3fcb04556e1d5863efe1cc1392742a	Bold collections with romantic notes (Wayne Cooper);
c6391555c916798fe8803c540460116ca6de2912	The sly little old lady (Miss Marple);
bfdb6feeb55a01b12a57bfe50ec71ae2a772d250	Shelton Benjamin: The Whole Life is a Struggle (Shelton Benjamin);
e830b53fef892fb6e43a363cf9a252a78ee8b3f6	[ 20.01.2016 ]
ec92ea28cfe40336eb888d4eb0c7383fccc7169f	Sergey Filippov: The Tragedy of a comedian (Sergey Filippov);
a4a3aaf7d8378a1a03611853c61ce101b14ecb80	From the father of the family to a little girl (Stephanie Wolst);
7e530f118c6c57a8729a48db2da229b7c72d4bbc	The main goalkeeper of the national team of Scotland (Robert Douglas);
cc557c5e07c8ea436099dc87dcb3350cff4a87e6	Pulitzer Prize Winner (Robert Lewis Taylor);
9aeed6f898d196df94c68f09bf68fd5cf57db24a	The Old School Scientist (Henry Aldrich);
c2274bd37740a7a8ad786373bf1a02bd4fb23803	The criminal career of Matti Haapoya (Matti Haapoya);
835fa0b7bb5e3e326901b89e5ed5b12a924468d7	Financial Manager of Russia (Andrey Movchan);
cd670455da2183a248f0daae53c548cf4c3e2028	The turn of Fate (Ivan Zhadan);
b00bb791adc1ef698c0216df4795d7b05cfe3fcc	Founder of the fashion label 'Marchesa' (Georgina Chapman);
6d8a68f6cb090c7b8f123361d2e176fbf491c043	[ 21.01.2016 ]
5eef57dd44267de1cac13e6da7c05b62a6e7f916	Osip Mandelstam: The Unequal battle of the Nutcracker (Osip Mandelstam);
c428a88d52186004709dba144a1929d737d876b6	The indefatigable worker of the opera stage (Placido Domingo);
6814fa6f9c1d9e27bcf5d2fca1e36bad67295e9b	The most useful player (Joe DiMaggio);
f94ca99ee2ce81f03fceb540d894b14a3a12fbed	Who built the Regent's Canal? (John Drinkwater);
b98483509c73738e27ab6021695cbb860635b137	Self critical and insecure actor (Tom Ewell);
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3c41beaf1b4c0318a29338eb8e0b98105aaccccd	Proponent of Total Quality Management (William Edwards Deming);
7f983776af125396c83577bc71cdc1d3b0bf508e	From refined to frankly ridiculous outfits (Nicholas Putvinsky);
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a8b6499cf7f5ab8e407518fa6b931bab09f5d0f0	Tags NBA LeBron james miami
9b1353e456c3f3d814ac39d7b0af33f0988cdbf7	50 Facts about LeBron James that You Didnot Know
32e2501738b28430882972a11fec7be5273f2194	The Lantern blog updates the dossier of the best player in the world.
2a521dbc14515718fbaca74c1fef0beeb5267042	1. LeBron's mother kisses the Miami players at halftime.
d5bb82979eff3e2b6aab3b6c07de130fa6c7edaa	2. In the fourth grade, LeBron missed 82 out of 160 school days
96c8217b673b2eac6e4aefdbe26b222283fff5e7	When James was in the fourth grade, Gloria spent seven days in prison for disorderly conduct.
9bf56aaef24098c356b1670bf9ecb1118dc3b974	In Gloria's weighty case – contempt of court, hooliganism, violation of public order, illegal entry into someone else's property.
9739611e5c9409a0ea72d2c0defe47c016164408	This is even if you donot count her behavior at James ' matches – she tried to deal with everyone who allowed himself to mistreat his son, and earned from him the nickname "Iverson's Mother.
0851a370141e257a88dc42596cd8a174e75ef596	Take two."
3c2639a228906522b7c5b4d040b3ac7c6aff67a1	From the age of five, James moved seven times a year: Gloria often changed apartments, sometimes settled for a while with friends.
0b6d505e3ef1d6bf00aa82aa37e01db5c2a6c4da	3. As a child, LeBron lived in the house of Frankie Walker, the school football coach
ef8b7ced868e6103dfafb5b08a8586a1260d2447	When the coach of his team, Frankie Walker, found out that LeBron was skipping classes, he tried to influence his mother: according to the agreement, the fourth grader moved to Walker's house for a while.
7fa1e1559db76cac0bdc969f80cd9535a6b61ff0	It was he who introduced him to basketball, taught him how to throw left handed and made sure that James did not miss a single class in the fifth grade.
d5e46354f1a75ee30d2a64c0f1ba5fc95103ae38	James stayed with Walker for a year and a half.
20215d802782a63eb69f599962337a054dc7c4ff	4. LeBron began to learn to play for partners from the age of 8.
80e675c483e91d3f998db07b96c3760631167ab2	He and his friends played in the Akron league, and after winning all the matches, the coach invariably called the" most valuable players "on the team – although James was the highest and did the most on the court, he never received the" title " of MVP.
3eae8b989c7a1573b21fede2ed8a55421615de65	5. LeBron's father was a famous streetball player in Ohio.
96049d024dd627035dc88376f5ce8c43a2eb3f29	James never knew his biological father Anthony McClelland.
efac9db37c232c29354bbfcf764b61093197a67e	But, according to rumors, in addition to the fact that he was a fraudster traveling from prison to freedom and back, mccleland is a fairly well – known streetballer in Akron and the surrounding area.
c91156272ec4e2c1ee2bf46ee3462cca31936b28	In 2008, a certain Leister Bryce Stovell sued LeBron, accusing him of refusing to recognize him as a father and falsifying the results of a DNA test.
2102dbcf7dd306e0f5359b174de9bbaae7909e47	In Stovell's testimony, a detailed five page story is given, where the plaintiff recalls the night of James ' possible conception.
f5126cf8725639c76241e27a64867db9f9493327	The most surprising part of these testimonies remains Stovell's biography – he graduated from Princeton, received a law degree from the University of Chicago and worked for a long time at the Securities and Exchange Commission.
90a96d52368ebf613f26c4ba1a15c2d550e15a9d	6. LeBron's foster father served six years for drug trafficking and loan fraud.
2dfce52802707fd28c8d75c12b044665811a3f1f	LeBron had a very close relationship with his adoptive father Eddie Jackson, with whom his mother began dating when James was two years old.
6d40de74b2d7317d311caa043305f801ae3d38df	7. At first, LeBron played under the number 32 in honor of Julius Irving.
522b445d3680e480ee452816d236f581426ade8d	In Cleveland, the forward ran under the 23rd number, and then called on all the clubs in the league to withdraw this number from circulation (thereby indirectly admitting that he was going to move to Miami).
b4f8009ee1df23437d2f71a7518e97c2a462fe08	8. LeBron is a connoisseur of the history of basketball.
f55f6589fd283f32b9b1361230e95f4958561254	None of the documentaries about the stars of the past is complete without the participation of James: everyone knows that LeBron is obsessed with the history of basketball and the evolution of the game.
b77927e6904087a1c5aa804cece6ccc95850c66e	He is interested in everything related to the past, not only because it helps to understand his own place – he focuses not only on the stars and their achievements.
128e19e5812776284b7a7a6e4ee3617b12631be7	9. LeBron made his first dunk in the 8th grade during a match between students and teachers.
61b3121f9f9572a66edd864fc914fefff16901af	LeBron himself voiced his character in The Simpsons.
d19fd39e1d3af0917904fc85165d132a79403dae	LeBron James is a fan of The Simpsons.
b76ac00b2685c9fbaf0b750c706f8ceeedc25685	He fell in love with them since childhood and when he was offered to participate in the creation of the episode, he gladly agreed.
532d5c08f5047343508dd9de09a45312cc535f39	LeBron underwent eye surgery.
09b2cb35d107d589193bcb57228e7696b131825f	As a child, James had terrible eyesight: because of myopia at school, he had to sit in the first row.
a10eef2e4cc6fa038b82cd17f4ee7ec468306cda	At the same time, LeBron never wore glasses – as he says, "his pride did not allow him."
e183a7dfc9908efd70498d782ee782beb01f6f1b	This had almost no effect on basketball: except that James ' percentage from behind the arc was not so great, and his eye problems affected peripheral vision.
de67d2ac119178cefd188d7ff0c2cf5e2bfe7931	After five years in the NBA, LeBron underwent surgery laser keratomylosis – with which he corrected all the violations.
c81d797fea0faddcec0c5aa574b6e00f9ab97722	LeBron rides a bicycle to matches and training sessions.
edeb7a02c85aa2ee7b9934db9f737b423c565004	In 2007, James became a co owner of Cannondale, a bicycle manufacturing company.
81e13801f8eec96babb1c807b2271c2b827df554	Since then, this two wheeled mode of transport has become the most preferred for him.
f60b771e67e954beadd13aabe9bfbe4f6f2adbab	A few days after the "Decision", the price for the domain LeBronSucks.com it amounted to 10 thousand dollars.
4a91b3f45f6463006497553ccb2519df9a6e8c2e	The project has been ordered to live for a long time, but you can always share your feelings for James on the website ihatelebronjames.com.
afb86685d37d3a6e2e24d672a5bccd3fe734d712	LeBron is America's most popular athlete on Twitter.
08a7ce6871a749dc492e1d3106148a4fbf49ce86	He is second only to two athletes in the world Cristiano Ronaldo (19 million) and Kaka (16).
ca022c3085b9c7abc6939c1a5cf4c1713656672a	In many ways, this is why during this season's playoffs, he refused to use a phone and other devices to communicate with the outside world.
2e46d39a9ffc67dc90250aa79735326ea9fa3e98	LeBron doesnot like to read, but he wrote a book.
57c4ae216b07999223f148578f19a3b272ccdc6e	In 2009, James co authored the book "Meteorites"with the famous journalist Buzz Bissinger.
0ba2275fccef9529b7f27ee44b042b97e36a69c6	The work is dedicated to the young years of LeBron and his friends in the Fab Four a team in which he played first in the amateur league, and then at St. Vincent and St. Mary's School.
4258076bc30824131d11163e31fe2723e7609c71	In fact, "Meteorites" is James ' first response to critics, the first attempt to tell about the pressure that has haunted him since the first days of his playing career – crowded stands, maximum attention of newspaper reporters, temptations.
8f1725d4ee97a3a72c5eaf9e8b6825db108eff0e	At school, James was forced to cover his tattoos with plasters.
1baecd7001849f7c2f3c287c0f5388309b045954	James attended a Catholic school.
6378a3e948d316f36e749d8786e89a1459adb665	At school, LeBron smoked marijuana.
48134e829f9963b3856673a5ba3de36126ee79b8	The hypervigilance did not pass for James just like that.
00498f46e7f0f3e54e61495a23ee1803a1d5699e	18.
3acb2bf2776c9beb9e35b629e4ad00b3d0785514	Ticket prices for games with LeBron in the last year of school were $ 100-120
7719d0f4955d385279b75ff87341b170e564ab08	James ' popularity by this point had become such that some meetings had to be moved to the University of Akron arena, and the rest of the home games were broadcast on local television.
a9e87b67b8619878c0dcf28e47d1ee21289a13e4	19.
95c171d361ea249c2ad51af573bd301fed7ab1f9	James ' first tattoo is an image of a lion on his right shoulder.
ffc405a6cda7f3f0f087bfd02eb96bff9285ce85	20.
82905c793aba204d78adc4b061dafdd9a1796f8f	At school, LeBron was disqualified for two games for accepting two retro NBA jerseys as a gift
2d001e16e29d7fa4ce06b5516b318f2068212a3b	The sports store handed James two retro T shirts worth $ 845, and he allowed him to use his image on advertising posters.
f5cce6290302109899bdafeab5e0434bbb91177b	After that, the local school sports association deprived James of the opportunity to play sports and restored his rights after LeBron protested this decision in court.
1488a39c538aa4561b855a5b7e7aeb978b342c4c	21.
1b84548bef55c5d1e00527efa5f4670d6efb753c	Jordan's personal doctor helped LeBron recover from a broken hand.
5be4d650dfde3073e791eec690b653df17fdc304	This injury automatically ended his football career: his mother was seriously worried that the injury of football could interfere with LeBron and urged him to quit this game a few years before.
fc0d662dce9c3811ae9ccaf4d0f21ede9e8ee95a	In March 2008, JayzEe recorded the track Blow the Whistle in support of his friend, whose abilities were questioned by DeShone Stevenson.
f290b51bf9595990b5e1deb748e93299803df1e8	23.
787f137c9e9374597077301ba995312ed1c26526	LeBron became the first black man to appear on the cover of Vogue.
0950c3e574c4bb1453d6bd56de85df1410895c32	24.
1a79b4de68031ed269a7dfb7c58e78b83288b1cd	LeBron's favorite subject at school was geology.
60734294f0f705ea5d9d49deaa1d2b015dd1599e	25.
57cbd52632b1ff29135635ee32429c7c15989759	When LeBron became taller than Jordan, he refused to measure height.
dc1f1b1881f8b317d6973f4ed568dcf2cbe2122f	In the ninth grade, James grew by six inches and became taller than 198 centimeters, the height of his childhood idol Michael Jordan.
b39cf6cd9698c69e75a955f4969e17c99c3b35a6	Since that time, he refused to measure his height – his official data (203 centimeters) is recorded from his words and is questioned by many basketball fans.
70ecba37a2b3b3b64dc86b930d18ed21e7fb5bd7	He explained it this way: "I donot want anyone to know me.
22462deda39da9d5edfccb0beec1f01c91d6cdbe	I'm like a superhero.
d3e763a703a001bdd1420c7d8e95976c19d51037	Call me "basketball man".
3eb0629abd37d1649388c79c892b1857d609a12e	26.
be20dd133cf37dcfeb6bdaa0bcab2d897f4d6532	The International Management Group agency began monitoring LeBron from the 9th grade.
8b01fbddff4aba57265db13a40241a054f29dc6f	27.
8182bf858854b8b9b955a99c3c42793efacbb146	LeBron participated in an illegal training session with Cleveland before the draft.
5cfd4ad95f7132a178b3450d23aaa2c6387fbcf9	Contrary to the rules, the Cavs invited James to an unofficial training session, which was also attended by Cleveland players.
51e94abdf503a62e1c274f0b8d4bdfff93885679	The experiment cost the head coach John Lucas 150 thousand dollars and a suspension for two matches, but it fully justified itself: any doubts disappeared.
b2300b77742dba55c85a4db9277efd7d885e4263	28.
9408f7a8ae659a3a1dcfb84484710c4a62184f2f	According to tradition, LeBron orders a German chocolate cake for every birthday.
4a1b174b24b63f761af3c0eb23e802cfb59798b7	29.
ed2eff94562af4d87e53567f44d4e5b533dcd678	LeBron tried to get into the NBA without graduating from high school.
24153a4ea91c5761dda71f093c538668e8ab1c6d	The one and done rule, which increases the age limit of players in the draft to 19 years, was introduced in 2006.
b850b92805c0722109f0dfdefef92cba1b1ee416	Before that, school graduates could also exhibit.
53e8a6d32d2662e0e45c3e5c50768f2a7589987d	James went further and tried to apply to the league with a request to allow him to stand for a candidate a year before graduation.
fef1451adba30ae2df1031f5c2bf5bc67bd83415	The NBA did not dare to make revolutionary changes, and LeBron had to spend another year at school.
634c73b3fbb41dab93aa35820287a566bf493185	30.
62b214af0416576b53614afd0940ad8267290e90	LeBron writes and eats with his left hand, and throws with his right.
9ce9fd273cae31acbd46d4ceb218cfe95f5a5fb6	31.
8f53d1495afc3c630825a33798e39a00dd8f96f0	The contract was designed for 7 years.
e79f3ad8c1f553a3bfe8626688b375a1c3f19cc0	32.
0343d55cb374634ee2ffe0a9d2e4a9940dab779f	In the 10th grade, LeBron participated in the Adidas ABCD Camp, playing in Nike, and in the Nike All American Camp, playing in Adidas.
71658bc41f979e97e6cb0eebc392e3d95d4dac11	It was such a fat trolling.
adc2bd66e985225085acfa2437a558ed8f078004	An interesting detail is that the Adidas sneakers were given to James by Kobe Bryant, then the main face of the brand.
283c6a8ede69ba850a853c6e1da8270d6898f701	In 2003, they both already represented Nike.
6a4eb5a9e916d108310c4e3398d8928ce907ad8b	But Kobe was far from the only one: at school, James was flooded with sneakers, and he handed them out right and left, throwing them in the school cafeteria.
0ceda33c81d42b3c56012f8d1b2ffa44da1e46f1	33.
91ee447b5274399875b43178f76b757b8c64ffa7	LeBron's first Nike series was inspired by the Hummer story.
fab0feac8c4f91c051a5d541a29f88e19c32a53f	The story of the Hummer is one of the key events in James ' preschool life.
8282b213f3c451f60d3b59d50b8f02915a1ae2e2	A gift from her mother for her 18th birthday could not go unnoticed and provoked a scandal throughout the country: Gloria had to explain exactly where she got the money for such a car.
18fb7d8ca5a70cf8b0b03a653bc499f70ac74174	This story finally formalized James ' status as the brightest star in the United States and became the inspiration for the creators of the first model of the player's personalized sneakers.
feedb883a661605985e43e1ae130b92f6c2b73b6	34.
c2a834f8f461754f9a95efc41e09a416b99aecd0	The "Solution" helped to raise $ 2.5 million for charitable purposes.
8b32ca1d19b983b9db02ad9537eb8e4627cbddbe	Despite the fact that the "Decision" for some time made James the most hated athlete in America, it definitely got the right resonance.
dd009519a6d0c938adb1ec2764a7fc11f3d1b375	However, we heard this only after a couple of years.
fefc85f54daf7e6d8753e17d2cd248c41a2d762a	35.
6bd816e7632f5453cd850bf4337208905459f287	After moving to Miami, Dan Gilbert lowered the prices for James ' enlarged heads to $ 17.41.
bd5773fc3093ecda434bec127da43b60224169c7	1741 the year of birth of Benedict Arnold, an American army general who defected to the British side.
669b1406572343291346ff5153fd62883d61b46b	36.
33971e6350026a91a946a1182b42afb20b2b13f5	In 2013, LeBron left the list of the most hated players in the league according to a Forbes poll.
8e67f37a949773277528762fd88e9c6ed1b18d03	In 2012, he was still in 7th place with 48 percent.
25f6b1eaa141da25dc6fcdb8a195db6596c871a8	37.
49182b98b7e98e77153009d4e439bc53c98eb327	LeBron James has appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated 20 times.
e624fc469ed099c76e5e4b4c37358171975f995c	The second championship of the " Hit "marked another historical step in James' career – the anniversary cover.
0404e2c4a87258ab62f5b1252a1dfa0ddfe2efda	The first one was published in February 2002 under the title "The Chosen One" and made LeBron get a tattoo on his back.
bbc3b193b737c6b70c655d4da9bbfffd415904c5	Now James is in 6th place – Kareem Abdul Jabbar (22), Magic Johnson (23) are just a little bit left.
b895a93c2a4594dd172fc471f1dd337e1b7bc18e	Michael Jordan has the most – 50.
9be3bff57cd169c03491ed947afc8aff259a94e2	38.
830794cbf9ae1982d512bf9e5dce7973ea094318	LeBron overcame his disappointment after losing to Dallas with the help of the book "The Ant and the Elephant".
c68a674812b30404682f036d138ff074e63ef87c	After the defeat in the final of 2011, one of his friends gave James the book "The Ant and the Elephant: Leadership for Yourself".
3db0b2d0d3425dbd50f2979c87b05e0a503b3c3a	The monograph addressed to businessmen shows that understanding the connection between the conscious and the unconscious is the first step for a leader.
bbe598ef993faef800dddfaed47f253f62b3028e	An example of how overcoming internal fears and overcoming oneself helps to guide others is illustrated with the help of a metaphor – a rational ant and an elephant following the instincts, which together strive for an oasis in the desert.
95b65491762872f3191cce7c7430b471199c1be5	It doesnot sound very good, but James preferred the book to TV for a while and, he claims, learned a lot from it.
21bb127237cfc5809f3a301c45838c5763ab666e	39.
0a80505933795d517d2cb38fd02b647662729dbf	In 2007, LeBron appeared as the host of "Saturday Night Live".
de62030fd12c3b33ad063c8fd8b1c41558bb74b8	40.
87ffb27171eaa1b39a8b9acfafd3a4061c691089	Michael Jordan invited LeBron to private training sessions in Chicago when he was still a 9th grader.
404ed96f441b2addbcf1f6c4e66d146b13f897a3	LeBron's roots started calling "His Airship" and hanging up, after which the number had to be changed.
123bab4662c81da6541ac228451e8281ad0eada6	Michael Finley, Juvan Howard and Penny Harudway participated in those games.
f10b1a27b4528b5aa624ee8347a8b325c27fa5e3	But James became especially close to Antoine Walker, whom he considers one of his close friends.
e34f0e3d54f52767407b1bab3f0831011f3f293a	41.
8a2c44790ea4ac0d14e6576ee5e65179fcc4e97f	LeBron donated 20 thousand dollars to the election campaign of Barack Obama in 2008.
fe765152c6266870243aff8fe64459493abdfd41	42.
5b470da63acdbe7b0990016ebebcb4d6c75fe3e5	Although LeBron grew up in Ohio, he supports the Yankees, Bulls and Cowboys.
6d0e606fc33cd05897908984d84127a28caef3be	The love for the Yankees was materialized in the model of Air Zoom V LeBron sneakers.
80fa55cf73fb66334d6b94b6f53ae0f562b13694	43.
8f3203165f4436b273c6b9165f720e6509ed2009	In 2007, the Federation seriously doubted whether it was worth including LeBron in the national team for the 2008 Olympics.
d76dd65dc7a2ce65f8b1ba4595e6f8c3275db986	James ' infantilism was pretty boring for everyone, and in 2007, Jerry Colangelo and Mike Krzyszewski seriously thought about unhooking one of the best NBA players from the national team: LeBron's childishness and irresponsibility fed up with everyone at the 2004 Olympics and the 2006 World Cup.
9b942429054213f7de1e09dd86126ce18046abcd	But he was still given one last chance: at the American Championship in 2007, Jason Kidd personally took over the upbringing of LeBron.
64eeec06517452f9678c49c78ffb700864e357d0	44.
ca8e7d30c1cb56e87f805f9e483f3eea71d4ff05	Only LeBron and Karim managed to get two MVP titles under the age of 25.
860bb236a72ee7c455ee069832ffdfe1b6082678	45.
62137ec40458b00badb9ac18bfff72d8c560fe53	LeBron was close friends with Maurice Claret.
300814539fc85d115d5f760b3d4b997e82dffbc1	Clarett is the same age as James and one of the most scandalous athletes in America.
61b5b03ca40f544aaecfac0df11fc2c5b0849f65	He received a scholarship as a football player at Ohio University, but after one year he was expelled for several offenses at once: conflicts with the coach, with the university management refusing to pay for some of his expenses, a scandal around an attempt to put pressure on teachers and a failed attempt to deceive the police.
20cdc4481837e4d17af7056de48113b837aa7531	Then Clarett participated in a high profile trial, trying to protest the NFL rules prohibiting the draft of players who did not attend college for three years.
551b3dd20c9065fc886f2ade1dde408014eade77	Performances in the league also did not last long: Claret was first expelled from the NFL, and soon was arrested for attempted robbery and sentenced to six months in prison.
1bac7b411a52f2aab693e09f961b43b8516223da	46.
417cf47486830b6478538bdd2b9ad8a416600c9d	The reduction of hair on LeBron's head is one of the urgent problems of the modern science of memology.
7232670a3f91ee399c6940d46d413d69f4ddc048	47.
c97257ad95d2606198d8606b27a7f872b8534973	In 2013, LeBron became the second in the list of the richest athletes in America.
5e65a0b17d7a08724cdd3c1b802e1025d4e087db	James ' earnings for the season amounted to 66 and a half million dollars: 17.5 million salary and 39 from contracts with sponsors.
89e1c6d51779adef8dcbfb31edfcfa1ee9dde5f6	49.
0174811eda2bb190e7d1daa301ff74e086fb68ea	LeBron has 5 percent body fat.
35fe7f8091f96aaf0bb2e9aac31087f85fd22279	Height – 206 centimeters, weight 111 kilograms.
3f7082da03b3241a5ec71b6449b8c479ed1bdc9e	The vertical jump is 111 centimeters.
251d5e3902be095a8e82fd3b910d2f500faa385c	And wingspan – 214 centimeters.
e24fc1365657df3de04479b82c4d2c9bdec641f6	50.
babf45c52eff8efe8f929664c994ceec3ce2156d	LeBron tattooed the face of his first child, James Jr., on his left arm
5ea05b5d4f679562f1fb0410c569194c02cf7c8c	Only Michael Jordan and LeBron James managed to win the NBA title, Olympic gold, the title of MVP of the season and the MVP of the final series in one season.
5fda23d62015b99fb2a9f86b38bcdf2bdf7609c8	Author
cd0d9a6316e53181e922387cf33de316f6b09857	Kirill Sviridov
3281c0993b38ddfd6549cca20bf458ed0dd331d2	RATING +330
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f940e6ecffb0b9d4c45f69ffbbfc3fec09b1b253	Recent blog entries
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1e5da1b358ecef70f6d188a89d17d2d45a49686f	December 31, 2015 14: 11
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441cede3b6a750ffb602157fa739687515a6e007	December 15, 2015 03: 48
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2463b6f2e0197c98a1c685658ba817e0daf04b85	James, lebron
33c10de91958322b0abc90ace4a4280497ba05ec	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on December 30, 2015; checks require 5 edits.
581074a7601558189d4dc66cd0d01359c9910c92	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname James.
e09d0ee275c6aa1b04f31b858fef401375f1564b	LeBron James LeBron James
b390ccc03f748c9c99dd7c0a74fb9a8d757e5d90	LeBron James in November 2014 "Cleveland Cavaliers" - No.
5b4347a90ee600fce1819a14bda3ebbeec3f31c0	23 Lightweight forward Nicknames: King Height: 203 cm Weight: 115 kg Citizenship: USA USA Born: December 30, 1984 (1984-12-30) (31 years old),
1c95387b53afb5e5f24c5c8631cd3b8ec7dfa716	Akron, Ohio School: St. Vincent St. Mary (Akron, Ohio) College: Did not study Draft: 1st (1st round), 2003, Cleveland Cavaliers Played for the teams
5da5f8caa2d22d31a87bd1bf2f4f5d9b4b00c538	Cleveland Cavaliers (2003-2010) Miami Heat (2010-2014) Cleveland Cavaliers (2014 present)
ed3f61809d6c8e3090957f28ac1b98893478fb69	Personal awards and achievements
2362c2098f94741084afd6ec500f4ad1433a1f80	2 time Olympic Champion (2008, 2012) 2 time NBA Champion (2012-2013) 2 time NBA Finals MVP (2012-2013) 4 time NBA MVP (2009-2010, 2012-2013) participated in the NBA All Star Game 11 times (2005-2015) MVP of the NBA All Star Game (2006, 2008) NBA Rookie of the Year (2004) 1st team of NBA rookies (2004) 9 times was part of the first team of NBA stars (2006, 2008-2015) 2 times was part of the second team of NBA stars (2005, 2007) 6 times was part of the first team of all star defense (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014) Most Productive Player (2008) NBA Regular Season Leader in Minutes (2005) Sports Illustrated Athlete of the Year (2012) Mr. USA Basketball (2002-2003) Naismith Award for the Best High School Player of the Year (2003) Gatorade Award for the Best High School Basketball Player of the Year (2002-2003) USA Today High School Basketball Player of the Year (2002-2003)
ec2855fb2bafba563f00b9be392e9a4d8d6ae3c0	Medals
494456517c22a79629e125a28fb0b396ad10679a	Olympic Games Bronze Athens 2004 Basketball Gold Beijing 2008 Basketball Gold London 2012 Basketball World Championships Bronze Japan 2006 American Championships Gold Las Vegas 2007
c16a8e8d2fe004896e5ccf7ee01eb156f26d89fe	LeBron Raymone James( December 30, 1984, Akron, Ohio, USA)[1][2][3] — American professional basketball player who plays as a light and heavy forward for the NBA team "Cleveland Cavaliers".
d63c28d53b7912f634c2a8b27e51cc107b7b5e4f	James is a two time NBA champion, two time most valuable player of the NBA Finals, four time most valuable player of the NBA, the most productive player of the regular season and the rookie of the year.
6b0c075c10cb0046f337488fa2116c05b823aebd	Nine times he was a member of the first all star team of the NBA and twice more in the second, five times he was a member of the all star defense team, 11 times he took part in the all star game, where he was twice recognized as the most valuable player.
8aecfbcf9457ddc8af743e4fc32a56af4465b571	After skipping university, LeBron was selected in the 2003 draft under the overall first number by the Cleveland Cavaliers.
e5abef004b5db8fe55282e1fc15a3ac6e52f7dbb	James spent 7 seasons with Cleveland.
55167a0aa442d045221480ba966dc8101a90cdf5	In 2007, the forward led the team to its first final in history, where the Cavaliers lost outright to the San Antonio Spurs (0-4).
2df08011dcc412bd0f6f6d1485dfd8025863f9de	Two years later, Cleveland reached the Eastern Conference finals, where it lost to the Orlando Magic.
3a7a50e61dee586da4c1b9b5cb9fba935047c8e5	During his time with the Cavs, James became the most productive player in the club's history and was twice recognized as the most valuable player of the regular season.
d88055e094d4eee988163f2dea75b3a00871a796	After becoming a free agent in 2010, LeBron decided to team up with US national team partners Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh as part of the Miami Heat.
648ca92a1df14ffbf82e9c95a08e2def57b17bec	During his four years with the Heat, James won two NBA championship titles, two Finals Most Valuable Player titles, and twice the title of most valuable player of the regular season.
7980027f7e5699d663ef8442db1cb415fa8e5023	In the summer of 2014, LeBron, after spending four seasons with Miami, returned to the Cleveland Cavaliers, signing a two year contract.
2a61a2e5a30458f84f09244b3183a37d00032b45	In the first season after the forward's return to his native club, the team reached the NBA finals, where it lost in six games to the Golden State Warriors.
38f9800609caf7c25106960a0b9d72a8f8ffe029	In addition to his club career, James also played for the US national team at three Olympic Games, where he won two gold and one bronze.
b63672e2b653789a5a4b7ba54858893e79727ced	The forward also took part in the 2006 World Championships, winning bronze.
e1e523fa13343073dc2fe045549e75ae9cb3769d	1 Childhood and youth 2 Career in the NBA 2.1 Cleveland Cavaliers (2003-2010) 2.1.1 First season 2.1.2 2009/2010
564cae0a2ab134cb6d20f1c6d46bdb208adc0cf8	2.2 Free Agent in 2010 2.3 Miami Heat 2.4 Free Agent 2014 2.5 Cleveland Cavaliers (2014 present)
b489461dbb51efadc079cd684eef6c7b3a0d5bcd	3 Personal Bests 4 Statistics 4.1 Regular Season 4.2 Playoffs
f2e22282d27fdcffe40b7bb9444356d3b2fad2bf	5 Notes 6 References
b0d4c5200b6c5045b11ec7e11be18614ab94ce43	Childhood and youth[edit / edit wiki text]
650d1ca0257e79a1b4e2baf4d4437013c035d0ad	This section lacks links to information sources.
5650f6b919b37b263dc258c2b0b82134a4a2468c	This mark was set on March 28, 2015.
9cda8519a21495761db5babf3593f2c9db512701	From his early school years, James was the object of constant attention of the American media, who praised him as a future NBA star.[source not specified 299 days] In 2003, he was selected in the NBA draft at number 1 by the Cleveland Cavaliers.
0ca3643eece9ff29ded281f9923cf4cd213b5859	[4] James was 18 years old at the time, and he became the second player in the history of the association, who was selected immediately after school in the draft at the first number.[source not specified 299 days] LeBron's childhood was spent in constant moving from place to place, which made it very difficult for him to study at school and make friends.
4b8eeae6df8459987ad550e1f60ac7ff508735fa	Subsequently, LeBron's football coach Frank Walker sheltered his ward at home, thereby ending his endless moves and skipping school.
fdc29b126f863cdc6c3056180e4f172704c4ccc8	By the eighth grade, he had grown to 185 cm, could play in all five positions and, according to his coach, had a basketball sixth sense.
78ec0d98d74ecb8333de8f126db1090ef37011b9	LeBron became a full fledged star in the Akron St. Vincent — St. Mary team, from where he was drafted into the NBA.
239dd790cace7d175e40fea47eb86a0e8cced344	Gradually, he became so popular that his matches in the junior team were even shown on national television.
ed4cf30dd69a1fe3aeae7d633a2e589e269a447b	The Cleveland Cavaliers, knowing about such a talent, even gave their key basketball player Miller in the middle of the season in order to take the last place at the end of the season and have more chances to get a young talent for themselves.
784f3205c564c9c4299f5744a564c659d9db1159	Career in the NBA[edit / edit wiki text]
bfcf7546266b5b2e14a040295662c4d317e54205	Cleveland Cavaliers (2003-2010)[edit / edit wiki text]
119d0ea26cb2468800f8b95a974b2b84585810b3	James, as a member of the Cleveland Cavaliers, leads the ball in one of the games in April 2009.
cfe50e0a1bc91d41a8819948694c04d68d32a2bc	The first season[edit / edit wiki text]
f904f053e7d7e7a70c6e24d0bdfe225cd92f820b	James was selected by the Cleveland Cavaliers under the first pick in the 2003 NBA draft.
da13e8310ba0b26860f3d07245bf2711bb29e571	In his first game in the league, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, becoming the most productive NBA debutant right after school.
63905826ae912bc3129e93657be6d0b56e828fb6	On March 27, 2004, in a game against the New Jersey Nets, LeBron James scored 41 points, becoming the youngest player to score 40 or more points per game at the age of 19.
5832484a353602d1ab01d956c49616a243f1b7c7	2009/2010[edit / edit wiki text]
875862a38a47f2a565a1d56eae064eedf0a883d1	In the 2009/2010 season, such players as Shaquille O'Neal, Antoine Jamison, Anthony Parker came to Cleveland.
088bd8e554c8411e59eccd3afb70e7fe462dc4d7	James, averaging 29.7 points per game and making 7.3 rebounds and 8.6 assists, earned his second title of the League's Most Valuable Player in the regular season.
6fd946bc1dd9776e8594175fed7a4d3d0eadd9db	In the elimination games, LeBron and Co. beat Chicago 4-1 quite easily in the first round, then quite unexpectedly lost to Boston with a score of 2-4.
762d0f728670a2756f96fd0a0d74bb89b2078299	Free agent in 2010[edit / edit wiki text]
4353ca9f608b6bb88d5709f4f3e8339bcd7807ce	Miami Heat[edit / edit wiki text]
420fbebc4638b1161ac54b1bf5bf3cc8f2a92479	James joined the Miami Heat in December 2012
8ca4df451eb812e8e826e1803716783a0057a4da	External video files Cleveland fans burn jerseys with the 23rd number Cleveland Fans Burning Lebron James Jersey on National TV (Burn Jersey)
6afd745a4c0e2716567b08e2cad9dc4e3f4e2f24	On July 8, 2010, James announced on ESPN live that he had signed a contract with the Miami Heat, [5] which caused a storm of indignation in Ohio — up to the public burning of T shirts with the number 23.
c651f940871c7a3fd3ca3238768e72c23da5f9ba	As LeBron himself said, his decision was influenced by friends and family, as well as the desire to win the championship[6]:
e6de52c6f5f46e64ce986472ed75c30a93ab4607	I'm moving to Miami — this is a decision that I made.
ef354242446c0dfb9973118212e40e1f3a5b5fff	I want to win not only in specific matches, but also to fight for titles.
0100d07b83d66ee5f157ddd650ea2aa29c064237	The main factor in making the decision was the ability to win now and in the future.
de442b6fc595c2bae35a6956cc6a3700a712e3ba	My heart will always remain in "Cleveland", I have great respect for everyone with whom I managed to work.
aa3e8d1aa464ed89b1ce613a58cff8d566469cbe	I deliberately put myself in a position where I could choose the team myself, considering various proposals.
89dd7ab929cd5840c995dc7e3997e5a1f5bf216f	This is an invaluable experience.
3a4a8f4bcbecaf695a971fed8df1d8a67b982611	Immediately after the announcement of LeBron's decision to move to Miami, the owner of the Cavaliers team, Dan Gilbert, addressed the fans with an open letter through the official website[7]:
7a37357edba8cac0b125b035b7cb5c3b4ebc86e0	Dear Cleveland fans, our former hero, who grew up on our land, has left the team.
b36507e01b74f8ce44a41813c8c53f2326e265ca	He announced this after several days of narcissism and narcissism in an unprecedented TV show.
2509798f404d683470ce7c5a9ebb914180ff87da	Naturally, we are disappointed, but the club's management has never betrayed you and will not betray you.
7f1e178e63bc2f70e6d0495863fd126ef7c63ed6	You do not deserve such treatment and deserve a better life.
e5aed1a2a65cdcb2f29bccac4ababefd6719d419	I want to make a statement.
9bdd613a02e1d341c3c06cbdb55f1571cf872fe6	I personally guarantee that Cleveland will win the NBA championship before the self proclaimed former King.
e7df418316d8683417d004b6d2f8be321568d36c	We have a fantastic motivation, because some people think that they can go to heaven without dying.
606b1e3417938bebd1a4ef6688c451c7b0713f6f	They are mistaken.
59486bba4f61f19d1bd54a65a2e356ecf6f1408d	A person who called himself the chosen one should not become an example for our children.
0c28c2af99e0319141e793aba6cbf2c0a0b762b0	People often talk about the curse of Cleveland.
898b1b4e4f25f31fe66dc6b4859a0a1c6201b61c	They say that it is unrealistic to win something here.
4fc849c5c3fd9c143e381c1d4916c6ae6464b20c	Let the former King take the curse with him to the south.
8a1971e046c06bacd6ac74a7e918bfeff6c83d28	8] Gilbert later admitted that he regretted the words he said after signing James ' contract with the Miami Heat.[source not specified 299 days]
471a498388cd5dcaa8cee08122cebc1af4766c6f	In the 2010/2011 season, James ' teammates were long time friends on the US national team Dwyane Wade, Chris Bosh.
d3475661f1e3fb6bad3e3b45cc6b36ae8e6d153e	The players were immediately called the "new Big Trio", by analogy with the trio that Boston basketball players Garnett Allen Pierce made up three years ago, immediately winning the NBA championship.[9]
79940855fd12a6ea4ff26e87decac57d4e365788	During the NBA All Star Game on February 21, 2011, while playing for the East team, he made the second triple double in the history of the all star game (29 points, 12 rebounds, 10 assists).
0a3ce69cac72ac757f1998592d8885ee93a471d6	The first triple double in all Star games was made in 1997 by Michael Jordan.
65cc39452b4e6ba567f066af22ba013014ebbe05	11][12][13]. James himself said that he "dreams of being able to achieve such success", which the Merseyside club has achieved[13].
298251dd6ead143512b16c314ee8d86901469570	Later, the basketball player began to appear at press conferences in the attributes of "Liverpool" [14].
f32569e779a6b42ba668f3d061c18d958e09e6fd	LeBron makes a slam dunk as part of the US national team in the match against Nigeria at the Olympic Games in London
5eda1c0e8a0673bda3f9ecd7893af9d17ca6fcc6	In the 2011/12 season, James became the first NBA champion in his career.
58ea790ca050d9f5f9e19085e7ad489ea91917fa	He also won his third MVP title, averaging 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, 1.9 steals per game and was recognized as the most valuable player of the finals.
8558fd3d1fde25c1f82654e2d29791b2b46d1bad	LeBron, as part of the "Dream Team", won his second gold at the Olympic Games.
a6febb14c331dd05fe0e5aff8a0aee9ee10d7863	The Americans won all 8 matches, beating the Spaniards in the final.
cdb72c3ef88e7bb4dac3e8728b36c7355e9e10b2	In the quarterfinal match against the Australians, James recorded a triple double (11 points, 14 rebounds, 11 assists).
1f6f3f2f45ac97685d261ada357e7d5826e8f6e0	LeBron James made history by becoming the second NBA player, after Michael Jordan, who in one season managed to win the NBA championship, the title of the most valuable player of the regular season, the most valuable player of the finals and gold medals with the US national team at the 2012 Olympics in London.
e01aa66bbb4b2259cb25c84801043a7bdfcce234	In early December 2012, the American edition of Sports Illustrated named James the athlete of the year.
448cb7a9cb1a4b1298f79a7d26819ed41779c86f	He was recognized as the most valuable basketball player of the NBA regular season, became the champion of the association, and in the final was also recognized as the best player, the gold of the Olympic Games[15].
3e6168608a7c61265effd820d596e1c96fbb28f3	On January 17, 2013, LeBron became the youngest basketball player to break the 20,000 point mark in the NBA.
3fd3dd54d3613af271388d924f7669ff640710ca	He overcame this mark in the second quarter of the match with the Golden State Warriors, following which Miami achieved a victory with a score of 92: 75.
4639eb2eea3e08b00ff4a8081b5038e9bfe31785	James became the 38th player who managed to cross this threshold.
c67869e9e117b864caacf57a9ad6e5eb7a40ffa2	Previously, the youngest player to score 20,000 points in the NBA was Kobe Bryant, who set a record at the age of 29 years and 122 days.
be696674b0fc660647bb691080c570c3395e6b63	James broke the record at the age of 28 years and 17 days.
21e4562554d956bf388fcfc665fc148b06643df2	[16][17]
8aa136cb493f0d2a55578040a88792e18d70c390	At the end of the 2012-13 regular season, James was named the most valuable basketball player of the NBA regular season for the fourth time, scoring 26.8 points, 8.0 rebounds, 7.3 assists and making 36 double doubles (a personal record) and 4 triple doubles during the season[18].
9248b8eb0289c127381d1f524e7bc332f7f3b044	The only player who managed to get four of these awards are for five years, is bill Russell (1961, 62, 63, 65).
ed45cf93821268ba2380d4e10c34c3e0066bf3a1	Only five players — Kareem Abdul Jabbar (six times), Michael Jordan (five), bill Russell (five) and wilt Chamberlain (four), received the MVP award more than three times.
d6df386caefa7ff3924cf9cc9e7753bdceef4eae	120 of the 121 journalists surveyed gave LeBron James the first places (a total of 1207 points).
af96a924c5dedcdc241408f0870eea1ffea2cf4b	The top five in the voting also includes: striker thunder Kevin Durant (765), forward Knicks Carmelo Anthony (475), point guard clippers Chris Paul (289) and Lakers Kobe Bryant (184).
dc9b588620ef923c6c7d96d2857efd72d3f70275	James said that was more eager to win the prize for best semideluxe player.
0313acd04d3534a983f07d1a6e468c67a8c85ae5	On November 5, 2013, James became the fifth player in the history of the league to score 10 or more points in 500 consecutive games.
bd6c26c58de4bb2e402ead89be8fbd1426c0cb4c	[19] [20] Previously, a similar achievement was achieved by Kareem Abdul Jabbar, who twice in his career overcame the milestone of 500 games (787 and 508 matches), Michael Jordan (866), Karl Malone (575) and Moses Malone (526)[21].
39fcdb9ad316003b026ba76138b15c667bc8c17b	On April 4, LeBron became the youngest player to score 23 thousand points in a match against the Minnesota Timberwolves[22].
278be747c83092f9e4e70e4ae6ea9ac250adecbe	James crossed this mark at the age of 29 years and 116 days[23], surpassing the Los Angeles Lakers defenseman Kobe Bryant[24], and on May 6, in the second round of the playoffs against Brooklyn, LeBron became the third player in NBA history to overcome the mark of 4,000 points, 900 rebounds and 900 assists in the playoffs.
7d5851e1e1dc3970ed9e3a20495f1a1dd7fe2179	25][26].
34901b0a42a129a73496f7cad60a8c080f329418	On May 12, James scored 49 points in the fourth match against Brooklyn, repeating his personal record of performance in relegation matches[27][28] and updated the club's record for points scored in playoff matches (previously the record belonged to Dwyane Wade, who scored 46 points)[29].
085f7f1b8311b95316be4feed3ee4b07e474d196	Free Agent 2014[edit / edit wiki text]
7e325b435e0c7e119b34e9519d32f2e62583804a	30].
f2865303de3625582326c7b4045639e95fbeb290	Cleveland Cavaliers (2014 present)[edit / edit wiki text]
e7958aa12a2ce5bd995f7e89ccf825b55d254022	On July 1, 2014, James terminated his contract and became a free agent.[31]
4808646948c0cd560f5b65fded8596a6a91a5f97	On July 12, 2014, James signed a two year, $ 42.1 million contract with the Cleveland Cavaliers with the right to early termination after one season.
1ad68ffa3c700887feec1de777436c70a409c0ce	[32] In the same summer, Kevin Love moved to the team from Minnesota, which allowed us to talk about the appearance of a new "Big Trio" (LeBron Irving Love) in Cleveland[33].
9b516a2d3d15ebbc2e225629a09653a4dc6601ea	In addition, the head coach was replaced by David Blatt, who has achieved great success at the international level, but has never worked with an NBA team.
0bcf49f147a45a36647add3a3210869de04d4502	The beginning of the 2014/15 season for the Cavaliers was unsuccessful — with five wins, the team suffered 7 defeats.
4450187b5943c5f12b9ca530a3b3d4718b1fedab	Then, from the end of November to December 11, a series of eight consecutive victories followed.
2c401fc339836eec0c4b0562609f528747266d80	In December, the team again experienced a decline.
7565a82e6d6b38a6057c22bc0ba80a82121e4ea3	On January 2, an examination revealed problems with James ' left knee and lower back.
ed19b4189b5f7daa8e098188a954c0bddab7d081	A course of procedures was developed for recovery, while LeBron did not participate in regular season matches for two weeks.
c533bacf543eb4f9a2233d73ece4eff5534cdc79	The pause in performances was good for me, but not for the Cavaliers.
40cb60dd135ba53e73505ef5c993fb11402a426b	The team was suffering on the court, which was painful for me to look at.
35e9038af8aebdfa317ea125325a6079c03d8cc5	At the same time, my body received a much needed rest[34].
5e0426996d43f527494dd81a00bbd42f69a8c565	On January 5, 2015, as a result of a three way trade to Cleveland, New York Knicks players Iman Shumpert and J. R. Smith were strengthened in exchange for defenseman Dion Waiters, who became a player of the Oklahoma City Thunder.
37f86a481281ea33c385d22d2b81e84e358157ff	Lou Amundson, Alex Kirk and the right pick of the second round of the 2019 draft, as well as Lance Thomas from Oklahoma City, moved to New York.
4f7f85c7c6cb61c11a236a7f4731f232d37b548c	Then, on January 1, 2015, Cleveland acquired Russian center Timofey Mozgov and the Denver Nuggets '2015 second round draft pick [35] in exchange for the Cavaliers' two protected 2015 first round draft picks received from Oklahoma and Memphis.
2ab725489662bde5258498d97dcc7c9223a2a6ea	According to the results of the games since January 15, Cleveland has won 34 victories with 9 defeats.
f11287da458139f8e8c5a102768a27a6e623e71f	The team managed to reach the playoffs for the first time in 5 years, finishing the championship with 53 wins (29 losses).
178c1dd1b892dc81b506e8f6ee910506603576b7	At the end of the season, LeBron averaged 25.3 points, 6 rebounds and 7.4 assists per game.
6fdea83d2e168fbf4cbc73931cd31857a95cb5a3	Cleveland won the central division, and also finished second in the Eastern Conference, passing only the Atlanta Hawks[36].
292250f3daad7a5cbc93ae9a88d881601f41b719	In the first round of relegation matches, the Cavaliers confidently beat the Boston Celtics (4-0), but during the series they lost Kevin Love, who suffered a shoulder injury.
8db9cff592ee2c5ee17438f7456f23367d6cc7a8	Then, the Cavaliers successively defeated Chicago (4-2), Atlanta (4-0) and for the second time in their history became champions of the Eastern Conference, reaching the NBA Championship Finals.
95cb741c448af64f97d7757323d03db893fe8566	During overtime of game 1 of the finals against the Golden State Warriors, Kyrie Irving aggravated the injury to his left knee received in the first game of the Eastern Conference finals of the NBA playoffs and was unable to continue the match[37] An MRI revealed a fracture of Kyrie's left kneecap, so Irving missed the remaining games of the finals, and the Cavaliers lost to the Warriors in six games.
e939e6ce9d935bcd68f94fecd67b6ab013b18e09	Following the results of the final series of the playoffs, LeBron James became the first player in the history of the NBA to become the leader among all basketball players who entered the court at once in points, rebounds and assists.
46b161696f8baa98398cebdd5bd961d22d2a824c	James averaged 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds and 8.8 assists in the final against Golden State (2-4).
c0a7569c1375823b5528e80338db2e9a57193a70	On June 29, 2015, LeBron James informed the club's management that he was going to use the option in the contract and become an unrestricted free agent.
311003bfce6d2f9f464dc5cdf8a4f2dad28f084b	At the same time, James clarified that he does not plan meetings with other clubs and intends to conclude a new agreement with the Cavaliers, but on more favorable terms[38].
179da6ba4f5662b60d275471bee7702e4cc3f595	On July 10, James signed a new 1+1 agreement with the club in the amount of $ 46.9 million.
a6eac43d2ec5ec7eab552ac49aa50e7e3f406e38	The last season is an option for the player[39].
1c875cd6b953017dcce337e71adfe9ee606ce079	Personal bests[edit / edit wiki text]
feb4aecfff63ad248562da49d1b4ed885cc805b5	On March 3, 2014, in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats, James scored 61 points[40], thereby becoming the 22nd basketball player to reach the 60 point mark.
e312ce0d0433684729f63d9b91e7702af71b20ac	On June 17, 2015, James became the first player in the history of the NBA who, following the results of the final playoff series, became the leader among all basketball players who entered the court at once in points, rebounds and assists.
7d3a6129ee691ac712053513323694a74740bcdf	James ' averages in the final against Golden State are 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds and 8.8 assists.
55e2bf09da814ebef8a521b98de5fe999b47c810	On February 25, 2015, James set an NBA record for the most assists for forwards.
9fc89f3d467c2e35638375c99226ab1adcf73ad6	Now the four time MVP has 6142 assists on his account.
4814405ed156bc1b7ab8ef71b3a67c0f7702314f	He became the second after Michael Jordan to make a triple double at the 2011 All Star Game.
d95757899e1476615db530d91b65430ea7ea2543	The youngest MVP of the all star game (21 years, 51 days).
bf724e6817c270785d0d740aa0d37fabd146e0f4	January 15, 2016.
14be3d4adaaabba24f2177fdc6065a344c390f6e	Experts of the ESPN channel, as a result of a long vote, chose the Top 100 NBA players of all time.
e38aa2464e64d3ba8508cde1b75983953e8d80d7	The journalists were based on the level of play that the candidates demonstrated at the peak, as well as the overall value of their careers.
64b96c9315169998ade36530c515dd2dfdf3329a	After the list of the ten best point guards and attacking defenders, the channel presented the Top 10 light forwards of all time.
dfa5c2c0e1a0e0fa0392a56fdaf6171182d0e75d	The rating was headed by 4 time MVP LeBron James from Cleveland.
23d2d3f769ec1c9d503e043935aec5e2de0d5c09	Statistics[edit / edit wiki text]
eb45768e8f4c133dfea86752baa643d88d065adc	Legend GP Games played GS Games in the starting five MPG Number of minutes per game FG% Percentage of hits from the game 3P% Percentage of three pointers FT% Percentage of penalties RPG Number of rebounds per game APG Number of assists per game SPG Number of steals per game BPG Number of block shots per game PPG Number of points per game Bold Best career results
30f7956d10a13e0550366610742d59045e5ff3d4	Regular season[edit / edit wiki text]
82471a58c3608b7e61d08bc758162c67e00357d3	Season Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG 2003/04 Cleveland Cavaliers 79 79 39.5 .417 .290 .754 5.5 5.9 1.6 .7 20.9 2004/05 Cleveland Cavaliers 80 80 42.4 .472 .351 .750 7.4 7.2 2.2 .6 27.2 2005-06 Cleveland Cavaliers 79 79 42.5 .480 .335 .738 7.0 6.6 1.6 .8 31.4 2006/07 Cleveland Cavaliers 78 78 40.9 .476 .319 .698 6.7 6.0 1.6 .7 27.3 2007/08 Cleveland Cavaliers 75 74 40.4 .484 .315 .712 7.9 7.2 1.8 1.1 30.0 2008/09 Cleveland Cavaliers 81 81 37.7 .489 .344 .780 7.6 7.2 1.7 1.1 28.4 2009/10 Cleveland Cavaliers 76 76 39.0 .503 .333 .767 7.3 8.6 1.6 1.0 29.7 2010/11 Miami heat 79 79 38.8 .330 .510 .759 7.5 7.0 1.6 .6 26.7 2011/12 Miami heat 62 62 37.5 .531 .362 .771 7.9 6.2 1.8 .8 27.1 2012/13 Miami heat 76 76 37.9 .565 .406 .753 8.0 7.3 1.7 .9 26.8 2013/14 Miami heat 77 77 37.7 .567 .379 .750 6.9 6.4 1.6 .3 27.1 2014/15 Cleveland Cavaliers 69 69 36.1 .488 .354 .710 6.0 7.4 1.6 .7 25.3 911 910 39.3 .496 .342 .745 7.1 6.9 1.7 .8 27.3 All Star 10 10 31.1 .515 .354 .724 6.6 6.1 1.5 .2 24.8
49975210446c4da27fc31e57bee9c4cc146432f1	Playoffs[edit / edit wiki text]
0dd5cb66710553b10fc1db7f30479e7cf7622848	Season Team GP GS MPG FG% 3P% FT% RPG APG SPG BPG PPG 2006 Cleveland Cavaliers 13 13 46.5 .476 .333 .737 8.1 5.8 1.4 .7 30.8 2007 Cleveland Cavaliers 20 20 44.7 .416 .280 .755 8.1 8.0 1.7 .5 25.1 2008 Cleveland Cavaliers 13 13 42.5 .411 .257 .731 7.8 7.6 1.8 1.3 28.2 2009 Cleveland Cavaliers 14 14 41.4 .510 .333 .749 9.1 7.3 1.6 .9 35.3 2010 Cleveland Cavaliers 11 11 41.8 .502 .400 .733 9.3 7.6 1.7 1.8 29.1 2011 Miami Heat 21 21 43.9 .466 .353 .763 8.4 5.9 1.7 1.2 23.7 2012 Miami Heat 23 23 42.7 .500 .259 .739 9.7 5.6 1.9 .7 30.3 2013 Miami Heat 23 23 41.7 .491 .375 .777 8.4 6.6 1.8 .8 25.9 2014 Miami Heat 20 20 38.2 .565 .407 .806 7.1 4.8 1.9 .6 27.4 2015 Cleveland Cavaliers 20 20 42.2 .417 .227 .731 11.3 8.5 1.7 1.1 30.1 Total 178 178 42.5 .473 .318 .752 8.8 6.7 1.7 .9 28.2
bf0eac5683c51885d3a44513575377f1479c86a2	↑ LeBron James biography. biography.com. Archived from the original source on May 11, 2013.
b162ba8df0663ac25e0db7e2c816af355f102ded	↑ LeBron James Biography. espn.go.com. Archived from the original source on May 11, 2013.
c1e0fa2063b7a21af79395026b5988d4ffaa4b47	↑ LeBron James — Biography. jockbio.com. Archived from the original source on May 11, 2013.
eee1777dce1e15166dcc67a816e8ac480d53acd3	↑ 2003 NBA Draft Results Round 1. espn.go.com. Archived from the original source on May 11, 2013.
be0245330eab5acad11c0a549ec4a1c8f816bde5	Леб LeBron James moves to Miami . sovsport.ru (July 9, 2010).
c9012a14402d16507bf8b3f2337fdcfd263db1ee	Archived from the original source on May 11, 2013.
9eb7324a2156e23765f79792ba22e828f869581c	L LeBron James makes his pick: He's going to Miami (eng.).
68bb8bd939ef02c80025931358305807fb4e8f8c	NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc (July 9, 2010).
b9409601b13b5a49582ba33af5c46f52fd1dac80	Checked on July 9, 2010.
19ccc521fb0ba16d3771f4ea71de1ee0044ba563	Archived from the original source on February 21, 2012.
946862f45886fbf2e12363732451b42b79bb3ed7	Король The king, branded with a curse.
c7da51903a2a5a2f885e82fc4dd80330a9751c3d	NBA.com. championat.ru (July 9, 2010). Checked on July 9, 2010.
0ed53a33367adc6155b6ec1f5e39321aa2fc5d0f	Gilbert was fined $ 100,000 for writing to fans.
7fceeb79fe2171c73524e346cbbea7f4cf42f097	NBA.com. championat.ru (July 13, 2010). Verified on July 13, 2010.
bb06a2d3c28c6a1fd01de553980e71cbdf064fed	↑ "Goodbye, dear ones, goodbye, family...".
4a1657b2ef0f74075d263c21281df200068fe149	Александр Alexander Razinkov.
e69a2e8e186cd366992100b18f5f4c53e989fb85	The kings of Los Angeles. championat.ru (February 21, 2011).
2cabd064253ecdb78e46d1867fb96cddc72162c3	Checked on February 21, 2011.
4fdb83209aaa9442fd6d618861956ddc46755c62	ЛеБ LeBron James bought a part of Liverpool. dni.ru (April 7, 2011).
a6040f280ec0480bd098a45824380d3ed41b91b0	Леб LeBron James became a shareholder of Liverpool . lenta.ru (7 APR 2011).
3da8772bca7e212f890bc67545084c978eca64ed	Archived from the original on 11 may 2013.
d84ddfef2ca10547ee9a0a7c3ec6c9d76ee706bb	↑ 1 2 "Two Of The King??"
519f98eb8593ca8707ae43be8b022819a1f79d1b	// Liverbird.ru ↑ "Big bro is watching us" // Liverbird.ru ↑ Sports Illustrated recognized LeBron James sportsman of the year ↑ LeBron James became the youngest player with 20,000 points in NBA ↑ 20,000 points from LeBron ↑ NBA.
fb51e072627f8b9188dc0f022aad4ffd001554e7	LeBron James received the fourth title of MVP (rus.).
2833ffa30e10631253ef20ff4fe5b1309a1280d3	Eurosport (06.05.2013). ↑ James hits double figures in the 500th straight game.
4023f919a57dbcb100ba78838241e78d765a8b10	NBA.com (05.11.2013). Н THE NBA.
1ab4e075e3658723b8f9ebdca973db525d65f2aa	LeBron James scored 10 or more points in 500 consecutive games (rus.).
f07c9a1b80dc26ae6d73c316f1a3f7c51be2243f	Sports.ru (06.11.2013). Леб LeBron James scored more than 10 points in the 500th match in a row (rus.).
2e38b8395579bb3d30f2a4bcfb5225b12698dbb1	Lenta.ru (06.11.2013). Н THE NBA.
3e76335d73a8f88701ccef269eb1f6cc91afaa09	LeBron James became the youngest player to score 23 thousand points (rus.).
4eef61cfe492ff85fd48695f6fc0099416d4f883	Sports.ru (April 5, 2014). L LeBron Hits His 23,000 th Point (eng.).
82490135b12ec2fd7aeb011c9c3f9e2f895f15aa	NBA.com (Apr 4, 2014). Леб LeBron James broke the record of Kobe Bryant (rus.).
ef77205a71cb2357e9b525fd71fbebdfcb18fd73	Чемпионат. сом (April 5, 2014). Н THE NBA.
04403eee2f239c3328ce26cbef80c5e6bd0a1aa6	James reached the 4,000 point mark in the playoffs and repeated the achievement of Jordan and Bryant (rus.).
b462ba9c8a74a2a1b9545879f85c6d436dbbea10	Sports.ru (May 07, 2014). LeBron James repeated the achievement of Bryant and Jordan in the playoff matches (rus.).
87141211bd7fe1c2df825dbd7bd7af6c78a6db60	Чемпионат.сом (May 7, 2014). Н THE NBA.
68e92e1c4eb836e9f02073369a39e7dd7185d997	LeBron James repeated his personal record of performance in the playoffs (rus.).
0502dd39517dafb4e4494fa833514d1368bc56e6	Sports.ru (May 13, 2014). L LeBron James ties playoff high with 49 points, Heat take 3-1 lead .
6d62e43d2fed5847905c1145a0670f58bedb9b82	ESPN.
7f1fb0be241436c23ab5166bff7e08ae5ff8e472	Леб LeBron James set a record for Miami (rus.).
d1cc0a5ca16133a1723c8b8c14ad32cbf8eb0c9d	Lenta.ru (May 13, 2014). Н THE NBA.
15a3aca340274656295c6f0a1fcf62c07648bdce	LeBron James became a free agent (rus.).
a43832609d11e7fef271525c8f6f621c793c3832	Sports.ru (June 24, 2014). Леб LeBron James will decide on his future after talks with the president of Miami .
042c69088ca40fecc8c9cc21517780af2f4ad9cd	ITAR TASS (July 7, 2014).
ae0474ff8a881c892146beb449e527ddb4a0648f	LeBron James has signed a two year contract with the NBA club "Cleveland" in the amount of $42.1 million.
0de7affb845ccb114e3f43881ab771c7a7581124	ITAR TASS (July 12, 2014).
c25d9e970b2687b80690fb33e1c4097777247a22	↑ Dave McMenamin.
db73200357db6fcbc3b595a9fc62f95525c9a693	LeBron James wants PT reduced.
c1da52f5ba02c7249ff97f7f136e2df26b370513	ESPN (November 19, 2014). Verified on January 17, 2015.
d22856466a73150599b58e9d1511765194fd47c0	Джеймс James: the pause was good for me, but not for Cleveland, the team was suffering, championat.com (13.01.2015).
c589ece177ea25e98a9de2156476028e0a6dfd31	Tim Timofey Mozgov (English).
ab58f60c68659f33c4d0835fff372c81cd8249d1	Basketball Reference.
458c806a30c8eeda47c69930c7eab6fe341b1db2	Sports Reference.
4834c46278ebd92cb89b99a259db26bb48f71653	- Statistics.
43e5fcdb346117af41497d2193bf8cccef9f1b53	Verified on September 15, 2012.
23b5848398cc4a2319a71dc05434a951fadf7f16	Archived from the original source on November 4, 2012.
b584d949f1113d506a28a6608d4594a1083b9d3b	↑ Cleveland Cavaliers open postseason as odds on favorite to win the Eastern Conference, Las Vegas says ↑ Cavaliers Status Update - Kyrie Irving - June 5, 2015.
69cab96e900ce4ae56f5fb8b67be861cdb983bb0	NBA.com (June 5, 2015). Verified on June 6, 2015.
0dc8c80fd3095775bead9c8459da2911e4096cfd	↑ LeBron James Opts Out of Contract.
5efa58e4ba502970dcc70fcfe7d95951d59debf6	International Business Times.
c1056e722c2f28b147a3a3f93118bed7c514f5ac	Verified on June 29, 2015.
1b8bacc599aec3dea065f9bf684d7349e4db5ea4	↑ Cavaliers Re sign Forward LeBron James. nba.com. Verified on July 10, 2015.
d918085e1ef21bd793700589c1ad0e3cdc2fcacc	↑ Miami player James set a personal and club record of performance for an NBA match (rus.).
b12d39bcd4b0f04e35aedfceaf86586d6b716213	ITAR TASS (March 3, 2014).
868d3e7d61cb9282793a68ed0c719eace42815df	James, LeBron on Wikimedia Commons?
27a51db99fd3ac6473c8b88d5825945ea5a1d808	Official website (English) Profile of LeBron James on NBA.com (English) Statistics of performances in the NBA on the website www.basketball reference.com (English) Statistics of performances at the Olympiads on the website www.sports reference.com (English)
d100159b9045c16073f29d24b7d819056e3f628b	Current squad of the Cleveland Cavaliers
9fd6c9e46c16f0751f1ae9745ab9ba3ab73f4c78	0 Love • 1 Jones • 2 Irving • 4 Shumpert • 5 Smith • 8 Dellavedova • 9 Cunningham • 13 Thompson • 14 Kaun • 17 Varejao • 20 Mozgov • 23 James • 24 Jefferson • 52 Williams • Coach David Blatt
273a3d0655c12a2563e2638073b22868d0a7421f	p • o • r
3c4c42211fa2bd39055e4e561f7eb4a9aebba5aa	Miami Heat — NBA champions in the 2011/2012 season
844f490b61ac8daae905c9fff59f09372b67da67	1 Chris Bosh • 3 Dwyane Wade • 5 Juwan Howard • 6 LeBron James • (Finals MVP) 13 Mike Miller • 14 Terrell Harris • 15 Mario Chalmers • 21 Ronnie Thuriaf • 22 James Jones • 30 Norris Cole • 31 Shane Battier • 34 Eddie Curry • 40 Udonis Haslem • 45 Dexter Pittman • 50 Joel Anthony • Coach Erik Spoelstra
14183d21753c4fd704bc2a3cd23c8307175f6dae	Miami Heat — NBA champions in the 2012/2013 season
d4b493f9b2fe670954159a8c35e304bdb4a87a9f	1 Chris Bosh • 3 Dwyane Wade • 5 Juwan Howard • 6 LeBron James • (Finals MVP) 9 Rashard Lewis • 11 Chris Andersen • 13 Mike Miller • 15 Mario Chalmers • 22 James Jones • 24 Jarvis Varnado • 30 Norris Cole • 31 Shane Battier • 34 Ray Allen • 40 Udonis Haslem • 50 Joel Anthony • Coach Erik Spoelstra
1e039a827aaa10ae4caa161fddbe085e6d0f4731	2003 NBA Draft First Round 1 LeBron James • 2 Darko Milicic • 3 Carmelo Anthony • 4 Chris Bosh • 5 Dwyane Wade • 6 Chris Kaman • 7 Kirk Heinrick • 8 T. J. Ford • 9 Michael Sweetney • 10 Jarvis Hayes • 11 Mikael Pietrus • 12 Nick Collison • 13 Marcus Banks • 14 Luke Ridnour • 15 Rhys Gaines • 16 Troy Bell • 17 Zarco Cabarcapa • 18 David West • 19 Sasha Pavlovic • 20 Dante Jones • 21 Boris Diao • 22 Zoran Planinic • 23 Travis Outlaw • 24 Brian Cook • 25 Carlos Delfino • 26 Ndudi Abi • 27 Kendrick Perkins • 28 Leandro Barbosa • 29 Josh Howard
de8a76907f211081214b869699f5942fda96bcec	Second round 30 Maciej Lampe • 31 Jason Kapono • 32 Luke Walton • 33 Jerome Beazley • 34 Sofoklis Skorzanitis • 35 Shimon Shevchuk • 36 Mario Austin • 37 Travis Hansen • 38 Steve Blake • 39 Slavko Vranes • 40 Derrick Zimmerman • 41 Willie Green • 42 Zaza Pachulia • 43 Keith Bogans • 44 Malik Badian • 45 Matt Bonner • 46 Sani Bechirovic • 47 Mo Williams • 48 James Lang • 49 James Jones • 50 Passelis Moreland • 51 Kyle Korver • 52 Remon van de Hare • 53 Tommy Smith • 54 Nejad Sinanovic • 55 Rick Rickert • 56 Brandon Hunter • 57 Xue Yuyang • 58 Andreas Gliniadakis
87ceb302ef7de682a610bb6dd425906b5d5d55e4	The first numbers of the NBA draft
f98b793e964effa31d98fec4d7c16dc30baafd43	1947 McNeely • 1948 Tonkovich • 1949 Shannon • 1950 Scheer • 1951 Melchior • 1952 Workman • 1953 Felix • 1954 Selvey • 1955 Ricketts • 1956 Green • 1957 Hundley • 1958 Baylor • 1959 Boozer • 1960 Robertson • 1961 Bellamy • 1962 McGill • 1963 Heyman • 1964 Barnes • 1965 Hetzel • 1966 Russell • 1967 Walker • 1968 Hayes • 1969 Alcindor • 1970 Lenier • 1971 Carr • 1972 Martin • 1973 Collins • 1974 Walton • 1975 Thompson • 1976 Lucas • 1977 Benson • 1978 Thompson • 1979 Johnson • 1980 Carroll • 1981 Aguirre • 1982 Worthy • 1983 Sampson • 1984 Olajuwon • 1985 Ewing • 1986 Doherty • 1987 Robinson • 1988 Manning • 1989 Ellison • 1990 Coleman • 1991 Johnson • 1992 O'Neill • 1993 Webber • 1994 Robinson • 1995 Smith • 1996 Iverson • 1997 Duncan • 1998 Olovokandi • 1999 Brand • 2000 Martin • 2001 Brown • 2002 Yao Ming • 2003 James • 2004 Howard • 2005 Bogut • 2006 Bargnani • 2007 Auden • 2008 Rose • 2009 Griffin • 2010 Wall • 2011 Irving • 2012 Davis • 2013 Bennett • 2014 Wiggins • 2015 Towns
f3d4c0a2ec6cafb7790eb37304bcefb93e628437	The most valuable players of the NBA Finals
f876f303814e5db5b446f932d78058724bfadcd3	1969 West • 1970 Reed • 1971 Abdul Jabbar • 1972 Chamberlain • 1973 Reed • 1974 Havlicek • 1975 Barry • 1976 White • 1977 Walton • 1978 Anseld • 1979 D. Johnson • 1980 m.
7cd50df29bf3cf34b283202d76c9540a61d6eae3	Johnson • 1981 Maxwell • 1982 m.
7b0e4198d23c1151891474c202bd4d6dac95cb33	Johnson • 1983 Malone • 1984 Bird • 1985 Abdul Jabbar • 1986 Bird • 1987 M. Johnson • 1988 Worthy • 1989 Dumars • 1990 Thomas • 1991 Jordan • 1992 Jordan • 1993 Jordan • 1994 Olajuwon • 1995 Olajuwon • 1996 Jordan • 1997 Jordan • 1998 Jordan • 1999 Duncan • 2000 O'Neal • 2001 O'Neal • 2002 O'Neal • 2003 Duncan • 2004 Billups • 2005 Duncan • 2006 Wade • 2007 Parker • 2008 Pierce • 2009 Bryant • 2010 Bryant • 2011 Nowitzki • 2012 James • 2013 James • 2014 Leonard • 2015 Iguodala
deb7016388a898b1f5c5073eb7ac3f04b7381357	The most valuable players of the NBA regular season
e5697f8504f6dbbbc84cc904c5df532ced1cf3e5	1956 Pettit • 1957 Causey • 1958 Russell • 1959 Pettit • 1960 Chamberlain • 1961 Russell • 1962 Russell • 1963 Russell • 1964 Robertson • 1965 Russell • 1966 Chamberlain • 1967 Chamberlain • 1968 Chamberlain • 1969 Anseld • 1970 Reed • 1971 Abdul Jabbar • 1972 Abdul Jabbar • 1973 Cowens • 1974 Abdul Jabbar • 1975 McAdoo • 1976 Abdul Jabbar • 1977 Abdul Jabbar • 1978 Walton • 1979 M. Malone • 1980 Abdul Jabbar • 1981 Irving • 1982 M. Malone • 1983 M. Malone • 1984 Bird • 1985 Bird • 1986 Bird • 1987 Johnson • 1988 Jordan • 1989 Johnson • 1990 Johnson • 1991 Jordan • 1992 Jordan • 1993 Barkley • 1994 Olajuwon • 1995 Robinson • 1996 Jordan • 1997 K. Malone • 1998 Jordan • 1999 K. Malone • 2000 O'Neal • 2001 Iverson • 2002 Duncan • 2003 Duncan • 2004 Garnett • 2005 Nash • 2006 Nash • 2007 Nowitzki • 2008 Bryant • 2009 James • 2010 James • 2011 Rose • 2012 James • 2013 James • 2014 Durant • 2015 Curry
ac69e68d3073967dbc6d04d946bb148a507e21ca	Most Valuable Player of the NBA All Star Game
569e0c14fc69b8ae8d5f3db5f0a68eec1e00a68f	1951 McAuley • 1952 Arizin • 1953 Maiken • 1954 Cousy • 1955 Sherman • 1956 Pettit • 1957 Cousy • 1958 Pettit • 1959 Baylor/Pettit • 1960 Chamberlain • 1961 Robertson • 1962 Pettit • 1963 Russell • 1964 Robertson • 1965 Lucas • 1966 A. Smith • 1967 Barry • 1968 Greer • 1969 Robertson • 1970 Reed • 1971 Wilkens • 1972 West • 1973 Cowens • 1974 Lenier • 1975 Fraser • 1976 Bing • 1977 Irving • 1978 R. Smith • 1979 Thompson • 1980 Gerwin • 1981 Archibald • 1982 Bird • 1983 Irving • 1984 Thomas • 1985 Sampson • 1986 Thomas • 1987 Chambers • 1988 Jordan • 1989 Malone • 1990 Johnson • 1991 Barkley • 1992 Johnson • 1993 Stockton/Malone • 1994 Pippen • 1995 Richmond • 1996 Jordan • 1997 Rice • 1998 Jordan • 2000 O'Neill/Duncan • 2001 Iverson • 2002 Bryant • 2003 Garnett • 2004 O'Neill • 2005 Iverson • 2006 James • 2007 Bryant • 2008 James • 2009 O'Neal/Bryant • 2010 Wade • 2011 Bryant • 2012 Durant • 2013 Paul • 2014 Irving • 2015 Westbrook
14eb2c88efdb60717dcf96d831ee4c34ed13c1db	The most productive players of the NBA regular season
6af2b81a58b670c690290744db618dea604b2fff	1947 Folks • Zaslavski 1948 • 1949 Majken • Majken 1950 • 1951 Majken • Arisen 1952 • 1953 Johnston • Johnston 1954 • 1955 Johnston • Pettit 1956 • 1957 Arisin • Yardley 1958 • 1959 Pettit • Chamberlain 1960 • 1961 Chamberlain • Chamberlain 1962 • 1963 Chamberlain • Chamberlain 1964 • 1965 Chamberlain • Chamberlain 1966 • 1967 Barry • Bing 1968 • 1969 Hayes • West 1970 • 1971 Abdul Jabbar • 1972 Abdul Jabbar • Archibald 1973 • 1974 McAdoo • McAdoo 1975 • 1976 McAdoo • Maravich 1977 • 1978 Gervin • Gervin 1979 • 1980 Gervin • Dentli 1981 • 1982 Gervin • English 1983 • 1984 Dentli • King 1985 • 1986 Wilkins • Jordan 1987 • 1988 Jordan • Jordan 1989 • 1990 Jordan • Jordan 1991 • 1992 Jordan • Jordan 1993 • 1994 Robinson • O'neill 1995 • 1996 Jordan • Jordan 1997 • 1998 Jordan • Iverson 1999 • 2000 O'neill • Iverson 2001 • 2002 Iverson • McGrady 2003 • 2004 McGrady • Iverson 2005 • 2006 Bryant • Bryant 2007 • 2008 James • Wade 2009 • 2010 Durant • Durant 2011 • 2012 Durant • 2013 Anthony • Durant 2014 • 2015 Westbrook
3b274b3d88c7c3343990c9e4dafc7177dc44e605	NBA Regular Season Leaders by minutes
935325fdcb4279a90d2e5ff29ec7f3cf3a35d12d	1952 Arizin • 1953 Johnston • 1954 Johnston • 1955 Arizin • 1956 George • 1957 Sheyes • 1958 Sheyes • 1959 Russell • 1960 Chamberlain • 1961 Chamberlain • 1962 Chamberlain • 1963 Chamberlain • 1964 Chamberlain • 1965 Robertson • 1966 Chamberlain • 1967 Chamberlain • 1968 Chamberlain • 1969 Chamberlain • 1970 Hayes • 1971 Havlicek • 1972 Havlicek • 1973 Archibald • 1974 Hayes • 1975 McAdoo • 1976 McAdoo • 1977 Maravich • 1978 Robinson • 1979 Malone • 1980 Nixon • 1981 Dantley • 1982 Malone • 1983 Tripuchka • 1984 Ruland • 1985 Bird • 1986 Chicks • 1987 Bird • 1988 Jordan • 1989 Jordan • 1990 McCray • 1991 Mullin • 1992 Mullin • 1993 Johnson • 1994 Sprewell • 1995 Baker • 1996 Mason • 1997 Mason • 1998 Finley • 1999 Iverson • 2000 Finley • 2001 Finley • 2002 Iverson • 2003 Iverson • 2004 Iverson • 2005 James • 2006 Iverson • 2007 Iverson • 2008 Iverson • 2009 Iguodala • 2010 Ellis • 2011 Ellis • 2012 Deng • 2013 Deng • 2014 Anthony • 2015 Butler
163fabff69a5d26a5cc84598cd459b94024546e3	NBA Rookies of the Year
a6a784db1348e3ddacaf8776d6bcc53c4326a090	1953 Mayneck • 1954 Felix • 1955 Pettit • 1956 Stokes • 1957 Haynes • 1958 Soldsberry • 1959 Baylor • 1960 Chamberlain • 1961 Robertson • 1962 Bellamy • 1963 Dishinger • 1964 Lucas • 1965 Reed • 1966 Barry • 1967 Bing • 1968 Monroe • 1969 Anseld • 1970 Alcindor • 1971 Cohens and Petrie • 1972 Weeks • 1973 McAdoo • 1974 DiGregorio • 1975 Wilkes • 1976 Adams • 1977 Dantley • 1978 Davis • 1979 Ford • 1980 Bird • 1981 Griffith • 1982 Williams • 1983 Cummings • 1984 Sampson • 1985 Jordan • 1986 Ewing • 1987 Person • 1988 Jackson • 1989 Richmond • 1990 Robinson • 1991 Coleman • 1992 Johnson • 1993 O'Neill • 1994 Webber • 1995 Kidd and Hill • 1996 Stademire • 1997 Iverson • 1998 Duncan • 1999 Carter • 2000 Brand and Francis • 2001 Miller • 2002 P. Gasol • 2003 Stademire • 2004 James • 2005 Okafor • 2006 Paul • 2007 Roy • 2008 Durant • 2009 Rose • 2010 Evans • 2011 Griffin • 2012 Irving • 2013 Lillard • 2014 Carter Williams
8c851d6a5f10433fed024552be52afc628259ee2	Mr. Basketball USA
af51ca7c6779d04adde9049afdae3e196ea439b0	1955 Chamberlain • 1956 Robertson • 1957 Lucas • 1958 Lucas • 1959 Raftery • 1960 Hawkins • 1961 Bradley • 1962 K. Russell • 1963 Lacy • 1964 Alcindor • 1965 Alcindor • 1966 Murphy • 1967 Heywood • 1968 Westphal • 1969 McGinnis • 1970 McMillen • 1971 M. Lucas • 1972 Buckner • 1973 Dantley • 1974 M. Malone • 1975 Cartwright • 1976 Griffith • 1977 King • 1978 Aguirre • 1979 Kellogg • 1980 Rivers • 1981 Ewing • 1982 Tisdale • 1983 R. Williams • 1984 J. Williams • 1985 Ferry • 1986 Reed • 1987 L. Johnson • 1988 Mourning • 1989 Anderson • 1990 Bailey • 1991 Webber • 1992 Kidd • 1993 Wallace • 1994 Lopez • 1995 Garnett • 1996 Bibby • 1997 McGrady • 1998 Lewis • 1999 Bender • 2000 Miles • 2001 Wagner • 2002 James • 2003 James • 2004 Telfair • 2005 Ellis • 2006 Auden • 2007 Mayo • 2008 Jennings • 2009 Favor • 2010 Barnes • 2011 Gilchrist • 2012 Muhammad • 2013 Wiggins • 2014 Alexander • 2015 Simmons
44c2d3500ee3a4962a576ace245687fe092aeff7	The winners of the Naismith Prize for the best player of the year among high school students
db5b84b76c56631eb2706a433b4274138974d1f3	1987 Scott • 1988 Mourning • 1989 Anderson • 1990 Bailey • 1991 Webber • 1992 Kidd • 1993 Livingston • 1994 Ward • 1995 Mercer • 1996 Bryant • 1997 Battier • 1998 Harrington • 1999 Harvey • 2000 Wallace • 2001 Wagner • 2002 Felton • 2003 James • 2004 Howard • 2005 Williams • 2006 Auden • 2007 Love • 2008 Jennings • 2009 Favor • 2010 Sullinger • 2011 Rivers • 2012 Muhammad • 2013 Wiggins • 2014 Alexander • 2015 Simmons
d01b3d1eeba8b761bb676428390c575a138635d2	Gatorade Award for the Best High School Basketball Player of the Year Men 1986 Reed • 1987 Smith • 1988 Mourning • 1989 Anderson • 1990 Bailey • 1991 Webber • 1992 Williamson • 1993 Livingston • 1994 Lopez • 1995 Marbury • 1996 Bryant • 1997 Davis • 1998 Harrington • 1999 Blanchard • 2000 Jeffries • 2001 Torbert • 2002 James • 2003 James • 2004 Howard • 2005 Auden • 2006 Auden • 2007 Love • 2008 Holiday • 2009 Knight • 2010 Knight • 2011 Beale • 2012 Parker • 2013 Wiggins • 2014 Towns • 2015 Simmons
e787070812924a4db4291fb1e1d3abff63730195	Women 1986 Anderson • 1987 Durham • 1988 Hall • 1989 Harrison • 1990 Leslie • 1991 Marcignac • 1992 Smith • 1993 Frette • 1994 Foote • 1995 White • 1996 Waltz • 1997 Teasley • 1998 Williams • 1999 Kaczmarski • 2000 Wright • 2001 Eli • 2002 Strother • 2003 Parker • 2004 Parker • 2005 Waner • 2006 Charles • 2007 Moore • 2008 Ogwumike • 2009 Diggins • 2010 Ogwumike • 2011 Moskveda Lewis • 2012 Stewart • 2013 Russell • 2014 Turner • 2015 Samuelson
d15e176e9a2b8d45945529487c85be79f28a832f	USA Today Men's High School Basketball Player of the Year 1983 Williams • 1984 Brooks • 1985 Ferry • 1986 Reed • 1987 Liberty • 1988 Mourning • 1989 Anderson • 1990 Bailey • 1991 Webber • 1992 Kidd • 1993 Wallace • 1994 Lopez • 1995 Garnett • 1996 Bryant • 1997 McGrady • 1998 Harrington • 1999 Harvey • 2000 Wallace • 2001 Wagner • 2002 James • 2003 James • 2004 Howard • 2005 Auden • 2006 Auden • 2007 Love • 2008 Samuels • 2009 Favor • 2010 Barnes • 2011 Rivers • 2012 Noel • 2013 Wiggins • 2014 Okafor • 2015 Simmons
e171694fa228b5ad0fc760c1ce1debb3deaacf03	Women 1983 Hutchinson • 1984 Perry • 1985 Lewis • 1986 Hunt • 1987 Mann • 1988 Staley • 1989 Harrison • 1990 Leslie • 1991 Woosley • 1992 Watkins • 1993 Frette • 1994 Sales • 1995 White • 1996 Ralph • 1997 Randall • 1998 Williams • 1999 Smith • 2000 Wright • 2001 Eli • 2002 Strother • 2003 Parker • 2004 Parker • 2005 Paris • 2006 Charles • 2007 Moore • 2008 Delle Donne • 2009 Griner • 2010 Ogwumike • 2011 Moskveda Lewis • 2012 Stewart • 2013 Deshields
2feeaa4fab2011861891d7d020f09cd632aa8da3	Sports Illustrated Athlete of the Year
cadc7dd3e58d9daf67c82d303409706d99bdff37	1954 Roger Bannister • 1955 johnny Podres • 1956 Bobby morrow • 1957 Stan Musel • Rafer Johnson 1958 • 1959 Ingemar Johansson • 1960 Arnold Palmer • 1961 Jerry Lucas • 1962 Terry Baker • Pete Roselle 1963 • 1964 Ken Venturi • 1965 sandy Koufax • 1966 Jim Ryun • Carl Yastrzemski 1967 • 1968 bill Russell • Tom Seaver 1969 • 1970 Bobby Orr • 1971 Lee Trevino • 1972 Billie Jean king and John wooden • Jackie Stewart 1973 • 1974 Muhammad Ali • Pete rose 1975 • 1976 Chris Evert • 1977 Steve köthen • 1978 Jack Nicklaus • 1979 Terry Bradshaw and Willie Stargell • 1980 Olympic team USA hockey • 1981 sugar ray Leonard • 1982 Wayne Gretzky • 1983 Mary Decker • 1984 Edwin Moses and Mary Lou Retton • 1985 Kareem Abdul Jabbar • Joe Paterno 1986 • 1987 Bob Bourne, Judi brown king, Kipchoge Keino, Dale Murphy, Chip Reeves, Patty Sheehan, Rory Sparrow and Reggie Williams • 1988 eagle Hershiser • 1989 Greg LeMond • 1990 Joe Montana • 1991 Michael Jordan • 1992 Arthur Ashe • don Shula 1993 • 1994 Bonnie Blair and Johan Olav Koss • 1995 Cal Ripken Jr.
8a8ac4db0472d99082ebb53aac13a35e6c250564	• 1996 tiger woods • Dean Smith 1997 • 1998 mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa • 1999 Women's team USA soccer • 2000 tiger woods • 2001, curt Schilling and Randy Johnson • 2002 lance Armstrong • 2003 David Robinson and Tim Duncan • 2004 Boston Red SOx • Tom Brady 2005 • 2006 Dwyane Wade • 2007 Brett Favre • 2008 Michael Phelps • Derek Jeter 2009 • 2010 drew Brees • 2011 Mike and Pat Krzyzewski Summit • 2012 LeBron James • 2013 Peyton manning • 2014 Madison Bumgarner
31fab514984d10baad329f7d73cf420dfcd5f828	Performances for the national team
5e0a39cde56bbd2fbd70bd774147ac8a4ffbf595	USA men's national basketball team bronze medalist of the 2004 Olympic Games
208bc997939fdc276bb97bbb4f6467cf89a69541	4 Allen Iverson • 5 Stephon Marbury • 6 Dwyane Wade • 7 Carlos Boozer • 8 Carmelo Anthony • 9 LeBron James • 10 Emeka Okafor • 11 Sean Marion • 12 Amare Stademire • 13 Tim Duncan • 14 Lamar Odom • 15 Richard Jefferson * Coach: Larry Brown
a8cc0ff87c262990b4dd4805d351268184bf7343	USA men's national basketball team bronze medalist of the 2006 World Championship
675babfd64b26e4305488c5a22256429e1497d84	4 Joe Johnson • 5 Kirk Heinrick • 6 LeBron James • 7 Antoine Jamison • 8 Shane Battier • 9 Dwyane Wade • 10 Chris Paul • 11 Chris Bosh • 12 Dwight Howard • 13 Brad Miller • 14 Elton Brand • 15 Carmelo Anthony • Coach: Mike Krzyzewski
84b5d224bc8f3115c58c49132ee88a0069f86d83	USA men's national basketball team — 2007 American champion
66410829913fbf103d430e3f57c355a37ba35a67	4 Chauncey Billups • 5 Jason Kidd • 6 LeBron James • 7 Deron Williams • 8 Michael Redd • 9 Tayshon Prince • 10 Kobe Bryant • 11 Dwight Howard • 12 Amare Stademire • 13 Mike Miller • 14 Tyson Chandler • 15 Carmelo Anthony • Coach: Mike Krzyzewski
e623cae323a7700301b73db18dceac97bcaf8834	USA men's national basketball team 2008 Olympic champion
12a4ab4daa884eecd861fefc2c0cc303bd6e6f69	4 Carlos Boozer • 5 Jason Kidd • 6 LeBron James • 7 Deron Williams • 8 Michael Redd • 9 Dwyane Wade • 10 Kobe Bryant • 11 Dwight Howard • 12 Chris Bosh • 13 Chris Paul • 14 Tayshawn Prince • 15 Carmelo Anthony • Coach: Mike Krzyzewski
0957cc178a294a3022e34e1a4951dd4e27162582	USA men's national basketball team 2012 Olympic champion
4ac457a300bbe91ceceeee89bde04e4fe76e849d	4 Tyson Chandler • 5 Kevin Durant • 6 LeBron James • 7 Russell Westbrook • 8 Deron Williams • 9 Andre Iguodala • 10 Kobe Bryant • 11 Kevin Love • 12 James Harden • 13 Chris Paul • 14 Anthony Davis • 15 Carmelo Anthony • Coach: Mike Krzyzewski
9bc96dff334f67f38ba4fe1ceaa19697afe49748	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James, _Lebron&oldid=75922820"
4f5e95ccbb2ed442478dde480f57fe83d7ec054f	Categories: Born on December 30, Born in 1984 Personalities alphabetically Athletes by al
93ecdc64f7bb2ed662d25b660024636b4000b32f	Home Biographies Athletes Basketball
bfe5c66405cf774535cb09d4ca866ecffb9914a6	Biography of James LeBron James LeBron (1984) is a basketball player, born on December 30, 1984 in Akron, Ohio.
99b72a1cf5ea6973a133e961f4d68cfba5ffbe27	He is most famous as a young star of the Cleveland Cavaliers.
ac1126a6f8e576c37b9b9b426f11e7faf88f8bf1	James was a high school phenomenon.
8a0484dc208ddd6995041d81db49f2475818a4be	He made a quick jump from participating in the high school team to playing for the NBA.
077e0aaaa57c33f4847749810d7d9e01404e3a27	At the same time, the athlete signed a 90 million deal with Phil Knight from the Nike company (manufacturers of sports shoes).
4a28db4e3ba6e7306370d8b87dfecc82d20c9380	However, he was able to.
a4903d5ba92ba20970a2b0d20bc0fa42ed5e1de6	During the 2003-2004 season, the athlete scored 20.9 points, contributed 5.7, made 5.5 rebounds per game.
84d8c62a7162f00db07c3d5a7aa73b6c77ce21c7	Then he was named rookie of the year for significantly improving the Cavaliers ' game (they played with a score of 35-47, previously the score was 17-65).
86304b321734e6ca5c71ec3779e258e07b02330c	LeBron became popular, joining Carmelo Anthony, Dwayne Wade one of the most attention grabbing NBA players.
caa3cbb07bb4eb4b4b6a5d54c36246feeced173a	Then LeBron signed a contract with the Cavaliers until the 2009-10 season in the amount of $ 60 million.
2989fea031da467ef499a105727912159d0c616f	The basketball player participated in the Olympics in Athens, being on the US national team.
1177a9a8e31edeb947e003bef233a83231a2b84b	Additional information: James wears uniform number 23, this number became famous thanks to Michael Jordan.
6f36dfbe9b95a932230ba9756854a00cb335a7fa	For the 2004 Olympics, he chose the number 9 Jordan wore it at the 1984 and 1992 games.
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0b8dc0651be74b7c1e2f9a435d5bc79544b3d93b	Briefly
41013ab2982b2cf0315add265a24b4ad7dfadc76	Activity Basketball
50b2a25f8f7d95bc1a75802b696ea12faf4a3d54	Date of birth December 30, 1984
822f0ac9c713dfcf9ca8f368d9494c9ab45e0742	Zodiac sign Capricorn
63cd83097140fca3b784a6b99c9f674a653c418c	Place of birth USA, Akron
d70e5b72c6ff6598d807947d0820aac041f92b4f	Full name (rus) LeBron Raymon James
d379116e86e146d26e1f56715d9f584c395053e9	Full name (English) LeBron Raymone James
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a75cdefa6ba6e8fb52199768d74adcd7a2ebea64	"Biography of LeBron James"
546a1849a29c009b312297305fe84e06617e856b	And if it werenot for the age restriction of the Association (a player canot submit his candidacy for the draft until he turns 18), then, undoubtedly, LeBron appeared in the NBA a year or even two earlier.
ac7fed790d185a6356faf3f31ca6679413ffbded	But now the cherished moment has come: the Cleveland Cavaliers team, which launched a real battle with other outsiders for the last place in the NBA at the end of the regular season, selects LeBron at the first number in the draft.
b7c8646dbbd3f35997d8831562a08504bb96c6c7	He had to pass a strength test first, when in one of the preseason games he received a knockout elbow to the chest from Karl Malone.
483ec296a371de12c82d1b96e920e3553e6f844a	James was born on December 30, 1984 in the small city of Akron, located near Cleveland.
f47c7d62493d0d01250bf15b235a70d62f798a35	And immediately, the basketball team of this school, for the first time since 1984, became the state champion, winning in all 27 games of the season.
4827996b7d743382ac80c0e9f472eaad79cbd5af	School games began to be moved to more spacious arenas, and if LeBron had not been so focused on the game, he would have been able to see the stares of NBA scouts directed at him from the hall.
b1477fac18225a2e8c12c626ea4922eb5d5702fd	He especially distinguished himself in the famous Adidas ABCD Camp, which opened the world to all the same Kobi, T Mac and many others.
fc5afb29d2c45124711bf37dc6e80a5256654c18	By the way, just here LeBron became good friends with Walker, who later often called him to find out how he was doing, how he was behaving, etc.
b6c0d1059c3a327162e5954120db5bfa0b3978c8	Despite the excellent game of James, his team could not defend the championship title and lost in the final.
cb44c4b9a2642ffeae2949c26a5f791c90c20a48	And Lucas was not even confused by the fine of 150 thousand dollars and the suspension for two games.
078d76081b798b47de555d2bad47e0d8dcc1c66f	When he scored another powerful dunk, the ring could not withstand the pressure and broke, and LeBron collapsed with him on the floor.
ba6fb7206d0f4d5fea38e5eef6738edde5820fb0	— I wonot give it back...
959ffa3b0b66dc94e51786dd1954028c002cecff	He had to appear on the TV screens of the residents of Ohio 10 times, that's how many games with the participation of King James it was decided to broadcast on the local channel.
0b3edab975d705cef30ba7dad40d26b81f2e708d	On December 30, 2002, James turned 18, and Allen Iverson himself congratulated him on this significant date.
5d0262c4c2a35ddf80aab35ee6dde849bd052d41	However, when LeBron was given another gift, two rare jerseys from a sports store in the amount of$ 875, the OHSAA suspended James from participating in school competitions (the fact is that the Association prohibits students from taking advantage of their sporting success to accept gifts worth more than$100).
05df59da211c07a333a8261f26c32b2f382d5d34	Then James performed in the McDonald's All American and EA Sports Roundball Classic All Star Matches.
1f27ca538f616a87b9a8fc8402686adaf5d7735f	In this regard, several NBA teams launched a serious struggle for the worst result in the League, but Cleveland succeeded the most, which eventually got the right to choose first.
cb94b9d7fa5577cc940fcfb2e8ff0747d757917b	"50 posters of Jordan in my room, posters of Iverson, Kobe, Magic and McGrady, and a poster of myself on it — that's all you need to know about me," says LeBron.
c9d3a461ce5d5477678f3af633e09c39a4efdfe2	Because he appeared twice on the cover of Sports Illustrated magazine, and books are written about him and TV shows are filmed.
8639bbcf9a40439bfdde8e2908699762e61f4dfa	He says this because he was always better than the others, he scored more, saw the court better than anyone, jumped higher than everyone, he always had the 23rd number on his jersey.
1409315d7ccf499323ef6a014e31ee111723dc05	But most of all among the others, he stands out for his extremely high basketball IQ and a certain flair for the Game.
ec382ec24f80326b8acff425ddc83649bad73e11	Kevin Garnett scored 10.4 points and 6.3 rebounds per game in his debut season, Kobe Bryant scored about 8 points per game, Tracy McGrady even less.
f49c51689b3a16dd6bec46874be9ca2f16b8ec39	T shirts with the name James are sold out instantly, his personal sneakers, which went on sale shortly before the Catholic Christmas, are even faster.
b800be45042de040897c461d1ab98b273c114c3d	This simple economic formula is very well shown in the situation with all this marketing fuss around James.
256151467c5bccecee4b303a81ee55dcd20d8f09	More and more people were learning about LeBron, more and more people were talking about him.
8119e6f27bc472c921a6a6b4dc8a8f111b45adea	In two or three years, LeBron James has turned from a schoolboy unknown to the general basketball public into a machine for earning millions and the main newsmaker of American sports.
466a51db43ec0d451ef0511103f5292287fa65b7	If, after several unsuccessful attempts by the club to pull the reputation of a player by the ears, James would not have played in the League?
236bd135939887b1b06fb30f996a7d4ce233df9c	And everyone who bet on an unknown schoolboy, remained the winner. guam
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85da37337e9e224c827cc70497ca494761c2417b	Date of birth: 30.12.1984. Height: 203 cm.
8832793eceed8bd4262b171ad705f7f8c2e87198	Weight: 113 kg.
f6755c1ca058f460316c8219d27f25ae9f6bdb40	Main role: forward.
67fc9de4cd7a6f3ff46176c13a76bfb7c0bfa7a9	He plays in the following positions: attacking defender (SG), light forward (SF).
ed92556a62366cb1e414f1f9f6c6075a52bb0b93	He plays for the Cleveland Cavaliers club (Cleveland)
af5de0644e271ff8670576112851f4098da45665	Did you find an inaccuracy?
e5b9e9c6b101d26592ccd07864703bb44cf89b8c	Old photo?
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1572fa5efe3957de0fd5b29d2d3dcc61cf66842a	(only for registered users)
8723e6887ed9f0541b1b4f6e34b4159d7dfa9fb7	Date of birth: 30.12.1984
7f72fe8278d739b6ef2d98fbcad9ad1a5e676334	Height: 203 cm.
a074093b901cd1a6798749dc3eb18a17e38de528	Main role: defender.
b227c9e2c303d42eb548a4ca2cfb130239060bf5	He plays in the following positions: point guard, shooting guard, light forward.
ba959b507fe5d27c139e134eecc52a4d309bb973	National team player ( USA).
39d85f8e7b7c761e14e96ca60ff6ef60575e6be6	He plays for the Cleveland Cavaliers club (Cleveland) .
888ee9f5fa88c524ff5f61967576901a873b0ba1	LeBron reached the 10,000 points mark at the age of 23 years and 59 days, while the previous record holder, Kobe Bryant, did it when he was 24 years and 193 days old.
df58248c414f342c81e056b40bee12d17a08bf61	*
bdc1328be67cd9a29a631f3bef0a9ca46516bd35	Cleveland forward LeBron James was recognized as the most useful player of the season in the NBA, AP reports, citing an anonymous source inside the league.
1fe434fbd548675e8222aff1c04dc1c3edd7beeb	Recall that with his direct participation, the Cavaliers won the 2008/09 regular season, guaranteeing themselves the advantage of their site in all rounds of the playoffs.
2c9eb96728b25a43d2386e6290b77834d2ce65d4	For the 24 year old basketball player, this season was the sixth in the strongest league in the world.
b19f63bbdf408b17bad9e1216235a09d43c415a3	His averages in 81 matches were 28.4 points (the second result of the season), 7.6 rebounds and 7.2 assists.
3c32eb01737850804c6610c0ca830ede2dd03670	James became the first representative of "Cleveland", awarded the main individual title of the NBA.
9b2cb529e93d9a11394f282097b20a548bdc6013	© 8748 / / Complain
649c24f0b3d254dbe947527a4a3e5afe5310fe64	In 2003, he was selected in the NBA draft at number 1 by the Cleveland Cavaliers.
3c69eb5996fdf7afff926d0b8fd8d29041cd1628	James was 18 years old at the time, and he became the second player in the history of the association to be selected immediately after school in the draft at number one.
1d43ae819e2e39b79233b1b931461fcda29c6fcb	An interesting story happened to him once — while training in the gym, he broke the ring during another slam dunk and fell with it on the parquet.
307bfe212cbf4b0da1e851265fbc5260a1c07c50	Seeing that the ring was broken, the headmaster of the school where James was training rushed to him and tried to take the ring away.
ee2f996bd49fbbcd55157640d284bd624824aa9c	The director realized that the ring, broken by LeBron himself, is a lot of money.
950f894447cd0fbfd81a655c580205ac7fdc43a0	The prodigy's father thought the same thing and rushed to the ring from the other side.
6302c45ea201cc016a6a64ac2b91fdb016e2a137	The headmaster of the school, after much wrangling, gave up the ring to LeBron's father only for six balls signed by the star.
bddd023069cbbfe86d03d5b4fe67f13bed725b75	As he himself admitted, he had no doubts whether to go or not to go to the NBA.
89ba50694f2b72c180a4e775036dc2ae54d0c052	"Cleveland Cavaliers", knowing about such a talent, even gave their key basketball player Miller in the middle of the season in order to take the last place at the end of the season and have more chances to get a young talent for themselves.
334917464afb9de96417a9db50a566abf68bea22	It is also worth mentioning that James had serious competitors in the draft, among them the 2006 NBA champion Dwyane Wade, the leader of the Denver Nuggets, Carmelo Anthony, the leader of the Toronto Raptors, Chris Bosh, the key breeding of the Chicago Bulls, Chris Heinrick.
70ad063786090b1c4ec323ba66f0999501bd6923	[edit]
362835609a59dd081704ac93f35a86c2a06a4ca7	NBA Career
ea0232dcaefacd44488341cfafd711aa9e2d110e	Every year, moments with his participation fall into the top ten at the end of the year in the NBA, but this is not what motivates the young basketball player the most.
d465d73a4faba931b824db6e9536ea4ba54f35fa	First of all, he, like any professional basketball player, wants to see a gold ring with the inscription "Champion"on his hand.
040e9cf967a733194981418f8f853d39bf0b37e6	© 7589 // Complain
eceafe1590abf9f788db4eb1d3320760ca778654	Only registered users can add facts to the biography.
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29058b4ea6014c96bc8f57dbf3d64f372c0c9b6b	LeBron James [12/18/2014] ( 9)
a0e1d85af85be734ab366182ee6a988fe886a29a	Dirk Nowitzki [29.11.2014] ( 16)
c7fbe50825b091b8139b3cc65f54a6c5091fa549	Kevin Garnett [11/24/2014] ( 11)
4fd250e87036977cdff516ab17201fccedf97e5b	Shaquille O'Neal [11/14/2014] ( 12)
1296fabad31ddd977102b8927a373b38306fc12b	Bloggers ' articles RuBasket.com
6380cc4170fdae545e8920882e5381bf2718cf7a	A king or a legend?
98429d789898fb9ce447d87c45886c38ac263b5e	Both ( 12)
9224327d00edfb065cbf80f92a8e8c5329401d7b	Wrong turn.
e5794dfa96307ad1f4303da67eb7c4d80ceb1371	How "Philadelphia" destroys itself ( 14)
68e820f7fee0f4320c3e3f2b3acf9950b5603a07	3 new videos!
dd4f399b6eaa3d7ce6fda303ca91967f1af6881b	It's worth your attention ( 9)
0808a8cde4be39529f3bd14b0689c2f547f08ca8	NBA players of the early 2000s.
0c72748d24468313f0dbd24c1752acc2f1e831de	My Idols ( 14)
fdaadacfd29411033ce1877d288687ee7e044a47	Derrick Rose - I Believe in Myself ( 5)
47be2163d82ee693b5e6809a15e9b482293121a3	All Blogs Create a Blog
641f7af123f1989170a1aa755e1548734852beed	LeBron James is the highest paid player in the league according to Forbes
c18f61c55803fee1353e4f2c392e3e051a82604c	LeBron James: "We have a long way to go if we want to win the championship"
a2ce04c7e65bcb2df76d51634850a297f1e39296	LeBron James: "I'm not thinking about the Olympics yet"
dfdc5bcb9d37dd548d1decc7f4b46f80b8180e5b	LeBron James: "It's not the end of the world"
16be17f6bd69ecc9321629e284ca51d19acfb599	30 candidates for the US Olympic team have been announced
2307dc40fb346e1f02bee27e6c6c84967a66f7da	LeBron James: "I really appreciate every match against Duncan"
65e11b545f0d47e0507c95ba7b2c127229bf3682	Recent blog comments
2e67f2d627bdc01c2b57e18ca4d0a490d5e4c6f9	Kanesh is stupid not to admit that Bron is a worthy player...
1f1ee24c4932eba947d8d22cce5745d0a8992ca1	By Ray34 Happy Birthday LeBron !!! The years go by and we grow old ...
9e199be0c41dd8a38ade22c87aa439d338321cf7	By Muratbek since shak bent and broke the rings will no longer be
ac030e96738d6541c7e78dbd7669e5267900104a	(((By ladjak Eh krabinka! By Vedmak Where is the champagne?) By dia23 Great video.
97bea5572f444dbfc32b4e8a789fda6bb3278e8b	I hope LeBron will still be able to bring...
ff1a14a348b1ce33a12e4cfc3aaaf2efb9dcdd1e	By the crusade There is even a battle at Portland...class By Ray34 Chumardos, Happy New Year!
8b6642d9f080f42d64669c62df65d3ac82795552	Good luck, donot get sick.. ;
4da103ac954e11ecbf4551d6c3ffe80e3403421b	-) By zo33
bd45c8e22f94dee089ef0062b7d846ea66583814	Blog "CARON" (founder of the blog CARON)
f9acd1811830626e3cee5087757454e914b83029	18.12.2014 07:03
14252198b2729ce1c946e098ca402d12e2f5d09b	Published by: CARON
bb2c1d7c194245144956bc579d8529c8391453f6	Blog : CARON
2f40809076b337c368987338fcc28bd32c8deeeb	Likes: 8
9ddabcd5eae44f55629f184bc223cab3a447f063	3. LeBron James (2003 present)
bb336d2ae2b55355ee0ac06e038ca8450d9a6055	Teams: Cleveland, Miami
66858a0e300301685b9ebbec1fcae499e3b89a32	Number of participants in All Star Matches: 10 (2004-2014)
e688ce00ca1ab2f4e65e30986e6580c7979c8c0c	Statistics: 27.5 points, 7.2 rebounds, 6.9 assists, 1.7 steals, 3.3 losses, 50%-34%-75%;
c5ecf26aa68475c48f70f6a8896d6eb279da2a17	Number of participants in the playoffs: 9 (2006-2014);
ff3536be2f368ecbce2b537721b51f9d126d1432	2 titles (2012, 2013), 3 finals (2007, 2011, 2014), 2 Finals MVP (2012, 2013);
63d2fd9aa360fd7da6710f0d84ca7b709cf4f6b5	Statistics in the playoffs: 28.0 points, 8.4 rebounds, 6.4 assists, 1.7 steals, 3.4 losses, 48%-33%-76%;
00d7da5da4fa9edde1bfcee2078ee11d4f890f66	MVP of the season: 4 (2009, 2010, 2012, 2013)
b2c7377329888e20950de86eddbd87c6191ee06d	Statistics in the finals
7c81efd4606167936e7a45068c22d61fae66ee1a	F2007: 22.0+7.0+6.8+1.0+5.8 36-20-69 (%) (4 match)
a94a675a1c09b6c6c171bc2edfca17c9a005de7b	F2011: 17.8+7.2+6.8+1.7+4.0 48-32-60 (%) (6 matches)
e85ea1f8f020b06d877584d5678d68b4128a9136	F2012: 28.6+10.2+7.4+1.6+3.8 47-19-83 (%) (5 matches)
c6cd7db58db7390419f1dbf632836a724f96af75	F2013: 25.3+10.9+7.0+2.3+2.6 45-35-80 (%) (7 matches)
9485305defc8e49bf493b31457b2f20cfdf8607a	F2014: 28.2+7.8+4.0+2.0+3.8 57-52-79 (%) (5 matches)
d346fba617512d754904b2f65d20075710700344	Leo Tolstoy, being under the strongest impression of the work of his English colleague Charles Dickens, once wrote the following: "If you sift through the world's prose, then Dickens will remain.
423f24661c7f2c53da3980b96dfeed93d0903857	If you sift through Dickens, there will be "David Copperfield".
0807884139d3504fd367de9939b6fa126321a9b1	If you sift through "David Copperfield", there will be a description of a storm at sea."
afb37838dafaa027d73552f24c537895fa61cdca	If we apply the same linguistic construction to our case, we can conclude that if we sift through all the basketball players who came to the NBA in the new millennium, LeBron will remain.
f0ff41add682840203f2445b6951b71ed0035549	If you sift through his four years at Miami, there will be a sixth game against Boston in the 2012 conference finals.
28592720137a49f066dea969af092dd0582212b1	A little exaggerated, of course (but still not as much as in the statement of Lev Nikolaevich), but a relatively clear illustration of the position that LeBron now occupies in the best basketball league in the world.
bb97df7e6a95b22feadb47cab3cf64c393c3b87f	There is simply no one to compare him with – all this pile of muscles, instincts and unique basketball intelligence, placed under the ever present bandana, should be perceived by us as the only and unique absolute
cacb153f51ff56b029cc89d4707ced56f0775ed0	My favorite stage in the development of a great player is the years of his career that he spends as a living legend Retweet
aeead852d0892f58d935c356e57c41df28846479	It is even possible that then he would have already taken the usual extra couple of steps and would have broken into the very top of the basketball historical pedestal.
79aed4a72e867802f4b6590e7af391c516381d3a	But an opponent stood in his way, which Russell, Karim, Magic, Bird, Jordan did not have.
3eb84e299eedd2cc9830c1bb0e2719ce2c511bb8	Duncan did not encounter him simply because he is protected by a light field emanating from him, from which all sorts of negativity bounces off.
7535af03e452b56a3325abe52e7ddadcf2a89d0a	Of the figures equal to LeBron, only Kobe Bryant had to fight this powerful enemy, and even then only at the second stage of his career.
9f5c374b1dd65fe3549a9b3deaffdabd98ed79b4	The name of this warrior of evil is public opinion, which existed before, but with the mass introduction of the Internet into our lives, it has grown and turned from a poisonous viper ordinary into a Lernaean hydra.
fed13dda0ecd02a70d6d069eefbe36857fed27b9	James is the first and main star of post Postjordanism, an era whose importance will be judged not by us,but by future basketball fans.
f15b523ac5d1e508b750c672f49c298daf3be6e4	LeBron's career was followed from the very beginning around the world, discussing his every step, every great moment on the basketball court, every awkward moment in the daily life of a young man who was hit by an unprecedented pressure of expectations in the history of basketball.
f8c367c241d2ad776dd853f65467d1fd81583a80	We judge him very strictly, we openly wonder at his desire to equip the most comfortable place in history, but his desire is also conditioned by the laws of the era in which we live.
1d4d20469d08f3064cdc4195fed6dbd4e3ed5d4b	Greatness, ratings, all sorts of mountains all this was elevated to the rank of the only existing truth by journalists led by Bill Simmons, and now all these seemingly near basketball things, which at all times are the consequence, not the cause, often become more important than the game itself.
661f880f91d5725bd1059bd7e7a678779b5ead89	All this pile of muscles, instincts and unique basketball intelligence should be perceived by us as the only and unique absolute Retweet
e12079982baad9bf8260fadd7753d411da4fcb36	Remembering the negative moments, first of all, they note obvious flaws in education, behavior, and decision making.
dbd8fea46ef8e74898901490586d1f15960e78a9	In other words, appealing to the shortcomings of James, his haters often can not remember the disadvantages that manifest themselves during the matches, thereby making a mockery of themselves, indirectly confirming his undeniable greatness.
b17560a2d20c471c7f6a8d2fde63a1b534cb1284	Of course, there is always one purely basketball argument – as a rule, it is LeBron's indecision at the decisive moments of the elimination game.
c6a63e61580aebb55c7b5b594c3d28e4b65ddfb8	Indeed, despite the metal halo surrounding him and a slight external resemblance to the Terminator, LeBron is rarely truly inevitable in the most important skirmishes, when everything is at stake ("infrequently" in this case is far from equal to "never").
f3c5c86fee5093ccb73c6af1a91c65f32cc4d9db	Often he does not need to be crushed by the press to win, in moments of danger he became like Arnold Schwarzenegger, not confident and implacable, as in Cameron's film, but a self doubting and full of disappointment policeman from the mediocre "End of the World".
5f190fbd45ce51d08468578c01a9c1be0d00db2c	He failed his first two finals, losing outright to two Texas teams, was not too convincing at the key moments of the decisive series of 2013, did not turn into a superhero last year (it's interesting that we demand this from him almost by order; you donot have the strongest team – let's go out and destroy one of the best basketball creations in history on your own).
3c230e23086f80d0555bac784364f716581c1839	Probably, few people would trust him with the decisive shot in the last seconds of the game, but isnot it stupid to determine the level of a basketball player solely by his ability to play when there are only a few moments left before the final siren?
267c53ab04a2cea3d3b690823e0765a8fd4b1de6	After all, not all Jordans, Byrds, Millers and Lillards, and a basketball game lasts not one minute, but at least forty eight.
7157187cb0524cc7e0afaf9631cdfddd94664704	It seems that if LeBron has such a flaw, it is clearly not the flaw that will outweigh a thousand virtues.
41327c4a3f8cde7ee640f158455e9090549d92a6	LeBron is not one of those who will go to feats for the sake of a childhood dream Retweet
bc6062a46da9d5e6d2c10d19cec159c4bb2f583d	I have said this before, and I will say it again – I did not like the Decision.
c339e60505643287e05a300a0e4fbb438022e7ef	I think this is quite a normal reaction of a neutral idealist fan who wants there to be more strong teams, and less collusion of the world's strongest basketball players.
0b6d34ab729c62d11613ca4437fff88d67c2911a	It's funny, but I was not touched at all by James ' summer letter, and I believe that as of now, he will be remembered by the next generation more as a player of the Heat than of Cleveland.
f30bd612db604b98c728b435721639cad803ecb1	Even if LeBron spent only four years in Miami, while he put on the Cleveland jersey already in the eighth season for himself, at the moment he is identified precisely as the leader of the"Trio".
a6b3e607eb58db85bf22cc813b11e094136bbda3	This is not such a unique situation – I know many people who are relatively close to NBA basketball, and at the same time manage to find themselves in full confidence that Charles Barkley, if not his entire career, then at least an impressive part of it, spent in Phoenix.
0200e6089b98a56578dd54a5e2187889d83e80dd	In fact, the current leading analyst of American television performed his work duties in the Arizona deserts only for the same LeBron's four years, which is one fourth of his total professional experience.
60a90467cb251b002c08f90104fb45f8dae6fa6a	It is known that LeBron is obsessed with the history of basketball, and he is so crazy that, according to the long tradition of our distant ancestors (masters of rock art), he engraved the corresponding tattoo on his leg.
63dcb9ebac085f3bec186e402442b2b4ca7d1f4a	He is definitely thinking about how his descendants will perceive him, and therefore, at the first opportunity, he made such a decisive attempt to stop playing for the gold intensive, but never became native "Miami".
70af73eb04dc66618b9d469747514c622d0a2a2c	LeBron left the Heat as soon as he realized that they would no longer be the same empire as before – a step not so romantic, but extremely rational.
283d207215944ebf3bb5ec74716c0bd6f8d7099b	Although such rationality does not mean the absence of warm feelings for his native land – it is clear that he would not have returned to Bubi Gibson and Jamario Moon, but if all the conditions for a comfortable existence are created, then why not.
3df3504666e2e6c7b5b662b3f421019b055acbd2	LeBron is not one of those who will go to feats for the sake of a childhood dream, but all other things being equal, he will benefit his home state better than any other.
df4f309f5a75b7c501d7bc47f59804b07fc18e66	Now everything has turned out exactly as he wanted, a completely champion squad has been selected in Cleveland, and he will certainly fight not only for the championship, but also for remaining in people's memory as a heroic savior of the Motherland, rather than as a brilliant mercenary of Pat Riley.
e4d0f69d3d9abf093eaa33bf5631b4fa655937af	I repeat, I believe that this was the main reason for his typically hobbyist return to his native Shire of Akron after a long and eventful journey.
3621c11023646dec4df869c373c2238e42db54e9	James is the first and main star of post Postjordanism, an era whose importance will be judged not by us, but by future basketball fans Retweet
e33298a3f29b20be0f9416f9857dc02b7fba4a51	Now we can only rely on the limits of LeBron's splendor that he managed to outline for us, but on a subconscious level, each of us understands that there are no boundaries for him.
41c6e5ea23b25c1534e6e5057ff147d7283b8b5e	Kobe Bryant at this age was just preparing to win the Olympics in Beijing, which became a turning point in his career;
77e9649c18afe2fc032e038b2e58cb98500c4689	Steve Nash still hasnot returned to Phoenix, and Kevin Garnett did not become part of the family the Celtics.
622541076899863c1a9568f28c4d7c1bef32b662	LeBron is now only at the beginning of the most interesting segment in his career – cut, when it is the main carrier championship traditions in the team and have to lead partners not only by strength, but by the law of the spirit.
f5d75a72aa5e5c3c9eeafc0da478792923414de8	During his first coming to the Cavs, he was a unique young man who himself did not realize half of his power, in the Heat, Wade and Riley could always cover his back.
392e0f0ab00fd7e1b3d3dbdad1012c13e2ee24e0	Now he must become Achilles and Agamemnon in one person – that is, not only be an unsurpassed warrior, but also constantly explain to everyone what a difficult path they have to go through on the way to the desired goal.
35b30980ed3b6e50a149d647bccbf6eb7d20c27f	Perhaps he will no longer be the medium sized tank that bursts under the opponent's ring and always achieves its goal due to physical power, coordination and serial jump.
74317f670dca7a3f14e8cf60691d5bb4e2eb2ad9	Those times were good, but they are already mostly in the past, and now we see a wiser James, who has further developed an understanding of the game, the art of constantly improving his own partners.
ff1a67806db07c9a5129bd3fdd5d761d5f883f45	He also finally established himself as the most dangerous sniper, who can no longer be kept "from passing", giving the opportunity to throw around the ring from a distance.
a6f481d60351a3adcaa934bd3f70d1b9d5afec79	There is a feeling that when these guys in maroon jerseys play, they will be able to cause indescribable troubles, comparable to those that belong to the authorship of "Miami" of recent times.
ec78f0bd48b989bffecbed19aa51961f16bc3730	Letting go of the imagination even further, you realize that Miami has never been an absolute force and a thunderstorm of the entire league, they have never gone through their opponents in the playoffs, which has always been an integral sign of a great team.
adb33f96e32c71349c7665a3e6a8d6e7c3c1b919	Perhaps LeBron will be able to do something similar already in his homeland, and then no one will remember either the Decision or other boyish clumsiness.
b29757ae6e41755df89fbf9b7cea33a5acf4f30b	Now the last two participants of the rating are in this position, interrupting the matches with their own achievements and radiating natural light.
f3889307af4d6594050136bf629a1466109f8a3d	Pretty soon, this will happen with the x time NBA champion LeBron James, but while he has not yet turned green, it is necessary to mainly look at him – look with all eyes.
6321573ba063d3d91a604d16700d08cccb9cfa62	Source Sports.ru Author Pavel Khrustalev
558144f0d4a4412a339ff43dcc65614831dd19aa	Tags: LeBron James ||
5a7a43b1243ad0b3ea31e5471c2c032c43210ee5	Users who viewed the news: CARON || Komplimenttt | / JIN80 | / ak108m16 | / zJunKeR || JollyVolly | / Tolyanch99 | / danieljordan | / c@wpack || 3pts | / LeXXeR || jordanchik | / rutnev | / Hedda | / SpeD12 || and others (total 188 registered and 1222 guests)
924ac886db6e4446bae80db0bc4eff92597719f4	Updated ( 23.02.2015 17: 08 )
ef9d62fc3f34edd74ff7666df3c2dd9f32a269d7	( 6) 04: 00 New Orleans -: -: - Detroit ( 34) 04:00 Cleveland -: -: - Clippers ( 4) 05:00 Denver -: -: - Memphis ( 3) 06:00 Sacramento -: -: - Atlanta ( 5) 06:30 Phoenix -: -: - San Antonio Euroleague 15-16 (Calendar) ( 0)
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6043c48de211148f7ec6d20c322d2e65f636cd2e	Select the command
659d2ced7cbb23ca9ed49c5557d43a54c0ba4fa9	Choose a player
88970f8998aed84bfc52246963b9899b927d798d	Player profile
a8d4129a6f9e35a03a29390283a22e7480e4dd2e	Profile ||
dab3d0ae57902c91ac24f23e97248cdd91223961	Statistics | / Records/Rank / / Video | / Photo | / News | / Articles | / Calendar ||
1ae4d67b4a343ada105542ae455266e18607c456	Career | / Fans | / Twitter | / Insta ||
6dd6198fd943c57ebf065c258ca386314225b5cd	86%
1574bddb75c78a6fd2251d61e2993b5146201319	16
54ceb91256e8190e474aa752a6e0650a2df5ba37	56
93b75f5f1b88b6a70bccf20f7d0dea3966fe742c	Facts about the player:
72c8d2b55161885a710ce714750ecae050bcc698	Salary: $22,970,500
21e763cde218b1f3f8f053ebc244c328757f0bf9	Fans: 3pts, jermby, antoha, Tiburon1989, MiamiBest, yarrabooboo, kuriez, tipochekua, - total 237 (show all)
b0411ea816a573536437e971b171ff4f096ecef7	LeBron James can push through defenders to the basket ... great field vision ...
69feecca0dc96517f3831d71f5fe3914460410dd	Great skill possession ...
b53bec0832be601906cfa54826ad1dd53dee117c	Can play defender ...
e89c7afcc689b65fb2f10b88358aed012e175816	He can play as a heavy forward ...
2113fcd9c34255a0045a60aa2866c7930138767b	LeBron James is able to hit an incredible shot. ...
4a50417a27aca8ad297fb855f05f58a65ad997ae	Makes a lot of interceptions and blocks ...
1f0cdd2c7d2318b2148bd8b8750d8fcf79bed5e7	LeBron James has a good average and a free kick ...
06615b06390314ee4920f06ba9b6bfbe37e9b66c	Inflated self esteem.
e8fde830c9035c66331a70b2c27d755f00ec04ec	I used to forget about my partners .
d5ba7ddf701671d8949fefc49e076ccad07bebf0	Transferred from Miami to Cleveland 2014-07-13
4b631f69842530d659306c8f06dbad594a6b1807	Info
9bf3b5687263e6176dd4da06298aaa212a373a37	Name: LeBron James
4bcaed501a21df67d1cfcb113bd6eee17b9fda80	English name: LeBron James Birthday: 30.12.1984 (31)
be1b696f820b8c24fae09477f62efe246b98bfbb	Position: Light Forward Number:
10d226d5805d24905a40704594efee470a43faf9	Height: 204 cm Weight: 114 kg
d8de701223d24547777cdb105d6ec9feb4ad5808	NBA statistics 15-16
5fa2e26247ca0dd4b511e02f20bc2942c77400ed	Statistical rating for the NBA 15-16 period : 92.3%
381e478203b34770c03d36a329d5b471dcc7fff6	Points, average: 25.1 (978 in 39 matches )
cc3f90fbcd73ea7a8a9812bd8bf0ff8c420e7f10	Rebounds, Average: 7.2 (280) Assists, Average: 6 (234) Steals, Average: 1.4 (55) Blocks, Average: 0.7 (27) Minutes, Average: 35.7 (1390.9) Three point percentage : 29.9% (46 out of 154)
0e02e2cd0e29f07a0eedc77e82945a230fbb93ad	All player statistics
07e27042916a46b63048ebc28477de97bf1f9351	Next game Next game vs Clippers 22.
20dae6a703bd108331a3a85888651b53ad03328a	01.
26440114f575177191a077fe8cd70a67bf807567	2016-04: 00
b7fe3e5c02e5727ba576d864705bb09921f6d27e	Match Date match o 2 points 3 points penalties pb ap f ph p bsh time
855ad0b9dc752c2fdf2a1c144920a8f6fee5f3c9	z in % z in % z in % NBA 14-15 VS Clippers (2 games/s) 27.5 7.5 13.5 56 2 5 40 6.5 9.5 68 7 8 2 2 5.5 0 35:08 NBA 13-14 VS Clippers (2 games/s) 24.5 6.5 11.5 57 2 5 40 5.5 8.5 65 6.5 9 3 2 5.5 0.5 38:58 NBA 12-13 VS Clippers (2 games/s) 30 8.5 13 65 2 4 50 7 10 70 5 6.5 3 0.5 4.5 2 36:06 NBA 12-13 Preseason VS Clippers (2 games/s) 15.5 5.5 9 61 0 0.5 0 4.5 5.5 82 4 4.5 0.5 2 1 0 23:10 NBA 11-12 VS Clippers (1 game/s) 23 0 0 0 0 1 0 9 17 53 13 7 5 2 6 0 41:00
139c7b738a54fff42156be287774cdd3cd618590	Photo by LeBron James
46ebbf06a8a5c1562df1428170124060673fc3ad	RT @CavsNationNet: Toronto Raptors Troll LeBron James And Kyrie Irving
71bdffb508b1ed6025b0424c414921f75b293671	LeBron James be
02b3a02883366db31fcca90e649c2f105f7835bb	LeBron James looking at the score #WarriorsCavs
89c4e866bc0f97707437c5ba945839e24aab64c3	LeBron James' nightmare!
d18e56d8d2f2a37f2bb075589327a823241c676a	LeBron James just canot beat Tim Duncan as a Cavalier.
cbd49d7ca5b516edc967112f7766ed840ffd80c7	#CavsSpurs
a1bba5847666d0f912fc590fe9cb1cc1573a1c6a	More photos
458ec9da8c15cda154a86be0e7155320b7264a13	Video by LeBron James
a1530f4ec6fc1bd4596172db684208b5ca11f26c	21.01.16 Fast Break of the Night: LeBron James
2c2625d4ba1115ef5deb72b43a1c403a3ee502f2	21.01.16 Cavaliers vs. Nets
c739c57239854e8c635fc9e6fdfb81856d0c0db2	LeBron James & Kevin Love & Kyrie Irving Full Highlights 2016.01.20 at Nets - 43 Pts Combined
620a234569a9da337554e8ea7bd17b667aeb5ef4	21.01.16 LeBron Block
891f657dec2e87d7d8398e7a0bf092959a35e7a3	21.01.16 LeBron Rack Attack
c8c367a84beea90272bc78964eff05154e0dbfd9	21.01.16 LeBron Slam
f19cd8656d70a67209bd1d9e17e3fed6661b3230	21.01.16 LeBron Steal and Slam
082001d90e117018ddd99bbfe8330b7134b2c913	19.01.16 January 18th: The Fast Break
ac565ff736a84f3a6ba2ef3494a6deb187f12a9e	19.01.16 Warriors vs. Cavaliers
c0a2e03e3fd1044bd77d21b516165313bea67477	More Video News about the Player LeBron James
55b27a504c9fc941869f96ba730204bd686d2cb7	James failed to score 20 points in two consecutive matches[21.01.2016 11: 11] ( 0)
4158892247909c8dbc325a73d63ff3c562f41607	LeBron James is the highest paid player in the league according to Forbes [21.01.2016 00: 12] ( 1)
a0fb322906a1419f546ba16424930bf8c88b1595	LeBron James: "It's not the end of the world"[19.01.2016 22:10] ( 8)
50158ac2225fb626b7fdb8ea51b939aa9af92812	LeBron James: "I'm not thinking about the Olympics yet"[19.01.2016 14:02] ( 1)
84e28b5011e0f663f5cfa903eea8e914b1baad45	LeBron James: "We have a long way to go if we want to win the championship"[19.01.2016 09:09] ( 20)
d616160e32bc4526ed86254f21b2fac8fb5afad2	30 candidates for the US Olympic team have been announced[18.01.2016 21: 09] ( 0)
f251b9faa71e4c97f0de73e4974c01b05f3620d1	LeBron James will become an executive producer and star of a reality show[15.01.2016 22: 10] ( 0)
015cf51fab15607c045c0ab989bc9bcfaf988970	LeBron James is the best lightweight forward of all time according to ESPN [15.01.2016 17: 05] (8)
ae4d24afa2e8c41c146a6b6afdf5edcc0dbb1556	Manu Ginobili: "Kawai did a good job against James today"[15.01.2016 12:12] ( 2)
25b20d1f86e8d2399fe6143a996c70f47deb3b23	LeBron James: "I really appreciate every match against Duncan"[15.01.2016 12:12] ( 1)
955a36c3eedb2660083188efc40457b4e7ea38eb	More news
f56f46951a5921f9ff8b344882edd59047c03ab8	Playing career
2a16eb38361883118cf556653391b16ffa227d5a	League Team Position: Transfer Date NBA 15-16 Preseason Cleveland Cavaliers Lightweight Forward NBA 15-16 Cleveland Cavaliers Lightweight Forward NBA All Star 14-15 East Lightweight Forward NBA 14-15 Preseason Cleveland Cavaliers Lightweight Forward NBA 14-15 Cleveland Cavaliers Lightweight Forward NBA 14-15 Miami Heat Transferred Lightweight Forward 2014-07-13 NBA All Star 13-14 East Lightweight Forward NBA 13-14 Preseason Miami Heat Lightweight NBA Forward 13-14 Miami Heat Lightweight Forward NBA All Star 12-13 East Lightweight Forward NBA 12-13 Preseason Miami Heat Lightweight Forward NBA 12-13 Miami Heat Lightweight Forward Olympics 2012 USA Lightweight Forward NBA All Star 11-12 East Lightweight Forward NBA 11-12 Miami Heat Lightweight Forward NBA All Star 10-11 East Lightweight Forward NBA 10-11 Miami Heat Lightweight Forward
cac3dc860658901693b7ec423ab6a1eb07e6606e	Season Mtch o 2 points 3 points penalties pb ap f ph p bsh time
a2f8815cdb4911158c649315af2044dcffcf57b5	z in % z in % z in % NBA 15-16 39 25.1 8.3 14.9 55.6 1.2 3.9 29.9 4.9 6.9 71.6 7.2 6 1.8 1.4 3.4 0.7 35.7 NBA 15-16 preseason 2 11 3 10 30 1.5 4 37.5 0.5 1 50 3.5 4 2.5 3 3 0 24 NBA 14-15 playoffs 20 30.1 10.1 21.7 46.7 1.3 5.5 22.7 6.1 8.4 73.1 11.3 8.5 2.9 1.7 4.1 1.1 42.2 NBA All Star 14-15 1 30 7 9 77.8 4 12 33.3 4 5 80 5 7 1 2 4 0 31.8 NBA 14-15 69 25.3 7.3 13.6 53.6 1.7 4.9 35.3 5.4 7.7 71 6.1 7.4 2 1.6 3.9 0.7 36.1 14-15 NBA preseason 5 15 3.2 6.4 50 1.6 3.2 50 3.8 5.2 73.1 4 5 1 0.6 3 0.4 24.4 13-14 NBA playoffs 20 27.4 7.9 12.7 61.8 1.8 4.3 40.7 6.5 8 80.6 7.1 4.8 2.3 1.9 3.1 0.6 38.2 NBA All Star 13-14 1 22 11 15 73.3 0 7 0 0 0 0 7 7 0 3 1 0 33.1 NBA 13-14 77 27.1 8.5 13.6 62.2 1.5 4 37.9 5.7 7.6 75 6.9 6.3 1.6 1.6 3.5 0.3 37.7 13-14 NBA preseason 6 15.2 5 9.5 52.6 0.8 2.2 38.5 2.7 4 66.7 4 3.8 1.7 1.2 1.5 0.3 25 12-13 NBA playoffs 23 25.9 7.7 14.6 52.4 1.6 4.2 37.5 5.9 7.6 77.7 8.4 6.6 1.9 1.8 3 0.8 41.8 NBA All Star 12-13 1 19 4 11 36.4 3 7 42.9 2 4 50 3 5 0 1 4 0 30 NBA 12-13 76 26.8 8.7 14.5 60.2 1.4 3.3 40.6 5.3 7.1 75.2 8 7.3 1.4 1.7 3 0.9 37.9 12-13 NBA preseason 7 13.7 5.1 9.9 52.2 0.1 1.3 11.1 3 4.1 72.4 5 5.9 1 2 2.3 0.1 26.2 Olympics 2012 playoff 3 16 5.7 8 70.8 0.7 2.7 25 2.7 3.7 72.7 9.3 7.3 1.3 1 1 0.3 29.7 Olympics 2012 5 11.6 4.2 5.8 72.4 0.8 2.4 33.3 0.8 1 80 3.4 4.4 2 1.6 1 0.2 22.2 11-12 NBA playoffs 23 30.3 10 18.1 54.9 1 3.7 25.9 7.5 10.2 73.9 9.7 5.6 2 1.9 3.5 0.7 42.8 NBA 11-12 62 27.1 8.9 15.9 55.7 0.9 2.4 36.2 6.2 8.1 77.1 7.9 6.2 1.5 1.9 3.4 0.8 37.5 10-11 NBA playoffs 21 23.7 6.9 13.7 50 1.4 4 35.3 5.7 7.4 76.3 8.4 5.9 2.7 1.7 3.1 1.2 43.9 NBA 10-11 79 26.7 8.4 15.3 55.3 1.2 3.5 33 6.4 8.4 75.9 7.5 7 2.1 1.6 3.6 0.6 38.8 Records of the player 61 17 31 8 12 18 24 18 16 6 6 9 5 51:56 Average 26 8.2 14.5 56 1.3 3.8 35 5.6 7.5 75 7.5 6.6 1.8 1.6 3.4 0.7 37.6
6e5220760ea9e81de29ffb4f3295e24657c05dac	s in % s in % s in % NBA 15-16 39 978 324 583 55.6 46 154 29.9 192 268 71.6 280 234 72 55 131 27 1390.9 15-16 NBA preseason 2 22 6 20 30 3 8 37.5 1 2 50 7 8 5 6 6 0 48 14-15 NBA playoffs 20 601 202 433 46.7 25 110 22.7 122 167 73.1 226 169 58 33 82 21 844.4 NBA All Star 14-15 1 30 7 9 77.8 4 12 33.3 4 5 80 5 7 1 2 4 0 31.8 NBA 14-15 69 1743 504 940 53.6 120 340 35.3 375 528 71 419 510 135 109 272 49 2493.4 14-15 NBA preseason 5 75 16 32 50 8 16 50 19 26 73.1 20 25 5 3 15 2 122.1 13-14 NBA playoffs 20 548 157 254 61.8 35 86 40.7 129 160 80.6 141 95 46 37 61 11 763.4 NBA All Star 13-14 1 22 11 15 73.3 0 7 0 0 0 0 7 7 0 3 1 0 33.1 NBA 13-14 77 2089 651 1047 62.2 116 306 37.9 439 585 75 533 488 126 121 270 26 2901.9 13-14 NBA preseason 6 91 30 57 52.6 5 13 38.5 16 24 66.7 24 23 10 7 9 2 150.1 12-13 NBA playoffs 23 596 176 336 52.4 36 96 37.5 136 175 77.7 193 152 43 41 70 18 960.4 NBA All Star 12-13 1 19 4 11 36.4 3 7 42.9 2 4 50 3 5 0 1 4 0 30 NBA 12-13 76 2036 662 1100 60.2 103 254 40.6 403 536 75.2 610 551 110 129 226 67 2877.1 12-13 NBA preseason 7 96 36 69 52.2 1 9 11.1 21 29 72.4 35 41 7 14 16 1 183.2 Olympics 2012 playoff 3 48 17 24 70.8 2 8 25 8 11 72.7 28 22 4 3 3 1 89 Olympics 2012 5 58 21 29 72.4 4 12 33.3 4 5 80 17 22 10 8 5 1 111 11-12 NBA playoffs 23 697 229 417 54.9 22 85 25.9 173 234 73.9 224 129 47 43 81 16 983.3 NBA 11-12 62 1683 550 987 55.7 54 149 36.2 387 502 77.1 492 387 96 115 213 50 2325.2 NBA 10-11 playoffs 21 497 144 288 50 30 85 35.3 119 156 76.3 176 123 56 35 66 25 921.6 NBA 10-11 79 2111 666 1205 55.3 92 279 33 503 663 75.9 590 554 163 124 284 49 3063
80d00eb8c8ab991d9197fdabb080b11b4a312f59	NBA 15-16 || NBA 15-16 preseason || NBA 14-15 playoffs || NBA All Star 14-15 || NBA 14-15 || NBA 14-15 preseason || NBA 13-14 playoffs || NBA All Star 13-14 || NBA 13-14 || NBA 13-14 preseason || NBA 12-13 playoffs || NBA All Star 12-13 || NBA 12-13 || NBA 12-13 Preseason || 2012 Olympics Playoffs || Olympics 2012 || NBA 11-12 playoffs || NBA 11-12 || NBA 10-11 playoffs || NBA 10-11 ||
3c22f2e383bda6143ccd2f2f0193e92e34539d48	s in % s in % s in % 2016-01-21 Brooklyn Cleveland 17 6 11 55 1 1 100 2 4 50 1 5 1 1 4 1 29:03 2016-01-19 Cleveland Golden 16 7 13 54 0 3 0 2 2 100 5 5 1 1 3 1 32:53 2016-01-16 Houston Cleveland 19 6 12 50 1 2 50 4 6 67 7 7 1 0 4 2 36:23 2016-01-15 San Antonio Cleveland 22 8 14 57 1 3 33 3 4 75 7 5 4 0 4 0 37:20 2016-01-13 Dallas Cleveland 27 6 11 55 3 6 50 6 8 75 10 7 2 2 4 0 41:43 2016-01-11 Philadelphia Cleveland 37 12 17 71 3 5 60 4 6 67 7 9 1 2 2 0 37:00 2016-01-09 Minnesota Cleveland 13 5 8 63 0 4 0 3 4 75 12 8 1 1 3 2 32:14 2016-01-07 Washington Cleveland 34 8 13 62 4 9 44 6 8 75 10 4 3 1 2 1 39:42 2016-01-05 Cleveland Toronto 20 6 9 67 1 2 50 5 8 63 2 7 1 3 2 0 30:41 2016-01-03 Cleveland Orlando 29 7 11 64 4 7 57 3 4 75 5 3 2 2 0 0 29:13 2015-12-30 Denver Cleveland 34 12 21 57 1 3 33 7 8 88 6 2 2 2 5 1 34:23 2015-12-29 Phoenix Cleveland 14 3 5 60 1 5 20 5 9 56 4 7 3 2 2 1 35:23 2015-12-27 Portland Cleveland 12 4 10 40 0 3 0 4 5 80 4 5 2 0 3 0 26:27 2015-12-26 Golden Cleveland 25 9 21 43 1 5 20 4 9 44 9 2 0 1 4 2 38:33 2015-12-24 Cleveland New York 24 9 19 47 0 3 0 6 7 86 9 5 2 0 1 0 37:43 2015-12-20 Cleveland Philadelphia 23 10 14 71 0 3 0 3 4 75 5 4 0 3 2 1 25:19 2015-12-18 Cleveland Oklahoma 33 10 22 45 2 5 40 7 8 88 9 11 2 2 7 0 39:37 2015-12-16 Boston Cleveland 24 10 17 59 0 3 0 4 4 100 7 3 3 2 6 1 35:42 2015-12-12 Orlando Cleveland 25 10 14 71 0 1 0 5 8 63 3 8 0 4 4 0 29:25 2015-12-09 Cleveland Portland 33 13 21 62 1 3 33 4 4 100 10 3 3 2 2 3 40:20 2015-12-06 Miami Cleveland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00:00 2015-12-05 New Orleans Cleveland 37 12 24 50 1 5 20 10 11 91 7 8 4 1 5 1 44:47 2015-12-02 Cleveland Washington 24 8 17 47 0 3 0 8 8 100 13 4 3 1 9 1 37:23 2015-11-29 Cleveland Brooklyn 26 9 16 56 1 6 17 5 6 83 9 5 0 1 2 0 35:43 2015-11-28 Charlotte Cleveland 25 6 15 40 2 5 40 7 9 78 13 5 2 0 3 0 38:13 2015-11-26 Toronto Cleveland 24 5 11 45 1 5 20 11 12 92 6 8 1 0 2 0 39:46 2015-11-24 Cleveland Orlando 1 5 7 12 58 0 2 0 1 5 20 6 13 0 1 2 0 34:58 2015-11-22 Cleveland Atlanta 19 7 13 54 1 2 50 2 2 100 11 8 1 0 3 2 33:20 2015-11-20 Cleveland Milwaukee 27 8 12 67 1 1 100 8 9 89 9 6 3 0 4 0 34:59 2015-11-18 Detroit Cleveland 30 7 14 50 4 7 57 4 5 80 6 3 3 0 4 0 39:48 2015-11-15 Milwaukee Cleveland 37 8 16 50 5 11 45 6 12 50 12 5 3 1 7 3 45:03 2015-11-14 New York Cleveland 31 12 19 63 0 2 0 7 10 70 3 6 4 2 3 1 39:23 2015-11-11 Cleveland Utah 31 10 16 63 1 3 33 8 12 67 7 8 2 2 5 0 37:51 2015-11-08 Cleveland Indiana 29 10 20 50 0 3 0 9 14 64 6 4 0 0 2 0 35:01 2015-11-07 Cleveland Philadelphia 31 9 17 53 3 5 60 4 6 67 4 13 1 2 2 0 36:20 2015-11-05 Cleveland New York 23 8 18 44 1 5 20 4 7 57 5 3 1 4 3 1 35:04 2015-11-03 Philadelphia Cleveland 22 9 16 56 0 3 0 4 4 100 9 11 3 4 3 2 33:20 2015-10-31 Cleveland Miami 29 13 17 76 0 2 0 3 5 60 5 4 3 1 4 0 33:56 2015-10-29 Memphis Cleveland 12 4 10 40 0 3 0 4 8 50 7 5 1 3 3 0 30:48 2015-10-28 Chicago Cleveland 25 11 17 65 1 5 20 0 3 0 10 5 3 1 1 0 36:04
104731a4c19fd4333241c4208654e42137205410	* Жирным обозначен выход в старте, зеленым - победа команды
031a9fb8960c3db60341aa13f9a02beba9a85f0a	Календарь игрока
94fe7f4a8430c23072deb4017abacde28590704d	Турнир Дата Хозяева Гости Результат NBA 15-16 2015-12-09 Cleveland Cavaliers Portland Trail Blazers 105-:-:-100 NBA 15-16 2015-12-12 Orlando Magic Cleveland Cavaliers 76-:-:-111 NBA 15-16 2015-12-16 Boston Celtics Cleveland Cavaliers 77-:-:-89 NBA 15-16 2015-12-18 Cleveland Cavaliers Oklahoma City Thunder 104-:-:-100 NBA 15-16 2015-12-20 Cleveland Cavaliers Philadelphia 76ers 108-:-:-86 NBA 15-16 2015-12-24 Cleveland Cavaliers New York Knicks 91-:-:-84 NBA 15-16 2015-12-26 Golden State Warriors Cleveland Cavaliers 89-:-:-83 NBA 15-16 2015-12-27 Portland Trail Blazers Cleveland Cavaliers 105-:-:-76 NBA 15-16 2015-12-29 Phoenix Suns Cleveland Cavaliers 97-:-:-101 NBA 15-16 2015-12-30 Denver Nuggets Cleveland Cavaliers 87-:-:-93 NBA 15-16 2016-01-03 Cleveland Cavaliers Orlando Magic 104-:-:-79 NBA 15-16 2016-01-05 Cleveland Cavaliers Toronto Raptors 122-:-:-100 NBA 15-16 2016-01-07 Washington Wizards Cleveland Cavaliers 115-:-:-121 NBA 15-16 2016-01-09 Minnesota Timberwolves Cleveland Cavaliers 99-:-:-125 NBA 15-16 2016-01-11 Philadelphia 76ers Cleveland Cavaliers 85-:-:-95 NBA 15-16 2016-01-13 Dallas Mavericks Cleveland Cavaliers 107-:-:-110 NBA 15-16 2016-01-15 San Antonio Spurs Cleveland Cavaliers 99-:-:-95 NBA 15-16 2016-01-16 Houston Rockets Cleveland Cavaliers 77-:-:-91 NBA 15-16 2016-01-19 Cleveland Cavaliers Golden State Warriors 98-:-:-132 NBA 15-16 2016-01-21 Brooklyn Nets Cleveland Cavaliers 78-:-:-91 NBA 15-16 2016-01-22 Cleveland Cavaliers Los Angeles Clippers -:-:- NBA 15-16 2016-01-24 Cleveland Cavaliers Chicago Bulls -:-:- NBA 15-16 2016-01-26 Cleveland Cavaliers Minnesota Timberwolves -:-:- NBA 15-16 2016-01-28 Cleveland Cavaliers Phoenix Suns -:-:- NBA 15-16 2016-01-30 Detroit Pistons Cleveland Cavaliers -:-:- NBA 15-16 2016-01-31 Cleveland Cavaliers San Antonio Spurs -:-:-
169d63a697d35402e4c3a108f3cf6b3833e0a903	Добавить комментарий
dce332d56d71d649d1131767ff85436cd879456d	Обсуждение в комментах ...
3eb09fab549981a46f22f330d54f06a5edef4492	Внимание!
b93057f359f62fe29559225d67de9210d94d1fa2	Свободное обсуждение приветствуется!
755b51b0d14e465202506161394b3598ce31d273	Минусовать могут только зарегистрированные с рейтингом>50
b25bf3bceb211aae69b082ccab97ed1bdc37e5ae	Имя (обязательное)
c2f668e54fb6decffdd97e6cdc0f1884f8626fc2	Обновить
76dcf737a6cd0b2a74ac5f74636767925f7a91d7	Отправить
555ad1c0c33d26b34b5ca8bb38dfba4e2092df27	Отменить
7aa79ea48aa6d4801458d5205c49f864ecec4626	Галерея фото
2fb6ecdc9ce547a6a0b28fd85dc2f24feca4d29f	Следующие матчи!
a7d32941eb9990475ac33c59d737cf333d480758	NBA 15-16 (Календарь)
de03a7219352a420e2742c85d4b2737b7f905dfe	( 6) 04:00 New Orleans -:-:- Detroit ( 34) 04:00 Cleveland -:-:- Clippers ( 4) 05:00 Denver -:-:- Memphis ( 3) 06:00 Sacramento -:-:- Atlanta ( 5) 06:30 Phoenix -:-:- San Antonio Евролига 15-16 (Календарь) ( 0)
bd5355beaa03c996ced80a80847bffd8da5d9851	20:00 Химки -:-:- Брозе ( 0) 20:45 Жальгирис -:-:- Олимпиакос ( 0) 21:00 Дарушафака -:-:- Фенербахче ( 0) 22:00 Црвена -:-:- Уникаха Лига ВТБ 2015-16 (Календарь)
7c3cc29bf68b084a30ecb44ca9e5a16aa2c211d1	( 1) 20:00 Октябрь -:-:- Зенит
18647b0af19542be65fc12390cd9d88fe1cc3db9	Результаты матчей
a11f0d67de7ee1de6a1e442b909cdbe0bac5a0f2	NBA 15-16 (Результаты) 21.01.2016
c1e3e1b0de1c478cfac58a6dad6d612a0bb75933	Sacramento Евролига 15-16 (Результаты)
bcc3f531f791cf7467d284e4126d443896573af3	HL Локо 76 - 67
e125cfae71ee3a6020d3839cc1992d12831bfb1a	Панатинаикос
f0bab470519659e6869b34f6473187e2311a71d1	HL Цедевита 84 - 80
757897bb0c4a99a52e6f224be932add38fcd69dc	Эфес
9510c63d1d8ed20565c2ad498c179fd45615ce4e	Каха 81 - 71
bc30abc800f3d23fe02c00d427b753989becd7ba	ЦСКА
77f930369cb13d0f97b4677e26980174acfe7dd6	Реал 86 - 87
6dfe8c48db660d8a00c556fd4183618e6c0b1582	Барселона Лига ВТБ 2015-16 (Результаты) 17.01.2016
ce15a3cf83970dbf56afa6c0d1fa0de087750767	Астана -:-:-
3c4e7ed919fb358a775a20f97d7a2eb9b4891273	Н.Новгород
b9a6e72a1a56c9e61d58572c416c1392c28e6976	УНИКС 82 - 72
1151b9d24d9688686329d26238960577c3c7daf3	ВЭФ
7cb204998fa4af0a14c872da2801e67df9f7313d	Байзонс 82 - 98
1060a827eed62ffd1e4c8fdd61ac13f31de352f0	Зенит 81 - 64
86281050f0b1c7a5f83ab46b4b9f7e1f42664d13	Енисей
5d2fed6d6fd47b3bddd14c6817113a14679eab97	Калев -:-:-
395ddad5fd9b56dfcc254393e1cb9fcf9b0966ab	Нимбурк
d551c05486631493ddd8408a88de0680c5517774	Минск -:-:-
8ba1653d694730dadfb83d0b48109d8e0cc7cd55	Локо
1fc4dcc1d761f4921c2a6ac28259d10baba17536	Автодор -:-:-
89808d36583230d78c291c3b88a71ff19e02d3c3	Химки Евробаскет 2015 (Результаты) 20.09.2015
e5b6c5e49891754733a82767ffdd2f021b595f0c	HL Франция 81 - 68
91b3b3d2b5b27382973610f8f10218b29929ca68	Сербия
a368fca585cf0302b3546dc853abb46e95019f3f	HL Испания 80 - 63
71e0e6f93e25561ec0d01aac7b7664226d3cb60b	Литва
ecb693269a1a348c0a49f0d7fb8d36e9e71ab893	Матчи и Фильмы
867d919a377b40667ab4ec4b3e43086a6ba37626	Летняя Лига онлайн
6a2310157b2571a51bf6695a266693a57fd0e0f7	NCAA.Финал. Прямая трансляция Висконсин – Дьюк
be6153382d72161b350bea587c088f9d58fb403e	Матч звезд D лиги ОНЛАЙН
c3f52a117a557ce6aaea649fa2d430f8c7b5a03d	State Farm All Star Saturday Nights 2015 Торрент/онлайн
7d469997c1e6a46bdfb09e1f0bf91c945aacb555	Смотреть онлайн Sprint NBA All Star Celebrity Game (матч знаменитостей)
b273975d6c7d11ad926b54a6d56517e4c7676830	Трансляция матча Словения - США
c7fd2e137782f46010015284c513c7a7ea4c7309	[ONLINE] Товарищеский матч.
230bcd196be53814fae0f5354b53f515674bb633	ОНЛАЙН.
d93dcf725c397f2829d4f8aa5ae9a959f871a733	Сборная США - сборная Доминиканы
fae81d970707a1d03225dd1b67cd3f719bb97caf	[ONLINE]Товарищеский матч к ЧМ 2014 / 16.08.2014 / Бразилия @ США
590e367ca2b2bce1633b34697a10a08ef0d5b373	USA Blue vs USA White полный матч
a2d1e735ea6dae8096528688f157240432e534c2	RuBasket.com - баскетбольный портал (2008-2014).
ca56442cfe1e72b78d799ef68012e2ca6de92a16	Новости баскетбола (НБА, ВТБ, Еврочемпионаты), статьи, статистика НБА, НБА онлайн.
362a19b1529fa149271aa415c0cb076243921999	Фэнтези
435a2db05fcb539896970b034b5586cbc1c3b3e6	Прогнозы
2394e3501a95e12197f4fe400b8e95c80af467c8	At the end of 1977, several rapes occurred on the campus of the Ohio State University for a short period.
cbabd22165e775e8c400d1cc288fed7b364d430d	Due to the fact that one of the victims identified the rapist from a photo in the police file, his location was revealed and the suspect was detained as soon as possible.
7b3a1dd3647886be602cb974e481f0a0d9754086	It was a certain Billy Milligan — a 22-year-old boy who had been convicted of rape and armed robbery two years earlier.
49228ed085292289b66187b4d8a9ba34b50c8241	William Stanley Milligan (English: William Stanley Milligan, known as Billy Milligan; February 14, 1955, Miami Beach — December 12, 2014, Columbus[1]) was an American citizen, one of the most famous people with a diagnosis of "multiple personality" in the history of psychiatry.
285e319be852573c9cfc47c0ab944135386ce851	Milligan was accused of several robberies and three rapes, but his lawyers declared their client's insanity, claiming that two of his alternate personalities committed these crimes without Milligan's knowledge.
a59886908e22967e9bdc70b9313ba8a3f8f5e04e	As a result, he was acquitted, but sent for psychiatric treatment "until he recovers".
31918b4b42068096e9c1dc8d2da89bc54e0d68f8	Billy Milligan became the first person acquitted during the trial due to the diagnosis of "multiple personality"
0d7adbebcabb53b7fc0a50ff8df698e883910a8c	Milligan had 24 full-fledged personalities; 10 of them were the main ones: Bill Milligan (main personality), Arthur, Ragen Vadaskovinich, Allen, Tommy, David, Kristin, Christopher, Adalana, Danny.
cbadc05bb156b89ec94b1ebe03ee32285b5585a3	These individuals, depending on the situation, took control of the body — this explained the sharp changes in the patient's behavior, the illogicality of actions and other striking oddities.
68e24d6753b9700ab5912ae3f8788fda9b12be13	Individuals had different ages, nationalities, skills and "functions".
2005260bcc0b3b3441cb3af3ada079ecdd60184e	Billy is the original identity of William Stanley Milligan.
cf9b2fb5192129536bdeac3902cb0fba14d3bab7	Due to a lack of understanding of what is actually happening to him, Billy shows suicidal tendencies.
d343ebbd12ed7582714006be8152dd439f003e75	After an unsuccessful attempt to jump from the roof on his 16th birthday, Billy was " put to sleep "by the decision of" others " and slept until the next awakening for seven years.
2ac650296b6a4d81ecd54f8aa45880605a0db3f7	After Milligan "suddenly" woke up in prison, he also tried to commit suicide — by smashing his head against the wall of his own cell in blood.
c8651a3b2bd8f4431ad411bc71183a6256c77674	Arthur is an intellectual, speaks with a London accent.
4a2ece7d5501b4b872b819fd1baf18557b221299	Sometimes he smokes a pipe.
edb8a895450aa1f06631624bab7663b97c90e1fa	It was Arthur who found out that there are too many personalities in Billy's body.
d74ecd8b6be48d20ae82fa1201192b9982fb1dfa	He developed "rules of behavior" for the rest of the personalities (Arthur himself prefers to call them people).
80e9166fc992025d3902029a5f00900fdf6d0423	Arthur tends to science: he independently learned Arabic and Swahili; an expert in some areas of medicine.
ee3959a44aaa6f827dbe2ec3b02c1ae80c666627	Ragen Vadaskovinich is a person who manifests himself in dangerous situations.
e4ddf35fcd333b4c5989d5e11c6d09e11500ce2f	Ragen Yugoslav, speaks with a pronounced Slavic accent, writes and speaks Serbo-Croatian.
05220a5963456e01a1ede4e140fc77ccedacf479	He is well versed in weapons, is an excellent shot, is very strong physically, owns the technique of hand-to-hand combat.
6b05947ce9bd5806c390d81cdc0a057bc1648166	Ragen zealously protects children and women, even if it means breaking the law.
ce1cf44ad1707ae4a0c55fda464c193f9c9ccee0	Allen is one of Milligan's most frequently manifested personalities.
48a9171972242ae52b7e61a0d8786f059fb9f1fe	Allen is an 18 - year-old fraudster, he is eloquent and manipulates people perfectly.
aebe9d86e963397b7065b74693b46fc47627de8d	Only Allen of all the others is right-handed and has a habit of smoking cigarettes.
1c4e5b5dbcb520c27b52ff115adca910e53b3aa8	Tommy is a 16 - year-old boy who is perfectly versed in electricity and mechanics, knows how to open both mechanical and electric locks.
c7704bad1dbbbc5258cc0ecf0e91b61ef302546c	He has mastered the technique of controlling joints and muscles, so he is able to independently remove the handcuffs and straitjacket, which happened in a psychiatric hospital.
a2d360a2e15e9daa27bfa77ded3ee0e553514a8a	Danny is a 14-year-old boy, distrustful of people, very afraid of men.
81613f861ca4f136b074257608c09adbf2d4064f	It was Danny who possessed Milligan's consciousness when his stepfather buried him in a shallow grave, leaving only a breathing tube; because of this, Danny is afraid of the earth in any form and even promised never to lie down on the grass again.
6fa19e41438befdcee58714208f82c17a8764e3b	For the same reason, he draws only still lifes.
d0999205fb86a0a59cfc7a6cfa623b575286c3b1	David is an 8-year-old boy who appears to take the pain.
d60a2a3df8ca2f79c5ad4cdc2dce10b23949cbad	It is believed that David as one of Milligan's personalities appeared during the period when Billy was sexually abused by his stepfather.
0a1e657caf2f5f6b10eba110152a4fe2a2afdfcc	Christopher is a 13-year-old Englishman who plays the harmonica.
61ee079ac679e5c851a77f357f2fad96f0291617	Kristin is 3 years old, Christopher's sister.
88ec1d5e62efca1fcaa1b51b97729b4b25f9b08a	Probably the first of Milligan's multiple personalities and one of the first to learn about the existence of others.
c87a55a75ee206bbc651eeabcfc75fe15d239d5f	Taking possession of Billy's consciousness, Kristin helped her mother and took care of Milligan's younger sister.
eb3e2a518a398c7ad5d552442e12667c612ec1bf	Adalana is 19 years old, an active lesbian.
37f28846696704c63a56e22dfb060453747603ac	Adalana controlled Milligan's mind during the rapes.
1994c3921cffaf2f8723f916de2b6eb806ada92d	For a long time, only Arthur and Kristin knew about the existence of Adalana.
a2fd3f8a613c5edf6f0b81f205489ea62677246f	She was recognized as an undesirable person, as a result of which she was forbidden to control consciousness.
ddcf320bcf5d7f0dd31f48a8421edbdb9373fc19	The remaining 13 personalities of Milligan were declared undesirable by Arthur and Ragen and capable of harming the body — they were forbidden to "stand on the Spot" and control consciousness.
4a5e19bd00f8caaab43872baa78bcb8cc77ea740	Sean is a 4-year-old boy with a developmental delay, deaf.
259dbb93b29b419bf8b935be6db442f7fd63d8ce	Billy occupied the child's mind when he was shouted at and cursed.
d369a89c8809372711b63a92ea5279889f13f92e	It was declared undesirable, since it was no longer necessary with age.
04cf9d43701b2233ef8c57290acb66c3d11b1fe7	Jason-13 years old-a hysterical personality through which the tense situations that arose in Billy's childhood were removed, most often such "steam descents" led to difficult situations.
1aa5e7640dfe9bf5733b65fe92ec9b2144b61d0f	Mark is 16 years old — a non-initiative and inactive person.
dcd0e673b610fb4009dec3b1f73127631afbfe7e	Possibly autistic.
10b2598082a3600ea208a36a9b6d73598e2a009b	Others called him a "zombie".
18ccd95942702a9340bc5d22c61f3b9f65915661	Most often, he sits staring at one point.
d598551affe5d90f97f8c75f0f360c5298ccf41c	Timothy (more often Timmy) is 15 years old — under the control of this personality, Milligan worked in a flower shop.
06639bb8bbadfa63398cb1a06eead86e855161ff	Disappeared from Billy's mind after the unambiguous proposals of a homosexual.
2eed698288286c10b8c1ae8430c395e4c194e902	Bobby is a 17 — year-old would-be dreamer who imagines himself to be an actor, a traveler or a hero, a favorite of the public.
601d4e84bb8abd61237a1302039ba6c18117514a	Because he went on a hunger strike in prison — he was declared an undesirable person.
342454d295f18d909c63900529ddb34966c12291	Phil is 20 years old, a criminal type with a Brooklyn accent.
7f1dfad73e0ba51e3488345514ab78b56caca8bf	He sold drugs, took part in robberies.
8ff47249af8f89bc32c668be2e4b16c5f1fdb187	Lee is a personality that appeared during Milligan's stay in a Lebanese prison.
82c2277021840becd199f6c6922cae678cde8eb1	A lover of jokes and practical jokes, which often went too far and carried a threat.
b0e0d15bcfe7ff1338f93293a767473e9fb0da08	Steve is a person who appeared after Lee's exile.
e29f700f78489d5bfbbb1304549452f967d9af22	Steve parodied the head of the prison, as a result of which he was placed in isolation.
ada4070cf3baf49f9b2252335f125e49252341be	Samuel-18 years old-is a devout Jew.
39ce06716256565359ba1aa40da1f7e3b1ec61fd	Milligan's only religious personality.
84958684b31c098bb4b62e94d6937e6b43520055	Walter, 22, is an Australian hunter.
ab4dbf996f4b7254e8d2a309d1caa57f7d06f7e3	It was used if necessary to quickly navigate and find the right path.
3ebf49f45fbd55f461492e4eb7898f7d1cb9f3f0	He was considered undesirable after he killed a crow in the forest for no reason.
36d7b453e303c239fe25c01a47c401ac59a70600	Kevin-20 years old-is a friend of Phil.
822311c698d24d1c335d6c3a6fed0347c1a33d35	Criminal.
beb42d6be56fb12f5807847ac4c21d069338be78	He was engaged in planning crimes.
ae12d34300d98cd99c8974e6c9e9a5321d9bbb69	April is a girl with a Boston accent.
fc495b323eb3d1ed165b6a37ca20550f4be20f18	Obsessed with the obsession of killing Billy's stepfather — Chalmer.
cadea14932a5c28a63aeee797d5edeb8b32a93f3	As a result of the treatment initiated at the Athens Mental Health Center, a person who called himself a Teacher appeared.
90bf8cdf167982e37aaa141c6028d93f5618261a	The teacher was the sum of all Billy's personalities, only he had access to the memories of all the members of the "family".
a07e2c981f273e3120d8c2f72fdd354129b5d76a	When Billy's biography was later thoroughly studied in connection with a psychiatric examination, it became known that from the mid-1950s his father began to drink a lot, started business and suffered from depression, which in 1959 led him to suicide.
74b5b1f50c6b242526e513f44a95d6cad12b7086	Dorothy took the children and returned to her native state of Ohio (Circleville, Ohio), where she remarried, but this marriage did not last very long.
59815c81d433196355b632212a4c8840cd7788f4	Dorothy's next choice was Chalmer Milligan, whom she married in 1963.
74615c263240528a3f4c5848ff69b687bcc074c4	Billy's stepfather, who adopted Dorothy's children and gave them his last name, was later accused of harassing young Billy, as well as of raping a boy who was then 8 years old.
d55b955261584866d09d4f533e1252efdf5a4bd6	As for Billy himself, it is known that already in early childhood he suffered from a split personality – so, at that time he somehow manifested three personalities – Billy himself, as well as a certain Kristen (which is not a male name) and Shawn (Shawn).
cd12d5d2528eacd7702de99e1a71908575190c3a	The police first encountered Billy Milligan in 1975, when he was arrested immediately for armed robbery and rape.
4669080b0b52b7d4684f231ae11d3d360dc50676	However, he spent only a short time in prison and was released in 1977.
bda8bea78c07cf9668ec1cefb56fd7500b75df63	It soon became clear that he was released in vain – in the same 1977, he raped three women on the same campus of Ohio State University.
e985358e76e376c37f9d08e847078258dbba9412	He was identified by one of the victims, looking through police photos.
26c2eefb4ead472529df03bef89c2658a97e5c19	Billy was arrested again.
a785f8c2ba6588173bfd43d76cef31c58f258ba7	It was difficult to get out of it – the prosecution had Billy Milligan's fingerprints, and, in addition, they found a weapon in his house, which he had no right to have in accordance with his parole.
aa209f738971a05b5d04b8b099c4782491bad43a	He was accused of robbery, possession of weapons and three rapes, and this time he was facing a serious sentence.
a12f8c00fc3163d6ff84c4782468b99cd17937ee	Meanwhile, Billy's lawyer decided to build a defense on the client's mental insanity, and he was sent for examination to Dr. Willis C. Driscoll, who quickly identified an acute form of schizophrenia in Billy.
4b1ff349d2ab8f8ef2e9e39229792e833a05b357	As a result, Milligan was declared insane, was sent not to prison, but to a psychiatric hospital, and this was the first case of acquittal of the guilty by virtue of recognizing him mentally insane.
c793f77761a4303f1141a07e0560ece5b930d229	It was obvious that Billy would not be able to stand trial in his "fragmented" state, and it was decided to try to cure him in a specialized institution under the supervision of the best specialists.
8c5001bf1b13886b5dc1bc5e6084cacc62645001	While in the Athens State Hospital, where his treatment was not particularly diligent and intense, Billy began to demonstrate his multiple split personality.
03cfe3c11eca6a2932db068706eb217d1883a30d	Gradually, the work began to bring results.
1eb690166fe27c73a755fb55ecdb7364ce523174	At first, doctors managed to "glue" the most similar personalities into one, thereby reducing their number.
7fd58dc2916dff5fb99b08c69608c9adaae36375	Someone did not want to leave or let others in with the consciousness, but by agreeing among themselves and communicating with doctors, individuals gradually allowed doctors to move towards creating an "integrated personality".
5454845f8c9004065337fffb09445d65658254be	Unfortunately, everything was not so simple, and at the slightest threat or excitement, many personalities fell apart again, and the work had to start all over again.
863f4e7590b2e5cf15e29bad49528b1e7cf12aa9	It is curious that almost every personality had its own specialization and its own talents: when Billy was hurt, a little boy felt the pain, and the other personalities remained calm, when it was necessary to get out of a difficult situation, Ragen or Tommy was involved in the case, who could deftly slip out of the handcuffs, and right before another suicide, Billy was literally pushed out of consciousness by another person, saving his life — he himself was sure that he took that very step from the roof of the house and died.
cdfa26d653b7d57d8cdae624598ee3572a8c987c	It is curious that the integrated personalities created by doctors by combining similar ones no longer had the talents of each of the personalities in full: the ability to do mathematics was not so obvious, the drawings were not so amazing: the specialization was beginning to go away.
a9ea1644737aa5d8c6f42311e9d758d2e10a6446	Finally, the doctors managed to create a more or less stable integrated personality — Billy, and it was then that he said that for the first time in his life he was experiencing something similar to mixed feelings: before that, each of their feelings was peculiar in its pure form to one of the personalities and not at all peculiar to others.
d755b00dba131ae0fe778b1fc1663d79cec4d090	Now, after years of litigation and treatment, Billy could stand trial.
fa49707c67a8646bf1bdf75a66da0214c41b5d78	In 1988 (or 1991), after more than 10 years of intensive treatment in medical institutions of the state of Ohio, Billy Milligan was recognized as "whole" and released.
3b660f0ff25536513b2488a5f7c8a2f405754b87	Unfortunately, there is not a single fact that confirms the plausibility of the story of Billy Milligan.
9ea9c355c073585b4fdbf4207c52aff656cdc1fa	Everything we know about him is taken from one source - the book of Keyes.
f24b7fad50a71f9b19c5c708ac7fcdf7b2e0a31f	I was confused by one moment in the book (I will not say that everything else was told smoothly by Keyes, but this particular episode stuck in my eye like a splinter and did not allow me to calmly and without reflection perceive the further development of the plot).
fc3c2ae42bd24a508cf6199e21e68fddafc77127	Let's recall the plot from the book, when Samuel is expelled, and he makes the last attempts to convince the rest of the alter egos and says (not literally)as an argument: but after all, I am responsible for morality before God, if I am not there, then we risk going to hell.
27ea5729e7929a459f6155fe40aab2160296080b	The quote is not accurate, but the fact is that the Jew Samuel speaks about the existence of heaven and hell, which, as you yourself understand,cannot be.
f336ca66ae45d6e93bd31df35a70f95e13685eb9	Sometimes there are such moments in life when you want to get away from reality, abstract, become a different person, change your body and mind.
9229ba8a263aacac88edd1843725274abbcd1824	A psychologically mature person, in the end, copes with problems.
3c312bdfd858c5779c17c2bd25fac849e2609390	He learns something, becomes wiser, acquires the experience necessary in such situations.
15dd0e9f220f8b1689b9495f4bf9926a2dd3b976	They learn to "multiply" their personality, they break up, so to speak, into pieces, becoming no longer a homogeneous whole, but a collection of parts.
4f168bb287cf91fcdc8679a908ff631b3cd611aa	They create in one shell such a number of personalities that allows them to adequately and effectively, in their opinion, coexist with society.
fd1ad49e9857a7b2fd0200c317f5d367633c7b39	This phenomenon is called dissociative identity disorder.
8c87fd6d9d3a98092e4f88a884c76fc3b54231e0	The word dissociation is a chemical term for a decomposition reaction.
d967e38a163621d3cf1dcfa66224b36893519d7b	The integrity of the personality (even psychiatrists call this process the integration of the Ego) is determined by a person's ability to analyze external events, comparing them with their own feelings, and reacting to these events adequately in a constant manner.
9f99fd24d69794dd362a3be99f51793f2e3d0d82	However, if a person's personal qualities are imperfect and he cannot, due to circumstances, cope with the situation by developing his individual reactions, his personality can begin the process of disintegration, disintegration of the Ego, while forming other, new personalities.
4136013bbb7be2a27b507fae193f8a8333406e0b	It is this process of the appearance of multiple personalities in one subject that is called dissociation, splitting or split personality.
b9be4551ea496f365338996036105813835cde61	By creating multiple psychosubstances in this way, a person actually gets several personalities inside himself: different ages, genders, different health conditions, a set of qualities, knowledge and skills.
fd60040b259591964c17769e13b05875692254a8	This is always all the more surprising because some individuals allegedly have such a set of knowledge that the original subject had nowhere to get it.
d5e6acb38a076eb29b340928ceeca65ed638571e	Psychologists tend to consider a set of certain conditions as possible reasons for this phenomenon: unbearable stress, which is often experienced by a person in childhood, plus an innate ability to dissociate.
741dda312f012d7479b6212bb156a77d0d795681	It became interesting for me to understand who he was: a brilliant actor, a con artist, a schizophrenic or a phenomenon of psychiatry.
29d17e8c72b9497aa370d4d9b777582cddeb541a	Bernard Yavich, the prosecutor who dealt with the Milligan case, after receiving the diagnosis of a whole council of psychiatrists, at first laughed and said that he would never believe such nonsense.
446864b874f4ca32710134fb38460cb356821819	After more than two hours of conversation with Billy, Yavich, according to his own recollections, left the interrogation room "with his jaw hanging open", not understanding what was happening and what assessment of this phenomenon should be given.
3caffce87d1a71917d6effc5648452a88b8e4ae7	"I saw several personalities," Yavich said.
fac4d8ed0dfd3f5d0ca82472a88e8e92956f7842	"He spoke differently, even the accents of his speech were different.
e360e8ff31ca2e5e8b7a4a382831812a53721b97	Absolutely different facial expressions and movements.
b5fd766f043bb0038bdddf1dcd0e677fe29239d7	He sat on the chair in different ways!
ebed070481a2454a9110ae677684b78420ffe69d	The fact is that even a talented actor needs some time to transform.
0546ec71bb1483ffcd12a651c442ef8814af3503	To create a reliable image, you need to work it out, comprehend it, get used to it and masterfully embody it, copying the appropriate facial expressions, level of intelligence, style of behavior.
6ff97914ea3787a50206e85a66dc43487504dfb7	Billy's roles were replaced instantly by one another.
fc8f063e1ccf0be8b0d886bd0d6451564b06c73e	You could have a three-year-old child sitting in a chair like a child and talking accordingly, and then, in the blink of an eye, Milligan transformed and became a mature teacher demonstrating a high level of knowledge and way of thinking.
0f7e7be76b51f6cca5b4714a7b3d3bb5d755be27	His images and personalities were absolutely alive: they had different accents, different ages and genders, different experiences and completely different characters
98393134f2142530948be5a6275b6e8883e5e5d2	Doctors examined Milligan, performing all imaginable experiments and studies, but even the most skeptical ones confirmed that Milligan could not simulate this.
94aa41f33711a4479daac369ce78e3a9742ddc5d	The fact is that, unfortunately, no one has any grounds to claim that Milligan's presence of 23 personalities was true
f0c57f93680c658dc53984087955c1eb87d2e0fb	There is not a single published official document that would describe the true mental state of Billy.
428183e4e6cd3de8e3489aca6e04fc68c537a968	After the criminal trial, no documents about his psychiatric examination, not a single page from the criminal case, nor interrogation documents or medical records were ever provided to the court of specialists and the public.
7e2b63fb41a741415a8563c33438c52653a1f323	If we try to start only from dry facts, there is nothing tangible that could convince us of the existence of Milligan of those personalities that Daniel Keyes described in his book.
9a245e9ff2961a3396e2fc695d292f944ad9c9df	And then the presence of 23 characters in Milligan's head is a matter of faith, not the truth.
2eea99d5073bf494f2517f559c23949038f148e5	If there are no facts about the presence of multiple personality syndrome in Milligan, then on the basis of what this criminal was sent not to prison, but to a psychiatric hospital?
8bad0685ea5c460006a112f5b20e470582618656	The conviction of some psychiatrists played a cruel joke on everyone, making them believe that Milligan should be pitied, not condemned.
0f96fc14892a7915ff38431261b35c124edac390	According to Milligan himself, he was subjected to severe violence from his stepfather from an early age.
879d7e90b1d3986018b83c4ab679b885e419d4b0	With this confession, Billy formed an opinion of himself as a victim of child abuse, as a person who, having no other options, defended himself in such an extravagant way from the cruel world.
64df9fff05670456d3838976b6e48889ac1bb289	In 1988, after passing several commissions for mental examination, William Milligan was recognized by doctors as completely cured.
31bf42518d84b574dbbe5311baa9a024ab1448f8	After spending more than 11 years of his life in the most terrible mental hospitals and prisons, he finally finds himself free and, it seems to me, that with his torments he has fully paid for his sins before people and the law.
f80e931ef2888c4bdeed7b35e3ab23b6dda8118b	Starting in 1996, Milligan's affairs began to deteriorate again.
17780030c404a284d840e432f61b52d72c011923	He was considered by the community to be already a healthy person, and therefore had to pay the bills.
1e16a8b47fab4fbd8fec3769d5f93f633c134f34	In addition, the Ohio court suddenly remembered that someone must pay for Milligan's treatment.
bd6a3834d32192f259f00e173348841e42e0b3c3	It is difficult for me to imagine the state of a person who has received a bill of $ 120,000. He spent 11 years of his life in mental hospitals and prisons, having experienced all possible experiments of psychiatrists and supervisors.
84b5858366852ed0e002faa423fb3b23c59be19b	declaring himself bankrupt, he disappears forever from the field of view of all researchers.
e78589d8acc47f2409036d736738494551653c7b	To date, it is impossible to verify most of the information about the true state of Billy Milligan's psyche at the time of his arrest, because time "erases traces in the sand".
506d3672c4c471e9d74721467340da77477bdf62	His lawyers are dead, and Dr. Cole and Dr. Harding are also dead.
04c0b530e428808decb4b68a4ea5ac3b892b7c21	On December 16, 2014, WBNS 10TV reported that Milligan died in a Columbus, Ohio nursing home.
7fcee2d167cc8f9f7dec30702a996098d9673ae9	Milligan, Billy
dd46da6e92922ea8c6d1da53bfb9b2c8028f8f1e	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname Milligan.
867d48cceb696fd496d61d4be9fa7fb32e6a814e	William Stanley (Billy) Milligan William Stanley Milligan
87bc577233e6457841f02fce78743748acbc7375	Date of birth: February 14, 1955(1955-02-14)
15c14145cf8bfdec489879b6633bf5261e2baf28	Place of birth: Miami Beach, Florida, USA
22d5b322ead8d8f47ec8be5161f53f45e5d7a672	Citizenship: USA USA
303325af2a4e81b4c8360844cd3a997bf5357878	Date of death: December 12, 2014(2014-12-12) (59 years old)
b2f7f1365831131aa83dfb5fc3a1abb2232a87ad	Place of death: Columbus, Ohio, USA
075677e07b2ade98d4c3ddf891ba4f879b40e48f	Crimes Crimes: robberies, rapes
ed339b4113ad362ff014cac3548531008a46d832	Period of commission: 1977
177cbb5399793279a751395e1fb8914b0eb0eefd	Region of commission: Ohio, USA
255356218115d516142a443bd9e42658f5706ae0	Motive: mental disorder
dcaa5b5e38cbaebd16a26a204579a6b01d7689d8	Date of arrest: October 1977
f236ac34b3fa4d4d4520d63c769de041459d46cb	He was accused of: kidnapping, robbery, rape
f62368b718928456ae31cb921c19c675a988c4ee	Punishment: compulsory treatment
0febc9f4a130e96a89ccd4083a1a1fb158094725	Status: released in 1988
8b9f8d29008ce51a4477913c6bf0358631257203	In the late 1970s, he was tried in a well known trial in the state of Ohio, USA.
02bc81086501843165af85c26cc78d52fa6abe2d	Billy Milligan became the first person acquitted during the trial due to the diagnosis of "multiple personality" 2].
c75e56569f7a63978841d0bc75fc8dce2b0e0ff5	In 1988, after ten years in a psychiatric clinic, Milligan was recognized as recovered and released[2].
5ed8837a755b2f66090ccade9406168c5904bd7a	The story of Billy Milligan is told in the documentary novels by Daniel Keyes "The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan" and "Milligan's Wars".
1439efe4da312d3b92c48740e4d42d72fdd6aef7	Milligan had 24 full fledged personalities;
fe059896d2c205d380406f718cd7d3d1203939ce	10 of them were the main ones: Bill Milligan (main personality), Arthur, Ragen Vadaskovinich, Allen, Tommy, David, Kristin, Christopher, Adalana, Danny.
0ad2f08cbc1cb7c629fd083308ac4dc78fb3a987	1 Early years 2 Arrest and trial 3 Imprisonment 4 Alter personality 5 Activity after release 6 Death 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Literature 11 References
589ee29015de5966d9fd0534729e01b064a502c2	Early years[edit / edit wiki text]
1e15061f1601ce12dd4c2ceaa6e7ad4f82281c83	Milligan's mother, Dorothy, grew up in rural Ohio and lived in Circleville with her husband, Dick Jonas.
651659e71d12868f521b0a60a2fa235da3e7564f	After their divorce, Dorothy moved to Miami, where she began working as a singer.
ca77b2486d7765115b1d8e03d58099995eefb63e	In Miami, she met and got together with a married comedian Johnny Morrison, a Jew.
f1e31df9806ce94c5bdbbfff9608324930f4d3f1	[3]
0b1f0b5a7616fc07549cd1e5a7e9ffb722f1059b	In October 1953, Dorothy and Johnny had a son, Jimbo.
e826da5f4d3a8dc1e866c4a76612738737186e97	On February 14, 1955, their second son, William Stanley, later known as Billy Milligan, was born in Miami Beach.
230bb4d3600be56a9ea677167a2f93300a546e49	In December 1956, Katie Jo was born.
ec84fca893beaae2ae6a9931738b899df9555f1c	By that time, Johnny was 36 years old.
30fb391f6bac7954564b7ad1578e1b9cf2b4a090	According to biographer Daniel Keyes, " ... the medical expenses crushed Johnny.
164c631c4fd9febfd6495ba719f141bf3604fcf4	He borrowed a lot of money, drank a lot.
63d72e5980e95a2e0d002c9e042772960c733467	He was hospitalized due to alcoholism and depression in 1958."
87a5e076e231e475b298d0ce8d04286fcb00dc42	There was an unsuccessful suicide attempt — according to Keyes, " Dorothy found him fallen, and there was a bottle of whiskey on the table and an empty bottle of sleeping pills on the floor."
100c0ccb9e0323dff0baf87f20d4d90613347558	A few months later, on January 17, 1959, Johnny committed suicide — he was poisoned by carbon monoxide.
8ef3ad7891aef7a9c0b6403b72c62c0c958338f1	Dorothy and her children returned from Miami to Circleville, where she re entered into an alliance with Dick Jonas.
bb7c792e7f293000b6fc54a922eabb9d362baac6	The marriage lasted about a year.
31640462d58874a911b3fd3ca058b5b9e2d680a4	In 1962, Dorothy met Chalmer Milligan (1927-1988).
44d44c713dc59bb3936e2b20aeb7ef8dbafaa196	Chalmer's first wife divorced him because of "gross neglect".
569cf7d995f5cd175438460f08619c40d18e004e	Chalmer had two daughters, one of whom, Turban — was the same age as Billy.
3017dbed31b1d745b72a5459f66adb6b57b1364c	On October 27, 1963, Dorothy and Chalmer were married.
844f5e7a8d36132cfca0f2786b0f9bd2f7ca7333	Chalmer was later accused of raping Billy.
96752df2f755d24249b5a8b30736d30bd8044324	According to Billy's testimony, already at the age of eight, his other personalities appeared it was when his stepfather tied him up in a barn and raped him for the first time.
9d2f1e42d5528437bf942827a6794c3e3737615e	Arrest and trial[edit / edit wiki text]
63d465f08695906bc1c85690024eefbfeb6cfb6b	Milligan during the trial
64ec27ef678867324e1680e6728db6b4093ae426	In 1975, for armed robbery and robbery of a pharmacy, Milligan was imprisoned in the Lebanon Correctional Institution of Ohio.
f37bafa4d80655f5a245b9da828986595d8efdab	In early 1977, he was released on parole.
ebfd40a33964c1fb1db84e4606224991bd382996	However, in October 1977, Milligan was arrested again.
900d481424fbf5bf208ac4210d672839505fa21f	This time for the rape of three women on the campus of the Ohio State University.
e7ab019f0ea6ffe97a578600e1aafcc862399f8b	Milligan was identified by one of the victims from a photo in a police file, and his fingerprints were found on the other victim's car.
20ef4180fda82deea21fd01987c596a559e85e9c	Since Milligan used a weapon, several units of which were found during a search of his home, he also violated the conditions of his parole.
7756ea1c95a0f7a4a63d45ba0f322d7fcb6bd294	As a result, he was convicted on " ... three counts of kidnapping, three counts of robbery and four counts of violence."
b0c6f9a35d45059c5cf10686fac4d7980871d4f1	During the preparation of his defense by Dr. Willis K. Driscoll conducted a psychological examination, as a result of which Milligan's condition was assessed as acute schizophrenia.
30466cb4fac1957734dc9638596e2010ccf77e33	After that, he was examined by Dorothy Turner, a psychologist at the Southwest Community Mental Health Center in Columbus, Ohio.
69dccdf218c9aa1b65fabea59f3bfbe657c4ca2e	During this examination, Turner came to the conclusion that Milligan suffers from multiple personality disorder.
08dba6148885c26222a7d738e7c04029eac801cc	Milligan's public defenders, Gary Schweikart and Judy Stevenson, obtained a declaration of the defendant's insanity, after which he was transferred to a psychiatric clinic "until his mental health returns".
19b46e92044111b5fd11c394ea45817fd4cf7aff	Deprivation of liberty[edit / edit wiki text]
40304045ae738a0971fc357259bebeb77d00b095	Milligan was placed in one of the state psychiatric hospitals, the Athens Mental Health Center, where, according to the court, he did not receive sufficient help for recovery.
6db9cbee47e8369c58ca951f9ac8fa3eb89b7ea8	While he was in this hospital, Milligan reported having ten different personalities.
f19e12915d8debf485a9f2c2d63cfc90330bfac2	Later, psychiatrist David Kola discovered 14 more individuals labeled as "undesirable".
a6354084341b086f31617d62a04a25954b20e216	Among the first ten was Arthur, a prim and arrogant Englishman;
d4355b6edb4bf404a734ea626734723b768c2151	Allen, a fraudster and manipulator;
938fd1275a350e8c58eefc06a8f8620481ea0196	Ragen Vadaskovinic, a Yugoslav communist, a "keeper of hatred"; and Adalana, a 19 year old lesbian who craved intimacy and was subsequently found guilty of rapes.
488f20d4462f074a7421e56bd5edde3ca9504040	Alter personality[edit / edit wiki text]
01f66292af201216aa1a277e26e592e1de7a4055	The description is based on the book "The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan"by Daniel Keyes.
970d6725bf90abcb743d010148bbffb93397dd92	Billy Milligan's alter personalities appeared at the age of 3-4 years (an unnamed boy with whom he played, and Kristin, who took care of her younger sister).
bdfa8415eb3c89f6b28731658ac1d74c48fc12be	The number of personalities increased at the age of 8-9 years, when little Billy was repeatedly raped and beaten by his stepfather.
16a6fa9bf68143866b9faae848ef94aa113a7248	10 individuals were considered basic (the description is given as of 1977-1978, during treatment).
6db97cca419f91027bfed39dfe043d55cdfc403b	Billy the original William Stanley Milligan, is the main personality, is suicidal.
32c56cbc09a4860bbc9874af68c732f2e44d4cfa	Arthur Smith is 22 years old, a refined, educated Englishman.
9b20462c8cd59e85631550fcb0bf58fb2c7dc439	An expert in science and medicine, with a focus on hematology.
036eb441e07109c4f4a4f3db7a49823a96e7e9e2	He independently studied Arabic (to study the inscriptions on the Egyptian pyramids) and Swahili.
d74dffe1d53a52a13f1524a1be95b8d108010b06	With the help of logic and deduction, he found out that he was not alone in Milligan's body, and identified the other personalities.
e058d3025833220c4b7086dce6f26adf9033d984	Along with Ragen, he took responsibility for the common body — except for dangerous situations.
9d4858525b718fb95dd35e22fb14f4aa03623039	He established rules of conduct for the rest of the" family members " — Milligan's personalities.
8ff9ff8b2222064fadc6ed237bcd342e27b08c83	Smokes a pipe.
7769dd87b4445c0392566f90ae3fd5a438dcd52c	An atheist.
0f9932b26af73bf1b7626b2699caf18194bef03a	Ragen Vadaskovinic yugoslav, 23 years old, has a Slavic accent in English, writes and speaks Serbo Croatian.
57eaf46c83076ff872d3a33d87020a74657bdb53	Colorblind, so he writes monochrome paintings.
a35c49cc6f0aeb2e515eaf34542db1ebf509a5e7	He is the "keeper of hatred".
89ba70d31dab3a389dc314e16b09429dfac33d52	A communist, an expert in weapons and ammunition, is responsible for physical fitness.
954c25ffc06c527377c314d8fbeafcd2289494a9	He has extraordinary strength, thanks to the fact that he knows "how to control the flow of adrenaline".
d09ba74fbc83787fb5fb975b9b028e8adb71814c	Ragen's weak point is women and children, he does not hesitate to help them if they are in trouble, even stealing food and things for them.
20fa6e52ef72e09d20b4e759cfd99371b83a8f32	He manages the basic actions in dangerous situations and, along with Arthur, can classify individuals as "undesirable".
1c24ff238628d2d0a95f9b0900a090c665643a41	Allen is 18 years old, a fraudster, a manipulator, has a wonderful eloquence.
4761483a95ca15392b694eac641a76308f9e762c	Most often communicates with the outside world.
3bd77e98ef40a325430e38efef9ad37228ef6583	Agnostic.
553004efa25f9c738cfa727b62f42daf02626fe2	He draws portraits, plays the drums.
866c0671877baec15fe03f61eee3f973fa49fa79	The only right handed person and the only one who smokes cigarettes.
09e89094e8c381e94ad46d185de800a78915c31f	Tommy is 16 years old, "the guardian of salvation".
c39aae405e5e6a2770164409f96e20c82c7305f5	According to his own words, he is often confused with Allen.
fa2c93e1a7fb570e31c4a743e98e3feab38ef24c	I independently understood electricity, the principles of operation of electrical and mechanical devices, locks.
f22d96d1fa41002f2fa3bc688d1346d4da582926	I learned to control my muscles and joints, to get rid of handcuffs and a straitjacket.
d115f8cbba5953b5b7cff1d6c85e6c34723009ca	He plays the saxophone, draws landscapes.
3a785533346ce7d60d46c64bcbf8817384338848	Danny is a scared 14 year old boy, afraid of people, especially men.
0af9389c37a7ea6e10935b196a1076b28b15d54f	He only draws still lifes, because he is afraid of the earth in any form — Chalmer once forced him to dig a grave and buried it in it, leaving only a hole for breathing David 8 years old, "keeper of pain".
6277bbc3cc2a260f28866e054c44072aa1ab1a21	He takes consciousness to take the pain of others.
24213e5b98a011ced2fd38128aef7acacf854f36	Kristin is a 3 year old Englishwoman, one of the first to manifest Billy's personality and the first to learn about the existence of someone else.
16e118f5608c70063d23136c754a51e7f6b32f4a	"A child for the corner" - she stood in the corner at school and at home if "Billy" was naughty, because unlike other personalities she did it calmly.
6994ade2d38da226c79e730bb228bfde76b02dd3	She has dyslexia, but Arthur teaches her to read and write.
3fa5293845dd29f10ad04c66361218d26fa9f29c	Ragen has a special affection for her.
eb97e1b701f4f597edd2b834b873cd56eac3fa62	The favorite of the "family".
1b298a8d497fb90dfcf7b7bd142e5066107d6439	Christopher Kristin's brother, 13 years old, plays the harmonica.
bf56e5083edca8da8e730fb0ae9d1a0299ae42f3	Adalana is a 19 year old active lesbian.
493f6694a5cbc2a600fa82232594f02464e416ca	Cooks, puts things in order in the "family", writes poetry.
2b3f40915e904cc582b3680a6a245514389815fa	It has the ability to occupy the body.
3d7e94825c97b89e2b6c2a9bacbae0ab7cb60c8a	It was she who was engaged in rapes, in order to get warmth, affection and love, she needed hugs.
c58fdea7ba20b40721e17feabb698e32a2ef0ca4	Until the moment of her arrest, only Arthur and Kristin knew about her existence.
ec4487f5a5f885c0c359c33df86cf8c3dbd134e5	She was declared an undesirable person by Arthur: she was forever forbidden to "get up on the spot" (that is, to keep consciousness) and ever take time.
ecd3526617c3340e31e4732b9288411ea18db788	13 other personalities were declared undesirable by Arthur and Ragen for certain actions (antisocial behavior, violation of rules, etc.).
394bc2b33eb3614939bdcf83bbbe6c97675bbc6d	Unwanted
a2924fd72c64b56736328accc2fafd2e6ccb8899	Phil is a Brooklynite with a pronounced accent.
ace7f7c97d9b2c613b28a2cce157d83170bd0ffb	A criminal element, engaged in drug trafficking, participated in armed robberies of homosexual couples, waiting for victims in parking lots near the highway.
a4286f0e02603f323d560a470f8b5d954d6b3658	Kevin Phil's friend, developed a plan to rob a pharmacy, and then stole the loot from his comrades in the case.
33b9bc3de32bc5ae835570be14f65c807ccebe7c	Later, during his stay at a high security clinic in Lima, as a sign of gratitude for the uprising against the orderlies who beat the clinic's patients, Arthur crossed Kevin off the list of undesirable.
9c6013d36d0a18af5cf1295e71eb52d64a6c7a09	Walter Milligan is an Australian hunter.
2788c3182fd483acecf6cdc6c1b62ee72ee229da	He was admitted to the body when his ability to find the right direction was required.
f647e4672a07d4a36cdee0e7b20a75058b0f1907	Arthur took him to the undesirable for "barbarism" - the murder of a crow in the forest.
cf673e748b0e860a029b65e308cc4041f75c3b85	Later, Arthur admitted that he made too harsh a decision under the influence of emotions, but did not cancel it.
03ce77108eb0cbb9859d760360c322cea971ccad	April is a black haired, dark eyed, slender girl with a Boston accent.
ab9d0b66b308e8dbae79ad9c84a7a652962f6520	She was obsessed with the idea of killing Billy's stepfather.
27b76772fd91d7ebddeca04c950972e25f46126a	Declared undesirable after convincing Ragen to kill Chalmer.
f958a62dee8d473969d69bb62385de3964465d3c	Arthur, calling Christine, was able to persuade Ragen not to commit murder.
9ca15460792a1b80a23f71a6ce986ccebe56f199	Samuel is a religious Jew.
051f14d80c89bd13d2ae2437af1e48b34b412b27	He was considered undesirable by Arthur for selling a picture of Allen and Tommy.
218a703bcdc0bcd7c606d44771540406303f3391	The only religious person.
6fe33c0d4b37b5cb9cb1dedc813b87b58261f45c	Mark is a "workhorse".
8323f75627f3c98eb89a0b91915af30aa418ff58	He is often referred to as a zombie, because he does nothing if he is not told, and stares at the wall when everyone gets bored.
d2a75f52f4c530d4904eabc4a42d9f4e73099af1	Lee is a joker and a wit.
dae21673d3e5d3a3dac6aa4f20933522f8b1ec13	For the first time he began to manage the body in a Lebanese prison and at the same time was declared undesirable for the fact that his jokes went too far and threatened the "family".
b164f1a7d35ecad8e24443c388eaaf052971ab1d	After that, he preferred to disappear from consciousness altogether.
6cc4fddb2f83cd51e73f2f7c2a0ffab7b1378ed2	Steve is a parodist, he was called up in prison after Lee's exile, because he knew how to make people laugh.
75c1dd4088188e483c77c89354b24cc0663258ec	He infuriated Ragen by parodying his accent, and Arthur by talking in Cockney.
962f74235f99f97d2fef937b1fb10371f48bb0f4	He was caught mimicking the prison warden, as a result of which Milligan was placed in the ISO the lator, after that, was considered undesirable.
ec0a2bd36da80643a6e2f71d8a98bf0124e705be	Jason — "pressure valve".
25ada2d1140e3c28530f1a294cc41a55b04008e9	It was used as a child to release tension, but it constantly led to difficult situations.
95b0c5bdd5128bf15393c8ee8f38dc2b38c8dcfb	Bobby (Robbert) is an inactive dreamer.
d80bb0a7ce3636ceb481720ec966587d366661b1	He dreamed of adventures, saw himself as an actor, a traveler, a hero, but did not want to do anything specific for this.
7982eaff78fb8eaf56193a7a1279b22529fd461a	He went on a hunger strike, for which he was classified as "undesirable" — a good physical condition was necessary in prison conditions.
43c1b635a55d2c8b29dd1921c366d3b6567aea13	Sean is a deaf boy with a developmental delay.
77ffa2948ed9ff8e310f468d631a42cda4d74ffd	He occupied his consciousness as a child, when Billy was punished and yelled at him.
b9893e11969ecc32c62d8a03d2f9f60e95eb9a90	Because of his deafness, he often buzzed, listening to the sounds echoing in his head.
79d8c13b0b22d51a89620b1d4377ba4a4c8a1d33	It was classified as undesirable, since it was not necessary in adulthood.
f515186a77e5ec1180996ddf779a6a4aafe9ffbf	Martin is a snob and a braggart from New York.
2666b75423c235205f3bcde78fbb9558eaac21fa	Arthur classified it as undesirable due to the lack of desire for self improvement.
49265b56581467d543482b6004babedfb8594b84	Timothy worked in a flower shop as a flower seller, until he ran into a homosexual who flirted with him.
e08821d835f03fd59da39a830f7f0a2e83f685aa	After that, he withdrew into his own world.
5618d1881f2439fcd55b48590a42d381ff0ed22d	The unifying personality was the Teacher, who first clearly manifested himself during Billy's course of treatment at the Athens Mental Health Center.
7cdf04416ccfa25a40f02d8f84f41ff112bfc6a6	It was he who helped Keyes tell the story of Billy Milligan, as he was able to remember those episodes that were not available to the rest of the "family".
356ae557bae0cd919966b2dd77559cb1b61e88c7	Some of Billy Milligan's personalities were gifted artists and musicians, while each specialized in a separate direction in painting/drawing or a musical instrument.
bb37cfd94b490ba730a5706890f3e32034fad005	All 24 had a different IQ and different EEG data.
f1d136d1faa8c959e990ea38ac5818bb007b02a0	The data of the IQ test conducted at the Hardin Clinic:
f40a357717468f2a4770c860e1a9bbdad350d535	Arthur refused to be tested, because it is below his dignity.
d50e779a60c68b0031902efb70b7c1481497cbc1	He is very intellectually developed and uses this to maintain a dominant position among others.
6981ee1576a46d9f33b28ac3ce2488ac7a09507f	Ragen Vadaskovinich speech 114, behavior 120, general level 119.
1319036b45bbad6b23dd71dcd00503da11c446f2	Allen speech 105, behavior 130, general level 120.
2d41a8148e60b40b67cb820e5e4ca28ff05fa9fb	Tommy speech 81, behavior 96, general level 87.
d9cdfda617285d4ce61dea3847312235a1985ab8	Denny speech 69, behavior 75, general level 71.
4cb2f68ec1ff4b1bdc8dda27a4e880489beb6fa2	The reaction to the Rorschach test showed poorly concealed hostility and the need for external support.
6e3e12efbcc4df077998769b5c8271a6f5868a30	David speech 68, behavior 72, general level 69.
0bfe9f1388de6ee95e5615f80cfc6973714d6d37	Kristin is too young for testing.
a698ddddc67f88969c2dec2dd86e68d2cae9c729	Christopher speech 98, behavior 108, general level 102.
d50bc5c3068aa01bc38e249bacb6bc8d7168b1ee	Adalana did not want to "go out" for tests.
177fe5c7e6386e95b9548287f645b5f728122ca3	A few common features: signs of a female personality, an extremely developed Super Ego, which can disappear with strong anger.
528a63d8d61e9a293c9267c7c5b152bb47d94aae	No evidence of a psychotic process or schizophrenic thinking was found[4]
2c68dcbbe1ec1094a61538e26966f175483b16a0	Post liberation activities[edit / edit wiki text]
6e88f30fbfc1bb481c281a204e533f1fd0c20c48	It is known that in 1996 he lived in California, owned a small film studio "Stormy Life Productions" and was going to make a short film (which, apparently, was never released).
462469b792fc1639fe0b7423b8feffaf7f2d1f01	Later, he declared bankruptcy, then the place of residence and occupation of William Milligan are unknown, all his former acquaintances lost contact with him (he did not even receive his money left after paying off debts in bankruptcy)[2].
9ca8a8416a52661dadeaef02f473b1077a68b139	According to his lawyer, Bruce Tabit, "on some walls of the rooms of his house there are beautiful frescoes, others are covered with mathematical formulas.
a6d53ec674fbb8b5c66b9ddfca979d39a9239de4	It's beyond human ability to know everything about Billy Milligan."
958384066a67f0783e6699dc56e7b0e7d5686a6a	Death[edit / edit wiki text]
2b15c221261c3e45a4173f83e949ef25332a2ac3	He was 59 years old[5].
46b59a551cd6c0350a0dcd30725e6cabc88854e8	In popular culture[edit / edit wiki text]
302accb0d99eafb9ba3fa09a760764c756567f68	At the moment[when?] the filming of the film about the life of Billy Milligan "The Crowded Room"continues.
85ff1fe53a0062e95579d88d7bfe9eb02b40ebf4	The script was written back in 1997 by Todd Graff with the participation of Danny DeVito.
a7ae53f0522318d4f317fa0625c93d105b8a6d97	Initially, James Cameron was supposed to act as a director.
e234e2310d2ae32632332b8a801953173f5f04ee	During the ten years of the project's existence, Johnny Depp, Brad Pitt, Sean Penn, Colin Farrell and others expressed interest in playing the main role in the film, some of them were personally consulted by Milligan.
c558eae16c870bb93e56484080bdfea5388bb9fb	In March 2015, it became known that the role went to Leonardo DiCaprio, who sought to play it for 20 years.
c008a79fc66bdf21260c41e27ecefe2420aa8663	The film will be produced by the actor's company Appian Way[6].
b6bd90a9c1e4be55a578f0f7e45ced583e4b6748	Multiple personality
463270a607f2755de4fe698c61ca7298151eab13	Ma Maureen Kocot Notorious Milligan, Who Claimed Multiple Personalities Led Him To Crime, Dies At Central Ohio Nursing Home, WBNS TV (English)Russian.
e30c89b99468b94271642e74a35ea298e511ef03	16.12.2014 ↑ 1 2 3 30 years later, multiple personality case still fascinates.
11d0e6a36b1d1a1ae6bcf4e711d5ea963ac2046d	A news article.
35e702e1aa1b19b2bdd46ebe3478beec080616f5	The Columbus Dispatch (English)Russian.
c1d2203621244157135e34dad349f93e67a7ea7b	(2007).
0735889046b978c4510233b8ae41d31d30d27fe3	Archived from the original source on July 25, 2013.
503ecc12f9eca390dfee1ec98feda03350772159	Keyes, Daniel.
6f90c4cdef4c904f5b843dd95572bc15fa29c3d5	Chapter 6.2 / / The Mysterious story of Billy Milligan = The Minds of Billy Milligan / translated from the English by Yu.
3d7d1c734b1e54de08b78c374782596f8927629a	Fedorova.
b1c3e36720214dc97f8fa8681b0cbbe96711d424	- Moscow: Eksmo, 2015.
9c4e3eb9ca0ae143f93bf134d5cb82e3e99d99ae	- p. 209 — - 576 p.
25e24c70798ff862082844368e534c3c83dbb2bb	— ISBN 978-5-699-77053-3.
b239cc4796954e2aa2bbd24ef5bd9dbedeccd888	↑ Daniel Keyes.
55807c586f4509035ac1bd863cc68d4c6d3143cd	The multiple minds of Billy Milligan.
ba185d9d11d8667bf907883d7a386272ac22ad99	- 1981.
62ce25a4068c0af44c65416b337914bf61067f88	↑ Billy Milligan | 1955-2014: Man with Famous Insanity Plea Dies, The Columbus Dispatch (English)Russian, 16.12.2014 ↑ DiCaprio will play a maniac with 24 personalities based on the book about Billy Milligan, RIA Novosti (01.03.2015).
9b81720fabf9ef3ef978f34ea941ca8faf6b5200	Keyes D.
846fce64ffcd02dde1c4e90728e9f7b6b7b4aa1c	The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan = The Minds of Billy Milligan.
c784ab35ab3f7784eb49269a224f0aad8f1950e5	- Moscow: Eksmo, Domino, 2004 — - ISBN 5-699-07012-5.
bfb4b9801ba9ee47be7cd4c27146946e517eb50d	Keyes D. Milligan's Wars = The Milligan Wars.
4e1fcb6361625c6b6a7216db9e1e65e8e2461a42	— 1986.
b1119ed71d2061d5d20e7ce77f4c153c6e0e3851	At the moment, the book is published only in Japan, its publication in other languages is planned after the release of the film about Billy Milligan "The Crowded Room".
1cc2ece1c73191dd10ee60b958f14b98c66c1ee7	Chekushina, Ekaterina I happen a lot / / Maxim.
38129dfc1c15f7a46a77b4fa836b2770745c4acc	The multiple identities of William Milligan.
bc49befe0990b33e30b34ba9c7bef6cfc6eee2ab	30 years later, multiple personality case still fascinates (2007).
cc0e2f1d2495bc0482817408b04de91f18ce8d33	The script of the movie The Crowded Room.
0b1e3c699a1f7da1f43d4d85d442dc4eafebf49f	Flickr: Athens Lunatic Asylum.
feebcba35a9cc105a2d535974533b9327c024273	Flickr.
8de64877f26c20ba62ac2334f74a1aace007da4c	- Athens Psychiatric Health Center.
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352c47935863e1a8cb61e25771145c86bf34dd08	The personalities of Billy Milligan
d793a77dc00559ee1f7f59e574d225533293f96f	April 20, 2014
f64cd8e32f5ac7553c150bd05d6f2252bb73f68d	author
655e70e043f40fb35c49e9593785394f13c20f5b	Leave a comment
5dcbeb2bd27870f8864665f6d250442658591b9c	Interest in the personality, or personalities, of Billy Milligan has not subsided for 40 years.
f12df8e4f6361a0d81d842fc59c1d0288308182c	Billy is probably the most famous person today with a diagnosis of "multiple personality" (or split personality, dissociative identity disorder).
e76096df4f5ff36fe06ed8dc72471a2a22b1ef7e	Video about Billy Milligan
477c17a837574b8aefeb5faee2c5a450f3c9b315	The beginning of Billy's story
778d7eb32dc6e65e713f1132e0979f9375048dd8	The story of Billy Milligan is amazing not only because there were not even 2, but as many as 24 personalities in his mind, but also by how violently events unfolded around this man when he was accused of robberies and rapes.
1726578166abec916a1dabd41808541c3eb94597	From that moment on, the events of Billy Milligan's life resembled a Hollywood movie, the script for which was written by a man with a very violent imagination.
f933debdfd356309ad38b75c4762faced4257399	This exciting and at the same time sad story began at the moment when Billy Milligan was in prison on charges of rape.
98555dff689730c49ba7acbba5948b38f96a9c3b	At first, in the eyes of the employees, he was no different from those criminals who wanted to avoid punishment for insanity.
b9d30fd204fc7036e1b470d9b9d16c27d522b9e5	Probably, Billy's story would have ended in prison or a mental hospital, if not for the attentiveness of one of the employees, who noticed that every time she seemed to communicate with different people, talking to Billy.
4c2be87f406bea8777a972173f8e381f1867ebf1	He must be a very good actor if he can not only change his voice, but also his facial expressions, habits, accent, and demeanor.
50277fb821bf66e5e1ecd81e8b0074ccbc6473d6	Soon more and more people begin to be interested in Billy's case, and many doctors are inclined to believe that this is not an acting game at all: different personalities who have settled in the head of this 23 year old guy really communicate with them.
38298db601071db8b7e9743f9fcf25e267cb8c39	Some of the personalities behave arrogantly, some cry and are afraid of everything and everyone in the world, someone is very rude and has superhuman strength.
ab7c07590e8e1da0968ec3502ce87c4fd304e964	24 personalities of Billy Milligan
34a99029d1dbba51856e337873cea8c0b03c9950	After a long work of psychologists, it is possible to find out that there are as many as 24 personalities living in Billy's head, but only 10 of them are the main ones.
10b32dfb3b900972e5703acdd76a3cf0a7852d0a	Another 13 were deprived of the right to control consciousness for undesirable behavior (that is, committing crimes or other bad things that could harm everyone else).
3f0386b4a6c1658dc20d37c0f6ec8d6af88cceb0	It is interesting that all complex issues were solved together by only two main personalities: Arthur, a refined, witty and arrogant Englishman, and Ragen Vadaskovich, a Yugoslav communist with a Slavic accent, who is irreplaceable in dangerous situations with great physical strength.
ca3384604aca6e2c90560db75db649a9b55d62d1	Among the other main personalities, there were everyone: a child who possessed consciousness when Billy was experiencing fear or pain, and teenagers interested in mechanics, and a lesbian (who, as it turned out later, committed the same rapes of women), and Billy himself, who was not allowed to control consciousness for many years, because every time he found himself in new places, he was sure that he had done something terrible (which happened more than once) and tried to commit suicide.
fa1d6aa0ed98ec251255c5411bd039bc0b4a0975	The unifying personality for all 24 was the Teacher, who, according to the others, taught them everything they needed.
15db8a9ea808458c96dfe9bd86dee6faa5403eae	Psychiatric clinic
8d343dac29bf93997f70d057b00feca72838fbc0	Trial and acquittal
9dacb71ccb827624819e01941439c102530bda61	In the course of working with Billy and his personalities, it turned out that the rapes were committed by a lesbian Adalana, who thus tried to find love and affection that she did not receive in childhood, and the robberies were committed by another undesirable person who took possession of consciousness "illegally" while other personalities were "sleeping" immediately after the rape of the woman.
2b718431a36179f8a68d09f98a16994c444462f5	Billy was acquitted.
1651cf15e93364eb6fd0fe5077cd5710445c683a	The cause of the disease
e3c186e6abb70092a42bf3073055315349cfb0c7	But why did Billie's personality break up one day?
92a3a86fb2c3470a47fa2e49652799fd207e3f34	Doctors who studied his history believed that, although the first signs of a split personality began to manifest in Billy from the age of 5, the main catalyst for the disintegration was the cruelty and pedophilia of his stepfather: in order to somehow cope with stress and not experience the full horror of what is happening, Billy's brain created special personalities responsible for the experiences, and then the personalities necessary for other purposes.
d445a7420c9f57d68c70be5ccbaf8617b470e838	How did it all end
658e225a41176e6c3f7ccaa7c6dd574503dc82a6	After his release, Billy began to live a normal life, and even founded a small film studio, but soon lost contact with his friends, and his current location remains unknown.
7d4bfb21b431c1b6cdc0d2718ead7eaa56109a8a	The article is based on the book by Daniel Keyes "The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan", which was written at the request of Billy himself and from his words during the investigation and treatment.
371a87eafb4de078ff674d69a5a89c186532eb49	See also:
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e12f72aae498761aa56975a2aaef7798c7a37b91	Billy Milligan's Multiple Personalities — Dissociative Identity Disorder
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4f02fab134e38588d6d30c7603ae8282fe5308f3	It was a certain Billy Milligan — a 22 year old boy who had been convicted of rape and armed robbery two years earlier.
6489beb3255a1539acbb2a36a78301a26a522711	The strange behavior of the detainee first led the police to the idea that the suspect was faking a mental disorder in order to escape justice.
a9a484ff96ff154c9f9d6a6e70ccc41a5faaa596	But already in the process of preparing for the trial, the defense of the accused insisted on conducting a psychological examination conducted by Dr. Willis K. Driscoll.
524e0ef28169207442e4e2b14322255ce1adc055	Milligan's preliminary diagnosis was called acute schizophrenia.
6edf4026a5a28cf53d59ecdf1cc41c2b1d4d5e89	To accurately establish the disease, the suspect was examined at the Southwest Mental Health Center in Columbus.
55024f149f771045421360703b0c2f113bd273b0	Dorothy Turner, a psychologist who conducted the study, made a disappointing conclusion for the prosecution — Billy Milligan suffers from multiple personality disorder.
715c09241ba45260aa96830f1c5791b4a7b7d589	Milligan was declared insane, after which he was sent to a psychological health center for compulsory treatment.
fdd9712a5f37e9debd9ed444ab55c0900ebc361b	It would seem that there is nothing unusual here — a split personality is not such an outlandish disease.
c6301e6ccd7b5933ab238034bf6defaf268e1df0	But the fact is that Dorothy Turner, a psychologist who examined Milligan, stated at least ten personalities living in his body.
3990cda67959ac35b063aec13515ba8c0be363e5	Billy Milligan's Dissociative Identity Disorder
fa87c65ed25996d07b9682e64e0c58819c99c8d8	Ragen Yugoslav, speaks with a pronounced Slavic accent, writes and speaks Serbo Croatian.
da60cda4a1ce9fea17fae0c13d4e25aaa6fbb2b9	He is well versed in weapons, is an excellent shot, is very strong physically, owns the technique of hand to hand combat.
f112e40d9513b137519cfa95008a8c8ff054303b	Allen is an 18 - year old fraudster, he is eloquent and manipulates people perfectly.
91ed561e7d8eed378ffd6d0fc209cf7a190602e4	He can play the drums, draws portraits.
bc1d21f41193854970e21cf22f112e67689e355b	Only Allen of all the others is right handed and has a habit of smoking cigarettes.
fcb5b3e4958acb1cd2c3cd7b1a74474bda7b4a0d	Tommy is a 16 - year old boy who is perfectly versed in electricity and mechanics, knows how to open both mechanical and electric locks.
27939d273c51833c3d707a3eb68ab8e91aae1c67	Danny is a 14 year old boy, distrustful of people, very afraid of men.
7e20b3a9eba7f786e5ba8ef6c84dad4e72ba3cc6	David is an 8 year old boy who appears to take the pain.
869d01064b99cb25153abd956b64a38e9b351498	Christopher is a 13 year old Englishman who plays the harmonica.
4c0536dcf3b4644ef8090779fac2bca25bb65e1c	Sean is a 4 year old boy with a developmental delay, deaf.
06afba16c79a695d1dbde13aefe0d1b9fa31bb54	Jason 13 years old a hysterical personality through which the tense situations that arose in Billy's childhood were removed, most often such "steam descents" led to difficult situations.
6e03ee17672592b8b5f844899980cecb1172ff38	Mark is 16 years old — a non initiative and inactive person.
3c633d1912244fbea7f0424661ecbf0623f37f33	Bobby is a 17 — year old would be dreamer who imagines himself to be an actor, a traveler or a hero, a favorite of the public.
3361dff10376e04abe3aa63d364dfc8d299ba464	Martin is 19 years old a resident of New York.
9b45ba3d9ee4f57c7b783770a7fe4d3e0014b927	Boastful and self satisfied.
0cb9a7c84312a06b05332e12842327d2de46db4d	Samuel 18 years old is a devout Jew.
d60608ce7573c7880be0619da473f7101a2fee98	Kevin 20 years old is a friend of Phil.
06da963f8a3b76c7a2636d585c14405b6c6699fc	Billy Milligan was declared recovered in 1988, that is, ten years after being forcibly placed in a psychiatric medical institution.
b1e89a6368aa5c0e20d814058d256ab1bc8ec139	There is information that in 1996 Milligan owned a small film studio located in California.
928d538c767ff25c516fdd04183c7694057f1eb1	At the moment, the location and occupation of William Milligan are unknown.
5d6399a0c399e0bd46daaacf8862353fb9ffc819	(5 votes, average: 5,00 out of 5)
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05d7ca4c67b3d60bde2608cf5843787320183a82	betaplentavsetemypodborkingpravilapartneramto solve the question
42518a40a5825b1d0f286b60cca1ecf51050d787	Dana Okomaniuk Did Billy Milligan have 24 personalities?
b926403ed450aada054e4a1aea70de5e1c34f7c2	Or was he artfully pretending?
f3a36bc66d51d9340de1fdf4e3622cc4382e9a73	Psychology Personality Psychology Literature Crimes
4556fcf6979329a70809150f3e61955bc672726a	Subscribe 15
feba5b00aa45ad164530435ce81ea1da4b2b66db	5464
77de68daecd823babbb58edb1c8e14d7106e83bb	3
5a8dfbed4287ae343c1a8316fb9bc3b8cec30c53	Complain
1a073c5e5c80aef97a035be124e29dfd7ff56492	December 31, 02: 04
3295734f7905327707575fe7a72177facc5cb128	January 1, 13: 40
7708f6a4aff26dee26f8413504dd5bc9d7cfb87c	Masha Belozerovaslovoblud
c2c9dd90388c2abe3b0796ef62cbff2be9d5342a	That's all.
9cb7ae1cc6d3ac6e3c7dc63baa14f05375f9f3da	To begin with, pay attention to the list of references that Wikipedia cites as arguments: wikipedia.org These are not scientific studies, these are not documents of court sessions or psychiatric examinations, they are not even eyewitness testimonies - there is not a single de facto/ de jure document confirming the validity.
16dc821d3489eb5a25d365c5bd37a63ec6421807	This is one time.
0073405da169757d72865fb459b01fd808de4f8e	As we remember, all the personalities were full fledged, clearly drawn - this is confirmed by both Billy and Kiz.
61bdec6764a8cf015b53dd0dd5207cc24179449f	But.
49b5bef381526a7877bfd30fb00e036a7f77fa05	" Samuel is a religious Jew.
2a3714e86a4190a14bfcef4222da583c1f56d6d8	The only religious person."
0f9ff44d2da3b1dc762914debfd5d7ecd153f4a2	That's two.
7ebe33b1b836b408dde2954306143a19d1d5aa33	As a result, after digging through the Internet, I found an article that does not leave a stone unturned from Billy's story, I will give only three arguments, the rest are at the link: truecrime."I received all the material of this book from this solid Milligan, from his other personalities and from sixty two people whose paths crossed with him at different stages of his life.
7b9cfe8e490460f159252ad863b8c7be57bfd469	Scenes and dialogues are recreated from Milligan's memories.
3f15fecb5d6d465bc51dcef42c9060ea7b060da7	The therapy sessions are taken directly from the video recording.
1db248a84934f37ff9896751189ed357345251c2	I didnot invent anything."
27847a0aa3774acb4270ed1be094f8eb47564c51	At first glance, these words inspire hope that the Milligan riddle still exists, because there are significant factors in its defense.
78dbefab38de09b4bec743e367c2a018dc7a9e1b	Keyes talks about recreating Milligan's story, giving three arguments to prove it.
7e952624791a770261f9beb398bb5dd956bc686c	Let's look at them in detail.
6b79171aecfd1cd97f6f3d1887a2cc2df3c819fc	1 argument – the stories of Milligan himself.
7d7ca491d1b20df1ecf697e40e5f19e38b7c610c	If you believe Keyes that these very conversations really took place with them, are they objective proof?
f2abb1a2f95a4f93fe16a85e476f8dcdcd18e39a	I'm afraid the answer to this question is obvious to everyone.
de34fe498ae9406e21caaa838dad804e44ac78b7	This is subjective, not objective.
4c6b53db7e85744793225babdbd5d20245a49552	And, unfortunately, this argument cannot be taken seriously.
8659e1ece5097ed8e24b6e5873a75b0afd70d7d9	2 argument – 62 people "whose paths crossed with him at different stages of life."
e068770dd2b95ba9059e316388473f66e9e6471d	Obviously, this refers to Milligan's relatives and friends.
f545aada75fb54b8864338aa8cee1d5943c0d245	You can try to find at least one statement of a person familiar with Milligan on the Internet or in the media, but you will fail.
a284472cb54bbcf125ffe80ade6d922173fe7e37	There are no such statements or stories.
e2fc0d578c15455d2f67ea9a9e3f395aabe08b79	Americans who earn money and fame on the "dirty laundry" of any more or less famous person, in the case of Billy, are solidly silent.
33b7d087a7afb6549eb2683937f2589f16dd4457	No one has ever given interviews, told anything or written memoirs.
c5152761019cd103e5ea8fa5d67169e88e26702e	Meanwhile, this story is replicated and brings considerable dividends to Keyes himself.
b4b8914358dc5a99922b69e275353df9f6aaeefc	Where are all these 62 people, why do they keep the secret of Milligan so securely?
b76475357ac8da0fbc734b3c89a59b533a17f6ca	Every day, the media tear the veil from state and military secrets to us.
175b6bf2c47d1c4cd375eafb90b6122110f5a3f9	Take, for example, the story of Monica Lewinsky and not just a simple criminal, but the entire president of the United States – Bill Clinton, who was obviously a very private person.
03ea687d6fef027d290e9d33624a9d5ccb5391c1	How many details surfaced, Monica's friend Linda Tripp even recorded phone conversations with her, which became public knowledge and ridicule.
364a4e7826e9a2fde4e615ae16aa80ad4d492cb1	There were many statements, testimonies, interviews and even books.
b383999bdb0c9bc0f149992f2636f24039e8f281	But nothing about Milligan.
38870b5fe82b0727ec0ceca98aec6f26751e23f9	Is this a global conspiracy?
4d57d3323515260efa08dccf8854f4e058fd9c3f	I'm sorry, but I donot believe it.
147a18f0c2f35b75d0aff9a5c8e766520533d202	Decades have passed, and the story of Milligan is told only from the words of the science fiction writer Keyes.
617160c4ab22f7b0fc867f69a899f8e820ded00a	It seems to me that this is too little to prove the reality of the events.
09d225706314abb6e3d5f0f4c0135b7806248c97	Maybe I will doubt my own conclusion if the evidence appears after a while.
c17b0ebbebb0a60eaf4e368c865ad7dbcdf0c3bb	But they are not there yet.
e4a1c19855911a145994de4ea9f99b93aee96e7f	In addition, the 62 people referred to by Keyes are not named by him as specialists.
46ee43f7630da2113eef48da93dc9e3ad5089794	That is, they are just acquaintances, ordinary people, and not philologists, linguists, musicians who can professionally assess a person's abilities in the field of language knowledge, writing and playing musical instruments.
88cb4bb6ac6927542268763f6dc241722ccd288f	So who determined that, for example, one of Milligan's personalities - Ragen Vadaskovinic speaks and writes perfectly in Serbian and Croatian?
8039780a086f27a13b84e2d0427c06911fdc1faf	Thus, the second argument of Keyes can also be seriously questioned.
ed921e62da289e9e411b8500f7ae2d40d999dcee	3 argument – therapy sessions that are taken from the video.
ba7dcd18cd70625c5712657ae8750b56e3a88515	That is, firstly, this is not a video recording of a forensic psychiatric examination, but a video recording of a therapy session.
58a1ec8ef126d0ce6e495248814202454bba58a7	And therapy can be quite different, especially for psychiatrists healers of human souls.
ce1e1dbd9839a4101c79c1432dea183eaf4ba128	As one such well known aesculapius said: "we treat people we donot know well with poorly studied methods for diseases that are completely unknown to us."
07401d7e1db2a582242a2f10dcebf39be26c5687	I really wanted to find at least one video with Billy Milligan.
d101795e211eaf12ecfbe6a9a398a3dd8601134b	After seeing everything with my own eyes, even just starting from the information of the video series, I was ready to believe in the uniqueness of Milligan, in his incredible change of disguises.
70df220dc69bbfb0d7e31ecb31f62ecd88983553	But even here I failed.
58c2c5ed638468e7eca7a63c8111c971627528da	There are no published videos of this unusual person.
b0d06ebaa39f07f2ded42ee60d4b67ebe9edda1c	In some short clips that roam the Internet, clips, by the way, for some reason of Japanese, and not American origin, there are second inserts of Milligan's video.
a3f56fdf3260d1db8e824586e04bf1c5df5e9505	They depict a person of absolutely normal appearance, neat and cute, with the usual, healthy gestures of an adult.
d5ad7425ec315ff6c428998a1613fce5339e29b2	They do not show anything abnormal, there are no visible signs of the manifestation of his different personalities.
3d2285f43251f6f01614db23cc37006828fceab1	That is, it was not possible to make sure of anything here either.
831fc84a7c1fa9b62c518128a50b4e3c37658712	So where are the full records?
1e2276bb4dfd9e24d59a1fd1c227b6170ce0c0f2	They are obviously there, since inserts of them are used in clips.
c97bb24a2b26c4ab7ed0742371ab1addf5428dab	But these scenes last no more than a few seconds, they are the same in different videos.
6760df87271a99318ca90a29d3b48fd6ed85b197	If there are complete videotapes somewhere, why arenot those fragments used that would clearly prove the change of Milligan's personalities?
30a633e22875c16e88cd16fb59d17fd7ca58c1b3	Why, as soon as it concerns any facts, and not speculation, it turns out that there is nothing?
0a390e2d49a83e0d7a8cd1ebbc45df8ffacd028a	Again, a universal conspiracy and complete concealment of information?
a027ea8900fb40b0f89dd41518fe2017f65dc7dc	So, as you can see, there is no evidence.
39aaf957077e865deb8fae8f6c3b76259c3d8ddc	And then the presence of 23 characters in Milligan's head is a matter of faith, not the truth."
af3e133428b9e25c55bc59fe534248e6a0c0f17b	40
b1d5781111d84f7b3fe45a0852e59758cd7a87e5	10
3c50109bae686a32f536879db6b2873f13300248	January 3, 09: 41
944539112ba808fa297e2dd051ab5befecb7c18f	Dmitry Vitalyevich is a practicing psychologist
806e3b4ec79d8654922361cb0c8525b9d2519bb6	Here I answered a similar question: thequestion.ru Copy paste from there: When I studied at the Faculty of psychology, as part of the course of clinical psychology, and then psychiatry, the teachers always told about this case.
2a837662af8206d559a0473dd9f723b70d6d33b9	And, oddly enough, in order not to search for a long time , they offered to read us Wikipedia.
a191687f338cf66be684ed3d938b1f9b40b67c98	So, they paid attention to the list of references, now it is like this: Keyes D.
0e8da9dac9ae52bcc5231b75b046a7a4db7020df	Two art books and one article in a men's magazine.
d702f0749a9cd76438718714ec087baf05fa9760	I have not found any scientific literature (really scientific, that is, publications based on research results) on this topic, at least at the time of studying at the Faculty of Psychology.
e13ca9a897f875ed5c91eff3a4cc40f91a8db12c	At the moment, there is a theory that Billy Milligan's disease is iatrogenic (that is, it appeared due to the influence of a doctor) or simply fictional.
a274c1d071e95423ab88661a37381c2ce1d77c90	If you look at the statistics of morbidity, then, after the popularization of the story of Billy Milligan, there was a sharp jump in appeals (as much as 40,000 in ten years! and this is from about 70 cases in the entire history).
a39ccde6176698cf2f5a676b5faeae41c10f5dac	Do not forget that the first case of fixing such a disorder occurred in judicial practice (Chris Sizemore tried to kill her own daughter).
b3c4ef768f8d2281ede26ea76d7dbd4e4b469f1d	In general, there is very little reason to trust the veracity of Billy's case.
7b538b4e68d52d374dbfa4932baaa4138eda9b81	Yes, mostly artistic authors wrote about the disease as a whole, and not doctors or psychologists who conducted the necessary research.
0ade7c2cf97f75d009975f4d720d1fa6c19f4897	9
f00ff643348b385d385534712cbd18773aa3e6ed	December 31, 21: 28
c9084089ad58d0a5b68b8a8177dab44a1eda8d95	Ilya Sadaw Automotive expert, novice IT specialist
6e30987747d418e23a47b9f3cf2396f49478c8c0	I donot think Billy was faking it.
8ad625e408af10155da4cfb72e4d3e24d4d6ef42	This is a world famous case in psychiatry; it has been investigated by hundreds of doctors around the world.
4b13ccc1b1c656c7d9336f7f6296976cc94c83a7	The conducted studies and analyses would certainly reveal the fact of forgery: no one will deceive a psychiatrist.
cb05b6320fb6f943efa569bf69d679a2ffb69cd1	In addition, to falsify 24 identities, you need to have exceptional abilities.
a5a8dd532aefc8c7241d41cfc14e07de75988ce0	This is far from being possible for everyone
3d81ef27eba95e8237b3f30072bc5c32bf8c0c35	-2
da4b9237bacccdf19c0760cab7aec4a8359010b0	2
138f3327651d6a91ca36e93f059dd2cc38cd91ac	If you know the answer to this question and can justify it in a reasoned way, do not hesitate to speak out and self invite a friend
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76d1b8e56da14b21cd1d64802957af926ae3cf9a	Today is January 30 Saturday
5363f83caa8f1c53450de5727f5dd03da8d49308	Billy Milligan
40ad637132deed3e020822cfd4cec2ce7f001165	Birthday: 14.02.1955
f0b3976536fe051596119f3a91f03bbdfafa6dd7	Age: 59 years
0d5b57e1245578879fd7716120b8e9ff0622beed	Place of birth: Miami Beach, Florida, USA Date of death: 12.12.2014 Place of death: Columbus, Ohio, USA
3fbc7c9a9a912fa634380c1bacc62d9d60c2760d	Citizenship: USA
f8364d1f206d28bdbc00d1ca2ab0e180478f645c	Similar: Billy, Milligan, William Stanley, Billy, Milligan
38f48731753977b8bd0ce9ecea48f914a11e45c1	Billy Milligan is an American, one of the most famous madmen in the world.
789e2c34b5454bea19b8b249d18e9adae95b3a32	After the crimes committed by him, Billy was examined, and the psychiatrists were then confused – it turned out that 24 different personalities got along inside this person.
9e920acae4a70278f572e878c15b1f980eda6e14	Meanwhile, Billy Milligan went down in history as the first person acquitted by a court due to a split personality.
f48951c6b8ad2853dfcc49f4285b35484f34347a	Author: Polina Chelpanova
4071af5bc89259e5c736578bca00483a29e91067	William Stanley Milligan was born in 1955 in Miami Beach.
da3e93c1dc9dc56d55a3f82a15488abf8f71a900	His mother Dorothy gave birth to Billy from a married man, a Jewish actor and comedian named Johnny Morrison, Billy was the second son of this couple, and later he and his older brother had a sister.
171bedc6141b670d9961e36e80e024cdadab149f	When Billy's biography was later thoroughly studied in connection with a psychiatric examination, it became known that from the mid 1950s his father began to drink a lot, started business and suffered from depression, which in 1959 led him to suicide.
c0205543368f4e42b67d0d27685499ed6a9c1508	So, soon it became known about 10 personalities that fit inside Billy, and after some time, psychiatrists found 14 more others.
bf9b10cfe57e0531f82b31fec358596be34bfcb0	Among those who interfered with the spiritual integrity of Billy Milligan were: an aristocratic Englishman named Arthur;
fe1aaee40f961a37c9d9c24a817be07d3370b42d	14 year old teenager Danny, who was very afraid of men;
613463e2baaf3506a9e00433f9cc123d2e4a744f	8 year old David, 'keeper of pain'; a 19 year old lesbian named Adalana; an Australian Walter; a deaf boy Sean with a developmental disability; a flower seller Timothy, and others.
d09b1556c1055a16759effebe267c9d7bda57a9b	Billy spent 10 years in a psychiatric hospital, after which he was released, as doctors stated that his identity was identified, "demons were exorcised", and Milligan's psyche can be considered stable.
b6524914bdf8529731a535d3c961e2cd2f18f52d	It is known that in the mid 1990s Milligan lived in California, where he tried to get into the film industry and even owned a film company 'Stormy Life Productions'.
665a9cb11075a4d0e5f743258a936d9f09af0491	However, he never made his promised film, and later disappeared altogether, breaking off contacts with his few acquaintances.
09616fb969c7a5401d9703611a95525c1358f34a	According to some sources, Billy Milligan still lives in California, works for an organization for the protection of children's rights, and is also engaged in several projects like helping illiterate prisoners get an education.
bb452538381826f0b2a0a997467eaeb2e7caa9bf	They say that he was very fond of painting, and his paintings cause admiring misunderstanding among the audience.
7974db14d0224615f2799538dffe9b1f98e4bf4e	Creator and performer of the immortal hit 'Wonderful Life' Visited:300 Shot in the stomach under water Visited:278 The last flight on the legendary Concorde Visited:209
35f4492444f326498c7c580218e75471f2633bef	Publication date: 04.02.2014 16: 29: 18
50f90eff6b5cfa9d623b79903f9b9df825138995	Death penalty with deferred execution Visited:858 Transvaal Poisoner Visited:743 The secret of longevity of a 113 year old British woman Visited: 1595
e1edff3139ada6c1468032ee6d2af8cc23a18193	Daniel Keyes, American writer and scholar of philology.
66577697313da98ba3643c6c5e8ecefe55027cc5	Billy Milligan, American, one of the world's most famous Mad Men, A rock band And, One, A fictional character, God
a9e2744d438c5339acf42b415b2af80ff595734c	Phrases: schizophrenia, men, understanding, biography, and others, ravda, sprout, o, middle, n and s, arthur, split personality, can
a4def9598ace63b0edd8a14b4054772b3ecf7a24	About the celebrity: An American, one of the most famous madmen in the world
ac368f8f193fbc5eb0b587126abf70b9357cadfe	Photos [1]
4dabd3bf0b1273fa7a139565f4413468e0cb3a24	Incorrect data about the poet
bf870db51c041edc826ea975455f9b5b92a0cf1f	[ Natalia Khatkina ]
0567c55761c004643cec24e585da2f0b5f1bdaae	Natalia Khatkina was a citizen of Ukraine, she lived and died in Donetsk in Ukraine.
79ef7f87b4d8e6190ffd850c7caca6feebd26d68	....
db86815d255c81aa45745cae0e86a2b54d32838f	ABBA Forever
74d668e340e1942e9e83318cf1c5b6ba2c6768d8	[ ABBA ]
12269bfea4401639597aa063712ad690a2b89ebc	the organizers of this proposal probably calculated for a long time how much they would make and whether they would remain in the black ....
fb9bf7d1ca40916b41b4beaa9c064d8d75035d48	Down with the morons
75c04dc027801b0e4f4f6d5e4133ed2a292983cd	[Mihai Ghimpu ]
2e05ca2a3a634de3c0d5c0c1a5f1729b4f3f0bea	tuporyley ue. bana only in ukroini will meet
b00c7faa4a019db95795efa8964165094d0673ca	How can you be such a condom ...
10b28a8c1e445017f5c61e4266d4b7ad9e9a3748	Full
5b50b8aaef6a78773ad4a1ca903faa5cbfab0888	V....
47249519ca7aa27daf6993e1e58cc093e1e27f20	How can you be such a bastard ... full
99b3afb9b9b35d7f6c07d11036e70b350a9a285b	Biography of Lyudmila Khityaeva (1279)
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3441d9434a1ea2b30ef9d2d0f45ec5b842715fb3	At the age of 78, I had a daughter...
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251e2de3fad7af36cb5242daa0dc94fb77400596	Marriage is the envy of many (521)
6cf119612734f6a8d4adbf9dfd4d0a75baf3f18e	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [86] radzuykevich [54] revaz chelebadze [54] olga berggolts [54] kadyrov renat [52] michael messerer [51] alexander berestov [50] kennedy [48] havaianas [48] Jesse Andrews [46] ginola [45] lully Jan batist [45] rostand [44] Igor Jurgens [44] Lorenzo Bandini [43] clark gregory [43] piccard [42] walsh [42] chotabaev [42] proskurin [41] irina nizina [41] berdella robert andrew [41] boyko [39] strozzi [39] aaatteenmiaki [39] bonya [38] Vileshez Herve [37] cranach [36] fury [36] Norman Mailer [35]
28528577062562941c58fadc09888f2ba6fce3fb	For 1 day: 9760
927a9ef17c5bd801d1e686acc567c211fbe43024	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [616] Putin [234] MISHKA YAPONCHIK [200] Hitler [79] Lyubov Sokolova [77] Sobchak [76] bogatyr ivan [57] radzuykevich [54] revaz chelebadze [54] banjo band [54] amadei [54] olga berggolts [54] bridges [53] kadyrov renat [52] Zimin Alexander [52] mckenzie [51] haarde geir [51] michael messerer [51] craig breedlove [51] alexander berestov [50] penfield wilder graves [50] ma ailun [50] kennedy [49] oni [49] epstein [49] james [48] skorik [48] havaianas [48] mamoulian [46] Jesse Andrews [46]
506f6aef937bff587898a942bc37a04e83dde572	For 7 days: 26834
2b52c7b5a9979b98d58c29a4873f486fcd588662	Putin [74871]
527558806cafea282721766f9a09faeb298a7602	sobchak [46741]
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287aa6e772a0e2f948072d630ddd33a6c2cbf24f	Stalin [34458]
91aabd75cb466183709c3019da4ba72dad94d759	Che Guevara [30606]
3c08a9079ecec6183ce3ecae709551237586cb4b	medvedev [23483]
f82e1e7fa5f8e9bf4313106ed3cf5b5b6a9cfd5e	Mironov [22981]
9566fd3116ad3c5d4d18107245165ddea4d314eb	Newton [21659]
5ea13837ef64b58e55dff12814e4e9a4852feec3	Ivanov [20218]
1038981cf2db70ec3305b0ab425d2b94c923a7b9	Lyubov Sokolova [24134]
6a180d66a3f57eac180e643f1ca59b8609d1db70	Russell Dirac Stolyarova Belogurova Ralph and Russo Tolkalina Konchalovskaya Valeshnaya Munn Hilton Rogachev Parfenov Abdrazakov Osmaev Adamson Boleyn Brunner Romanov Neff Freud Trubnikova Ibanks Scott Jr.
626a384d30e44991bf889c689e29176e36a95995	Vitas Hill Chalayan Chernova Daffy Borman Reznik Sobchak Ashlapov Vsevolod III Yurevich (Big Nest) Berezovsky Glagoleva Brilev Putin Antonova Santos Boeva Medvedeva Stoner Magee Hitler Wainwright Walker Medvedeva Rothschild Hansen Bashevis Singer Shockley
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cd6289b4ca3db855bae7347beff60f6f6209a135	The Billy Milligan Mystery
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d742811ff9a75a098125b933d915a613025a634d	Author Topic: The riddle of Billy Milligan (Read 76142 times)
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92c7dbee53cae2b4b198c13d3530553e24416e57	Vlad Galaganov
f2380d1dbe04377dc4b8ac00271e94a0db54c98a	Administrator Master
9fbb0db30d4227bcb4828d31a86ad9c884ab1a36	Posts: 2353
99f5e77c2cd5c9d33a0fa92a1ecebd49cb62378f	": 27 November 2013, 20: 00: 43 "
4573a11be0a95bed73492f02910bb4e7f36559f0	Problems pile up at once in a crowd, you try to split up, get upset, but you are only one person with a certain set of qualities, capabilities, knowledge and skills.
1349f258c4de8ff87216e3b543b6719da7c223ef	But, occasionally, people are extraordinary, obviously having certain inclinations, I canot say with confidence that they are definitely weak, they find another way to deal with problems and difficulties.
621c319665727aef118e0f997c434e76dbca8c34	As applied to psychiatry, this term was first used at the end of the XIX century by the French psychologist and doctor P. Janet.
c072b74c7d03777f78dd5fa460c9b6488c10d18a	So what is the dissociation of personality from the point of view of psychology?
8f431c28ad1601e05152b24086b16c21c1e61353	From the outside, this spectacle has a rather mystical and incomprehensible appearance, giving rise to religious associations with the devil's possession in a person.
d39ee1b9499b588d04d3f63c0fb0dc16e9aa385b	Of course, such a phenomenon is quite rare.
5cc2718d7005325bbcf3154193c6f6a54c62d0c1	Psychologists are puzzling over this problem, introducing great doubts into our understanding of what our psyche really is.
a1c5fb8531f6071df378084fef60d324d9c24a8c	Moreover, their explanation of the" reproduction of personalities", as a reaction of the subject to strong external stimuli, is quite controversial.
20a73833290d482bd40d33416c452ea2af633824	And one of the most striking cases of the study of this phenomenon was the story of a very unusual criminal or victim named William Stanley Milligan.
fc9b8dde13efeff65e819e66f45104583280eae8	Now the background itself.
95e36d797aa3ed27cc09bcea1930899c0979b04d	It was October 1977.
7caf03b3a6fa7775567ecb7e70fcf2b647c10784	By this time, many interesting events had happened in the world.
4fe0a22a312110da0a1dedb143acb4b9ce4235b6	The first Apple personal computer went on sale, Francis Ford Coppola finished shooting "Apocalypse Now", and in America for the first time the president of the country was accused of tax evasion.
e98b8115570d6855153393c6ff9edcf4835dc686	But Billy Milligan, a 22 year old unemployed man, had fun in a different way.
676c84cf228760dc5389a15338ec768c8d2a7063	The police received the first signal about a strange rape on October 14, 1977.
5df58cf72bdfd573da6424e6678f88297d3b7ce7	It later turned out that Billy Milligan is not the first time he commits a crime.
24f2677810ee6d5090860fd7a3745e52a146e66e	One of the students of the Ohio State Medical University, a future optometrist, turned to the police with a story that late in the evening, a young, handsome man jumped up to her from nowhere when he approached his car in the parking lot near the university campus.
09fe36b8abbf79c384a18d119de5d81b374fdbab	At gunpoint, he dragged her into a wooded area, where he raped her.
228ab66f350e6de11f95fcc5d3f008c584eb53a9	The surprise was caused by the fact that the young man did not show open aggression to his victim.
a8b6a3bb7291d854dfcc63dc97bfbd267f1cb6fe	On the contrary, he was quite amiable, not angry, talked about love, and even in some way was sympathetic to the victim.
95fb8a30b9db91828ca96bca0b2775a74cd58dcd	After the violent act ended, he asked the victim to write him a check for a small amount and calmly let her go without threatening.
0c9356fdc393d514efa80adebded35d40e4a0c1f	The second rape became known 8 days later, on October 22.
87c3242efe839a02b1991d6acb567786abfc44d7	The story in the descriptions was very similar to the first, except that the second victim insisted - the rapist spoke with a rather noticeable German accent.
f436f70a1db9c05e6e7da1240a1c51ae2fc6cd44	And she added that if this young man had met her under normal circumstances, she would have been happy to meet him.
690a4feb162686dc3fea07c88ef92dc48ca48f26	"What kind of a strange person with a pleasant appearance and manners, raping women and stealing money from them?" the police thought, confidently combining these two crimes into one case.
6cb48a39bcc070d676c776bf04451052a993bcd9	Four days later, a third woman, also a student at the same university, was subjected to a similar rape.
d00a35ccf24511926475ef8bd79c5f213fe23f21	Rumors spread around the university, dubbing the unknown criminal a "university rapist".
362a65bece83a679398f4b5fc2f3c6a025d4860c	Then the police actively began to investigate, realizing that they were clearly dealing with a serial criminal.
b718d67c5867184ed5eb3e39d3f3d3758c676ae9	And soon they were lucky.
a1fe8afeb8089260e1727c26d6f2367bd9b296db	In the last crime committed, the criminal was negligent, leaving his fingerprints in the victim's car.
6cae71320a15e77a26b0a6a4ebe0d272ae0aa1e4	After checking them on the database, the police were surprised to find that the identity of the criminal had long been familiar to them from previous crimes.
746140b7fbaf39dcc4777f2b40461f53014863e5	This is a young man named William Stanley Milligan, who was released from prison only in April of this year.
d6239a9e8cdd718a9dde964f697dd8c5dca51226	The history of the crimes of this villain was quite diverse.
a78e50292fe8773a26b0ec343ba573e5ee530167	[Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Photo of Billy Milligan immediately after his arrest, he initially came to the attention of the police in 1973 after complaints of rape by three women.
41d2cd8f3ad2fd09134e7cc5694cf38b1adb4334	At that time, he was only 18 years old.
8a14b8727f6c23c6d0f947e9fa3f7fd58bd642d5	During interrogations, Milligan stated that all three victims were prostitutes who did not do their job well.
68844729a32fde13f50949ad6478855558363f00	He could not perform sexual acts with them and therefore did not pay, hence their complaints.
cf2579c90b7e5ba6124114d70e72843bcafe2e9f	However, the police did not believe him, and simply considering the young age of the criminal, they sentenced him to six months of correctional labor.
91d91b18405ef42d2dc2ddf689b2373ed895335d	After serving this duty, Milligan soon gets a job as a security guard in a pharmacy and at the same time sells weapons.
45ca3446fad843df56af1bae19e6714dd791c24e	By the end of 1974, he again comes to the attention of the police, but while they keep him "in development", he commits an armed attack with the aim of robbery on two men right at the bus stop.
cff52ed9d9253fee6cf050df02547ab443c9256b	But even now, the police are letting him get away with it, hoping that he will lead them to the suppliers of weapons that Milligan sells.
a0370d8acc869614769f5a6378ec8f3478debe4a	And he, without hesitation, plans, and then commits a robbery of the pharmacy where he worked as a security guard," along the way " raping the pharmacist.
fa0058571a657b7ba78ce7e2828a67c11903d49a	Here it was impossible to pull the police further, and Milligan is behind bars for two years.
71c1d59d4ce39aaaca07707a17830c19bfa08830	After being released from prison in April 1977, in October he begins to commit the following crimes - again rape.
173a4b3b4e6b8e3ae2fe2e8be1cdaf988c8e7708	He is arrested at his home in Reynoldsburg – a small town in the state of Ohio.
28a3a250b86e014c1741e6446fb3ddc16079d21f	It was not difficult to prove his involvement in the rapes of female students of the medical university.
c02f50095badb773276d8965095bfec3161ae339	During a search of his house, they find handcuffs, a gun, checks and some items of clothing of the victims of the last three rapes.
1d910b87c1a878239424163083c40c492b377315	The police were elated – finding the criminal so quickly, and even with such a classic set of evidence, could mean unheard of luck.
4c46a5dedc763d211172c537e3cf4e2fc8fc3ec8	Now it was possible to take a break, announcing to the public about the capture of a malicious recidivist who deprived the campus of peace.
b0409c305e109b127d9e7e3bf4046e3d74293f29	But, the police did not rejoice for long.
93a1dd37b97e547f677d0fadf82d8c79540a787d	So simple, at first glance, the case soon turned into the greatest scandal and hit the annals of history.
316f20ce7daf4916f2c59ff1f6576d6b7eccfb82	Literally at the very first interrogation, the head of the investigation, Elliot Boxbraum, comes to the conclusion that either a crazy person is sitting in front of him, or a person who skillfully simulates madness.
a5a6fe0d3d1c60d3faeb463e3f1b281a01d4d0f7	All the police officers who encountered Milligan said in one voice: "I didnot understand what was happening, but it felt like I was talking to different people all the time."
54b5ab0603a10a45d185bb6373a6ca4321dffd5d	Of course, Milligan is sent for a psychiatric examination for the purpose of examination.
a40fc95680b912f52487f0209991a96740cb1882	And here the main mystery of this person begins to manifest itself.
fa2ca56b10eccccaf97ec9499911230c016bb185	Psychiatrists replace each other, but they can not give a clear answer.
ac2499cad072ee9c5e2fe6f6f9798b8795093eca	It is not at all clear whether Milligan is faking it or whether he is really a phenomenon of psychiatry.
d9b61f57245dfa5d003b62c51f597256af040cc2	However, they also echo each other: "I saw several personalities in Milligan."
53a7aba5e971eed3315a6751c5a462516d90c409	For the first time, the phrase "multiple personalities" and "split"begins to sound.
c4838d05633f5fd99a7922c7a4b1700c646bd0b2	However, the term split did not quite clearly draw the essence of the unusual situation, because in Milligan there were not two personalities, but many – dozens.
79490a4c63be1f3fa90cfbc1a47f41f2deb5110e	The criminal is just a skilled, maybe even a talented actor who managed to hold aesculapius.
66ba5ac18b1773630db7125a39b07351708a0e02	But Milligan will not be able to hold him, an experienced interrogator, and he goes to interrogate the suspect personally.
e327fc4cdca843ba4d522ae8ad25783151cd1c9b	He sat on the chair in different ways! .
0b3dfbe4eb98b309c5c83606a52f6376e26a7c6a	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 22: 45:57 by Vlad Galaganov "
d5383ea7af4c07b2179943841725c113f9a3b33d	Recorded
ac8a92b4b0559d3fcf0c94116508d8573978ae38	Do what you think is necessary, you will still be judged
0f7a31d0c30a241a4847902fd7455b208837686a	"Reply #1 : 27 November 2013, 20: 02: 58 "
5305d3ae2adafb6ff91a0eef7dddea57790c379b	You could have a three year old child sitting in a chair like a child and talking accordingly, and then, in the blink of an eye, Milligan transformed and became a mature teacher demonstrating a high level of knowledge and way of thinking.
70c91ad1e7445564754d57064bf3883964c2a089	Each of these images had its own name, communicated with the police and doctors on all sorts of topics, demonstrating different and social origins and even different levels of intelligence.
5306ca93f6169634810eb92e7183576ea69be8e4	And the most incomprehensible thing was that Billy himself was not inside.
460da17aa17ea41aefa188f6443eb5dbc1100efc	According to the assurances of several individuals, the main "owner of the body" has long been asleep.
94886757848557ed887a3fe77d2f970fd678f7ae	He was forced to sleep by all the other 22 personalities, because Milligan had a tendency to suicidal attempts.
ec3aabfb02d39bcb3bf8cf9e1d64eb19ba6ff3fc	And so that Billy's body would not be physically damaged, the other personalities removed him from the control of the body.
0e55f278647eab9057d62271c85f2edb46f29f03	[Guests are not allowed to view attachments ]
7050a4f94c0baa14f3d18077903746cbffd08013	Doctors examined Milligan, performing all imaginable experiments and studies, but even the most skeptical ones confirmed that Milligan could not simulate this. lo understanding that Billy is inadequate, not subject to trial and should be treated, and not serve time in prison.
13a3d8bba8fdcd278b8b3e56e59222e036b5a5b3	Due to the defendant's lack of funds, he is appointed free, public lawyers - Judy Stevenson and Gary Schweikart.
4c722c12121d91104dff15a5aa2a9811cfcace9b	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Photo of Gary Schweikart with one of Billy's drawings "When Gary Schweikart came to me with this ridiculous story, I laughed heartily, of course not believing a word.
f736a0484f81fc431a10dc87bc6bc6bce43b472e	He said that based on the diagnosis of Billy Milligan's split personality, they will build their defense, " Terry Sherman, an assistant district attorney, will later say.
fa83953a73c45967a592ba943da7977c7909d272	Dr. George Harding, the director of the Worthington Hospital, spends several months with Milligan trying to study him, and also comes to a diagnosis of multiple personality disorder.
cca6cf251e939015d48ff5886530a4372f227166	He concludes that some of Milligan's personalities knowingly committed crimes, knew about the illegality of many acts, but Milligan himself cannot be held responsible before the law for them.
c9076e699f5e70e7cecde2c7b67e28056cbda10a	This was a strange turn of events in the case.
dd29f82840ee5c10a841845bc9b908bf7b44cdd7	Judge Jay S. Flaver listened attentively to the representatives of the prosecution and the defense and for a long time could not make a decision regarding the defendant, who was actually accused of many terrible crimes: robbery, theft, kidnapping and rape.
c5e634cfa4df03b10c1e304753c2f577817ba551	The trial of the notorious "university rapist" received such a resonance and publicity that no one had the right to make a mistake.
b1c846566b81a1f970e183b0d326b596180dd39c	Literally everyone wrote about Milligan: the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Detroit Free Press, Time magazine and radio news invited famous psychiatrists to get their opinion and give an assessment of what was happening.
2458b0d574a0a5a5ca1e462b249e804e1b348eb4	In the closing speech at the trial, the lawyers read out in a low voice a petition for clemency for Milligan on the basis of the defendant's insanity.
15de780ba28f7967c1dbc6227349fab74af23899	"Milligan is not an ordinary rapist, he is a victim.
df6cde286d726b0353d3ddf14ab66dac110fc05b	Billy is a talented artist, with a high level of genius IQ.
8a5a05d3d664ecf871202361db5f3d338b9d8329	But he was not present when the crimes were committed.
f3788bd17b6bd8188786eb7ef164e1a49517644a	His personality has been sleeping for the last 7 years.
30b11dd3ab8595b684a2090d2f28ec4fe40fce47	Two of his other personalities took responsibility for the crimes."
7d59326b82ac929ab01212ff5c21cf21dc21f498	Representatives of the prosecution did not dare to assert the opposite, recognizing that Milligan is not a defendant.
5dc984999637a873c2c70d97a37ef943b3dbb5d4	At the trial, one of the relatives of the rape victim finally broke down and exploded with the words that the media and the court are making a national hero out of Milligan, forgetting about the pain and evil that he committed.
fa6c9763da3f5b556473b5e43c518b4d5fd3be7e	And indeed, this unusual case so fascinated people with its phenomenon and mystery that in fact everyone forgot about its victims.
8871a1d44048abcdba1a7b8db00934b86b5d1905	There was interest only in studying the psyche of the criminal, but everyone began to give a damn about the psychological problems of people who had suffered his violence – it was too ordinary.
67ec1e1803d43676e63d9047a52418d1ba6d6803	However, there were still rare statements from both prosecutors and psychiatrists who paid attention to this.
9e7d05235dae7cb566d6fa8470110698a0ab4022	In particular, they tried to drown out the hype so that in the future the practice of demonstrating "multiple personalities" would not be used by other criminals for selfish purposes to justify their crimes.
80ed9363d96224e7b46305e76dda3fa375e0d6bb	Legally, it was decided that Milligan could be released from custody only if several conditions were met.
8b2b53537cf9bcbd9f4400e0d4130c5b37447d3a	The first was mandatory compulsory treatment and the responsibility of doctors for it.
3dbb0dedb8bd289285395ada039712d903efe6e9	In the case of acquittal, it was assumed that the first examination of his mental state should take place 3 months after the trial.
66d995fc5208dd82bc4ce17d8eb5e3f2762dd784	Then the judicial board should communicate with him after another 2 years, and so every 2 years, either for the rest of his life, or until he fully recovers.
0a7f2e2e8e5a27308f650f930af06b1b34265733	With a possible complete cure of the suspect, the doctors could release the Milligans completely from their custody.
b0cead8b5e1a0abb045f6a33802a581a5b1d0f74	After a few hours of the meeting, Milligan was declared insane, it was decided to send him to the Athens Mental Health Center for compulsory treatment.
0c690b5c07bc6f0e028455b56f4faec1ae3c820a	So what was it that so shocked the entire respectable public about Billy Milligan himself, and why was he considered, in the end, not a criminal, but a victim?
f99e3f65c573e18415ad0ad9ab55d9e5c6ff2c9c	The story of this man is truly mysterious, and even mystical.
4514c6de056c7d320d94922d8bb6b2c587e8f9d5	It is also very sad and can be instructive.
05965af383201a6239bcce65427a1c00e8c91df4	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 22: 51:31 by Vlad Galaganov "
84d31b0b46bc43335f7ff073c47da8a89f69d239	"Reply #2: 27 November 2013, 20: 05: 21 "
b8f8206859b098221b764ad718320842c2ad807b	Milligan was born in 1955 in a couple of unsuccessful singer Dorothy Pesky and the same incompetent comedian entertainer Johnny Morrison.
853943781940dd0b498bb37ce8ac60ab5981aba6	The relationship between Dorothy and Johnny was illegal, because Johnny had a family from which he did not plan to leave.
4de0e223da29a4485fae058b58fd6e6b4134c0dd	Meanwhile, William Stanley, whom we know as Billy Milligan, was already the second child of this strange couple Dorothy Johnny.
85ac091449822fe0ed6e5246a8704fb6ad8f265d	Milligan's parents were the kind of people who should not have had children at all.
811bc1923feea28eaf091bfa5dbd0cd23ce35ee0	Dorothy's mother was always a special frivolous, not very smart and quite a party girl.
5b2d23312a91bc4979debad1fbb75458dad14810	[Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Dorothy Sands All her life she "jumped on the beds" of all sorts of men, having been in marriages several times, but it seems that she never understood what she needed from life.
1ca7eed64d8688ecccf869d152007e2caf8eece5	She never gave a damn about her own children, she was engaged in them, so to speak, on the "residual principle".
746648b619991d28ad52ac3d2ee67299443bd0da	And since all her life, without actually having any talent, she tried to prove the opposite to everyone and walked recklessly, then naturally she had a minimum of time for children.
9490137a95faab73171ba54a3a5da9c03f6d3edc	From an early age, Billy suffered from loneliness, neglect, hunger and inattention.
f82c040ad912024159a23628bd1e2706fae9e52b	Johnny Morrison was also a disgusting father.
4690525cf73affc865859528cb92e103dfa3b6cd	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Photo of Johnny Morrison
71c8ebfe513a3d4af617559cc4eb3741eb806b80	Running between two families, that is, having a legitimate spouse and two children from this marriage, as well as a restless mistress Dorothy, who constantly demanded financial injections into stage costumes and a bohemian lifestyle, he was completely confused.
1af641b4fe2ca0769af0d7a44b2322ecaf7e4c4b	When Dorothy gave birth to a third child after the second, Johnny finally fell into debt.
c8439d5194eb71d74d95004ffeb03c3ea149d0c8	He was a mediocre, not particularly popular comedian, and here are two families and five children at once!
93e0e05ccd4a852667c22f7a6cf22aeb2d92eec2	His debts grew exponentially, and eventually, under the weight of unsolvable problems, he became depressed, depressed and began to drink sullenly, constantly.
fe463781e61e4991d3518fadf7d93a6d88515df8	By the age of 36, this man had completely lost interest and desire for life and tried to kill himself for the first time, washing down a large amount of sleeping pills with alcohol.
1d16e70a3a5af00b11502aa5f4112e16d320c8be	But Dorothy saves him in time.
363804c6a3a912a9fbb7c3052fe5e1f1f5a18d2d	However, not even a few months after being discharged from the hospital, Johnny repeatedly commits an act of suicide, already in January 1959, having achieved his goal by turning on the gas in the house.
4c377b2f784cfee93b53eb3bb332425b3c19d98c	At that time, Billy Milligan was only 4 years old.
c78440e92945d5b8f0dbfd2ce99d169401ab2d5c	As a very young child, he witnessed the terrible death of his father.
6939f8fce26dc845243296fa3512e214df1bf9ff	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Photos of Billy (4 years old) with his brother Jim (6 years old) and sister Katie (3 years old) So we can already draw some conclusion about Billy's heredity.
c579537a17f10f5e1ede2cc56e1e34c54556ddfc	His father was a weak man, unable to refuse women, unable to avoid numerous expenses, nor to solve this problem with dignity.
32095b2931ef52e8dd419ab45cb01e7aa36823ef	And, of course, it would probably even be strange if Billy, following the example of his unsuccessful father, did not inherit his tendency to suicide.
04b331e078326ed72c7e689fd406cce2d91df50f	Dorothy gives up her failed career and after Johnny's death, in 1960 she returns to her hometown of Circville, where she again meets her first husband Dick Jonas.
fd183fa598b4b989f31a923a51f128e9da1c9ce9	But, the second marriage with him was just as unsuccessful as the first, and, after not having existed together for a year, they again run away.
e89b40206c9466f538363c99f7b2e5b66ce917fd	Dorothy's" walking nature", meanwhile, did not go away and continued to manifest itself.
5415fa464e4345affcf1408a58920227513049d1	The children were still mostly left to themselves, and she was once again in an active search for the next man.
a4edce3c0c9620abd95ae352bae79a3ed781a9c8	Which soon became Chalmer Milligan, a despot, tyrant and pervert.
325a82df04bf7fea5c46d82b9980e10322eef058	His first marriage broke up precisely because of his wife's appeal to the police about domestic violence.
ddcde58287ebdd84123684f97f46572fb6d5ffae	Chalmer often beat her, and also had a predilection for perverted sex.
ade20f6ad2c4ce4e384b98722c3648721e6a3394	But Dorothy Sands did not disdain, picked up this renegade, subjecting her life and her children to a radical change.
1301a2f6eda1dd52e66ab676c56065d4fc37b875	In 1963, they got married, and then Billy Milligan's relatively quiet life came to an end.
09aa86444da02111d72aff8f02b4fec7f6561c0c	What I will tell about him later became known much later than the trial held over him.
e20041e639d4f8bed28387f872e57f28634a365b	And this was told by Milligan himself, who was "awakened" by his numerous personalities.
dbd09cc47655ab40b88052dd7f9d37f6ecc143b3	I will write more about this moment later, now, in order to preserve the chronology of the narrative, I will tell about the events in his childhood.
7fe81df94603c9444254d03c9aabfe021a3c974a	According to Billy, Chalmer began to regularly beat Dorothy for the slightest offense.
23fd33209c0a5cf78b6a82047524026e6b479819	Children also got "nuts" with enviable constancy.
89da8a1ef90b369001f181e9d2705458d4a9a678	When Billy was 9 years old, one day, under the pretext of helping with the household, Chalmer called him to the barn.
91a9d94ed88b8c9dd298f16c3f47b1f461de95a4	That's when the stepfather first raped the boy.
5c31d805b537e30673b99e0ca64594ed005c3aa6	However, this was the first time, but not the last time.
461c9f3ad138ca79ae4e99d58432c499095a2b01	Then the violence continued and was already of a regular nature.
9777a02abc315e098f92c0eac64881b6d783074a	And sexual violence was not the only trouble and pain.
c94c1cee6cc5dc6b35fc13c9fcfa4a4199bf03da	To the rapes, Chalmer often "added" physical and psychological sadism.
3807e24e2c661027c6b03901e4de6bfea9a9e5fb	He hung the boy by his arms and legs, buried him alive in the ground, scared him with snakes and rats, urinated on him.
e825bbd8edd0e6ea51f695878cd682cf7b0afccb	In a word, the terror was of the most perverse nature.
feb3a13fddc06339119500fae3206f29b2eb350b	It was at this time, according to Milligan's own assurances, that the boy, who could not resist an adult man, created several additional personalities in himself, who instead of Billy endured all the bullying.
620fe166df42100e8f8b15fdad6ea11e62970a2a	It was a kind of escape from reality.
0f85a97d0dad7f4fbd24dd4989f70e8abdce92ac	The only defense mechanism available to the child then.
e46dacdd286c9cd64e6f7fc8b21c1fc0f15118d1	It's worth noting it is noted that Chalmer himself has never confessed to abusing a child and has never been brought to court for such actions.
aff9306a5d97a07b5630f8dbeda52dcd35961efa	Now, after reading these lines, you have, of course, mentally found the main reason for the appearance of a split personality in Milligan.
86a59cd30a145c29881e67daddbcce310780b7ec	This happened to many other psychiatrists who examined him at the time.
365d26f12253b907bb5ec67cbddeeaf09ef472e4	They considered that it was child stress and violence that became the triggering mechanism for Milligan's split personality.
165ade2c469cbf9160110d80daea2c5abf1c7bf8	However, even here, not everything turned out to be so simple.
9b7534f591481b1b71c8765aaf6944ee77de44ba	As it turned out, the first additional personality in Milligan appeared at the age of 3, by the age of 5 there were already 3 of them.
93ceabf7cc3d1826cf8810fad6ac1a7d8783b330	Each of these personalities performed their own functions: Milligan played with someone, creating his own fictional children's fairy tale world, someone from the personalities performed household tasks that are routine, uninteresting occupation, and someone took punishment for offenses.
6218cd5d62cf287a1160b1299b483e5c1400bddd	Thus, at the age of 5, Milligan already had 4 independent personalities inside, each of which had its own name and character.
29d42bee7a8a9f51582bbf686215618ec6bf5a2b	And they appeared long before the stress factor in the form of a stepfather fiend.
9b22a9283225d3086f5bf3814635f0361750a57d	Thus, we can conclude that dissociative disorder is obviously possible only if there are innate tendencies to it.
c20314f2531256dff67c616b4173e598caddd266	By the age of 10, Billy Milligan had created a dozen different personalities inside himself.
f92e5582a373566cb61fbc9d3daa06be658127ef	Each of them had its own role and purpose, each of them had its own character and abilities, and interestingly, all these personalities were some "good" and some "bad".
8702067a47295c25fa5b41e685fa4e17e3cd3fdd	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] From this moment on in Milligan's life, trouble is coming at him from all sides.
dea68d68be599e1c34eef22a18b47bc9526c7175	He behaves strangely, canot communicate adequately with anyone, has no friends and comrades.
fde44a4da0495670e4e70b68b8605e8e06206863	Everyone automatically turns away from him, recognizing his madness.
480f4060a6a3486fb7cf544d9f1e0e671f5bf6fc	He is kicked out of school and in order not to inform his indifferent mother and Herod's father about it, while still a child, Billy leaves the house, going to wander.
abd1c006b4da6fa7e80edfefd5bda3b143513d3d	But the police catch him, bring him home, and his parents, without twisting for a long time, hand him over to a mental hospital.
aa85fbc2f2580b62cbaa8c0a0deb80d206c4cd60	There, Milligan is diagnosed with a deep neurosis and a state of hysteria.
72b05435a914568f6cdeb4908ab65e5d10956350	The clinic allegedly tries to treat him, but such therapy does not bring results.
74694125b987a5345fc6db003f7999ddcacf8bdb	Sometimes he behaves like a raving mad destroyer, shouting, scandalizing and destroying everything around.
c6e0597d62f1960a35751c64106b3e33a3ede4d6	After several fights with patients and medical staff, he is also expelled from the clinic, without providing proper assistance.
e1790a51d0c529305e3abbc4475faeaa293a5f63	As you can see, this poor child had absolutely no one to rely on all his life.
370fc75eaf90e527a5a8f9af95c024ab17943c87	For everyone, he was an outcast, he was persecuted from everywhere.
7054534a5402a975193dedade09edfaf5a29b8e4	First, his parents, and then an indifferent society, threw him under the wheels of life, giving nothing and teaching nothing.
c29f80ab3e0447983032b8883240531c9c385642	What could you expect from this wolf cub? normality?
3d4e8cd3901f0fae351fc6090a8e0d1632274679	The birth of a good citizen?
49c22874c0bd13f6c9c467f4ce7c02aae447ad4f	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 23: 03:07 by Vlad Galaganov "
c1d876f6af078ebf2ae95d73cfb25f4faa3345c3	"Reply #3 : 27 November 2013, 20: 07: 47 "
7d724c5182ce4fd2ddc6bfef4722dff1c17b2073	At the age of 16, unable to bear the bullying of his peers, their cruelty and indifference, he makes his first attempt to kill himself.
c63db0b1e89f65c9e15688edb1b0087feb9cbfef	There will be several more such attempts later, and it was Billy's personality that wanted to kill himself.
0a79dff5651e30f7d883bdc028c34d7c73d470fa	But, every time one of the strong other personalities stopped him, not allowing him to commit suicide, and therefore with the rest of the natures living in him.
fcc1144eed33480952e82c19bde919cec08e48bb	Already at the age of 17, Milligan submits a petition for his acceptance into the ranks of the US Navy.
82526d30fbded2511c562405a057c755177f01bb	And oddly enough, despite his diagnosis and very significant oddities in behavior, Milligan is accepted, but just a month later, he is expelled due to his inability to perform the duties of a serviceman.
9e76468fc13e953e089b4f40ee020bdeaedde125	How can I explain all this?!
9a43a4b29288d8ee0ace552b1de138b7bab8e42b	Firstly, it is completely unclear how it is possible to give such a person a weapon with such a diagnosis and psychological instability.
91266ae632416133b694e6b7c5936f6365e5bc98	Secondly, it is horrifying that not a single person in Milligan's entire life will take it into his head to pay close attention to him, try to help and provide at least the slightest help and support.
0f843c92ab2c85091a3b11dfd0b88d5735770613	Our systems quickly convict criminals, but they lack mechanisms that can see the factors of the origin of the criminal.
cd70b02106dbe99239030801560324fd0b352806	And we, individually, often just pass by the troubles of other people, finding an explanation for ourselves and others that this is NOT OUR PROBLEM.
8fde7c9680c6f96ffe0954f4fd35cbd1b153f41a	Then, in fact, we should not be surprised at the appearance of thieves, swindlers, maniacs and serial killers.
41574cf99a465ab6f940c0bbc84f2110f5683a48	We create them ourselves by our indifference.
0efe83ec4302cd86f72be5c9b32273604e8e8df3	Because it is always easier to criticize, condemn, destroy and punish.
4ca04e9e791fdc0198d1655c96ecb739157df454	It's easy to pass by and not notice.
1b7b5e05b6e18e513f48b1925a30a2d4a1bdebe9	Creating and helping is a work that many people are simply not capable of.
61a1e2bb8f8d3869a86a70f851a894bd942b1850	Billy Milligan became a "product" created by the society in which he lived.
e769f89083b6007a1791bcdd11dda98f6364da8f	It so happened that at the time of the arrest, 22 active personalities already coexisted inside Billy Milligan, the 23rd was Billy himself, who was most often in a state of sleep.
f253405e38dac1cf2cd2ca3e08396ae26c309e0f	[Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Milligan, accompanied by a police officer to the courthouse.
fa4f4ffc2b4f3fa0c044aa95f533c9ad28e5d076	Here is a brief description of some of these personalities.
f790e111130623c0790d00184831df47e4e297cb	The personalities were divided into desirable and undesirable.
36b14f4b50cef441f78f90caa4568283ea42ac34	The desirable were allowed to control other personalities, to occupy consciousness for a long time.
c77467f67d72a316660a21985e9593544f463141	They were desirable because of their" positivity", that is, these personalities were law abiding and useful for survival.
6a7c0aa648334ed9ab8b35ac982ebe51ed1ff90c	The undesirables were evil, criminal, and caused harm to the physical body.
448e3b909b38e40a9074789eedb779e0236fcae4	Desirable personalities 1.
53a8ea945de378a2f8cb4affe1a1c01f5732c2aa	Billy is William Stanley Milligan himself, a rather gifted artist, with a high level of intelligence and suicidal tendencies.
114360ba8316a483f59041fe874518b826b849ec	Left handed.
4b845985b87add0602c0cafa61a348e7346bf063	2. Allen is an 18 year old conman who has the gift of persuasion and the talent of a manipulator.
c709733de2bc75cb74da9ef58928d27eb9ab134c	He also draws beautifully, mostly portraits of people who are interesting to him.
775551eaf63fe9c06577381dd46ac5d6b47dc545	He smokes and likes alcohol.
1addc7b83cf102a3e599305ac85a273dc73ddd75	Right handed.
459c8cbb32d78857688176a8142d9696caa96c8d	3. David is an 8 year old boy who experiences physical pain for everyone.
1bb42967e88ef7240a99b8f7fc149fa455155f4c	Extremely patient, hardy, not afraid of anything.
2934100e6be5059bcaa019e96e1dabca2a35c5ca	This is the identity that was created by Milligan at the age of 9, when he began to experience physical abuse from his stepfather.
0c80bce67a486e7b6adda5863a973cf7e5737521	4. Danny is a 14 year old boy who was created after his stepfather buried him in the ground.
0f76b5fb82a356208aaa06e8d4b5e3d2bc5990fa	Hence, she is afraid of the earth and men.
125387bbfa47f7058bdc6059614d4262afd1207d	He also draws well, preferring to draw still lifes.
acae74d84ce149d3b47c252a36940cd80b19ac71	5. Ragen Vadaskovinich - by origin, a South Slavic, speaks English, but poorly, with a noticeable Slavic accent.
b6599a7033596321d1f3bdcb644d568ba90d7b3f	He speaks excellent Serbian and Croatian.
f1da0b45ed020159edf0f71689bccedc93e02f21	He writes on them with the same ease.
a7a1e30bd33612531ea1355fdc8f9f3fbc77e479	Where did Milligan get this knowledge?
7763578225fa5908288755dfbdaeabe4fb3b8687	One of the most powerful and aggressive personalities.
2dc1370fba539593513acf8b8d6d088a17814680	A supporter of communist theories, he is well versed and owns many types of weapons.
7a94a390b9150a2fd2b8d309131cd86b3e2fbe09	He was responsible for physical strength and endurance of the body.
58d67057d3cb0661af38579c554d8ed52d255eac	It was he who came to the fore when it was necessary to give someone a rebuff.
4614734a727b6f0fd142b2898e513220d564d492	At the same time, he was a real gentleman, striving to help the weak and disadvantaged.
8ce388f0b3ebae90173cd9eafec9efd7e6c5a3b4	He was very sensitive to beautiful women and children.
f7a336882ff9a2216292bf3cfed3babc45bb6387	6. Kristin is a 3 year old girl, of English origin.
1f66dedbbb09f2c59323690dcd09da66d75ab351	The second additional personality that appeared in Milligan.
d964fde3de4a910c9a02c2bb0627f80d1118474b	It was she who took on all the punishments from her parents or at school.
a06701f0b006e41a9cccd78bc67ce0a8f076a5ba	According to the assurances of this person, she has dyslexia, so she can neither read nor write.
6856cd52cf7f1cff635cb13b1a7389c320c350f2	She is loved and taken care of by almost all other personalities.
f9f780aa38ad1b1c9c9d194f68a03d2a2f7523b8	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 23: 05: 52 by Vlad Galaganov "
e5c58fc74cfd29eaed88f81a3c389acd47ffc320	"Reply #4 : 27 November 2013, 20: 11: 52 "
cfbe2e199d05c1a895095400f6437934af6be83f	7. Christopher is Kristin's brother, 13 years old.
81e025b34b17420b350c5f2ea5d676b23b80c12b	Little is known about him, because he rarely went out to communicate.
8af21ce9f45eb6a3fdfb2a829b874e395109d399	8. Arthur is an English aristocrat.
b7255fa45cc98a8a3181feacbc54ded1b21e4302	He is well versed in many sciences, medicine and music.
1eecaca65c323e7e300fab9f3a841f237cd43857	A cook and an aesthete.
e916a3d95fef1c8b46de0b649c3ec50b9b74075d	He speaks Arabic and Swahili (again, the question is how does Milligan know these languages?).
cab867579be87cf0527d486cfdb3467f13bb831f	He was one of the first to learn about the existence of other personalities in Milligan's body.
7aa8db66525434161e3036e271c327b93ab7d88c	One of the main rulers over Milligan's body and a person who controls other personalities.
181f02da31e5d05459efdbd5c90c402126d9c894	He smokes a pipe and prefers expensive alcoholic beverages.
e522427501e086991e468613573f7aaa54f108d7	9. Tommy is a 16 year old guy who is well versed in technology, cars, electricity, locks.
aed4f9180f924f277d986d26983640e9e9c6b1ba	He knows how to get out of a straitjacket and free himself from handcuffs.
3795ffcfb620d37eef561985c63cee39d96690c6	He can play the saxophone, which he has repeatedly demonstrated to doctors.
8dd018bd9bee871c8ba1d9ea0680c5262121d4cf	He also draws landscapes perfectly and is left handed.
f58caa110e784fff18b5676406c13a6803e6c2be	Adalana is one of the main, strong personalities.
413fca68cb60a1fbe5a5ad50ef77bb380fbbf66e	19 year old active lesbian.
4962f793352ab4caafca82417fd3f8e0702c6d20	He writes poetry and composes music.
65e8098c053ae0d65f45f5d4d83445a386090c9f	He likes sex, "of course", with women.
2268dd7938b87e99fe9ae88bee16333bb9ecfd56	It was she who took responsibility for all the rapes committed.
be88f2991d0df1b67881c3897d096524bef6d0b6	After the arrest, Arthur's personality declared her an undesirable person in connection with the crimes committed.
4c6e8ba8da1453613457dbdc1f36b2bf0f4ae08a	She was punished by the fact that she was no longer allowed to act with Milligan's body.
76e587104f1df061fa704927fb3732383a1b6be4	Undesirable personalities 1.
f78e3678375ba451e7db4ffde2c58bb312f2ddc5	Phil is an American with a Brooklyn accent.
e53fd591a544458c1d19d563218a260d6407f46c	He was engaged in drug trafficking, committed armed attacks.
f7abbd8f3e81caee06b74349aadad4fc8320392a	2. Kevin is a friend of Phil, who developed a plan to rob a pharmacy.
1cf2048e30c60f50a7e187855b39367f2da3266d	Later, during his stay in a high security clinic in Lima, as a sign of gratitude for the uprising against the orderlies who beat the clinic's patients, the personality of Arthur crossed Kevin off the list of undesirable.
0e78477a3085843b804387789632543d39fc0a8d	3. April is a dark haired, dark skinned, slender girl with a Boston accent.
1613f2e499ad0db85c582a83f99409908be09522	Appeared during the stepfather's violence.
b4e30866c45fa55f551a9f6caa8517f7e80b9ba7	She was maniacally obsessed with the desire to kill her stepfather.
eb8969f9c67c1f4ce206487012a9affe784dfd0b	I was constantly trying to persuade other personalities to do this.
0f73e70c734a335e64fe7162412af1010e9c8b09	4. Mark is a person who performs hard, routine, exhausting work.
62541e4bdd80b01364ba232afc3b9b15d9812dcf	He is completely apathetic, has no inclinations and talents.
6dd1b868a4269cd9db27ff7a4824e5d836aab773	In the absence of work, he falls into prostration and catatonia.
9023ef1863cfe3f1814c2c055a931c0d4b488054	The other personalities called him a zombie.
142e18c15546a209caa4a6e6ae76ef59ad13177b	5. Walter is an Australian hunter.
972abf79504db52807904c1e4d0eed2b20464c70	Prekra sno was oriented in space and always looked for a direction and a road, if there was a need for it.
7847497386706ddaf6ce5778e12abcc030948d3a	According to the personality of Arthur, he was a sadist, because he once killed a crow.
aaa0dce4bd10c26b4bf25f6407c4bf5495fa1cdb	6. Samuel is a very religious Jew.
7b79a8036020cd70d0ed5a655479efc9d75609fa	Once I sold a picture drawn by Allen, which was forbidden.
85aa425d34f429ff5a207b98fff549c1f7cf0405	For this, I got into the list of undesirable personalities.
4a153d921c611209d212e1e9ae6568c27e4de2a6	7. Lee is a funny man, a joker, a joker and a wit.
a79d40d75e4d69123dd97e3ddacc5e8114a39eda	For the first time he began to manage the body in a Lebanese prison,and then he was declared undesirable.
319fe3727bd0b12fd3bfb60433cc7e3e7946d45b	His jokes angered fellow inmates and warders, for which Billy Milligan's body was repeatedly beaten.
cc5eefc721a5f09f5244694f24ef95d3bb3e5cef	Practically none of the psychiatrists saw this personality, only the personality of Arthur told about it.
4a7280b72cd4c0891f180e9c1faaaaf73c69d96e	"Last edit: 10 January 2016, 22: 10: 24 by Vlad Galaganov "
1b1d81b49966459970e72710114aafadfc9a0406	"Reply #5 : 27 November 2013, 20: 15: 52 "
b603d4e22c4ab042a2fcff4abc6f19864b192892	8. Steve is a personality similar in some ways to Lee.
a4f28bed4d855806d8ea5c8b1fc04f23f374115e	He was distinguished by the ability to mimic and parody sounds and speech.
57186ad9aebae3d25873d92a8db631fad37a2fd8	Imitating the prison chief in the same Lebanese prison, he ran into the placement of Milligan in an isolation cell.
dc35209d333caa9069661b79b3a7bb4ecdfae993	Arthur and Ragen couldnot stand him.
8492a802e4a1d5ebb2f7cbdf06d5a39ef58f9e20	9. Martin is a braggart from New York.
26ef4a3ac310fa1425cf44cb7c4bbbd7bc8aeded	Unable to do anything and not knowing, he constantly boasted, for which Arthur attributed him to undesirable personalities.
50dc8cda44270bc77d62c5981063dd0550691165	Bobby is a dreamer, a romantic and a slacker.
c4031b8e3c611b2de69a197f96333425ee73a884	He dreamed of acting, then of traveling, confusing all other personalities.
f7e5ea10e2f08c2096678a0427fffbd1f0e4ace8	Inciting them to rash actions, he himself did not want to do anything to realize his dream.
690d09195c0ce38083431c3c4fbd0103dcd70ff0	In a Lebanese prison, he refused to eat, for which he was considered undesirable.
dc8b809bf3460d240921437c374bdb611453c665	Timothy is a flower seller.
e3664aef3597aaf01d07990b1c322390093062e0	He was afraid of homosexuals like fire.
1df8a69b0567ee17c1e5e745cf150813cfc33e21	He was mostly immersed in himself, rarely communicating.
e22d78e1150a8094c96eb529b10e372079ba76fb	Sean is a deaf, mentally retarded boy.
7c297ef844eb2b989fbcb62310af6b9bbb79a4a0	He appeared at the time of beatings and bullying by his stepfather, because he could not scream in pain and hear when he was scolded.
ce7f15e319ca16d31f227edbe93b5f33e0c0e803	The identity of the suspension.
01da4c3e375e49bc67a349a13965fba33b39193b	It was undesirable because there was no need for it in adulthood.
dc02d3ccb95f46ba10586527e774e0d259f8c59e	Jason is a difficult child.
ee6bf685510e9e4bc79f85b60e978f697c762035	As a child, he often fought and rowdy.
305537d2f5a80034bfc520956352b3175a2a8e99	He was an avid hooligan and a scamp.
9e64378dc3c38ae896379a85f3117a93613e5276	"Reply #6: 27 November 2013, 20: 17: 30 "
b447e9547e59670b755a478bde71d575be94d786	Agree, all that is described above is very intriguing with its mysticism.
7b83ba808432e610cdf8c14cc3068b1de140dca1	This is amazing and makes us think about our absolute ignorance about the structure of the human brain and psyche.
07d37a9ad48191099527300a3ad5ef22090bc841	This story impressed me so much with the possibility of realizing the dream of sometimes being not myself, but someone else.
51b4d6c4e6f87f950d447c59704076c3aba5c781	To believe that we can change, we can be more flexible, more adaptable and show unknown talents where we do not expect.
250419b9963385a17eba79c04537146af548fbe7	This is the information about Billy Milligan, which is actively circulating on the Internet, including on Wikipedia, as well as in the media.
463cf8b9480cffa80c70a53bca60db2b2a5fc5dc	Surprisingly, word of mouth descriptions of Milligan's personalities are transmitted as a kind of proven truth.
e1ef98e58d55555098fd72bc52fad7855d1ab45d	As something that is established, which is true, which has been seen by a lot of people.
dcc08555de43ff0a2f45fecea862b8c7202ee5dd	For my part, I will not claim that all this is an obvious lie, because I do not have strong evidence for this.
bfc8714b68a3fc953d1d3f185760b7cab31a62c5	Like any normal person, I love riddles, but I am a skeptic and I approach any riddle, first of all, from the point of view of common sense, logic and the right to doubt.
4a0240c2eea2996d7501179759c02c6a63047ab4	This essay is an attempt to understand whether this riddle of Billy Milligan was a reality, what is actually true and what is fiction in his story, what are the facts and what is not proven.
57cfe633227748658522fa8a4894af59b94ec5c8	The fact is that, unfortunately, no one has any grounds to claim that Milligan's presence of 23 personalities was true There is not a single published official document that would describe the true mental state of Billy.
6428bcf1745d81fc4c6b2884a830a286b79348f1	The trial of Milligan was held "closed".
4d5202fcc2d7a564d4e0410ea92a0302b8c76a9a	Reporters, independent experts or any outside observers were not allowed there.
a6eb5f09c73eb10bab8007864b04c73a5ad78919	In addition, the court sessions were held without the participation of a jury.
fd1b6cd71cdc93a497710695fd1840b849cd02e5	That is, none of us can now confirm what documents and certificates were provided for them.
7c8dacc494ec4b02ed20f115fb160f7d4c52ec55	Then where did such a detailed description of Milligan's multiple personalities come from?
30c32a0e0d0f314e005aa72ade421fcaf2f06029	But now only the facts, friends, which, no matter how much we would like, it is impossible to interpret in two ways.
f742d33d07763f005193fbbd98af9a2f40822a9a	There is only one description of Milligan's personalities in a work of fiction called "The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan", written by science fiction writer Daniel Keyes.
39d62ea395ec9105e8b3e26fd76d7cb9577c1ba8	Daniel Keyes is a brilliant American writer who became famous in 1959 thanks to his fantastic, extremely talented story "Flowers for Algernon", who was awarded the honorary title of a member of the American Guild of Science Fiction Writers in 2000.
82122b47b3792883b13ca2b7dcda1bd4582da9d7	He was the only one who was allegedly honored to communicate closely with Milligan.
3ae895bdd15523a28bd864ea603001731a8a5eec	There is a theory that Billy, having experienced an incredible feeling of sympathy for Keyes, agreed only to tell him his sad life story, show his multiple personalities in full, tell the whole story about himself.
136ac368494c18b58532c398a372e94e475d3495	Here is what Keyes himself writes in the preface to the book about the arrangement with Billy.
2331c888d75f17019920d029b24553cda10916e2	"This book is a reliable description of the life of William Stanley Milligan...".
a6f8144029891972a6ee97d8251551537d8c29fb	"Milligan became known to the general public from the moment of his arrest and trial.
b4ca3171f5d30a72ef03f3f7f365a6eaaa871f6c	His face appeared on the front pages of newspapers and on the covers of magazines, the results of forensic psychiatric examinations were transmitted in the evening TV news.
62b5da615d8027a753282d88fd12a400a7b605f0	Milligan is the first patient with multiple personalities who was thoroughly investigated while under round the clock supervision in the clinic.
46617d2f493edf8402e4826eba114c6e69511aca	The multiplicity of his personalities was confirmed under oath at the trial by four psychiatrists and a psychologist."
c96cde66537be3de054203dffb14e4c514873f70	From these words, we can conclude that Keyes wrote his book on the basis of clear conclusions of experts and documents confirming the atypical, abnormal, mystical state of Milligan's psyche.
9b1633e9f1225985d4eb4e3546ff6f29ab3d3907	However, the words of the writer follow, telling us the opposite.
792d279346cc1b4da9c05b5e1c8e8e2a06cb1a64	"When Milligan asked me to write about him, I agreed to do so on the condition that I would have more extensive and reliable material at my disposal than the information that had appeared in print at that time.
72ff2c5ebc10cf5c52ccee3f9c8e2ad9030e3f64	Billy assured me that until now, the most intimate secrets of his personality were not known to anyone, including the lawyers and psychiatrists who tested him.
28b9b9f8a566823c5105ec955e64d54cc762d9ea	And now he wanted people to understand his mental illness."
7927701f5a81f22c73fe357892aa02008debf107	So, at the time of communication between Milligan and Keyes, no one had seen and did not know for sure how many and what personalities Billy contained in himself.
55ba72d0f9501b6641c72f10e9287bf848f009d8	No one had a description of the characters and habits of these individuals, there were no documents of psychiatrists on which Keyes could rely precisely as a researcher.
1f78bb2cebf5e9a319f089df4da7adc24d247a6f	And he told us about it in no uncertain terms.
e8e0959dbfc511b978ed58fd40096fc33c453039	Thus, most of the information about Milligan's personalities is told to us by a science fiction writer in a work of fiction, and this information cannot be verified and proved in any way.
71e6714c8be709c78f62a671d9d37d03e7d83e9f	Here again are the words of Keyes himself in the preface: "He suffered from memory lapses.
3a253a3523b25b8cd50aae68408475c09932b0e9	About those periods of his past that Billy barely remembered, he could only speak in general terms.
9c847e15480c19e7d6e3be7c951c8c0cf760f232	His voice often trembled when the memories were painful,but he could not remember many details.
70a62fe2dff1306d2ee81fd418426e78cab1bc47	After trying in vain to find out more about his past life, I was ready to give up everything.
633b1cbe88ac7e2af793bc17a8d9054fafbd274c	And then one day something amazing happened.
0de35c7d4d36cf1e9a7d4826153f2a716c88506e	For the first time, Billy Milligan appeared as a whole person, revealing a new personality – a fusion of all his personalities.
04ea1fe959b8e211241be7c477086e1e7f95c285	Such a Milligan clearly remembered almost everything about all his personalities from the moment they appeared: their thoughts, actions, relationships with people, tragic cases and comic adventures."
29f5dec36b4cdd4e32c466ab853ca7b4686a57aa	This fusion of personalities, according to again only Milligan and Keyes himself, was the so called Teacher, who allegedly was able to unite all the personalities into one whole.
c903f55351a8f2f5d4e808fc7fbdc333bedcece1	That is, not in the personality of Milligan, which was originally, but in the newly "created"one.
27e616aec075083d343d67fe39a08381dd6d6ee1	An interesting moment is how Milligan described the process of changing a particular personality inside himself.
fc215f742a1fa2203a42ea147f25856e79bca9e3	He claimed that his consciousness was like a dark room in which all 23 personalities are located.
76eeacc82016cd8f80f6557c7424b0596182be26	There is a white spot of light in the middle of this room (here I see a parallel with the dark stage on which his father, an entertainer, once performed in the spotlight).
337a56ffea4cf292cc73e3cf7c8f3a48d5fa9464	The person who stood on this spot, and took possession of consciousness for a while.
e50675a3c803268655465808176b291eeefb4ec0	However, one nuance remained unclear to me.
eaeacc5c1b3b74cfe494ed3c76034e51092477bf	According to Milligan, all the personalities did not know about each other's existence, some of them only guessed about it.
78dd3c94d7a35a7adc9499fe90a60697917bbb73	But then how can one manage other personalities, declare them desirable or undesirable, control and allow them if the personalities cannot communicate with each other?
15a96cdae72106fdb9651715765cae0bcb9e7c30	Here is what Keyes writes further: "I received all the material of this book from this solid Milligan, from his other personalities and from sixty two people whose paths crossed with him at different stages of his life.
ccabe3d7a7b2e3ccce1eb6a8f28687cf17a19b6f	At first glance, these words inspire hope that the Milligan riddle still exists, because there are weighty factors in defense of its reality.
7c40fb50572241698626a14ffee190909fcd67cc	Take, for example, the story of Monica Lewinsky and not just a simple criminal, but the entire president of the United States – Bill Clinton, who, obviously, was a very private person.
1e8f5fed16e80bbb668e8b0daafe8ab0b8007850	I really wanted to find at least one real video with Billy Milligan.
28bdb53ac397fe738874cfefa498da19b749140a	They depict a man of absolutely normal appearance, neat and cute, with the usual, healthy gestures of an adult American.
35c12bf85799b1c9f24f6cf615fdf75f0c2aed5e	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 23: 17:54 from Vlad Galaganov "
35b161a6f1b50cd95a66053b32b941f768a01178	"Reply #7: 27 November 2013, 20: 17: 46 "
d8348e10b806bce967dad6708d3d8ef30f67d7e8	I would like to explain to you once again, dear readers, that I am not trying to debunk the myth of Milligan itself, I am only trying to explain that everything told about him is not a fact, as it may seem after reading Wikipedia or the book "The Multiple Minds of Billy Milligan".
f789f7954d5d5e81db79d5e329df2b17b5779d0c	In short, I'm not trying to say that the Billy Milligan phenomenon did not exist.
c22f4212cec17faa10823579b45e5b392961a499	It is there, and I would like to understand it.
df49c263d320de11d3873ea1686b7a0143cc0f23	Only understanding should be built on some stronger basis than on the statements of only one person – a science fiction writer.
67e5f6c491c564684986e386e6e551a2b207bc81	There are quite significant oddities in this case.
e3fdd853d74699fa784bfa5ad0db1fc14d5b020a	Lawyers do not count, their faith and conviction in Milligan's innocence should not be checked.
bb9049ea7981fe2f27f3102febf76268f0555910	The lawyer's job is precisely to believe the defendant and make the court believe in his innocence.
45fef418cb2db028cbcefea50ec52a20382cb4d8	But then the approach of the judge and the prosecution representatives to this case is very surprising.
faacc83bc799cb7dbf5f84e2f85782ddf138e294	Based on the memories of the relatives of the raped girls, both the defense and the prosecution unanimously came to the conclusion that it is impossible to judge Milligan as a healthy, full fledged member of this society.
a800b81963d217d54bfd3a903b1aa36c6d24d776	Obviously, the judge, due to some personal circumstances and beliefs, was forced to believe this.
a3b9ddbac3845e75c08d62a19f95af18956f0b08	Sometimes, even such experienced people, it means that you can "spend on chaff".
93ffac42dffc3c25b0cc3bcf23a4609f54239df9	The conclusion is that an odious human factor has worked here.
fbd64c7e282cdf860364f2ff3c96a4491a4aac05	However, the topic of the reason for pity is also unproven.
015e6b32fcdcacb34d68265cefdc321268c04b3e	And at least four of his personalities appeared in response to bullying.
92f8da90f911068f5b23486ecbbd21a7912072e4	The fact of violence was allegedly confirmed by Milligan's mother and sister at the trial.
1597e1cd9cfae073702d525492aec8d12b12529d	But if the mother knew about this, then why did she not stop this sadism at the time?
8032ccb5c22bc8db36f375de26279eef9a692395	And most importantly, why has no one ever engaged in an official investigation of Billy's stepfather's atrocities?
9f41d2da8cc14557c9de4f5819345fdc401c8ae9	Why was all this put on the brakes?
7967d8b14e4701ae05b865eaa606a655d133e28c	The general public first learned about the childhood abuse of Billy Milligan from the Times newspaper.
f1d193c940b20e99c8432c654f681949d0c969f9	It is not known how such information was leaked to the newspaper.
e64254215a2fef01accfe2a562628dc269f87997	But it is known that reporters are sneaky people.
3fb345cff2c834b10f3d8f6ed33d3dc130f657d4	They decided to dig up the real story of Billy's childhood, and, as it turned out, they managed to find Chalmer Milligan, who lived in Lancaster at that time.
faa6835dae65efad9e4a34a0c55ec33297d0409b	It turned out that Chalmer had worked for many years as a leading engineer in a well – known electrical company Western Electric, which is one of the leading corporations in the West of America for the development of innovative technologies in the field of electrical engineering.
ebe5d77772888732a8d56ca70666734b4000f9bc	After interviewing his former colleagues, reporters were surprised to find that Chalmer Milligan had never been known among his acquaintances as a man of bad temper or sadistic tendencies.
5f78432bc0eab5789e04b480386edba951abfd70	He was positively characterized as a person who gives himself completely to work.
af51ba690e7279c147d4398fb499273ad08282eb	When asked by a journalist how he could so mock the unfortunate child, Chalmer, choking with resentment, said to Billy's family: "They are just liars.
86b32c6e727c60d1e609821cec3ba7ab97f7aaba	I physically didnot have time to do all these terrible things that they talk about."
b82b33e353b1e5f82d62ac06f79415051e23fbf1	However, he confirmed that Billy really had never been able to get along with other children as a child, shutting himself off from communicating with them.
e96157969326dedf34610754b97cb59ec5b819a9	When asked about Billy's split personality, he assured that " this child was always strange."
53b1faf1516e0dc548f59edf9cd5a1fca8c41297	As you can see, this moment in Billy's story is quite blurry and has not been proven.
f2b16fd1c8c829e1ef8b08b95eb071f31f8dbf5a	Moreover, the real history of this person's childhood is actually unknown to the general public.
d81e99d4aeedc3ca1a96dfe91e55549d25c11361	And it is impossible to say that he was subjected to insults and violence as a child.
885322be689bcfbd86fa3775a2c4f12bf794040e	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 23: 26: 17 by Vlad Galaganov "
1827561b7b50ba82e991f14035b5992e7dd2c8f9	"Reply #8 : 27 November 2013, 20: 18: 00 "
88e173b04352c19e15fff1f7d353f604b4c5a994	But what happened to Milligan himself after the trial?
437c4da3ef1fed562f42bb1f4cad7269558c6cae	Having got not to prison, like an ordinary criminal, but to the Athens Mental Health Center (Ohio), Doctor of psychological sciences David Cole took up Billy's treatment.
da191fe073ccbd72efa208726b1dc10db5d19320	In general, it is worth dwelling separately on the description of the very medical institution that Billy got into, because it is worth it.
3d80a33fa8168bf24cfd97da847ba84c99e5a30f	Built in 1874 as a home for Civil War veterans suffering from post war syndrome, the Athens Center quickly gained fame as an infamous clinic for the mentally ill, and the ominous name of the Ridges.
e1ce9b38f1ef64214102655200ab28c418d2931e	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Mental Health Center in Athens, Ohio
1e7e1f2bb2c855cfe7479e062f9d28235c1a6aa9	Having opened its doors at first to two hundred patients, the clinic soon grew and already accommodated thousands of sufferers, later becoming a local scale clinic for the maintenance of criminals sent for treatment.
fedaf786124c4fb4f077ff8c0687f62af6c42b6d	Everyone who could not adapt to a peaceful life, the elderly, abandoned to the mercy of fate by children, the abnormal and the poor sought shelter here.
f1fcbbba1d1d893cc06eb7c808442cb5bed39cea	The hospital management had neither the means nor the desire to provide care for such a number of patients.
898d082f929a4c20a5e6593cf5dd63611204a9ca	But there were actively practiced clandestine experiments on people, unconventional methods of treatment, and even there was talk of repeated cases of murder.
68dc801ed4e57ebaf7ca45dace4b0b03aebdab11	Local doctors believed that lobotomy and electroshock therapy were the best means to cure a sick mind.
52ff2524e110caba28d2a153eac1705a3e4b7d09	Here is a far from complete list of tortures that were called therapy in these dungeons:
f25f3201d225db617f55bda085c849b72524135f	Cold treatment Patients were immersed in icy water for several hours.
5e0cb3cf9456becc703ee8b2f1ee79a196032e8c	Not everyone remained physically healthy after such a procedure.
7b9eaa1e8066d42788b0b8e772fd8b21d3bf839e	Pneumonia and other inflammations caused by hypothermia claimed many lives.
d1a500c04c3835c4e28c32b342b919d3f28c6ec5	However, the survivors became compliant and compliant for a long time, afraid of running into such a "treatment" again.
ca387f8cbab5992104c27d3a26c3169b576c4980	Electroshock therapy This method of treatment consisted in passing an electric current through the patient's brain, thereby causing an epileptic seizure.
5aa65ce1d9ee678484c24d7a52e1d84f4468be8f	In the Athens Center, patients were immersed in baths filled with brine to feel "complete euphoria".
aa17c703de9167593c0314c5352ddd3aad2e192a	Usually, such a procedure was subjected to violent and particularly intractable patients.
f2c1452b510ff6843abfa08541e13157ce5705aa	After such treatment, a person fell into a state of mute vegetable for a long time, without causing unnecessary trouble to anyone else.
5f838deb0db2636d73c2cde48592735e7f5de584	Lobotomy This neurosurgical operation was invented in 1935.
aa3459c108a09e4efee65fff4935f3a8c2d913a2	Its meaning was to cut the white matter of the brain between the frontal lobes and the rest of the brain.
a6fc7243cf71f5623a07bd274365a8d538c274d7	Throughout its history, this procedure has killed thousands of patients around the world.
8aa4b7cea0148e2f6e09c088920312cbace8389d	However, those who survived actually came out of severe depressive and psychotic states, as if forgetting them.
d281b2e5e06a55b57dd896f2685536f0a21b9570	However, in addition to "forgetfulness" of their abnormality, people often forgot their name and the people around them, and it became an impossible task for them to perform elementary everyday actions.
6a8c9c04fbeaf4fa3c2e8f1a4c028c0c25256d66	Trans Orbital Lobotomy This life giving method of lobotomy was developed by Dr. Walter J. Freeman in the early 1950s.
abc329be8f9babfdd4134a64332ccc1f0e30d420	This method, if I may say treatment, has become a kind of hobby in the circles of practicing psychiatrists of the 50-60s of the 20th century.
2fdc129ad1651c181a8a1269d597c8a51a35acc4	There is a number of evidence that this method actually helped some people with severe depression, but much more often, patients experienced terrifying side effects leading to complete paralysis.
21264932b0683506d2f211b82e908b27572b68c8	And no one dares to voice how many lives this method has claimed.
36fb90dabf2061221515ab66feb73f5767a1bb7a	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Dr. Freeman performs a trans orbital lobotomy in 1949.
3a88f6753f2f219f0afe31a9a94898b71f5d4c96	These were the methods of treatment at the Athens Center.
72f2fe645c8269c02b387460d35e8d4612d425cb	And the living conditions in this clinic were far from perfect.
2731e25a08422996bf6e6b3a4799f26f47e0bfd8	Patients were often kept in bestial conditions, forced to sleep in wards of several dozen people.
0b936f9ccaceb6b59d59d9ecf28216373e3c5137	One nurse was sometimes responsible for as many as fifty patients, so there was unimaginable chaos and lawlessness in the clinic.
5cfa1feb0f7c4ab5cba3d31a6698d3ab3bbbc88d	It was in this institution that Billy Milligan happened to get a cure.
087f1949a2209b2cfbcf9d371c023657f2de53ba	At that time, the diagnosis of dissociative disorder confidently "became fashionable" in America and Europe.
006d48d59c20a0c8144202e9d445d46f249697dc	I will tell you about this amazing phenomenon in detail later.
3be2a7228ec619cf5e42de90746ac7b47ba793f4	But at the time when Milligan is in the clinic, his attending doctor Cole was unimaginably enthusiastic about studying this disorder.
a49fefb2d9119832f8797b8ba63e3605606b22b9	Psychiatry was only making tentative steps in understanding what the human psyche is, and Milligan was exactly in the place where they wanted to... no, not to help him, but only to subject him to study.
7432858b3316d82f23fec8d65a05e22689e44ac5	Long conversations with an enthusiastic psychiatrist, an absolutely depressive, depressed environment, painful procedures, restrictions and punishments – that's what Billy got in the end for his crimes.
b68893d3ea6837af55d6f409f1002fbaed5cdb5d	Later, Cole would claim that he fought hard for his unusual patient, trying to unite his personalities into one whole.
4da2ddef91ecb94bf02c13438c8e1213cce8ea6d	But in fact, according to Milligan, his attempts were weak, unprofessional and did not look like help at all.
feff05c19e04a8159b067a8f3817be382ec4a659	That is, Milligan's new personality - the Teacher did not appear in response to the work of the aesculapius, Milligan "created" him independently, and I think that in response to the conditions in which he found himself.
fa81a6c5ae50c9943a3b5b17340f54f53fe33b69	The teacher was "born" at the end of 1978.
03656f8e1692a8aef3e4ade2acaf440799bfa7b8	Milligan began to cooperate with doctors, behaved peacefully and quite adequately, and soon they begin to let him go to the city for long walks without supervision.
db3e6976d8c0a1191b1a0af4141344c6bb8cf5e0	But, you can imagine how much the locals were delighted with such things!
09356a904eadb012462dad8a61614753f9c47cdb	A crazy rapist known throughout the country walks among civilians.
9940647721cf012513a0cb1e96f245a10d490adb	The fact that Milligan wanders the streets of Athens, it quickly became known to reporters and waterfalls of criticism and condemnation descend on him and the clinic.
b0087cb8edf0c3318ef95aa79d05606086ab53ee	Obviously, in response to this "publicity", the Teacher in Billy's head retreats, again giving way to multiple personalities.
3cda566e4c5bf69c5f06989e3f06f39081b92064	Milligan is placed back in the hospital, closing the possibility of walking in order to calm the public.
a549b9014c1adb9c0f27f7483e4e5d3b9466abfb	But Milligan no longer wants to cooperate on these terms with doctors.
b1f7ea2c54d2d05d8a4ed41f6d3daf3513173285	Remaining a popular personality, he secretly sells his paintings to those who wish, sells drugs within the walls of the hospital, makes dubious transactions for the resale of non existent things.
f8bb3fcdf634c419a84e54e59181dc004e61d182	He gets caught on his scams and again his case is transferred to the court.
83150521ed4f809c68751973755d3aa6c3f5c5e9	This time he is being tried in Athens, and the judge is less accommodating.
b0011e7ab6c2cc59816cdba8f94f21183605d85f	Under the pretext that Milligan poses a threat to the patients of the Athens Center, he is transferred to the state hospital of Lima (Ohio) for mentally ill criminals for maintenance and treatment.
151c209e55af2be50fabef10d7a987015c265add	[ Guests are not allowed to view attachments ] Prison for especially dangerous and mentally ill criminals in Lima
a2233eee13b17fcd95a838a90e15fc5861151f6c	In America, only the Pentagon is surrounded by higher and thicker concrete walls than this prison, which is famous throughout the country not only for the stories of its patients, but also for stories about the spirits that inhabit this place.
4720056ba4f44bfe5446efd91c98ca4fcae70479	Subsequently, Milligan will describe his stay in this prison as the most terrible period in his life, calling this place nothing but a "house of horrors".
ca2766c5447d5b28cffdd88b567b5148df8e403a	Combining all the nightmares of a prison for especially dangerous criminals and the depressiveness of a psychiatric clinic, the prison in Lima brought to life all of Milligan's most secret fears.
477b5b19a1b4dd2e6af231c42647b7ea451e76a7	After staying there for a little more than a year, he will be transferred to a clinic in Dayton, then to the Central Ohio Psychiatric Hospital.
5337270b0540c326e25b95f3c3ef5e327e3448e3	The situation and the rules of the latter were liberal, and Milligan, seizing the moment, escapes from there.
87655d38960c0316b43bec34a4d12de2fc875971	"Last edit: 13 January 2016, 23: 29: 50 by Vlad Galaganov "
69f882cb1d8f7b5b082c75f21488ba46e64fa2de	"Reply #9 : 27 November 2013, 20:18: 16 "
b6d954aadfeb6644321b2caf9e8870da15914341	First of all, he conspires with local reporters.
17e3ac09516052051f8d5aa103de68bdc3625d06	He records a devastating interview on videotape, in which he denounces all psychiatrists as ignoramuses and sadists, and sends the tape to a local radio station in Columbus (Ohio).
8fc2356e66fc273b126ad70170197e9a3e9d570d	This tape will later disappear somewhere, never becoming public.
f314532e59aa5ac3fe8e024f812cac1df7ce5326	He will be arrested only after 5 months, caught in Miami.
4c7fb34d8d2aa3af3b7f5826f8f55ed74f005985	And again the clinic.
ef243dc98bc90628a21acf6a4b9b2580c878cf40	But Milligan is too learned by experience.
99efc61da7b9790b5f2555ad25a0921d7550715f	He no longer demonstrates dissociative disorder, becoming just Billy Milligan, becoming one.
01264c2aa7619ae2a0a554d0a70bcadf991142fc	For another three years, Milligan will be under police and medical supervision, but already in 1991 he was recognized as a full fledged member of the community, free to live his life as he pleases.
d0c311b065a415a742c708f66baae9786b1b0833	He moves to California, opens his own small film studio called " Stormy Life Productions "(translated as" Stormy Life Production") and begins to cooperate with James Cameron, the world famous director of"Titanic".
0efe5a576d2395e4294c007887b251a82524354d	Cameron wants to make a film based on the book by Daniel Keyes "The Multiple minds of Billy Milligan", having come up with the working title of the film "The Crowded Room" ("Crowded Room").
59eeff0ef5fece08a5f2ded543d6d2e21b583123	The main roles in this drama were claimed by some of the most famous and talented actors in Hollywood John Cusack, Leonardo DiCaprio, Brad Pitt and Colin Farrell.
ccc20731317226f1b5e968eaf996fe44c07a54dd	Cameron, not too lazy, gets acquainted personally with Milligan, later describing their meeting as "we became friends".
439dd62902819363220bc71d2fa9d4c8e22c2ce4	The script was completed, the movie was in the stage of starting filming.
e12159f689905f2fa1168abbd6c06afe7f115502	In a word, the story promised to be grandiose and successful.
5158e50933bf62fefaf6bfafe4c10b8dde39b1b4	But the dreams were not destined to come true.
89642a6c058bed4013e63e0c5679a4c12d430e98	Back in 1981, as it turned out, the rights to the film adaptation of Keyes ' book were bought by a strange, unknown woman, allegedly a restaurateur, named Sandy Arkara.
fda128a12b86625862886e3e1feeaf0df7538abb	It was she who at one time began negotiations with Cameron, offering him to film the story of Milligan.
e8dad8804b39708884b5c671127a5f1bd310d97e	The deal took place, Arkara was supposed to receive a round sum of $ 250,000 for her rights.
9f429c654250a54a07128359f26e5f7b9c170532	Cameron enthusiastically advertised his future film, promising to do it immediately after the release of "Terminator 2".
76a38f278c12a96b92d9c469ed77e83090f7ba7c	And suddenly, out of the blue, he receives a double claim – from Arkara, who already wants $ 5 million for her rights, and Milligan, who makes demands for his share of the rights to the film in the amount of $ 9 million.
ef28ffa24682b8e60c23dcd0033125daf2b4a677	Long lawsuits and scandalous negotiations begin, the result of which is Cameron's refusal to pay this money, and therefore to make a film.
4854feccda4f5c819dabcdbf4c4ce6fc23e06059	Later in the interview, he will say with sadness: "It was Milligan who ultimately contributed to the fall of the project.
8b9b7ada4b8d751bb7d802cf338f9fd818ac9e50	I donot negotiate with terrorists and extortionists."
c48aafa68866d297996b25d393a859fd73cf21b2	However, it may be that in the process of working, Cameron simply lost interest in this story, and, not seeing a monetary prospect in it, did not want to continue.
c8bcfffcbcdf45b57da72d61f7d0ae1b9cb133cb	He owed $ 450,000 on a loan for a house he purchased in Los Angeles.
c580e1255509856873c1f351d345be57f50400ae	And if the patient is healthy, then the treatment was effective.
0d44e084deec52d9c9e124a6a2dc2b897e3d8538	It is difficult for me to imagine the state of a person who has received a bill of $ 120,000.
47d2e7d9407d0d8c12428e4a246148c6d0047446	He spent 11 years of his life in mental hospitals and prisons, having experienced all possible experiments of psychiatrists and supervisors.
f15c2c1c41c43e223348b7db6dc458b5db23518e	"Everyone got a piece of me, and I didnot get anything.
dc4078725285e23a875911f7225dd182c2ef0e31	Now they are all trying to make me sick again in order to take their money, " Milligan will say in one of his last interviews.
95a85c7ddb4c3b18ea40e961efd85c166b0981be	Of course, to pay the amount of $ 570,000.
bb5f72e9409cc66955b4cff5696f23548c5358ce	US Milligan was unable to, and, declaring himself bankrupt, he disappears forever from the field of view of all researchers.
e3bb9022cd348cc9aeac1a24a2faadfe46d5c2ba	On October 21, 1996, he will give a short telephone interview to a small publishing house "Astraea", specializing in the production of fantastic bestsellers.
6be6dc27af40e1d88639e478e741e931562c666e	He will reject their offer to write a book based on his story and say that he is already cooperating with Japanese publishers.
491171bc175fc0e6055f57f3a3b423b9242883d8	He will scold all the doctors, curse their "help", calling them the biggest "money pumping corporation".
28883fb05765fd0b8e359c6c82a6a2d9cbe9e8be	The last time he will be heard in 2000 by a realtor dealing with Milligan's real estate, and from now on no one will know where such an odious person is, who has left memories of himself on many pages of newspapers and discussions.
40362ce9b5a057e4429dd982d68c2aa98be8ac93	They searched for him for a long time and unsuccessfully, calling all the people who had ever had contact with him.
c057fe9e6c2d2f149896870c7a722828496f772a	But there was not a single person in the world who knew where William Stanley Milligan had calmed his soul now.
bfa1d39da4c3218504e015ee16bdd6ceed8ea7d0	"Last edit: December 18, 2013, 09: 58:51 by Vlad Galaganov "
ff4e381c1640beedc5c03f4d70fcf507e5d72bfb	37 Up
32a8acc88f25375362bce8310aa7be9e270a8a1d	© Pulp Fiction 2013-2016 All rights reserved.
4d913a5bbe238bf00a0ed09848f9b2b80356a26d	Reprint of materials only with an active link to the original.
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ff7d34df6bde458dfc1a86fb7264e470ff2d842d	Requests: 37.
e0b767c3b404234cc64e6989c40f8dca45be026b	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich (September 12 (25), 1906, Saint Petersburg — August 9, 1975, Moscow) was a Soviet composer, pianist, musical and public figure, Doctor of Art History, teacher, professor. People's Artist of the USSR (1954).
b4ac0a4c8309ef6b050e8b275f8424dbd000bff2	Winner of the Lenin Prize (1958), five Stalin Prizes (1941, 1942, 1946, 1950, 1952), The State Prize of the USSR (1968) and the State Prize of the RSFSR named after M. I. Glinka (1974).
0c86c5d8006c9745d9ba388c5dcd67214d6c7e41	One of the greatest composers of the XX century.
c782360df84ca04dbdb114574482453cc45b2795	Dmitry Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg in 1906.
cb474f2493c9e29193a6712acd82f7cf01c07255	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich was born in the house No. 2 on Podolskaya Street, where D. I. Mendeleev rented the first floor for a City verification tent in 1906.
8387460ae49a8c394a571abb2853c432ffdd56a1	His parents were originally from Siberia, where the grandfather (on the paternal side) of the future composer was exiled for participating in the people's Will movement.
09c8a84254abcbfafe967ed15781cca2dbf90ff9	The boy's father, Dmitry Boleslavovich, was a chemical engineer and a passionate music lover.
1a784592da36fd12662e3330e9a42de9054d6c30	In the family, besides Dmitry, two more girls grew up.
fa22fcd8231b39441e3a76521036282200f9d585	Mitya's older sister, Maria, later became a pianist, and the younger Zoya became a veterinarian.
e4283ac52df0ff3344e28b6d8025082be7061afb	Mother-Sofya Vasilyevna, studied at the conservatory at one time, was a good pianist and teacher of piano playing for beginners.
45114f01728a92ce8a4f808d2c42812455d1b325	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich's great-grandfather on his father's side-a veterinarian Pyotr Mikhailovich Shostakovich (1808-1871) - counted himself among the peasants in the documents; as a voluntary listener, he graduated from the Vilna Medical Surgical Academy[1].
3722955e0cfb7943040318fb710953a9ee5abf0c	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich's maternal grandfather, Vasily Kokoulin (1850-1911), was born, like Dmitry Boleslavovich, in Siberia; after graduating from the city school in Kirensk, he moved to Bodaibo in the late 1860s, where many were attracted by the "gold rush" in those years, and in 1889 became the manager of a mining office[14].
b73e676f6757280758fc43997f09c70050793e9f	When Mitya was 8 years old, the First World War began.
49b859f787929ad26e2826046a6fa30da6489b9a	Listening to the constant conversations of adults about the war, the boy wrote his first musical work "Soldier".
c614e07e78d0c3343c100fb9d9c4c94bf8d3ef7c	In 1915, Shostakovich entered the Commercial Gymnasium of Maria Shidlovskaya, and his first serious musical impressions belong to this time: after attending the performance of the opera by N. A. Rimsky Korsakov "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", the young Shostakovich declared his desire to seriously study music.
32dee6de82cf7cf5ba64ce66ff2126bf2cd05412	His first piano lessons were given to him by his mother, and after several months of classes, Shostakovich was able to start studying at a private music school of the then famous piano teacher I. A. Glasser[21].
c8d0f40d2fb21d7859bd843152c2b1b02995a7aa	While studying with Glasser, Shostakovich achieved some success in piano performance, but he did not share his student's interest in composition, and in 1918 Shostakovich left his school.
2fa52dfd48147c011c5275edf4bc2f1bab6a7287	In the summer of the following year, the young musician was listened to by A. K. Glazunov, who spoke approvingly about his compositional talent.
cd89b1c19449fb4ee869f3c2e1187786fc8893e2	In the autumn of the same year, Shostakovich entered the Petrograd Conservatory, where he studied harmony and orchestration under the direction of M. O. Steinberg, counterpoint and fugue under N. A. Sokolov, while also conducting.
2ab701d54c1071337c1395a21a011cae40260599	At the end of 1919, Shostakovich wrote his first major orchestral work, the Scherzo fis moll.
86e67855edffee6990c3d0b49751f329ba054609	The following year, Shostakovich entered the piano class of L. V. Nikolaev, where among his classmates were Maria Yudina and Vladimir Sofronitsky.
d906515329130c0bf0bdbac3b1615b34e8522e4b	During this period, the "Anna Vogt Circle" was formed, focusing on the latest trends in Western music of that time.
cb3dd5737a9c2838752a0d343efd6ada63fba414	Shostakovich writes "Two Fables of Krylov" for mezzo-soprano and piano and "Three Fantastic Dances" for piano.
f1b943672fda99242c66c3263d80ce538d00d439	He studied at the conservatory diligently and with special zeal, despite the difficulties of that time: the First World War, the revolution, the civil war, the devastation, the famine.
4769862df32efef288e38641155e2504350859d8	There was no heating in the conservatory in winter, transport was bad, and many people dropped music, missed classes.
627627baf6af674c44479efde875e911eff37fc3	Shostakovich "gnawed the granite of science".
36ad6cc6b3baabffd3e1a180b3de10056cc09f79	A hard life with a half-starved existence (the conservative ration was very small) led to severe exhaustion.
8ea3c7ab8ddd2a92f5275a423be46b0c8a6482e0	In 1922, Shostakovich's father died, the family was left without means of subsistence.
1ff76caf8c59cff7a49f934251ab4cd1f9d14eb6	A few months later, Shostakovich underwent a serious operation that almost cost him his life.
2a549413ab1c5935570754625ec84c1e27364894	Despite his failing health, he is looking for a job and gets a job as a piano player in a cinema.
34785f678b74b8c113a394f727b4fdef2ae2320a	Great help and support during these years is provided by Glazunov, who managed to get Shostakovich an additional ration and a personal scholarship.[21].
59b60a61e40465ef77a5e132bc7191dc849f7d47	In 1923, Shostakovich graduated from the Conservatory in the piano class (with L. V. Nikolaev), and in 1925 — in the composition class (with M. O. Steinberg).
2c537e1d9673d8629c28d3d9f86f8dc43047c8cb	His graduation work was The First Symphony.
5a860d194ae256ddafba3c1d8238152af7c9e6d7	The first truly original work of Shostakovich was his thesis — Symphony No. 1; after its premiere (Leningrad, 1926), critics began talking about Shostakovich as an artist who could fill the void that had formed in Russian music as a result of the emigration of S. V. Rachmaninov, I. F. Stravinsky, S. S. Prokofiev.
44e1008dd5606ea819f192c276648675141ef6bb	Already in this youthful score, Shostakovich's tendency to irony and sarcasm, to sudden, dramatically saturated contrasts, to the extensive use of symbol motifs, often subjected to radical figurative and semantic transformation, was manifested.
a56c07608937087f26922259cde3d36fd03fab24	In the same 1926, Shostakovich's work marked a shift from the relatively traditional language of the symphony to bold stylistic experiments, which the official ideology simply did not reach yet.
084eaf023c16b75eab5cc35d4d29bd4a5a73b244	In the works of Shostakovich of 1926-31, many discoveries of the Western European musical avant-garde of the 1950s and 60s are anticipated. (sonorica, micropolyphony, pointillism, automatic writing, etc.).
2c2cbe325c5b5059b2ef8de080ae6979811d7948	According to a tradition dating back to Rubinstein, Rachmaninoff and Prokofiev, Shostakovich was going to continue his career both as a concert pianist and as a composer.
489623f9f669d164e962a28d54215a4186bfe760	Fortunately, the famous German conductor Bruno Walter noticed the unusual talent of the musician even earlier, during his tour in the USSR; after hearing the First Symphony, Walter immediately asked Shostakovich to send the score to him in Berlin; the symphony's foreign premiere took place on November 22, 1927 in Berlin.
b54b0f3ff1f8250bec50d0938fff2c2b7f7c7a57	Following Bruno Walter, the Symphony was performed in Germany by Otto Klemperer, in the USA by Leopold Stokowski (the American premiere was held on November 2, 1928 in Philadelphia) and Arturo Toscanini, thereby making the Russian composer famous[22].
28962df0e824d564999d0e588ca7c09a76e2aef9	In 1927, two more significant events occurred in the life of Shostakovich.
0dee5dac3d420b92c087bef85a47fc9554068aa3	In January, the Austrian composer of the Novovensky School, Alban Berg, visited Leningrad.
a15c5db3635a2c13f3b8d3309273bd5091af3f43	Berg's arrival was due to the Russian premiere of his opera "Wozzek", which became a huge event in the cultural life of the country, and also inspired Shostakovich to start writing the opera" The Nose", based on the story by Nikolai Gogol.
d1436e25e75899ad8c04a04fa34f3e6b1f97d7e8	Another important event was Shostakovich's acquaintance with I. I. Sollertinsky, who during his long-term friendship with the composer enriched Shostakovich with acquaintance with the works of great composers of the past and present.
bba1f5462ce847997b34611401b97914cddeb5d9	At the same time, in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the following two symphonies by Shostakovich were written — both with the participation of the choir: The second ("Symphonic dedication to October", in the words of I. Bezymensky) and the Third ("May Day", in the words of S. I. Kirsanov).
33bdd79de0a6b5cb44c4b671d27e87cc80290363	In 1928, Shostakovich met V. E. Meyerhold in Leningrad and, at his invitation, worked for some time as a pianist and head of the musical part of the V. E. Meyerhold Theater in Moscow[21].
8570cc2213e69b3ed505e62ac6f1f1ad748aa6de	Many of the composer's compositions that followed such a brilliant beginning reflected the turbulent atmosphere of the time, where the new style of the era was forged in the struggle of contradictory attitudes.
311c54c662b20f65e59ff957d3d6eb9d1de368a5	Shostakovich's style not only perceived the influences coming from the experience of world musical culture (here M. Mussorgsky, P. Tchaikovsky and G. Mahler were the most important for the composer), but also absorbed the sounds of the musical life of that time — that public culture of the "light" genre that possessed the consciousness of the masses.
9ed571869669499825617562ce52b546857098a9	And finally, it is impossible not to say about the other side of the creative activity of the young composer — he worked hard and hard in the cinema, first as an illustrator at the demonstration of silent films, then as one of the creators of Soviet sound cinema.
3cbd2650ff71c0de7f86b0429cf53b010e58aa79	His song from the movie "Counter" (1932) gained national popularity.
38f4832c15ff2d0b0c068a4287a77ca31a38823c	The desire to embody the most acute conflicts of the modern world with its grandiose upheavals and fierce clashes of opposing forces especially affected the master's capital works of the period of the 30s.
69616e187e30d0e11bb37504c3d0ae5bad84b276	An important step on this path was the opera " Katerina Izmailova "(1932), written on the plot of the story by N. Leskov"Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district".
c3874de488bc9d1245ca385b123b9f631703b6dd	However, the composer achieved the greatest success in the Fifth Symphony (1937) — the most significant and fundamental achievement in the development of Soviet symphonism of the 30s. (a turn to a new quality of style was outlined in the Fourth Symphony written earlier, but then not sounded-1936).
7a90653ce5e53da2fa98f73f5d7443f380884cca	After the premiere of the work, a laudatory article was published in Pravda.
787b4590392bc2905b13355d9f3282df3d23ffc0	Stalin commented on the release of the 5th Symphony on the pages of Pravda with the phrase: "A business-like creative response of a Soviet artist to fair criticism" [24].
99b27179a1dfade8d196c33e98f2818586e69506	The opera shocked the dictator, whose taste was brought up on popular classics and primitive pseudo-folk crafts; his reaction was expressed in the editorial "Confusion instead of music", published in Pravda and for many years determined the ways of development of Soviet music.
f98983ed98e3c3df21dfed2beacdb01a671d5736	Since 1937, Shostakovich led a composition class at the Rimsky Korsakov LGC.
72e52e9cfd74c3f3e7e5efe69be85b83738b93c4	In 1939, he became a professor.
f1500cfcec1b002298c7d9c6baf9181cf568310f	A few days later, Pravda published another editorial on the musical theme - "Ballet Falsity"; this time Shostakovich's ballet "The Bright Stream" (1935)was subjected to scathing criticism
c5f82f44a4ca820f61ee7bb1f31b8bc3d69bc642	After the articles of Pravda, most of Shostakovich's works written before 1936 practically disappeared from the cultural life of the country.
a39dd3b047738b8b5b674b44f97612216f708bf5	"Katerina Izmailova" was "rehabilitated" at home only in 1962.
bf0df286a5317501604993f88fe6a0940c35e7f0	The compositions of the 1920s (with the exception of Symphony No. 1 and some miniatures) were not performed in the USSR until the mid-1960s, and the "Nose" was resumed only in 1974.
91fc6f7f4cf0956278accbb12934c5c9e608c6f8	On November 5, 1939, the premiere of his 6th symphony took place.
97d928a9f07ccdb8c9985b4447d403b33f77d7c8	During the first months of the Great Patriotic War in Leningrad, Shostakovich began working on the 7th symphony – "Leningrad".
fe326125e2933e55ae7efdfee101316ce9b06efe	It was first performed on the stage of the Kuibyshev Opera and Ballet Theater on March 5, 1942.
129c8175426166d740d93b558aec26f30c96de42	On August 9, 1942The production was performed in the besieged Leningrad.
059b14407da846389c1e53036efe2e71428d61ae	The organizer and conductor was Karl Eliasberg, conductor of the Great Symphony Orchestra of the Leningrad Radio Committee.
53e63217c1ed4308f39f4ffaa079a3a1f2281796	The performance of the symphony became an important event in the life of the fighting city and its inhabitants.
adb3184cad17f064dfbdf0aaf87fe171869fc508	A year later, Shostakovich wrote the 8th Symphony, (dedicated to Mravinsky) in which, as if following Mahler's testament that "the whole world should be displayed in the symphony," he draws a monumental fresco of what is happening around.
0d671ebc3c8c9fadfe783af40985f00b31a7b58f	In 1943, the composer moved to Moscow and taught at the Moscow Conservatory until 1948.
f9b498ef32d8d5783ff2f7e7032c523909413973	After the end of the war, the composer wrote the 9th Symphony.
b3995da0e07a77b9f0ec39bd37a9795a55c1d7a5	On the other hand, in Symphony No. 9 (summer autumn 1945), the mood of a kind of "black humor"prevails.
b724ef2d705b3c08391841e78467284554d34e17	The symphony caused the displeasure of official critics, who expected a more optimistic response from the composer to the end of the war.
54af34b593d2be3207742a95e180bca4a1ae279a	From that moment on, the clouds over Shostakovich began to thicken again.
4d917836de90ad55dda29b24b041e28103897f0f	In February 1948, the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) was published on V. I. Muradeli's opera "The Great Friendship", in which the music of the largest Soviet composers — including Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Khachaturian — was declared "formalistic" and "alien to the Soviet people".
ea5ce07d1661f6a480a0dcb63b8349031280c333	To express his innermost ideas, thoughts and feelings, Shostakovich uses the genres of chamber music.
9c0846fbdb55041425463720ea6fc06bec42f9ec	In this field, he created such masterpieces as a Piano Quintet (1940), a Piano trio (1944), String quartets № 2 (1944), № 3 (1946) and No. 4 (1949).
e95af534abe754087d53fc1478eab0915d3265f4	After the thunder that thundered first in 1946 over a number of famous writers, in 1948 the Stalinist authorities began to "restore order" in the Union of Composers, accusing many masters of "formalism", "bourgeois decadence" and "groveling before the West".
5702a83a5393e1ed920a069fd4ba0bc882d99f0d	Shostakovich was accused of professional incompetence and expelled from the Moscow Conservatory.
a1c2a811d716b7bd8ff47a8d106dbba2c36be169	Again, the vocal cycle "From Jewish folk poetry" was created "at the wrong time", and again the composer was under attack – as "a conniver of rootless cosmopolitans and enemies of the people".
7c9fbaee76735e77fff7833aa31fe6d12a411b00	The first violin concerto in connection with these events was hidden by the composer, and its first performance took place only in 1955.
12c95b11c26a2802bbc2e02f601aa79514a7477c	As before, the situation is again saved by the "correct" musical work released in time.
2008adb6383aa10b3cc9563a8beb68410a39dca9	The new wave of attacks on Shostakovich in the press significantly surpassed the one that rose in 1936
70a8e3218be1ba2fd24c6f781faab1fe5ec3deb7	In 1949, Shostakovich wrote the cantata "Song of the Forests" - an example of the pathetic" grand style " of official art of those times (based on the poems of E. A. Dolmatovsky, which tells about the triumphant post-war restoration of the Soviet Union).
0c9ac8f26753f52c6331105ee4d4511d7fe59d22	Forced to submit to the dictate, Shostakovich, "realizing his mistakes," made an oratorio " The Song of the Forests "(1949), the cantata" The Sun Shines on our Motherland " (1952), music for a number of films of historical and military patriotic content, etc., which partially eased his situation.
2106003be5c82e7738d30a267a9dd08c2c2cd249	The premiere of the cantata is held with unprecedented success and brings Shostakovich the Stalin Prize.
01984a0ad1f47b836408e920e4b06be26b39af55	Only 13 years later, Shostakovich returned to teaching at the Leningrad Conservatory, where he supervised several graduate students, including V. Bibergan, G. Belov, V. Nagovitsyn, B. Tishchenko, V. Uspensky (1961-1968).
94aecdf7b5cc37a5b5b2ff32a4cd216e79eb391a	In parallel, works of higher artistic merit were composed — concerto No. 1 for violin and orchestra, the vocal cycle " From Jewish Folk Poetry "(both 1948), string quartets No. 4 and No. 5 (1949, 1952), the cycle" 24 preludes and Fugues " for piano (1951); with the exception of the latter, all of them were performed only after Stalin's death.
2c9387f0b9206084739c13fd4688e426927d4636	The era of the "thaw" in Soviet music symbolically opened with Shostakovich's Symphony No. 10 (1953) — a deeply intimate confession of the artist who defended his "I" in a desperate, almost hopeless opposition to Stalinism.
c83669cc61c47591c558e5c492f387f62518773a	After her, a crisis came in Shostakovich's work, which lasted for several years.
2d17286f5b6bb5a125533a1e4d35469e06003aa5	Even his best works of the mid-1950s — "Festive Overture" for orchestra (1954), music for the film "Gadfly" with the famous "Romance" (1955), string quartet No. 6 (1956) — are written in a light style.
c0ef41a9017598dae733a3828dda4846bd097268	Shostakovich's work of the last twenty years of his life is heterogeneous and ambiguous
0e07d5b868a0e4bcff7afb19ff4229e01fd6e496	But the true scale of the late Shostakovich is manifested primarily in an amazing series of autobiographical scores, each of which is an experience of saying goodbye to a life that has been lived, exhausted itself.
1966244d9adb0073e94e63c6fbe57e5266aebe93	In all these works, motifs and symbols are widely used, the function of which sometimes includes quotations from earlier scores of the composer himself or from the music of other authors.
cd9a921ca1e596036d21df6d57471bc971489ab3	Despair, protest, and tragic detachment determine the emotional climate of string quartets No. 7 (1960) and No. 9-14 (1964-73), sonatas for violin and piano (1968), vocal cycles based on poems by A. A. Blok (1967) and M. I. Tsvetaeva(1973), concertos for cello and orchestra (1959, 1966), concerto No. 2 for violin and orchestra (1967).
0bdcf61b20d385994c23f85ff494cd42c6f6e1ef	At the same time, a number of works of a humorous nature were written ("Satires" on the poems of Sasha Cherny, 1960, 5 romances on words from the magazine "Crocodile", 1965, "4 poems of Captain Lebyadkin" on words from the novel "Demons" by F. M. Dostoevsky, 1974).
75f510ee0b2977d90c0c66fe09d034673aa078e3	According to the memoirs of people close to the composer, Shostakovich was timid and insecure in communicating with women.
e27de993a682c1c6497e384aff8722723831dd3b	His first love was a 10-year-old girl Natasha Kube, to whom thirteen-year-old Mitya dedicated a small musical prelude.
ad8ccd70fcd76ebbf86591227dbe312c71b65239	In 1923, the aspiring composer met his contemporary Tanya Glivenko.
30b441915edcbcb9dd978aaa08561730714e1fe7	A seventeen-year-old boy fell madly in love with a beautiful, well-educated girl.
626d5fb115ee9dc8aed7c3aa75b61de04ea90cb4	The young people began a romantic relationship.
f86877af2b14190b37d341f0494df18e573f5e76	Despite the ardent love, Dmitry did not think of making proposals to Tatiana.
673404040156707b97a272a22d3d54d95882e247	In the end, Glivenko married another of her fans.
1f9f984faceea382d35fc50bf3a3e9fdfa7ac535	But it was not possible to forget Tatiana: the composer continued to meet her on the street, write passionate letters, talk about love to the wife of another man.
7b01b2bbb39db9ebe42ccf6487890fde58289738	Only three years after that, Shostakovich suggested that Tanya leave her husband and marry him.
e57e531b5c509df71ed95c607206d8d3e0d50252	Tatiana refused – she was expecting a child and asked Dmitry to forget about her forever.
3fbab4759691a68338268db91b13904f1a8206a2	Realizing that he cannot return his beloved, Shostakovich marries Nina Varzar , a young student.
b6a6182593e069a7bc5238b8616ddbd0f521d260	This woman was to spend more than twenty years with Dmitry Dmitrievich, give birth to a daughter and a son to the composer, survive her husband's infidelities and his hobbies with other women and die before her adored spouse.
aaccb6ce756c3d76b3fb3286f4607797c82d5c85	After the death of his wife, Shostakovich married two more times.
7b9c0f7d092bb70c3bb707d8f05951a788924505	The marriage with Margarita Kayonova was short-lived, and the third wife, Irina Supinskaya, took care of the great composer until the end of his life.
ab38deffe3bb25c554152ccacd6edb28eff73a93	The composer's muse was still Tatyana Glivenko, to whom he dedicated his First Symphony and Trio for piano, violin and cello
cad3e7aeb68e8e5aaadaf9474c093e073d68eb6a	Affairs of the heart did not interfere, but on the contrary always helped the composer to create.
24d896d770ae3607464fe603946e7d9b7da70ca4	None of its great masters was so closely connected with the difficult destinies of his native country, failed to express with such force and passion the glaring contradictions of his time, to evaluate it with a harsh moral court.
104255b0afe306e23fa8a49cdb100f52643a8dcb	It is precisely in this involvement of the composer in the pain and troubles of his people that the main significance of his contribution to the history of music of the century of world wars and grandiose social upheavals, which humanity has not known until now, lies.
eb3bff2e297ed82b24bec9b85aca174fe24ea88f	Shostakovich is by nature an artist of universal talent.
427d9c1666d8c4ceefaef8b376ca9f6755232894	He is the author of a number of songs that were picked up by the masses of people, and to this day he is admired for his brilliant treatments of popular and jazz music, which he was especially fond of at the time of the formation of the style — in the 20-30s.
e79055ffa664a125fec5ed42ccc22e25075ef2b6	But the main area of application of creative forces for him was the symphony.
ea0f021ef3fc58c464e405e77de47722d60187ed	But this was only in life — in his art he was true to his creative principles and asserted them in the genre where he felt completely free.
37db553ec0552dfb0959768706cb88c7cb4e4090	Shostakovich is one of the most performed composers in the world[source not specified 409 days].
183987ea394f0debcac0f0025d5d6f04ce477179	Shostakovich's contribution to the development of music of the XX century is generally recognized as outstanding, he had a significant impact on many contemporaries and followers.
169c0d5121ff24c273ec5ab990a1b65ea5ccb5c2	The genre and aesthetic diversity of Shostakovich's music is huge, it combines elements of tonal, atonal and fret music, modernism, traditionalism, expressionism and "big style"are intertwined in the composer's work.
140ba8668de31805f713735c64c3e003a7baf546	And finally, in the last,Fifteenth symphony (1971), the images of childhood come to life again, recreated before the eyes of a wise creator who has known a truly immeasurable measure of human suffering.
c4d1c986aa9b11edcbde51732272173a758ff656	For all the significance of the symphony in Shostakovich's post-war work, it far from exhausts all the most significant things that the composer created during the final thirty years of his life and creative path.
9ab78b752f2d91422426759b6a75f4717b189e0f	He paid special attention to concert and chamber instrumental genres.
cbf779af6ee5c787abb5a4cc930fdeeccc40cf9f	He created 2 violin concertos (1948 and 1967), two cello concertos (1959 and 1966), and a second piano Concerto (1957).
557f8ba684d315058c4b0129d8eee0c2029e8e12	The best works of this genre embody deep concepts of philosophical significance, comparable to those that are expressed with such impressive force in his symphonies.
fc93d070dca8beb2833f00a760760260a5aeaf27	The sharpness of the clash of the spiritual and the spiritless, the highest impulses of human genius and the aggressive onslaught of vulgarity, deliberate primitiveness is felt in the Second cello Concerto, where a simple," street " tune is transformed beyond recognition, exposing its anti-human essence.
2d18fc5bf2a212f615476fbc698a9a4d6219c532	The composer's last work was a Sonata for viola and piano.
b50b8c082b2ef46f3be53871f87352ae4cf9326b	At the end of his life, Shostakovich suffered from lung cancer.
a0babfbfbdee54cc20ca86f8342f350e9ec2199d	In 1975, the illness brought the composer to the grave.
f4e715e26008cc7fe6a3d2bf3ff53cfd187d2c22	Shostakovich was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.
9da89d799c8ea422b53eb647f013715d8cbf626e	By the end of his life, the composer had accumulated a significant number of orders, medals and honorary titles.
ad1120a56501b4999686a88f1d24efae90ccebec	He was a hero of Social Labor, had three Orders of Lenin, the Order of Friendship of Peoples, the October Revolution and the Red Banner of Labor, the Silver Cross of the Republic of Austria and the French Order of Arts and Literature.
1270e196307ebfdc431a9ba9dbb9aa3b0da018b9	The composer was awarded the titles of Honored Artist of the RSFSR and the USSR, People's Artist of the USSR.
61caad5703bd4a4d795ccaf7e1d15dd0dfb086e9	Shostakovich received the Lenin and five Stalin Prizes, State Prizes of the Ukrainian SSR, the RSFSR and the USSR.
ae6214ac87c86ec860a331626197c57de1177764	He was a laureate of the International Peace Prize and the J. Sibelius Prize.
2d4514882bd57bcec5c1c78d1a1944f8f0420475	Shostakovich was an honorary Doctor of Music from Oxford and Everton Northwestern Universities.
d87b221852c62134be11dae14e3ac63f3bb9eaed	He was a member of the French and Bavarian Academies of Fine Arts, the English and Swedish Royal Music Academies, the Academy of Arts "Santa Cecilia" in Italy, etc.
fe823330124760a079c5360e98a610e78dd5dea2	All these international awards and titles speak about one thing – the worldwide fame of the great composer of the XX century.
4504e644f56478bf259d40dd86d4eb6e8c553318	Shostakovich had a significant impact on the development of Soviet music.
d2a1c60d064df191758ad69915fdf3f7e57b4c31	It affected not so much the direct influence of the master's style, the artistic means characteristic of him, as in the desire for high content of music, its connection with the fundamental problems of human life on earth.
8e52239e0c30c4853ed3b9762056bf0177e66e8a	Humanistic in its essence, truly artistic in form, Shostakovich's work has won worldwide recognition, has become a clear expression of the new that the music of the Country of the Soviets has given to the world.
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abededbfc15e2e961f8e66dd14bc59703729463e	Dmitry Shostakovich
83e78b8a5371f914b8973e32d1efb64f17978d47	DMITRY SHOSTAKOVICH: "LIFE IS BEAUTIFUL!"
597437690eb7b40d51321dcc182b9d4ba16d4b76	The true scale of the composer Dmitry Shostakovich, widely known not only in Russia but also abroad, can only be defined by the words "great, talented".
c56eea6cafa05840f19a9f075f67f10b180376af	The more talented a person is, the less we notice the person himself for all his achievements.
7242f1bfd49b6c1c0e9c283a79700124e826d280	Critics and musicologists write large articles about what the composer wanted to show in one or another of his works.
6bc187d12d3a2a3a7d6009bd7587bb8cd2526761	What emotions or experiences were bubbling up in him during the writing of the work.
f05289f84bfbd2643bddbc3eef77bef6238cad32	But, by and large, these are just guesses.
2d45a7df70a8bf49370ed76fab7320928d9a6045	If the creative nature is also secretive, then we will never know about his real feelings.
d6f9af8ac6ccd8799894880fd571f28a18b36d9f	So it turns out that it is not a very funny picture when, behind dry phrases: a talented composer, pianist, conductor and public figure, we lose the image of a person, but we see only his outer, battered outer shell.
ecf47f833e25f43cd23635b1b3378d90957db385	Dmitry Shostakovich is no exception to the rule…
d4e7d7d330f01c6f13b3e35c0a25a2a6367e177b	Flowers
b0604a88f5a3812330ab5f3b4ee5c8d38c7f4acd	The personal life of the composer is of interest to many biographers, musicians, art historians and numerous fans.
d0549f0b814000938103c0d12a0c1909edf72919	It is curious that, having an amazing musical talent, the gift of a virtuoso pianist, having achieved fame and recognition, Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich was very unsure and timid with women.
fb26205924f63b96255836e029a8eb121aafb36c	Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg on September 25, 1906 in the family of a chemist and a pianist, and from an early age he became interested in playing the piano.
3c523266167cf5dd89c1a9cb6626f7500355993d	Dmitry was a thin, wordless boy, but at the piano he was reborn into a daring musician.
0d02264ed4a8dd0e47808c472d062b687bcd8c37	At the age of 13, the young composer fell in love with 10 year old Natalia Kube.
b0809543e3c17aefc0b347b5e81331f1896392e2	The admirer dedicated a small prelude to her.
2bf637764cc018c4bae1f8b6729f9871cecd4857	Then it seemed to Dmitry that this feeling would remain with him for the rest of his life.
f66fa4f7ed46b283736e85aaa75b91e12207cb04	However, the first love gradually faded, but the composer's desire to compose and dedicate his works to his beloved women remained for the rest of his life.
0ce86084786174d9fe059d223b6b3955fc5a976d	Berries
6c9531edd83c879ce9eafbf3e0ac4677540079fe	After studying at a private school, the young man entered the Petrograd Conservatory and successfully graduated from it in 1923.
0690048b7ad1d5f3c8f8efbf9a18c450ba7390f6	At the same time, a girl appeared in the life of a novice composer, with whom he fell in love with a new, already youthful passion.
5b62ab6b3c37f2e6963ae4a1220e57aef769e658	Tatyana Glivenko was the same age as Shostakovich, she was pretty, well educated and had a lively and cheerful disposition.
fc8e6f858468e72c693ff60850c634c2e652df18	A romantic and long term acquaintance was formed.
4e14c1d9dba40c922cfe046ea7ebba4525609b75	In the year of meeting Tatiana, the impressionable Dmitry began to create the First Symphony.
20fc158f2a4b8457b1289522032b64843be42249	Three years later, the premiere of this musical work took place in St. Petersburg, which flew around the whole world many years later.
de2b3634965c54dbc6d13c9b43833926adcb8d08	The depth of feelings expressed by the young composer in the symphony was also caused by the onset of Dmitry's illness, which appeared as a result of sleepless nights, love experiences and severe depression developing against this background.
a843517b19f7267c295b08e08c45f1826096de1e	Experiencing the most tender feelings for his beloved, Shostakovich did not think about the upcoming marriage even after several years of dating.
5dc88ff43cd57ec132be1ec6a3a59e67d878af43	The Hidden passions of Dmitry Shostakovich
719476d4280bd29d8ede981ba846a4908d605290	Tatiana wanted children and a legitimate husband.
a96107912f817147013bb91bf6e769df943eb873	And one day she openly declared to Dmitry that she was leaving him, having accepted a marriage proposal from another admirer, whom she soon married.
0519d5ebfa35fdb3939cb2f0f6b6022f00912c98	Nina Shostakovich
f446d016d3789fdbeb611567cb9ce7fd83e4ff73	The composer did not even try to stop the girl from taking such a decisive step, and then Tatiana chose not to maintain any more relations with him.
30289eb9916580c3fdde919980d323656b5b92ad	Three years later, having finally gathered the courage, he asked Glivenko to leave her husband and become his wife, but she did not take Shostakovich's offer seriously.
52a9b0896a7b92c77c51316615d6e659bf27f985	Besides, she was already expecting a child at that time.
81321c91fddf3d0c4bbccbe8b051f4239573f936	In April 1932, Tatiana gave birth to a son and asked Shostakovich to delete her from his life forever.
8de0d8b13d3400e96978b0a9bb989dc66fda2284	Irina Shostakovich
ff766b80763d244c44b4dfa0905bc1ddcf4709b2	Finally convinced that his beloved would never return to him, in May of the same year, the composer married a young student Nina Varzar.
64cc43fd642405a3caa7c2e5c338cc42740b0964	After Nina's death, Shostakovich married two more times: to Margarita Kayonova, with whom he lived for a short time, and to Irina Supinskaya, who surrounded her already aging husband with warmth and care, which remained in their family until the end of the great Russian composer's life.
4064c1aceef782591b2cce800200a27d13af92bd	Shostakovich is a musician
02b1a5b10ff75356f5684359db9426c66ad35dd1	Nevertheless, it is very difficult to intertwine the two branches of life, because in each of them he is simultaneously very different and the same.
bcbdfaa9df3dbc729606a6ab18362d042d339556	He is the same in achieving his goal, but the difference lies in the fact that Shostakovich was still more decisive in his relations with music.
01c6afdc982749cbe41879b256be4ac4b8375323	So, after graduating from the conservatory in piano and composition classes, Shostakovich passed the already famous First Symphony as a thesis.
86bf9eee37612a1c6b4ee7f1f9784bf360d10c65	Dmitry was going to continue his career both as a concert pianist and as a composer.
22e9c716862c8f7ffb2f7c34e4b3e87ad4dc1296	In 1927, at the First International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw, he received an honorary diploma (the composer played a sonata of his own composition).
a5dfdcf0119fd30f958b6be6f5363ae57b3cca24	Fortunately, the unusual talent of the musician was noticed by one of the members of the jury of the competition, the Austro American conductor and composer Bruno Walter, who suggested that Shostakovich play something else for him on the piano.
f0fd924161209c52485060551902ccac1164c942	After hearing the First Symphony, Walter immediately asked Shostakovich to send the score to him in Berlin, and then performed the Symphony this season, thereby making the Russian composer famous.
4104f85c6a20f9a87d3410f95569c9ea527816af	Acquaintance with the Austrian composer Alban Berg inspired Dmitry Dmitrievich to start writing the opera "The Nose" based on Gogol.
70cdca6a954f76dc5810302c7e60f7665f806710	Even after one acquaintance, Shostakovich created his First Piano Concerto, which is famous today.
b329a2d93d9b81a7ecc019e026b0de7e88125ef5	At the same time, in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the following two symphonies by Dmitry Shostakovich were written.
bc382f467a4527c6d522887d26a43d2f79f0c37a	The Persecution of Dmitry Shostakovich
06350d05402460599a59576136b1db0faaeb46ba	The opera "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" was staged in Leningrad in 1934.
dd189ddd039742deba2f9f183b665890b5b83d8d	Initially, it was received with delight, but after a season and a half, it was unexpectedly defeated in the official Soviet press and was removed from the repertoire.
75f61b99a86c662e27b32714b3c1944ec309d00a	In 1936, the premiere of the 4th Symphony was to take place – a work of a much more monumental scale than all of Shostakovich's previous symphonies.
49096dd888298dc96d9f01c78a0d32bea79ab392	However, the composer wisely suspended rehearsals of the Symphony before the December premiere, realizing that in the atmosphere of state terror that had begun in the country, when representatives of creative professions were arrested daily, its performance could be perceived by the authorities as a challenge.
a264969ce4cb282e1534cf01f237916b26b3e264	The 4th Symphony was first performed in 1961.
a5ea03b2fa84310a8bc69898bfc9f7ff66289b42	And in 1937, Shostakovich released the 5th Symphony.
489691860dab39eb4bb4a4825d6fb4d1bdf897df	Pravda commented on the work with the phrase: "A business like creative response of a Soviet artist to fair criticism."
d74f07a7f25fddb8d9af52c9a00899966cf47997	Relations with the authorities improved for a while, but from that moment on, Shostakovich's life acquired an ambivalent character.
961cebb82f3a42273458dc5a8ca6238bae2aa173	And then there was the war…
8808fed4c2c13954530c1385dba051df703666dd	wearing a fireman's helmet on the cover of Time magazine in 1942
9c8c22c9636d2134dfdf37d3d87e020e5b142af6	The Soviet press published articles by perplexed reviewers who expected a thunderous hymn to victory from the main musical "socialist realist" of the country, but instead received a small sized symphony of "dubious" content.
3e84655f238d037b51670861235ff22a51429953	There is no end
3ae1b07a64c577f105cb51fc9c09547464be914f	It was on such waves that almost the entire creative life of Shostakovich passed.
5868a07870d55143a733b0536d2ffe63a3878451	Then there was the forced entry into the party and many other experiences and falls, but there were still more ups (in terms of the success of the composer's works in his native country and abroad).
25d0c1f161ce4160bb2997f7ac927591d92da908	In the last few years of his life, the composer was very ill, suffering from lung cancer.
4ddb531450d84c58729c2497156d8523aba82993	Dmitry Shostakovich died in Moscow on August 9, 1975 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in the capital.
c675a1fd66e795a250005c728ca8efcd4ea22173	Today, Shostakovich is one of the most performed composers in the world in general, and the first among the composers of the XX century in particular.
1d7375d4807a790e68771be4cab2b4334f5dee62	His creations are true expressions of the inner human drama and chronicles of the terrible suffering that fell on the XX century, where the deeply personal is intertwined with the tragedy of humanity.
4c74c7d574e97dcbf82cf51c033844fb9a05cffa	The most notable genres in Shostakovich's work are symphonies and string quartets – in each of them he wrote 15 works.
2a1aa59b19ee624c65a228e663244b5db6f3bc65	While symphonies were written throughout the composer's career, Shostakovich wrote most of the quartets towards the end of his life.
383b8335adc11b3e1edd22d9eca37982da24f79f	Among the most popular symphonies are the Fifth and Eighth, among the quartets – the Eighth and Fifteenth.
60118db8f65b80e6b5d43d4325c32e363228a71c	son Maxim
36c3eaa0e1e290f41e2810bae8d9502c785e92d9	***
c34600798a7ff637fc1f8039f0f1d4235c15e679	In one of the letters to his mother, Dmitry Shostakovich wrote: "Love is really free.
2cafa0d18b3dcf5b184f5b6f09211e588fe2783a	The vow made before the altar is the most terrible side of religion.
a307aecc252fa8e198e105ff8d5bce41939917c4	Love cannot last long... my goal will not be to tie myself in marriage."
db68100855712c1d874b961f9b362f1b8042cadd	"I want the audience to leave after the performance of the symphony with the thought: life is beautiful!"
945e7c22b348fe83527aa0e3ce3ef151a3099c85	– Dmitry Shostakovich.
3debf61b4ad8e655b4afe08b42e842fdd8b62af0	Dmitry Shostakovich updated: August 27, 2015 by the author: Elena
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bd43458a47295f21af51b0eed4fca0e1608260d3	Name: Dmitry Shostakovich
18ac8d5c5c95cce01ad65233451f93896e7e113a	Date of birth: September 25, 1906
c4ae677cf43985b4b9075e33a8d69aa1101bac65	Zodiac Sign: Libra Place of birth: Leningrad
0729ef756fdaea85c6fb52a9c8a7160a393f6ce1	Date of death: August 9, 1975 (68 years old)
849d5612d78199f367131c2c0afed9ba37688e05	Activity: composer
6bbc29c064d7d33c5fdf54f01ace4efa8d64e50f	Do you like Dmitry Shostakovich?
c411517b7069d214a382a7cab9624e5587920006	Biography of Dmitry Shostakovich
b0bbfc91412f308c23df9324b1d08e9febb3c138	Childhood and family of Dmitry Shostakovich
7bde5cd2e2615cd9e8efeec4d60db109826b5179	Mother Sofya Vasilyevna, studied at the conservatory at one time, was a good pianist and teacher of piano playing for beginners.
649059c587daf828b44274868a08d2a0e7d5e4b9	Dmitry Shostakovich on the cover of Time magazine
167789c27a645f23683ab38432167cd1fcd6b2a6	In 1915, Mitya was sent to study at the gymnasium.
ea3924c3d0341fa95a999a793f4eac907cc54e8a	During the same period, the boy became seriously interested in music.
884217f23661a3c9b9f823f74bbf616795f02127	His mother became his first teacher, and a few months later little Shostakovich began studying at the music school of the famous teacher I.
eeddc53bcf431d3c1cc7ad6b28c9a21a1432dd9b	A. Glyasser.
aaeaf1e2e86a5275e30115f4680281372393947f	In 1919, Shostakovich entered the Petrograd Conservatory.
2a129526d7c08a024a068ec5fd3a8c4113b5912f	His piano teachers were A. Rozanova and L. Nikolaev.
8de7b374b16361f046c95be494551d910055410e	Dmitry graduated from the conservatory in two classes at once: in 1923 in piano, and two years later in composition.
40ad73712e767f5af779a8bccd499136af3802bd	Creative activity of the composer Dmitry Shostakovich
f297050e70468dec65b84f1e1cff22651798a070	Shostakovich's first significant work was Symphony No.
3d87d54f23832b14d6f4bf0b342f7a7008dd6846	1 , a graduate thesis of the conservatory.
d907344326e232632373f3bd388825bfb13b4039	In 1926, the symphony premiered in Leningrad.
cba96a17880b360ac2578a0bb8eba6bc060b0c81	Music critics started talking about Shostakovich as a composer who could make up for the loss of Sergei Rachmaninoff, Igor Stravinsky and Sergei Prokofiev who emigrated from the country by the Soviet Union.
87dff3b1d713e9887156c6425bfedc0de8c26a26	The famous conductor Bruno Walter was delighted with the symphony and asked Shostakovich to send him the score of the work to Berlin.
fa5eb9ee3bf8138a7ecd347481911bee988f71e4	On November 22, 1927, the symphony premiered in Berlin, and a year later in Philadelphia.
48e882b1f7a32747895e07c5d2ed14684e485f1e	The foreign premieres of Symphony No.
4e59bc5019ac840a58d3ad4c6acfb94d683f5263	1 made the Russian composer world famous.
64d67abf8fb94fd87c872e7a0361b31655d12d44	Inspired by the success, Shostakovich wrote the Second and Third Symphonies, the operas "The Nose" and " Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District "(based on the works of N. V. Gogol and N. Leskov).
2d589b36ca5e41a0ff8a171a942363073433f70b	Shostakovich.
d7b53d2c2f01bd271ffddc40cd86c1c6cea39fda	Waltz
6dbf858af781cb929914bc3e03f3e837ae07bcf8	Critics received Shostakovich's opera "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" almost with delight, but "the leader of the peoples" did not like it.
1d5428279226cb860180c5ec544b2c023cb6e5f5	Naturally, a sharply negative article immediately comes out - "Confusion instead of music".
27ed8072ec282a17f3f664ea4fa6d545122e2812	A few days later, another publication appears - "Ballet Falsehood", in which Shostakovich's ballet "Light Stream"is subjected to devastating criticism.
62b08b6617a61b88cc091eec3acef64dd7bbe5f6	Shostakovich was saved from further troubles by the appearance of the Fifth Symphony, which was commented on by Stalin himself: "A business like creative response of a Soviet artist to fair criticism."
455cc33d0d87a017ce0a38590c1b6060e33cbe1c	The Leningrad Symphony by Dmitry Shostakovich
1f1320ad9b8494fb40570cb0c285a5aa07878d01	The war of 1941 found Shostakovich in Leningrad.
9a06f7f48425dea39e7c57d85633f3ad89eded07	The composer began work on the Seventh Symphony.
b3d571577c6f847516713c32cf2f35a674e169c5	The work, called the Leningrad Symphony, was first performed on March 5, 1942 in Kuibyshev, where the composer was evacuated.
8e59b3a891e10c9fb20f5cb6b248be71a39623c7	Four days later, the symphony was performed in the Hall of Columns of the Moscow House of Unions.
eb9ce3ceff1b9c457b0afcea369d248a9c175287	On August 9, the symphony was performed in besieged Leningrad.
eb9c225e3992027aad2a7a8f9372f582c4b0b0f9	This work of the composer became a symbol of the struggle against fascism and the steadfastness of the Leningraders.
e6e52885f49d1ce6f9670d6574543fff37035cab	The clouds are gathering again
bc0137b6dca44aa7b1b9e8f5e26b33858d6cb275	Until 1948, the composer did not have any troubles with the authorities.
9c66df214e460108a0efff9398d914110f73b2d0	Moreover, he received several Stalin prizes and honorary titles.
0b45159b55c7c378a916ea6d322bea231f216acf	But in 1948, in the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), which referred to the opera of the composer Vano Muradeli "The Great Friendship", the music of Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Khachaturian was recognized as "alien to the Soviet people".
698942ae8aa24c04e9e8f85b844008f38a6ddae2	Obeying the party dictate, Shostakovich "realizes his mistakes".
f11855622f26f5ed4d110678d68fa91f28970b94	In his work, works of a military patriotic nature appear and "friction" with the authorities stops.
38b3a0cc56d969a62238ecae2341bd4fb4fbabcd	Personal life of Dmitry Shostakovich
5e804f64447349558aff3632534c00ea17fe2981	His first love was a 10 year old girl Natasha Kube, to whom thirteen year old Mitya dedicated a small musical prelude.
f0ed3965f642f118e466da633e0a7b6583052713	A seventeen year old boy fell madly in love with a beautiful, well educated girl.
a608b94f0e5cc98596c1866196f2d4d95366abbe	Nina gave her husband a daughter and a son.
bd329affa3a3c9c2f10933002576597863de3565	They were married for more than 20 years, until Nina's death.
a428c4b0ef9196d201a0aa8f414fd42a59778650	The marriage with Margarita Kayonova was short lived, and the third wife, Irina Supinskaya, took care of the great composer until the end of his life.
5b32b33c6fa8d6aa2b0c7790ee79dfc19e70e625	The last years of Shostakovich's life
03c298b9610b8a0885ae29d1563e08d7d05576fc	In the 70s of the XX century, the composer wrote vocal cycles for poems by Marina Tsvetaeva and Michelangelo, 13, 14 and 15 string quartets and Symphony No.
ea686468a868223cfb4fa003df5b3e8592df721a	Dmitry Shostakovich Awards
fd629632f2647b12c3d518c07d4f1f0296f67fbd	Shostakovich was not only scolded.
f72f284f672119be028cdf0a10d519bccd561c04	From time to time, he received government awards.
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a26e13a29a17a8c29f504542a422f5ec252c7994	Shostakovich, Dmitry Dmitrievich
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6c8979dc161a6c8f8a9e5def7d62371ae79e5e3d	1950 Basic information Full name Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
7847b2d5eb930220238eb3c84b1d773ebeac24c8	Date of birth 12 (25) September 1906 (1906-09-25)
ca49c2bca5aef99b9dbbe3b4de824c0d091015b4	Place of birth Saint Petersburg,
ebd025daec44eb5685b328c12175c92a963a924b	The Russian Empire
963dff40e070098dde0d9458d5ae5247febed591	Date of death: August 9, 1975 (1975-08-09) (68 years old)
3df4ecbc8875a78239c816c09d22c62959df022f	Place of death Moscow, USSR
c4b89085c69d50b224eb51d6900e1515c257b7b0	Country Russian Empire Russian Empire
8ea9f716041b1b0271c553b8d46ed0fc0f8e91f4	USSR USSR
eb050ded195c92cb66d7a9a37cff0d0ea97b0f2c	Professions composer, film composer, pianist, teacher
f4892ae41d26e98fec57feed3b40e449a0b977a2	Piano instruments
509da2c41ea75886e674a0783c96016d96827e64	Genres symphonic and chamber music, opera
75226d73db5b6dee213a72b35c48e69757473009	Awards
d6c0e3d57a131f17d9fa03fe09115e4839144c40	Autograph
6fe679aba02df73f2bd9e22ff328bfcf5ab03b1d	shostakovich.ru Audio, photo, video on Wikimedia Commons
4b1296f1d56a18fcc8256db17133ccf3998fec16	The request "Shostakovich" is redirected here; see also other values.
28cd9f12692eb2c5e2ba2a468b1a542a74534d9f	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich (September 12 (25), 1906, Saint Petersburg — August 9, 1975, Moscow) was a Soviet composer, pianist, musical and public figure, Doctor of Art History, teacher, professor.
115eec7b9fcb0366095c37c7037069edbda76bb2	People's Artist of the USSR (1954).
1570a6042cebe7666fa7a61728e711c8c12c2666	He is the author of 15 symphonies, 6 concerts, 3 operas, 3 ballets, numerous works of chamber music, music for films and theater productions.
9ec5ea1ceaf178a4c898a0405069eacbf8e8bdd8	1 Biography 1.1 Origin 1.2 Childhood and Youth 1.3 1920s 1.4 1930s 1.5 1940s 1.6 1950s 1.7 1960s 1.8 1970s
6ddf122adc81ab173153138fc8a23a5e0d12a25d	2 Family 3 The meaning of creativity 4 Music 4.1 Main works
ebf054e3d0fd8ef32ac0ce934093a15d325b3456	5 Awards and prizes 6 Membership in organizations 7 Memory 8 Comments 9 Notes 10 Literature 11 References 11.1 Multimedia
fea3bcac3a98afb409f0eb09af658bf35c011d1a	Biography[edit / edit wiki text]
4a74d32cdd2ad3a2ea9f489f41dfaef67fd757b0	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich's great grandfather on his father's side a veterinarian Pyotr Mikhailovich Shostakovich (1808-1871) - counted himself among the peasants in the documents; as a voluntary listener, he graduated from the Vilna Medical Surgical Academy[1].
cc7d76aa2c596cd9a998020edde462389d09810f	In 1830-1831, he participated in the Polish uprising and after its suppression, together with his wife, Maria Jozefa Yasinskaya, was exiled to the Urals, to the Perm province[2][3][4].
d7d1003e04f53ca31f73710b32b5b50e190015c4	In the 40s, the couple lived in Yekaterinburg, where on January 27, 1845, their son, Boleslav Artur, was born[3][2].
58c6069b5a3ef84283803acdccf7e3bf67364b15	In Yekaterinburg, Pyotr Shostakovich rose to the rank of a collegiate assessor; in 1858, the family moved to Kazan.
5ecb55ae889d690de8d4d6674a9261c79bea0c42	Here, even in his high school years, Boleslav Petrovich became close to the leaders of the"Land and Will" [5].
f1c856cff17b763de40f404c5a96844296f54804	After graduating from high school, at the end of 1862, he went to Moscow, following the Kazan "landowners" Yu.
19d1306b64dfcd9a6877e51d2850510ae2c271c9	M. Mosolov and N. M. Shatilov; he worked in the management of the Nizhny Novgorod railway, took an active part in organizing the escape from prison of the revolutionary Yaroslav Dombrovsky[6].
f4ffb1b52fa624bc9e1b757b50ec5e298166ff8f	In 1865, Boleslav Shostakovich returned to Kazan, but in 1866 he was arrested, escorted to Moscow and brought to trial in the case of N.
e5f22fa65eee0a134c27a3c8f0876d178f6b0179	A. Ishutin — D. V. Karakozov[7][2]. After four months in the Peter and Paul Fortress, he was sentenced to exile in Siberia; he lived in Tomsk, in 1872-1877 in Narym, where on October 11, 1875, his son, named Dmitry, was born, then in Irkutsk, he was the manager of the local branch of the Siberian Commercial Bank[8].
18265c7e8d089a4001b3f9e04385101dfef9e7d6	In 1892, at that time already an honorary citizen of Irkutsk, Boleslav Shostakovich received the right of universal residence, but preferred to stay in Siberia[9][10].
3e394e7335bd834f64e95a8863928263f751d07b	The grave of Shostakovich's mother on the Literary Bridges in St. Petersburg.
3374a6ebb4e264441c9922056da1c09103dce5d6	Dmitry Boleslavovich Shostakovich (1875-1922) in the mid 90s went to St. Petersburg and entered the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University, after which, in 1900, he was hired at the Chamber of Weights and Measures, shortly before created by D. I. Mendeleev[11].
9a1156f833f2b00fa8c6accb56e931212653bf37	In 1902, he was appointed senior verifier of the Chamber, and in 1906 head of the City Verification Tent[12].
8f71b9938ceb0f5639bd6ab598c9595df3a0ac6c	Participation in the revolutionary movement in the Shostakovich family by the beginning of the XX century had already become a tradition, and Dmitry was no exception: according to family testimonies, on January 9, 1905, he participated in the march to the Winter Palace, and later proclamations were printed in his apartment[13].
7b01d4ade036dd2683f5956877346c745670aa2f	The official press noted that he "found time to delve into the needs of employees and workers and meet their needs": he introduced insurance and medical care for workers, established trade in cheaper goods for them, built warm barracks[15].
891c439a26ad8c648ce98c4117d97e82e4236a09	His wife, Alexandra Petrovna Kokoulina, opened a school for the children of workers; there is no information about her education, but it is known that in Bodaibo she organized an amateur orchestra, widely known in Siberia[14].
5ab6642b6ff9aa2bc1d165295e9dae581af9d7d4	The younger daughter of the Kokoulins, Sofya Vasilyevna (1878-1955), inherited her love for music from her mother: she studied piano under her mother's guidance and at the Irkutsk Institute of Noble Maidens, and after graduating from it, she followed her older brother Yakov to the capital and was accepted to the St. Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied first with S.
d26fc729d9963871f3216baffcd0004f02ab2f83	A. Malozemova, and then with A.
4447daf1dbe85eabc6097f45e2e763dbb5a4292e	A. Rozanova[16].
3d22e3d3183337e093c928f359b2a62734cbedab	Yakov Kokoulin studied at the Natural Sciences Department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University, where he met his countryman Dmitry Shostakovich; their love for music brought them closer[17][2]. As an excellent singer, Yakov introduced Dmitry Boleslavovich to his sister Sofia, and in February 1903 their wedding took place[13].
1691d194ce299243772c02cd90e8ad76a347ade6	In October of the same year, the young couple had a daughter, Maria, in September 1906 — a son named Dmitry, and three years later a younger daughter, Zoya[18][19].
ae0efb7042deb3c8663a9680e4599c1999532c08	Memorial plaque on the house 2 on Podolskaya street
7d300a9add8cf8cdef2f8acf7b7a33cfa9825b56	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich was born in the house No.
2a17d0888ab872a94e3e99356213f08cfd27590c	2 on Podolskaya Street, where D. I. Mendeleev rented the first floor for a City verification tent in 1906.
7dc7f6f7245b8ed4b4d2ebd07cb7a06098da28f9	In 1915, Shostakovich entered the Commercial Gymnasium of Maria Shidlovskaya, and his first serious musical impressions belong to this time: after attending the performance of the opera by N.
0a6078011bd9bcc50cc19471df502184708b572a	A. Rimsky Korsakov "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", the young Shostakovich declared his desire to seriously study music.
4fba705c77d1f5da484cad770a2391c87a686a89	His first piano lessons were given to him by his mother, and after several months of classes, Shostakovich was able to start studying at a private music school of the then famous piano teacher I.
01bb9e88283e48197e8d5596cc23cb3a9e8dce2b	A. Glasser[21].
bb88a2648c17c103961b4fdf36f9e5ec77ed41ce	B. Kustodiev.
2aa7fc750082beff24f40ca478c28ceebf23a793	Portrait of D. Shostakovich (1919).
34ef3fcbe07f27aa36feb69f21f5207786aefb84	In the autumn of the same year, Shostakovich entered the Petrograd Conservatory, where he studied harmony and orchestration under the direction of M. O. Steinberg, counterpoint and fugue under N.
374ba0f47348548033b2dc81cca7cef3aa200008	A. Sokolov, while also conducting.
468e1b5374e18ac60f80a0df5ca9784ed7d7ba4c	Shostakovich also becomes an active participant in this circle, he gets acquainted with composers B. V. Asafyev and V. V. Shcherbachev, conductor N.
5ec76bab3d5c1b87e35993c6b2a12ecc8f0da4cb	A. Malko.
8fe603b2753a3f4bc79faf437e70ad65891ebf04	Shostakovich writes "Two Fables of Krylov" for mezzo soprano and piano and "Three Fantastic Dances" for piano.
930a5ce509ea23f6dadfafb3bdad9d32b5506d5d	Almost nightly, he could be seen at concerts of the Petrograd Philharmonic, which reopened in 1921.
861b104a3153f12ee69e9ca6034b50d3df1a0786	A hard life with a half starved existence (the conservative ration was very small) led to severe exhaustion.
a6b970ea30c20a3e18311c50c11acdc5f07c44df	1920s[edit / edit wiki text]
dc9c45cc115d874e2f945367f4d44412b7cda366	Shostakovich in 1925
a727494f938492a812f49a1ba46a2bc98ab63b47	While studying at the graduate school of the Conservatory, he taught reading scores at the Mussorgsky Music College.
0d4d00382dc65896cc45bbc32057c2a2524a3094	In 1927, at the First International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw, where Shostakovich also performed a sonata of his own composition, he received an honorary diploma.
773794e9a720f8ccbbe8751527ba4fb44dbf86e3	Another important event was Shostakovich's acquaintance with I. I. Sollertinsky, who during his long term friendship with the composer enriched Shostakovich with acquaintance with the works of great composers of the past and present.
ab43fdb171e86729044735faaa0d20a56077ea6f	In 1930-1933, he worked as the head of the musical part of the Leningrad Tram (now the Baltic House Theater).
c535858c5c663e134629f1976e51849cf7b36100	1930s[edit / edit wiki text]
a6b026920292b900b5a6fb20763bff9701306c10	His opera "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" based on the story by N. S. Leskov (written in 1930-1932, staged in Leningrad in 1934), initially received with enthusiasm and having already existed on the stage for a season and a half, was defeated in the Soviet press (article "Confusion instead of music" in the newspaper "Pravda" from January 28, 1936)[23].
79dcfc95d06efc6a8d1e7d300d1f96cf0282bd86	In the same year, 1936, the premiere of the 4th Symphony was to take place — a work of a much more monumental scale than all the previous symphonies of Shostakovich, combining tragic pathos with grotesque, lyrical and intimate episodes, and, perhaps, should begin a new, mature period in the composer's work.
3fec45662fd76a95efe1f3cbf890e153c2d3550e	Shostakovich suspended rehearsals of the Symphony before the December premiere.
97c50857894853afa963f63359fe580a2f825f5e	The 4th Symphony was first performed only in 1961[21].
e3cf53ccfb7faad2b3065dd89c06942b8278d3fa	In May 1937, Shostakovich released the 5th Symphony, a work whose thoroughly dramatic character, unlike the previous three "avant garde" symphonies, is outwardly "hidden" in the generally accepted symphonic form (4 movements: with the sonata form of the first movement, scherzo, adagio and finale with an outwardly triumphant end) and other "classical" elements.
238ade7d78b9a3c88598f22eafba24fe25d7c4a5	Stalin commented on the release of the 5th Symphony on the pages of Pravda with the phrase: "A business like creative response of a Soviet artist to fair criticism" [24].
a4689507c75689c840389066b670ca0f4a79c379	25].
5fb9dd285740f85f157a169487cae1581534d36f	1940s[edit / edit wiki text]
070a16f5aecfb19a38dbbd64753a972b389622b5	Shostakovich's message about the writing of the Seventh Symphony
e4b28182b73fc2004bc9836bc9c031987755e6fe	Leningrad, a 1941 radio program Help with reproduction
7f87ab20ec7b86d38d6605d6c62abeca0f885b59	Dmitry Shostakovich in a fireman's helmet on the cover of Time magazine in 1942
c017a94ca4ccd1262228bc89aaf453df2836b6b8	External images of a soldier of the volunteer fire brigade of the faculty of the Conservatory D. D. Shostakovich during duty.
4744b971c326c86b7b43884864a55262ea286dbf	Archived from the original source on May 26, 2013.
d4afedd5648b3f838815c0408ad1d9e37c01aaa9	During the first months of the Great Patriotic War in Leningrad (until the evacuation to Kuibyshev in October), Shostakovich began working on the 7th symphony — "Leningrad".
99c67bb0bd4878ca3bb11926b570eff3de6e3def	The symphony was first performed on the stage of the Kuibyshev Opera and Ballet Theater on March 5, 1942, and on March 29, 1942 in the Column Hall of the Moscow House of Unions.
22770b72a1da6f2533c079ace91eb8f19534a519	In 1943, the composer moved to Moscow and until 1948 taught composition and instrumentation at the Moscow Conservatory (since 1943, professor).
5f7570c8472d85e8166ceefe9bf4248476f78f34	V. D. Bibergan, R. S. Bunin, A.D. Gadzhiev, G. G. Galynin, O.
e6e9a8535c142d958398682875535375a9848e40	A. Yevlakhov, K.
c9bd1a1f8d94bbf830cd6b6f3aecfd99438b3271	A. Karaev, G. V. Sviridov (at the Leningrad Conservatory), B. I. Tishchenko, A. Mnatsakanyan (at the graduate school of the Leningrad Conservatory), K. S. Khachaturian, B.
d1e10881d029add26a91804cb6b3d4c98eaaf38d	A. Tchaikovsky, A. G. Chugaev studied with him[21].
a4d3d4adf2c956e66bf420fa02e1c2887d4ca269	In this field, he created such masterpieces as a Piano Quintet (1940), a Piano trio (1944), String quartets № 2 (1944), № 3 (1946) and No.
0eb7f32261b296cef8098cad1cbeec6f5c05d0b3	4 (1949).
42ede9b11777a81de8b67f56716cb9c156e7bb08	In 1945, after the end of the war, Shostakovich wrote the 9th Symphony.
dccd5bc369c4318c47a0fe5b5c1cd88f9761737c	In 1948, he was accused of "formalism", "bourgeois decadence" and "groveling before the West"[23].
3f3e54fd75382b38da2f84767f900cd6474fa8fc	Shostakovich was accused of professional incompetence, deprived of the title of professor at the Moscow and Leningrad conservatories and expelled from them[26].
50e1658015626cf48be21e64c2cb5763366477de	The main prosecutor was the secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) A.
b6a727c4c8a8690c55ba9512f91ec49c8b636287	A. Zhdanov.
2516f8f3ceed83f0c4b9c884d4b9511f059d7100	In 1948, he created a vocal cycle "From Jewish folk Poetry", but left it on the table (a campaign was launched in the country at that time to "fight cosmopolitanism").
c33e5de19b2cf9feb31dfe1ae900a2aae8df4403	The First Violin Concerto written in 1948 was also not published at that time, and its first performance took place only in 1955.
6ce501bd19bfc7e00f8ffbe5c868bfdd612e7e0a	In 1949, Shostakovich wrote the cantata "Song of the Forests" - an example of the pathetic" grand style " of official art of those times (based on the poems of E. A. Dolmatovsky, which tells about the triumphant post war restoration of the Soviet Union).
6d4406efaa151034aa6ba3f96568ef35c0776e68	1950s[edit / edit wiki text]
a3834fa1363960968b08eff7d0dffb12a1dc7754	The fifties began with a very important work for Shostakovich.
e10e506ed7ce52f215aace4cc169952228640985	Participating as a member of the jury at the Bach Competition in Leipzig in the autumn of 1950, the composer was so inspired by the atmosphere of the city and the music of its great resident — J. S. Bach that upon arrival in Moscow he began composing 24 Preludes and Fugues for piano.
1f5d01c838a6993e71cfc7c5bf89ed531429bd0c	In 1953, after an eight year break, he again turned to the symphonic genre and created the 10th symphony.
fa762ba8a56acef57e041d8f9ab47607b8358f1b	In 1954, he wrote the "Festive Overture" for the opening of the VSHV and received the title of People's Artist of the USSR.
eecae32d11dd0642df31b3606e9d49ec23f74ad3	Many of the works of the second half of the decade are imbued with optimism and a previously joyous playfulness that was not inherent in Shostakovich.
2b91f3db42ba018dedb40d28f4e558c411f9ecab	These are the 6th String Quartet (1956), the Second Piano Concerto (1957), the operetta "Moscow, Cheryomushki".
4f6d77ec5f217c11665d24d95f992fb4a368340e	In the same year, the composer created the 11th Symphony, calling it "1905", continues to work in the genre of an instrumental concert: The First Concerto for cello and orchestra (1959).
2ba34beff6f7117d1db3bc99bd9fd14967f57cf3	During these years, Shostakovich's rapprochement with the official authorities began.
ed26d08c528a8085e18ccd8c521717766ded010f	In 1957, he became the secretary of the USSR IC, in 1960 the RSFSR IC (in 1960-1968 the first secretary).
5f79fecef3b9f6d3c24ca02437ae9e1c75b70cc2	In the same 1960, Shostakovich joined the CPSU.
d6b22edb8f32fce6f1c4a4436d210b7a66f16c65	1960's[edit / edit wiki text]
8878978b714f2f642d6575e9f6d05b2be968af0b	S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich and A. Khachaturian
92aac955707783e75549a8476cc69445164b8443	In 1961, Shostakovich carried out the second part of his "revolutionary" symphonic dilogy: in addition to the Eleventh Symphony "1905", he wrote Symphony No.
bb2bb2c28eb09376c12df4d0c7949f714a0b3353	12 "1917" — a work of a pronounced "pictorial" character (and actually bringing the symphonic genre closer to film music), where, as if with paints on canvas, the composer draws musical pictures of Petrograd, V. I. Lenin's refuge on Lake Razliv and the October events themselves.
ac0ff09aa0d94f69e0d1e0784e82bc7a60c45019	He sets a completely different task for himself a year later, when he turns to the poetry of E.
09b885ebc21479ef9a8167a12ffb56614687523e	A. Yevtushenko first writing the poem "Babi Yar "(for a bass soloist, a bass choir and an orchestra), and then adding to it four more parts from the life of modern Russia and its recent history, thereby creating a" cantata " symphony, the Thirteenth — which was performed in November 1962.
fb03bd5c7e6d1f8b3cc3a7afb24a20f12cf46a8d	After the removal of N. S. Khrushchev from power, with the beginning of the era of political stagnation in the USSR, the tone of Shostakovich's works again acquires a gloomy character.
e0c3b925d0e4e27c0bea2ed6d979f084ff94ff50	His quartets No.
7819a6caf0d12ee4434edaf6009f27e92ee3f46b	11 (1966) and No.
25f3e4e425f849c9034f7bf2ba738b361669f99a	12 (1968), the Second Cello Concertos (1966) and the Second Violin Concertos (1967), the Violin Sonata (1968), the vocal cycle based on the words of A.
4e7bd2d36c4a56c3dc362b2d253a0a1449c06523	A. Blok, are imbued with anxiety, pain and inescapable longing.
ad939c2ee7c6c0d13c05c8be458f2e1f980d04ef	In the Fourteenth Symphony (1969) — again "vocal", but this time chamber, for two solo singers and an orchestra consisting of only strings and percussion — Shostakovich uses poems by G. Apollinaire, R. M. Rilke, V. K. Kuchelbecker and F. Garcia Lorca, which are connected by one theme death (they tell about an unfair, early or violent death).
7c0b902fe7ab360e0a13015f9adfef45d020f70c	The 1970s[edit / edit wiki text]
bb599f2d90e566918ae9433fb4c1d5925ddfd7fd	Tombstone of Shostakovich at the Novodevichy cemetery with the image of the musical monogram: D E (flat)- Up to C (D eS C H in Latin letters), the second octave.
df05c8d598817b4e882f4b187e6b737b8c87854c	During these years, the composer created vocal cycles based on the poems of M. I. Tsvetaeva and Michelangelo, the 13th (1969-1970), 14th (1973) and 15th (1974) string quartets and Symphony No.
96a6c6b2cfadcc70775428bc7c31ac718d2d4819	15, a composition characterized by a mood of thoughtfulness, nostalgia, memories.
a77a24afd55db851d8f39d8cdde708672c808815	Shostakovich uses quotations from the overture of J. V. Shostakovich in the music of the symphony.
b90c806a75819240473efb1194a88827a768f626	Rossini's opera "Wilhelm Tell" and the theme of fate from R. Wagner's opera tetralogy "The Ring of the Nibelung" , as well as musical allusions to the music of M. I. Glinka, G. Mahler and his own.
349d07fb3cb00063f8af810f1ff862634f8ec046	The symphony was created in the summer of 1971, the premiere took place on January 8, 1972.
eb8b0e72a48fcbc7c3e7210d3bf54684536c0b68	Shostakovich's last composition was a Sonata for Viola and Piano[21].
c32f8b064bacb2ff1d87340e788d9dac2aad9da8	He had a very complex disease associated with a lesion of the leg muscles.
e9de06e3e33e8d9f2c5ab86ef35ad4be7ce1d0f3	In 1970-1971, the composer came to the city of Kurgan three times and spent a total of 169 days here for treatment in the laboratory (at the Sverdlovsk Research Institute) of Dr. G.
b4da56763bf52852bf42f4826c6caa447bf14e9e	A. Ilizarov[27].
f743d711f8e62a0a3ed2733a2f4f7854d14e9e9d	Dmitry Shostakovich died in Moscow on August 9, 1975 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery (plot No. 2).
01746a980562feac14a37f3aa159b97c061dfac2	Family[edit / edit wiki text]
741e4e93185d25865ddee51b7dd2975475dbbb72	1st wife Nina Vasilyevna Shostakovich (nee. Varzar) (1909-1954). She was an astrophysicist by profession, studied under the famous physicist Abram Ioffe.
90d98b44f8cf98ae9309ca4f971f7867ed5c6027	She gave up her scientific career and devoted herself entirely to her family.
1d9ff5fa84c869e901ca36a3d7e57a3c85ff6a82	His son, Maxim Dmitrievich Shostakovich (b. 1938), is a conductor and pianist.
83d708a5a532d395bde3a0c7fda0b5a3801faabc	Student of A.V. Gauk and G. N. Rozhdestvensky.
f2a88fa8170c877d6961812f55dac61288ba5660	Daughter Galina Dmitrievna Shostakovich.
bd5456ecea15a7db21642b0275ad74f6f5e7bd0f	My 2nd wife is Margarita Kainova, an employee of the Komsomol Central Committee.
16c11402a45b53b93d6d778b95769206c83105da	The marriage quickly broke up.
9f5b67aec34d3c2558fed67401432ea6f4df6a1a	My 3rd wife is Irina Antonovna Supinskaya (Shostakovich) (born on November 30, 1934 in Leningrad). Editor of the publishing house "Soviet Composer".
5b45fc89fd8ae8288a63264f9d88c35047480261	She was the wife of Shostakovich from 1962 to 1975.
54963fd81bef210d29c687c2e5958147eccc2f28	The meaning of creativity[edit / edit wiki text]
5bd9d563503291af8da6dcddf96a3ad9f8d86866	The monogram "Dmitry Shostakovich", encrypted with the notes: D Es C H (D E flat C C), D — "Dmitry", SCH — "Shostakovich", is used in a number of Shostakovich's works.
dcd1969142e9747313257514fd1f286692683fd6	The high level of composing technique, the ability to create bright and expressive melodies and themes, masterful mastery of polyphony and the finest mastery of the art of orchestration, combined with personal emotionality and colossal efficiency, made his musical works bright, original and of great artistic value.
b57809c932d7b31838c638949bf2cf2234cee0c4	Such composers as Penderetsky, Tishchenko, Slonimsky, Schnittke, Kancheli, Bernstein, Salonen, as well as many other musicians openly declared the influence of the musical language and the personality of Shostakovich on them[source not specified 1165 days].
12c49b0c598848ea9bc991c5ac1476b6ffc9c549	Music[edit / edit wiki text]
4fe105298217529fa57b1f6b7015e5617f77adb4	In his early years, Shostakovich was influenced by the music of G. Mahler, A. Berg, I. F. Stravinsky, S. S. Prokofiev, P. Hindemith, M. P. Mussorgsky.
071abe948aa87f26b92985db663739a2b79bc122	Constantly studying classical and avant garde traditions, Shostakovich developed his own musical language, emotionally filled and touching the hearts of musicians and music lovers around the world.
742e2af76c973cf87e59a1c38cbd2b969413c01b	The most notable genres in Shostakovich's work are symphonies and string quartets — in each of them he wrote 15 works.
5271cd9c1a0c0c3a62fe1ae7c4efb43b033e6dea	Among the most popular symphonies are the Fifth and Tenth, among the quartets — the Eighth and Fifteenth.
2e47df5c16a0b8d706900b0b2c40ee7375baf2aa	In the works of D. D. Shostakovich, the influence of his favorite and revered composers is noticeable: J. S. Bach (in his fugues and passacaglias), L. Beethoven (in his late quartets), P. I. Tchaikovsky, G. Mahler and partly S. V. Rachmaninov (in his symphonies), A. Berg (partly — along with M. P. Mussorgsky in his operas, as well as in the use of the technique of musical quoting).
cc99f22631730b1b269f0c6aaf3336f41eb02a0b	Of the Russian composers, Shostakovich had the greatest love for Mussorgsky, for his operas "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" Shostakovich made new orchestrations.
001d8f8582d1ff2e68c64bec6f0b30f951e7c3fa	Mussorgsky's influence is especially noticeable in certain scenes of the opera "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District", in the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in satirical works.
f5aa82dc3fa0d12319bdb90bdd468110c4e54553	Main works[edit / edit wiki text]
3aec171aeb208b88fc07464d4bd44bb5154ae6ac	Main article: List of works by Dmitry Shostakovich
2ec8862ad5368b14208951d7d95c83bae893e46d	15 symphonies of the Opera: "The Nose", "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district" ("Katerina Izmailova"), " The Players "(completed by K. Meyer), " Orango "(the opera was not finished, there is only a Prologue) Ballets: "The Golden Age "(1930), "Bolt" (1931) and "Light Stream" (1935) 15 string quartets Cycle "Twenty four preludes and Fugues", Op.
e01db48d0f3170e4cceb93c51f8ae22bf8bc7a2a	87 (1950—1951)[28] Festive overture to the opening of the VSHV for the night light and music program of fountains (1954) Piano quintet Oratorio "Song of the Forests "Cantatas" The Sun shines over our Motherland" and" The Execution of Stepan Razin "Anti formalist paradise Concerts and sonatas for various instruments Romances and songs for voice with piano and symphony orchestra Operetta "Moscow, Cheryomushki" Music for movies: "Ordinary people" (1945), "The Young Guard" (1948), "The Fall of Berlin" (1949), "Gadfly" (1955), "Hamlet" (1964), "Cheryomushki", "King Lear" (1971).
da5f485518f1c5e2e4ce7246efbf9a12fe49ecc4	Awards and prizes[edit / edit wiki text]
da8f09c1e32ff3d972f25879380b2a2cab20a15f	Stamp of the USSR, 1976
b13a25e116f2153b8ef3e4059009c60f7fdb080a	Stamp of Russia 2000
13dc0d635d06ddb69f74c515fe057966773a5548	Hero of Socialist Labor (1966) Honored Artist of the RSFSR (1942) People's Artist of the RSFSR (1947) People's Artist of the USSR (1954) People's Artist of the BASSR (1964) Stalin Prize of the first degree (1941) — for the piano quintet Stalin Prize of the first degree (1942) — for the 7th ("Leningrad") Symphony Stalin Prize of the Second degree (1946) — for the trio Stalin Prize of the First degree (1950) — for the oratorio "Song of the Forests" and the music for the film "The Fall of Berlin" (1949) Stalin Prize of the second degree (1952) — for ten poems for unaccompanied choir on poems by revolutionary poets (1951) Lenin Prize (1958) — for the 11th symphony "1905" State Prize of the USSR (1968) — for the poem "The Execution of Stepan Razin" for bass, choir and orchestra State Prize of the RSFSR named after M. I. Glinka (1974) — for the 14th string quartet and choral cycle "Fidelity" State Prize of the Ukrainian SSR named after T. G. Shevchenko (1976 — posthumously) — for the opera "Katerina Izmailova", staged on the stage of the T. G. Shevchenko KUGATOB International Peace Prize (1954) The J. Sibelius Prize (1958) The Leonie Sonning Prize (1973) Three Orders of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966) Order of the October Revolution (1971) Order of the Red Banner of Labor (1940) Order of Friendship of Peoples (1972) Commander of the Order of Arts and Literature (France, 1958) Silver Commander's Cross of the Order of Honor for Services to the Republic of Austria (1967) Medals Honorary Diploma at the I International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw (1927).
a3cfb58c3a76382e335d30da8fa015a55ee44c86	Prize of the I th All Union Film Festival for the best music for the film "Hamlet" (Leningrad, 1964).
58bc9cf9ede3f27174d5f13cfdbc13186e57f1e6	Membership in organizations[edit / edit wiki text]
1418d3114dc4d352b55ae9bf23049bc5cc6a2e0f	Shostakovich Street, Samara.
ede2bf0141345d1389a013c3d12331855ff053c6	The composer worked in House No.
ea1cc4b9830b8f8674ff291b8578779dd00e45af	5 during the war years.
3a81ce3d0dd89b271494b39f323224951dd9906f	On the left is the building of the Institute of Culture
983e519e07c01a658b4d7d0ec952ce548c86c1cd	Member of the CPSU since 1960 Doctor of Art History (1965) Member of the Soviet Committee for the Protection of Peace (since 1949), the Slavic Committee of the USSR (since 1942), the World Committee for the Protection of Peace (since 1968) Honorary member of the American Institute of Arts and Letters (1943), the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (1954), the Italian Academy of Arts "Santa Cecilia" (1956), the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (1965) Honorary Doctor of Music of Oxford University (1958) Honorary Doctor of Northwestern University in Evanston (USA, 1973) Member of the French Academy corresponding member of the Academy of Arts of the GDR (1956), the Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts (1968), member of the Royal Academy of Music of England (1958).
ae8367208a52a207e6fa4a2676155a2727626c18	Honorary Professor of the Mexican Conservatory.
e9cfefac367f341f90f3671ecffbf8191ab127d0	President of the society "USSR Austria" (1958) Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 6th 9th convocations.
e6004df6309da9acfad4b62110026c85d3d0d728	Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of the 2nd 5th convocations.
19b63c5cd730a037d0be27390d212ee6903ae5e2	Memory[edit / edit wiki text]
bc7501c400077eb88e696afec0b042bf77e3fc5f	St. Petersburg State Philharmonic named after D. D. Shostakovich 28.05.2015 the first monument to D. D. Shostakovich in Moscow was opened in front of the Moscow International House of Music [source not specified 51 days] In 1977, a street in the north of St. Petersburg was named in memory of D. D. Shostakovich.
0af4d19c73a7bc586c5b962b43e2bf4315a054b9	A monument to D. D. Shostakovich was erected on it in 2009.
5ab47fea4bed6b2d56f1f07d265cf77fb289856d	It is complemented by music written by the composer, broadcast through speakers[source not specified 51 days].
2dbb158e5ef546d384f7b7dba068fec132edcb24	The name of D. D. Shostakovich is given to a street in Samara, which was previously called Rabochaya [source not specified for 51 days].
092869e3febf3a869a20428df9ed4867d66777b2	Comments[edit / edit wiki text]
f58e47b12271067fc8c1d764c2924a75ec28f866	It was this address that D. D. Shostakovich later indicated in all the questionnaires[20].
97f8eeb0514967033b8f1140a4e67075dce7af04	↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p .
cbfb5c38800cc9ef950fd73821572c27a78b5e41	17, 44 ↑ 1 2 3 4 Mikheeva, 1997, p .
29a09bb2a55604bfde419b94912d62f176888294	6 ↑ 1 2 Khentova, I, 1985, p.
eb035a8d865de84e7250088a55720de34f4f18c0	16 ↑ Meyer, 1998, p.
6f753d80f696a1892024501b2702eff6e1558d18	9 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
d2f1bc904892d6947734842176a7baf6b522b4d9	17-18 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
4e53519623c2e83ed6842b2d43923430a74320f4	18-24 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
c634de5a53027672573a4c0bbd7b96237dcbf5c1	36-40 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
bca85a39efb0cb23106f65a6545dbb48e71bbc8f	40-48 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
e0740a3c86e6e25aafafcf4a207e0eb73af78a92	49 Мих Mikheeva, 1997, pp.
0b985930e6e860a321aac941b5e238d1c4c8da8a	7-8 ↑ Mikheeva, 1997, pp.
3a3cc03b5d060d5c3c5439c4ed54ccee7b9eb907	9-10 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, pp.
72f9d99dac0f816877498fc0babd94aae354d4e1	60-61 ↑ 1 2 Khentova, I, 1985, p.
36b23940dc81d102903b49b0e47a67c1710cd72e	56 ↑ 1 2 Khentova, I, 1985, p.
9fdcdb90ef6a60e77f656ed7ebdbe00a542a5d8d	52 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
c3e5df39426c4067b637697a48c57063056faa3b	53 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p.
9a74412160fff13094b2b27da36bad722eb62517	54 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p .
6c917cdb591224bf9838c6b8a78af7bbc6a64afc	54-55 ↑ Khentova, I, 1985, p .
10ead77984cd97b23071ab44e74fd7df1c4ace7a	60-62 ↑ Mikheeva, 1997, p .
b2a9232642ffc5bd0f9ce49270d83ffb64c60eda	10-11 ↑ 1 2 Khentova, I, 1985, p .
6c3486a4575ed290d62ff0081fc59dc5e2f34170	61 ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shostakovich Dmitry Dmitrievich.
2f3cd32f7d720c708518154d58329a0a3579ba5d	Music Encyclopedia, 1973-1982.
afb1bbf88f53b2d00db5435979041b3fcf224fe1	Music encyclopedia.
1e5edd5b5a9f08e78f279843bba7a98632b5be28	Verified on April 4, 2013.
4e0e07a114ed58c9a6bd677eba46008138b5ab58	Archived from the original source on April 4, 2013.
121a478e187273871970840e611469bd82fc24df	↑ The official website of D. D. Shostakovich ↑ 1 2 Hero of the Social Network.
6d089040c4e703c98c2a3c1e70cbe20b939554c7	Truda Shostakovich Dmitry Dmitrievich :: Heroes of the country.
852b8e5665cef2f3801ea9f5238d1f836dcb0b8c	Volkov S.
51375a0bf11261b0a98041245cdad2731ba60e78	The history of Russian culture of the twentieth century: From Leo Tolstoy to Alexander Solzhenitsyn.
5d5505a1b33c0a4e6e20e8430d64b2fac0640799	- Moscow: Eksmo, 2008.
32929f7f2faee78be3de317161ded5fece7f22c0	- p. 162.
cb0061e23e554b9f17d7ed6b24f3adc6d040e680	Ш Shostakovich.
c28a05f4cc66c25e532ccae58f2dff9382ce473e	Symphony No.
d41c9ffa6dc053db880e49909e1f1208c3b0471d	6 (Symphony No. 6 (h moll), Op. 54) | Belcanto.ru. www.belcanto.ru. Verified on December 5, 2015.
f6ae648b703d841af74d5a147595e8b2a985a202	↑ MGK named after Tchaikovsky personalities Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich.
a49f2dc62f236b7696c9bb92bcd1e098c91b249c	Verified on April 6, 2013.
14026d701177651ce370afa5544bc26f3842c5d0	Archived from the original source on April 14, 2013 .
19d00a7f73803a6fdd7439a0b0f133fc4efb3523	Светл Svetlana Koshkarova.
ca7bbc4c8c2eeec7e263b33dc34f58f59ffdb5c5	The fifth anniversary festival named after Shostakovich will be held in Kurgan. the newspaper "Kurgan and Kurgans" 10.09.2014 Kurt Sanderling called this work" An intimate diary " of Shostakovich.
f7bf578ee750e4417d0738f70db96e4c7d928317	Shostakovich D. D. To know and love music: A Conversation with young people.
c9fda5a01aaac88a8ef61a6cf3eb341eb955e679	- Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 1958.
e03a7f3d637e529d329e168189f48fe99bf5c3c1	Shostakovich D. D. Selected articles, speeches, memoirs / Ed.
ad929ef480205bcad39ad05f3ba0c1acdd608017	A. Tishchenko.
79eb7bf2c7721560a792fd9f54d29a0120f63146	- M.: Soviet composer, 1981.
e9493bfed13b5ddae04df02761561461eb6c985f	D. Shostakovich about time and about himself, 1926-1975 / Compiled by M. Yakovlev — - M.: Soviet composer, 1980 — - 375 p.
c27b0acb4181088fb211bbb6324d97804eaa512b	Akopyan L. O. Dmitry Shostakovich.
7692caca931f44c483f667de214add8198d2eb19	The experience of the phenomenology of creativity.
3101ca51c7048f6cb7f2b928f12c8767a7e71dc4	- St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2004.
5790f5fb3e22ab3cc0d5982e987f27fbff547cbd	Volkov S. Shostakovich and Stalin: the artist and the Tsar.
b09006aedab87066b131c4121e0cdbcde5b0dec0	- Moscow: Eksmo Publishing House, 2004.
f01e6b3375ce4f5da1b811cde7eb5127746b5e8a	Grum Grzhimayao T. N. About Shostakovich.
cb95776f684695c8bdee8f9cbc2f37abd5edbb85	- Moscow, 1990.
2830213916195a957066645283aaf04159b4567c	Danilevich L. V. Dmitry Shostakovich: Life and creativity.
e8a98ec7e34669d71abae852fd647b0f9fbf5837	- Moscow: Soviet Composer, 1980.
1834da1ef5c58172ca8f147eeeb4cc0b9d3cb9bb	Dvornichenko O. Dmitry Shostakovich: a journey.
a6e24a5df39b981d259285a9afc278c702556d29	- M.: Text, 2006.
5da8f90c4a2179423fb3ad14f8fb6ea19f6cbee9	Dvornichenko O. Moscow Kremlin to Shostakovich.
cc7bc0300b3b65840166e1d6581ac39ef2c0e636	- M.: Text, 2011 — - 669 p — - 3000 copies.
80e2ba1e7ad0fd47b137882e19b73ca4b6b980b9	— ISBN 978-5-7516-0955-9.
7468ec5b2a75dc998557f31978cf8e2b3122d33b	Zhytomyr D. V. Shostakovich official and authentic / / Daugava.
9367b0868a0146df5d9191bf8eb982cbfb036efb	— 1990.
a757b0bc76282a3a6e122dbc07496e313d33bd77	— № 4.
f478d3c4ab734b89dce1dd45976cf3d222282caa	Lukyanova N. V. Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich.
f4f84813b9c4edfb0d47d40a44ffdb2854d8dd78	- M.: Music, 1980.
f236f7ae3d2c6ae463f34b7e5be8798ec9c3ff2d	Maksimenkov L. V. Confusion instead of music: The Stalinist cultural revolution of 1936-1938 Moscow: Yuridicheskaya kniga, 1997.
d63de98fb62af9b921b4ba68384f210faed65dfe	- 320 p.
0c4c4ad6d97bb222594e319c4cc402730c277c8b	Meyer K. Shostakovich: A Life.
1dc35f7f2e2af83de62058475e7fa5490b94655e	Creation.
679539e42dc495e4654f2f1f26cddf5a53fc60d0	Time / Translation by E. Gulyaeva = Schoslakowitsch.
ce93d0beaa8c149a07bad6c8995f6037ab5f5ef3	Sein Leben, sein Werk, seine Zeit.
5b4cb88a92e061dc147ad4e8f045c0791a0c94fd	- St. Petersburg: Composer, 1997.
847bb0a13c0709748660bf59a18b385987debc77	- 559 p.
0e2c835e77c6f8fb7633df14c821eed8ba575209	— ISBN 5-7379-0043-6.
d7a50c9656277e9308b0d376dfa7b50fff2b0ce6	Milovidova, N. S. Composers in the history of musical culture of the Samara Region: textbook. manual / N. S. Milovidova;
ea4da22c0807cefa6326876e190c6d6071aa8979	Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, FGBOU VPO "SGAKI".
307236eaf526d28019e5e86c5fea5e55d92ed81a	- Samara: Samar. state. akad. culture and Arts, 2014.
d21915ae9617465dceaa1fb29b7e3b2f5c97f398	- p.
a7342f771207d950fe9134e83d50b254bd89ae47	58-72 — - 278 p — - 500 copies.
c2bfceac9353d789880bd84fde6606ed58782226	- ISBN 978-5-88293-323-3 Mikheeva L. V.
3cae38b122829e5c1531286ef8e7dfc920734a64	The Life of Dmitry Shostakovich.
3338ea059bafed1c7691375d7d24d714ded3f7d2	- Moscow: Terra, 1997.
465df6f689c5bbd962a6322d12e7fd2e103cd88c	- 368 p.
0bd188f6a9638ad6750f11594133b9f76095362a	— ISBN 5-300-00996-2.
0057a70025ab02d8d9eb54cac257c21d93f37951	Petrov, V. O. Shostakovich's creativity against the background of the historical realities of the XX century.
aaa3fdc899e8810a5d24c362e553d14510700e38	- Astrakhan: Publishing house of the OGOU DPO AIPKP, 2007 — - 188 p.
f21c4255353ef3731108130f0379a996b73505ca	Sabinina M. Shostakovich the symphonist: Dramaturgy, aesthetics, style.
d194ce53c6020164230819f0bf89059baae504c3	- Moscow: Muzyka, 1976.
43fc447b6581ffd7fa20f1015df5cd3e982b0f69	Khentova S. M. Shostakovich.
918b2aa53b88f490438a65a3a178f73e0cec29ed	Life and creativity.
10af7b31b6af68e7a1e7a845f4cc0bc33cd19908	- L.: Soviet composer, 1985.
05e5298fe75cc129f5cbe63361b2a690c2101ce0	- Vol. 1 — - 616 p.
7e3f09ae5f98038ed049291148a9c78dd994e6e2	- L.: Soviet Composer, 1986 .
1208ec8358be94fd8abeb8d3bed5f2cd77e83efa	- Vol. 2 — - 668 p.
4220b14ed33a16f6fe78d9c7690522af134bfa3c	Khentova S. M.
5e00262239ee668ed0621e93f717eea5d45a2431	In the World of Shostakovich: Conversations with Shostakovich.
4f3b80cb9705585ba68da148b080e8b69bc14da0	Conversations about the composer.
50bcdf0045699c4a47ac80e6cba34221c1d44072	- M.: Composer, 1996.
d2b6fbe50602c162121bac56e5b6a6fbdd9fef7d	D. D. Shostakovich: A photographic and bibliographic reference book / Comp.
fe7dc733bfb871d78535da3d0bf25b82fb166f3e	E. L. Sadovnikov.
0022e10c0c98a54dd24d9b6d1e4448cffa28aa8d	2nd ed., add. and expanded -M.: Music, 1965.
8e450b660ac632df575aeacc658399f70c513d0b	D. Shostakovich: Articles and materials / Comp. and ed .
54d83523865ea00f6d3ab21fe2135882e4606c6b	G. Schneerson.
4570f08da35c3eed654650996f647c2dd003d2f9	- M.: Soviet Composer, 1976.
f1d233ed1266e0e5d0f257ab3d3947d6985db760	D. D. Shostakovich: A collection of articles for the 90th anniversary of his birth / Comp.
f2abcc0b03d7d82216ed3f40f59beedffc73177a	L. Kovnatskaya.
7c3a81947013ab6c0ee6dcb62d276a50c09e2781	- St. Petersburg: Composer, 1996.
312b5ecb905456bb4d50fbcb0de5c3e6a6b15134	Shostakovich at the Leningrad Conservatory: 1919-1930.
d58a978cead0ea9e30c96aea2bdb1ccae51b1b6a	St. Petersburg: Composer St. Petersburg, 2013.
0d7127416ee4889e568b717fa9f578c6c1f8920d	In three volumes.
f560f7f0c2675b6ca046d5da93a44aa550d149e4	Dmitri Schostakowitsch und das Jüdische musikalische Erbe = Dmitri Shostakovich and the Jewish heritage in music / Hrsg.
f4dc851984c0d7b576c7c8ce37991449ec5be0fc	Von Ernst Kuhn… — Berlin: Kuhn, 2001. (Schostakowitsch Studien;
c2e727bd3d6b8834cec7dca04a5f2ed993980db5	Bd. 3);
60cf050f048555b02af51bbac16ced6a9c80b79c	(Studia slavica musicologica;
eb16cc134f5fdb2c564b22dace7cbd36c5161930	Bd. 18) — ISBN 3-928864-75-0.
12bbc467c408cdb303bfce0acf1313101c87dfac	Shostakovich, Dmitry Dmitrievich.
dbf6e676c6b45961c0943398b4138f8bb9439a7b	The website "Heroes of the Country".
1b785ef4923d6b9d56036e79ef93db0abc767210	Dmitry Shostakovich in Wikicitatnik?
534285c7e4f27e0decce8030c22b7335f43ba442	Dmitry Shostakovich in Wikitek?
55ec26eb4e539f895ae7188a5c38d9defe851f45	Dmitry Shostakovich on Wikimedia Commons?
edd0a5870f5ca8061c7cfc144742a10774d86abe	The official website of Dmitry Shostakovich — biography, documentary chronicle, photo album, catalog of works, discography, publications, letters, Archive of D. D. Shostakovich.
0a2b0f15562244daca7205475830a5d65e6fb16b	The official website of the publishing house "Dmitry Shostakovich" — "DSCH") - a catalog of the complete works of D. D. Shostakovich, rental of sheet music materials.
52c46c7d9653f7f3193e48a234b3ac1befe569f3	"The certificate".
b0310b756c63f200b6f0cd64c285f2a6d4f30683	Memoirs of Dmitry Shostakovich, recorded and edited by Solomon Volkov (reverse translation from English) List of compositions, bibliography, discography Confusion instead of music / / "Pravda", January 28, 1936 Ballet falsehood / / "Pravda", February 6, 1936 Collection of documents and photographs Volkov S. Stalin and Shostakovich: the case of "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district" / / Znamya.
ea576b7e2e36c8b7fa814828f543e15eb6f7092e	— 2004.
f444fcf307d9a1d9c32b8470eb20cae85c796433	— № 8.
5e1df2f24a5ff959186beb189ab02311778a8a55	Zakharova O.
f799168ceff8bb72ca0ca383e5d041118f9e2169	A. Shostakovich Dmitry Dmitrievich / / Electronic encyclopedia "The World of Shakespeare".
9bf9092c2a554b9de6a59f2411a533807feb4df4	Multimedia[edit / edit wiki text]
57b59b608520050d1660b98ac9765e6a8cc9bf11	Radio message of D. Shostakovich: transmission from the besieged Leningrad on September 16, 1941 (inf.)
3ae80127f971b59af93ed021e56d7d9c82dd54c7	Thematic sites
ab35c8764ae9ba0a180f472279874162be492aea	Internet Movie Database · International Music Score Library Project · MusicBrainz
a1e91e4068020a351b168c7001ce77285b0ba8c9	BIBSYS Regulatory Control: x90079361 · BNF: 13892473m · GND: 118642472 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2143 0446 · LCCN: n86868350 · NDL: 00456475 · NKC: jn19990209877 · NTA: 068315848 · SUDOC: 026788136 · VIAF: 89612684
3c7e9e1f94e178bc74b6c713e9f878d67669549c	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Шостакович, _ Dmitry Dmitrievich&oldid=75161803"
d639cdb5ebb69725f19e95e09e5c2b23f78f6388	Categories: Born on September 25, Born in 1906, Persons alphabetically Born in St. Petersburg Who died on August 9, Died in 1975, Died in Moscow Musicians alphabetically Composers alphabetically Composers of the USSR Film Composers of the USSR Pianists alphabetically Pianists of the USSR Teachers alphabetically Music Teachers of the USSR Heroes of Socialist Labor Cavaliers of the Order of Lenin Cavaliers of the Order of the October Revolution Cavaliers of the Order of the Red Banner of Labor Cavaliers of the Order of Friendship of Peoples Awarded the medal "For Valiant Labor in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945."
3f199b18b4850336775cf2251a9292566f529be9	Cavaliers of the Commander's Cross of the Order of Honor for Services to the Republic of Austria Commanders of the French Order of Arts and Literature People's Artists of the USSR People's Artists of the RSFSR Honored Artists of the RSFSR Lenin Prize Laureates Stalin Prize Laureates of the USSR State Prize Laureates of the RSFSR named after M. I. Glinka Laureates of the National Prize of Ukraine named after Taras Shevchenko Buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery Personalities:Theater named after the Sun. Meyerhold Opera composers Ballet composers Operetta composers Songwriters Musicians of the Russian avant garde Doctors of Art History Laureates of the International Peace Prize Winners of the Leonie Sonning Prize Members of the CPSU Teachers of the St. Petersburg Mussorgsky College of Music Graduates of the St. Petersburg Conservatory Teachers of the St. Petersburg Conservatory Teachers of the Moscow Conservatory Honorary Doctors of Oxford University Members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Personalities:The siege of Leningrad Members of the Union of Composers of the USSR Academic Musicians of the USSR Academic Musicians of Russia Who died of lung cancer Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 9th convocation Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 8th convocation Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 7th convocation Deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the 6th convocation Members of the Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts
f583c17114aeea5a74140a40e80b654cf9771e79	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:No sources since November 2014 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:No sources since October 2012 Wikipedia:There are no sources since November 2015 Articles with links to Wikicitatnik Articles with links to Wikiteca
a3b10fd4e95c3f890058feb1f6875ff513e1b05a	Wikimedia Commons Wikicitatnik
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cb9607596a85151926d455465bce30ce46f6e75b	Stars | / Celebrities "Composers" Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
168f10bb7088c2cc80b8e1d15309d783a4a12cad	Biography of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
81f400bd9f1c9471dcd7e877ee14153124f6d105	Place in the star rating: (how is it considered?) 605
da8bd9e63894e2472c53277991867642b233c09c	YouTube video of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich (>1000)
74e5792b6790e10d52c37db64e1d2031664c7e53	Photos of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich (10)
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09348bc70742225757c465a9efb8b2a0a41e9e91	Biography, life story of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
2d41db32948a8ae81454f186b27e8af3bc46aead	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich [September 12 (25), 1906, Saint Petersburg — August 9, 1975, Moscow], Russian Soviet composer, People's Artist of the USSR (1954), Doctor of Art History, Hero of Socialist Labor (1966), Lenin Prize (1958), State Prize of the USSR (1941, 1942, 1946, 1950, 1952, 1968), The State Prize of the RSFSR (1974), the International Peace Prize (1954), the Sibelius Prize, an honorary member of academies and a doctor of universities in many countries of the world.
322ade4411744893cc66a436065423d79d89d4ff	In 15 symphonies (1925-1971), a piano trio (1944), a number of string quartets and other compositions, the complex spiritual world of the humanist artist of the 20th century is embodied by modern means of instrumental music: the protest of the individual against tyranny, the experience of the inevitability of death, enlightened lyrics.
4863af86d7a54e3ce14d2138d83fb75b6c3d8c49	Opera "The Nose" (1928), "Katerina Izmailova" (2nd edition, 1956), ballet "The Golden Age" (1930), "Bolt" (1931), operetta "Moscow, Cheryomushki" (1959), vocal and symphonic poem "The Execution of Stepan Razin" (1964), 10 poems for unaccompanied choir on poems by Russian poets (1951), chamber works (15 string quartets, piano quintet, 24 preludes and fugues for piano), music for plays, movies.
14fc921d850ed65c9a283b53fa42794eedd06270	Professor of the Leningrad (since 1939), Moscow (since 1943) conservatories.
9a9f029bbee91aaca1d216c0fae9b15c233bd81d	Childhood
58d22e59720805cef2ad4ea5d3a339ab619240f6	Shostakovich was the middle of three children in the family.
b6c5d2b2c7c956ee90b962852231bb01c2b27e17	The family held liberal political views.
ab99641c3dfa3e7163a012d8c915630494626147	His older sister, Maria (1903-1973), later became a pianist, the younger, Zoya (1908-1990), a veterinarian.
1e1fc254b47e19a209b7734a05d0d35301107a70	Shostakovich began composing at the age of 9.
253ee9f3d495690bcb82b7c37a10dae8e9114bef	CONTINUE BELOW
7c372d77739b8abe07f80bb1be288a27fc9ec550	At the end of 1919, Shostakovich wrote his first major orchestral work — the Scherzo fis moll.
4e7364e84c10fe7b21ab0e9e7be75fc1d438a556	The following year, Shostakovich entered the piano class of L. V. Nikolaev, where among his classmates were M. V. Yudina and V. V. Sofronitsky.
66b99e0e5760f5fc3f29c13ed311a1e8ce7f6400	Shostakovich writes "Two fables of Krylov" for mezzo soprano and piano and "Three Fantastic Dances" for piano.
392b9e4ac4175c1d574e879f7688bc50261e7cad	In 1923, he graduated from the Petrograd Conservatory with a piano class and in 1925 with a composition class.
269e610741f5231eb2bc62d82197b6dc04310f87	Early period of creativity
139fa317f44015abe3ba2cd5b74b35980ad9f086	Shostakovich's early works - "Fantastic Dances" and other pieces for piano, scherzo for orchestra, "Two Fables of Krylov" for voice and orchestra, etc. are marked by the influence of the school of N.
d6463a3fc7cb197c380cdd0021459d9c1a48e9ab	A. Rimsky Korsakov.
6500d0b1f5a349f9eed94517f8fd4133ec5ca78f	The first truly original work of Shostakovich was his thesis — Symphony No.
a86817d3c18071b0058f7268547f839135bb9730	1; after its premiere (Leningrad, 1926), critics began talking about Shostakovich as an artist who could fill the void that had formed in Russian music as a result of the emigration of S. V. Rachmaninov, I. F. Stravinsky, S. S. Prokofiev.
8d5f5e1c436af0e4a1798b3f17105e7f5e48ae59	In the works of Shostakovich of 1926-31, many discoveries of the Western European musical avant garde of the 1950s and 60s are anticipated.
10fc3204e9c4c2184686d6dcfb00cdaf938eec95	(sonorica, micropolyphony, pointillism, automatic writing, etc.).
72b31e223eebcb7dfe43467c5febbee3c07621c7	In symphonies No.
773f5e66edc8dcff979f9e304cc861d1a6701fbb	2 ("October" with chorus, 1927) and No.
b9cb9dee5b4459c9f3338499b7d12a949aa6479b	3 ("May Day" with chorus, 1929), the extremely radical musical language at that time is put at the service of propaganda tasks.
bca7a7ec3b45bf4ea7917f8e2f753d49b366d51c	The peak of early Shostakovich is the opera "The Nose" (based on the novel of the same name by Nikolai Gogol), written in 1928 and staged in Leningrad in 1930.
c4bdf55c9cc541f0db479207a7bd97b22d39afb5	Among the sources that influenced the concept of the " Nose "are the play" The Inspector "staged by V. E. Meyerhold (1926), A. Berg's opera" Wozzek "(staged in Leningrad in 1927), as well as, perhaps, the art of Shostakovich's peers — the writers of the Leningrad OBERIU group, who laid the foundations of the" literature of the absurd " of the 20th century.
8395dc99aecb313e1bdc144605cf773e6b94f735	During the same period, Shostakovich created sonata No.
c621abb4ffb12c33b38ba1c36fe90ac179a21af0	1 (1926) and the cycle "Aphorisms" (1927) for piano, the ballets "The Golden Age" (1930) and "Bolt" (1931), as well as a number of extravagant scores for theater and cinema.
c23806cfb61a0241f8c42270c1062bd923ba301a	Among his early works, the romantically refined vocal cycle "Six Romances to the words of Japanese Poets" (1928-32) stands apart.
446caee7cf4552eda484a7cf7a5ed15d3a5908e0	In 1928, Shostakovich worked as the head of the musical part of the Theater.
74a6887fe3ba893f6f1007e0babcb9e7f1e9b1ec	Meyerhold (Moscow), in 1930-33 head of the musical part of the Leningrad Theater of Working Youth.
906ff046ff916984a3b3f69eea105d5adb1013cc	In 1927, he took part in the 1st International Piano Competition named after Chopin in Warsaw, where he was awarded an honorary diploma.
acf47e1af51b8f855898b35cb8851c32a3dff551	From "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" to Symphony No.
4fb8ba3771e5411ee23b436818a5f5c63e0ef1d6	In 1932, Shostakovich completed work on the score of his second opera, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District.
ee57a3fdda4c77165f6d61640a256e991d3b0759	The plot of the novel of the same name by N. S. Leskov was reinterpreted by Shostakovich as a drama of an outstanding female nature in the conditions of an unfair social structure.
7a0e9475adce5627bd639346a6545ca7f64470e6	The author himself called his opera "a tragedy of satire".
36137ce11e2cd0616d7293aee77eeafc4205db20	In her musical language, the grotesque in the spirit of "Nose" is combined with elements of Russian romance and a long song.
84d888b33fb7b5e9730ac0d3432c24d733e8194f	In 1934, the opera was staged in Leningrad and Moscow, under the name "Katerina Izmailova"; then a number of premieres followed in theaters in North America and Europe.
a951a920400b881eb7cdfccfcb27d1dfe1be78cc	At first, Soviet critics almost unanimously assessed Shostakovich's new opera as a remarkable victory of the Soviet musical theater.
f36c40e7d41ab14e25eb6c59030299775655a6ec	Among the works written during 1932-35, there are 24 preludes for piano, Concerto No.
fedb10892f9305c6e0a0ede012ee126c4716aabc	1 for piano and orchestra, sonata for cello and piano, as well as music for the film "Counter" with the famous "Song about Counter" (in 1945, its melody briefly became the UN anthem).
fa5d2e7db185c44b1b0b2023862a2470818019a3	In 1935-36, Shostakovich worked on the monumental symphony No.
f086bfa6851340a68054dbefda346f06a0953b72	4, in which the influence of the symphonism of Mahler, one of his most beloved composers (along with Bach, Beethoven and Mussorgsky) is especially noticeable.
5a6c7926f98aa0991f11f5c557698c537caf59a5	Meanwhile, clouds were gathering over Shostakovich.
cf43f6ff7ca78ecdf3e62f6f212d3c6a165c6418	In January 1936, the performance "Katerina Izmailova" was visited by Stalin.
27f03abe22c4e22765af7346f299e24545b4bcf4	The opera shocked the dictator, whose taste was brought up on popular classics and primitive pseudo folk crafts; his reaction was expressed in the editorial "Confusion instead of music", published in Pravda and for many years determined the ways of development of Soviet music.
913a4ffc7d4f83a5111a4638a601696b7c7494b7	A few days later, Pravda published another editorial on the musical theme - "Ballet Falsity"; this time Shostakovich's ballet "The Bright Stream" (1935)was subjected to scathing criticism After the articles of Pravda, most of Shostakovich's works written before 1936 practically disappeared from the cultural life of the country.
a09a44656fc6397f155240369dc90daaac0a71bd	The composer was forced to cancel the premiere of Symphony No.
ac574f3dc5ad94505e30b42af76de0848117492d	4 scheduled for the autumn of 1936 (it was first performed in 1961).
ac27d2750b9ff5372db163ebebb39cc45eb546c0	The compositions of the 1920s (with the exception of Symphony No. 1 and some miniatures) were not performed in the USSR until the mid 1960s, and the "Nose" was resumed only in 1974.
819886ec49da1077f023f1d86fd06c2fdda525bc	From 1937 to 1953
3dbd954c921706fbb41813caf5d578f49cfd5b39	The years between 1937 and 1941 turned out to be relatively cloudless for Shostakovich, which affected the emotional structure of the scores of this period (string quartet No. 1, symphony No. 6, quintet for piano and strings).
62b2af7256bfdc9a16ea06d48000959012e6b68b	Shostakovich responded to the fascist invasion with Symphony No.
b3af94e526328efcd47f4e0b18c6e7f85d206f8b	7 (1941), dedicated to the city of Leningrad and received worldwide recognition as a symbol of the fight against fascism.
aa6a86aba383b16992907c09e94dcdb2c8201cab	The tragic experiences associated with the war and hopes for post war renewal were reflected in the most significant works of 1942-44: piano sonata No.
56c5413cf949fe69ea797d7febe917860d4f01e4	2, symphony No.
5302f0169ba806662d7ab358b48308c1e4baeb4d	8, piano trio, string quartet No.
b6548662c765407a90f8cc884c000ef724d584e5	2; the monumental string quartet No.
470b24ac7fc4a69e78b197ff5b19612211003f17	3 (1946) is perceived as a generalizing reflection on the past war.
3ada8c43a6e76d11cf586c4a9b48ca275f63f111	On the other hand, in Symphony No.
9be6930be836441e54448870175b304dfd3275d6	9 (summer autumn 1945), the mood of a kind of "black humor"prevails.
268c08f34eb386b4ff1a9425f91644e31eb2c971	The new wave of attacks on Shostakovich in the press significantly surpassed the one that rose in 1936 Forced to submit to the dictate, Shostakovich, "realizing his mistakes," made an oratorio " The Song of the Forests "(1949), the cantata" The Sun Shines on our Motherland " (1952), music for a number of films of historical and military patriotic content, etc., which partially eased his situation.
c077c442bee42358f2e3fc7a041b9dda5f40a489	In parallel, works of higher artistic merit were composed — concerto No.
fdc7f82097d925e3abb9e95cd91fd79ecf23d4f3	1 for violin and orchestra, the vocal cycle " From Jewish Folk Poetry "(both 1948), string quartets No.
3d924940b91fce0aae3a1027f17bcf6e860fb8a5	4 and No.
7d7cdb531fb900232d0727072ae6db45e3479bd8	5 (1949, 1952), the cycle" 24 preludes and Fugues " for piano (1951); with the exception of the latter, all of them were performed only after Stalin's death.
1f4e8edb6a2f7fa4961bc0babd3379f450810ec3	The era of the "thaw" in Soviet music symbolically opened with Shostakovich's Symphony No.
2bca1e86f0e2624f1c74cf0a21a85c9edfbae25d	10 (1953)
409233c8adbf58299115bc2c0ff4fbd930557873	— a deeply intimate confession of the artist who defended his "I" in a desperate, almost hopeless opposition to Stalinism.
d824caa99a2811d1fac50ec8c33b516b06543612	Even his best works of the mid 1950s — "Festive Overture" for orchestra (1954), music for the film "Gadfly" with the famous "Romance" (1955), string quartet No.
96f472bc68fff7d80b18a28c4a38d219d1022039	6 (1956) — are written in a light style.
8172424a1b73e5f2186cd6889c439b97899c4f6d	And although the symphony No.
38d2bc6c8b63bba79500667048e7c6e4737b2ba6	11 "1905" created in 1957 (Lenin Prize, 1958), symphony No.
4775db4815b3258c2edc90b1d8b1f8f22878db4c	12 "1917" dedicated to the memory of Lenin (1961), the symphonic poem "October" (1967), the cycle of choral ballads "Fidelity" (1970) are somewhat opportunistic, yet in these works Shostakovich managed to remain Shostakovich.
b08b6fb8c5665330d4b34e73b555ebb159085203	And in the works based on the poems of E.
c737237bcfbfb4efb3c2d3e36c9c04b0b772d441	A. Yevtushenko — symphony No.
a59cb4b242b218fbea10cba48ec15f53223d4790	13 for bass and male choir and orchestra (1962) and the vocal symphonic poem "The Execution of Stepan Razin" (1964) — there were obvious features of free thinking.
2cb68f98df8e5c91b252a94ea32dc6d74e3d83f5	This series of mournful "auto epitaphs" consists of string quartet No.
263d14bd3949c9e3e85faebd19a9883882e6d9c6	8 (1960), symphony No.
e95aea334fe1bd74f96f2bec9d9c4354d14c4130	14 for soprano, bass and chamber orchestra based on poems by Apollinaire, Rilke, Kuchelbecker and other poets (1969), symphony No.
1bdb9b86c40c616d89959486bde53d323f115ba7	15 (1971), string quartet No.
9e42ccfa30075ec9fab90f515a69c857c690383e	15 (1974), suite to the words of Michelangelo for bass and piano or orchestra (1974-75), sonata for viola and piano (1975, the last composition Shostakovich).
1680833fce4f2a2a3f01125e304358c4f6b5c3d9	Despair, protest, and tragic detachment determine the emotional climate of string quartets No.
1ef405e94a86fd4f64c6e3c695b76f703d08e547	7 (1960) and No.
80c2af4d424fab46e72565a5ec33fc161a6d7101	9-14 (1964-73), sonatas for violin and piano (1968), vocal cycles based on poems by A.
36945d1a2dae2486ac49ffc02c8adff089d9c899	A. Blok (1967) and M. I. Tsvetaeva(1973), concertos for cello and orchestra (1959, 1966), concerto No.
3b36698ecc0340f74cbad52ffaefa075c95205cc	2 for violin and orchestra (1967).
264d145358e3f7e33096c39f7aba0eb2cbdaed89	Dmitry Shostakovich died in Moscow on August 9, 1975 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in the capital (plot No. 2).
c92501e9f9ccf88eb016eac75a45f84652f5b8d3	Random photos of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
a3125aa2f848ca3107ce4cb2e43566a64a45d1c6	all photos of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
b6f44918de94eb049ab8348ac0a725b593ea3bd7	Your opinion about the star
10a92460b5a3aa3527fc7aa6c83755eba2829b9d	* Name:
36123958257c6f11b2bb7e526286194597aa7500	E mail:
c8573ddbdf88900413a10172d1d90e3735ab34ae	City:
d9f2b2f9a1309c8e977d364700c0489d6dd17d68	* Message:
d22275e0443c381c29189df37dd448070c9e194a	* Code from the image:
6effd6db7e2e71df5fdd7ba853cce80886d2d976	Gena (Pervomaisk)
76d83f006ba734c1f154858515ea322aa0660ed6	2015-04-11 06:39:21
0dc3c11cd09782f5404591efc3631994065a774d	Anna
24a4bc38dc42702564ac08bf116e75dd0b27a205	It's good
379d2e4728ca474212099d6e01619ec874098ff5	2013-05-16 21:12:02
5dfa350e14bc67ac986fc72074ac15e7fe5fd9d3	Valentina Kokorina
5ebb6ede50bc6e07be4552d114790f6a7e54e9bb	About 15 years ago I listened to the fifth concert (?) Shostakovich performed by the RNO under the direction of V. Spivakov.
48633377c64047c0a7ebf10563798c2d9bf4e4a8	The impression is amazing.
fd6b40210ecac10db9b8a05a67aca345df49d3b9	Purity in its highest manifestation.
6572ecffc584df05132f377c3e97ef2f5264bfb4	For me, at least.
c83fd8e048c71bf06b974a18ad6958639c9f59b2	And the visual association is a field of small white flowers.
724133a91f7e30039c6666ddff247b6b692ec7ed	On "Culture" I listened to the 10th Symphony performed by the orchestra of the St. Petersburg Philharmonic under the baton of Yuri Temirkanov.
3a45685c2f6b32e17055081fbd3f4dda5b50d086	I was shocked by the author's story about the scale of the universe.
edbd08e611da43b1914ee1ef31daf4ebad0d2f23	First there was a story about the vain earthly life.
8a062608f9c94764762cc584f71a3826999b3c6e	Then they flew out into the expanses of the starry worlds.
8403fb602abe0276581a2e3cee1aea838ba9a4f6	2013-05-16 11:58:34
0478cc6bdef5b421fa2d5b473324a56cf4887bd7	Natalia (Ekaterinburg)
21ad5a03e96645aca200ac93432e496d0c01ec5d	I love Shostakovich's symphonies, every single one, also the cello concerto is especially impressive, his music always awakens a fighting mood in me, I like the woodwind parts in all his symphonies, I am a bassoonist and it is always a pleasure for me to play solos in his works, especially in the ninth!
b14f97ffe13928daf4e4945859802a196dff9df9	2013-04-12 21:14:22
5d21a47d458edbae57cb97bdead4bacd34fb5db1	Elena (Moscow)
7b5dab2e6ca3d4e3eec6bd237f3affd4cff8029b	I am proud that I turned out to be a contemporary of Shostakovich.
a0d5430ac59dfd1bb9e720dd31dda1a57fe4767b	I may not know much about classical music (I donot have enough knowledge to understand "difficult" music), but the feelings caused when listening to his music written for films cannot be described in words, only emotions.
30b5fd0fda4f72b2ce4bdabaf740ef4acf5b52f3	He's not a star, he's a galaxy.
ffae991f9cf40b37ab5d1ee6ea240826c0d9464f	2012-12-27 17:28:50
4cff4f58726eac9bc99456d12aa6c64e4f1fbc18	Arkady (Moscow)
feb34bbfc6159b43205ff176b9175ae8259dd2d9	His name and creativity are eternal!
7464c160408bf53f35927a2c1e5e6e3022171985	The names of his persecutors are in the garbage of the history of Russia.
3ca933128fd20e73083e66b74e79ac54c3e25293	2012-12-15 15:42:35
33aba18cf411a90245d9d2ed66c2c7b7563d60b6	Alexander
38cd5192d417c87fa73b9e157d36cbf90f288f2f	A legendary man!!!...
f68bb795b68f54b670fcff2775887a9e137c7812	I love his "Prelude 5".
1be30b1504fa80cd7f13c51eb6ac79759882b55b	2012-12-08 15:34:40
e64d664b335757ab1b0ed70dc6883a5f412be34b	Julia
872dbaa72b2b09307e180b243fe99001d3c66084	I am proud that there are such great people in our history!
d0a63e8633336bf3f5532e4d568cde72dda4d6b2	I love his "Leningrad Symphony".
8049cfbeebc3b31ca6fd8588aa55f882a48ea1c8	2012-10-18 19:06:54
71fd6a96b7c974fef3d2054f4cc84146d02247b5	An outstanding composer.
8eb98451d3af6b72a7803b754b395d26389e8123	2012-06-10 18:21:27
c96eb9ccca0c3dee2138dfe8dae9b67cce3e17ca	valik
2689fa1febe0efc67f2145e2c9ff880223ab9a1e	You can love him, you can not understand him, but Shostakovich is the face of Russia.
270cbb86a307be59c7fd83f1485f114da901d2de	2011-07-12 07:32:26
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461f6544d8c28f52aeba621fe06aa0e4cce6f757	Classical music, opera and ballet
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03960be903b7a2fced2d7ea5b7d39a76eb1da8d4	→ Composers
00f1cb2c12e38c68149f7d78950b10b9ccdedabb	Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich
d2d969529d7cef981587c68850755facfd056810	D. Shostakovich classical music of the XX century.
3bcfc2d0e3a712e439426e907d58c7b5862769aa	There is not a single genre where he has not said his weighty word.
105ccf029090ce02d778f17fdb0d709dc51af283	He also came into close contact with the kind of music that was sometimes arrogantly treated by serious musicians.
1315a57eece0e5a601b80af30b0cbc24eef4b1b5	Not because he was completely alien to other genres of serious music — he was endowed with an unsurpassed talent as a truly theatrical composer, and working in the cinema provided him with the main means of existence.
b48cdcadaef1943627959a7372b78ab2d0dbe2e0	But the rude and unfair reprimand committed in 1936 in an editorial article of the newspaper Pravda under the title "Confusion instead of music", for a long time discouraged him from engaging in the opera genre — the attempts made (the opera "The Players" by N. Gogol) remained incomplete, and the plans did not go into the stage of implementation.
e87b43bb99b0f3530321dcd2ec9c62b65961ab94	Shostakovich — the best in the online store Ozon.ru
afbe8cb78c66d3459975e671f6740ccc07e8fabd	Perhaps this is what affected the properties of Shostakovich's personality — by nature, he was not inclined to open forms of protest, easily succumbed to persistent nonentities due to special intelligence, delicacy and defenselessness before gross arbitrariness.
070c68f9433dac4f5c179be55cae40e2b3d0d95c	Therefore, the conceptual symphony became the center of Shostakovich's search, where he could openly tell the truth about his time without compromising.
44d808fc79c2be3b306e9aab950659443db7e490	However, he did not refuse to participate in artistic enterprises born under the pressure of strict requirements for art imposed by the command and administrative system, such as M. Chiaureli's film "The Fall of Berlin", where the unrestrained praise of the greatness and wisdom of the "father of peoples" reached the extreme limit.
75f4d95b07d598673175eaf59f455e2f2e5d7ea0	But participation in such film experiments, or other, sometimes even talented works that distorted the historical truth and created a myth pleasing to the political leadership, did not prevent the artist from the brutal massacre committed in 1948.
76c312875cd2ff0f10a6d98c3df0742cb884ded3	The leading ideologist of the Stalinist regime, A. Zhdanov, repeated the rude attacks contained in a long standing article of the Pravda newspaper and accused the composer, along with other masters of Soviet music of that time, of adhering to anti popular formalism.
cf385edf04475411be44b13c6e600fd42478d0a0	Subsequently, at the time of the Khrushchev "thaw", such charges were dropped and the outstanding works of the composer, whose public performance was banned, found their way to the listener.
c73ce981201cb2c1f70c81297ba7d03f64337089	But the drama of the composer's personal fate, which survived a period of unjust persecution, left an indelible imprint on his personality and determined the direction of his creative searches addressed to the moral problems of human existence on earth.
e143125ed3a9cf0b1b16e4869eeab05e23fe5923	This was and remains the main thing that distinguishes Shostakovich among the creators of music in the XX century.
6cb718c3f23d9285e650d63e40e77f26860bec0e	His life path was not eventful.
98dc77cba9684348084b0335063d59deec7c0ea4	After graduating from the Leningrad Conservatory with a brilliant debut — a magnificent First Symphony, he began the life of a professional composer, first in the city on the Neva, then during the Great Patriotic War in Moscow.
5b74cf9ba04100b17c5e05391f1cdb32d76ce8a8	His activity as a teacher of the conservatory was relatively brief — he left it not of his own free will.
785c8c5f56ca30327cd799f0cb4c4b4dd753eec0	But to this day, his students have preserved the memory of the great master, who played a decisive role in the formation of their creative individuality.
73dd98a216799e8e02790808373fcdf4be4f4805	Already in the First Symphony (1925), 2 properties of Shostakovich's music are clearly felt.
3b734780611e50d6e8405ca758226fac872a1b4e	One of them was reflected in the formation of a new instrumental style with its inherent ease, ease of competition of concert instruments.
597aa2f2a25e7663439afddfd56248f4193d01d3	Another thing was manifested in the persistent desire to give music the highest meaning, to reveal a deep concept of philosophical significance by means of the symphonic genre.
d804085979a2ba23df2c47727832df509a84ce2e	Thus, in the Second and Third Symphonies ("October" — 1927, "Pervomayskaya" — 1929), Shostakovich paid tribute to the musical poster, the effects of the martial, agitation art of the 20s were clearly reflected in them (it was not by chance that the composer included choral fragments on the poems of young poets A. Bezymensky and S. Kirsanov).
ba8cd631101a03d55f6f5530d922df0e01c54855	At the same time, they also showed a bright theatricality, which so conquered in the productions of E. Vakhtangov and Vs.
f4dad0cc5e43b4a2d775cef63a362b32154aa1ca	Meyerhold.
3e4894c80053c3c8c48c0911285e89783922d466	It was their performances that influenced the style of Shostakovich's first opera "The Nose" (1928), written based on the famous story by Gogol.
46cb90cdbf282fb3be5f9c8023503a8e7fb5c185	Hence there is not only a sharp satiricity, parody, reaching the grotesque in the depiction of individual characters and a gullible, quickly panicking and quick to judge the crowd, but also that aching intonation of "laughter through tears", which helps us to recognize a person even in such a vulgar and notorious nonentity as Gogol's Major Kovalev.
a3de2b0d5cabc672319a9fede481a1c9f1fdca12	The composer has an ambivalent attitude to it — he sometimes exaggerates, parodies the characteristic turns of fashionable songs and dances, but at the same time ennobles them, raises them to the heights of real art. Such an attitude with particular clarity in the early affected the ballet "the Golden age" (1930) and "Bolt" (1931), the First piano Concerto (1933), where a worthy opponent piano along with the orchestra becomes a solo trumpet, and later in the Scherzo and finale of the Sixth Symphony (1939).
b4a76b871de46fe9e741480302104413888e86d1	Brilliant virtuosity, causing audacity Cams are combined in this work with soulful lyrics, amazing naturalness deployment endless melody in the first movement of the Symphony.
567f08dbade2cfb73a50e00c74de5ba1d6090035	At the same time, the influence of the "young muse" also affected the style, language, and compositional principles of his concert and philharmonic compositions.
bb8541c46d0a787d9b2e85401e2be7ed7fda619c	In the image of the main character, a complex internal struggle is revealed in the soul of a whole and richly gifted nature under the yoke of" leaden abominations of life", under the power of a blind, irrational passion, she goes to serious crimes, followed by a cruel reckoning.
4edc9183f008ab66dae2a43146c6e7d6a4f5732e	However, the composer achieved the greatest success in the Fifth Symphony (1937) — the most significant and fundamental achievement in the development of Soviet symphonism of the 30s.
826095623c98bc7d1963b0d19d7b25d338b7e6a5	(a turn to a new quality of style was outlined in the Fourth Symphony written earlier, but then not sounded 1936).
ce545f1823c3290eed4f2a5eaeab0f86866dd79f	The power of the Fifth Symphony lies in the fact that the experiences of its lyrical hero are revealed in the closest connection with the lives of people and, more broadly, of all mankind on the eve of the greatest shock ever experienced by the peoples of the world — the Second World War.
e89bec6ea4d85e31038cac82655fcdb81bfc0fdb	This determined the emphasized drama of the music, the sharpened expression inherent in it — the lyrical hero does not become a passive contemplator in this symphony, he judges what is happening and what is coming with the highest moral court.
b0685a843a187682927d0a75918d836dc0a8c30b	The artist's civic position and the humanistic orientation of his music affected his indifference to the fate of the world.
e1fe27a29e9b05a6f96c473ceb3059d3120b5a8a	It can also be felt in a number of other works related to the genres of chamber instrumental creativity, among which the Piano Quintet (1940) stands out.
e4251c22c831844b5c96574112b8a6ca68b24b5c	During the Great Patriotic War, Shostakovich became one of the first ranks of artists — fighters against fascism.
3bc2cc4c233e8ede869e1a0eb1029f20b4e6323e	His Seventh ("Leningrad") Symphony (1941) was perceived throughout the world as a living voice of a fighting people who entered into a life and death struggle in the name of the right to exist, in defense of the highest human values.
efb43d65e3bf2009fe5ddc85e7f0ea9b325d14ed	In this work, as in the Eighth Symphony created later (1943), the antagonism of the two opposing camps found a direct, direct expression.
bbcb1b8d92335c6778430eff61d80df4abd29b99	Never before in the art of music have the forces of evil been outlined in such relief, never before has the dull mechanicality of the fascist "machine of destruction"working busily been exposed with such fury and passion.
7fcb85e961a4e6160c9bb089d37cff0905ee8983	But the spiritual beauty and richness of the inner world of a person suffering from the troubles of his time is just as clearly represented in the composer's "military" symphonies (as in a number of his other works, for example, in the piano Trio in memory of I. Sollertinsky — 1944).
43ec2183d4c457206086ea2278ad55d71ad5b76a	In the post war years, Shostakovich's creative activity unfolded with a new force.
ff8d70750ea7b96539b186a42006c0f581c71d89	As before, the leading line of his artistic search was represented in monumental symphonic canvases.
1271233573fea8537b25a62248a2599113fb8c6c	After the somewhat lightened Ninth (1945), a kind of intermezzo, not devoid, however, of clear echoes of the recently ended war, the composer created an inspired Tenth Symphony (1953), in which the theme of the tragic fate of the artist, the high measure of his responsibility in the modern world was raised.
7a42dea07312e535a8be9920cb9dcd40e688586f	However, the new in many respects became the fruit of the efforts of previous generations — that is why the composer was so attracted by the events of the turning point in Russian history. 1905 revolution, marked by bloody Sunday, January 9, comes to life in a monumental software Eleventh Symphony (1957), and deeds victorious 1917 inspired Shostakovich to create a Twelfth Symphony (1961).
fb3a87f7ce6801339dca682caae5c1bf4c824ac3	Meditation on the meaning of history, on the value of deeds of its heroes also reflected in one part vocal symphonic poem "the Execution of Stepan Razin" (1964), which was based on a fragment from the poem by E. Yevtushenko "Bratskaya HPP".
1ac274e1209f502e582dd00155937808a879e397	But the events of our time, caused by abrupt changes in the life of the people and in their attitude, announced by the XX Congress of the CPSU, did not leave the great master of Soviet music indifferent — their living breath is noticeable in the Thirteenth Symphony (1962), also written in the words of E. Yevtushenko.
68f4bde1e268bdeba87953d65eebc600c1435704	In the Fourteenth Symphony, the composer turned to the poems of poets of various times and peoples (F. G. Lorca, G. Apollinaire, V. Kuchelbecker, R. M. Rilke) — he was attracted by the theme of the transience of human life and the eternity of the creations of true art, before which even the all powerful death retreats.
133fad97f739037ab169a3b445c3ddd958566f0c	The same theme formed the basis for the idea of a vocal symphony cycle based on the poems of the great Italian artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1974).
f223afde5251ff66cde6c55c0b0dea45ebc20e45	For all the significance of the symphony in Shostakovich's post war work, it far from exhausts all the most significant things that the composer created during the final thirty years of his life and creative path.
5c24b4e3c7abc80ac1a53368bbd7eb91911af4ac	The sharpness of the clash of the spiritual and the spiritless, the highest impulses of human genius and the aggressive onslaught of vulgarity, deliberate primitiveness is felt in the Second cello Concerto, where a simple," street " tune is transformed beyond recognition, exposing its anti human essence.
3b2c3adb776055d47e17eaf7208273d31c9dacf4	However, both in concerts and in chamber music, Shostakovich's virtuoso skill in creating compositions that open up space for free competition of musical artists is revealed.
3f57b274659044645af0e685f9a7c3b6a64a6e02	Here, the main genre that attracted the master's attention was the traditional string quartet (there are as many of them written by the composer as there are 15 symphonies).
eebd0be4f121a6608dba42f1166b2ea0177659f6	Shostakovich's quartets amaze with a variety of solutions from multi — part cycles (the Eleventh — 1966) to one part compositions (the Thirteenth 1970).
a7c53ccc5bd226e9052b023099fce29ff921eb0f	In a number of his chamber works (in the Eighth Quartet — 1960, in the Sonata for Viola and Piano — 1975), the composer returns to the music of his previous compositions, giving it a new sound.
fdc2be894b8300c36f61d8918f5758ff1fe81d9a	Among the works of other genres are the monumental cycle of Preludes and fugues for piano (1951), inspired by the Bach celebrations in Leipzig, the oratorio "Song of the Forests" (1949), where for the first time in Soviet music the topic of human responsibility for the preservation of the surrounding nature is raised.
4fa9dcff500fc9c3dd5e3e496c42a0d8d2f4eaa9	You can also call the Ten poems for chorus a cappella (1951), the vocal cycle "From Jewish folk poetry" (1948), cycles on poems by poets of Sasha Cherny ("Satire" — 1960), Marina Tsvetaeva (1973).
a17253146d6200950bfb5a14c107f2a146636d5f	Continued in the postwar years and work in the film industry — wide fame Shostakovich's music for the films "the gadfly" (the novel by E. Voynich — 1955), as well as adaptations of the tragedies of Shakespeare, "hamlet" (1964) and "King Lear" (1971).
91ebcc74bf39bfa73850f13c848314e1d71c521c	M. Tarakanov I recommend it's interesting to Tweet
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55eed041de8a29c28e3f470e27f89ff179f1c8f6	Works of 10 poems on the words of revolutionary poets (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:29 6 songs on the poems of English poets (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:34 6 poems by Marina Tsvetaeva (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 15:28 7 poems by Blok (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:38 Bolt (Shostakovich) 19.04.2011 at 19:40 The Golden Age (Shostakovich) 19.04.2011 at 12:55 From Jewish Folk Poetry (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:48 Execution of Stepan Razin (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:55 Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 14:06 Nose (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 09:05 Satires (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 15:05 Bright Stream (Shostakovich) 19.04.2011 at 20:14 Symphony No.
214df9509f6afe5e57bb8555a22bdcf65fe9096d	1 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 10:21 Symphony No.
185fb0d7b4343b59b06bf48659e4c172fa7fcf49	10 (Shostakovich)
b20d5c514d0a367d5eeb15aaa84a70a91ff1205c	22.03.2011 at 15: 41 Symphony No.
6b1c1a4e6dc17dae8d40d128c468f739365ba989	11, "1905" (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 16:00 Symphony No.
37c23a63f23d0f7ee16fbf1e5a8ed156e8ec9fa1	12, "1917" (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 18:23 Symphony No.
35c0968a4b47b78c7ee89d1a63d5ffa5d859bc81	13 (Shostakovich)
c76ddc18f4fefcab135a64c14e33b595a7f5de05	22.03.2011 at 19: 13 Symphony No.
5d62e3760090828df5f6540e37b16ef43d16e8ab	14 (Shostakovich)
667301e977a4c3de525cb49b20eef0096b25db0b	22.03.2011 at 19: 30 Symphony No.
98a2f9e7aa6856b36f69fdca2389b47f18cb6eaf	15 (Shostakovich)
054fef3de5ba4a22b429746a02e340c1bbcde278	22.03.2011 at 19: 47 Symphony No.
c83b364548668d41faa88b56f76c7aa9bb0aa9a0	2, "October" (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 10: 39 Symphony No.
e1484fd9dbec49c1814f868163e65adbce08023e	3, "Pervomayskaya" (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 11: 03 Symphony No.
355e995724b1cce0bc1974f086f9e7ae5b2b7c31	4 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 11: 28 Symphony No.
125d1fa9da0e928e0937cc6e1e31d5e411023fa7	5 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 12: 10 Symphony No.
10e66e26109f8c1c0dd0a40fb3f06815af99c2f1	6 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 14: 00 Symphony No.
304eea647c377182d11da272f34553fe3a5df63f	7, "Leningradskaya" (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 14: 43 Symphony No.
3f5c6f16d8851e581987ed12267895f4f040ed8c	8 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 15: 00 Symphony No.
11a031d274a34ee2a6091b081c270135dbe25bae	9 (Shostakovich) 22.03.2011 at 15: 29 Violin Concerto No.
96f9f87e4485ab40d9570736ed5adf9c7fbec60a	1 (Shostakovich) 08.06.2015 at 20: 41 Sonata for Cello and Piano (Shostakovich) 08.06.2015 at 21:55 Sonata for Violin and Piano (Shostakovich) 08.06.2015 at 16:46 String Quartet No.
de50a34a7d63ed6152065a33c7ced16cf257ed45	09.06.2015 at 18:59 String Quartet No.
ef3fe1c81deb3069f51e70080cb20a4c030e34ee	8 (Shostakovich) 08.06.2015 at 21: 09 Suite on poems by Michelangelo (Shostakovich) 12.01.2011 at 15:13 Piano Quintet (Shostakovich) 03.05.2015 at 16: 15
7d8b9f610820788853ae05ff9939f59697465ff6	Publications The Concordia Festival ended in Kazan on 09.12.2015 at 19: 08 " Surprise me!": the Diaghilev Festival ended in Perm on 07.06.2015 at 15:25 Vocal Shostakovich in the Beethoven Hall of the Bolshoi Theater (operanews.ru) 01.06.2015 at 22: 50 Polina Osetinskaya: "My profession is unique, it allows you to see the world!"
7b042bec1d82b5d434ff935cbbddf4f3af9bed05	22.05.2015 at 18: 46 Shostakovich and the Youth it turned out!
3e3ba98cbc601c6c5ac50849187bfdf453d77317	19.05.2015 at 17:33 the Results of the Salzburg Easter festival 2015 14.05.2015 at 18:09 hamlet is not dancing, he's in mourning 25.03.2015 at 20:55 the World premiere of 24 preludes and fugues Zaderzhka 21.12.2014 at 17:27 "Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk" at the Metropolitan Opera (operanews.ru) 24.11.2014 at 15:49 Touch the "Nose" (operanews.ru) 03.11.2014 at 18:58 Interview with Sergei Skripka 03.09.2014 at 21:39 Moscow concerts of the middle of the Easter festival 08.05.2014 at 20:44 "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district" of Shostakovich's Opera of Flanders 08.04.2014 at 16:50 London Philharmonia performed in the Grand hall of the Conservatory with two concerts 07.04.2014 at 13:14 "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district" by Shostakovich in Antwerp (operanews.ru) 30.03.2014 at 22:00 "Nose" and "Tosca" — broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera 16.11.2013 at 23:14 Concert in Lisbon 05.11.2013 10:46 the Nose by Shostakovich at the Metropolitan Opera (operanews.ru) 20.10.2013 at 20:40 Passion Shostakovich 25.07.2013 14:50 Konstantin Lifschitz: "The music is above composer" 19.05.2013 at 09:48 Interview with the Borodin Quartet 02.04.2013 at 21:29 music House opened the season 04.10.2012 at 09:41 Concert dedicated to Shostakovich 29.09.2012 at 14:02 On Symphony of self sufficiency one drama 02.08.2012 10:38 of remembrance of the victims of two tragedies 16.09.2011 at 12:56 orchestra of the Mariinsky theatre the festival Shostakovich 30.12.2006 at 19:59 Gergiev conducted Shostakovich festival in Rome 30.11.2006 at 12:50 In St. Petersburg opened the Museum apartment of Shostakovich 27.11.2006 at 10:13 On the celebration of the anniversary of Shostakovich 16.10.2006 14:11 Gergiev: "Shostakovich did not come to London from heaven" 21.07.2006 at 18: 46
dda914526c554049e437772b01298ea46491b282	Chapters from the books of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich (classic music.ru) From the group of "Six" to socialist Realism (classic music.ru)
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8a5a2f10fbbcf309eca88955fb204ad4f16c8a31	Date of birth 25.09.1906 Date of death 09.08.1975 Profession composer Country of the USSR
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6ac650c8a8b91ce290b15b2d9c0e5b929eb9d95c	added: 04.12.2010
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090a5216fa1d13a26af5fd3613b89f759b21265d	Isadora Duncan (Isidora Duncan, Isadora Duncan; born Dora Angela Duncan; May 27, 1877, San Francisco, USA-September 14, 1927, Nice, France) was an American dancer, innovator, founder of free dance.
a67aa17211e3264801e8215345dfcf53149a319c	There are few people in the world who will not agree with the statement that Isadora Duncan, without any doubt, was one of the most magnificent and beautiful dancers in the era of the late XIX — early XX century.
5f75bb66486b3c1d2883cec94584430478c9a2c7	It is she who is assigned the role of the founder of the so-called free or erotic dance.
e7603cba4666a17974f05f7d15cb6fc71db0839d	The daughter of a music teacher and a poet entangled in financial scams, who treacherously abandoned his wife with young children, Angela Duncan was born in San Francisco on May 26, 1877, when the prospects for the survival of the family were very vague.
edc37520e3b5508d4f8dc652e0ff28e4b152fb12	The mother and children were poor, they moved from place to place all the time in search of cheap housing, they starved - this is undoubtedly true.
1b671e3746c96569545870205999c6c9ab860443	Duncan writes that she is grateful to her mother for the music that was constantly playing in the house, and poverty, because she enjoyed such boundless freedom, which children from prosperous bourgeois families do not even suspect.
d1bc2b02e19920222184d9ab3c869ee7495389ce	The praise of hungry freedom sounds too enthusiastic - the dancer tried to raise her own children in luxury, comfort and bliss.
a91dfc4dd5db9d0fd9c13ce15f2e69ae9979f0f1	Students, too: it is known that Duncan spent the money earned on the tour on the arrangement of her dance schools - both in the prosperous Grunewald and in post-revolutionary Russia, it was important for her that children absorbed her philosophy of movement in beautiful interiors, so that they were fed and healthy.
e1c963f5c43b854aab01d6a48bddf1e984c22d28	It should be noted that the ideals of freedom, which Duncan tirelessly preaches, also go against traditional notions of decency: not a single lover became her husband (with the exception of Sergei Yesenin), and all her children were born out of wedlock and from different men.
ec4d2adde51b38384ca4cc3f754fe427392a893e	(She gave birth to the third child, who died in infancy, after the tragic death of her son and daughter, literally asking the first person she met to "give her a child".)
34f8940f008ba1790d6ab65c86562351be304cd9	At the age of 29, Isadora met the theater director and director Gordon Craig, from whom she gave birth to her first child — daughter Deirdre.
921eb0daa59e57a027bd2942b0490bd90288e3e7	Some time later, Isadora and Gordon broke up due to the latter's fault, since he refused to marry her and preferred marriage with his previously beloved Elena.
9527767c7f973147de3e5434d8dc1bd71a9d3a35	Craig admired Isadora and appreciated her highly
cccf5ce75e11c07b70809a1cdc2bcc6cca243ecb	Duncan was able to learn and draw lessons even from seemingly completely didactic situations.
ac127755e10ab42f2cf65775f729af6280ccce51	After experiencing a very difficult birth, she swore that she would not allow such barbarism again.
cdbab7befa4152d2b43cf4e89f3d4d66b9e3a95e	Her second child, son Patrick, whose father was the heir to the Singer empire, was received by an experienced doctor who used anesthesia.
6a231954d78b92bd756856ceab460aa66820a396	Duncan publicly stated that a modern woman should not give birth in pain - a challenge to Christian morality and a completely revolutionary declaration at that time.
1f19f7770328b6f3626f7e9a570d9e871379bab4	It was not difficult for Isadora herself to follow the declaration thanks to the money of Paris Eugene Singer, whom she calls a good knight, savior and Lohengrin in her memoirs.
7c76dabd051c758617cdff01e7c6ee0f2ff0cf52	Children, Duncan writes, made her really happy, and her body perfect.
0a389a9b10b0ab83490aa8cbb01d859fc56c80fa	The most touching and heartfelt lines in the dancer's memoirs are dedicated to children and the joys of motherhood.
399c0b1efd350b4b6300235a36f5395bf1725bd7	Isadora Duncan's Russian tour at the beginning of the twentieth century stirred up society not only with an unusual kind of dancer, her dance philosophy proved to be very fruitful for the search for Russian artistic thought.
b92dad46ca10f82d1013c3c443f160ed382cb464	Isadora Duncan crossed out all the conventions of the classical school, removing pointe shoes from the ballerina and offering to feel the energy of the stage with her bare feet.
6fecf6f5da635f2ee03fbe1f2264ebcfbb1f7a0f	She refused the tutu, put on a tunic: the body, not clamped in a corset, breathes, lives, dances.
e72576aec221ff2cac347b81df2b0befc3e2947e	Classical ballet generates mechanical, artificial movements, a memorized combination of poses and movements, even very beautiful and verified, closes the soul.
1b5b1e971bc9510cf24d437cde66ac93ddb7045a	And you need to dance with your soul and soul.
bf3dcccd96cdb37e1625cc19709a848fdd099f62	It is the human body that is able to catch and transmit the breeze, the mutiny of sea waves, thunderclaps and the radiance of the sun.
d61c814462c63ff10e22ab09fec4dd79e58e8f56	A person in a dance is a continuation of the existence of nature, in all its greatness and smallest manifestations.
4935dec1b7f0586bc3d4e33a827f5060360baf5c	Isadora Duncan considered dance art to be generally available.
7d1ce8b3419613490ecebf1506f0cd7dd48a5bce	She promoted the development of mass schools where children, learning to dance, would learn the beauty of their body movements.
755c3a38fe5b24474d10e319baabc30305dbc5db	She opened such schools in Berlin, Paris, Greece, and America.
6a3cf5d003ff73664774cc49b9bf6dbe0f443af6	The first performance of Duncan in Moscow took place on November 7, 1921 on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater on the day of the celebration of the fourth anniversary of October.
14fef9d4a7d4884f9ac75824ee57f512126e829f	The poets of the Silver Age inscribed her art into their aesthetics and admired the ability to convey music with movement, applauded the sensuality of her dances and her nakedness
f6c12a1dfab9162a9c30eb021eb0c0306c4f6ac2	Maximilian Voloshin, the author of the first review of Duncan's performance in the Russian press, stated that she " dances everything that other people say, sing, write, play and draw.
da92459d41420c15b9f9492bd7c375e818b2fd76	The reviewer saw in her dances a deep poetic and philosophical meaning, almost the exercise of a religious cult
3b6f244b208b21ebbfc9f1984dcddecdc8db42da	Andrey Bely went even further in raptures: "It is about the unspeakable. There was a dawn in her smile. In the movements of the body - the aroma of a green meadow. The folds of the tunic, like a murmur, beat with foam streams, when she gave herself up to a free and pure dance."
b8f5f65b7e5699fb7419bd90f8104749e67ecdf1	A thin, widely educated cultural historian, philosopher, essayist and propagandist of the aesthetics of modernism, critic Akim Volynsky wrote about the Duncan dance as "the transformation of music into a visual impression".
cd42ff5096967a4a0fc142b1ddd4f3501a21439c	The performances of the dancer, which caused delight among some, irritated others.
5e67e2173948f827df4e4639688538512fb3a8a8	It cannot be said that those who saw in her only a half-naked lady, jumping around the stage without any sense, were ignorant savages, insensitive to beauty.
2b2c1c4c822aa91033f8bee1fa1305722028dd1d	The famous conductor Alexander Ziloti called Isadora's dances primitive and did not find any correspondence between music and movements:
431fee1ed733f2e2835040c801e70ee08dd9e176	It is known that she indignantly rejected the academic school, exhausting ballet classes, not to mention the ballet "eversion" of the leg and pointe shoes.
080e6c555cfb94989406de68a7e88d78e90b24fd	Her goal was to find a "source of spiritual expression".
b1666bb4c4f271e7e4c02e60bc27db58fe3e3bf8	However, when Duncan theorizes, she is carried away to such exorbitant distances that it is quite difficult to reach a clear meaning.
d479a7c00dec46c14b21c168bfde8e9e778da82b	The" source of spiritual expression "that Isadora found in her soul was bound to" flow into the bodily channels, filling them with vibrating light."
1d89e9459723b49031e79e7583f554150f757ea7	There were no refined or special means of expression in the arsenal of the dancer: a step, light running, low jumps, free batmans with a slight rise of the leg, expressive poses and gestures.
2c54ae378ef1dec120b5967b581b91302c3b99ca	A strong impression was created by herself, her perfect body (the translucent fluttering tunic did not hide anything), light and beautiful music - Brahms, Gluck, Schumann, Schubert, Mendelssohn and, of course, Chopin, who was played so much by his mother as a child.
6a18cde2cef8034fe33a3e21b32f39c77caee246	All contemporaries also note that there was some special magnetism in her movements.
a60c290a9f9c32382419b03ffbabae25ee1366bf	Here is how the first meeting with the artist is described by her translator and secretary, the observant and intelligent Lola Kinel: "A plump, middle-aged woman in a salmon-colored negligee was gracefully reclining on a couch.
b212efc195636c0dd03603c11e6fecfb1ae00b96	Duncan felt her own vocation very early, starting to dance before walking:
7c7162f4012a4b008568e81d3e837b23b5148dd7	And already at the age of six, Dora gathered neighborhood children and taught them to improvise to music - so the idea of her schools was born.
acb8b850dd2513f17224c28486700375984a8402	Even now, there are many myths about the Duncan dance, - they were analyzed by the dancer and teacher Valerie Dernham, one of the organizers of the symposium.
6f5d113507f52c3d71a9f12118f5a83311edd4d6	For example, it is believed that it is so simple that everyone can perform it almost without preparation, that Isadora's dances are not "staged", but simply improvised by her on stage, that when she died, her dance died with her…
4b73cf5e654b58e1c3146eb11e683528bb37f2e5	All professional duncanists are well aware of the absurdity of these statements, they know how difficult it is to master this technique and that Duncan dance is not just a historical heritage that needs to be preserved, but also a living, modern and to this day very expressive art form.
9872560645fc1e339387748fcc1c8df76ca7ec3c	She had students (she organized dance schools in America, Germany, France, Greece, Russia), there were imitators and followers, but there is no Isadora herself.
92bb1dc7b03e196594018f8575a0e8f9e066c7de	It is impossible to perform the Duncan dance badly - it simply will not be.
b8b0a077a37f5d357a4c7cca37796e5540476daf	Today, new opportunities for Duncan's choreography are also opening up.
18727abbb5c53d34dcf1c7b8c3bc6d8ebcbb5680	The body and the psyche are interconnected, and individual changes in the emotional or mental sphere cause changes in all these areas.
f8e7845c26bbf602fbe376418c1fe2271765a3b5	In the course of classes on the Duncan system, children and adolescents gradually begin to release their breath, liberate the body and soon literally blossom.
b8cc67103a50de17c1a96e4d8f9ffc691e848bf4	The main advantage of the method is that fluency in the musculoskeletal system becomes an instrument for the harmonization of personality.
67abfc7ac1dbe7c469a5f967ed2242e129e05072	In 1921, the People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR Lunacharsky officially offered Duncan to open a dance school in Moscow, promising financial support
608a06763a91b91a650de82aff9adaab637287c3	Duncan was full of bright plans for life and creativity in the new, free from prejudice and rejecting all the old Bolshevik country: "While the steamer was leaving for the north, I looked back with contempt and pity at all the old institutions and customs of bourgeois Europe that I was leaving.
3f628627bf550a9cefd8bd199ebc5d6173bf4500	Despite government support, in post-revolutionary Russia, Duncan faced severe domestic problems, such as hunger, lack of heating.
132752196f10a7b9a0f085ca45a7714cba86a060	In the capital of Russia, she met the great poet Sergei Yesenin for the first time.
5b1241876b9b0ef88d9cb4b7a49dce8026a10423	Sergey Yesenin was already considered a national poet by that time.
c94a7ffdf4e261316c9b5859dcabfd8b6532b8cf	In his incomplete 26, he also had a "stormy" biography: at the age of 18, he became a father for the first time (the poet was not married at that time), and a few years later he had two more children — already in an official marriage.
b2b9f0dba773e17b43cf04669bfa91675341fa07	According to the memoirs of contemporaries, from the very first meeting, Yesenin and Duncan behaved as if they had known each other for a long time.
2922d5802f825837c1fbc8b1ef70cf3b3d01dd7a	When the world dance star appeared at the party of the artist Georges (George) Yakulov in a flowing red chiton, Yesenin immediately surrounded her with attention.
b89fc2bddc757d421aff07c8524d3a38049876aa	According to one of the journalists, soon Isadora was already lying on the sofa, and the poet was kneeling next to her.
5459321d9c857839b8de43e53a301ab1804755df	She stroked his hair and spoke in broken Russian: "For la taya ga la va...".
5c12d204e7758659d0277c828a4817f4a1146ac3	All her communication with the temperamental stranger that evening was limited to these words:" Patched galava"," Angel "and"Tchort".
5e8b1d605b1102933614e37a84fd3281dc8e111c	At the same time, the dancer kissed him for the first time — and soon Yesenin moved into her mansion on Prechistenka.
483c3b5df4663f5e88fcf957d8a7e4d05aac6c4e	Neither the language barrier nor the significant age difference stopped them.
ec4d4b5521a3bc355d97ec73e7d6bbf82621ebd4	A year later, in 1922, Yesenin and Duncan officially became spouses.
c4daf4a54f58411c34c7e06e7fbfc7c9ee239f38	According to Duncan's secretary and translator, on the eve of the ceremony, she asked him to slightly correct the date of birth in her passport.
04574df9c6671958977b284d9f15783f0197e8c7	But the famous Russian poet constantly suffered from the fact that he was perceived not as a literary person, but only as the wife of the great Isadora Duncan.
602057b8c3ad16764498ab744e946b097ecff7f7	Isadora had to go on tour-first to Western Europe, and then to the States.
437892444d64dbf94f394cee1c54c209f4b8d931	Yesenin accompanied his wife everywhere
a6ae83c67696a45ad2dd797b69b4d2bc3d0c731c	However, the trip did not work out: it turned out that abroad everyone perceived the poet only as an "appendix" to the incomparable Duncan, although at home he was almost idolized.
84d8b6d2c6f03ad3097e2eda73e2b55929e1f126	Quarrels and scandals arose more and more often — once Isadora called the police to calm the brawler.
532eeb89b77f24c7910c819781623bab1d25cd13	Apparently, the poet's ardent love began to fade — he allowed himself to speak unflatteringly about his wife, for example, he could complain to friends: "Here it sticks, it sticks like molasses!"
9510ffa76db13e95a154e8e17e48e07b9bea236d	In 1923, a little more than a year after the wedding, the couple returned to Moscow.
31257eb8d74f5e10deb98deb4218db503c02b153	By that time, the relationship had already become very tense, and a month later Isadora left the Union-this time alone.
186b544ed776a1cb6fb5b4eec3350310087f3f19	Soon she received a telegram: "I love someone else. Married. Happy. Yesenin".
3ebcd3d4b7989757088ab055e016b1e4f2330cd7	It was about Galina Benislavskaya — the woman with whom he lived before meeting Duncan and with whom he settled immediately after his return.
bfa9f50d2ac0254b419d2b90fb6dc68936a9c32a	True, Yesenin never married Benislavskaya — but Isadora did not know this.
71aeacb812b884bfeb512c5c2674d9de051e18ef	Isadora played a disastrous role in the life of Sergei Alexandrovich.
57775ff4ecc8d57dc8c50f398f6effb22837a145	Isadora tried in every possible way to promote her husband as a poet - she managed to organize the translation and publication of his poems, she arranged poetry readings, but Yesenin was perceived here only as a nice addition, almost as a toy of a famous dancer.
e0169ec6e7ddc7f539bc42d9e2b65c50ba1f09a6	The proud Yesenin suffered, felt total loneliness, uselessness, which made him ill with depression.
91f0def2074ff58461da44c6aa7d2c2c72e8077a	He drank more and more often and arranged scandals, thus still getting on the front pages of American newspapers, but, again, as the eccentric husband of the incomparable, great Isadora.
adf876aa1b2bd911872fb77ddc32c1861703b862	And from his fateful wedding trip to Europe and the two Americas (damn it, this is a wedding trip!) he returned to Moscow in 1923 - broken"
9675695485854211224689ae062886b5c8ff8e62	Two years after the separation, Sergei Yesenin hanged himself in the Angleterre Hotel, and a year and a half later, Isadora also died from strangulation, her long scarf fell into the axle of a car wheel on the move, and the noose tightened.
ba6b0cc61b2f007194382247d65b731bfbdf929c	Translator Lola Kinel notes in her memoirs that Isadora preferred cars of all means of transportation.
4c41cb51051ac79ee5cc62bd8b55d40b78295072	It's so gorgeous-a speeding car, and in it a beautiful woman with a scarlet scarf fluttering in the wind!
cff5c8e9dc94ce2e63fb153da8b5b78c4be88b64	Scarves, like speed, were her passion, with them she danced her most famous compositions.
c88a0c8561604afc58e7d8039dbd16479b93619d	On September 14, 1927, at the peak of her fame, the dancer was supposed to perform a concert in Nice.
68178f0007346b1a6f22ecf15cb1d1a74545df51	The legend, which became known later, says that a moment before getting into the car, Isadora exclaimed to her fans: "Goodbye, friends! I'm going to glory!"
00cd014619c0854e674b5b9028754b34ed2f25e3	Neither he nor the dancer noticed that the long red scarf wrapped around her neck had hit the axle of the rear wheel.
3452eeb49465ba42f0e79b01dfdcc183ea1ab3a0	Taking a drag, he literally strangled her.
78ba7912c3cbcea32cb25941969a5cc6240be594	So tragically ended the life of a great actress and a beautiful woman who was the idol of millions of people, but never experienced real happiness!
c821a1276f60b123019ac99e800f9e2585ba79d2	Many contemporaries described this death, so theatrical, in the taste of Isadora.
4d36d5d2d1937f462832fb3ea5a077effee43848	She once said: "The whole paradise on earth.
78187468ceadae437d5eb05e9bd0e3464e638ccd	And all hell too"
febbb9d555d230292aa985752d1ae9f5592ee784	Duncan's earthly hell is over, and whether there is a heavenly paradise is unknown.
74c55d658256bcc3b55c818f5fd78bb8ee5d86e1	The body of the great actress was cremated, and the ashes were buried at the Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris.
489582603b9f4ff004b7971400dd8f27e05a7dee	Until her death, she said: "As soon as I saw his blue eyes, I had the only feeling - maternal"
92c16150c44c5cf4575b5480495c80ae67542fff	To rock him to rest - her little golden-haired child.
31f4e7e873dddbd5509fee4f7d72c911a82b6a1e	The main thing that the famous priestess of love and the actress sought was to draw the attention of the young spouse
7d0230c2b3abf3a7546fe2e5926933d1683c40d2	And only then, after enjoying his attacks of "Russian love", as she called it, accompanied by fence swearing and kicks, she tamed her anger with a caress.
0c48d979cea6931bd8b31d68c666f73d04304c15	Then she kissed his heels voluptuously, then she put him to sleep in her mother's arms.
1a33e5c490ab6a582bdcf05b2b686243012d9349	He was rushing, trying to outrun his shadow.
cd5c7f9645cbbf8e4ff71e6c1e4739d30d87707b	He stubbornly raced in pursuit of a ghost, not realizing that he was dreaming of a ghost
9e2a255373e6612480a65058acda870b9e42fb73	Duncan tried to resurrect her dead children in Yesenin.
2f2a6aaec1e5435e22068d92b57ba2135869f7ee	Then it becomes clear why he pushed her away with his boot, and she pressed even more gently against his knees.
5a3ff479d048e53eea54d0b0a180626e4104d6cf	Duncan was not just an artist and a dancer.
f38489afb67fd37730fabff93eccae02ee4f99a6	Her aspirations went much further than just improving her performing skills.
94cd226ea7c818007606f66d9fb477604e6d31cb	She, like her like-minded women, dreamed of creating a new person for whom dancing would be more than a natural thing.
72c05f3ffc39f4d071bfc9f509b3824ce1542519	Nietzsche had a special influence on Duncan, as well as on her entire generation.
f7675f0724c761f4c464275cb2cd2d75df7d916d	In response to his philosophy, Duncan wrote the book "The Dance of the Future"
c80f12fb1e189984e0e3abaa3c34d2644f48a1ad	Like Zarathustra in Nietzsche, the people described in the book saw themselves as prophets of the future.
b588d3fe10d7871458cc660ea6cce57b872bb1bb	Duncan wrote that the new woman will reach a new intellectual and physical level
a85301b9eb4f9d823c597ec7b449fdbbf6b5e004	Duncan emphasized that dance should be a natural continuation of human movement, reflect the emotions and character of the performer, the impulse for the appearance of dance should be the language of the soul.
37a55dde412edf7e6af7c6b572d4730fa6c3d54f	Her system did not require grueling and harsh training
4b04b11a509fd06fcd53faaca3cc50005d19f9bf	The magic, apparently, was hidden in a deep penetration into the music, an emotional transfer of the state.
e32ef6338096d131e3dbfbc65622abc626802261	Her intuitive understanding of music was amazing.
b34f9149978f7750bac06a8f69fe3b4134855a22	It used to happen that the composers before whom she danced their music admitted that this was how they presented their works.
7d175aef49bbaa6d028b21bb3f731ee6ac742518	Her dances were born from seeing a flowing river and from reading a poem, from works of art and observing the rhythm of an incoming wave.
14c451284dd2ce881241cea68f26a062378bf553	She always performed in a simple tunic like a Greek one, which she often wore in everyday life.
a28b0b6ec8f55368ce486e763d2c3b0da0a7626c	Having achieved the fame desired in any country, she could continue her triumphant performances.
e184769828a9c348b5ffb601ff741396ad796597	But Isadora was obsessed with the idea of school and a huge ensemble dancing Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
133e41bb156a8aa5b7dc993f142201f004f65fd9	During the dance, she never touched the edge of her dress with her fingers.
393dbab585dde44147f087c7d671cb4a85e4e741	This is a long, almost to the ground, very wide garment, although also made of the finest material - in everything, like the ancients, in their excessively hot climate
67a90d428e511b02213339df0ca037c60b1203bf	So, she never took even a fold of clothing with her fingertips , and did not lead it to the side, did not pull it, did not lift it.
79e74f6acc0f2610159aaa7de73fa9b8d6ded57a	This "itching of the hands" around "her dress" and more often around "her skirts" - which is so inherent in a new woman in everyday life, on stage, everywhere-she never showed up.
5da885c65b69257aa968180b8801969ba41a6592	The dress lay on her almost as if thrown on a chair, motionless, not causing any attention to itself.
c72e8296086521f4db9ab8e7e947559a2a077f37	She did not feel her dress, and psychologically, it was as if she had no clothes at all: she had no positive or negative attitude towards it.
4d4e3053fc787d8bee3d0a738e826f9d2a497ea7	Small cuts of Duncan's chiton flew apart, she precisely covered the rays with her legs, slightly rounding them in motion, and threw them very high, almost above her stomach.
efef2d48fcca255a94b6d96b7dfad5c3d2937616	Everything became rough, strong, with terrible energy - and the thighs, very beautiful, were exposed in their entirety, almost to the croup.
6a7736ee8772572365d0a38a2fdf8b99b041691e	But there was nothing "deliberate", everything was in relation to the Sun…
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aad61f1d9351d813ca40a1c46d64eef6600bb621	"AIF.
83cf7924ec89db2fbb064b4d5caa1696ec3342d5	A kind heart"
48d0f928a59c4738d1c0ca0e16cd9e9bb87205c4	The hell of Beslan.
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16fbddfd4a349565d152dee5355b354af5fff8ed	The war in Ukraine
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599895a2df336569cc6b42704bad586aba40a889	"Fair Russia" began collecting signatures for the resignation of the Cabinet of Ministers
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d447d1daa7efe6b0440d9a0a75ce2bb844437f50	Putin would have won the elections if they were held next weekend — Mass media
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9e434fbc18017b851fbe8eda491f202f583e9d7a	2389
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89d4fb2873cccc17b83d5d2cc69c22fc703690c3	2188
88a2eddba6f794225dfe8a05d5281230c3c75c8d	Oksana Dmitrieva: the crisis will not resolve itself!
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47a1329c9fab7fc6431416b27b93ad9a297ef9d1	The tragedy of Sasha "Garbo".
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9e2553b4729960d0efbeec435882668ffd0dff70	2143
5000ed9e50621f3eb8e6f5512e400087010d484d	Annie Leibovitz and others.
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114d4eefde1dae3983e7a79f04c72feb9a3a7efd	126
35bad877c33007855ca2271ca36176ee5baa5be0	A German hairdresser has put up a lock of John Lennon's hair for auction
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6349d132f0b6212ae25ae4f348d98a09454a17b6	The captain of the Russian national football team Shirokov signed a contract with CSKA
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903b70c83d70a214393b20810afe146bae998c25	The" horse "was the" horse " remained!
2786d514b51533313632f5ea360aabbcd1eb2940	Roman Shirokov returns to CSKA
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b06a002752d15521e31f731bb2765dae63c4e039	Isinbayeva, Arshavin, Plushenko.
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6df29a0769e84af53cc4f71a6017fcf41ad0148d	1271
90a64105c5c092b83e7b277cf5540b935e8691ac	Curd carrot tenderness.
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89da3d8a3c24dbd3e5e96f7f3896866f5e5eb878	926
2551f329bf332ca1ea6a1ddc2e0f8c872896d8f1	Care - for our money?
91409f3e1006d627ab76b6689938976672b64dc1	Why do they want to raise the tax on harmful products
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369d20710bfe80c0b51fe11c11bd1eb737048b14	Vitamins, on the table!
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c747a57bf4405fbce591c994e928b00521f260e3	1891
b179d526fdaa8b906f71cada491cf475d2f571b5	Pancake day.
4fe5d4c9d24542e4d82a5569824f985d004b286c	We bake Irish and German tortillas
2134834173800a88be598393763c66c179d793a1	591
aeb72b5804da356163ba036b04540a9f9cf3f398	For a rose in the cold.
eab55b1d90c30de1931f8debe8dfb8075489790d	Is it worth buying seedlings in February
e0f34ffa3c10d2940937a2d499db16c5e72f5d58	1986
5ec61e37cbd7fd3633a2b33fbba292af0813f4d9	Mandatory contributions.
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7f1006ea6667ac23f7b51d80926c2c741f98f0e3	6434
8ed5199e3c6cdfd3739f3697decdc4c43da00d3f	Are they not growing?
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f66f54eac0df5ff4a41d735d9c3a0c76ffcdb6b4	Preservation of wealth.
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6c8e459f96d9cf05e1fac5432df1066b42609e52	1054
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451d7aa8a0044a50448dc187cb38865ed2670173	Why does nausea occur
c6944467da0c65a08c39bb5a0314cc143936eaa3	1261
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cde51585f2fe2beb601c24a05d2eaf66e765ec55	958
26f1dbff3498e53b801b89e95cd50b1a64904156	Protein as a medicine.
482625ac7bf3d73e43399b8572336598b5bc8dc6	What products will help to cure the flu faster
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09b34e8d87747fec93856e3c350459b1b880d324	2466
4ac424f559ed2b0330f0e02ada3513f5fbdd1472	"X" - the future: Lada XRAY test drive
6822cc28f97f30d8b3b85b3cf3a20719cbd597ec	2683
1a25e772fc39a372889cf98dedfa76925b844a45	The traffic police called the most "emergency" day of the week
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2fb0a33639a57eee369b77d68520cd3e7ceb82ae	Mazda recalls 237 thousand cars from the US market
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8a32000ccc653dc683f1e8abb5d972bd730f7aea	Sobyanin: Khovrino metro station will become part of a large TPU in Moscow
d0e2dbb0bac1917d360aaf52c01a2a4b669e8cdb	117
c6ff230cf0ef3d56f34b4744f64d5de2f31a0e9e	The melting effect.
4920c073c7f4d7bb8ecbfa8746a05a3963d11704	How to beat the ice
c1aa04bf421e5b38c3d18933e9994d3f289def65	172
83c433013a2d442b62aa5648e417aedccb6e7931	"Arkhnadzor" supported the demolition of a self construction building in the capital
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5f1cd7c3fb68ae7c679f8c33966610670d32ff1e	205
140a82cb3e7b27ff523d1175d466eb3416f22d0b	Sobyanin: Moscow maintains high rates of restoration of historical monuments
5753ab09dc6327a1a842ace14c04a539f32e3a30	862
53c9e68f6ba4ebfd16235bf6b6f9747c1a28730a	Here you are!
de8627f75ba1abcfafd00a0e75ad189105cfdc21	745
a092a6677f3d85c2dd416d7b041781877195d91b	Is Iran ours?
128731af97bca2c9bf197514b558078bc5077d59	6369
a7eec4dea77b45cda1693a994e2080fb072aa881	Save an ordinary womanizer.
fbf2aee359e8eec9ba9a297337fa94888bf6199a	Russian sex in European politics
dfe0668e575ef1a5e8fb3744f03d4789dfa07ed6	22868
5ce37f0aaed048e1ca0e54d8eec7a7ddea834318	Ukraine in Minsk is working for the Donbass department
0e65bd96a64745948d08a23b27840f75152709c6	Movie
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4a7fdd8c17425252332ea0e89a35722b72d83135	Books
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bb1c69693ff2dbe60878f205b974e0e67fe71e0e	Where to go
f26c677d206dd813d63591beb22113eee3715527	Galleries
9e11fe9830ac0994736ba1c711d1bf9e93dfb8f4	Current classics
4fdb05083049aedcce5793d70fd8531e417f2245	00:06 02/05/2014
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9efcf91198f5885a0739ff5f518192f8b7aa66de	1 42784
dedacfe9ef53029e0b0248a360d4b6bd7a0be572	A love story: Sergey Yesenin and Isadora Duncan
10f341f0e04765076d635753e197f62f2cca2653	All materials of the plot
063e50172b30fb316f275a313d266b0874c6e327	Great love Stories
b48f8f64fb9611d0635de401125329477990f1b1	On May 2, 1922, the poet Sergei Yesenin and the world famous dancer Isadora Duncan became husband and wife.
a7e889e42f690a53cf43537935d0fe8c20a202ae	АиФ.ги he tells a tragic love story, in which there were scandals, jealousy, and an 18 year age difference, and even physical abuse.
d81921dcae5b8003d84a02fb868298358666be8c	Sergei Yesenin and Isadora Duncan, 1923.
5469874bedbe1a2beb259bb979e275c572a815ca	© /
56e5427663274939e8a483371c1dd29e35cea749	Commons.wikimedia.org
19dd542a8bbb1598fa1a40ed73e3bc1f6651cf7c	Sergey Yesenin did not recognize any other language except his native one.
4dd191cc88aee090bb00d542d5a35fd74ace376d	Isadora Duncan spoke only English.
ee36f773bad24b1a80d010de87a4a9fe644da049	Her Russian vocabulary was limited to about two dozen words — but this was enough for the poet and the dancer to get married and travel all over the world.
6ee08dd9b5d91d5111cd81db36c76f17eb58084a	The Tragedies of Duncan
ceaa39f360d5c91d9f4dddf5554d8f22bebdb704	Sergey Yesenin and Isadora Duncan. 1922.
c6c79ce99542ec66f917fd754b3f22b9c879640e	Photo: RIA Novosti
d59bb6e3ea95b6823a2acb53abbf1e4644a123d7	Isadora Duncan's style of dancing without pointe shoes, tutu and corset, and barefoot, in a light Greek chiton — made a real revolution in choreography.
656aa516c74f6f4d64fc3e9f07a49b1660467e4a	The dancer was called "divine sandals" and adopted her plastic, and at fashionable parties the girls tried to move like Duncan.
bbf5a46c98ce390ea83cc3007ce611e40108cb94	She is considered the founder of modern dance, but few people know that the creative life of the "divine sandals" was much happier than her personal life.
b83556a5e124b567b116e7098a7c2558c9b29566	A staunch feminist, Duncan vowed never to marry, and by the age of 44, she had several unsuccessful novels under her belt.
12b6747406ca7ce0fc93f4d9c925fb630bf359eb	The dancer gave birth to children out of wedlock three times, but they all died.
5e7289c00612d5268035ae52ac00d858cf8a0602	First there was a terrible car accident: the car, in which the older boy and girl were, fell from the bridge into the Seine and drowned, burying the children and the governess with it.
3f0b1c78de778d6443591922e1bcb420dc96cdee	The doors jammed — none of the passengers could not get out of the deadly trap.
8da09cadfc2cd579e6b1b3d564bcae5fb975e58d	The tragedy shocked the whole of Paris, but at the trial Duncan interceded for the driver because he was a family man.
c1572eee4be58898d9e9c6d885e3e8024f5faac4	After some time, Isadora decided to become a mother again.
f5e2692015af59e5f64448276379a42146660115	She gave birth to a son, but he lived only a few hours.
d7f91542644d968217cf4077bed8e9659d848197	After another tragedy, the dancer never had children again: all her time was now occupied by dancing and teaching — Duncan taught choreography to girls.
b23514e6a0fa1aad7580a51a83e5207e83a21e54	Therefore, when she received a telegram from the People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky with an invitation to come to the Soviet Union and establish her own school there, Duncan was surprised, but agreed.
df7510b10ef49de9a9e38a298a9d05d7d4990aad	Sailing to Moscow, the dancer met a fortune teller on a steamer — she promised a red haired passenger a wedding in a foreign country.
1d400bbb07046e5af432df136646a8ee9a3e1ada	Isadora, wise with a difficult life experience, only laughed.
06760e2f397aefcb16f01a41fceb22846e626263	"Za la taya ga la va"
0a3263ac27cfccc7f98a010dc19b837766674414	A divine sandal.
7bebf07e67c95eb5b61620314674e966b0c3c2af	Isadora Duncan never intended to get married
99f3fda5fad9040a58f8cd2ed0c318ab7f015d3a	Does he beat you does he love you?
5c86156b0c10c16f8c4915ecbfa5414e471b3b81	After some time, Duncan realized that her creative career in the Soviet Union was not developing very successfully.
2d270634bc03ba5f816218790cce86f20ba27236	The dancer decided to return home to America.
5d82029e3fe533458d2b91059afd66f816ea5497	She wanted to take her "golden headed" lover with her, but there could be problems with a visa for him.
f305b1483484b3c8b1ad57b34de5fa71e0dd784d	And then Isadora (as Yesenin called her) retreated from her main principle: the couple got married.
7d3a8d51d99628d39ad43b0bbffb822e14b1bad2	It happened six months after we met.
04b2e1ad7e084d4e799769ebe0b6e5dbd2ecb249	A love story: Pablo Picasso and Jacqueline Rock
6d34b20f5289b349860c5be178d0740cc56fab98	The newly made spouses signed in the Khamovnichesky registry office of Moscow.
47315710bb6ff2fb7551e6e897c34659515a0b99	"This is for Yezenin," she replied.
791251bd467a8c697f5681b3ca1a1ea5a5eeba76	— We do not feel these fifteen years of difference, but it is written here... and tomorrow we will give the passports into someone else's hands... it may be unpleasant for him… I will soon not need a passport.
b5ddb2ee776dfe8a8a681d0a52161dd76a142989	I will get another one" (ed. — the age difference between the spouses was not 15, but 18 years).
506762b27745ac5784c849f23e5dfefadd32838d	And the translator agreed.
c6b895afafee3d88c22be5d055d1b7a2098b0345	So the poet's wife became a woman "only" 9 years older.
854ed30653b03e1a3dbad811058831e15eaad84c	However, the family life of the Yesenins Duncan couple (and both spouses took a double surname) was not cloudless.
a8dac658b26ddda765c25c2a68abc1ea634d1c4d	Soon, the poet, who was addicted to alcohol, "woke up" his stormy character: he began to get jealous, beat Isadora and leave the house, taking all his things.
4787ff54ece165970cfa7bfb90dc1bff6b606afe	However, he soon returned — and everything began anew.
82f8c50c7489676cadbbc5001c9b8ce86520237c	Duncan forgave him every time.
30c491b0e99f29ee74d4b9784529a92c0d2e4fd8	Isadora Duncan's Russian husband
ef24986dd84993c7018a58e9650fc62f83dc0985	Sergey Yesenin and the dancer Isadora Duncan. 1922.
8866d5dbe544eacffa0e29b400ec4f79d0899f5f	The couple signed on May 2, 1922 and left the Union in the same month.
7a349038700b8eec8202df3e4ecbf79c03be863b	Isadora had to go on tour first to Western Europe, and then to the States.
8c3cadb535bd7335d5f34db45ef9c5dce75c6e9a	Yesenin accompanied his wife everywhere However, the trip did not work out: it turned out that abroad everyone perceived the poet only as an "appendix" to the incomparable Duncan, although at home he was almost idolized.
f6ff3bc6a16176c65c2c4252aa02ef6f74876bc6	By that time, the relationship had already become very tense, and a month later Isadora left the Union this time alone.
358056ed9ccecf12a0d1b1c5d1dc03a00f035a41	Soon she received a telegram: "I love someone else.
94f393b94aceb63d9c5da8cec2939e494fc9b022	Married.
27f85a2ac25644c67b68c8a8642925c3e074825c	Happy.
8bec7bc914a6e4eebee22d20df9ae666ff8955ba	Yesenin".
1925da625c1a22c965fd06c54839731e6c49c674	This is how this complicated and complicated love story ended.
23d2596a3bab7346aef3acb863e8d83dbee1890e	Isadora Duncan never allowed herself a single bad word about her only husband.
33a4be05152408b145c02e36b201950dc88188f6	Two years after the separation, Sergei Yesenin hanged himself — but during this time he managed to become a father again and marry again.
deef10846dc2ab761b92d2670fffa131e6bcef41	A year and a half after the poet's death, Isadora also passed away.
b694e4721136c238b3c3ca93bcc8cde295afa422	She was riding a convertible in a long fluttering scarf, the edge of which accidentally hit the axle of the wheel.
400ececf87e6e57792f844f82444644b5b836d69	Like her children, Duncan died as a result of a car accident, and, as in the case of her beloved Yesenin, the cause of death was strangulation.
30e85205fb7c295c9f00a93511007047582c1080	A love story: Victor Hugo and Juliette Drouet
1b7928cf58d5402fc8aa959482a6fa73ca6d8747	Lovers of Sergei Yesenin and Isadora Duncan
5e75921cdd2d998fe5e711bfb73767463ca154ae	Duncan
1221e133c4ca844e54e5e053a6719aaa47a04121	Oscar Take care.
9c610d954e5070a7af79771849ec3a25f264ef40	The first serious hobby of Isadora was the actor of the Royal National Theater Oscar Berezhi, but the romance did not last long — the artist preferred a career to his beloved.
06ab9bab1f34cfd97520bca1ccd795ca512be406	Edward Gordon Craig.
b721e1b651a381596088deaace08db121dbc09a1	From a modernist theater director, the dancer gave birth to a daughter, Derdr (in another version, Deirdre), in 1904.
5ab791398bc5a814d09a56a862d42965def0688c	But soon the couple broke up and Craig married another.
ee7f6dc6cbc419975be75e42b577bef51c60317e	Paris Eugene Singer.
d2167d11f7a829dcd523726465eefa1d744d8ba6	From the heir of the Singer company, which produces sewing machines, Duncan gave birth to a son, Patrick, in 1910.
e7c3e04422c54833c229ea64025c9ebd4c883798	Life together did not work out, but for many years the dancer and the manufacturer maintained a warm relationship.
d5e9ad193f57acc32855ed8203dbbd9c27c852fb	Irma Duncan (adopted daughter of a dancer), Isadora Duncan and Sergey Yesenin, 1922.
2129b1bc7631020c413cde3d2afd9c89b5f38523	Yesenin
20b57207817bf7c4e97a373301997f9af8b5944f	Anna Izryadnova.
0010f8852b97539d3f4958fdf76423c801733cce	Together with the proofreader Anna Izryadnova, the poet lived for several years, but the couple was not painted.
6f7307ab8c479d80dbbc9946ebf9c4ec10480e6d	In 1914, their son Yuri was born, but soon the couple broke up on the initiative of the newly made father.
fd961644226a74a84a5aea0d8d5fba981043d8d6	Love story: Fyodor Chaliapin and Iola Tornagi
18a773a916b2365286e09894281dc7c8da61e17d	Zinaida Reich.
0b7d0b5140f077ce56c45810126570072c6d3b3a	Yesenin was married to an actress of German origin in 1917.
00e5a85042d33beb589d9239933ccd3f8aa2f629	The couple had two children: a year after the wedding, a daughter, Tatiana, was born, and two more years later, a son, Konstantin.
f341604a09a88f150ae27b9a4baf4da7fe69434b	After another year, the couple divorced.
ebbe004406ebb22babf428b762461b7c7fa7ea2e	Galina Benislavskaya.
683108f0597348e5a74aa194f313d926895e9cca	Sergey Yesenin lived with a journalist and literary worker until he met Isadora Duncan.
b20bfa73bab1140e4991374e50b3e1228f460334	After the divorce from Duncan, the poet moved back to Benislavskaya, but it never came to the wedding.
025a72ea58e31f0d0ec4c74f9b5c99de143bb2c2	Yesenin broke off relations with the journalist twice, and after both times she ended up in a clinic for nervous disorders.
a63fa584eb851f5c9734f960866b69333af179ae	A year after the poet's death, Benislavskaya shot herself on his grave.
0ae1eaf79e80b735e0c216761048d0ad4b794159	Sofia Tolstaya.
a084038b225d10357343496364fd5d39d0c746f0	The granddaughter of Leo Tolstoy became the last wife of Yesenin.
67706011bcf0f399807fd852518681af91009a6a	The writer died a year after the wedding; they had no children.
9f7aee0d4b7f7e7ebd537342cac183e274930522	Sergey Yeseninaisedora Duncanistory of love
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2c4f2d50ac089ee5307e91ccfa6cfd4327dc50bb	Yesenin also had Volpin and her son Yesenin Volpin, a good mathematician, a logician, a democrat, a participant in all anti Soviet gatherings, where he jumped on a barrel and cursed the Soviet government.
ee033b183499c7a0608f735c16afbe1e1ad0a410	He was put in a mental hospital, and mathematicians asked the authorities to allow him to study mathematics in a madhouse.
5e8dca69020cc4412d0cf9cc127f5fab05ec214c	The authorities allowed it.
e8f4130ccc4d90702f987cd131a15121da136e42	He emigrated to the United States.
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7d67a541559952fb5fc5fe91aed52533a74be5ef	Art > Dance
5439ecaeda23edd89f60e3ef1388a33159841888	Isadora Duncan.
af53dd564c0038ed0eca674adfd381a441b95e6f	Promotion to the light Olga Klimova
75da5f967512e2ca73d1b330bb0667b6f6ad3fe6	I realized that in different parts of the world, due to conditions unknown to us, different people, in different fields, from different sides, are looking for the same next, naturally emerging creative principles in art. When they meet, they are struck by the commonality and kinship of their ideas.
3f8b7949ca2e3ddfb8e8ffe4eeaf6d4111f2a4e6	This is exactly what happened at the meeting I described [with Isadora Duncan]: we understood each other from half a word.
c396f77cfbc06bec6cc55a1c7308a2c75dc368a8	The soul plunges far into the depths of centuries when Isadora Duncan dances; back to the morning of the world, when the greatness of the soul found free expression in the beauty of the body, when the rhythm of movement corresponded to the rhythm of sound, when the movements of the human body were one with the wind and the sea, when the gesture of a woman's hand resembled the opening petals of a rose, her foot stepping on the turf was like a leaf falling to the ground.
d5a84cde666cebbb617599ed543eaa1d059dcef2	When all the fervor of religious faith, love, patriotism, sacrifice or passion found its expression to the sounds of a kithara, harp or tambourine, when men and women danced in front of their hearths and their gods in religious ecstasy, or in the woods or by the sea, because they were overwhelmed with the joy of life; every strong or positive impulse was transmitted from soul to body in absolute harmony with the rhythm of the universe.
189b343cac1620e9e0cb66d71aec61da047995f0	Mary Fenton Roberts
adc9b5da0ae815a8c00ea4491a0fe33754618a1a	Isadora dances everything that others say, sing, write, play and draw, she dances Beethoven's Seventh Symphony and the "Moonlight Sonata", she dances Botticelli's "Spring" and Horace's poems.
d4b60a69b8ebbe023c93110a059a7210dcd6b0c6	Maximilian Voloshin
2e20cef6b9dd72566bdbc86040037de5e9dabf6c	Give beauty, freedom and strength to children.
db3fc3f4f8a8cb4b13637e917ccbfae308c1fcf7	Give art to people who need it so much.
851ffec9dc52f6ffc6fb88a9daae6e27a97be0d7	Great music can no longer be used only for the delight of a small group of cultured people, it must be given free of charge to the masses; it is as necessary for them as air and bread, because it is the spiritual wine of humanity.
532b04991936688f6b8c3a3a1eaec094685f9724	Isadora Duncan
fec8be35b33e8fc27dfd6d54f5e9e3f6a7cff519	Would you believe me, I trembled with awe when I saw Isadora Duncan.
d715497d6a74a08e7f508a18c166478985e86e3b	Once in a century, a new idea comes, and here I was a spectator of the last one that was born.
98a3e37ea4dc1152414b51430731f3f80e713521	This is the beginning of a new era in art. Nothing can shake the soul like a dance.
a0fb59b1e01fbf7e6926916cfab85e629da30f3a	Some of her movements bring tears to her throat.
c0d3c2ad566360b618b680eeb344b2e6ae07884c	Titterton
d04458234411af9186a990a181176b8b12d25370	Isadora Duncan, whose name has long become synonymous with dance, was born in San Francisco on May 27, 1878.
629bb76f581703ff9dc8e55a1ba8ad47576d9982	Her mother, who was left alone with four children after the divorce, had to work a lot, so Isadora was left to herself from an early age.
01bc2ee68cd97594ff0bc3100d16b704818652bc	In her memoirs about her childhood, she thanks fate for the poverty of their family, which allowed the children to lead a free, unrestrained life, close to nature: "...it is to this circumstance that I owe the inspiration that led to the creation of my dance."
982ede4f9a4b3d677ee16886de40c1ac9f22d3af	Thanks to her mother, the entire childhood of the future dancer was permeated with music and poetry.
87664f23001cc879d30f2da1379cdf18a718f92b	In the evenings, Mrs. Duncan sat at the piano and played Beethoven, Schumann, Schubert, Mozart, Chopin to her children, or read aloud from Shakespeare, Shelley, Keats.
51208ae8f0a5640060aad0b539d8e7a495614d1f	Isadora often said that she started dancing before she could walk.
658ba507027a64369bab8f48793458ef23c3b9e3	Anyway, at the age of six, she gathered the neighborhood children and opened her first "dance school".
a1aa93d0156fde7688dd7491caeae7e1c17a0696	When she turned ten, she and her sister already had a wide range of students and earned money by teaching.
968256737af91d5faff2d306a0fec98e75fcbafd	They called it the new dance system, although there was no system then, of course, yet.
14e44a36be38047abb46c22c71a608930291129c	Isadora improvised to the music and taught all the beautiful movements that came to her mind.
8711371a9d613b90aec57c2ffebd94e9112f3022	It seems that the idea of a new dance came to her naturally, like the breath of life.
8183bd9b90867bdf8ca11406329057267659742d	And then for several years it appeared, took shape and became clearer.
95146982e866cb7b7b2afb95e0a6db591243e64f	The first steps to the stage were not easy.
86651ef761401ad2fb96d5cca27b82e717c69837	The family often starved.
154a313695e74a8c8da4bf9a6ddd638384adad00	But the idealism of the Duncan clan has always helped to win over material difficulties.
b7d93c6a212db5c38714dc58d5325e70711ad718	However, complete impracticality quickly negated the barely appearing funds.
f331e1103ed4b6bf8f9615893814cd09cfef5ab3	Isadora's youth was filled with inspiration and creative enthusiasm.
44d3059372edafcabf3d55b8e467b431bc853187	He and his brother Raymond would start the morning dancing in the Luxembourg Garden (the family was already living in Paris at that time), and then spend long hours in the Louvre admiring Greek vases.
c42ae5bb207904f8c79b0ce32284fddc9bef861c	Sometimes they had almost nothing to eat, but this did not prevent them from discussing Plato's ideas, reading Schopenhauer and Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, or crying with delight at the presentation of a Greek tragedy.
5701488e4d335ab69952c7e7b5bb9a988d14b62d	Chicago, New York, London, Paris.
75acc72245a059815d98da6c0ac2ba744fba1595	Isadora gradually gained fame and continued to search.
8f4254f52413edee492086b2d8c9b5596a5a9a57	"I spent long days and nights searching for a dance that could become a divine reflection of the human spirit through body movements.
f30ca5b7f610fcdccc8da75e4834a757baf0aa42	For hours I stood motionless, my arms crossed over my chest, covering my solar plexus… I searched and finally found the main spring of every movement, the unity from which all the various movements are born, the mirror reflecting the creation of dance...
c71b7adad13f6e094cb853b6bf3603d8399260f9	" Ballet, Isadora believed, relies on the bodily center and generates artificial, mechanical movement that does not convey the movement of the soul.
8f27f5b683680c64b6fabfe97c3cbf1c4dc38448	She was looking for an internal source that would transmit movement to the body.
7d81b37d5676ed06655fe9e8babb0e7dc6b762d8	Then the body would gain transparency and become a conductor of the mind and spirit.
95ffde8101a1197f673a4bc17e2b303c18d662d7	"When I listened to music, the rays and vibrations of the music streamed towards this source of light inside me, where they were transformed into a spiritual vision, a mirror not of the mind, but of the soul; and with this vision I could display them in dance."
57971e2bc67040f175bb10d11b0bc384fab57327	She often tried to explain this to the artists.
66a9c7c9cbd86b5b8fa26419adbe71bc6208169f	Stanislavsky writes about this in his book, who at the same time was looking for the actor's inner creative engine and after meeting Duncan came to the conclusion that they were looking for the same thing in different fields of art. Isadora Duncan was creating a new dance.
d2df572645a7975ee399bd595d4c7fea65b6c2bf	But for her, it was rather a return to something ancient, original.
b2216892b739ac3253d5a075c8865dfb09a76c60	Spiritual freedom, the ability to express in dance what the soul is filled with, is a natural human need.
ab107a8b23bc653f496d3a85060c8e9ce0483c73	She herself admitted that she was unable to do this.
f76ad884de9d0ebd56443c100b5a0f88c8e92f00	Her nature was too impetuous and freedom loving.
3d75bc6d0942ec61064c84c7c983738f3a0bf0f2	The movements of Isadora's dance were simple: steps, light running, low jumps, free batmans, expressive poses and gestures.
9cadd3d242d931a1e530911830148286bbf49c05	How to explain the delight of the huge halls?
5052be7ece81c35f09c8300099cd9871a8c5ac78	The talent of the performer or the receptivity of the audience?
12d18b191c7af897695559e0d21bb04712bfbce0	Maybe both.
ce89dd1f1eff21598e7ed33dcfb4d5622458685f	From many days of contemplation of Botticelli's "Spring", the "Dance of the Future" was born: "I sat in front of the picture until I began to see how flowers grow, how bare feet dance, how bodies sway; until the harbinger of joy came down to me, then I thought: "I will dance this picture and send everyone this message of love, spring and the birth of life"… I tried to find the meaning of spring through the mystery of this beautiful movement.
dc63b4430565ad9d9a6ec31d25b6fee239013d5e	It seemed to me that since life is such a confusion and blind search, if I manage to unravel the secret of this picture, I will be able to show others the way to fullness of life and joy."
de843c317eeb5f180a3f7118472582c344209a28	A revolutionary step was the bare legs, not covered with a silk leotard, which brought the dancer the nickname "divine sandals".
a5876cfb53b95def6af8c5829e220a5e0332ac77	Isadora adhered to ancient views about the natural beauty and harmony of the body.
c1af0094a13731360422574243cbcf6a9ef028f2	Critics wrote about her enthusiastically: "Duncan dances naturally, simply, as she would dance in a meadow, and with all her dance she fights with the dilapidated forms of the old ballet";
d276420faaba4e544a5e54ef7c7d86ffd4c5e925	"These beautiful hands that mimic playing the flute, playing the strings... these splackavellie in the air hands, this long strong neck...
9dc92c4046a3e65a6a8201d063a2c5849f07e21d	I wanted all of this to worship the living classic worship!";
57079f1da7dd5b9703d13eb7a9e259bec0930435	"Every motion of her, full of splendor and beauty that your heart begins to beat faster, eyes vlazhneyut, and you understand that even if your life is happy, such wonderful moments like this come along once in many years… The most extraordinary thing is the impression that you have of this woman, even when the dance is over and the stage is empty."
7ce66de7baa59e9f100b2f18e9fd9d6b0e6797c8	If she considered the dance only as a solo performance, then everything would be simple.
e4783c3ea5fc0c590e461820cbb95ac150cf2aeb	She created the first school in Germany.
815e5983237892e0b7370be149f7f00c02ec2122	I bought a villa in Grunewald and tried to turn it into a paradise for children.
0bf95e573dbadc39814ae260d6e2ae57419e9b52	There are paintings everywhere, Greek bas reliefs and her favorite blue curtains.
8c8320dc32f369f583807105c7f680425c2e0589	She dreamed that she would raise her children in the spirit of Hellenistic beauty, and then her pupils would teach and develop other children until all the children of the world became a huge happy dancing group.
88d2b2e0ee6f6340c9bcfa8b8dcf92dd04362d50	Forty children were recruited to the school, whom Madame Duncan, in fact, adopted, supported, raised and trained.
321b8f8298189588b426dafde98d148d444f8cb2	But it became increasingly difficult to cover the costs.
dacb563960fae7adb820068c4337444bae650b61	"I have to find some kind of a millionaire!"
6f7c05c423aadf1da39ab27e4f19e4e223d10031	— Isadora often exclaimed.
716759f6e4a1b88dc27821ee6c1e69c84e690d28	The millionaire found it himself.
ef0d7e1f5de6a7397b609adf4a5040e7fde433d3	Paris Eugene Singer, one of the richest people in Europe, came and offered to take on all the costs of maintaining the school.
f69c100ad80df814b64abfe1463dca827fb3e455	In her memoirs, Isadora calls him Lohengrin, the knight savior.
3d96fad2b8706b9a6c34ded1f5b480c5d4b5b1fc	Lohengrin became the father of her second child.
4633060c426e18ed99e5b6d0a309c56720d2a343	The father of the first was the great director of the reformatorGordon Craig.
7d3f34c8678c2b2957b2b9e5ec3196c2c7aa94f9	True to her beliefs, Isadora refused marriage, believing that it deprives a woman of freedom.
307a727152a893af5a59fef6dc99f34bc86d5e8b	Her children were beautiful, they were growing up and had already started dancing among other pupils.
38d7867887b64b2adbb998108d23463dc6b1a442	Isadora was happy.
5ca0c669b132d16d8069245a07c4faf16ee2f2da	And then a tragedy occurred.
8fcf9b3acb9a6aa800cec7561a00f7bcc7db1e47	The daughter and son were killed (the car they were driving fell into the river).
df8a7b6015f3169590d993acbc7b382f3175df39	Isadora's grief was boundless.
76fe85bd88e0ab17af70fba77dc76755959dc153	She was kept from suicide by the little students who surrounded her with the words: "Isadora, live for us.
7b3d4dae6ae5c1b0fba939f3caefc0068a70c0f3	Arenot we your children?"
09559e008030d7cf6659da419a49552f49276014	She hid from people for a long time and could not go on stage.
417d7851ca2eb9af74d8b4fdcdb03c2ea9672427	Over time, the acute pain subsided, but the wound in the soul did not heal.
d408454d18d5de4b15d07002d08491cf007c99c9	Isadora continued to teach children, but the war intervened, the school had to be closed.
25d184a75b0d9586db8e70cb6b6a79acb230804c	Isadora Duncan created her last and longest existing school in our country.
8777174e9eebae12f0171fe05f5059421a6bfd46	She, like many people like her who dreamed of a new world, took the revolution in Russia idealistically.
97134a294ae750b0d939eeebb5804bb918883ddf	When the Soviet government sent her an invitation with a proposal to organize a school in Russia, she went without hesitation.
fd73f70ef27b01cb87a9a1624f8c15f6ff41c822	Although everyone tried to dissuade her: Bolshevik Russia was terrifying.
7cc4cba9dda9e7b93d4d0d1a2d081b7c5bfb7dda	She believed that an ideal communist state had been created on earth by such a miracle, and she was going to spend the rest of her life dressed in a red blouse among comrades dressed just as simply and filled with brotherly love.
8579c999e249d3736306512741d2c60fd38efd23	The main thing is that a dream has come true: the state will support her school.
5a04bb4fe91cabe9749b49a752e658a6fe22ec52	In the autumn of 1921, an announcement was placed in the "Working Moscow" about the opening of the "Isadora Duncan School for children of both sexes aged 4 to 10 years".
966d2aba0d3b6a5695b09d29705c079065ab37e0	Initially, there were more than a hundred children, later there were forty.
c474488e448fbb6913ef252ee1d4066553e7dd2e	It was no longer possible to feed and warm in the hungry and cold Moscow of the twenties.
c702af3d9c20a74fa015bdf17d9918e046f29cd9	Isadora spent the rest of her savings on this school and was forced to leave Russia to earn money for the school by touring.
c3cd8bb199badcd0f227e952c428d0f40223fd76	After Isadora, the school was run by her adopted daughter Irma Duncan.
23128ae53dce88b3d0d36620ed809f8afd67fd4e	Isadora was the forerunner of the new dance, but she did not create a pedagogical system, did not have significant successors.
60f20fa3fc450df2cf9f8e0501e0e9f5a13942d3	There were plenty of imitators of Duncan's free plastic art, but much of Isadora's art was connected with her extraordinary personality and could not be translated into a complete technique.
0a4514cfac975f7d3f91caf9857c1cf0ad57ef6e	Her dance did not have well established steps and positions, but it required an unusual spiritual fullness.
23e4452033febc2c8e5a1f6d250f9670a3efd7de	Mary Fenton Roberts wrote well about this: "There are no imitators of Isadora Duncan, because there are no other women who would devote their entire lives to clearly imagine what beauty is, sincerely seek it and discard everything that is not in harmony with the simplicity and perfection of Nature."
ca73fe057ed625686a2e49e1a2d978093831cc8a	Unlike the dancers who later created modern dance (Mary Wigman, Martha Graham, Merce Cunningham), for Isadora, the main idea in dance was the idea — the idea of freedom, harmony and beauty embodied in the movement.
3e92047a2aa74c01ba9444f357af367b7740462d	She never limited herself to the stage, for her dance was life itself, and not an attempt to create a new aesthetic.
c669406e0052bf945fb302e04a262e503a9aa897	Isadora Duncan was a brilliant dancer.
db7155304ce749f522b86a2c42c98dc8aa509df4	And, of course, she had a great influence on stage dance.
385ff9c39927b22726cee055e2f617cda9fef699	Geniuses come to point out opportunities.
039d7d6a1e10b65c9a0f59eb088030b0500ed6b5	And we remember these people, who are like stars in the sky of their time, because you can talk about a new aesthetic as much as you want, but only the heart of the performer will make the heart of the viewer tremble.
79859eb41eadf07d8e96afa5e02296143d0230af	And without this trepidation, there will only be a cold reflection on the abilities of the dancer and the grace or clumsiness of his poses.
21caf7f34ff57e296d7227015e6c5958e0b9b5a5	Isadora Duncan made the hearts of the audience tremble.
0f5f324d6106256096078416ea77f25010209579	Therefore, it has remained in history.
eacf0cb99aae30735a3376db3639c0ccbe7a026c	She had a lot of flaws, it's true.
b4f1e3e91f9d0037057cab072749b2a2d6d7daa1	But she was always true to her ideals, and the main thing that formed the basis of her being was beautiful.
aa111d3ea1e1b6bceb92e87edf158f0f642cde18	How beautiful were her art and dreams of educating a new, harmonious person with the help of dance and music.
6a216dff645b5df082540520a350c1dd8c6b3eab	Today, at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries, we are successfully changing the world for the worse with the help of bad movies, obscene dances and ugly paintings.
7f4be659c64da63a00f3cdc9159e053c5b2569ba	Donot we already have that dazzling craving for a new, better world that so overwhelmed the geniuses of the beginning of the XX century?
8c1ce9c421d5546eaeacb52908f6d7701ecb409e	Or maybe we just havenot fully woken up yet?
6d5c10538149f62f325c2905c63ecff16fd8e9e8	A hundred years ago, Isadora taught her young pupils: "Listen to music with your soul.
22b96fc526fe3226655c631b66bbb020df4b33ae	And when you listen, donot you feel how your inner essence awakens in the depths and with the help of this force your heads are raised, your hands are raised, you are slowly moving towards the light?
4516b621f32dda88813e793216f9f5989aba1595	This awakening is the first step in the dance."
cd5c8d85291ee0613383cd9c1fe79c85ec18dfb2	Discuss the article in the community of readers of the magazine "Man without Borders"Subscribe to the magazine "Man without Borders"
8b55d62cadad64c4350efa01311dc897baf3c8e7	Duncan, Isadora
bc2a2648c5560cee5de1c2dab90ab515fc36b221	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname Duncan.
cfc9e7d6d43508d1d8133a350c52985446f190e0	Isadora Duncan Isadora Duncan
aff7420498827c2ae159185fb56098a4dedabd9c	Isadora Duncan with Sergey Yesenin Birth name: Dora Angela Duncan
e8cdcb2fbb8c369e74382d673f9bc27b9ff99721	Occupation: dancer
585bb50ce5b86c9833cb9f1fffc3126565123c2a	Date of birth: May 27, 1877(1877-05-27)
5b4c32dc1cf99344be9536a7a72d37382f2b22df	Place of birth: San Francisco, California, USA
d249a622fc225a0ded5f79668e4a18ecd9d6e9ee	Date of death: September 14, 1927 (1927-09-14) (50 years old)
e38c15ff18dd8b87565cada1e0b746441b5413e5	Place of death: Nice,
e5974b105f522c438553f4b8522f6537be9772ab	The Third French Republic
83a00d68b597bce80f5549a96d03a8cca8495cf2	Isadora Duncan on Wikimedia Commons
d6e9e4077e1f9e041a15e4f376dd45c3fb57574d	Isadora Duncan (Isidora Duncan, Isadora Duncan; born Dora Angela Duncan; May 27, 1877, San Francisco, USA September 14, 1927, Nice, France) was an American dancer, innovator, founder of free dance.
5c73026e74c611dac6c965f7fd279e456fae1998	She developed a dance system and plasticity, which she associated with ancient Greek dance.
04f9126356c0fa3af39a18f8f52fceaa1f8816bc	The wife of the poet Sergei Yesenin in 1922-1924.
09dbe16817d2ae2584f0a3c73e421bae714e6682	1 Biography 2 Dance 3 Children 4 Address in Petrograd 5 Memory 5.1 Feature Films 5.2 Performances
9122ca8ef364f04cff0e3d8750f303420155ba9c	6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 References
04360ee1280057ead64fbc28557d5814371c0c8b	She was born on May 27, 1877 in San Francisco in the family of Joseph Duncan, who soon went bankrupt, left his wife with four children.
6e7669bd1bb96dbe509ce862c77ebf9d5fc93191	Isadora, hiding her age, was sent to school at the age of 5.
4dcf365bd10897e8d2bca343aa59d7e555f480d3	At the age of 13, Duncan left school, which she considered useless, and seriously took up music and dance, continuing her self education.
5d96ffbbd0d67c76004f4f418da170587e9486b7	Until 1902, she performed with Loi Fuller, who influenced the formation of Duncan's performing style.
c1c465d1502d5b29a6ac912b508777ffad14d3d3	At the age of 18, Duncan moved to Chicago, where she began performing dance numbers in nightclubs, where the dancer was presented as an exotic curiosity: she danced barefoot in a Greek chiton, which fairly shocked the audience.
b18b76a803f1ed3d95bbc9fbacd8494c9cecd14e	In 1903, Duncan and her family made an artistic pilgrimage to Greece.
428ce4dfd057fb2c8063fb7ef13d789734895ee9	Here, Duncan initiated the construction of a temple on Kopanos Hill for conducting dance classes (now the Isadora and Raymond Duncan Dance Study Center).
fc732120348fbf9636df119a75f5575ce23097e4	Duncan's performances in the temple were accompanied by a choir of ten boys singers selected by her, with whom she gave concerts in Vienna, Munich, and Berlin since 1904.
c97bc73abec97f5631dff5e73ff58315023119f8	In 1904, Duncan met the modernist theater director Edward Gordon Craig, became his mistress and gave birth to a daughter from him.
04db13cbef2afe7b4997a158efa12ce7b2a47db5	In late 1904 early 1905, she gave several concerts in St. Petersburg and Moscow, where, in particular, she met Stanislavsky.
b05449af54e6e51270b2c37b91d112d8acfbba5b	In January 1913, Duncan again went on tour to Russia.
34010bc0945046c1f84295c38c7d61a76ec06ac2	Here she found many fans and followers who founded their own studios of free, or plastic, dance[4].
0dfaf7d916302d56a749557ff5086970cdac3874	In 1921, the People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR Lunacharsky officially offered Duncan to open a dance school in Moscow, promising financial support Duncan was full of bright plans for life and creativity in the new, free from prejudice and rejecting all the old Bolshevik country: "While the steamer was leaving for the north, I looked back with contempt and pity at all the old institutions and customs of bourgeois Europe that I was leaving.
e087af99d74487e1d9aec269e6899bbf913b607d	From now on, I will be just a comrade among comrades, I will develop an extensive work plan for this generation of humanity.
24a1d086f7dc075d01697052e66ddb26ae0690b6	Goodbye to the inequality, injustice and animal rudeness of the old world, which made my school impossible!".
05bc59266c62f577ec7708fa76a87d95fbd8ddaf	Despite government support, in post revolutionary Russia, Duncan faced severe domestic problems, such as hunger, lack of heating.
f97e1a75d8fc002d6be0e1bc2eede8cf175f9bf9	She had to earn most of the money for the school on her own.
6ec5238f305dfc3221c5aa3d99439b0c38c9ad65	The dancer herself was given the requisitioned apartment of the ballerina of the former Imperial Theaters, Ekaterina Geltser, who was abroad at that time, for her stay.
41a625c83877b7ec2ced65f14cc19237d0d7517f	In October 1921, Duncan met the poet Sergei Yesenin.
6219ba79ff46b53b1b0102af5485a263e3a23c73	The following year, they registered an official marriage (it was dissolved in 1924).
bed3a8b0c2346c048b7bfdd1b488bab67cd3d46d	Usually, when describing this union, the authors note its lovingly scandalous side, but these two artists were undoubtedly brought together by creative relations[5].
4dd21290d581e376ee85d78a921249ebfd7f6331	Isadora Duncan tragically died in Nice, suffocating with her own scarf, which got into the wheel axle of the car on which she was taking a walk.
da2a2cd79dab9fcec8932af5e8f202e380397ef2	It was claimed that her last words, said before getting into the car, were: "Goodbye, friends!
8f2206fb8312cf350bcdd9136d93d0890a191dc8	I am going to glory" (fr. Adieu, mes amis. Je vais à la gloire!); according to other sources, however, Duncan said "I'm going to love" (Je vais à l'amour), implying the driver, and the version with the glory invented out of embarrassment friend Duncan Mary Desti, which was addressed these words[6].
33a9b44b53403c6bd74bd7ef87518cb49843e3c6	Her ashes rest in the columbarium at the cemetery of Pere Lachaise.
b776ab6ed100f7e06e8027f527d718af23f59a00	Dance[edit / edit wiki text]
e11ea22da3485619225cb90d36a666bb86d0ca6e	Isadora Duncan and Sergey Yesenin
ac625577a97ddf4077673020dc000302fdaced92	This mark was set on February 6, 2013.
952bdf731113640f82b035b4f6082a8bb2fa1117	She, like her like minded women, dreamed of creating a new person for whom dancing would be more than a natural thing.
6f004d037d530edc331967a57f530cab3f074ac9	In response to his philosophy, Duncan wrote the book "The Dance of the Future" Like Zarathustra in Nietzsche, the people described in the book saw themselves as prophets of the future.
d25f77bfc87e72d53874526e5e32e9fa10eccf83	Duncan wrote that the new woman will reach a new intellectual and physical level "If my art is symbolic, then this symbol is only one: the freedom of a woman and her emancipation from the entrenched conventions that underlie Puritanism."
12b7efeb0117e039a4e9c09b38f467156c91671e	I fled from Europe from art, which is closely connected with commerce.
4ea303f5965e706b5a4d44d04113951802ebc690	I prefer the movement of a hunchbacked creature, but inspired by an inner idea, to the flirtatious, graceful, but affected gesture of a beautiful woman.
b3129f0f253fe45b5e1496fee2245928bd4b003f	There is no pose, movement or gesture that is beautiful in itself.
6cade633fc14ee4e4bbb66da16be007bcb4d1291	Every movement will be beautiful only when it truthfully and sincerely expresses feelings and thoughts.
87e55245df357599f22bc492512b45977389d9b0	The phrase "the beauty of lines" in itself is absurd.
00bd589ea314e94c6a3b6a490dc9d82c2fca822f	A line is only beautiful when it is directed to a beautiful goal.[7]
9e161e73833e75f1feb1b718254d0833bdf5716e	Children[edit / edit wiki text]
4b7e58ff103c1a6520bdae78aa4fb3f9cfa7d321	Duncan raised both her own and the children she adopted.
61e979b742728d2f4af01b78c74d75473aecdb26	Daughter Derdry (1906-1913) by director G. Craig and son Patrick (1910-1913) by businessman Paris Singer were killed in a car accident.
9879d9b06a90799f19f42c0ebf767e4a4ed2f6d2	In 1914, she gave birth to a boy, but he died a few hours after birth.
42992b08dbffcd98fb14b7d8e6f61966bc002f56	Isadora adopted six of her students, among whom was Irma Erich Grimm.
c97fae796f69ed7db3a32dfc6a8fb97e6e922a4f	The girls - "izadorabli[en]" became the continuers of the traditions of free dance and propagandists of Duncan's creativity.
49c0b0dd8289cecddb3e7a2fb1d276156528b0f7	Address in Petrograd[edit / edit wiki text]
4d38a125a0e618812a9a8fd07e0746a87288288c	The beginning of 1922 the hotel "Angleterre" - Voznesensky Prospekt, 10.
74962b1740caa2f78461b625345a5bf82ff3c549	Feature films[edit / edit wiki text]
a4b9d6515fbaf3346ac74bd11fce15b4d3ded360	Isadora (1966). Isadora Duncan, the Biggest Dancer in the World (1966) by Ken Russell with Vivian Pickles.
293472feb0d4467a425e50cc16993b52b6896986	Documentary and Biography film of BBC company, UK.
a9bda5ec85a184f3143229eefb78d72d7afd9913	(Isadora Duncan, the greatest dancer in the world.
f88142db5b88b8ea27960530bdcc218538d58ee5	Great Britain, 1966 Director: Ken Russell.
e29763f81eb6d8c6805a0788c3b42f77f1276920	A feature film.
8a52f6530576415b6701878c2db569b1ac64e3c2	Starring: Vivien Pickles.)
8b7ce2601bf3894ebb2137b9792ad99338c37061	Isadora (1968). Isadora (1968) by Karel Reisz with Vanessa Redgrave.
ecf94704adef2a903fa07b4abe6f41380272015f	Biography and Drama film of Hakim company, UK France.
d4f3d99434fb2893eef8e50c9c41b281b3062b82	(Isadora.
e8361a7cab9ceba5aba6e8efc9634892bc265988	Great Britain, France, 1968.
d257aa0fe6ac0a35f275265028460901bb0bdbfa	Director: Karel Reisch.
e95baab9ad20a9f21c597e81fba01afacd2eb105	Starring: Vanessa Redgrave.)
d3316e9d00c27fe78616a18e4a7be4138934892b	Yesenin (2005).
275b1464a76e150a6c34b47f741171bddb99f1d1	(Yesenin.
54e35f86449aa27b9556b8c7b8b36bb7f933e0a2	Russia, 2005 Director: Igor Zaitsev.
f470e0673d9d1fe833af47b743bde9d70ba9abc5	A TV series.
1059492a6e07be2efe8878ef681ec93737b89df8	In the role of Isadora Duncan: Sean Young.)
91832c67c5f61b60b6cc4a92c667260f34acf788	Performances[edit / edit wiki text]
83b8ddf25c37fbf94ec4f1662846afb4961aa820	Yuri Baladzharov.
709ada0f9bbb006dddd72a78655947f9041649f1	"Isadora: A Moment to Eternity".
4b25897df9d72b86d4e93d9f59cdde383721e390	Zinovy Sagalov.
dbdc6980145a1dd2652d56791204625bd81bda52	The Three Lives of Isadora Duncan (Monodrama in 2 acts).
77283bd24a2917d84e9730e971916958821b3aea	Musical movement Free dance Isadora (film) Alekseeva, Lyudmila Nikolaevna Orchestica Jacques Dalcroze, Emile Dienes, Valeria Laban, Rudolf Loi Fuller Russkaya, Ya Duse, Eleonora
2f3b066af87d4e9dc6b508aa67a6945f512b9ac1	Большая The Great Russian Encyclopedia.
893b2216a9ddb152298aa592883be1345176d617	Vol. 9. M., 2007, p. 413.
c131463eba72cd1406241f70ca27815a9b7660c3	↑ Isadora Collins Dictionary Online, Duncan — Collins Dictionary Online ↑ Isadora Duncan — Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online ↑ Sirotkina I. Free movement and plastic dance in Russia.
5f1c0e1828825be29fb79524f8748a98a54af7b3	- Moscow: New literary Review, 2011 — - 319 p. рист Aristov V., Sirotkina I. Tanceslovo: an analysis of the history of creative relationships between Yesenin and Duncan / / Cultural and Historical Psychology.
1480ed50dfbb099d0c6d75b95b7a2bc7a7a96dda	— 2011.
6c6ab2b07f0d1d33f68a4ca9de1c8340eb73f0c0	— № 3.
17914d22c71bea6661a5d741efe003ded1657d8f	↑ Matt Stone, Preston Lerner.
6b75bbac885a217176cccbc9e73d2b214a76c78d	History's Greatest Automotive Mysteries, Myths, and Rumors Revealed — MotorBooks International, 2012.
3d924a8594700c5adbd948d4f23a8bdd7706b5d3	- P. 206.
3b1793188ac8d68e47350c17ca2aad90ee1ef22b	↑ SCHNEIDER I. Meetings with Yesenin | S.
e025b6f766f9787280135a986c5b2075112bd192	A. Yesenin ::: My life, or you dreamed
c1bab605decfb68f72f53c55806435d4f03f952a	My confession.
890ddda018272bea07bc93cd63a1be462d65c5b9	Publishing house: Liesma, 1991 Paperback, 288 pages.
8bfc706e9b7e82306aee9246c51238104faa4169	ISBN 5-410-00982-7 Isadora Duncan.
090e4c5d0b84e09b7c957934b55aefa635b03ff6	My life Moscow: Contract TMT, 1992.
522e1924d87c79136ad8a174b3a4d427462ab901	- 192 p.: ill.
1f6e285486f4000b599d669e35853560f64412df	ISBN 5-85058-009-3 Duncan A. My life;
26d0409785bdac778360545b25aa71c2f29e6ca5	Schneider I. Meetings with Yesenin: Memories.
4ae716af8d0301caafac8bf0001b21646e2cf624	- Kiev: Mystetstvo, 1989.
1d77ac7e19a602cbaf61ba3a1c5ac0b64e648f14	- 349 p.: ill.
d8289a6639c8d30dcc438385768f349484384761	ISBN 5-7715-0195-6 Duncan Irma, MacDougall Alan Ross.
dc481ebaf56b516f30b63278c3b743363f7c72e9	The Russian Days of Isadora Duncan and her last years in France / Trans. from English.
b3dd00ffe3ff135c603acdb2a74a5d1381fea861	Introductory article, commentary by G. Lahuti.
3ce35cd902aff7301cc81205b70613f71195020c	- Moscow: Moscow. worker, 1995 — - 271 p.
d8d2f45829e391b804e5d5a0df9c3ec905521b4f	ISBN 5-239-01848-0 Blayer F. Isadora: Portrait of a woman and an actress / Translated from the English by E. Guseva.
db378758ec1b69cc5168d24d80c5405e3184a510	- Smolensk: Rusich, 1997 — - 560 p.
4561acf93234fae2c36862e6cb9aaca7a29f90b8	— ("The Woman is a myth"). ISBN 5-88590-642-4 Kurt P. Isadora.
e3033f3c2cb239784bba90c97f0108ff65249910	The frantic dance of life.
506f3b824e6f1db388a25fdff05c2b31b16a932c	Isadora.
45ebdc2f06671cd0d67a36387d61abd375d4d1d0	A Sensational Life Moscow: Eksmo Publishing House, 2002 — - 768 p., fig. ISBN 5-699-00762-8 Exhibition catalog "Antique profile of dance" Vasily Vatagin, Matvey Dobrov, Nikolai Chernyshev (dedicated to Isadora Duncan), August 24 October 20, 2006, Moscow: Publishing house of the Museum of Graphics.
42bbc38963ebf55bea0dd1119c5a894eab9ec163	ISBN 5-900395-16-2 Stefanida Rudneva.
af38f5df598249db392d83a129d47d7da9e8f7dd	Memoirs of a happy person.
7f1136582f501f81792d03525cfd73ffdbe9a90d	- M.: Glavarchiv, 2007.
37aa69aafaac8a60993bcbe792eeaafc8fc0679c	- 856 p.: ill.
4ea65aa05982b4813f393f4934afd3c4bcb85b6f	ISBN 978-5-7728-0152-9, ISBN 978-5-8330-0249-0 Rudneva S., Fish E. Musical movement.
a1662c87e5cad994408c71b5775382858c774af4	A methodological guide for teachers of musical and motor education working with children of preschool and primary school age.
ea5586329675807a5e78f41c756b15422b5eaa85	2nd ed., reprint. and add on.
040dd29fb148bd7df64cb2b57545716112d69160	/ Edited by V. Tsarkova.
06af4d71286c2d185535af944d651caed467d803	- St. Petersburg: Publishing Center "Humanitarian Academy", 2000.
237ad43a4d3acb6f23cfafe5756faef056e81beb	ISBN 5-93762-003-8 Natalia Alyasheva.
1bd021c1e694c9c7d8f134408adfed67ad79736a	Documentary evidence and fantasies.
f1f4e814e8fdcbb32832ec89158acba3bbfd65e9	Publishing house: Ural Ltd. 2000.
701ab1128b6c60980dfa98f8ccb07bbd8e8ba311	Hardcover, 442 pages.
77cdf533def9dcca2e3aad737922be677c022310	ISBN 5-8029-0139 X Yesenin and Isadora Duncan.
49ed7575e358ae33cfffb60578ca2b5631bcd7b5	Series: Love stories of the great (Comp. T. I. Marshkov).
3d136e5c557a805de231d52f0d4b80c50309c415	Publishing house: Algorithm, - M., 2007.
8d3df941554473f65c71e48741e0845c2bd8821c	Hardcover, 288 pages.
6bfd8f07697fcb611a30bccfcda2b308c54524ae	ISBN 978-5-9265-0330-9 Isadora Duncan and Sergey Yesenin.
99d01bbdd80fa3ad1a39ec626d3dd5818eef32e3	Their life, creativity, fate (ed. - comp., intro. st., trans. Krasnov I. M.).
c3f5732b3fa0d81c362072bc58f1a4f5f5ed0edc	Publishing house: Terra (2005).
83b2cd96d43edecc052732154219e5474baf074f	ISBN 5-275-01262-4 Nonna Golikova.
c62c5e9d464e754ee6320fe002e6820703c6a020	Sergey and Isadora.
ba2e4539397fbcb8239a8c8f20f98c12b98d5672	- M.: Vagrius, 2005 — - 256 p.: ill.
ef9f71689faef9de183e1d4a47c85ba70a56a514	ISBN 5-9697-0003-7 Irina Sirotkina.
e41fb4caf6c8c40556c332fa707095661e32c893	Free movement and plastic dance in Russia.
203810ae64bd1292a15e84784718f14420f8dec6	Moscow: New Literary Review, 2011.
96e234840ac6002fe036033520eac0039503ce2a	— 319 p.
2adc564d980dd8dc074a8fc817224b5241a233ca	Irina Sirotkina.
94a6246e93b088e0553269291e2c58f5f87713f9	Isadora Duncan and one hundred and ten years of free dance / / Theater. 2015.
5bfff8bab772388011d90df2a22e9d78ca5cf74f	Levien, Julia.
9035bf8adfa52ff005d014f016f33f1cf391fad3	Duncan Dance : a guide for young people ages six to sixteen / Julia Levien.
5b7a6fef775aa5aab5f0e07af1484fcc0cf9bbfa	With illustrations by the author from life and memory.
435dcd2a848335570c189b17184a686ea27a6a66	«A Dance Horizons book.» 1994.
8f4f44cb5172fa1f00e9d390e9fd4f6f3e3b1ec8	ISBN 0-87127-198-2 Maria Theresa.
c64eaf9dd2b3061f90a620bcb996b7b1fb7dfa75	Divine Being, Guided by a Higher Power by Pamela de Fina.
3419a03ef5612277c4f9c5ad07e2327976800b43	The Adopted Daughter of Isadora Duncan, 2003.
e4e81b8ae45165af9a190c902525db56b8e1c647	Dorrance Publishing Go., Inc. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15222.
7eb2ec380c61a0eee565df8ffa03d4d47fc940da	ISBN 0-8059-4960-7 Anna Duncan: In the footsteps of Isadora.
ed24c26bf1cf49712c1c1980ae2caae80a5958b3	I Isadoras fotspar.
d83143cdbf7a54dd177e70f087348d73dd1ed170	Dansmuseet, 1995.
019fbdd9550597bd2fff3e5102c8cff0c3e9fdff	ISBN 91-630-3782-3 Frank Manuel Peter (Hrsg./Ed.).
57aece13199769131ae27e9be668c66bfba79553	Isadora & Elizabeth Duncan in Deutschland, in Germany.
9b0dcdf84c4ecd5af243d427f6338b6f4d7f76bc	Deutsches Tanzarchiv Koln, 2000.
98a397d6f7c488ac5dddb9417e7dd9766862b81f	ISBN 3-87909-645-7 The Technique of Isadora Duncan By Irma Duncan.
b48b2a41adab6f9909d2ebb326ee895b36b2b42f	Illustrated.
0a19404380e776499975c46bdc8601a1ed85d6e3	Photographs of Wu Hans V. Briesex.
fc51a947eac60497c6707f1f27567b4b4b382c36	Posed by Isadora, Irma and the duncan pupils.
7980b6a0f3239ceab17846ffdb462c0a7f2030da	Printed in Austria by Karl Piller, Wien VIII. ISBN 0-87127-028-5 The Art of the Dance.
062c853b23b8fb2961afd093ff0d987986ee938a	Isadora Duncan / pref. par Sheldon Cheney.- New York : Theater Arts, 1928.- 147 p.
c1608fd8956d0b16c97fd878aa0f13217d8251ec	Edited, with an introduction by Sheldon Cheney.
869b105c93175ae6f53fc285c1fffcd3b4ae591f	ISBN 0-87830-005-8 Life Into Art. Isadora Duncan and Her World.
8741fcc6115d707010efd1c3c046a49a4fae0232	(1993) Edited By Doraee Duncan, Carol Pratl, And Cynthia Splatt ;
d8ad18799afc6e923bf80ed4c58e762381b91f9a	Foreword By Agnes De Mille ;
058d7bd091cabb5b7e92ebab8ef565b6841644e9	Text By Cynthia Splatt.
50074a99432bef112e551397a1dbdba9fba3ed44	Hardcover: 199 pages.
63b8ec89059982a2da62e3644d2450ba3b3c7faf	Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company;
03d92783b7635a2afcb1fbbaebebdcc746f3edbe	1st edition (November 1993).
df999ad36c1e08d1830ecd9356f846a7879fd1af	ISBN 0-393-03507-7 Duncan Isadora.
0e9839820f476d3a8ae110564d0c296c33219bb9	Isadora Speaks.
a8361e18401ae5b8c4bc411c8afc39a5de43f3f5	Franklin Rosemont.
c214ad2bcd242c4df110742476fff9a670ce5dee	San Francisco, 1981.
dbef06c55932a6bde6ef0b65e15c9f91404325e0	Sidorov A.
97a61a853e2b44a1c7dde1c18746f4789ad3b69c	A. Modern Dance.
7ee0288aa2fb07b94f6dc9a04dd18150fe2ec7dd	Moscow, 1923.
c68a45a7815880caaabae406c91157a6d9f47cdc	Bely Andrey.
b826f0db4fca6d95d10dda88327b2ea8112c136e	The meadow is green.
be1ed249d5405954aac3c9e9bb9ff51c114a079b	The book of articles.
691c3d8648ea20c6a4b6c6abdc967e6ed6150f97	M., 1910.
cd965f903270ed908bb6c4cc7e6bb830d9cd4e41	Maurice Lever.
b4751811bc75f03cceb80e0272570b371fd69d1b	Series ZhZL.
390ba9a8045977289fd6f3a75c1f6a397f09687c	M., 2006.
62a7f651da8441690d92f1da63d063df4c0e82ca	Isadora Dunkan "My Life" Moscow.
1edcf447f13f550d72f09a1b218b5b09231b8254	"Tsentrpoligraf" 2005.
87bb6bd927fc6977a0d7367995b9b2769dd9ee95	Marienhoff A. B.
3590679b0ff8408e0f4b1f4f183ccc9d1e8af52a	A novel without lies, 1926.
fe9bbc6ef601acd08d3bad1e5a92121a44af9d6e	Isadora Duncan in Wikicitatnik?
642def7a41c9ce9a3c1672caa0290e3482a4ad46	Isadora Duncan on Wikimedia Commons?
17dd1b6dfec17905f9d9e74fb04c5302504c769c	Jun Morita website (English) Duncan Tanz International (English) Isadora Duncan and One Hundred and Ten Years of Free Dance The Story of Isadora Duncan's Shawl and Car (rus.)
f0c016cf5b9d7d0c1a4a2be70caa82ecb4da6e88	Notable Names Database · AllMovie · AlloCiné · Internet Movie Database · Rodovod
6644942acaac6048cf4b55eabb74eda883303418	Regulatory Control BAV: ADV10275543 · BNE: XX979100 · BNF: 121698127 · GND: 118528122 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2134 9023, 0000 0003 6864 2651 · LCCN: n79123616 · NDL: 00438391 · NKC: jn20000700451 · NLA: 35049222 · NTA: 069983550 · NUKAT: n96029906 · PTBNP: 33942 · LIBRIS: 184165 · SUDOC: 030239508 · VIAF: 59124789 · ULAN: 500337352
8b9575196bf3927e439e4b87f314ec75c9c96895	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Дункан,_isadora&oldid=75814676"
49fc1895bc2fc6a1eb388aab02feb7da2dd79e2b	Categories: Personalities alphabetically Dancers alphabetically Dancers of the USA Dancers of France Dancers of the XIX century Dancers of the XX century Born on May 27 Born in 1877 Born in San Francisco Died on September 14 Died in 1927 Died in Nice Free dance Authors of memoirs about Sergei Yesenin Wives of Sergei Yesenin Memoirists of the USA Victims of an accident Buried in the cemetery of Pere Lachaise Cultural activists of the Silver Age
a4384bcf0fedce7006c207104ce355f0c6a0f709	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with sections without links to sources since February 2013 Articles with links to Wikicitatnik
f57587e5cdeb875e58635b54ebb8af39f97f69f5	Afrikaans العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Belarusian Bosanski Brezhoneg Bulgarian Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Frysk Galego עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Italiano 日本語 ქართული Kazakh 한국어 Latviešu Lietuvių Macedonian Malagasy മലയാളം Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Sakha Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski Simp le English Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpski / srpski Svenska Türkçe Tatarcha / tatarça Ukrainska O'zbekcha / szbekcha TinNg ViệT Walon Winaray 中文 Bân lâm gú
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3b42bcf42c2854d6070a954e5615ecef6848e27b	The head of Ukraine is considering four candidates for the post of Prime Minister TODAY 14: 48 Laurent Fabius resigns
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5c67d6a2fb23b846d0d5baff49c27bc08f372a1a	A representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry on Wednesday held a weekly briefing TODAY at 14: 29Russia will ban the import of American soybeans and corn
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26070b42ace5d6fcddb8b69faa1e69a1746dde71	According to him, it is impossible to criticize the capital's authorities without understanding all the nuances
607d541f8a1f6c999f3d6653f01e320ab6c7447c	14 Sep. 1:00 Stars
761f22b2c1593d0bb87e0b606f990ba4974706de	41
801630dd96a93b0e9b9cb0bcadb80085916a5176	Natalia MARGIEVAAa
447fe16db54b2691699dd91336663e5f02f3fa56	Roman Viktyuk: "Yesenin could kick Isadora Duncan harder, and she kissed his heels"
372adb362c7a8d26f2732953826f6a7fad938837	Roman Viktyuk believes that the meeting of Yesenin and Duncan was predetermined.
be2d40f506c271e7af9f1dbd9e6bd16c7f302a4b	Photo: Sergey SHAKHIDZHANYAN
804317c586f26bffc9f1f44d9905cb6f5571e5d1	85 years ago, a famous American dancer tragically died [video]
8058fef7371482a6e49b513a49abbb266dfd3a45	Russia was of special importance for Isadora - here she met her last love the poet Sergei Yesenin.
20d83cd21eec65096596958cac5800b4f6d94498	It is generally believed that Yesenin was loved, Isadora was loving.
0dadfa7575ae3730636ebd14f7c37f57d8bbbcc4	"She doesnot take offense when I scold her with a strong word, she likes it," the poet grinned.
55d3ed0440850c84a8f1862c5a634c20bcfb76f5	- And when I hit, I like it, you eccentric..."
4878364028065f33005528ebbaab2439bd9749f6	But the theater director Roman Viktyuk has his own interpretation of the union of one of the amazing and unpredictable couples of the XX century mystical.
3b23bbcb98ea1825e602ac67a293570fe9470305	Recently, he released the play "Sergei and Isadora", composed by him based on the poems of Yesenin and the book "My Life"by Duncan.
200dd1ecaf598832af56ca7073b6eca65194f1cf	- Roman Grigoryevich, do you get that next to Duncan Yesenin is a poet, but not a "hooligan" and a "mischievous reveller"?
72779683b7c5c0435491ba79fd6ee829f68eb657	- For some reason, no one represents the relationship of this couple in the mystical dimension.
30e85278a9a68187b1d597c7008ca44f41e58486	Yes, Isadora played a disastrous role in the life of Sergei Alexandrovich.
6705251fb9d3dbe5b0f606375def7d57bda96647	It is then that his drunkenness and revelry come to the fore.
22ea20e4475f27bdce5965d7ae749f4aaa742a43	Every year the figure of Yesenin sinks more and more to the ground.
59580be1a565e78d1c5a7fc594bdb389eace2380	Their meeting was already programmed - their souls met in her dream - before she met Yesenin, Isadora already had a premonition that in the coming days she would see her fate.
62ac8f3668ccbded1049db44b6cec4ad9b4ae575	And so that evening she came in, looked around the room with eyes like saucers made of blue earthenware, and stopped them at Yesenin.
f4f0c5e17cf307612f2eab09a4636f4708ca3a49	And that's all - these were the views that found each other!
da267356fd1b4502f8d31decfa67dc3b72000580	Before her is a beautiful face framed by shiny curls, dipping her hand into which she will say: "Golden head!"
11641d0f7eaa063c75528ab88289554fe3b1ce95	- And yet it is possible to apply to their painful love Yesenin's favorite word "here is a mountain of grief"?
0cf9e3b1c98bdc175133662b2dad3593759fdf6e	- Until her death, she said: "As soon as I saw his blue eyes, I had the only feeling - maternal" To rock him to rest - her little golden haired child.
ee98fe4bfe6ddff52662eaf2317b4c3b879b5a86	The main thing that the famous priestess of love and the actress sought was to draw the attention of the young spouse And only then, after enjoying his attacks of "Russian love", as she called it, accompanied by fence swearing and kicks, she tamed her anger with a caress.
b3e52d3af96fb8cc83d9d11319fbb9ed6ecc3bf0	He stubbornly raced in pursuit of a ghost, not realizing that he was dreaming of a ghost Duncan tried to resurrect her dead children in Yesenin.
1de06b85e57045bbf75ead52240b7eed9dc87769	Sergey Yesenin with Isadora Duncan and her adopted daughter Irma. one thousand nine hundred twenty two
0a64c223f8b62f27c37746d855d778348b1b5df8	- But why did she need this anguish?
959d1d6deaf2ef12c2cab4ad0fce56d362cfe297	- Isadora meant that under every joyful event there is a tragic lining.
07f0e9e0e21b9929a1a1fe77ef9341b8dd78dcda	Here you need to remember her concert in Versailles - she remembered this evening in a special way, because she danced better than ever.
79c96f8a7ff5f4f60fd3657ea4dc913aea6f9739	She was almost flying, her legs became weightless, and she imagined that her children daughter Derdre and son Patrick were sitting on her shoulders and laughing.
6aa366f221839f444d7dea017d6b7d9712d716e3	And here is rock!
9de5001e35029fa8efe74c517b683033acdfc407	- three days later, they die by drowning in the Seine (the car flew off the highway into the river).
9cf9e5361c50b98b27fea199a8675a0d953c2a09	After this tragedy, Duncan called for death.
808c29ed2bab479df657b415a0b3dd3519288c7a	It was not a surprise for her.
4e95102ce70c201b077edbcac84351bd7d9835c5	The long scarf that hung from her shoulder when the dancer got into the car was tightly wound around the wheel axle.
a275a60adf26a352276685834cfcdafacc5219a6	And the first turn broke her neck, instantly killing her.
e914917e4da15d36707c310842790827da347a8c	The nearest performance of "Sergei and Isadora" can be seen on October 1 on the stage of the Roman Theater, 32/2 Leningradsky Ave.
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8c034d6f4aa473f108524ca9be4c82a66e059466	Main / Articles / Biography of the Great / The Curse of Isadora Duncan
dbd3aa60b81e221a5464333298dcb8fd7862a365	A+AA-
b913ef4c251caaa2ed78e448c27df44a5d387319	The Curse of Isadora Duncan
3115f17a9386a2b8a8bd493043b6ba712f4dfb14	Media Add a comment
4ef1292bba8e3580965cf15c8f55c4bccfb89243	On May 27, 1877, Dora Angela Duncan was born in San Francisco.
4adf99b071aee52badcbc403f45463a9daba253d	Her father, the banker and financier Joseph Duncan, went bankrupt, left his wife with four young children and disappeared in an unknown direction.
26a5d469452cb4ffac46940d52d650045c24f99c	It is she who is assigned the role of the founder of the so called free or erotic dance.
988f9ae599e802a955ee25cdc645301271855ede	Content: The unhappy fate of Isadora Duncan The unrequited love of Isadora Duncan The terrible prediction of Isadora Duncan the wife of Sergei Yesenin The death of Isadora Duncan
0f9d2f34aac4336ecae7dd9b2f5cd9ddd6780e17	As a rule, you have to pay for talent and grandiose success, and the price can be much more weighty than the popularity and fame that come with success.
6247e47f21665ca456e0f052863813f3e982ea83	Isadora never found her personal happiness in love, she survived the death of her children and, the end of her life was an absurd, stupid death.
3cdab050bfe80d6306edc2856d0d82e7fe0fc7e4	The unfortunate fate of Isadora Duncan The mother of the future queen of dance, Mary Duncan, earned money by teaching music lessons.
8d221689f8add6a58220f51f7c33bbeb74a3c6f1	Naturally, she also taught music to her own children, who, according to her, were her best students.
6d864e165d186ea53a296dee842b23b0f4cffc2c	In addition, little Isadora took ballet lessons.
baa2f203a212a971032ca62f136154d4ed919796	In 1895, the Duncan family moved to Chicago.
bbc7f418d57252be4fffa2c3708a1627b5a70938	The girl tried to find a job as a dancer in one of the theaters of the city and, as a result, after many days of searching and viewing, the director of one of the entertainment institutions offered her to sign a contract.
90bbd47a53e918caeb1c0c2e0bb1e864021a7199	In Chicago, the beautiful Isadora had her first real fan — a forty five year old artist Ivan Mirotsky, who was of Polish origin.
bc08e143572ebe0577bef279f9e2620cd744d61d	He even made a formal proposal to the young girl.
ab631541324727f9532246f3b75b5f358a268724	But later it turned out that the artist is married… With a grievance in her soul and a broken heart, Isadora left for London.
622efa39c864c00586801f7dd28b8d1ebee4d320	Perhaps it was the right decision, since her dancing career instantly went up there.
d707c523261a32a07a916ed16f2643ec1bfc3a8e	She danced at social events without a bra and tights, barefoot, introducing an element of ancient Greek dance into her non standard performances.
1141423a856253464f482880653a0751af9551c2	This innovation drove the audience into a real frenzy.
e139b40928d5b6fd4f2ac6b440c54d8c40daf525	To the content ↑ Isadora Duncan's unrequited love However, despite her popularity, Isadora was still unlucky in her personal life.
0a6c5f7e993572ad37de547f2eed1f867a8f91f1	She accepted the offer and was engaged to an unknown actor, a Magyar by nationality Oscar Berezhi.
c73a58fb4c5309be8ad20b1fb62fc9aecd254f7b	It was he who was lucky enough to become the first man in the life of a 25 year old dancer, before that she remained a virgin, which was unusual for the bohemian environment in which her life took place.
825f2426d83fb66a0e313517755e313809adad61	However, soon the actor was offered filming in the capital of Spain, Madrid, and he announced the termination of the engagement.
14131735ad77745d1eb31f947be812ff309aabd9	This was another blow to the heart of a woman who left a typo for the rest of her life.
758bbd0a1bd92c19179b3b753d0cbf2506bc9637	Isadora Duncan with Paris Singer One day after a concert, an imposing man entered Isadora's theater dressing room, who introduced himself as Paris Eugene Singer.
c225c57bd04371b3a1586e5a4b411f72b9ec54a0	The man inherited a huge fortune from his deceased father, a manufacturer who produced the world famous Singer sewing machines.
13d9aae6118e9b12378328a4a6536cf26e837826	From Paris Singer, Isidora had a son, Patrick.
2ad52df247340b7057d818974d47489aa603287c	However, it was necessary to terminate all relations with Paris, as he was incredibly jealous of Isadora to all the men around the dancer.
1521b599568f595df5d72c23296a2354b6dcf50e	In 1905, L. Bakst, a Russian artist who was fond of palmistry, predicted to the already famous Isadora that she would have a great success and fame, but at the same time she would lose two of her most beloved creatures.
0c495a3c6eca528e99fad1050d1b7409ba366466	This prediction was a kind of curse of Isadora Duncan.
66efe35920bc99265538c141b9d417fb74bfd633	At the beginning of 1913, Isadora Duncan went on a long tour to Russia.
8b309ef45cb76c986dfceb10b109c1a70b5525ff	Already, being in the coldest country in Europe, she began to be haunted by terrible visions.
27f31551d935fa076ac4c079966121e081fbac8a	Sometimes she heard the sounds of funeral marches, then she saw through the veil of falling snow two children's coffins piled in the middle of snowdrifts.
39677d3ba92ca54f5e7af841a621eba2eb75b892	To the great regret of the dancer, these premonitions were destined to be justified.
f1db661f4787552d3b6c06cc37ddd3d331aac8de	After a tour of Russia, Duncan came to the French capital Paris to see her daughter's father, Paris Singer.
faee83903351aec964ddd1470378edb794b90cc2	One day, while staying in a dance studio at one of the Paris theaters, three completely black cats suddenly ran in front of her.
54cd0b6955f742dff5dc145cffa269dfbbdfbecc	And when she returned to her dressing room, the dancer saw a book forgotten by someone unknown, the infamous "Niobe Mourning her own children".
5c92eef43b69c69163df5bd238f79de5682ea1e2	Isadora understood that all these signs are harbingers of terrible trouble.
7b3e74a9d82d3c8a1457cbce40bad96e7c1a2595	And she was not mistaken.
4dd313f22e452c38151fb38060aed70d9eb22ce8	Soon Singer came to her with the terrible news.
552d6ee2c5e14afdbb412a185a9c74f0da99dc07	The car, in which Isadora's children were together with their nanny, lost control, drowned in the Seine.
b78e29042895208baa132251bbd3db2e43e0a8e2	Photo Isadora Duncan with her children After the death of the children, Isadora fell ill with a nervous disorder.
96546e424e78a1aa54364a59cea5f55a68edd7a9	She was constantly haunted by mysterious visions, one day, walking along a deserted embankment, she clearly suddenly saw her dead children.
c206089b8a0f8b9caaf0b8c1df6835c4c3740cdf	Holding each other's hands, they entered the water.
b621cf8f5d3234b01f2ba686c78fe8815c66dee2	Seeing this, the woman became ill.
407ca287faa87e0b2cba8875857a064fba51dbb9	A young Italian who happened to be nearby helped her up.
bc20b60c49c2382c9eba04094aebdebc63c7cfe3	From that moment they became lovers, as a result of a rather fleeting relationship, Isadora gave birth to a third child a boy, but he was destined to live only a few days.
7cc4dac2a4207adfb0352b65cb089c26ae69d1af	Isadora Duncan, the wife of Sergei Yesenin, In order to calm the emotional wounds of Isadora, throws herself into work with her head and in 1921 opened a dance school in Moscow.
1910ebcd5f3a26d0ab12c55500535df3bd609339	At one time after the wedding, they lived together abroad.
840f29d53461208e6217220df59ea3f4268c9f18	Photo Isadora Duncan with her husband Sergei Yesenin, besides, the wife was 18 years older.
22587c4cc676531359011826371233fe8876aa80	Another obstacle in their relationship was the language barrier, she spoke Russian poorly, and he did not know either French or English.
f5d4c03602ec5da3c4669868a2ae81cf5c3af950	And he did not get rid of his harmful habit of abusing alcoholic beverages after his marriage.
86501c5602f117abe576d9d783deb2b79edca69c	In 1924, the poet returned to Russia and literally soon sent a telegram to his wife: I love another woman, I'm married, I'm happy.
c70884ce74ec0966bb577a08c22c33d24e77b675	As a result, they filed for divorce.
356e5e03ae73814fb298656b989d6c0c2c25adc7	To the content ↑ The death of Isadora Duncan On September 14, 1927, at the peak of her fame, the dancer was supposed to perform a concert in Nice.
7eca6520951ce497628bf3175f304ed3e1d94ce7	The legend, which became known later, says that a moment before getting into the car, Isadora exclaimed to her fans: "Goodbye, friends!
362c4fe1ebe00cf820d7c3581398c262f24710e9	I'm going to glory!"
62b348bf014af9d3e245906f361f8584f3bdd034	Tragic death from a red silk scarf So tragically ended the life of a great actress and a beautiful woman who was the idol of millions of people, but never experienced real happiness!
81f57a924ade1d9850ecd1cfd4b254ace1453120	The curse of Isadora Duncan pretended to come to life, simultaneously taking away her own.
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9b6a95d14b9d7ff5de382d1723eaf3f755dc3ac4	Author Ivan Prikhodko
6944f4c08bc25856e217374403f6e4fc60a76436	04 Aug 2013 at 14: 00
ee442690dabdf735d95fe4b5859af183c35dcb8f	Isadora Duncan, Yesenin's wife, the queen of dance
5324e51d02eed5e9cb5decedbd0ee1bafdc5808a	Society "Family" Education
51b3a05cddd34d59427cb6d551ee4e4d23920427	Isadora Duncan, a dancer from the United States, is known in our country mainly as the wife of Sergei Yesenin.
54ec6d1a4f566983c94928b846a461d1bc425397	In the rest of the world, she is ranked among the greatest theorists and practitioners of dance art. Just as cars replaced horses, Duncan at the beginning of the XX century created a new concept of dance, different from the classical palace choreography.
8e5dd4259d5baf24b8afbce41ab24618c16dff26	Dance capable, as she believed, of healing and improving the soul.
b970d99bd38b274c13ba91f2820fd19c3da3e722	0 comments
710e122ec707cd73c09a9131461c56442e4db1ff	9 shared
2da84e8ad851684afd4dcf460a3eb3f4d41bc361	The search for funds and a place for her idea of life led Duncan to Russia.
ac70e1c83bf5163248684fde1b2822132cbc5e24	Researcher Gordon McVey in his work "Sergei Yesenin and Isadora Duncan" quotes from the article of the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky "Our Guest", published in 1921, a month after Isadora arrived in Moscow: "...Duncan's dreams go far.
8fbcea6d151339052010645d8718c5b4970b66bf	She is thinking about a large public school with 500 or 1,000 students, but for now she agrees to start with a small number of children who will receive education through our teachers, but physically and aesthetically develop under her guidance…Duncan herself, so far, is imbued with a very militant communism, which sometimes causes an involuntary, of course, extremely kind and even, if you want, a tender smile...
eb88d6fe7332fafed784d38443cfe7ba4839cfae	Duncan was called the queen of gesture, but of all her gestures, this last one, a trip to revolutionary Russia, despite the fears inspired on her, is the most beautiful and deserves the loudest applause."
c049a0fb13b3d9e1741714d24f35629601282650	Read also: Love stories: a sandal and a peasant poet
118d77e745f308b07fa0238dc77c6b1efd154fa1	The Duncan School in the USSR worked until 1929.
e70c49ac358003412e3700c099a31822efe929ab	Isadora herself tragically died in 1927, and left Russia in 1924.
2a37fd4eac58ab12a41f1837d6cdc6b50fa7b49b	The first international symposium dedicated to the work of Isadora Duncan was recently held in the American capital, at the George Washington University.
af9ffbd034daca06bfc5ccb6a26151b0d745b7c6	It gathered more than fifty participants, including dancers, choreographers, dance researchers, psychologists and teachers from various states of America, as well as specialists from Germany and Russia.
0a9026ab24ef8d2fae47146d708ee8ce5db8f534	It was visited by the Russian researcher of Duncan Elena Yushkova, candidate of art History, author of the book "Plastic overcoming: brief notes on the history of plastic theater in Russia in the twentieth century".
45c869121a0b0b628c71d6b209f649e3eb353235	— At the symposium, it was discussed, — says Elena Yushkova, - whether the dance of Isadora Duncan exists today, in the XXI century?
f0e71903e1635da84e49f4806780e81b44834de6	And if so, what happens to it: is it frozen in some ossified forms or is it continuing to develop?
ba2af1adde3b93c1713351438a98479b7c8bcd12	Since the dance was passed only from hand to hand — from female students to female students and only at the end of the XX century was recorded on paper with the help of labanotation (a system of recording movement invented by the German choreographer Rudolf Laban), what is left of it today?
52dfa8f419f7e06343fec2cead9fb2d64fcad167	Why does Duncan dance need and to whom?
bafe83c1bbda53c2bb9ce82c0c60c4358a5cad96	The main ideas of Isadora Duncan were expressed more than a century ago and live to this day.
933c72bf18dffefc76cd7e1b7881ae55e1b24a66	First of all, it is the musicality of movement and sensitivity to the slightest nuances of music, movement from the center (which in the human body is located approximately in the area of the solar plexus), harmony of all parts of the body in the process of movement, fluid smooth movements that at first glance seem very simple.
afb13069b4eabb2a7e2b5dda57b9657c226dab00	For example, it is believed that it is so simple that everyone can perform it almost without preparation, that Isadora's dances are not "staged", but simply improvised by her on stage, that when she died, her dance died with her… All professional duncanists are well aware of the absurdity of these statements, they know how difficult it is to master this technique and that Duncan dance is not just a historical heritage that needs to be preserved, but also a living, modern and to this day very expressive art form.
89527a624f4e029db0f4a9d0af67f6dab5dda9d6	Read also: The Curse and love of Aristotle Onassis
e22f40f81dd5d11bd305f6f94dc70bfbaac9e2a7	Often people with a high degree of bodily tension are not aware of their feelings.
4d9de03813b89dedd3c6392454de5c46a055f547	A muscle clamp is an untreated emotion that prevents a person (who often does not realize this) from feeling like a complete person.
d427597a239cb0fab34614398ec201bc21da5639	And if you activate the body with the help of dance, release tension, then the feelings will be released, which means that the senses will be sharpened.
8972278fcf0cf2890ba79d9c2c2d2afb7fb4e48f	By improving coordination, achieving a harmonious possession of the body, it is possible to harmonize the inner emotional world of a person.
50262fc32f94df1d2f38c325891741d5059a862b	As Elena Yushkova noted, that is why the Isadora system is in demand — numerous studios in different cities of the United States do not lack students.
7013971fcb1ff6eb0e38ff43ec68602ce6196872	There are even studios for the disabled, where people with disabilities comprehend the philosophical choreography of Duncan in practice and, as one of the participants of the symposium demonstrated on video, they quite successfully practice certain elements of dance, those that people with limited movement can perform.
1e09f695ce1f34b24a4798dc34282e726cb571c1	It is sad, but modern children are squeezed no less than in Puritan times, although they do not wear corsets today.
8104050239910edba3a3dfdec1f2e148fcf27e33	Now children spend most of the day at computers.
4d6c9357164f656acafa8d778e3407418ca6d614	This distorts their musculature, the chest cannot move normally, the person cannot breathe normally... is it necessary to continue this semi medical chain any further?
375dfbaa851f72b35f49403d7ae279a61bb7408b	Therefore, we can safely say that education through Duncan dance is not only aesthetic in nature."
312da44d91acb2961a3e5af1599506f2930cad51	The school in Russia was closed for ideological reasons, as promoting " painful, decadent art brought to our country from America."
d79e7a15e97c436c7bffe25a48a9c151c6b09506	Time has corrected this formulation, revealing the true meaning of Duncan's work innovation, spiritual purification and the aesthetics of optimism through the harmonious development of the individual.
c8f96a70a108e4a9325079f584297849861e7b8d	That's why her dance is still in demand today, a hundred years later.
dd5eb4d896babb4906b0d59ec5571c4269ff39f6	Read the most interesting in the section "Society" Ivan Prikhodko
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b046031464aa218277da88e003512f80f4d26436	V. V. Rozanov Dances of Innocence (Isadora Duncan)
939f689d08302eb68d1b757a4bc6937205e7f941	Go back to the library On the main page
55ed0a0c9dce349f27357c5838ee125557241bed	I wrote it incorrectly, inaccurately - from timidity...
78b70525e7192d95533f6afffb1f00f9c60a56b4	I should say - "The Dance of Innocence", but you are so afraid of this "Orthodox" waving of your hands, shouting: "what are you? where are you going?"
6e674fd5e2d1990f631fd2379dfc540f6924d2e5	- that you involuntarily bend your head, speak not in your own words, you want to miss your real thought even under someone else's sauces.
75ed5778c633fab7ce4db384d5d82f4dfa9e5240	And since the reader is no longer afraid of the title "Dances of Innocence" - for, for example, the" dances "of the 4th grade institutes are, of course," innocent", and even every archpriest will agree with this - I can now, when the reader has not abandoned the newspaper issues from one" outrageous title", say that I want to talk not about" dancing " at all, but about dancing, jumping, jumping, which at the same time are deeply innocent, pure, natural, naive.
fa1a10d0dbc4be3765f5beb211c5b0f27bdbd2a2	Of course, not in kind, but in the simulation.
f299a6ce5cab8079ce6e13e3c71d81b19bbb12c6	Ie the nature of the person who does it can be "slutty" (this is a concession to the Archpriest), on Ms. Duncan's I know absolutely nothing - but what is it that mimics that raised it - pure, beautiful, innocent, albeit represents the running and jumping the women in that "innocent suit," which we assume only the figures and absolutely unacceptable nature, in vision in a living man.
3bdbb8aed11efd8b011970a414557b92d5f383eb	And here Duncan was in front of a thousand men and women in a stuffy hall of the Maly Theater (St. Petersburg)... an extraordinary sight.
a5ea705706811ff03b2b0bf6f09a7e2df4955fac	But I'll start from the beginning.
c2e4033b9b80d03dcf6f8ab394bffef73b5791fc	The name Duncan has already thundered all over the world, and there seems to be no magazine and newspaper that would not write about her, there is no writer and, especially, a painter who would not pronounce his judgment about her.
a818dfe2154177ec9d9eb5a7efb2d10c0f3a96fc	So, actually, "the topic is exhausted", but - in the sense of the results, merged into a generally intelligent rumor.
cfd1ecf569c9eb00ff80a577c312986f38378441	It seems to me that I will not repeat anything from this "rumor", since I looked at Duncan from my own special points of view, expressed in my many years of writing about gender and about those parts of human culture that are connected with gender, and since I considered Duncan and studied her dances exactly as if I had seen them for the first time, as if this spectacle had appeared for the first time.
9ec714b00519bcc7e0005d163041cf5dfe57c2ef	True, I saw her three or four years ago, when she first appeared in St. Petersburg, but, due to the unbearably high prices, I was sitting somewhere in the twentieth rows of the huge hall of the Conservatory and, like 7/10 of the audience, I absolutely did not see anything except the silhouette of a woman rushing around the stage, not seeing all the details of the movement, not seeing in particular the face.
4d28414e4c4728ccb04f83693723069936bed71a	And, like these 7/10, I did not draw any conclusion about the spectacle and did not dare to object when a wave of rumor rolled in the huge mass that "antiquity has nothing to do with it, and the bait is in the naked body of a woman", for which "everyone runs" and pays a lot of money for it (a chair of 20 rows cost more than 7 rubles).
8fb0069c47e01bb00d3ebcb80bd327b9c3cca144	I think that this opinion was formed precisely in those 7/10 of the public who did not really see anything, and in that other audience, even more numerous, who did not see Mrs. Duncan at all, but already judged by rumors, in which the main and truthful part was that she "jumps" and that she is "half naked".
da502cf5a7e74ea9ec3442eec63b8f6055a36613	"Ah, we understand!
59266e72dfaeb60bc0afa6e216c55782b0d114a1	- the listeners twirled their moustaches and stroked their beards, they also, - we understand!
0443993621f5f2d47eba0f2493c2feb36b271886	" And then the archpriests waved to them with their heads: - Do you understand?!
a933703f1c355ce2dbde70510d7e0a392beaa6eb	I was now sitting in the 2nd box of the 1st tier from the stage, and even without binoculars I could clearly see all the little things.
a6ef2ab50e367662c0ec5e47f3e4c734fd43042f	The hall was full: and I do not deny that among those who go to see Duncan for the first time, that is, who have not seen her at all and have no idea what she is doing, there is this motive - to see a half naked woman on the stage.
5838705618529f5aab36387ec40bf74c2c601927	There were a lot of unintelligent, rude and flat faced people in the huge crowd that was beating around the ticket office, which was mostly rejected for lack of tickets.
ccd46cdb841549d0e94acdd3129e19862fc3af27	But, I repeat, this is a crowd from the street, who fought in front of the theater and did not enter the theater.
803f40527c98ef8dfd24ef52146fb2af10703675	These are "our crowd", "Russian crowd", before Duncan and without Duncan.
dc1a52491e982947401194987729107ba0d28048	Since my subsequent arguments will be conducted from the point of view of the history of culture, it should be firmly noted that the impulse to "look at a naked woman" is precisely our impulse, the impulse of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Russia, maybe even Europe - the impulse and willingness to "pay anything" to look at a dancing woman in such a form, in such undressing, as "you will not see anywhere else and for cheaper".
c7f9d964356de3679594bb8024b504a199fe3b66	- "I'll take a look.
5afb41d61a14ccf364d86cbd9dbd8139efec76bb	And then I'll scold, I'll create a moral, "- the most Russian judgment, "a man on his own mind"; and, probably, it mainly raised and rolled the huge rumor about Duncan.
9cdd1167a1e70b12d3f3ee62886dd76347840196	The audience was calm; young and in old age, half male and half female.
e12f4774a496d40f37b14c0816013f063a16ae7c	But I did not see at all those decrepit old men with a paunch and a drooping lower lip, such as you see at shows with the expected "nudity".
01b543ca937eca9adb720dfb97d16ec4aeea89d4	Binoculars and in general greed for the expected, this "my hidden greed", was not felt and was not in the hall.
16c30753b4796f61acbbf24c1bcbc562a120d8aa	I was there twice in a row; the first time, almost the entire first row of chairs, right in front of the ramp, was occupied for some reason almost exclusively by women a little over middle age, calm, educated, without "toilets".
1278e1bf3d92c93e46962d77e3906cdd47dd1585	There were several military youth, several students; there were mothers with teenage daughters, and in general there were teenage students, obviously brought by their parents.
062f88c205cfc00db24332b7a4095bd9ed12a855	In the 2nd row of chairs, I saw the beautiful figure of Mr. Stanislavsky, and when I asked, they told me that he had attended all the performances of Mrs. Duncan, without missing a single one.
c860ab0dcf55c47bab0e5596392b018b1872e940	It seems to me that this alone is worth a lot: the founder of the Art Theater, of course, knew what to watch; of course, he is a man of thought and a high taste assessment.
b32b60af926224699019b36e6cb4b861957d09bf	But the whole audience was clearly smart and serious...
0d5bd0f83d53b7304c04ca4dc9328a15adff5b5c	As you know, all dances are accompanied by music.
3722d08c1285c1a933228aa3b57c68b003b5a620	The first evening was accompanied - at least part of it - by ancient music, this slow string music, so beautiful, so special.
579c0f66975644097f79af79eb92edf75e35c01d	The fingers took the strings, and these waves of sounds that raced tactically through the hall somehow instantly transferred the soul to the ancient temples, to the ancient folk collection (Greek), where figures in chiton and togas moved, where the hairstyles were different, the hair was darker, the eyes darker than ours, the faces were more elegant, how much more elegant than ours!
d756812d463c1e846959064295085605087d5c3a	With annoyance, I looked at the stage covered with gray or greenish cloth, thinking: why didnot you think to put a smoking altar somewhere?
0d3a420aa29d36a0a600ed765036a7f79c5ae759	I liked this first evening of "classical music" much more than the second evening of "new music", where Beethoven and Chopin were played, although they were still illustrated with classical dances.
30e3453c4fa31d40e94a8c154b28e1b6e0a21267	And here comes Duncan.
93a90790ce6fa06c54234b15aca8217b1f1fd387	In ballet, as it is and is accepted , the dancer always flies out of the wings already dancing and rushes around the stage dancing and dancing.
d74e667c34cd307b27e40aa3e32116580a3fcb51	This is both tedious and monotonous, and somehow does not contain a thought.
286822609ba46eababce03b8111b2494c2ccda79	Duncan appears somewhere to the side and at the very back of the stage and walks for a long time along the back wall of it, near the hanging cloth, separating little from it.
f54426f7610618a852bc2bfd72f6ddb528d13c17	Something modest and sweet, not rushing to your eyes, not in a hurry to jump out.
62dacfb556473a2595876d2d109863c045f69808	Meanwhile, the music continues; and here is a given place of it, a given beat, from which everything "begins", and Isadora Duncan begins.
6f9053e14b1f2447d51af1f270a651827695e7eb	Yes, this is not "dancing"!
ac0f0a07c28ae22fd1b5ea570443c8974d78da1a	- the deepest heterogeneity!!
13cc403b58373104c8ff46ad1081bae17cd0ae23	Both at balls and in ballet everywhere in our dance the main thing and almost everything belongs to the legs.
33c1bf78fb6c4d9fb20d11159b484cbaa8a4bae3	That "dance" is some kind of" exercise of the legs", there is a poetry of the movement of the legs and" legs", is an axiom; but, it turns out, only of our time, and this was shown by Duncan by the resurrection of an ancient dance.
4cd622ed8fb9fab0ecec91410ccedb4970545060	With us, everything belongs to the legs and "legs" - the male heel that beats the beat, and the female sock, on which the ballerina rises or circles around.
5cc476aa7ecabb685002bf28aaab2498edaa5c38	"Ballerina" and "toe of a shoe" are inseparable concepts: it is impossible to imagine a ballerina without this "toe of a shoe", about which if you start thinking, you will definitely not come up with anything: a sock and a sock - nothing more, neither forward nor backward.
c031e31cf3cda8041ad53cb895fa4e510fcb931d	Further, Pushkin writes about the famous Istomina in " Onegin":
11ca3b583aa1417477a02beeda7171bc3efcf45e	Then the camp will sow, then it will develop
2cc8ddd8754eb3b90862c5f7b6ea8015f5527c8b	And a quick leg beats a leg.
47f0a4b82adb7194afa92b95bbc39599e43c8475	And a few earlier than these lines:
0a843fbcb7320874f3903f7f284cfb8cc2e9a062	One foot touching the floor,
b918b09095e3a0576be1b573d8fbe622724267dc	The other is slowly circling, -
df201c9eb89d6f76651122efe7c399c7977152ef	And suddenly a jump, and suddenly flies,
18f2c5627f6e010a2090a5b9146f00c9a7d61fdc	It flies like fluff from the mouth of Aeolus.
44fd0120339d51777f5b17d923e193e782150164	These are two elements of ballet, that is, improved, virtuoso dance, which is not reached by "ordinary mortals" at balls.
1eb118b52e979c3d4e8e86246d81bfd51ca67cc3	One, it is a circling around the sock when the feet of a ballerina posed to one another at right angles, as the flattened two legs of a compass and the other element is the first case to direct fragile leg, and the back of the head to the toe ballerina legs raised figure of her is one horizontal line, put on another, the vertical, that is standing on the floor on the foot...
7c4c1d7be8417b04154a2ecdaddeece6917b83ea	But, Oh, my God!
b803aa3facaab469a17fac77851c0ea8688b60a3	- what does all this mean?
0a7aa7deaf29d1469a52aeb48cb3756f188cef48	That it is difficult we can agree with this: the big toe should be some kind of bone or turn into one piece of corn.
6e0dcb44fcd1db661f27d64001b652563cec7898	But what does all this mean or express?
f71fee4f7c6c7044d7cb17175a9473a6e7c87da1	It's amazing, but is it beautiful?
a713e699d8b952143747b9bdc79546f8195a5eee	- even this is difficult to answer!
e26513f80fee0eed09e7b7ccf9e437f44d03afd8	The audience is surprised by the difficulty of movements, the unnatural almost perverted positions of the body, because the body itself will never accept these positions, and the ballerina never accepts them for herself.
85d6499bef26fd9993ad539391f1e2a01cc81c90	Alone and in an empty room, she will never start dancing like this!
7ebefeb790531357e67ce5ac53cb93e380787491	This is all danced for the audience to occupy someone and surprise someone.
cdf592d4d22334421611ccdd7c48ace20b4a9ed4	This is so not a natural dance, or rather, in this dance, nature has forgotten about itself to such an extent, so died in itself, that it is even surprising!
f909a06eeca2974c4a604a8ddaa7be89a9f4f914	It is contrary to nature ascetic, this ballet; and at the same time - like everything ascetic sensual: for what can this leg raised to the height of the waist and even higher, which the slowly spinning ballerina turns with her toe to the audience, mean?
e8ae8da74903d06e147f5f230045789213204dd7	According to the choreography, maybe this means something, but the audience sees only a half reclining virgin nymph, who turns to them the most intimate places of her body!..
b256d1c439434bc8e45fe9a2b7f7edd81c6faa2d	Nekrasov did not write about this moment for nothing: "take binoculars and look."
3a1d8ed2b3fc4ea39abe644c350fbf0d204ae4af	Although everything is hidden in a cloud of muslin and tulle...
362878b8b9d8f98b09a7c24a3adee3d1b9fcee82	Ballroom dancing is an eternal "pas".
c3c3995edb71b5ab471708fe63bf6e04b295f741	The legs write patterns while the cavalier's hand covers the lady's waist, and the lady's elbow is placed on the cavalier's arm, on his forearm.
70e19a077ccadb055eac6690e352339adad10b27	An embrace is not an embrace, but something similar; some kind of frozen, halted embrace that did not move further - while the legs are rushing in a dizzying "pa".
db0428fcf1e5796edd33b95a9a0de4fb99df6646	Started with the hands, but stopped because they are visible, and continued with the feet because they are not visible.
b778fd0cb0d1c953bf4e02458ab0637bd6b2372b	Everything is filled up with music, and even it is only essential in the dance: it "speaks" for the gentleman and the lady, transmits to each other their mutual excitement, quite significant.
19255a428991ac7dfc82a1f8c1072fdfdb1a7e9b	There is a lot of movement and energy in the dance.
7237935e1e7f3c643cff78897de10f8fdcf7be20	But pay attention: the upper half of the body, above the waist, both the gentleman and the lady - froze; the arms, chest, neck, head, the whole figure absolutely motionless, as if numb, and the face is often completely senseless, soulless, without imagination; all the energy has descended below the waist: there is a huge, impetuous movement ...
13c4e3e5ffdf111c8053ca2e2b4f5e4571bfd517	Everything is made up for by the indispensable cleavage of the lady - this alluring half closing, half opening of exciting, passionate, sensual parts of the body and figure.
5f68a0a94aef528c4776ef8dbfe53988fba70bde	Something, in general, everything annoying, unfinished, begun, torn off, not daring, wanting...
35c686da4c51706eff759607b33da54e1c5e1512	And it can not be said that these desires were pure.
af01b3d1ae08fcd4b46a9e1d77bea061e453086b	All the "truly Christian pleasures" - both dancing and ballet! ...God, how could it be otherwise?
b5e15f16a336d4b30325d180a68cb286b9e0e42e	- because they have developed a civilization, the taste and tone of the ages, secret tastes and sophisticated taste utonchennaya Natur!
62a39deecf091846608437a776dd58ccf605fdd8	"So put the arm, the chest must be dekolirovaniya", "hands in gloves, at least to the elbow"; but where the hand is sensitive, i.e., above the elbow to the shoulder, and the shoulder and a white neck, the strong, chiseled - all of which should be open, all must breathe into the face of the man.
9d95167e24cf11308b973f1b4c861d7d5668f625	And a man should be tight fitting, so that his lithe, slender figure is visible to the whole woman; a woman is always more impressionable to a man's figure than to his face.
81cfbb8888311fedc801622e19c21f78da13f26d	She only gets acquainted with the face, but then she feels the figure, compressed, firm, strong, domineering.
5afac690ace56e311d0525b04452ed94055d7335	This is a tight fitting tailcoat, frock coat,uniform.
31ca9edba136d7d2a5bd2d4166af04bea880279e	No more of those draping folds...
5dd075ea1eba12f91a2e92263eec9818a9e7672b	A European in a tailcoat.
bd2e9d8e1076a4d11fd57ff0ff16848ecc1e1740	And the ancient one went in a toga, where the figure is not visible at all!
13170c467220a536c633f1aa01553f70cbeaf0c4	And then Duncan comes out with bare feet.
58b4c8d912d9106abb22808f357d3900e4b01e18	She is not beautiful; although in portraits her face is beautiful, "classic", but in nature it is a typical, intelligent, intelligent Englishwoman, an American Saxon blood, from which how can classical features grow?!
3ceae096f81523472c2f2a610f9cbdce5c0c4c1b	No, an ordinary face with a German fold, without a single classical line in itself.
d58c8f1d6d48da91df60bff50ee1e9cd66c7fa37	The hair lies well, with this Greek simplicity and Greek beauty.
e8bbfd3d572fbb2b0bc984e29d46318e5f46d369	When they are half lowered, it is also good; but this is a simple repetition of statues and drawings on vases and coins.
567dbad35d5c0a44632a908bc54af13387a0a548	Everything is fine there.
8ca66fc8c1a0771d30b383baa6736d18d7904b16	The legs are really bare, and a translucent chiton of gray or sluggish yellow, rather dirty or ashy, makes it possible to see the leg up to the knees, even when it is motionless.
21f2457ccfc7c1ac7cd9c49f30baeadafa9dfa50	They are gnarled, thin, strong legs, with bad skin, not clean and not at all white.
0055847fce550284308b8dd053a4c6060ff43a91	Why didnot she powder or whiten them?
4fe9f20c3120ebc83ed27d47323e1e556d6b12ca	Cosmetics are so countless.
e75ee8139465cacb4af2a3a25dfc11e08c81df54	But, in fact, she did not put anything on them; and women are so ticklish about the beauty of their legs!
2b59e2377434495126f5b591604864dc44e4bd7d	And the face is ugly, and the legs are not good at all: European, German legs, which earn their bread by ancient art.
e697d083622728f89cf87c4198cb4f24c5165c68	Duncan is wearing the well - known chiton of "Artemis on the Hunt", i.e. an almost man's shirt tied with a strap to the knees, which splits into right and left halves above the waist, fitting the sides and part of the chest and back, but in such a way that two huge triangle cutouts leave a third of the back and a third of the chest completely naked.
84ee5eea6ae6fe96b851d5c4612830c31f3f6562	The chiton itself is very light, made of cambric or something like that; but since it is pulled into folds to the belt, folded into folds, everything is generally closed and even opaque below the waist and up to the top of the hips (but only up to the top).
b37cb12bcb1075eeac9db290ba092b36991798b2	But only the torso is hidden and completely invisible, i.e. the entire abdominal and pelvic part of the figure.
38719f29707e201e04187fe78af82081cc63254b	Moreover, it was not hidden intentionally: but as the shirt was naturally wider at the bottom, and in general it was wide for Artemis, then everything fell by itself so that neither Artemis's dog, who helped her in night hunts, nor the audience in the Maly Theater could see anything.
1e787606a98cc2f7cf8149047a779cf3a00631e8	But below the torso, the croup, even when motionless, the whole body, the hips almost to the stomach, completely shone through the chiton, giving you to see all the beauty of the beautiful human figure in general, the best figure in the universe!
38ee7a7ae18c204318c4fc5028016e351adaa867	With this, the fact that man was created "the most beautiful of everything on earth", and Filaret does not argue.
31aad57fbe56e9da1160a56d70906bc03ecac4f2	Duncan said, " Here, look at me, here is a man!"
319ac50593300dfc8505f649b350cb67ff1c1206	Modest, with ugly legs, without makeup - she was good!
c040f2c50857b268dfc7768c6f11b97eba3e1de2	A handful of powder thrown on yourself and, it seems, everyone would have shouted at her: "You say that a person is beautiful in himself, and yet you have been sprinkled with flour."
42dfeb43675c3cbfae397c5c547c4c6002659271	Everyone would have turned away.
a924132710ede19148ee9d1cf54d48468a8295d6	And now everyone was greedily looking "just at a person".
0c6d921c25831572c69ad89a8b2c573c817057de	I did not immediately notice, but when I paid attention, I was surprised to see that the loose shirt forms something like a bag near her right and left breasts, or maybe the bag again "by itself" formed near Artemis ' small virgin breasts, and since she was running through the woods and did not see anyone, it naturally did not occur to her that someone could see not only her full breasts, in full outline, but also the nipple darkening through the fabric of the chiton.
0cd1ada3458f5aa971c5a0fde4ef6156d399edbd	And when she didnot move very fast, those dark spots of nipples also moved slightly under the chiton.
73a951c0faaf4f01dcef437812fe220038c0fb56	"Well, full nature!"
953b6bdd785a7258315ba69abf3f516bb1c6d122	I wondered from the box.
56692003c83b523640c964ced7c3bf1c985cc9f8	Not only ballerinas, but also any singers from any gardens will show anything, will let you feel anything; but for some reason, the nipple, exactly one of it, is never exposed for anything! it must seem ugly - it's hard to explain otherwise.
c3387b67eb9220db835d6dea4e00fce3d761bff3	For it is not "shyness" where all shyness is overstepped in general.
2c5aa626ef1a05d98edfd8770caff741c9b9e6b7	I donot know how to explain this law, a psychological law, I canot find it: because in general, after all, the infant's organ of nutrition, of course, cannot but be as sacred and pure as nutrition itself - it is completely equal to it.
1ae457d1214d310013ac4786bec3da2589b8f771	Why, therefore, be ashamed?
459d9db4325abb19cbb2f2dff114bf8277884a55	The only possible explanation is that women themselves do not feel it beautiful, maybe they feel it repulsive, too physiological.
d00800670314e5b5d97f3721209407d5493aac2d	But Artemis did not reach these wisdoms, and Duncan, without exposing or hiding, did not hide either the ugliness of her legs or her virgin nipples.
d2b48d875cddb0b14be284f8ec846c33d11774e3	But her breasts are not lush and not beautiful.
0dd82174d977edee36ce653f5d286ebb64ab6395	However, she is not ugly either.
214dbdb7518828ec0ef52312205da7af0832e9cf	As is usually the case with girls.
847c702cebe1dd96b382efc6bf081035243174b0	Some dances she led in a chiton, others - in peplos.
980b5b426a3509d7cb99313a88dd5b16ed80f36c	There, no thickening of the tissues was impossible for the sake of the sun.
769f6b6019fe277398cce4152a5cb2ba434c1c36	This "itching of the hands" around "her dress" and more often around "her skirts" - which is so inherent in a new woman in everyday life, on stage, everywhere she never showed up.
efba1c52a6b5695b54d398d75517167e56c7ea00	I didnot" deal "with it and didnot"do anything with it".
20416799d83cb59458ea9e40dfe6b66f5c56a761	It's just that Greece is not yet Africa: matinees, especially in the mountains, in the forest, are cold; and she threw some clothes on her shoulders, or something like clothes, a rag, a piece; but as soon as the feeling of cold passed, she completely forgot why it passed, and simply did not pay attention that she was already wearing clothes, and continued to behave as if these clothes were not there.
47a5957bec0ad3bcd6e72b59f4b8c7bd6abedab8	And now the sun rises, the ancient Helios (the lamp in the front corner of the stage, draped so that only the pouring rays of light are visible) ...
ca61c67749d52f4c4697b6987f45da2b19f74699	This leads her to such delight that she begins to jump towards the rays, as if catching them with her hands and throwing her legs high, as if she wants to capture the ray into her very being with them.
3451744671b54110fdd1933c5a0661836bacb6d7	"I love you, the Sun, and I swallow your rays, - the source of life in me," her dances prayed, which were both physiological and vaguely spiritual, unclear, unaccountable.
bf5ed9ea536f3aa193e0ee4f28c4c6926b7c5ac6	But the belief of the ancients, which went back to the Chaldeans, was clear that " someday some girl will get pregnant from the Sun." To do this, they climbed to the top of their seven tiered temple and spent the night there, meeting the Sun in the morning.
72cd5f8dd49e1f0b90feefe2c3968488c44c91d9	Well, in the forest as in the forest: the Chaldean women did not stand on ceremony in Babylon, nor the Greek women on Helicon.
5ef88e22bff1f05d97655bc760cc37fb1b0a2ef0	But there was nothing "deliberate", everything was in relation to the Sun… .
af75ebb9684e1b57d55458a935a9535c897ad807	And these dances of a woman, both without powder and without tights, due to the lack of intent and intention, remained so innocent and pure, although at the same time they were physiological, as a girl's lonely bathing remains innocent and in general the whole physiology is innocent without a spectator.
c62e93fd3e494c0aee6613b491cac8e53744a046	"It was so, it was so necessary."
6382fa489958b6e2beb175e6effac10e7e3ca3c5	But this is one dance, the morning dance, before Aurora, before the" Golden Haired Eos " of the Greeks: all other dances were no longer physiological.
4a989034157d02abc5091d9bf74fb84f2d6c0824	What did they express?
f0e67063abd7b4fd13f4381c1ed5449e16802c9e	"So the plant grew and grew."
5a28f99c258306b1b3720d23c08414a3fb8089b2	The girl also grew up, and also grew up.
fdb2487acb9e88c768cdb1b13d06ac9f0d25bb82	A whole nation also grew up, like their myrtles, like the cypresses and olives there.
c0a08f78353bd5d55c3c1b3c4f747b4407ba8c6c	And this growth, the very feeling of growth, was deeply blissful, physiologically blessed.
5676d1186c446220ea33d05bec0c3f8411f519d0	Well, after all, taking a breath of air in the early morning is better than looking at a drawing by Raphael.
c43c7440248a12f4d6802c81a7b531c78bce501b	There is a special grace of physics, no less than any spirituality - especially when it is the first, when it is early.
e51656dd1220cf636955587e560c65394672ef31	Then there will be fumes and turbidity, chills and heat.
82d4c9d19b6f586c3fc5308780c9153914b713ca	But the first breath is just nature?!
1b76f4edcf1198b2074f299e6f2e83b8ce4b4f22	Here - you will spin, you will spin alone, without camaraderie, without choirs.
eb14fbab01a6ecd65be05bac27d2455e836ce866	You do not dance because you have "learned" to dance; but you dance yourself, you invent a dance.
631872491deadc9590c0f391bb7ba368f84a1ced	Duncan also showed these first dances, early as the morning, "first" as food and drink, "not invented" - also as drink and food, but started by themselves, from the physiology of man, from the self perception of man!
cb52530374fd0eda6ae010f4844b68280dab122e	But where is the center of this sense of self?
581298236afb6b12749326feee2f0d47ad088948	The new dance places it, or, more precisely, indicates it, in the lower half of the human figure: the legs, hips, and pelvis are dancing, although draped.
8aafaf59344ef2a3b9b6ecdb1a6809596c58fb35	But why is this so?
9285ee9a6601252bdfd71c660551d33075a99772	The self perception of even physiological happiness nevertheless occurs in the brain, in the soul.
011906c42d35a7827a695f7a36d1c46c660f6b93	"The chest rises" with happiness, "hands splash" with good news, eyes shine, or they also express horror, sadness, anger.
5c8fb5a6c96db80ea111f1d1987664da97ac8d23	All expressions, all sensations occur in the upper half of the figure.
9eda7bfd51309bf16ae15af40cff4a27565acb85	Accordingly, as we see on the countless remains of ancient vase paintings, on the bas reliefs of ancient sarcophagi, on ancient coins, the ancient dance was more a dance of the hands, neck, head, chest - the upper, not the lower person - than the legs: the legs only moved this dancing figure, almost as the wheels would move an actor - a little more, slightly more.
942d86f6dd2d6da71698cee592384316daf6ed8a	Hence, in the Duncan dance, there is a complete absence of our "pa", this all consuming "pa"; music and its beat are obeyed not by Duncan's legs, but by the whole Duncan, this dancing girl; most of all, her sensitive musical body, a line from the waist to the crown, follows the music.
c8bad5779e8edc382ffa5cc9db1b46dacec3b1f8	That's what dances: the shoulders, chest, neck , - very much the neck, - and the head, in its light declensions and reclines.
a4ff2c0fc323cc601304adfd0c9c82ebec70cb34	The spirit of man, the ancient "psyche" of Hellas, is dancing.
90fc22f8ae2b4c6d98f36ab65d6db62f8268f419	Just as in a new dance, the legs do not remain calm for a minute - the anxiety is in the hips, in the foot of the leg - so Duncan's hands do not remain in the same position for two minutes: they are in a constant graceful movement, always in a pose, they dance, - mainly they!
2f8b8c36d7c375388795ae70d339585ecde43dec	And only when the girl's sense of self turns into a stormy delight , she throws up her legs, as in a meadow, as in a forest, wildly and innocently, until they are completely exposed, and, however, completely innocent!
97cb5576e87fda631ea373bd4871c9bb2b33379b	It's beautiful and noble.
5db7fb0fe88d01fa7f883abb628836cc7c9c9991	Nature is dancing - not fallen, primordial nature.
875ad1133937fcc0e76c1c8d290650ebde4ab29e	So the doe jumps around Diana.
2e504073f4c870ce4a9ccc25baadc0873092cac9	So Duncan jumped in front of the Sun.
508cf658abedbc979cb041cbcfab87743dcc86b2	Why is it that her thighs are visible, that her nipples darken through the tulle?
c49c7696de39b28b41f295b1d01055caab9eaa3b	It also does not confuse and does not worry, does not attract and does not repel, like a glacier crawling down a mountain.
508e329a8131dbca80d428ed321b8243b502ac41	Eternal and natural.
e32dcce3504d3b6bf56adc5f1ecb705e5ab754ab	"Blessed is the God who created nature," you whisper to yourself.
4775f7e392240fd8132090e1709bc752b81ad7e6	And that's all.
0003bcfa2a110426d825ca1f1bbfbb387b1b0ea7	And nothing else.
d07041f8846ca8bb3d02f3c94e8fb208ae53018c	As a former teacher, the thought immediately flashed through my mind that all schools should be brought here, - making Duncan's dancing then the subject of scheduled explanations.
f197f3fbc50123a0836266af134a1f3d50e44717	What does it mean to "explain the ancient world" without showing a single piece of the living ancient world?
87e440801d5dac96d05cd5e255249e1a09c96236	Senselessly.
d069bae7883472cb5aea508103df3653b34d5aa3	"In German" to the point of stupidity.
f729b2472c701fdd6026de1ad504cd4869b0a1ff	Duncan, through a happy thought, a happy guess, and then through painstaking and, obviously, long - term studies finally, through persistent exercises "in the English character", brought into the light of God to some extent the "focus" of ancient life, this dance of hers, in which, after all, the whole person is reflected, the whole civilization lives, its plastic, its music, its lines, its soul, its - everything!
538f9f8776b5f1aad0ec1f779bdcb8f2e0ee61b2	She showed it, and it is impossible not to admire it.
5eb21cd1e0709aee41ff9f967e918220dcab2a59	Through the eye, through "experience", in "true English taste" and with the "English method", she made more than a hundred Kuehners, moved the matter of "classical education" more than all the Tolstoy, Leontiev and Katkov: for it is a big difference to read "about classical dances" in Lubker's "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities" and - see at least a cloth - covered stage, i.e. something disturbing, superfluous, and on it, after all, a Greek girl, a fan of Zeus and Artemis, who then, pulling a bow, he shoots arrows, then fights with the enemy like an Amazon, then just frolics in the meadow with an inexpressible grace of movements.
43c9e7ddcbc42158890cf160b8a9f1998ae5904e	These beautiful raised hands imitating playing the flute, playing the strings (unfortunately, maybe with a mistake, Duncan imitated it without instruments in her hands), these hands splashing in the air, this long strong neck (the only beautiful part of Duncan), in her lance like bend I wanted to bow to all this with a lively classical worship!
d611ce468067a47960220ac1a60599036877bb74	Nothing muddy - everything is so transparent!
f6339e5c9c876c9e3658c3578a50e1a29f8cdb92	Nothing sinful - everything is so innocent!
715de25f9e470584ad7a1a7f9311987e3187da45	Here's Duncan and the job she did!
adc4d1165eed1a0cf1445665c9567408a509bb92	Her personality and her school will play a big role in the struggle of the ideas of the new civilization.
3eb58acacb7649fa035a4e9ed17bc5fd9a69100f	How characteristic that it appeared at the moment of what can be called the "great revolution", moving from China to the Pyrenees, and the essence of which lies in some great dying of everything that was before, in the great birth of something new.
c8d644cbe5a5bcbee80f0f3f1f18233369d9719f	In the great round dance of peoples and individuals, parties of literature, which is conducted by one guiding star - " return to nature! return to the natural!
9babd5d57e91d6d0d40c1627e11dc79780eb7c35	" - this brave girl goes unnoticed, a small figure, but necessary.
38a8a380b0b354f1419c97d6b2439a482ab230b0	one thousand nine hundred nine
629891e3f0ad0c2dbd36df872bfb2d004015b7de	First published: "Russian Word". 1909.
b170f5fbf9c85bfe52551884c205491b8b3ccadb	The 21st of April.
8de54e0dc352a6d20ee5b18c79fe136e04bb21cc	№ 90.
fd73a056f31d28a90979f86f91b257d75f7aa292	Russian Russian philosopher Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov (1856 - 1919) was a Russian religious philosopher, literary critic and publicist, one of the most controversial Russian philosophers of the XX century.
8d86cfbe1caea6c49e5a22ee970142f49ff840ba	Russian House
4b764651089e87812e2d48f2895311e2f63757f6	Russian Speaking Community, Russian community in Atlanta, Russian newspaper in Atlanta, News, Advertising, Reviews, Interviews, Analytics, Dating in America
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2f20432979e7076c875c82bf60d85e99ccb9807b	Art and culture
525111e0a5a7c40f018d13fcbd3b8a125ea83d2b	The history of the left sandal
c9b97bf6f7d34d8acdc315b180e55a5c5934ba0e	
9500c0f82814faedd2d41fd464eae236c3073295	by Russian House
82ecdea2faa1751e347e595b5b716722d95f1290	Her life is like the script of a Brazilian TV series: there are too many tragic shocks and fatal passions, too many poets, artists, cars, scandals, novels.
8cf9c3fd2813fee2e2e52aaf0b3d72c06ec0d6fe	So much that it's time to attribute Isadora Duncan the status of a star of a completely different era, somewhere between Princess Diana and singer Valeria.
05f32d7fd58868ff306b73a8cd2a5b127f069994	Show business was in its infancy, but she was already its real star, and besides, she was her own director, impresario and PR manager.
ab4b7070b55d6921d98eb2188b0bdbe6c3c7fb1d	Duncan's fame thundered throughout Europe, she was called "the living embodiment of the soul of dance", "Terpsichore".
0ea3ef6699ddde3119822ee9fceed3a33fe7f006	Even Vasily Rozanov, who was not inclined to deceive himself, was fascinated ("nature is dancing...") and paid tribute to Duncan's art: "Her personality, her school will play a big role in the struggle of the ideas of a new civilization."
8279edf9ac93a55449d7162aa39fccd44025c237	Fin de siècle is precisely characterized by the intensification of the struggle of ideas in art, politics, and relations between people.
a8e64ad95da284d5dd5e629a6f3e971047bd21bb	The beginning of the XX century gave rise to an almost religious expectation of the arrival of a new civilization, a new man, sung by the mouth of Zara Tustra - this Nietzschean character became universally and unexpectedly popular.
42d88137b42a6f1e8319e20a191f082c1a18666f	"People, lions, eagles and partridges, horned deer, geese, spiders, silent fish that lived in the water, starfish and those that could not be seen with the eye..."
f695ccadbf267742e3772d6d1c479b3318e6684d	- Chekhov, as always, very accurately recorded both the ecstasy, and the alien out of position, and some ridiculousness of the "new word" of the art of the future.
0c039c4c27e8121f286b0a0784d45a20b0f8d07a	The new century seems to have given birth to a new breed of women - ugly, but sexy.
9f0bbe4476e0a6a8123f5f8b93e04041313ac110	So, the photos of the ugly, big headed Lily Brick do not help to explain her truly magnetic effect on Mayakovsky in any way.
4f7b164e32a966d72ba259066ff9104a3bf4ddc2	Photos generally do not take such a thing, they do not convey even a tenth of what, judging by the memoirs of contemporaries, the audience of Isadora Duncan's concerts saw, who made the female body itself a material for art. When Duncan came to St. Petersburg on tour at the end of 1904, Russian society received her with a bang.
ec8abb6becd3d135b206dee48d8563b707c45e50	The most subtle critics had no doubt that Isadora's dance was destined to sweep away the old culture, classical ballet, dried up from academism, from the" steamship of modernity".
cfcaf79f7e06b1bebce4e8e2429ef8a72d4da2e6	A century later, a balanced approach is easier for critics, and now professionals speak of Duncan as a brilliant dilettante who did not leave either the school or the system.
8f41204fc9e15b9c0a064908a14da50b3722a6fe	Modern free dance, which was preached by Isadora Duncan, is closely connected with the movement for the liberation of women, for women's independence.
1344b62b72f330e12d6b7aed2c0b014304109098	"If my art is symbolic, then this symbol is the freedom of a woman and her emancipation from the entrenched conventions that underlie Puritanism," she wrote.
cbc26b14bf1bdfafea53abaef2ab6b7cb99a0a6b	We must understand that Puritanism is not a figure of speech: a century ago, American women were really imprisoned in a cage of the strictest canons and prohibitions.
da25f1101c3315cb79eca63ef9e3dd7ebec0ad8b	So, for example, the height of indecency was not only to show a leg, the very word " leg " could offend the ears of some Aunt Jane.
9c6a9dcae6d8dcfa205a7a61e45736418ef9b088	Therefore, even the appearance of Isadora Duncan was an absolute revolution: a woman dancing for the public, looking like an antique statue, in a short transparent tunic, not just without a corset (which in itself is indecent), but - oh, horror!
80bbdbd6e4aef40fcbb14e7341cec100f7dda183	- without underwear and barefoot…
0625907c31d0bc8f404204e7ecafd4fc2035a790	Suffragette children
4f4d299da017e1171b83c6340d9f3405a2156161	Poverty struck suddenly: in his memoirs "My Life", Duncan writes that his mother, when she was pregnant with her, ate exclusively oysters with champagne, but after the birth of the child, the family with four children was left practically without means of subsistence.
aabd1015ea95084d47c21b9b58d4f1376cc72aae	Oysters and champagne will be left on the conscience of the memoirist.
2aa2980b1c3ab6f715c1a010d769a3b182911edb	Students, too: it is known that Duncan spent the money earned on the tour on the arrangement of her dance schools - both in the prosperous Grunewald and in post revolutionary Russia, it was important for her that children absorbed her philosophy of movement in beautiful interiors, so that they were fed and healthy.
212ace4a4d4195b508e70b2117753cfd49aa0f24	Duncan furnished the villa in Grunewald in the Greek spirit, and actually supported the students.
80feadbe9fb32dbb68c6dc597dc7197c161900a3	The same thing happened in the USSR - children were brought to her to save them from starvation.
aa00e199cba9004d528e84741555863f7dca554c	The father of her first child, daughter Deirdre, whom the dancer gave birth to at the age of 29, was Gordon Craig - a reformer director and a great set designer, as a woman in love who was prone to exaltation called him.
3446cc0157d76cfc59fbdb3610a05bc8573390ee	This novel lasted almost four years and was based not only on passion, but also on a community of interests.
c1580e865cd2e6539b09141fc01c54af7337ec89	Craig admired Isadora and appreciated her highly "She was the forerunner...
e9c615f752e4393c44d1a3d6c807904879969095	She released the dance into our world in the firm belief that she was doing great and true...
fea1183408ac35551a46ce922b1831588b06655d	As soon as I saw her dance, my thoughts flew up, as if with a rush of fresh air."
d3f1b7b37686622796a595c13efad7bfd849906d	But this joy was short lived: in 1913, in Paris, a son and daughter, along with a nanny, were killed in a car accident.
d4419628ce9d49e7093db594f1be3f62b29e1844	The source of the rhythm is the heartbeat
4bd76ff2384a62271df2a5758ab4d4a477234afa	The poets of the Silver Age inscribed her art into their aesthetics and admired the ability to convey music with movement, applauded the sensuality of her dances and her nakedness Maximilian Voloshin, the author of the first review of Duncan's performance in the Russian press, stated that she " dances everything that other people say, sing, write, play and draw.
6dfdf49138bc4eb111925ffd03684c7aa9d55b23	Music is embodied in it and comes from it."
9579717d3ffd0fa892562d451d4fe9e97a2b5ee8	The reviewer saw in her dances a deep poetic and philosophical meaning, almost the exercise of a religious cult "Nothing can shake the soul so much as dance...
1c20f069c61bb735195b05a946477e2efa1bcf0f	Dance is the highest of the arts, because it goes back to the very sources of rhythm, contained in the pulsation of the human heart."
15ee58e5c2cdc19f61a3b6a7555de396c0c39811	Andrey Bely went even further in raptures: "It is about the unspeakable.
5ceed15863f4bdc8be4637d45c171fd0234603c0	There was a dawn in her smile.
e12f9d6dce7ca5a167f57aa82435542c21d1d976	In the movements of the body - the aroma of a green meadow.
dc4e8a00ef05da4879aaf7608a18f1d3f28e9c90	The folds of the tunic, like a murmur, beat with foam streams, when she gave herself up to a free and pure dance."
193dc05ca606f8b7eb7129d1cd351d57b02adadf	It cannot be said that those who saw in her only a half naked lady, jumping around the stage without any sense, were ignorant savages, insensitive to beauty.
c3ea2beaf0c3eff1fec5d44f6e7d1b7d7a5772f1	The famous conductor Alexander Ziloti called Isadora's dances primitive and did not find any correspondence between music and movements: "She then raised her hands up, then suddenly seemed to be looking for a piece of paper lost on the floor...
992b3d1d42d395d0af7adf031e260b115201d6a1	And suddenly Ms. Duncan began to dance either some kind of cancan, or to run around the stage like a goat."
c39b053d5d19253b51ebc1e34b7cbf30b5384ffd	The drawing of her dance was simple, even simple.
6293a88c79d391b7a687e516af141efa26887174	"Vibration", "light", "soul", "mirror", "waves", "wind", "Universe", "will" - all this gentlemanly set of symbolism is certainly present in her texts dedicated to dance.
c358949e76e4b9909fdd974bd7f145208dbcdb56	Here is how the first meeting with the artist is described by her translator and secretary, the observant and intelligent Lola Kinel: "A plump, middle aged woman in a salmon colored negligee was gracefully reclining on a couch.
b7f049a69a568b88cbe55360d2e40aca3bab2a0e	She had a small head with Titian curls, a beautiful but cruel mouth and sentimental eyes; when talking, she swallowed or crumpled words.
11291489a425a9f96c1c552b7fe020a937344b7b	When she got up and began to move around the room, I saw that she was not at all stout and not middle aged: she was beautiful, an incomprehensible natural grace was evident in her every movement..."
2358fa47a8a727caac67cfc0b6740a4d01748c28	Duncan felt her own vocation very early, starting to dance before walking: "When I was placed in the middle of the table in a child's shirt, I danced to every melody that was played to me, and served as fun for all my family and friends."
ea0a083fd333832b022cb36ea990e1bc66f8ff1b	Little Dora (she invented the sonorous Isadora when she started performing at social parties) as a child listened to her mother's playing with delight and tried to convey her first musical impressions in movement: "As a child, I expressed in dance the impetuous joy of growth; as a teenager, joy that turns into fear at the first sensation of undercurrents, fear of ruthless cruelty and the destructive progressive course of life."
c71159e9448cec66a9171c490aae290e71b277c9	Duncan's art had no continuation and ended with her death.
2e1adba29e7c8c812be5f173ff4baa5fc998f72e	If the pianist does not play a Chopin etude well, the audience will still hear the composer's music.
1994405489c2698eb45515291af6d7784847ebbc	The tragedy of Duncan - and her uniqueness is precisely that the meaning forming element of her work was herself, her personality.
858fb9a1390de7a692ba5b83ec93b911c5dc3c14	And, therefore, there can be no continuation.
2f0e1f860a234456e95c0928549566577c662103	Golden head
9f6bd96be606da81e5968d7734f77aebabc36b71	On May 2, 1922, the marriage of Sergei Yesenin and Isadora Duncan took place in the Khamovnichesky Registry Office in Moscow.
5d14fd200c9e96f93b6e0e4debcb7b5a76268f8f	He was 27 years old, she was 45.
c3a6c0737b5185341e169cf9ee99fd9624ac1d7e	The newlyweds expressed their desire to bear the double surname Duncan Yesenin.
da30c8316ff9c4e88d8e072563fc4c38140133ad	Leaving the registry office, Yesenin exclaimed joyfully: "Now I am Duncan."
73191a627a0ec58a7e3f079e1286319e3098f5ab	Six months earlier, in the autumn of 1921, Isadora, who called herself "red" and "Marxist", received an invitation from the Soviet government and a promise of state support for a dance school that she intended to create for the children of workers and peasants of the new Russia.
3832ecafebb18660bdcf356f37dd6b1fb839c6af	An announcement was placed in the "Working Moscow" about the opening of the "Isadora Duncan School for children of both sexes aged 4 to 10 years".
09cc05c1e9eef2914c8b17019bb6a1e09e5f8ef5	The aged dancer in the halo of world fame still arouses curiosity, but the former delight is no longer there.
a851b0d6257ec5eefdca34ce62eaff54e9fbcb74	Critics note the impoverishment of the already meager dance vocabulary, write that Duncan is engaged in anything - pantomime, monodrama but not dance.
264688f146e35445f75aa752b2ce2a650b11a6e3	In the same autumn, in the studio of the artist Georgy Yakulov, her meeting with Sergei Yesenin takes place, described by Anatoly Marienhoff in "A Novel without lies": She looked around the room with eyes like saucers made of blue faience, and stopped them on Yesenin.
08f6a39c6af0780af23ff165a192c3e049a70b4a	The small, delicate mouth smiled at him.
42718894424e71837c0594973d1a4f509a9a59e8	Isadora lay down on the sofa, and Yesenin at her feet.
c9f9db4165560877f00aacd123693287a30a3acd	She dipped her hand into his curls and said: Solotaia golova!
5e459eeafc84de0eaa8b0138f2f36b9d56030f4b	It was unexpected that she, who knows no more than a dozen Russian words, knew exactly these two.
bb3f3edfb90826f4a29be88dd1b467f451a427b1	Then she kissed him on the lips.
8e081e5eade3bf75577187e5a20991e9395d82a7	And for the second time her mouth, small and red as a bullet wound, pleasantly broke the Russian letters: Angel!
c878e128cb205f0d0e6248ad53c37f5a9c3ab245	She kissed me again and said: Tschort!
303e6f6d4f162454b2364afc530e53226215fa98	At the fourth hour of the morning, Isadora Duncan and Yesenin left.
6fb8edcb57bbc51662823cdd866834a307950bbd	According to Duncan, Mary Desty describes this meeting: "... she said until her death that she remembered how his blue eyes looked into her eyes and how she had the only feeling - to rock him to rest, her little golden haired child."
9697b51b6fbef019fac606dcb47f74d714572fef	This touching feeling did not bother contemporaries at all, who composed epigrams on Yesenin and Isadora, ridiculing their misalliance ("Where did the airplane take Yesenin? To ancient Athens, to the ruins of Duncan"), Duncan became a "Tweety Communist", and the happy lover himself was happy for a very short time.
c1d8fa0f9de90f5ce2aebd6a2a08023468e194c8	The unappetizing details of this union, the drunken antics, the poet's riot and spree, the scandals within the "imagist project", the ambiguous role of Duncan, who patiently endured humiliation and forgave everything to her young husband, were voluptuously retold by all the memoirists and all the gossips of Moscow and the Russian abroad.
936f5d4968113a78b3b85e68fd9852b744f68b5e	The poet Natalia Krandievskaya Tolstaya writes in her memoirs that " Duncan's attitude to everything Russian was suspiciously enthusiastic.
376c1c93127c1a9f6c0cd1e453ac9f5800f59b6e	Sometimes it seemed: this jaded, tired of fame woman does not perceive both Russia, and the revolution, and Yesenin's love, as an evil aperitif, as a fiery seasoning for the last dish at the feast of life?
65a856f420a18575a0e7514895e714c362e00be2	She was about 45 years old.
a93a8b06c00f8e003bdc2eeed3c59add06a045d7	She was still good, but in her relationship to Yesenin, the tragic greed of the last feeling was already felt."
ee8ae82b850912a208991ffd3ef740fe9087c2fc	On May 10, 1922, the newlyweds flew to Germany.
b4304d3cd5f80e81dcebe817a30eed82ff4e4fda	Isadora was waiting for a tour in Europe and America, Yesenin dreamed of conquering the world with his poems, but very quickly Europe bored him, and the poet found the public's inattention to him offensive.
c42ec46ce8c89618f667e35a1968ef4d6f522de7	The writer Gleb Alekseev, who came to Yesenin's meeting with the emigrant audience at the Berlin House of Arts, describes the phenomenon of the couple to the people in grotesque tones: "A woman with purple hair, a mask on her face is a witness of a desperate struggle of a person with life.
23741ffaf122497f3550bd0e3262448eee5e9cc0	And next to him is a little boy in curly hair, a clever boy from Palkin's Moscow tavern with siskins under the ceiling, evasive and alert.
16b00dbea77520be0bbec7f0bf8d58468d6abe90	A grandmother who has made a big noise, who is condescending to mischief, and a grandson is a tomboy."
86298851f2260d4931eb928a9e1e0fb7efb217ab	The foreign tour did not work out.
30ba9876ea0019fe075d09f3b1c2cfe3bfccc312	The American impresario Duncan Solomon Yurok was dissatisfied with her performances, the audience came less and less, the fees fell, besides, according to Yurok, Isadora danced at the same time"licentiously and indifferently".
c8309838b95809b9b3f55cb4ab9d4a930f0aee5d	English Slavist Gordon McVeigh writes that, in contrast to the festive and noisy atmosphere of the arrival of Yesenin and Duncan in America, almost no one came to see them off, did not send flowers… In February 1923, Yesenin and Duncan left for the Old World on the steamer "George Washington".
b80c77527cf3fb180effed69f2f215f2ea3b8c7d	"This Bolshevik whore who does not wear enough clothes, a crutch for her instead of a litter… I would send back to Russia..."
08c6c5db08a28828d180ccdf1690b14f18bf1e90	- these were the words of the popular Protestant preacher Billy Sunday, America conducted its famous Isadora.
553c925ebb9e8266073c1300488e5f5627ace9f3	She did not remain in debt and told reporters of New York newspapers: "Materialism is the curse of America.
bb20ea1e03b80b26f39d743559f5c4eb80a00f24	The last time you see me...
174388a90bf1fb6c8b1364cd35f80cac4bcf94ad	I'd rather live in Russia on black bread and vodka than here in the best hotels.
2f907d8e3e65c0bc68bbeb3e683d5c9e4646b5a0	You donot know anything about love, about spiritual food and about art!"
3d51b85cf4c2d21a3b0574b3c8b5bf8845a699e1	"I'm going to glory"
87c16f28394c84c16d1ae32c793dbcad15567f90	It's so gorgeous a speeding car, and in it a beautiful woman with a scarlet scarf fluttering in the wind!
d725c4a28a4ae50fd05683ffe898b8c7127459d9	And it so happened that on September 14, 1927, the scarf became a noose for her, and the car in an instant tightened this noose around her neck.
ce3b56805868ae9c87cc90680569410a79e187d7	Journalist Ilya Schneider, however, calls the ill fated scarf shawl: "Isadora went down to the street, where she was expecting a little race car, joking and throwing it on the shoulder end of the red shawls with flattened yellow bird, farewell waved his hand and, smiling, made the last of his life...
8f35c2c6f5554b62615e5e388f5b37117cec6283	Red shawl with flattened bird and blue Chinese Aster went down with a shoulder Isadora, slid over the side of the car, quietly licked dry rotating rubber wheel.
2e5475c95af717a6ea663016eaa89b7062124eb4	And suddenly, having wound herself into the wheel, she roughly pulled Isadora by the throat."
2f9088279457cda121382ee889e03d14a5e96687	And all hell too" Duncan's earthly hell is over, and whether there is a heavenly paradise is unknown.
2d20561cbceef457f232247a6e451864ef3110df	Maybe it's fame.
769eb06cbc8c364adbc328ec34641b1818033cf8	After all, her last words were: "Goodbye, friends, I'm going to glory!"
1924fc5bea041edf6308bab668c89b3487f1b677	Irina Golovinskaya
877563b1885d08bd8040ca6ce61fd95ce70c2d93	Read 14238 times
caf0582e48496264e4f061924a0973bf27952cce	Last modified on Sunday, 04 October 2015 18:02
d93e5a75fbdbc9dc961716ce06d8f542989ccd55	Culture showbiz art Isadora Duncan Yesenin
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e4d1316b98933410e16716b6be56194ec423bdcb	02.05.2015 16:45
d2fc5ea101d883438efb94ee9aef18478ebfba28	Category: Culture How Sergey Yesenin and Isadora Duncan got married
9cae12a17a7cf4f58b1357cf28f2aa39a1bd70de	Text: Anton Sekisov
f8c0e75f790c3366fa88f23f2b4e117748294234	Isadora Duncan came to Moscow at the invitation of the People's Commissar of Education Lunacharsky to open a dance school.
a8d322f48fb96c4430eb9a09b5393cd4ddeba9f9	Isadora at that time was already a recognized world star and an elderly, tired of life woman, who had many unhappy affairs and two children who died under tragic circumstances.
8dfd1c424fbd998bc3ec7cd504d3ab47a88a29df	Yesenin, despite his youth - at the time of their meeting he was 26 - was a jaded metropolitan poet, one of the brightest bohemian heroes of post revolutionary Russia.
8e8d8a83b23ed2a90bb576660f5b906c1d2ec643	Crowds of female fans chased him.
643b77a81d0736e00da22b278d76ab6784fa8079	Sergey and Isadora met at one of the receptions of the artist Georgy Yakulov.
6b6f8d49fb1d4a9744834f3114d4c8b6d3326816	Before that, the poet tried to get acquainted with the dancer repeatedly - and each time they were separated by chance, as if protecting Yesenin from the tragic meeting that eventually became.
443eff3c4832a26b8ffcc8d56759cc114c7282e1	And finally he saw her performing a dance with a scarf.
1560383d482dac6cd7f97fdcc2eff26719c3b215	Yesenin was shocked.
b70956438113d1aa6f73615fa33cc34aca9f064f	The shock only intensified when, accepting congratulations from fans, the dancer kissed the poet on the lips in front of everyone with her usual spontaneity.
056bb7e223c8085ec7a83298a6065ddaa1fd0549	That same evening, a couple of hours later, Isadora was already lying impressively on the sofa, and the poet was kneeling beside her.
764165cd827f76df456ad259e53a3b828f409e4e	She stroked his hair and spoke with an accent: "For la taya ga la va...".
11e707ef08c124e6dfcd3c57f2387c27b4bae47e	read also On the Internet, it was forbidden to "distribute" pirated music and books
1369c2070b885f5f36dd53d1d7b7d8a2dbf9b985	Soon Yesenin moved to her on Prechistenka Street.
9ac287bb4319091d1a9be1de56f9ea13a8a4c7cb	Sergey and Isadora spoke different languages, but they did not part with each other.
6f0f7558ca93c748e96d0344b4e549549443b2cd	"He read his poems to me," Isadora told Ilya Schneider, the translator and director of the Dance School.
273dcd7fab0040c68b496b40739576f1983ccf5b	"I didnot understand anything, but I hear that this is music, and that these poems were written by a genius!"
f260c78a3e66affd2e19b3f42c41d98a054c5e31	The whole bohemian Moscow followed the novel of the poet and the dancer.
0d06480fb06fea3cb822273d03dd877a49856fa7	Fortunately, they led a public life, regularly appearing at receptions and literary evenings - she danced, he read poetry.
351ebc8045ce7a13ca696c716935a88343ffe9ff	Isadora called Yesenin "Angel", Yesenin called her "Isadora".
62dcaf8b7bc19b08c315321e9101204baed7afac	Yesenin's friends were dissatisfied that Duncan had taken "their Seryozha", while Isadora's Moscow acquaintances were amazed at the submissiveness with which she accepted the poet's often offensive antics.
7c6233a601e5b88653c0239b45592421d0f1c923	Yesenin often got drunk, it happened that Duncan also beat him.
da2fdda219a5f4ee5520a278dab8b39fe496c96a	The inconsistency of their relationship was reflected in the" Novel without Lies "by Yesenin's closest friend, Anatoly Marienhoff:" Yesenin subsequently became her master, her master.
c8fb2c97bae9a38266180f8400465dbce7807f72	She, like a dog, kissed the hand that he raised for a blow, and her eyes, in which hatred for her burned more often than love.
ca79d13650e98419f710aa81aeb531a39c06749c	And yet he was only a partner, he was like a piece of pink cloth weak willed and tragic.
7570e950bc7b177d96641926910f2abcb723d1b8	She was dancing.
a4410a1806dd47b4d6d90bf984c26003950607f6	She led the dance."
2270df77558e856c31ed9e1cf70edd2510464978	Duncan's Moscow life stopped developing - the Soviet government did not give her the opportunities for realization that she had hoped for, at the same time, the dancer was invited to tour the United States and Western Europe, besides, Isadora's mother died in Paris, and the dancer decided to leave Russia for a while.
6195ec9a1a15ad054a2982305d54e4235fdf7131	Yesenin did not want to let Duncan go and went with her - for this they had to get married.
e4996c15b5304674e7b3724d5b7cad356fad1f6c	The couple registered their marriage in the Khamovnichesky registry office - both began to bear the double surname Duncan Yesenin.
71f4a9bbcf5aaf4deb2904f5abcbd0a8a017597e	"Now I'm Duncan," Yesenin repeated joyfully as he left.
b366829e6fdd6041cdea60e3620c5516e5730fad	read also A comic book denouncing Nazism will be removed from sale for a swastika on the cover
748534a391034227043e7f27834684bd066e213d	After spending several happy months in Europe, still somewhat overshadowed by Yesenin's homesickness, the couple went to the States, where their love began to crumble.
19ee06822e0674c636dbb808bd4d3c45eef8cbbd	Quarrels and scandals happened more and more often - it got to the point that Duncan had to call the police.
46f034f68583e0236cd864fa3fb66bca13fc11a5	Yesenin ended up in a psychiatric clinic.
c9361bf7d0abe8e34d0aaace4b38394ce3c2d3bb	Soon they returned to Russia together, but now, in conversations with friends, Yesenin spoke coldly about Isadora: "She's stuck, she sticks like molasses!".
0a48543727007fa4813d1bfa19eec1c040dedde8	Marienhof writes about that period: "Yesenin left Prechistenka broken.
37489c9b8350b0f32e828e0cfd98800f3de1d44a	Isadora left Yesenin for Paris - there she received a telegram in which Yesenin announced the breakup of their relationship.
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be41cee76155f687ebefe4162de52b0b0adb6afb	Babylon (other-Greek: ΒαβυλνΝ, from Akkad. bāb ilāni "gate of the gods") is one of the cities of ancient Mesopotamia, located in the historical region of Akkad.
a8124300d0818c882d75cba4422315600f895bd9	Ancient Mesopotamia is one of the great civilizations of the Ancient world that existed in the Middle East, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
c900267c0c267ef6e2ab5fd8d0ce0de2b2d7462d	Conditional chronological framework — from the middle of the IV thousand BC (the era of Uruk) to October 12, 539 BC.
666022f95bb2932034b2dc098ca85f29ac158927	At various times, the kingdoms of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria were located here.
ea8fbcafdd9fb217829fe342f26de519563139eb	Babylon has never disappeared from the field of view of researchers, its location has always been known with more or less accuracy.
58866ee41fe2aca208e8bf6e17cc26bad53c2a00	Information about this city is still available from ancient authors, in particular from Herodotus[32], Ctesias[33], Xenophon[34], Diodorus Siculus[35], Pompey Trogus[36], Josephus [37] and others.
0177835791731322bdd9dd9d428fc3457cd40f4c	However, all of them have not found the Babylonian kingdom, and therefore the historical information they provide is replete with errors and retellings of frankly legendary plots.
2e9721ce364b8941ad774097e9720cf8d3064997	Among the cities of the Ancient East, Babylon was perhaps the most revered
feb322f23bf83d1669d0c1e91509351abde0c35f	The very name of the city - Bab Ilu ("Gate of God") - spoke about its holiness, about the special patronage of the gods.
6d3cbea879a39d647bd47dd13bf96c5b41bb01a5	In the ancient Semitic language, it was called "Bab Ilu", which meant "The Gate of God", in Hebrew this name was transformed into" Babel", in Greek and Latin – into"Babylon".
ea21a48e957b655c13d32cae81e71d27363c474d	Babylon appears on the historical horizon in the Old Babylonian period (c. 1900-c. 1600 BC).
0aaed96a7926f4f001abfcbba9bea780c1abba51	At the beginning of this period, the previously insignificant town of Bab Ilu in Akkad became the capital of a small kingdom ruled by Amorei Sumuabum, who became the founder of the First Babylonian dynasty.
92a94942feb4bbc8a0b9e840112734fa04b63b85	Babylon became a city after the conquest of Mesopotamia by the Amorite nomads around 2000 BC.
21871e4d6ed7c72fe4f9add6a1f5bcb3db06f8e1	The Amorites defeated the Sumerian Akkadian kingdom and spread widely throughout its territory.
f83f3c42faea854a95cc82bb8ca32c40d922d46e	Babylon became one of the main cities.
2b45594aec6dc35a7f972754e2ea2139794e5cda	The winner of this struggle was the Babylonian kingdom, in which the Amorite dynasty was strengthened (1894-1595 BC). The Babylonian Amorite kingdom reached its highest heyday under Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), who united all the Two Rivers under his rule and formed a large and strong state.
9e28cf080e70016e84455eebc97ab8129ef25f63	The history of this time is well known to us thanks to a large number of preserved documents, among which a special place is occupied by an extensive code of laws, the administrative correspondence of the tsar with local officials and, finally, the most valuable diplomatic documents recently found.
d03aacbed4671a30d29fbfe1a7fc611cb451c978	The city was located in a very convenient place-where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers converge and numerous channels begin to separate from the main channel of the Euphrates.
170d5c364dcfd6f66bf0578c899b8da75a87146a	The position of Babylon was very favorable for trading, but the Amorites hardly thought about it.
161559df5485138f8ba3377cb92841a3e7714b4e	The seizure of Mesopotamia disrupted the existing ties, the roads became dangerous, the channels became shallow and overgrown.
e66cfac9515de8a7d05fd3af8f04a2b9d8a92dc1	Nomads grazed sheep in fields devoid of irrigation.
108b7dcd4d57068f13e3bea13e7a2e2be615439e	The peasants were now working on small patches of land that were their property. The owners themselves decided what to grow - barley or date palms, and they themselves managed the harvest.
0027f3de30b9ad078f86e36f0eb27d1fe38fc2c6	With the arrival of the Amorites, there were more cows and sheep in Mesopotamia.
37b2fdfb464a36cf7a577cc3fdde6bd34fbdbc56	The villagers were able to fertilize the fields with manure and plow on oxen, and not to loosen the land manually.
8218803e16313766d2a97a7dd9d06cb2a1548869	The fragmentation of huge economic associations into small ones led to the fact that after establishing trade relations, restoring canals and irrigation of abandoned fields, an unprecedented rise began in the country.
a44b523668bcd866e90a3947835ae9159e23d7cb	By 1800 BC, Mesopotamia recovered from the consequences of ruin and turned into a blooming, carefully maintained garden.
d9cbaf208fdb59cc00c68ea3f9c0b39ff29241f7	His successors were Sumu la El, Sabium, Apil Sin, Sinmuballit and Hammurabi, who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC.
1c768bc021e707f4e8bb77f4d6b98e9269ed76c1	Hammurabi was the most famous ruler of the era and was famous not only for his military successes, but also as a wise ruler.
3f1a4c2ccfa19d1112fbcae9960a57f5ec0f32f4	Hammurabi ended his days as the ruler of a huge state by the standards of that time, which included the main part of Mesopotamia.
0421f7cab97c19d490fb99d020d833e34a39f665	He became the author of the most famous collection of laws in the ancient East, called by historians the "Code of Hammurabi".
c7f7d6b96df1b47d9f58479afb041697b2bbfe6d	It was the code of laws of King Hamurabi.
64e60de4d9c6967a0d943072f66c0921fa6d1579	This remarkable monument of ancient Babylonian writing was found by the French scientist de Morgan in Susa in 1901.
c5098d3dca395bc55ee50126753cdf5a6414ed2e	Since the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon has been the cultural and scientific center of Near Asia for about 1200 years
264bd520aa8a3ad885fa0db2e5be3e722a8c4a06	Many of the achievements of the ancient Babylonians have entered into modern life: following the Babylonian priests, we divide the year into twelve months, the hour into minutes and seconds, and the circle into 360 degrees.
2d4a448ce17a786212d3e9a689396d86f9565306	. Thanks to the hardworking Babylonian scribes, we know the contents of the Sumerian legends.
760d4a5ba8ed88413fd3a976183d480aa8a16338	Moreover, individual stories are reduced by them into large cycles, and their content is skillfully adapted to the present.
43c45d1bbbf3ab089f95a93cc008be553e4a3c0c	Throughout all times, mankind has been interested in ancient civilizations.
70ee9f6c6dd61cb47b3ee2fd104a035c11a55b3a	Many cities keep unknown secrets to this day.
244dc445a9fb908bcb858c30302f2f77be1cef50	Ancient Babylon is no exception.
72c83d128ad08282bfd79acc0fc1338c3aeec8b8	In this article we will talk about the Tower of Babel, the gate of Ishtar and the Gardens of Semiramis.
5e194c4825d3dff26a63ac728078f909c861abde	It is known that the creator of Babylon is Nimrod.
e0995d610937a31551264c3119cd8ea62310d962	After the flood of Noah, people tried to build Babylon and the Tower of Babel, which was supposed to reach heaven.
eb66b39a56ff4d2b5435e0f1f734899ef737d0e5	The history of the tower is based on spiritual roots and reflects the state of society at a certain historical stage.
0a64555463627d76dce4c55f0a5819829c93af9e	They were one people and spoke the same language.
50803e22233998c0e25ec970366986f3641ce0a3	From the texts of the Holy Scriptures, it can be concluded that not all the sons of Noah were like their father.
85f091e873d2d6a4fdb7f7704a5d15260550b7bb	The Bible briefly speaks of Ham's disrespect for his father and indirectly points to the grave sin committed by Canaan (the son of Ham).
4c322d53b61823860984543740b1401d3a461ed1	Some well-known historians believe that the builders of the tower wanted to take revenge on God for the flood and "make a name for themselves".
82a2403b3049c230a66c8c7505732d57e06f3d1b	The authoritative historian of antiquity Josephus reports that the idea of construction belongs to Nimrod - a strong and cruel ruler of that time.
5ccbccdcc640ae37d8f88bd28acef3d7b12c6651	According to Nimrod, the construction of the Tower of Babel was supposed to show the power of a united humanity and at the same time become a challenge to God.
554458ed48b924577e57ca94083339189735a6e0	Before starting the construction of the tower, they decided that the brick from which they would build it should be burned.
680230a59874cd893d107286e634d93c610b56dd	The construction of the tower took 85 million bricks.
c82ff6e6ed857d453a73aa8772a111f8af4bec76	Many bricks were made from baked clay and the construction of the infamous tower, later called the Babylonian Tower, began.
42fae888609fcac19ee1502ad95a845e1c33bb49	One of the traditions claims that the construction of the city was started first, while the other tells about the construction of the tower.
e836955263969b06b290e5f6aa23d282fc7bf19f	Having achieved success in building the city, Nimrod became proud.
c5f9c5906c6260a66940cb7d415f8ef473162205	Construction was started, and, according to some legends, the tower was built to a considerable height.
1cd241904cad544b123e6f8dfd41b6a575ade7ee	However, these plans were not destined to come true.
fc336b302147294641718dff8c3ccaebc60395a7	After learning about such human audacity, the angry God decided to punish the inhabitants of Ancient Babylon.
155c757e014db5b113902929d609658a980bbfac	From the point of view of the Bible, these people were controlled by Satan himself, because he also did not want to submit to God and staged a rebellion.
3f75f60e6d25fa6259f467ae1d607d9e938475c6	In order to save people and prevent the spread of evil on such a scale as it happened in the time of Noah, the Lord broke the unity of people: the builders stopped understanding each other, speaking in different languages.
0c8d21e91ffa6fff8196c6f1af46a6e0669df4a7	The city and the tower were unfinished.
52a89f1013c613bde4fd3587a06cfd561fff64e4	The unfinished city was called Babylon, which means "confusion": "for there the Lord mixed the language of all the earth, and from there the Lord scattered them throughout the whole earth."
208f023004ff1aa6c976b3e1a859e58c61edff16	The construction of the Tower of Babel was stopped, and then it was destroyed to the ground
07afe62fbe8ed8652e0ba384011840b7ead905c5	The historical authenticity of the Biblical story about the tower to heaven is now beyond doubt.
4d440dfc9a8d3ed21950d379c6a9ad2615a3cc21	It is established that in many cities of that time, majestic ziggurat towers were built on the coasts of the Tigris and Euphrates, intended for the worship of deities
65e7807b319602649c82d5f1e75a2f2fb155cdd9	However, at the beginning of the XX century, the exact location of Ancient Babylon was found by a German archaeologist.
da0c91d7f4b0165586b683fca5a470931b499f5e	In the spring of 1899, Robert Koldewey began excavating the hills that were formed on the site of the ruins of the city and were of no particular interest.
00a8876da334bc3adaebfd042d46b3e2acb0904f	He found the foundation of the Tower of Babel and the gate of the goddess Ishtar.
0b25607fcce5be9ee7844f542cb3496a66c7173f	But, unfortunately, the foundation was the second tower, which was built in memory of the first in the era of Hammurabi.
927ad1da246d2c4e93956f8c881e765d0147e0d1	The Tower of Babel was located on the left bank of the Euphrates on the plain of Sakhn.
6eeef179c8b6c3b9bc4934d1669b775a2cc1e7e3	It is not known exactly when the tower was first erected, but it is known that it was repeatedly allowed by the Assyrians.
a7fdf9585265f5f4ecfe091643edcd9841e728b7	But each new ruler revived it again, until the next conqueror of Babylon wanted to do it.
e4594644c46860eae6bbb9e4d744110ee1c1e5d5	Thanks to the excavations, it turned out that the foundation of the second tower was ninety centimeters square.
53f5276a3323c169bc889cf811233694529d15e9	According to Herodotus, the height of the tower was the same.
f16cc211998d3d322bb99d3b4e63008851f58e7c	The first floor was thirty-three meters, the second eighteen meters and the other floors were six meters each.
87fa4d9bdd2e18b0d1cc9471425c5a39712cf98d	The topmost floor was fifteen meters high and on it was located the most beautiful temple of the Babylonian god Marduk.
fa86bf0c4e1cd13e26c7204da7311168054f734c	The second temple was located on the first floor.
89347b3c438241425517c02278d68391d078c8b2	There was also a huge statue of this god, in front of which a sacrifice was held.
b0a48ae0821f67c8fd53fef9aa18fce1b524887c	And around the tower there were houses of pilgrims and priests.
7ebe2385a665136824160ed4575fbeb4b3f5cad6	Now archaeologists suggest that Ancient Babylon is the legacy of the mysterious civilization of the Sumerians.
6dc97dd0e3e51a3774ee7ac12135d7acd6bf3cd4	It was the representatives of this people who were destroyed by the Global flood.
f586d95ece40059f0f18269a0fd5a4042ca9bdcc	Most likely, the surviving representatives of the Sumerian people built Ancient Babylon.
4599350bb021cbe3277401dd97f430ff371db5f9	Many scientists believe that this ziggurat is the Tower of Babel described in the Bible.
6ff06be9b30adadaaea1212c6abf2d74e712cc49	In addition, there are descriptions of this tower on cuneiform tablets (including the name – Etemenanki), as well as its drawing.
eb61aa3b930742ea26bf472da9a19f7fb20f6a0a	The city of Babylon was great during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar.
3051b3ad1b0b75baccab6a01c5fe03aa3f961dc1	Statues of the gods were passing through the Ishtar Gate on the Processional Road on the day of the celebration of the New Year.
4c4abaf8632c8884184a1d8ffb0ee531949ee1f7	Ishtar was highly revered as the goddess of beauty and love, compared to Venus.
f2db525bcd76e8d535a499b373ffb0d8d828f790	Each deity is the patron saint of one of these cities and was reflected in the gates of Babylon, which was supposed to symbolize the unity of the country.
78b15390ac3a12955bb9e55c116c6c385e0e1ea8	And since Ishtar was recognized as the wife of Marduk,the main front gate was dedicated to her.
d4d7e2ad0c2b176a130cf4eb7936cb19905ce0da	The gate was in the form of an arch, with two rectangular towers on the edges.
1e8b23cedf37170a255f6ecdc2d97d8fbc2ef439	The gate is dedicated to the goddess Ishtar and is built of bricks covered with bright blue, yellow, white and black glaze.
6107327498281964cd30a66f726f120dc0fa2ca9	The walls of the gates and the Processional Roads are covered with bas-reliefs of extraordinary beauty, depicting animals in poses very close to natural.
4abbb93fd135245d36de0ef3ef06d6d4e68cf477	The walls of the path are decorated with about 120 bas-reliefs of lions.
14204dbd1dea2e8a8f92ca05986eb8546a354b33	The walls of the gate are covered with alternating rows of images of sirrush and bulls
e724100e59c350346ae18b92a10ed81cd046bd5f	In order to make such a mixture, certain components are required, but they were not in Ancient Babylon.
598a4ee16ba581be22796241ba72d07bba6b4e4c	Therefore, the Babylonians had to bring them from other countries that were almost at the end of the world.
1b1b97478dfa8680957b65441417d7f53993d13c	At the same time, the temperature had to be at least 900 degrees Celsius to make such an enamel.
846ba95672e6760539e10a66eca09998c2c32cbb	And after covering the bricks with enamel, they were fired for twelve hours at a temperature of more than 1000 degrees Celsius.
50eefdfc33a8a3157bb4a09d9dd73c13efe8033a	The catch is that now in the modern world such a temperature can be achieved only with the help of electronics.
36e374ad86b1acd3605895521c7346b68c888731	How it turned out for the inhabitants of Ancient Babylon is really a mystery.
2dc994caf3ace7a0db524b23d33b9e084f1efc42	Here the already mentioned Processional Road began, the continuation of which in the city was Aibur Shaba Street.
040bdd4bdc900b12330ffa1c904cd1241769a75b	It was on it that a large procession led by a golden statue of Marduk was arranged for the New Year.
8304aa3fe86f97e29110a1eae04f7c574633d436	The street itself was composed mainly of slabs of pink stone, with inlays of red stone around the edges.
95b0c9200a36ab565460785b62a083af67c18b86	Its width was 23 meters, and along its entire length it was accompanied by walls of glazed blue brick with a height of seven meters.
da50781e91eb13c8fa6dbf56c93ac57fa1d00453	Every two meters, the walls were decorated with relief images of lions in frightening poses.
1caf369449d1afa23a6830b15b530ce01ffc3844	When the work on the construction of the gate was completed, Nebuchadnezzar compiled an inscription, which was made in cuneiform and put on public display.
4cf6db2d0c17425f623d70a23f63439d8fab9989	The inscription begins as follows: "I am Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, a pious sovereign, ruling according to the will and favor of Marduk, the supreme ruler of the City, the favorite of Heaven, cunning and tireless... always caring for the welfare of Babylon, the wise firstborn son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon... "
57b58b842c6de1c072c79ff09bb73bb8655a10dc	But everything falls into decay sooner or later, so the beauty of the gates of the goddess Ishtar was appreciated only after German scientists conducted a study here.
da266365581cd69f5c910345259b01b9610d4ded	It is impossible not to mention the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, which at the moment are one of the seven Wonders of the world.
6d18575357d0e5970c73d4bc3fcc913bc3ffcd23	The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis are one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
3fd796dbde109733e486afcda9660fc399695707	A more correct name for this structure is the Hanging Gardens of Amitis (according to other sources — Amanis): this was the name of the wife of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, for whom the gardens were created
32ca3c4772e93d06d73a9addd776d5e14f645537	It is strange that Herodotus, who visited Mesopotamia, does not mention anything about gardens
55fa0ca08f8cf8ac5dcbbfeae3dd85040e8bd357	And also in the chronicles of Babylon, there is also no mention of this wonderful place.
6866faaa1d983355260b70e56007d874cf2bde45	Officially, it is believed that the creator of the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis was Nebuchadnezzar II.
9d535cba3747e561c06ef37a7e7aa02012965f46	There is another version.
8c26af59acadcaac60040a7933a1f5e9b8b6e487	It is assumed that the Assyrian queen Semiramis may be responsible for the construction of the gardens.
55e02cd05755b9ba6963c12579cc70055676af61	It's not for nothing that this Wonder of the World is named after her .
fd16682549ddefd9697f3133fc1f34dd47f1935b	But this is only a version that is not supported by a sufficient number of facts.
081a87ff9f32dbcaae8115c461dd9a98f7b2778a	In the 6th century BC, Nebuchadnezzar II (king of Babylon) ordered the construction of wonderful gardens, which he dedicated to his wife Amitis.
fda7148f95a53a26ca90b21088b619dd939dfb6c	In the 6th century BC, Nebuchadnezzar II (king of Babylon) ordered the construction of wonderful gardens, which he dedicated to his wife Amitis. She was a Median princess and was very sad in the noisy and dusty Babylon, as she was used to the green hills and the native aromas of the gardens
3438ce928f7a5f9262111501b1b86d2d3bfa3075	In order to please his beloved wife, Nebuchadnezzar decided to create gardens of unprecedented beauty that could glorify him throughout the world.
fcee38da1f7ce52c29346b76ae69087417008493	However, the idea of creating blooming green hills in the middle of the dry plain of Babylon might seem like just a fantasy.
0ca13765d51a01e89a70925d84e5b207651a147c	Despite this, amazing paradise gardens were still built.
43af8ba05a19712ee5371eec230393f4be5a5738	The hanging gardens of Semiramis looked like a pyramid, and consisted of four tiers, which were simultaneously projecting balconies and terraces.
69cc377fa2772e069cb362b8dd917be0a6d3ba5a	The tiers were held thanks to 25-meter columns. Each of them was planted with unsurpassed plants (flowers, grass, trees and shrubs).
4de8e1ffbb226974caec40cd6675f0e15862dbe6	The irrigation system was also interesting. It is assumed that the water was delivered by slaves around the clock, pumping it from the river.
f06db6724beb8fc4e926acfdd9773f711e59a894	There were pipes in the cavity of one column.
3b543df218478c583c250a74b1357dbd100b7941	Several hundred slaves turned a wheel with buckets made of leather around the clock to raise water, this is how water from the river got into the gardens.
e0db2797a8175a225413bd6dbe6ebd0bc45ffe7c	Unfortunately, the Gardens of Semiramis have not been preserved to this day.
f1e20b4f319b89035f12dc79ce2106abadd5dae8	There are only ruins left 90 km from Baghdad.
137b25fbbe7c49189391f8aae86263f169e03e23	As we can see, Ancient Babylon keeps many secrets and riddles that have yet to be solved and understood.
b7ad18ba119a87d36d1d9b149bf2a07921f8c42f	It is safe to say that the Babylonian engineering science has reached a high level.
129df56705d8bd32cb3de232ac5a0362dfaec3ce	The proof of this is such ingenious structures as the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis and the Tower of Babel.
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e19e6be96e6f8fb9d03b4021cce3b87ae06c68cd	Hanging gardens of Semiramis - the second wonder of the world
af29e24d8aa80a844a3f4f6303ebdbc49f397e2c	Rate the material
a8df0a03c39928a2f36abbfbc05e6af0e43c951a	(262 votes)
d6c0efbf9974130a8b9e0f2fa9d9c5738d73336c	The second of the seven wonders of the ancient world are the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, which are also called the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
8d1873bff6c3b050006a0724249f369284a42f5c	Unfortunately, this beautiful creation no longer exists, but the debate about it continues to this day.
66b5b60293ce630a3fd7e50c8e3d09ae00dfd4ac	She was a Median princess and was very sad in the noisy and dusty Babylon, as she was used to the green hills and the native aromas of the gardens In order to please his beloved wife, Nebuchadnezzar decided to create gardens of unprecedented beauty that could glorify him throughout the world.
0a535e42d409a61a9f1559bd9fee9b998747d689	The tiers were held thanks to 25 meter columns.
0b663b518443bfb74ee859b9e4e59c0283acad75	Each of them was planted with unsurpassed plants (flowers, grass, trees and shrubs).
8dec9aaca442d742fadfdbd040b4ea479fdb7972	Seedlings and seeds were brought to Babylon from all over the world.
3ac84532e12404318c56bb933c603fdaa598937f	Externally, the pyramid looked like a blooming evergreen hill.
2969d7103639b419d7c5f9209ce57718be65d455	The irrigation system at that time seemed very strange.
b6f24ccc18796aef644794a0e89f134be71a7228	The wonderful gardens with interesting trees, various flowers and pleasant cool air in the stuffy and hot Babylon were considered a true wonder of the world.
f44eccd6814c85cca9824b615432b66a9dac8dd4	They could be called a real monument, which was created in the name of love.
dbb5a11ca9cf7bf0c0f5d7b22713c078f4606bfc	The descendants of Queen Aimitis, it is not clear for what reason, began to call the name of the famous queen of Assyria Semiramis, after whom they called the amazing gardens.
7a83185590cd1283ae592e4b0f38479713b84486	It is for this reason that hanging gardens have received a well known name.
49bd2cee3d80e5517126000550eccc4c151b7e7d	In the 9th century BC, Alexander the Great was conquered by the splendor of Babylon, which is why he turned this palace into a residence.
0fb24e1370fd024c98454e576710b73af13f820e	His favorite pastime was relaxing in the shade of the gardens.
5f812044f0c6ceb4c0519ba989e1fc69731679af	Only here he could immerse himself in the memories of his native Macedonia.
c51e86624b4d8c2bfdcd12099d2dffba366a2456	The throne room of the palace and the chambers of the lower tier of the hanging gardens became the last place of Alexander's stay on earth, from where he began his journey to immortality...
f1de5cc84b48cfd52d8ba73373c58c2bd75a4276	When the city began to desolate, there was simply no one to supply water to the gardens.
b79f8ebe76a0d0b1f834800f7946376f00f24f91	Thus, over time, all the plants dried up, and the earthquakes completely destroyed the palace.
d6a01f656a09461efcf4949eefeb24b3584907d0	Simultaneously with Babylon, one of the most beautiful wonders of the world, the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, also disappeared.
d9261233f726a628eda7dd19b65838ad6053ffc5	Read 143742 times
f42fbfa1303030a1856050ac155d287065f53cf0	Tags wonder of the world alexander the great babylon Semiramis
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1aad67de741db3ae9ac9926e0c5e1c0e64c84855	HISTORY AND SOCIETY
ffab522a753eb09a56bc42c2d51a6afa0ebd9bcb	Archeology
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529668110ada571cc6fb407044d1eb74c7f95947	Also on the topic BABYLON AND ASSYRIA BABYLONIAN ASSYRIAN ART
db6794083253fae61e9e91d586a16c6a34e37e2c	BABYLON, the famous ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Babylonia, was located on the Euphrates River, 89 km south of modern Baghdad and north of Hilla.
12f4ee5ee88d3543e6d14642adf42708ae3d58fa	The original name of the city has survived for centuries, and still the northernmost of the hills on the site of ancient Babylon is called Babil.
54a60f95b44e1a02dfd366ea1368b09cac516003	The excavations of the giant complex of ruins left over from the ancient city were started in 1899 by the German Oriental Society under the leadership of Robert Koldewey.
84f2294b7562340f6cbf05c01c977c26669b364d	Babylon appears on the historical horizon in the Old Babylonian period (c. 1900 c. 1600 BC).
b1b84250b54ce0e9f59c860eea89500fa64b55cb	After defeating the Roman from Larsa, Hammurabi captured Sumer, located in the lower part of the Mesopotamian Valley, and became the ruler of the Sumero Akkadian kingdom; capturing the kingdom of Mari, he extended the borders of his state to the upper Euphrates.
fda010fe04673fd95c99c091135a3aedf493a078	Even earlier, Hammurabi carried out important reforms, completely subordinating the temples in administrative and economic terms, regulating the collection of taxes and creating a single judicial system; his work as a legislator is captured in the famous Laws of Hammurabi, a copy of which was found in Susa.
7c076064c76b96e159515ff61234c73b3f790fdc	Excavations in the central part of the Merkes Hill in Babylon have reached a layer lying partly above and partly below the water table and dated to the time of the I dynasty.
f63b3a99beda2d342203b2d5fad345c2c512675a	According to the uncovered remains of the city, it is clear that it was well planned, the streets intersected one another at right angles.
3c84cc2f587bd016ddc2c17489172a50e47d83f5	The houses found were built of mud bricks and surrounded by the same walls on a foundation of baked bricks.
bb809709b04d3b37f34186f95d812f19a9d57df6	Already under the son of Hammurabi Samsuilun, the invasions of the Kassite tribes descending from the eastern mountains began.
f9eac16cde123afe57602ac0671b742c7975b7d3	For more than a century, Samsuiluna and his successors managed to contain the onslaught of the Kassites.
b477dc82dde2c149f33fa07e80e65975d49f39f7	However, in the end they managed to capture the country and ruled in Babylon for almost half a thousand years (about 1600 about 1155 BC).
b7303e2b5875f3aa6e55a8e1de5f0aba85e601e7	Excavations of the Kassite layer of the Merkes hill showed that the location of streets and blocks during this period remained almost the same as in the time of Hammurabi.
64fd47937be95d1d5491ed7a1e1c8bbf09f1d029	The houses of this period were built of mud bricks, but, as a rule, did not have a foundation of baked bricks, which was a characteristic feature of the city of Hammurabi.
1665d6ef663755de7291ffa8feaac8a5ccd4b7aa	Ceramics had a definitely original character, especially the abundance of jewelry attracts attention.
d5b8231403c46956c77a1060bf010c6b75d7a52a	The Kassite dynasty was replaced by the II dynasty of Issina, which held power in Babylonia for more than a century.
21b1bd9af71e80c09e450d6b08756d041e9d722f	Its most prominent king was Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1105), who managed to subdue Assyria for a while.
e17b141e9804df2cb8b8b634dd66596869fddd0f	However, after him, for most of the Middle Babylonian period, the country was under the rule of Assyria.
f5080eb1b85abac6945a3858cd1ee595d1f4f60d	Sargon II captured Babylon in 710 BC and was crowned king here.
e772327b59cf57b732c4ed53dd6dc1ebe587220a	Then he built a massive wall with a round corner tower near the southern citadel of Babylon, leaving an inscription on its stone walls: "To Marduk!
a6a0627fcf20d47109884175159fbbbc048d5e6a	The Great Lord, the divine creator who lives in Esagil, the Lord of Babil, his Lord;
15f4ca303c083f48fb2bf64aa108506f2bbcbfeb	Sargon, the mighty king, the King of the land of Ashura, the king of all.
6fc74b8024a46cf556f5f5f3de8b304ac49e5740	The ruler of Babil, the king of Sumer and Akkad, the breadwinner of Esagila and Ezid."
f8b3f1cbbb1e3d31bf361bddb0bb6d511ff306b8	Sargon's son Sinnacherib completely destroyed the city in 689 BC and even turned the waters of the Euphrates on it to wash away most of it from the face of the earth.
5c0615abcb12ef8aa3d984d5122fe5360bcd349a	However, his heir Asarhaddon restored and rebuilt the city.
f271db061d9f0b07c0dfba5d0c5c831a958c4133	In particular, the main temple of Babylon, Esagila, was restored; at the same time, the famous ziggurat, which went down in history under the name of the Tower of Babel, was built.
cd96ceca0023025bcbcf15866571b5cf5c855fbd	The New Babylonian period (612-539 BC) began with the seizure of royal power in Babylon by the Chaldean Nabopalasar, who allied with other anti Assyrian forces and destroyed Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, in 612 BC.
41dc620d96c7abbe849acc38fe9af30dd024644b	Under his son and successor Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC), Babylon reached its highest prosperity.
ebbd4bfa2c1edefedee9eaa883f0cc33d4163228	Then there was, as the German archaeologists who conducted the excavations of Babylon called it, "a colossal reconstruction of the entire city".
fa65bef1d9c2727558e40a090ee1f2cf79d996d9	Everything was rebuilt: Esagila the temple of Marduk, the ziggurat of Etemenanki, the temple of Emah in the citadel and the more ancient temple of Ishtar on Merkes.
7e8b6cfc94e57aee6c1a92f624ced60c7f445fd2	The southern citadel was supplemented with the royal palace, and another palace was built in its northern part.
e1ceb86c2d425919b7597aea720fc39025d2b0d3	The walls of the early city were restored, and the city that had grown in size was surrounded by a huge external wall; canals were dug and the first stone bridge over the Euphrates was built.
a5a3a78e09a1ec49e73b5f44af86b828d5986e41	Hanging gardens were considered to be one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, but modern excavations have not been able to provide materials from which it would be possible to identify their remains with certainty.
a2f51f0b628e91be4cec2559fbd26fc14017a3b2	The most magnificent buildings of Babylon of that period were, as far as can be judged from the preserved remains, the Ishtar Gate and the Avenue of Processions, which were given an elegant appearance by friezes of bulls, dragons and lions made of colored tiles.
0eab4e43e029d9fae3ace7edb9e18c43617e4672	The last king of this period was Nabonidus, who shared power in Babylon with his eldest son Belsharutsur (Belshazzar).
081c853674d978157be070462166208ef60d13c6	As a result of the excavations, it was found that after Nabonidus, a new temple of Ishtar on Merkes and a powerful fortification wall with a large pier on the banks of the Euphrates remained in Babylon.
3009cad53e5f02ffca343ef5f32a6c82fa86f62d	In 539 BC, as noted in the Chronicle of Nabonidus and the Cyrus scroll, Babylon was captured by the Persian king Cyrus II the Great.
3a088311532a2fc7a264f595779b08c35a9dbfd2	The descriptions of Babylon from the time of the Persian kings, left by Herodotus and Ctesias, the doctor of Artaxerxes II, have come down to us; from the time of Artaxerxes II, the ruins of the building in the southern citadel have been preserved.
6cfc5ba8d069347a465e6f255b2c084c0b62f7bf	There is no doubt that the decline of Babylon began already before its conquest by Alexander the Great.
e521608183faa2a7736c0a07ba5cdf864e222ee3	Alexander, who chose Babylon as his capital, intended to carry out major restoration work here, but died before he could carry out his plans.
7fa8fc2cc6445109ba9373976ec09bdccd791c4c	In the Greek and Parthian period, the royal buildings remaining from antiquity began to be dismantled for material for new construction, and this continued for centuries until ruins remained of the city.
a69c4ac19d69606da0430e0497d302db01539914	See also MESOPOTAMIA, AN ANCIENT CIVILIZATION.
54e3fb6e965c681d1cf0a2295afca6e1a93579d2	© 1997-2016 Universal popular science encyclopedia "Circumnavigation"
99e68f69fbe571e4fedb47e24c7faed2b71b407d	About the project Terms of use Advertising on the website Contact information
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d99688d2a0feb596d1924d8ef74d0c0bc52a7365	The Code of Hammurabi Economy and Social Relations Trade The Conquest of Babylon by the Kassites
7603a4ed7eb613eb4eb65503a976f4142cb8e8e5	Chapter III. Ancient Babylon Sunrise of the sun god Shamash.
bd87a01391777f241826484f365dee65997ea1eb	An impression of the Babylonian seal
f47a7337b70900632d235ddbdbe722b104386577	Babylon, located in the heart of Mesopotamia, where the channels of the Tigris and Euphrates converge, was at the intersection of important trade routes that went from Asia Minor and Transcaucasia to the Persian Gulf and from the Syrian coast to the plateau of Iran.
2b0acc8bbe7613c263a8dd2c81a76c4af1e812d0	Babylon became the capital of a powerful state and turned into the largest commercial, political and cultural center of the Near East, retaining its importance for almost two millennia, which was facilitated by its favorable geographical location.
bc6a3b325e7e9833b82c7c18a5aa779b33419b9e	The first information about Babylon dates back to the III millennium BC, when this city was part of the great Sumerian Akkadian kingdom and bore the ancient Sumerian name Kadingir (Gate of the Gods).
b03aade5bd2e04aa31ca9b0a6dfa161c8ff25375	At the end of the third millennium BC, numerous Semitic nomadic tribes of the Amorites penetrated into Mesopotamia, seized vast areas in the country of Akkad and created a strong state centered in Babylon.
6109ec753f0f9d7824ac84f5e0c08c1a9e654ba0	At about the same time, the mountain tribes of the Elamites, taking advantage of the weakening of the Sumero Akkadian kingdom, invaded Mesopotamia from the east, firmly settled in Sumer, turning Larsa into one of their main strongholds.
c68e8e187324e8d8fe16040b9e8a9b617ae4cfbd	Foreign conquerors could not peacefully divide the captured country among themselves.
a35b69a19cdc53773169a4664dfecf075ad1c22c	A rivalry began between them and the inevitable struggle for dominance and domination in all of Mesopotamia broke out.
87841a5460ad0516d2d9f32cdaa0972bffbcb187	The winner of this struggle was the Babylonian kingdom, in which the Amorite dynasty was strengthened (1894-1595 BC).
5c272d26b2c55a189ab8720822e0df8706303e03	The Babylonian Amorite kingdom reached its highest heyday under Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), who united all the Two Rivers under his rule and formed a large and strong state.
3e4ca1a72bd8a51861a876d95a132e005d34cc74	Map # 1.
0bcfcca4536d0fa01d6f102ee6e7c2e04a774626	Mesopotamia
a0886d257b38e12f3fe77e8cb707ff666c18ea4c	According to these documents, the foreign policy of Hammurabi, the Elamite rulers who were entrenched in Lars, the kings of the large state of Mari, located to the west of the Euphrates and the cities of central and northern Mesopotamia, was woven into one complex and intricate knot.
46619369b6a448bd2cbfb6b1aba0a11e984268d0	The most active foreign policy was led by Hammurabi, who set himself the goal of uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.
c169143d9d78aad0ed00a63335ae8cb243dab137	In an effort to achieve this goal, Hammurabi widely used not only his military force, but also various means of diplomacy.
6ac0c6690d00d6cf15044bdcf4abadbad8169684	Having concluded a military alliance with Zimrilim, the king of the Mari state, Hammurabi defeats his opponents separately.
6b02519d036eaca5efbf628019762dbbfaf21152	At the beginning of his reign, he conquered the Sumerian cities of Isin, Uruk and Ur.
74350320ef77f3b04c2e3b47fd152c8de101559c	Then he strengthens his power in central Mesopotamia, having received the consent of his ally Zimrilim, who in one of his diplomatic messages gives him freedom of action in Akkad in the following words: "If the princes of Eshnunna recognize you, then rule as king over the country of Eshnunna.
0c18b82276c7f0b6e8fd33dc68e86189f69f97a6	And if they do not recognize you, then plant... who is with you, so that he will reign over them."
9e7aa78c74d09f5476083efd96646a31054dd123	Statue of Ibih idi from Mari.
b95f8dcec526b9c89ec57474cf1408a701d9a5af	Paris.
defd5a791d1427f524221bbbaa58b2941a64aadb	The Louvre
d15e5e1ebeebc971c86a967fec038604a8083949	Hammurabi is engaged in a persistent and prolonged struggle with his long time rival, the Elamite ruler Rimsin, who has established himself in Lars.
ad87f879e76f3303479c8aee2cdf3dce42bcdd4c	In the 31st year of his reign," with the help of the gods Anu and Enlil, he crushed the country of Emutbal and King Rimsin, " forcing Rimsin to flee and annexing Sumer to his kingdom.
c1b57109d4e42e2283abb331d2d8159e8569769c	Relying on the military assistance of King Mari, Hammurabi subordinates the regions of northern Mesopotamia to his power.
41aaaab70d2d0eac047552dae34a18418eaf483e	Then, having fortified himself in Mesopotamia, he turns his weapons against his recent ally, the state of Mari, and after two devastating raids, in the 33rd and 35th years of his reign, he destroys and captures the capital of this once powerful and rich kingdom.
03d34c428ccbaf8715be504f6c79604b67172b0e	Some documents of this time indicate the existence of diplomatic relations between Babylon and the northern Syrian state of Ugarit, whose capital was recently thoroughly excavated.
d8b6c7c5f8979a40b043447ebec3012e366129bd	So, in one document of this time it says: "Tell Zimrilim (King Mari) this: So says Hammurabi, your brother: "A man of Ugarit has just written to me the following:?
267e37ab67c9d066b57e3dd3231cdddfd66b6ab3	Show me the residence of Zimrilim.
0cada7dc6c85b5bfc81af0203560e6bb6848728a	Do I want to see her?“.
7bf59246b622238c46fcf4f62245efd32d847009	Now, with this very courier, I'll give you a pic It was the code of laws of King Hamurabi. inscribed in archaic cuneiform script on a basalt pillar.
9a2dec15d16f00e428cc70100c21847f0cb660f7	The upper part of the pillar depicts King Hammurabi standing in a solemn pose before the sun god Shamash, sitting on a throne.
eb48208108e2bb6c5904673ffbe3886eab963d78	The rest of the column is covered with a cuneiform text containing 247 articles of the judicial code.
2700a8ba90ee3fb1cb455e0b78100f01ba66de58	Five columns containing 35 articles were scraped, apparently, by the Elamite conqueror, who took this monument as a trophy to Susa.
f219ff56d4dd10e252027fa9c5eec22c54db28e0	This omission in the text can be restored thanks to the found copies of the codex, which the ancient Babylonian scribes and judges used for training purposes, as well as in judicial practice.
68171ddc8334f2f67d53263f3d4a7e0b5b9bab89	Hammurabi before the god Shamash.
e7e6fadcc5de5b55906126e69cd1f3648a0a70aa	Relief on a pillar with a code of laws.
fdadaec17046fc9bca176b8b910e15aa0bf0d187	The Code of Hammurabi is a further development and codification of ancient Sumerian laws that had a strong influence on Babylonian legislation.
0d62133708953b8ff9862656769505b077dc6194	The judicial code of Hammurabi is not much more systematic than the collections of Sumerian judicial decisions, and there is already a clear sense of the legislator's attempt to group related articles of the law into groups, but it still cannot be recognized as a code in the full sense of the word and is rather a set of individual legal decisions (casual law).
7b1c971245cfa064b439596de753d8f0a6b40105	The judicial code consists of three parts: 1.
d5e28a369ec578b2b96714b6f3742e7fa6fafb87	Introduction, 2.
a03e4707b9a53287158c909f54a68d846ced1d1f	The actual sudebnik, 3.
0ed8d20504725f940a243480a17e0ff18ef62a4f	Conclusion.
d543c4a23b650aa88b46754cd40af8d9b87924e1	The introduction indicates that the publication of the Code of Laws is aimed at establishing justice in the country.
02123bb7da8b9bd542bacdaf3d4be39f30513809	Then the king lists his titles, glorifies his greatness, notes the benefits he has rendered to the country.
58fb990dfc84a0732ecdafdd1c2839b23327bbad	The middle, main part of the judicial book contains a list of articles concerning criminal law, legal proceedings, property rights (theft and robbery), the rights of soldiers.
11eac8604aeb3af4104e1922b86cc417a5bba47f	Separate articles speak about the rights of ownership of real estate, about trade, mortgage law, family law, self mutilation, the work of architects and shipbuilders, the hiring of labor and slavery.
39482ce9f6dce9c81601764cd047f012598a01fa	In the final part, the king lists his services to the people, calls for a blessing on the heads of those kings who will fulfill his laws, and sends terrible curses on those who will not comply with them or decide to cancel them.
af60925d053c5c9e7d87a07c61099a0fce409626	The documents of the time of Hammurabi and mainly his code of laws allow us to restore a general picture of the economic life of the country.
3c59d7defa9e8f6e104c057f71f8775b4a01f316	In a large and centralized state, the state power, relying on a huge land fund concentrated in its hands, invades the economic life of the country, trying to direct its development.
b13d24f35e479442303c783abc9673330c83dd33	Constantly feeling the need for building material, the tsar takes a number of measures to protect the forests, which were divided into separate "forest areas" and were under the jurisdiction of special "foresters" who were subordinate to the chief forester.
50120bd8fd0dd87fc03710d2d1b2ed0e0be986dc	A document has been preserved in which the king orders to investigate the case of felling trees in forest areas entrusted to the main foresters Ablianum and Sinmagir, as well as to find out who cut down the trees: foresters or "someone else's hand" (i.e. an attacker).
47b8afb641d1e8387cd1c213893a2111600701a4	Foresters were responsible for the preservation of forests.
92b8a77c50339a4caf399692bb24a9d8d5acfc91	For official crimes, they were punishable by death.
3e478aac65e351a68fa1c6a52d2df39dd065cd45	Cattle breeding was still of great importance in the economy of the Babylonian kingdom.
f895fc7e90b68f8b340872fc66e7fc350de50f48	Vast meadows, steppes and mountain slopes were beautiful pastures, where huge herds grazed.
cea32e15a7020d711c76c38dea40a265fd3d45e0	By regulating the rights of ownership of livestock, the legislator is especially careful to protect the interests of rich owners of herds.
9a4e8905b8952104b895d0035b8476506937a71d	According to the Code of Hammurabi, the tenant of cattle was fully responsible to the owner for the cattle he hired and was obliged to compensate the owner for losses if any damage was caused to the cattle (death, damage to the eye, horns, tail or nostrils).
733cf9a40de3f027543334bfd8d52a5a1f3907b8	This confirms the fact that a large number of herds were concentrated in the hands of individual rich people who rented cattle, obviously, to the poor.
75c8080119f236924eaf02bbe4ee49c92a62eed3	Other articles of the law establish the responsibility of the shepherd for the cattle entrusted to him and impose heavy punishment on him in case of changing the brand and selling the stolen cattle.
40f1afb8692c378b7f0a9f64ee2f5a3a245bdf16	There is no doubt that the legislator in these articles reflects the interests of slave owners who owned large herds of cattle.
6576ba08213a91e15fe10ff4a4c9bef051abaa0d	The alluvial soil of Mesopotamia, well fertilized and irrigated by the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, especially contributed to the development of agriculture, which retained its primary importance even in the Babylonian era.
be3b4c52fb5fca6b46132849911d79c390d2719b	This is figuratively indicated by the following words from a document of this time: "Donot you know —" writes the author of one letter, " that the fields are the life of the country?"
34e8ac788c3743b0c37066f293d7672c3f369c2d	In those days, plowing was usually carried out with the help of a heavy rough plow, to which two oxen were harnessed.
b56d720510a23d97ed4f57dee0d6c30efdbbe730	Sometimes people were harnessed to the plow, which indicates the widespread use of slave labor.
bdeaa3db7dd0326964d8d0b4be36f7a3a2b3f5d1	The development of agriculture due to natural conditions was largely determined by artificial irrigation.
d331a466d757120ebf2596a65916ff59f700fe91	Therefore, Hammurabi pays great attention to the development of irrigation.
2c1167111d74be21643ccb6abbdb49f44cce4761	He is proud of the fact that he "made the country convenient for cultivation, like a granary filled with grain... gathered the scattered population into the land of Sumer and Akkad, watered and fed them, settled them in abundance and contentment."
38289405de113fbaa0840e2f0d3a7323e02f33a1	By order of Hammurabi, the Nar Hammurabi canal was dug — " the wealth of the people, which brings abundance of water to Sumer and Akkad, turns its shores into a cultural area, piles up piles of grain and supplies constant water to the population of Sumer and Akkad."
948bfef3ed8f1668bf4b1fe41ced4865d83bff25	The state power in the person of the tsar not only cares about the expansion of the irrigation network, but also about its maintenance in order.
90f992c69406677864b57901de327d4a8583103a	The tsar constantly gives orders to local officials regarding the clearing of canals and the production of various works related to irrigation.
cfd03a749c8dcaf725b71358b392df268fc59549	If it was the function of the state to maintain the entire irrigation network in order, then the maintenance of each individual section of it was primarily the business of the community.
b406700e971d04c84c9476c4ba719dc6939adeea	This is indicated by articles 53-56 of the Hammurabi Code.
4691e69e9ef911ba9ff1726a9037cbe50c2fa2f7	These articles establish the responsibility of each community member for maintaining this irrigation section in order, and if someone caused a break in the dam and a neighboring section was flooded, the culprit must compensate for the bread destroyed by him.
9f971b3a5c4ff0e04262ea15ad110bf85a8459d4	If he is unable to compensate for the bread, then according to Article 54, he and his property should be sold, turning the proceeds to compensate for the losses incurred.
525d7ac119b9b19b17ccf7b3ec29e5ec55d07045	A number of other documents of this time indicate the increased control carried out by the central government over the maintenance of the irrigation network.
1cbedc2bebbe0a6dc28a2712089d3fa06d80c0da	If the royal palace received information that there was a shortage of water for irrigation in a particular area, then an appropriate order was immediately sent from the palace to the local official about taking the necessary measures to provide these fields with water.
ef6d466df1f9fd55f6b40ede7d7f960ecbb8d4ac	Tenants who rented plots of royal land had to be provided with water for irrigation of the land.
340fce8d48de6fc6233032c365e6f46888a4c1c9	In the event that there was a shortage of water for irrigation of these leased fields, local officials had to either take measures to irrigate these fields, or replace the unpowered field with an irrigated one.
2cfadffb8eaf01f94864d14d35768d3bea5104c4	This is indicated by numerous royal letters that assign financial responsibility to local officials for the normal irrigation of all leased lands.
ae5beff9e62531b32d34ead798d3c23c8d0f4de4	In case of crop failure due to poor irrigation, the local official had to pay for the tenant the arrears of his rent.
a7b53cafca9ab7e7626f2447c8990b6ba1bba546	Along with grain farming and cattle breeding, gardening is also widely used.
92020d59ccc2b6711ca645b4609d47f540f2f330	No wonder ancient Mesopotamia seemed to be a blooming garden, and it was here that the legend of the Garden of Paradise arose, in which beautiful fruit trees grow.
2d4b577ee11cc835511094458732f339eea4dc0d	The state, which has protected the interests of land owners, takes it upon itself to protect the interests of the owners of garden plots as well.
30e55f74de6ac2fa9b441489b20850759302ddc2	According to one article of the Hammurabi Code, a fairly high fine was imposed for illegal cutting of a tree in someone else's garden: half a min in silver (about 240 grams).
02e40f7ff5aea864853aa0577a54c13920dbbdd4	The favorable geographical position of Babylon contributed to a fairly significant development of trade.
0ee88e55a79de0e93c9e6746b6c663528324543f	Unfortunately, there are few references in the Hammurabi code to those items that were the main objects of trade.
03199d0816ed3c4e1337b2ef50f12a1e0a8256ee	However, one can think that agricultural products were especially widely exported from the Babylonian kingdom, as from an agrarian country.
14e3daa5ec858781f3efdf2d865c745d2402bd4c	Thus, in article 104, bread, wool and butter are listed as goods, and in article 237, dates are also added to these agricultural products.
c253607b332beef0356baa30311ffe6bf77a0b24	Trade in Babylonia took various forms.
4e0c87d291eb0d6b38e77f52f9500218bdd4a894	Along with the large wholesale trade, there was also a small, retail trade.
86052f474e322b116bf196a05294e305c12641a8	Small traders, receiving loans or goods from the big rich or from the temple, conducted trading operations at their own risk.
2579db35c2fb2cb2eb7c76e08126c143320ca5d5	The legislator, who protects the interests of the owners of the rich, and in this case took a number of measures to ensure that a large wholesale trader has a high profit established by law.
573744b22e2ebef0cd08c63dfdfcac606ebfe314	According to article 101, the person who took a loan from a large merchant was obliged to return the money taken in double the amount, even if he did not make a profit.
9f6514c0d3960663f4fae677306f08d2fc43f66f	The only reason that exempted the borrower from returning the loan was military actions (Article 103).
424c6b30f0e6e8637c1d55339327801d087665eb	Trade transactions for agricultural products were made in special markets where prices for goods were set, as can be seen from the documents providing for the return of the value of the borrowed grain "at the exchange rate of the day".
860bd79b958ecb2a63bdcb7c9595b51c9939b276	Indeed, it can be seen from the documents that the cost of various products often fluctuated depending on the general economic conditions, as well as on the time of year.
3f2b142e7333221c83e2fcfe62c2155c01a55e10	Thus, in the reign of Singashid of Uruk, " 3 gur of grain, or 12 min of wool, or 10 min of copper, or 30 ka of vegetable oil were sold at the price of the country for 1 shekel of silver."
4967426b5307c9c001102929ffab31619c15f6e3	Thus, silver was valued 600 times more expensive than copper, 720 times more expensive than wool, and the cost of 2 liters of oil and it was equal to the cost of 1 kg of wool.
94648f3d1a52f731173deff4155d3b7154eef1eb	This relatively low cost of agricultural products in the Singashid era is obviously explained by the fact that Uruk in the era of the second Babylonian dynasty, due to some decline of Babylon, experienced a time of significant economic prosperity.
4cf14c7b5bd0bcf78eb2593c6022d3f7338e1f3e	In the reign of Hammurabi, agricultural products were much more expensive than under Singashid.
a12ce47e6e857974a41be9c8599c29606fac8ea9	For example, wool was twice as expensive, vegetable oil was three times more expensive, and grain was twice as expensive.
7e17e2e332f726bd12f5cf61792b158c665cee04	This high cost of living under Hammurabi may be explained by the continuous wars that Babylon was waging at that time and which were supposed to affect the economic life of the country, causing a significant increase in the prices of agricultural products.
e4c4afb56dc250a50c2583d61bfe64a0d3df723d	In connection with the growth and strengthening of the Babylonian state, the foreign trade conducted by the Babylonian merchants also expanded.
636363bbd4a80cc51e7c18d15f1e0861923da88c	So, we know that they went to foreign markets to buy and sell slaves.
5b7b28194e61ba6c56326dc36b2791ab4ea1071f	In some documents, the cost of a particular product is set at the exchange rate that was at that time on a particular foreign market, for example, in Tupliash.
d77f8bf94fe01808937bcfa401f5b3c35db1635c	Babylon under the I Babylonian dynasty gradually turned into the largest trading center of the entire Near Asia.
8303f526a9306ca85c2d0fc11aae834cb6038e7e	But the economic system of Babylonia basically remains natural.
b7aa72f7aa9fe398f3ca882ddc3b0aea02f099d3	Grain plays the same role in calculations as silver.
2e89801d27dd2402d24845179e64442c2ada9bba	Grain is used to pay remuneration to agricultural workers, ox drivers, shepherds, for hiring carts, oxen and donkeys, as well as salaries to royal officials and judges.
436da350cd05c7531ed84ad808f870c332615468	The state, which owned a huge amount of land and accumulated a lot of various products in its warehouses, was quite naturally interested in making all calculations in kind.
c694f35517c471087f7671d08c69909822c697c5	On the other hand, the dominance of subsistence farming is largely due to the strong preservation of the remnants of the communal system.
f05444a27c2f111f98d8b215827f417d1c90c1a6	Small and isolated rural communities for a long time lived in conditions of primitive subsistence farming.
9e968dcebc9ab052cd8905eea852c76f421a98a5	The development of trade and usury, especially noticeable during the heyday of the Babylonian kingdom, contributed to further social stratification within the ancient rural communities.
87a0f79c7879330694c3007fc65aa3f5815a60df	However, there were still remnants of the ancient tribal system, as indicated by some articles in the Hammurabi judicial book.
781abaa290f867cc6d59336ead57c23f1a46b31c	Thus, for incest, a special punishment was imposed — expulsion from the native area or native home (articles 154-158).
98f70ad3deacb9889796bdd236a56e1b7434e503	There is no doubt that in those days people were very strongly connected with their rural and family communities.
6177b4644ce20c85d87989ad81014594e911e110	A person was connected with the collective of the community "...as closely as an individual bee with a beehive".[14] Therefore, the forcible separation of people from the environment in which they lived and on which they were economically dependent was considered a cruel punishment at that time.
74cf077629ca4f3fc2f227065c101508457bed16	Another relic of the ancestral system was the custom of adding 1/2 shekel of silver when paying rent, and this surcharge bears the strange name "sheep of the field".
08968f3efd06426b84c981f0877d8c76a5ebd46a	It is possible that this additional payment was made in favor of the patrons of the family - the spirits of the ancestors in the case when the property was given outside the family.
9f5f812353c3430d6e869b79a27f9f7041b403f6	The very name "sheep of the field" indicates the antiquity of this custom, dating back to the time when cattle were used as money.
4e63be1955dfe4078b94f7b00c3632b167e82deb	The patriarchal family still retained great importance, in which the oldest forms of hidden slavery were formed, and in this connection the oldest forms of oppression and domination arose.
d9ba297e358aeb566ffbb68df5f80607f7014593	The father and the husband were always considered the master in the patriarchal family, and all members of the family were obliged to obey him unconditionally.
6db758592ea88957c959030daeaf7537c6cc210b	The father and the husband had the rights of a born slave owner over all members of his family.
01e0e9d7c30c454fad67bad177485396524cb3e7	The custom of polygamy put the wife in a humiliated position.
fb471c8a368d89b3b84a1e19e346666798e16bdf	According to the code of Hammurabi, for violation of marital fidelity, the wife and husband carried various punishments.
a6025ab402ec28328ca081170e4652d308a66f22	In case of infidelity of the husband, the wife could take her dowry and return to her father, but in case of infidelity of the wife, she should be thrown into the water.
50618da6d5a2edf33e866f550138ed64c22e24df	The marriage contracts state that if the wife refuses her husband, the husband has the right to impose the stigma of slavery on her and sell her.
340b8f3c6cbe2e3bc5583428ff1df3624f1b883f	The woman had a limited right of ownership.
d2a6a66547826487d87a39245be620765620e610	The widow could not fully dispose of her property freely.
986844c5f044bc1bcd4550d386555255bd854478	The legislator tried in every possible way to keep the property in the hands of one family as much as possible.
2993bf7c04001bef9215d1e3501362fde721a84d	A number of articles of the Hammurabi Code indicate that a widow had no right to alienate her property after the death of her husband, because this property was considered the inheritance of children, among whom the eldest son had the right to receive a preferential share of the inheritance.
a2a95dfd63fb9bb86b1bf257fe8881554ab2af5b	Numerous documents of the Babylonian era indicate a number of cases of the sale of children into slavery.
d8ececb4b877ee7b5fa4ea49546daba950f3349e	Judging by some documents, there was a certain cost of such a domestic slave.
b88d6fec4e22cfa2f0a08e28be2aaeca7043cbdc	A number of documents eloquently indicate that the father and husband had unlimited rights over their family and could sell all family members into slavery.
83d87709fda2820b2d0c04a670f0e8667b03753e	So, in one document it is said that a certain Shamash Dayan sold all the members of his family and the slaves and female slaves belonging to him to pay his debt to the creditor.
af1d17a71727c581ab49b3c0d63e71880863b50c	Only at this price did he preserve his personal freedom.
06277ba6c5f9abf7eb6e90c8d26b3bcd1113a942	The child was considered the property of the father.
031fdf1bfda861fa47e67ee325655acb025969a2	According to article 14 of the Hammurabi Code, the theft of the young son of a free person was punishable by death.
d5d1c9c166ea42bca30df53ff19978277ece897b	These are the distinctive features of the domestic slavery that existed in the ancient East, was reflected in the documents of Babylonian history and as a primitive undeveloped slavery differed from later forms of slavery.
6963b58860a66702ddbf78126470bfe4bddf58cb	Contrasting this domestic Eastern slavery with the developed slavery that existed in the ancient world, Engels wrote: "Domestic slavery is a different matter in the East; here it does not directly form the basis of production, but is indirectly an integral part of the family, passing into it in an imperceptible way."[15] Another source of slavery in this era was debt bondage.
313ae99d756f04c577409752241d3a2a6c611ccd	Farmers needed land, seeds and livestock, artisans needed raw materials, and small traders needed goods.
31336b2fcf787449a60e8824c0002fc9c997f670	By taking out a loan, these people assumed the obligation to pay quite significant interest, usually from 20 to 33 %. For grain loans, 30% per annum was usually paid, and for money loans — 20 %. The creditors were both private individuals and temples, which concentrated large wealth in their hands.
aa4f1887de1e38ca00ad695d5b7ffa3345c41155	Debtors often had to guarantee the timely payment of both loans and interest with a special pledge (sometimes in the form of real estate, for example, a house) or a guarantee from a third party.
38304ea80b9f74e378397751bf1d8a4ce93d6d52	If the loan issued under the guarantee was not returned on time, then the responsibility fell on the guarantor, who had the right to enslave the insolvent debtor and even seize his family and his property, as some documents indicate.
8d82aefbff54000179fe0eccb153109379228e66	All this contributed to the rapid ruin and enslavement of insolvent debtors.
642f9d0d2cb49fb531a877d209d1a3e1e017bc87	The class contradictions between the poor, who lost their last property and were on the verge of slavery, and the rich, who formed a strong and cohesive class of slaveholders, intensified.
22e0cd083800443af222c51ad3273a3af528ff65	Obviously, in order to somewhat mitigate the acute forms of the brewing class struggle, Hammurabi, in his code, tries to protect to some extent the personality and property of the bonded debtor from excessive harassment and harassment of the creditor.
d7754672e35352f57cc631b4b707fb9387b86c2f	Thus, according to article 117, if the debtor gave his wife, his son or his daughter into debt bondage, the creditor had the right to keep them in his house and use their labor for no more than 3 years: in the 4th year he was obliged to release them.
5f7c85cb0523082996cd3d15d6a2e86b57e6f2ae	Thus, the creditor could not keep the debtor's relatives as bonded for a long time and, obviously, even in the case when the debt was not repaid, he could not turn them into actual slavery.
13fe9814f3e9ea2b4d68a94c6a15af8bfcfebcfc	At the same time, the legislator protected the debtor's son, taken as a pledge by the creditor, from arbitrariness and cruel treatment.
1f09c961cc0c74e26da77a6330bff0fbaa7476a2	According to article 116 of the Hammurabi judicial Code, if the son of a free person, taken as a pledge by a creditor and, obviously, obliged to fulfill his father's debt, dies in the lender's house from beatings or ill treatment, then the creditor's son should be put to death.
68d6517ebc2e7219bd5f6010384bed293c856f7f	Thus, the creditor had to suffer the same damage as he caused to his debtor by violating this law.
f3e9e163a96583828959efdc9778741be1d2d01e	Finally, the code of laws prohibited the creditor from arbitrarily taking bread from the granary or pantry of his debtor in order to repay the loan.
e74fa9cbdf2e513a854aa0ba13b75e858714c212	Obviously, the legislator, trying to get rid of the ancient forms of lynching and customary law, tried to limit the arbitrariness of the rich, who often oppressed the disenfranchised poor.
2819a20ac66f28ea682a9d142115327e0f193a97	It is not for nothing that the articles of this code require the preparation of legal documents fixing certain transactions, judicial review of various incidents and even establish the forms of judicial procedure.
5dc4b2949247454d24b66eee7171d25c977c4d47	This is reflected in the progressive nature of Hammurabi's legislation.
a61dbfa7a34bc12c45b51f50d6fd73f74ad86a32	In an attempt to protect the arbitrariness of rich and powerful creditors, the Hammurabi Code nevertheless introduces a clause in article 115, which in some respects unties the hands of a lender who uses the forced labor of a bonded debtor.
55ad9d739b8f8381d8dc9014c4fea08de69e912f	This article says that "if the person taken as a pledge dies in the house of the person who took the pledge of natural death, then this case cannot lead to a lawsuit."
6a2c1ffc456a54d9a3c6a4767771a6acb97fa9b0	After all, we should not forget that the code of Hammurabi reflected the interests of slave owners.
06fc5b41db4119a03159ebe20fc0ae764a29030b	The ruin of the poor, debt bondage and wars increased the number of slaves in the country.
259c53a2a25865692c10d7474db82c20caa5dcc8	Judging by the laws and business documents of this time, the labor of slaves in Babylonia was widely used.
f6973852e7839bd068b89f34b379d15b5f56d50a	It is known that the cost of a slave was low.
57467469aa34537f27ca606c09efb26aae9d6f06	It was equal to the wage for an ox, i.e. 160 grams of silver.
6f7a74435edc13f905b149edc18dff36305952de	Slaves were looked at as objects, they were sold, exchanged, given, inherited.
9d8850298501f1ebed378f786332321e52eba143	In slu in the case of causing physical damage to the slave and killing him, the guilty person had to compensate the owner of the slave.
a2a5670006c1dede268c76953d04e678ffd59c0d	A number of articles of the Hammurabi Code pursued only one goal — to protect the interests of the slave owner.
a9885887e2e7d7f37729e7e8c69c7da2429a2195	The law and the authorities punished with death the person who "took out a slave who did not belong to him" or "hid a runaway slave in the house".
79b2ed83d31552a18593bf23c7e3fadd3f1cc648	The slave owner, from whom the slave escaped, could always appeal to the state authorities with a request to catch and return the fugitive slave to him.
e0fc57c7041432cd544da5ade9929b4ae4634e2e	When hiring a slave from his master, the employer had to assume financial responsibility in the event of the slave's flight.
1860875cbf0b6f436c7da7c5996735d35eea3c8c	The same thing happened when transferring a slave as a pledge.
557fa0c03919bd5932d008868cb1ea899ae7c352	Cruel forms of exploitation of slave labor often led to the fact that slaves ran away from their masters.
b0cfd7498cf3a60a3c66c69f339ceb11200ef95b	This is indicated by a number of articles of Babylonian legislation and some customs of that time.
a435cd3945ddaa6ccacff87b8174f7003faaf17f	In the case of the sale of a slave, a three day period was established to determine whether the slave being sold was a fugitive.
ec71784451dbf0664ca511ec344b659b10336e30	Especially characteristic is article 282, which establishes a punishment for a slave who did not obey his master.
9552a2d9c2d562a9c8ec6f8b95f1648bee9653b6	According to this article, the obstinate slave should have cut off his ear.
d827acd752bc1f2028fdf33c9111c5a48678d261	As can be seen from the code of Hammuriyah, in Babylon there was a custom of branding slaves, and changing the brand was strictly punishable by law.
b136637801be0dfe90e542d703f0f0e9f889b18d	However, in Babylon, the slave owning mode of production did not reach full development.
818f0a716c98bcc12a1fe92ce7e7b74ec75c70ee	For a long time, the surviving forms of the community continued to exist, as well as the remnants of the tribal system, which largely caused the relatively stagnant nature and slow development of social relations and the state in ancient Mesopotamia.
7b857ea67cb9cdcb1c278e13000a196de99aa107	Some articles of the Code of Hammurabi indicate the preservation of these ancient remnants in Babylon.
fcc4f4f134c535192b00898df806961dc8487a97	So, according to article 23, if the robber was not captured, the "area" in which the robber lived had to compensate for all losses.
1c6210d809f803357398e64ebbb56db3bd715451	Consequently ,the "locality" or, rather, the community bound all its members by mutual responsibility.
7d3841bb806ff2cdbf91ad5c99361f4ddc8d29c3	Business documents of this time indicate that some lands were in family ownership, and before that they were allocated from the community land fund.
7c133d8b426f1fd972012ed40412f699a7ba06cc	Along with this, gradually disintegrating communal land ownership in Babylonia, there was also a large royal land ownership.
751f1c2696ac9c9d9a339322c4018e9de3590b80	The tsar looked at all the lands in the country as lands belonging to him, and considered himself entitled to alienate land plots from communities and transfer them as a royal grant to one or another dignitary.
d8af7a4fef1eee0f2ff3329cc74dfca2afe0f095	Wars increased the land fund centralized in the hands of the state.
e87d0301ffdd8a3d342ab75c3c7f225d0aeca411	So, after the victory over Larsa, Hammurabi annexed the entire region of Larsa to the Babylonian kingdom, and attached the lands of the ruler of Larsa to the royal land fund, appointing a special official to manage them.
1db2a548af323b853c5223d4157e417ab13d0f2a	The right of the tsar to the extortionate lands also contributed to the increase of the royal land fund.
15df30d0b4b888335da25355be057b05ee6684c3	This is clearly stated in one document of that time: "This man died.
30663a9108a7daa10c71bfba55c5242a8dd72801	Give his field to Shamashkhasir (the ruler of the royal lands in Lars)."
fe09e6d6be104a5fb0d87f7863714d4b1d80aa7d	Large royal land plots were exploited not only by the administration of the royal palace with the help of mainly slave labor, but also by tenants who took part of these lands for rent.
03237b014fd4eefa5d2e9258777b7d114589ed76	The widespread use of leases is indicated by the presence of special terms that served to denote the concepts of tenant, lease document,leased field, rent.
e8d649e5020a5cedbd61e52498ca223103daedca	Areida was fixed in a special lease agreement, which was drawn up in a certain form.
584fb923fea73d81a634852a5c60079e687f6f77	This contract indicated the object of the lease, the amount of the rent or the share of the crop, the date and time of payment, the names of witnesses and the date.
201a6a84a94e7a492d7a4962dce39911c0d388b1	The lease of land was accompanied by the performance of special rites, which indicated that this rental plot
7e661edd91c9deb5a5b0f6e029ff035defff1068	BABYLONIA
387e18e19bd8aebc05c6e2e73320e1c782ba01be	< < The head of the head is further>> Babylonia
420a9e2123606ad65728de9296884bf0266120c1	The civilization of ancient Babylon
23f3b43c462317b0e7517e657ae0c49597cc107c	Among the cities of the Ancient East, Babylon was perhaps the most revered The very name of the city - Bab Ilu ("Gate of God") - spoke about its holiness, about the special patronage of the gods.
ab19e18e1bdab8384677dd4d7694ea40ebff24c4	The supreme Babylonian god Marduk was worshipped by many peoples, even those who were not subject to Babylon, his temples and priests received rich gifts from neighboring kings.
6836045616317f6edbb8ba332b67f89db396cc3f	Babylon was not one of the oldest cities in Mesopotamia - the Sumerian cities of Ur, Uruk, Eredu and others were about a thousand years older.
fe662f386dec92821ac4e0ce1cb448edb0cde0a4	Twice Babylon became the capital of a powerful state.
08517acd018a18a3c79102b6351628ca5cc9446f	Its first strengthening covers the period from about 1800 to 1700 BC.
7cc70bb99800fdb052c75769d4c21953f68d8a50	Historians call it "old Babylonian".
7d344dca3cd212617175ae1d999e108c8572215a	The second period of the ascent after the collapse of the Assyrian power also lasted about a century (626-539 BC).
cf54ccf00dbb68c757164dbe933643b879a7f182	These years are usually designated as the time of the existence of the" new Babylonian " kingdom.
75d22fd2ff5c6059656661f54fedbc3ec7ad2d69	A small settlement on the site of the future Babylon probably existed in the time of the Sumerians.
36bf07281001ca643fecf52327afdbf1052d4498	The city was located in a very convenient place where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers converge and numerous channels begin to separate from the main channel of the Euphrates.
4307bac82b09dc77ee538d8a0547cc899fc4a2e1	But the desolation was short lived.
03222f7a7c17642861cbeb517d84fe46453c914a	Large tsarist farms collapsed.
d6cc307df2fba10e45ba867ab8b3231057aa547b	No one else drove the villagers to field work, did not collect the entire harvest in the royal barns, did not keep debt records on clay tablets.
df7712da518cbce00bccd40e4e4df7a5c576bddd	The peasants were now working on small patches of land that were their property.
87e90faa0affbf9dc5be40fe3a56bb777b7a80e5	The owners themselves decided what to grow - barley or date palms, and they themselves managed the harvest.
b3ed48577d24070fdf3b196aa287059bae5c9816	The royal craft workshops also ceased to exist: after all, no one cared about the transportation of wood, metals, yarn and precious stones ...
c925d0f497d7c7ce53667cd0a6ffaff78f97ec3f	But many small workshops appeared.
4c667e412c29aff10507c30ba64121dac6f0fbbd	The state did not suppress the activity of peasants and artisans and did not take away the main part of the products or products produced by them.
d5c432b0ff5ba49c67dada7f4135fc3383f31936	There are many markets where it was possible to sell or buy fish, dates, grain, fabrics and other goods, to hire a skilled worker.
57f6cd569d84db1a13273cf30dcde7d11f657f70	There are surpluses of products and products.
8db51d2839756fb6d53eb53508d771339ac90338	They are bought and sold outside the country by rich Tamkara traders.
a4eb2f8feaf3361018c9133a3ae1d533134db295	They bring back mostly slaves: there is a shortage of labor in Mesopotamia.
178263683975ba8e3bfbfabc864ebd7613fd9a64	New ways of farming contributed to the strengthening of new centers, such as Babylon, because the old cities had difficulty adapting to the economic independence of artisans and peasants.
e534ea7aeccf4c9d74c3e3d478180a47bbafd8db	The first rulers of the small Babylonian kingdom conducted a cautious policy.
10b3e595b6d59d5fbed70338d4060928412170df	They entered into alliances with strong neighboring states Larsa, Isin, Mari - and at the same time precisely chose the most profitable partner.
14cc5b8c7856abc6eb5471edd23c26e6ac17dae2	Thus, the first five Babylonian kings were able to significantly expand their possessions, but Babylon has not yet become on a par with its allies.
8ead461ad2f1c8865f66964656f676b99bcc414a	The situation changes under the sixth king of Babylon - Hammurabi, one of the greatest politicians of antiquity.
e429008865ee19dce8d029c555bc21796a4a271f	He ruled Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC, having ascended to the throne of a small kingdom located in the middle reaches of the Euphrates, Hammurabi ended his days as the ruler of a huge state by the standards of that time, which included the main part of Mesopotamia.
cac6d163f54d1de9ff0a135625e9356ba7f017f7	A well thought out system of political alliances helped him defeat his opponents, and often with someone else's hands.
765c8755fcd5fe503dd598770b35130989766cdd	In the end, the Babylonian king also dealt with his main ally, the king of the northern state of Mari, whose name was Zimri Lim.
60f928f13053baaa81e9d86f16b81fecffb68595	After the unification of the country, Hammurabi had to solve very difficult tasks.
06fcc16bde9f11cd08fd683520b464dd906c775c	In order for his possessions not to break up into separate regions again, the power of the king must be strong.
ae0c89b02d435d29bb15a3056fc4be6e72468476	On the other hand, Hammurabi could not take away the land from the peasants, re create large royal farms, gather artisans into royal workshops.
308f874ae2f16aa48aa266392a073e330c5fcf59	Such actions would lead to a rapid decline of the country - people have already got used to independence, relative freedom, and income from market trade.
0b1f10a20f28451428efd9d9e4df8a4e03bf6f23	The wise Hammurabi found techniques that allow the king to control the activities of his subjects.
ee30aacf609e8d3afd1b93185f90362036bdbfce	In 1901, French archaeologists discovered during excavations in Susa, the capital of ancient Elam, a large stone pillar with the image of King Hammurabi and the text of 247 of his laws written in cuneiform.
cd0be1257eea1cde47612abe7cf270fb26a42b9a	It was mainly from these laws that we learned about the life of Babylonia and how Hammurabi ruled the country.
eb999e41254c9f3ba110705845a86708daf7c28b	Hammurabi did not create royal estates, taking the land from the peasants.
e995db8f9303f07056ea344ac28191ed4fec02b0	He used the plots that the communities allocated to him as a king.
1ce5f0e515c6da763a09b9fec7a6fa1e8d31e649	To these lands Hammurabi sent his people warriors and the so called "mushkenu".
7e06905b005e2ef256c4a71aae07e1b9ab87fe77	The Mushkenu were considered to be close to the king and received from him the land, cattle and grain necessary for farming.
6683e907c2aa5123756c66d16b2661fc85917d1a	Theft of property from a mushkenu was punished more severely than theft from a simple peasant.
8709e4473169b61bcd61f78b2190193803e0b1d5	In this way, the tsar could influence the life of rural communities through people who were loyal to him and dependent on him.
a2afb257f618ccbc846c29dc547dbd9dc37b0553	The tsar also had to deal with peasant debts.
da2fa31270a40c15b5736aca6efddd85535249b6	Previously, farmers paid taxes mainly with grain, oil, and wool.
cdca15c3d1f5781e6921574ae9cc1d69cf7cc99a	Hammurabi began to collect taxes in silver.
4332c69fdc93f18f4253115ae74fe0e6d7d968e4	However, not all peasants sold products at the markets.
8ad097bfaf4e2dc6f479508dd7d0751a0ee146ad	Many had to borrow silver from tamkrov for an additional fee.
c8e9f207208c8abbf998e6d1c7a0436846ab5786	Those who were unable to pay off their debts had to give someone from their relatives into slavery.
f99fab6bef14f51b2cf0d6c4e540fb2d347b58df	Hammurabi canceled all the debts accumulated in the country several times, limited debt slavery to three years, but he did not manage to cope with the problem of debts.
6e9def76d4bf636cd57aa78e4b4357bb6f8929d7	No wonder, because among the Tamkars there were not only merchants, but also tax collectors, and keepers of the royal treasury.
864f653035e925c70885e818199cae4c0c5903de	In the introduction to the laws of Hammurabi says:"...
87cfc2235552138ed035045bc4b9cd0f53fe1b97	Marduk sent me to lead people justly and give happiness to the country, then I put truth and justice into the mouth of the country and improved the situation of people."
dd173f8d9ea85001f62f0ff8642d382404bdf0d0	Recall that Marduk was the most revered god of Babylon.
69d1abcd388d6daf8e6cff1baa71b1513289d06d	The king, thus, tries to reconcile the interests of different people - tamkars, mushkenu, warriors, ordinary community members, relying on the will of the supreme deity.
d4c79245942d67836f31770e8fcecf4eaabf4348	According to Hammurabi, Marduk does not just reward the submissive and punish the disobedient God gives people a set of rules that establish justice in their relationships with each other.
c30194b0821b704079eacd7e8ed5a46eda1d80d2	But through the king!...
b9ccc5f99ee69342a4ee1ee93a83cc8b82084121	Hammurabi never managed to create a strong state.
b8078577f43f35a236a673ebdcbf696cebb4eefd	Already under the rule of his son, Samsuiluna, Babylonia suffered a number of heavy defeats from its neighbors, and its possessions were reduced.
770fa602638bf4857195aff1a0334297f900c5cd	A streak of failures began.
063cbcfe4d5e0b4836dc8e9b667c7ad3d706d072	In 1595 BC, the old Babylonian kingdom was destroyed by the invading Hittites and Kassites, who then ruled Mesopotamia for about 400 years.
73b2b521a1be7626c0a81926c0d1de5b3d5295ea	But Hammurabi still achieved more than his predecessors or the kings of neighboring countries.
492b9225f8596b9a019a595e73c9274575025cf0	He was the first of the rulers of antiquity to measure the power of the law with the power of the king and recognized the right of his subjects to take care of their own lives.
ab00d69fc538632ed21c9815f9a968b84db23a2d	Finally, Hammurabi offered the people the image of a god who establishes harmony between people.
216d33014d8d9a476417b0a86d6dac91c60e7c90	Since the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon has been the cultural and scientific center of Near Asia for about 1200 years Many of the achievements of the ancient Babylonians have entered into modern life: following the Babylonian priests, we divide the year into twelve months, the hour into minutes and seconds, and the circle into 360 degrees. .
41d0b21ce0e9a7508da0295c8238845eacf0b21e	Thanks to the hardworking Babylonian scribes, we know the contents of the Sumerian legends.
c7b8de409e1c12248aeca4a745c4a250e220da2e	The scientific and cultural life of Babylon turned out to be little dependent on changes in its political fate.
c34566297c7092475d2b007e9d73652bd9019ea0	Kings and conquerors changed, and in Babylon they also revered Marduk, collected libraries and taught young scribes in special schools.
229f08b9cfe9ba1b5a138aee73f1b193bc859814	In 689 BC, Babylon, as a punishment for constant rebellions, was completely destroyed by order of the Assyrian king Sinakhherib.
50139ff29a7fe8ad03e255825a1d784107519d10	After some time, the city was rebuilt again and found an unprecedented brilliance.
8384577e041d111fe8bf0669b302354e62803aa3	It reached the peak of its heyday under the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC).
f38e1fd77fb80d50ae7e2d11ed4e6c4238d2c546	Instead of narrow curved streets, straight long streets with a length of up to 5 km were laid, which were used for solemn processions; they divided the city into regular quarters.
6bdbf68852d0928bf591e011212173ed8ef2c9e3	A magnificent sanctuary was erected - a seven stage, pyramid like temple with a height of 91 meters.
42d2e420649ac00ecbf42a0bd956c27a084d2115	Such structures in Mesopotamia were called "ziggurat".
87538bc3e23e20d5623644e16a72cc5089b59ff7	The admiration of contemporaries was also caused by two powerful defensive walls of Babylon: each 6-7 meters thick.
d891a1275445c359af478c36b592a213e9454351	The main entrance to the city was through a magnificently decorated gate dedicated to the goddess Ishtar.
b89b509b79e453fac597f3066c168c90200d8653	On them, King Nebuchadnezzar II wrote: "I built Babylon, the most beautiful of cities...
86457bc392a0659529fda60a8b086ceea78d5a11	At the threshold of its gates I have set up huge bulls and kites with legs, which no king has yet invented before me."
730a871f82089dbf2bde7530776c1a9985cb974b	Some of the relief images of strange animals on the gates of Ishtar were found and restored by archaeologists; according to the king's plan, they were supposed to scare away enemies from the city.
8f5e7c887338e4e45879f14e1c1da10b7ec3042f	In ancient times, the "hanging gardens" created by the order of the Babylonian kings, in which the trees seemed to climb up to the sky, were also counted among the seven wonders of the world.
e316aed182817b4d66306dfaf31b4876eb6592bc	This effect was achieved due to the fact that they were planted on specially built terraces adjacent to the royal palace.
251c366c10205706aa05cc81ba02fd5f13e2c062	Apparently, the care of the trees required a lot of trouble, but the rulers of Babylon did not mind this.
4dc9dcdfbdd957580cd556cfc317fdd4445f5c04	They achieved their goal - people were amazed...
da859ae2db37c02464ed86d5319740d3705ce3a2	The impression that Babylon made was so strong that even 130 years after the creation of these magnificent buildings, the Greek historian Herodotus wrote about it as the "most glorious and most powerful" city in Mesopotamia.
84c6daf647b6182ad2abb79985c97a1849b0d571	Around 600 BC, at least 200,000 people lived in Babylon - it was a huge city at that time.
3850620000d554c1bfdd63712a99a231c61fdd04	But in 539 BC, the beautiful city surrendered almost without resistance to the Iranian king Cyrus.
5d4d5466b291b589a0bddfacf9ec3576d6d881c5	And it was not that the Iranians seemed to the cunning Babylonian merchants to be better masters than their own kings.
78400530872aaa16ec4e92156b1e25771dd8fb34	Babylon could afford not to measure strength with kings; it was already destined to glory in the centuries.
93690174f2a57e2d971ee71d53b9c540f1764972	Source: Unknown.
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bd6b853dc0cee21817faa042869bf00d0c83126e	Ancient Mesopotamia
128bb2c8f00d5d22bca43ab55a84b291b0ec39ef	Chronology Periodization: * North
d6b8863504f8882d860729e6de3a623815788ed2	* South · Le Havre Period
bc8e31c8c515e74667d8c48a9998da4af9e43068	· The Uruk period,
a4d3edc251b6ad90a5de2c6bd90ce5cb468b3190	The Jemdet Nasr Period · The Nineveh V Period
0db96bee03274b28f75794968fc5a2bcb7dfe19d	· Early Dynastic period · * Akkadian period · * Period of the third Dynasty of Ur · The Old Assyrian period
ae377a353edf3d7aec6f0128754f33544c888650	· The Old Babylonian period · Middle Assyrian period
461cbd435fa2a0f1c64db5cbdfc9baaca1e5bab2	* The Middle Babylonian period · The New Assyrian period
1e2238ee2d3427b0736344540017fba064febd1e	* The New Babylonian period
6fe920798ae6694c0591bf05474c8b9b947081cd	Hanging Gardens of Semiramis Babylon (reconstruction)
b3553cd0e6113be211cfdc98785c1582dcac6b5a	1 History 1.1 Chronology of events 1.2 Creation of irrigation 1.3 The emergence of writing
5765565bb574ea97066f6e8a52d3c6ed4c240e46	2 Temple economy 3 Culture 4 See also 5 Sources 6 Literature
cf637c45987038efad30f9226cb2bf9aa76b3893	From the IV thousand BC to the XIII century AD, the largest cities and urban agglomerations were located in the Mesopotamia.
829572bd423abab3373ca993958fe33a95207771	In the Ancient World, Babylon was synonymous with the World City.
721ac009874c2ee451736f2fd51d4b1e3ec92859	Mesopotamia flourished under Assyrian and Babylonian rule, then under Arab rule.
3b3d3ca427ecece71eadb925fb0a68015172dadb	From the time of the appearance of the Sumerians until the fall of the New Babylonian Kingdom, 10% of the population of the entire Earth lived on the territory of the Mesopotamian lowland.
805a7cd744808537f2b916e4bc81fbcfd4152fca	Mesopotamia refers to one of the oldest centers of civilization in 4 m — 3 m BC that formed the ancient cities of the state, among which the Sumerian city of Kish, Uruk (biblical Erech), Ur, Lagash, Umma, Semitic city Aksak, Amorite/the Sumerian city of Larsa, as well as the States of Akkad, Assyria and early 2nd Millennium BC.
50afad6638187fda71ff14e3ecefbbc5a59ec923	— Babylonia.
b0118d12ed266a944b5de076e8c5b396f84b4855	Later, the territory of Mesopotamia was part of Assyria (IX VII centuries BC), the New Babylonian Kingdom (VII VI centuries BC).
fd1fd2bb37a1330484f4033e0d944a4bd77a3a9f	Perhaps the most significant thing in the history of Mesopotamia is that its beginning coincides with the beginning of world history.
5138978ebc43ddc984736871256b392377af91e9	The first written documents belong to the Sumerians.
c72fc51a1035584b64dfea72a439ca83db627ac4	It follows from this that history in the proper sense began in Sumer and was probably created by the Sumerians.
6f747ba6ad16ffe571e735d4031d8ee4e1fc50be	However, writing did not become the only determining factor of the beginning of a new era.
b4e05edacf0a089bd31772ebf17b42b03aa30995	The most important achievement was the development of metallurgy to the level when society had to create new technologies to continue its existence.
a2b82c5bfff97227da76351d987b4e8bcb00cd85	The deposits of copper ores were far away, so the need to obtain this vital metal led to the expansion of geographical horizons and a change in the very pace of life.
a1e5f1c44289bf41a2ce3fd321e54f4674e81c45	Historical Mesopotamia existed for almost twenty five centuries, from the emergence of writing to the conquest of Babylonia by the Persians.
11287e809c260c6d6f15f939c423354ddbb407b7	But even after that, foreign domination could not destroy the cultural independence of the country.
e2e7ef521f92996d7c16e8cb2708d1922e871de3	The Greek word "Mesopotamia"is called the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates.
3c966ac2db00283c017a5c2978151163bbb23183	The existence of two rivers the Tigris and the Euphrates should be considered the main topographic feature of Mesopotamia.
c093a169be46bc46928c50f86a462c4c6300e3dc	The late flood of rivers forced people to build dams, dams, in order to save seedlings.
0b989c2e737e2ef4852bf55163c10f95c33b3512	In addition, in the conditions of the standing heat, the water quickly evaporated, leading to salinization of the soil.
a1df44add8e133149deb48da38f9f7decdeb6d4a	It should be noted that the silt of the Euphrates was far inferior in its fertility to the Nile, clogging the channels as well.
057d90da6f176183a566547dcb6c76871eb54c40	The southern part of Mesopotamia, which became the cradle of Mesopotamian civilization, was a place where the rays of the scorching sun made the soil hard like a stone, or it was hidden under the desert sands.
ab03ba64ed084fe2f964a4d3f179d16c9467a85f	From the swamps, huge pools of stagnant water, there was a danger of epidemics.
b842a4012774241bbc239e598b34516e6e0be2c7	Lev Mechnikov, who is the author of the book "Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers", published in Paris in 1889, considered it necessary to emphasize "that here, too, history turned away from fertile countries..., and chose a naked area as the birthplace of civilization, the inhabitants of which, under the threat of the most terrible misfortunes, were forced to complex and wise coordination of their individual efforts."
3fbcde0f8097d2746716849e4be53c30a5261ed6	Unlike the regular Nile floods, the floods of the Euphrates and Tigris did not differ in frequency, which determined the more significant and permanent nature of human labor in creating irrigation.
8dbe8ec4ae8e996f7eb04003c8aecc7e9e951041	In general, from the point of view of L. Mechnikov, historical rivers were great educators of humanity.
a32c7716ff949c25e6280a2fb7b5b6fb55a06958	"All these rivers have one remarkable characteristic that can explain the secret of their outstanding historical role.
5f9f5ea7c7404d8fefadafb8dfae6c2d0b8be792	All of them turn the areas they irrigate into fertile granaries, then into infectious swamps....Specific geographical environment of these rivers could be turned to the benefit of the human collective, sternly disciplined effort of the masses...".
b2ccfe147df3e8cb810010e3c6fb4f3ff558607e	L. Mechnikov was considered important that the cause of, the nature of the primitive institutions, their subsequent evolution must be seen not in the environment, and between the environment and the ability inhabited the midst of the people, to cooperation and solidarity.
3e70a07103bd3ec74a97cd51f5bf88d89e7751ce	Mass archaeological studies of traces of the oldest settlements of Lower Mesopotamia indicate that in the process of improving local irrigation systems, residents moved from more than small settlements of large family communities to the center of the nomes, where the main temples were located.
3def25ef0ece8b089b3c5a361d962330291766b3	At the beginning of the second quarter of the third millennium BC, city walls became an attribute of densely populated spaces around the main temples.
05d344ee2a47681a71f6789deb78f50b97744023	According to another point of view, the rise of civilization was caused by the interaction of the settled population of the villages and the nomads of the Mesopotamian region.
4277ed80f16aaf42d393f9eae1e57606da790f6a	Despite the mutual suspicion, or even hostility, inherent in the relations between settled communities and nomads, the latter, due to their mobility, pastoral lifestyle, occupied an important place in the life of the inhabitants of agricultural settlements, being necessary for communication, trade, livestock breeding, having valuable information.
e6cb79582030272b5226f5d416c0daf1352dc9dc	Constant migrations allowed the nomads to be aware of political events in different places, to have information about the availability of certain resources, to act as intermediaries in the exchange of goods and ideas between the settled inhabitants of the mountainous regions and the Mesopotamian plain.
f3decd9f74495ebb4c22217a4f04f4a2b53c4559	Timeline of events[edit / edit wiki text]
15cf562a1c4510d7808cb644a5e647c81577477d	The middle of the IV millennium BC is the Uruk epoch in Southern Mesopotamia, the beginning of the Bronze Age.
7cc759666c5d62f445ad6c0c829eed688f747495	The formation of the foundations of the Sumerian civilization, the formation of nomes, the first archives of economic documents written with pictographic signs (e.g. The tablet from Kish), the deepening of social inequality, the development of temple farms, proto cities, the urban revolution, Sumerian colonies in Upper Mesopotamia (Habuba Kabira, Jebel Aruda), monumental temple buildings, cylindrical seals, etc.
bbcf3f9a7c46fe99d55d62a350e9ef020c5a0a74	In Upper Mesopotamia — the beginning of the Bronze Age, the formation of proto cities (Tell Brak) on a local basis, Sumerian colonies.
55088ee808dfa7b5217370a4f03ee0281a4630c0	The end of the IV beginning of the III millennium BC — the period of Jemdet Nasr in Southern Mesopotamia.
0d5a20f80792987a8e2438565a1b141f2a2df1c4	The completion of the formation of the nomic system, the deepening of social differentiation, the image of leaders; by the end of the period the emergence of the early states and dynasties of Sumer.
7f38840ffee2e01120876e22f504f4f41cce5e5d	XXVIII XXIV centuries BC — The early Dynastic period (abbreviated: RD) in Mesopotamia.
bf23a8993c50084d7666ecb899243ecf72136a26	The heyday of the Sumerian civilization — cities, states, writing, monumental structures, irrigation systems, crafts, trade, science, literature, etc.is divided into three stages: RD I, RD III and RD III. XXVIII XXVII centuries BC — the first stage of the Early Dynastic period (abbreviated: RD I).
d059576629672d93e8a87d96074c6bdf98159fe2	The heyday of the archaic Hurrah.
cb6f04c5d7a9199112573f5d652167a561f37a83	The hegemony of Kish in Sumer.
93d64130684a66a8c3dc64f9a7c39e4092408c25	Outstanding Kings (lugali) I dynasty of Kisha Etana, En Mebaragesi.
ddafacb6e7247ed97a86e4ededd16ab4e05a5344	The legendary rulers of the I dynasty of Uruk are Meskianggasher (son of the god Utu), Lugalbanda, Dumuzi.
1e011b3016ae74f53ebf087ef9310fae4e542eee	XXVII XXVI centuries BC — the second stage of the Early Dynastic period (abbreviated: RD II).
d55ae2cb4920c1aeb45410211cba968a0b9d101c	The defeat of the troops of the Kish king Aggi under the walls of Uruk (the ruler is Gilgamesh), the fall of the hegemony of Kish.
0e00b2a96327a7294918a0c238fff5205457b7b7	The invasion of the Elamites in Ki Uri and their destruction of Kish and the establishment of a new (II) dynasty there.
40bf2f09f94f86680d473b73636a470ef69352e5	Uruk is the strongest state of Sumer.
f8250b3a7b366089d40da56bafa9cbf88647e95b	XXVI XXIV centuries BC — the third stage of the Early Dynastic period (abbreviated: RD III).
6a0b86c0e6e7b10ef922e98eef90a46ad8919944	The aggravation of political instability in Sumer.
b6d2066e9eb74eda20b76c408d45c3eff0d9e936	The rise and heyday of Ur; tombs of the I dynasty.
65c6535e85f0c10d66c104889a66a494a9a108d6	The Kings of Ur are the strongest rulers of Sumer.
eaece296395c750c1a70524bd4dbf0079cadef12	The separation of Lagash from Kish dependence, the strengthening of this state under Ur Nansh.
6843bf45e97ff68f7d51ea28930f7ace48c7e4cb	The rise of Lagash at Eannatum.
f379623c4124fce85f05441b6a6717f72a03a540	A series of border wars between Lagash and Umma over the fertile Guedinnu plain.
c7575f56cba99254a5d6bfef9e3145b06125f53b	The unification of Ur and Uruk into a single state.
f0759f423f5332339d81f5d78f551e5a41d3bd65	The reforms of the Lagash ruler Uruinimgina and the creation of the oldest laws by him.
b1a62a15077047a6b9749369107c5e0d78a0e1b7	Lugalzagesi is the sole ruler of the Sumerian city states.
7021fbfa8010d1ba30bb210b728475fb1a937674	Lugalzagesi's war with Uruinimgina.
dc90e76fcccad2ab5fe052a519807bd3d7b37f3a	The uprising of the Eastern Semites in Ki Uri.
ec1207f19c8ca00ba413be2a530a3d1377dce9c5	XXIV XXII centuries BC -Akkadian power in Mesopotamia.
755266894afc376ccd9095a025af3d058a2995e5	The uprising of the Eastern Semites in Ki Uri was crowned with success; the leader of the uprising under the name of the" True King " (Sargon) defeated a coalition of Sumerian city states and for the first time in history completely united Sumer.
a80730b9c454eb25ee4488b6c5ea3cfe3753de02	The capital of Sargon was moved from Kish to Akkad, after which the new state and the region of Ki Uri itself became known as Akkad.
04e66addb06b29de385e76c2cfd0e50525fb09a9	Strengthening of statehood, the fight against separatism under the successors of Sargon — Rimush and Manishtushu; the flourishing of the aggressive policy under Naram Suen.
77d44bf97478c46bb54d7cd2cf6b34be3f46ea0d	Drought, separatism, economic decline and the movements of the Kuti mountain tribes lead to the weakening of Akkad.
11bb1b74b59a3ac86cbafd3785579d725b1b5a84	In the XXII century.
c16c42ce41a83b645d2cecd7be909e1c822ad928	- civil strife, loss of independence and the destruction of the Akkadian kingdom by the Kuti.
fbfe643f512a2152761beded05d5b39a8bda6e81	XXII century BC - the rule of the Kuti in Mesopotamia.
6440643fa86ea372f64bae27aefc7d3895e96fe9	The rise of the II dynasty of Lagash; the reign of Gudea and his descendants.
35d8588ce8e1b599c9a1c749c206c91b3388f648	The Utukhengal uprising in Uruk; the overthrow of the Kuti power.
450846cb41459413086a95c8a1a1554bdc81464b	XXII XXI centuries BC -The Sumero Akkadian Kingdom (the Power of the III dynasty of Ur) is the largest state in Western Asia.
1ccffe6d2803e35e76dffe641d3c8ec5b829e695	After the death of Utukhengal, power passes to Ur Namm, the capital becomes Ur.
37518ccaa15de007aec7daca17545cf04fd444fe	"Sumerian Renaissance".
a63085cb63dc6087c4a2a73df692db8d15a236f4	The reign of Shulga is the heyday of the Sumero Akkadian kingdom.
d4caeacd7a627f88a1a1fe1f64df86702f4f83f5	The flourishing of Sumerian literature, architecture, and art against the background of the displacement of the Sumerian language by Akkadian in colloquial speech.
3903ca7dfdfec8f180ace1e60fcf4c99f949998f	At the end of the period — the economic crisis, the struggle with the nomads of the Amorites.
281ab4cbc2b5ed62a6e2e64454309bc435c0ba85	The Elamite raid in the reign of Ibbi Suen and the collapse of the state.
951295988bb0e0cf2300d16c2f407df3614de683	XX XVI centuries BC — the Old Babylonian period in Lower Mesopotamia.
5244ff78d1fbeace966c5a73934fb6cbac5484c3	On the fragments of the power of the third dynasty of Ur, several states arise, edit li who retain the title of "King of Sumer and Akkad": these are Issin and Larsa (both in Sumer), the capture of Mesopotamian city states by the Amorites, the establishment of Amorite dynasties there.
328e2c57e5f5c718e8dfba69126e0da7657a323e	The strongest Amorite kingdoms are Larsa (in Sumer), Babylon (in Akkad), Mari (in Northern Mesopotamia).
5eb93797f13845f36f52988dcca2bf1c843a59ec	The rise of Babylon, the subjugation of Akkad by them.
c4322cdbaa9889d1d787bec4ef527968deac1ee9	The struggle of the Babylonian kings with Larsa for influence in Sumer.
80726eb13a4321d4b548c07bbfd3a400c23fbe53	The defeat of Larsa and the unification of the Mesopotamian states under Hammurabi.
e30e2ba3992389e1c73bf72d296fc86d27fb230a	The beginning of the formation of the Babylonian nation (from the Sumerians, Akkadians and Amorites).
28b380ec87f8a595151cfae586b532cf6d0417a8	The rapid development of Babylon, its transformation into the largest city of Mesopotamia.
f16b52f69d69b463cf612d0c5709233a4ec676c5	The flourishing of the economy and culture.
a46d5a002be1dd1a8b65c32dadc992ebcd08b95a	The laws of Hammurabi.
1c421db8608bc0b62c76785de60712092241f341	The weakening of the Babylonian kingdom under subsequent kings.
0109157bbe48246ba3cfa703d0a6366ba561f9a5	The emergence of the Primorsky Kingdom in the south.
3017061e8a1c760a0a6b415faf91c8fcc0ba0251	The defeat of the Babylonian Kingdom by the Hittites and Kassites in the XVI century.
9b38a66289945df10e415c2f6172058c896ee7ea	XX XVI centuries BC — The Old Assyrian period in Upper Mesopotamia.
7e994d828b224c005b305028e0c1fc903533ea2f	After the fall of the Sumero — Akkadian kingdom, the ancient nomes Nineveh, Ashur, Arbela, etc. - gained independence.
bb44e3b22a819a32e4e653f28bcd41cdccb65813	International trade through the steppes of the upper Khabur and the future Assyria.
75cad276401b476ba2ca540b5ff56855a2f50ec3	The attempts of the early rulers from Assur to gain a foothold on the trade routes — the formation of the Assyrian state.
9ea11529454a636bc70be27ca11811901b6e4409	The rise of Mari, the influence of the Hittite kingdom, the settlement of the Hurrians and Amorites — the crisis of the Upper Mesopotamian trade.
5a206a22acaeb636c28eb38bc553d446d2e8307a	The creation of an extensive power by the Amorite leader Shamshi Adad I with its capital in Shubat Enlil (the so called "Old Assyrian power"); the subordination of a significant part of Upper Mesopotamia to them.
a9a0205cdf99d6711ba721416370a43667709c70	The weakening of the state under the successors of Shamshi Adad and the subjugation of these lands by Babylon.
3cfff6940508248b33ab8c33f2e603df4d3f598b	Formation of the ancient Assyrian people on the basis of the Akkadian speaking population and other Semites of Upper Mesopotamia.
e57199228439b96f89ca248a9d32438ca96ce135	XVI XI centuries BC — The Middle Babylonian or Kassite period in the history of Lower Mesopotamia.
46654008d8909a2b9853ee43a4a963551ebaf207	The capture of Babylonia by the Kassites and their revival of the kingdom of Hammurabi within Lower Mesopotamia.
a5e2da399df44c72563ab2c196d3bd00f14b1b76	The defeat of Primorye.
ffd7452adbc810a55f5e3ccc62272a98e25060a1	Flourishing under Burna Buriash II. Diplomatic relations with Egypt and the Hittite Kingdom.
99823ef95a3c14f8e9ceb60c9721a04e68e14642	Weakening of the centralization of Babylonia.
66367cba1ff9b1dae853b5b580b9fd7d27608623	The resettlement of a new wave of Semitic speaking nomads Arameans.
adcf6975e8fc96c9d4789306ebf6b842f3764300	The decline of Babylonia.
e0e70414aaa06671f391c320b7391a8956265cc3	XVI XI centuries BC — the Middle Assyrian period in the history of Upper Mesopotamia.
0203b4aab7d3630969edce0114c3325ed3e7765c	Consolidation of the Hurrian world, the rise of the Mitanni state.
d694e079674b83400b0eb46d93b52b3adff4f275	The confrontation of Mitanni, the Hittite Kingdom, Babylonia and Egypt in the Middle East.
6d286e3ceaa1862f087cc08ec07daaac9bbff0cb	Weakening of the Mitanni.
4c3975b5a885d938c9c7c306b0744b63b7a030a0	The first rise of Assyria; its transformation into a major regional power (under Tiglath Pileser I).
6f8047524675a2065c3229d9dfdd6099b7fe4846	The sudden decline of Assyria as a result of the Aramean invasion.
0140ba010d2dae3c99a6e5189ccfa220cd7e2c6a	The turn of the II I millennium BC — The catastrophe of the Bronze Age in the Middle East.
d200e4a29db34a02a0e8ea091ebe4ff863ced399	The decline of all significant states, the movements of numerous tribes — the Arameans, Chaldeans, "peoples of the sea" , etc.
4ae46af05c0f8ba90fa53c01766a6808cb04dedb	The end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age.
cfbb1ef9aeb237492299196354b021e010fff4f3	The beginning of the Arameization of Mesopotamia;
1a5d54ed255847e5f31750d851f703775ec2f019	Aramaic and its dialects are beginning to displace Akkadian from the spoken language.
8d2deb60c6a9258729ce0163af589abdceee5dd1	X VII centuries BC — the New Assyrian period in Upper Mesopotamia.
55b09fa040292ea64a0727208643475e9d59ac27	The economic and military political rise of Assyria against the background of the decline of its neighbors (the second rise of Assyria).
2ce99b7ec7b533239f90460c90e9f7fc0c328e8e	The conquest policy of Ashurnatsirapala II and Shalmaneser III. Temporary decline of Assyria (late IX — first half of VIII).
e280ab06db087e0f4311fdfd53e036efcfc4de9b	The reforms of Tiglath Pileser III and the beginning of the third rise of Assyria; the defeat of the North Syrian states, the unification of Mesopotamia, the annexation of part of Media.
5b5a451bc7901366bb75cd73b74fcf6bbf52afaa	Sargon II, Sinahherib, Asarhaddon: Assyria — the first "world empire"; the annexation of Egypt.
b66d7adb34c6e62c8b70fdf05fc85ad7637d2033	Ashurbanipal: suppression of uprisings, civil war and the collapse of the Assyrian state.
b63405e4e35647d1d7bf3a22fc117f748235ebc7	After the death of Ashurbanipal: the war with Babylon, Media and the Scythian tribes; the destruction of the Assyrian state.
77aa58885d3fd89b24e2faba7f9b047b7e1b7244	The indigenous territory of Assyria is part of the Median power.
73b1c042b57fc56b44d9523cd7802e8c2975b679	X VI centuries BC -the New Babylonian period in Lower Mesopotamia.
862836e604b1c3a31de4fefbc22deb10df4622b7	The penetration of the Arameans and Chaldeans into the country; the crisis of the Babylonian statehood.
9c53773629e2576359868d3696a2f64ba25248ca	Union with Assyria (Tiglath Pileser III — the first single king of Assyria and Babylon).
9dd75c820b0fab01e49df4ae7de1cbbc81a99959	The strengthening of the Chaldeans in Lower Mesopotamia, the Chaldean rulers in Babylon.
d5516762d2d332cd43718af90143f16db6b643de	Sinahherib and the tightening of the policy towards Babylonia.
6a188f77f07acd40cfe8e60a7f8c82aba48d7a0b	Revolts against Assyria and the destruction of Babylon.
8d41d5670b4a8fce24b85fdf1e262be2e2809a2b	The restoration of Babylon by Asarhaddon.
ddcd4b200b65004d6235cae89b4ae06f60819e9f	The rebellion of Shamash shum ukin.
2122e0207af8a7cb9113f6ba5ceb5417fbfbbee3	The resumption of Babylonia's struggle for independence.
7403ee17435c4f8138751a23490ff1479b6e7c56	The collapse and death of the Assyrian State.
e54ec7c7321c1608c9e96c8a4726a05ef3b1c72b	Nabopalasar is the first king of the newly independent Babylon.
4634dc05ed253e4604554e9f6605034c9a0f2989	The creation of the New Babylonian State.
f79485e53d1a7fa9277740be53cefd46ca671040	Nebuchadnezzar II.
740511fd0f8a3021ed4190151c68e424928b5c96	The economic, political and cultural flourishing of the state.
c4716b533bd21ab07a6c703c82f25d33ba7b0aa0	Babylon is the largest city in the world; the first metropolis.
ff973de6f574107d343b8e57d15b4bc1acd07e77	The internal political struggle after the death of Nebuchadnezzar II. Nabonidus and the struggle with the priesthood.
c84d9a5b67f0a5e92af45a723e3138f0dcd2bde9	The war with the Persian state and the transition of Nabonidus ' opposition to the side of the enemy.
3d04111e41e9ca7129b5713e78a020b3274bf38d	The Battle of Opis.
5f51ab56d2ea63a6cf20663d7ef79bdcd3c5a932	The troops of Cyrus II enter Babylon without a fight.
ddd9f4c7e8517ada22083f063c68ba1c1bd3a05d	October 12, 539 BC -Persian troops occupy Babylon.
4812e4eec882c1598bb42176192430f297d76bbe	The end of the history of Ancient Mesopotamia as a politically independent region.
1cfc3dc52ba518ecfb93dde848d744bb948e1fe2	Creating irrigation[edit / edit wiki text]
9df0498104ae78aa9c6641d5ff7080a3841fb9cf	This country is separated from the rest of Asia is barely passable deserts, began to be settled as early as the sixth Millennium BC.
76f4e7b91c328f6d247c4fd208ba9136edc1950c	In VI—IV millennia, settled here tribes lived very poorly: barley sown on a narrow strip of land between the swamps and scorched desert and irrigated unregulated and uneven spills have brought a small and unstable yields.
64648971de4456c50577eab2cc5a218208b87464	Crops were better managed on lands that were irrigated by channels diverted from the small Diyala River, a tributary of the Tigris.
61b23c3b4ed0c548e33fe719b7be3c217e866f88	It was only in the middle of the IV millennium BC that certain groups of communities managed to create rational drainage and irrigation systems in the Euphrates basin.
b30b528226c7a0f8dcdcf6e68a1a87b7ba27a537	The basin of the lower Euphrates is a vast flat plain bounded on the east by the Tigris River, followed by the spurs of the Iranian Mountains, and on the west by the cliffs of the Syrian — Arabian semi desert.
247355798741e05e3f4fabc0062ea41e098c6bb3	Without proper irrigation and land reclamation works, this plain is sometimes a desert, sometimes swampy shallow lakes bordered by thickets of huge reeds teeming with insects.
4e3cc01e5557e3e3776d5dbd35a49b3db5813b07	Currently, the desert part of the plain is crossed by shafts of emissions from digging channels, and if the channel is active, then date palms grow along these shafts.
03091a6bbbc4db0cd585e42a70567023ba58033a	In some places, clay hills — telly and ash — ishan rise above the flat surface.
57fc5e786332880995e6d973ebbee68b007015fe	These are the ruins of cities, or rather, hundreds of mud brick houses and temple towers, reed huts and mud walls that coexisted successively on the same place.
239953b9e1fd413350767098886c6aa404badfe4	However, in ancient times there were no hills or ramparts here yet.
ffed7578b65ea92ae06751a6876b85c4e0d549d0	The swampy lagoons occupied much more space than they do now, stretching across the entire Southern Iraq of today, and only in the extreme south there were low lying deserted islands.
dd7ba887fe0abf7aac16cd85320a064e055ad7b0	Gradually, the silt of the Euphrates, the Tigris and the Elam rivers running from the northeast (Kerhe, Karun and Diz; in ancient times they also flowed into the Persian Gulf, like the Tigris and the Euphrates, but at an angle of 90 degrees to the latter) created an alluvial barrier that expanded the territory of the plain by 120 kilometers to the south.
d499686383bc5294aac0c49c1fc64c8568040352	Where swampy estuaries used to communicate freely with the Persian Gulf (this place was called in ancient times the "Bitter Sea"), the Shatt el Arab River now flows, in which the Euphrates and the Tigris, which previously had their own mouths and lagoons, now merge.
690c42c15f490e908ea7520355cdc97a5a2e6fe0	The Euphrates within Lower Mesopotamia was divided into several channels.
ac5724d0e5b5d3008fd9d325f504ff5440bdfb99	Of these, the most important were the western, or Euphrates proper, and the more eastern, Iturungal; from the latter, the canal and the Nina Gena branched off to the lagoon in the southeast.
e93cfd3991ac57003f18817e80f5c6f49314500c	Further east, the Tigris River flowed, but its banks were deserted, except for the place where the Diyala tributary flowed into it.
e7034f69314f132041d2c352a4d0da3570a64dfe	In the IV millennium BC, several smaller channels were diverted from each of the main channels, and with the help of a system of dams and reservoirs, it was possible to retain water on each for regular irrigation of fields throughout the growing season.
42c876d42ac14a5f68f2d0b0fd67dcb7c44bb17f	Thanks to this, yields immediately increased and it became possible to accumulate products.
e2678b0688112cf85394521a85758b9412d07066	This, in turn, led to the second great division of labor, that is, to the allocation of specialized crafts, and then to the possibility of class stratification, namely, to the allocation of a class of slaveholders, on the one hand, and to the widespread exploitation of servile people of the slave type and slaves, on the other.
42dc89b5c30fedd1cca63d85e172e0b81829acae	At the same time, it should be noted that the extremely hard work on the construction and clearing of canals (as well as other earthworks) was carried out mainly not by slaves, but by community members as a matter of duty; every free adult spent an average of two months a year on this, and this was the case throughout the history of ancient Mesopotamia.
fe3f84ee3fd7813a3c27b5ec1458e6fade5c835f	The main agricultural work — plowing and sowing — was also carried out by free community members.
14099fbd491b5d8604630e1d6d6d8e13eb883f8c	Only the nobles, who were invested with power and performed positions that were considered socially important, did not personally participate in the duties, did not plow the land.
07bb9537015da65152f82628223381b457dd64b6	A mass survey by archaeologists of the traces of the oldest settlements of Lower Mesopotamia shows that the process of improving local land reclamation and irrigation systems was accompanied by the resettlement of residents from scattered tiny settlements of large family communities to the center of the nomes (administrative divisions), where the main temples with their rich granaries and workshops were located.
f4b9c7ffd00b017005e26cecb79898e91fdc6ab4	The temples were the collection centers of nomic spare funds; from here, on behalf of the temple administration, tamkars were sent to distant countries to exchange the bread and fabrics of Lower Mesopotamia for wood, metals, slaves and slaves.
6b325e2eed7d5c190f395aaf21f040d886fc8c55	At the beginning of the second quarter of the third millennium BC, densely populated areas around the main temples were surrounded by city walls.
a44f23e2933d66395c5f2ba724e4916ca6cec7b4	Around 3000-2900 BC, the temple farms became so complex and extensive that it was necessary to take into account their owners economic activity.
54b414bf649a6dc9abf35af680d05eabe1fc1c83	In this regard, writing is emerging.
1b8e4e0dd48a8017dfc16a39cefef0c142baa0f2	The emergence of writing[edit / edit wiki text]
818d1e3ab42b8f0ef9092f3b12915ffa4a238832	The Sumerians created the first writing system in the foreseeable history of mankind.
0f8686b3599b46550cc5d520c2c9dd1ab0f0f139	It is called cuneiform.
7bb352ad44de581201ffe70057e5c1a50dfebc36	The history of the creation of cuneiform is documented in Mesopotamia from the icons of drawings to signs denoting syllables of speech and abstract concepts.
6c3a1f080b13e748923a054482575d502f8cde75	At first, writing in Lower Mesopotamia appeared as a system of three dimensional chips or drawings.
fb0e947eccf751e2c7d77ec6093f08324ccb27b4	They drew on plastic tiles made of clay with the end of a reed stick.
ae9017b2ca0c4358a150913a49a48a01cd474410	Each sign of the drawing denoted either the depicted object itself, or any concept associated with this object.
dc3226724859c87686364150423d179f6bcd5d22	For example, the sky, drawn with strokes, meant "night" and thus also "black", "dark", "sick", "illness", "darkness", etc.
47b9160c4ec8e952af462ee1f8738dd73e3f12fc	The leg sign meant "to walk", "to walk", "to stand", "to bring", etc. Grammatical forms of words were not expressed, and it was not necessary, since usually only numbers and signs of calculable objects were entered in the document.
a79b1c64092794a260bfc096b348c7497f92bae6	True, it was more difficult to convey the names of the recipients of the items, but even here at first it was possible to do with the name of their professions: the horn meant a coppersmith, a mountain (as a sign of a foreign country) - a slave, a terrace (?) (maybe, kind of stands), the chief priest, etc. But soon resorted to the puzzle: if you meant "stone", "the weight", then the sign of the weights next to the sign of the legs suggests the reading gene — progress, and mark heap — BA — beside the same sign suggested reading lip — "standing", etc. Sometimes whole words were written in a rebus way, if the corresponding concept was difficult to convey by drawing; for example, ga ("return, add") was denoted by the "reed" sign of gi.
76f71f1f8d2657766cdf7ab5714ebc46fe448b3e	The process of writing creation took place from about 4000 to 3200 BC .
6f37857018b99f1111c9af4199216dfc695c7cdb	It took at least 400 years until writing turned from a system of purely reminder signs into an ordered system of transmitting information in time and at a distance.
996fc589cc8bb0300f8b453d407b890025ddbeff	This happened around 2400 BC.
b20e355ef6e0fec44056a8d7818181ecf0674d88	By this time, due to the inability to quickly draw curved shapes on the clay without burrs, etc., the signs had already turned into simply combinations of straight dashes, in which it was difficult to recognize the original drawing.
99be5f4187a6c407571a1514630b4a8141d67ea2	At the same time, each dash, due to the pressure on the clay with the angle of a rectangular stick, received a wedge shaped character; as a result, such a letter is called cuneiform.
765b21187a6e38db545c361d6e3cdcf5a7a2988d	Each sign in the cuneiform script can have multiple verbal meanings and some pure sound
a2029460ab234cc265c667397a7282b4e1202197	(usually said about the values of the syllabic signs, but this is incorrect: the sound values may designate and paslauga, for example, the syllable Bob you can write two "syllabic" signs: baab; the value is the same as when one of the women, the difference in ease of learning and save space when writing characters, but not in reading).
10c523d9cf913ef8a10b92f2e7adac6dd0a711db	Some signs could also be "determinants", that is, unreadable signs that only indicate which category of concepts the neighboring sign belongs to (wooden or metal objects, fish, birds, professions, etc.); thus, the correct choice of reading from several possible ones was facilitated.
8dd7475201bc55e37f8dce9844288a9837c093a7	The study of the language of some later cuneiform inscriptions (from about 2500 BC) and proper names mentioned in the inscriptions (from about 2700 BC) showed scientists that already at that time there was a population in Lower Mesopotamia who spoke (and later wrote) in two completely different languages Sumerian and East Semitic.
e7bb3b99b8cbbcdf7d263c058510bc8c534a57e9	The Sumerian language, with its bizarre grammar, is not related to any of the languages that have survived to this day.
45562cc7db54f7caa02f3f885f2633c75942bcfe	The East Semitic language, which was later called Akkadian or Babylonian Assyrian, belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afrasian family of languages
08b98c5731597d2d0b3c4f1c384dd9d81d6e36fa	Babylon
7562a39e903a9f8b2b6aaa55fc0837a92e48f8f9	This term has other meanings, see Babylon (meanings).
60953e4df773f369a994793ce51c23f2f653b5d2	The ancient city of Babylon
81f2372467214d1a8d0d3390531f8830b42ef841	akkad.
cbcb4e0d96dfe150a0d985598b4c5311ce349101	Bābili(m)[1]; noise.
526d719c02e8dcc816a86197d96a6f10ada2232e	KÁ.
4224d98cfec784df427002032081e51a40c210bf	DINGIR.
0f8112c2a26637b04ffa9149a634b07f79311a57	RAKI[1]
47c7a2ee002a5c1c61c84061c6ff17b6fa5b2123	other Heb .לל (Babel) [1]; others Greek.
c0d356457f8e186cf419305670f257e7bcb08b61	ΒαβυλνΝ (BabylōN)
b9f0999ea19f2b1f2f8a87c99e19e7bf4fd7a1fc	an Arab.
b0a9326408f358d3ff2a2844346c4a7f0d541ce4	بابل‎‎ (Babil)
e5a320f8221920665b8c06711c8457f860fb7ae0	The ruins of Babylon.
b0ed413db2412a0b426be090725aeb3e6e0b2828	Photo 1975 The country of Mesopotamia Mesopotamia
033896487a54c1528c1c7c6abf75ca2443c8b18e	The first mention is the III millennium BC.
05ab502eef266e450264aebc0920a026705c47f2	Other names are Kadingirra[2], Tintir[2], Eridu[2], Shuanna[2] , etc. (including cult names)
d89af7815f89c610e6cf3dc80adfdbf16e7ce9db	Destroyed I millennium
5471038430782b7d9a4f37058916e2162592778f	The reasons for the destruction are gradual desolation due to the proximity to the capital cities: Seleucia and Ctesiphon
aad33641dd416a11d7e701aa4784043690e2a040	The name of the settlement of El Hill
40beaedea132065aa3c613b9d949efbbcafa4ad1	Population composition Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Amorites, Kassites, Chaldeans, Arabs, Greeks, ancient Assyrians, Jews, Persians and other peoples
d1b671bc95d7ea42e9c07a260b7b640a63563cab	Ethnohoronym Babylonian, Babylonian, Babylonians[3][4]
fc5f50ad120c39d04830770d09e4df3d5e9a115c	The population is about 150,000 people[5].
06bac4218fcbd9b939a5bfe8cfb43a8d180b638b	Modern location Iraq
f23bfc13ef5dfe192f5a22dd2252a4caacff5db2	Coordinates 32°32'30" s. w.
d3af9315f68891f4e8a9c9b39639fa70889462ab	44°25'24" v. d.
9f6357e8e1f302a287e1bad6ee9629cb8abe8a82	/ 32.54167° s. w.
d82db7a0ad62e2d3e8c81c452c904da033d22fa1	44.42333° v. d.
a32c11122acb01711def05ea898d7556d3d45ad7	/ 32.54167; 44.42333 (G) (O)
9f2f3245c9b7953d68eb0913e932b8a9e686f9e9	Coordinates: 32°32 '30" s. w.
4ba77df48f1095a4125349f836d037ac9dedd314	Babylon on Wikimedia Commons
9a6472ea818d9d29abaf7507b5d42558053d7f8f	Babylon (other Greek: ΒαβυλνΝ, from Akkad. bāb ilāni "gate of the gods") is one of the cities of ancient Mesopotamia, located in the historical region of Akkad.
0b2ec127266d67a2fc13f44e71ceb9bae10a9452	Earlier epochs turned out to be less documented, so assumptions about the location of certain objects for those times often have a preliminary character.
037b848a1b3236ea5784aff4f81112e52fcc92ee	Apparently, Babylon acquired its classic, rectangular plan in the Kassite period; at about the same time, the city was divided into ten districts/quarters.
cf3c15d795392e4d19b303519117ddf29b8f1f26	During its heyday, Babylon was surrounded by a triple ring of walls, with a perimeter of about 8015 m, a moat filled with water, as well as an external wall covering part of the suburbs.
efd9529f2bb05209c685d136d91f93b3107cd29b	The area of the city was about 4 km2, and taking into account the territory of the "Greater Babylon" covered by the outer wall, it reached about 10 km2.
e08f75d9f9bcf3d51479c27547323c178d8f5936	Fortifications covered the main, northern entrance to Babylon, from the side of the Ishtar gate; in addition, in the north of the suburbs there was the summer palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, built in the form of a fortress, and on the Euphrates a special massive structure protected the corner of the city walls from the influence of the current.
53ff186da2589cf0c337b910294478d6f72ab4a0	The city was connected to the outside world by 8 gates, which opened roads to the most important cities of the district.
96b9bf8cd10af1fb1983a22baf2694a71e401248	The streets intersected at right angles, some of them were paved with tiles made of imported materials.
39575bce8b858bc97ec8eb75a4929b5af40d3e70	Babylon had a well equipped, paved embankment, many channels that supplied city blocks with water, bridges connecting various parts of the city, palaces, a huge number of temples, as well as grandiose structures — the ziggurat of Etemenanki (the Tower of Babel) and the Second wonder of the World — Hanging Gardens.
297781b0be7146c7effa9b98740c84d77eccbc48	Many buildings were faced with glazed bricks, bas reliefs, friezes; the tiers of the ziggurat were painted in different colors.
976d9001b686782912181d2132bf96f813e51333	Herodotus, who visited there in the V century BC, called Babylon the most beautiful of all the cities that he knew[28].
67fd3e22751e9822f317e794a6bbb53daefa7e80	Districts and quarters of the city[edit / edit wiki text]
8402240de816506be65115676d0749f12137346b	The main part of Babylon was divided by the Arachtu River/The Euphrates is divided into the Western City and the Eastern City (in outdated publications the New City and the Old City), and is surrounded by suburbs, including within the outer wall of Nebuchadnezzar II. Presumably, since the Kassite time, the main part of the city was divided into ten districts or quarters (Akkad. erșetu, sometimes alu).
757e7c39fa386dc8f803b38fd323ea22fe60751c	The names of the quarters often went back to the cult names of Babylon itself ("Eridu", "Kadingirra", "Shuanna", [2]) or repeated the names of the cities of Sumer and Akkad (Kullab, Kumar (i.e. Kuara), Tuba)[2]. The blocks are as follows.
7648451fd7f4cdeaf4ab7e82e229d9243e367f83	Excavation plan of the central part of the Eastern City
98f71afb18a91280ef469be22c4a5ae2e29605e3	Eridu (Akkad. Eri du10ki) is the oldest part of the Eastern city and its religious center.
d0140eaf0a44d700153bd446c5fa8b92c24fa32f	It was located in the very center of the Eastern City within the boundaries of Tell Amran ibn Ali and the Sahn region.
a33bf825c812c4a817eb663fa91913b23d4bcad7	The borders of the Eridu district in the north were the Great Gate and the Kadingirra district, in the south — the Market Gate and the Shuanna District, in the west the Euphrates bank, in the east Eridu was adjacent to the Kullab quarter.
792e2f953e2978df86a884bf79690794a4eaf9b6	In Eridu there were the most important religious buildings of the city, a total of 14 temples: the central sanctuary of Esagila, the ziggurat of Etemenanki (the Tower of Babel), the temples of Ekarzaginn (in honor of Ea), Erabriri (in honor of Madanu), Egalmach (in honor of Gula), Enamtaggaduha (in honor of the Amorite deity Amurru), Ealtila (in honor of Adad), Eturkalamma (in honor of Belet Babili/Ishtar of Babylon), Enitenna/Enitendu (in honor of Sin), Esagdilannahidrutuku (in honor of Papsukkal), Ezidagishnugal (in honor of Dumuzi), Egishlaanki (in honor of Nabu), Eguzalamah(in honor of Ningishzida) and Esaggasharra (in honor of the goddess Anunit).
a5f9aa1a54c76324e7a646695fca9ec710613264	Shuanna (Akkad. Šu an naki) is a district in the south of the Eastern City, mainly in the area of the Ishan el Aswad hill/Ishin Aswad.
883894a6cb236766dbb53389a56f12986bf1907f	The borders of Shuanna in the north were the Eridu district and the Market Gate, in the south — the city walls and the Urash Gate, in the west — the Arachtu River/The Euphrates, in the east — the TE.Eki quarter.
1f81e3b662e7590a8023d32d976a6a54006a7a61	In Shuanna there were the temples of Ehursagtilla (in honor of Ninurta) and a sanctuary called by archaeologists "Temple Z" and often identified with the temple of Eshasurra in honor of the goddess Ishhara, known from topographical texts.
711a326a8d78b174ea84f867acaa00e253801aa0	Kadingirra (Akkad. KÁ.DIGIR.RAKI) is a district in the northwestern corner of the Eastern City; it covered part of Tellei Qasr and Merkes.
88aa1f424104fb5f8617ea5db62d67af03b6b105	In the north, its borders were the city walls and the Ishtar Gate, in the south — the Eridu district and the Great Gate, in the west — the river bank, in the east the New City quarter.
311b8836d86fe65987a00736d4c1e72175f856b6	The central administrative and fortification complex of the city was located in Kadingirra; here was the palace ensemble of Babylon, bounded by the city walls from the north, the river from the west, the Processional Street from the east, and the Libil Hengalla canal from the south.
5b671bd93854aa208dbd9bf677da6c8e4089eb5d	In addition, there were four important temples in Kadingirei: Emah (in honor of Belet or / Ninmah), Emashdari (in honor of Belet Akkade/Ishtar of Akkad), Eniggidarkalammashumma in honor of dNabu ša ḫarê and Ehilikalamma (in honor of Ashratum).
fb37c6adf085be7a820a93abf2d178de1f9c3cc5	The most studied quarter from an archaeological point of view.
18df74160454db7dc77c731c742fe96d345c5245	The new City (Akkad. alu GIBILki, alu eššuki) is a district in the northeast of the Kullab quarter, partially coinciding with the Tell of Homer.
ebe24c1a22754c92008efd65265a7b6ee4a111ca	In the south it was adjacent to the Kullab quarter (near the Ekitushgirzal temple); in the west it was adjacent to Kadingirra, in the north and east the city walls were the boundaries of the quarter.
892c44655c0d770e9ddc8801f59049d7e4974207	Even at the end of the Old Babylonian period, there was a zone of commercial activity here.
cd906dc6db89814d719bfdf412084824d6b6b98d	It is known about three sanctuaries in the New City: Eurunanam (a sacred pedestal in honor of Nabu), Ekitushgirsal (in honor of Belet Eanna/Ishtar) and Eandasaa (in honor of Ishtar).
12ac0b39f2bd50d41482f24d29a0c72c4e4ea721	During the Persian period, the quarter was destroyed due to changes in the course of the Euphrates.
903247cc50ef533bc1d0664af260d906fb9dbff0	In Hellenistic times, ancient cultural structures were built in the New City, including a theater and a palaestra.
3f9ab3e3411ac67a82493d74aeced42116d0ad06	Kullab (Akkad. Kul aba4ki) is a district to the east of the Eridu quarter, bordered on the north by the New City (up to the Ekitushgirzal temple), on the south by the TE quarter.
f693514feb17a067b02f6d51cc4845cf75866cd0	Eki; in the east, the boundaries of the district were the city walls and the gates of Marduk.
94c33c0fd17a554e70372973b32b80dbae1ffe05	Part of Kullab, along with the Eridu and Kumar quarters, makes up the oldest core of the city, which existed during the I dynasty.
11b8e60ccdcf87a179242ff56db71ce2e635b0ad	There were four temples located here: Egishnugal (in honor of Sin), Emekiliburur (in honor of the goddess Sharrat Larsa), Ergubba (in honor of Pisangunuk) and Esag (in honor of Lugalbanda).
4a03e1af94664735c4988142cd7ec2117bc0cbba	Also in Kullab there was a building of the Bit resh Akitu, associated with the celebration of the New Year.
5759f4a49e02a35a52729c6f428f2ce21d91e299	The district whose name was transmitted by the logogram TE.
d2d085ed27410a651d164e7a1c4f64cac5c707a2	Eki, but the reading is unclear (possibly Kasiri: akkad. Kasīri or Te: Akkad. Tê).
c0c83c4997e6a0d30d379396d026172045d8c5e2	It was located east of the Shuanna District and south of Kullab, that is, in the southeastern corner of the Eastern City.
3e3ec5c1d117ccbf2b4ed27c11a0c0fbf7ed533a	In the north, it bordered the New City, in the west with Shuanna (the border object here was the sacred pedestal in honor of Marduk); in the south, the border of the district was the city wall, in the east — the city wall and the gate of Zababa.
439d1ab557ab5d48466b7817cc87802d33661e78	There were three shrines here: Ekagula (the sacred pedestal of the Anunnaki), Edurkuga (the sacred pedestal of the Igigs) and the temple of Emeurur (in honor of Nanaya).
6655acf342e09d892af3d149c05e0342412f9c58	Babylon around 600 BC: a schematic drawing of the central part.
0cda4a82a5ab8810e1c2bc9233e922ca4d6058e8	View from the Western city.
80208ddd8b513b771b7965b279ebc9584f368fa7	Kumar
038b343ed07f74c79ae8464eb6c7d95e34cb9005	(shum .AA.
64ce0154860257dc63bc1bd2d2c5874026f1bc6d	A, Akkad.
3389279f9bb26339fdd75de4eb3a57d03e34aa4d	Kumar is the oldest part of the Western City and its religious center.
55774cf8685aac27e5e29246de21f975d83f38ac	It stretched from the Akut Gate in the west to the bank of the Euphrates in the south.
959260f8f950eceb11b906138257b14505808a8b	There were seven temples located here: Enamtila (in honor of Bel Matati/Ellila), Eeshmah (in honor of Ea), Ekadimma (in honor of Belili), Emesikilla (in honor of Amurru), Edikukalamma (in honor of Shamash), Eesirkalamma (in honor of Pisangunuk) and Enamhe (in honor of Adad).
e899b9c2f3fadb60bb98d811c2763e3e2a185349	Tuba (Akkad. Tu ba)
c79f26689a1afe411210671013e7cf05b192bf66	- a district in the southern part of the Western city.
554f2c01260aa24376a4e8b542bab977b5ff1a35	Three shrines in this quarter are known from topographical texts: Ekitushgarza (in honor of Belet Eanna/Ishtar), Esabad (in honor of Gula) and Eshiddukisharra (in honor of Nabu).
4e856517d5c418247eeb93e9fd4afce23e31782b	The district whose name is damaged in the texts.
b4205a9f788f39ceee7d5f12d2961f1e5fc5a53f	It was located in the western part of the Western City, extending from the city walls and the Adad Gate to the Kumar quarter and the Akut Gate.
bc5afec8cb5ae9ce3b48ca0e94481e1149039372	Like other quarters of the Western City, it was not excavated by archaeologists; written sources do not contain any significant information about it, do not mention any temples or other significant buildings on its territory.
33bb44f48029d9b9edfeeab752679596f3448ad6	Bab Lugalirra (Akkad. Bāb dLugal ir9 ra, that is, "The Gate of Lugalirra") is a district in the north of the Western city.
32a234b383e558576fc67093ec55d38b0a22725f	Its northern border was the city wall and the Enlil Gate, in the west — the Euphrates River, the eastern border was near the Egishkhurankia temple.
1a40c09b930d7c230d28bfacf0506c8b1a16d299	There were three temples in this quarter: Eninmakh (in honor of the deity Nuska), Egishkhurankia (in honor of the goddess Belet Ninua) and Ebursasa (in honor of Shara).
913b7b3ce510de738c577b268440d5147e9501b5	Unlike the main part of the city, the suburbs of Babylon are less well studied.
230a5164f1a84d41cec8d76519a619b6ee013fb8	There were fortifications, temples, palaces, villas of the rich, simple houses, agricultural plots, etc. Under Nebuchadnezzar II, part of the suburbs of the Eastern City was surrounded by an External wall; at the same time, a Summer or Northern Palace was built there.
f2b0f0bd73158984487f084393b1d487fdeb6e15	The famous Processional Street ran through the suburbs; in the same part of the city there were two massive fortresses or castles that covered the main entrance to Babylon through the Ishtar Gate.
c1139d3e67dd608241be03659ce4159990cdf73d	From cuneiform sources, it is known about various parts of the suburbs; among them are Labbanata, as well as Bit shar Babili — an elite district in the area of the Summer Palace of Nebuchadnezzar.
a8c15b248bb5a554864a88f6e8c0842c51cd59d9	Archaeologists have excavated the Bit Akitu the Temple of the New Year, located near one of the castles, along Processions Street.
89701e1b13e291d97c0d1b8ea9e38644b46a1467	Fortification[edit / edit wiki text]
df1400fd0b513a65e53486a4568934c98fbe0ebb	The rise of Babylon at the beginning of the II millennium BC took place in the conditions of a fierce struggle with other city states and numerous semi nomadic tribes.
8d355b70566dfa4566598b43cddf1c9112123acd	For this reason, the kings of the First Babylonian dynasty already paid great attention to the construction of fortifications.
5b4ea1bbdb2c2402200c47561b66ec72e195fed6	In the heyday, during the X dynasty, Babylon was a powerful, almost impregnable fortress; in the subsequent Persian period (V IV centuries BC), the capture of the city was carried out either by means of a deliberate trick, or after a long siege, starvation, with numerous victims.
7aa2f1018ffc4f4f5a36038134b39364813e89fe	The defensive structures of Babylon are walls with towers and gates, separate fortresses and bastions, moats.
a9ae229dad7c8cb9bb875615dcacad616771c233	Over the centuries, they have been constantly improved — rebuilt, changed the plan and size.
e476989c44bea6119cfe4775d6aa6d7bea622653	Citadel of Babylon[edit / edit wiki text]
29e3ddb483c71abf2219120753ce242c92b60c88	This section is not completed.
15961bf1691a879689fefa9fbd7d0e326608f680	You will help the project by correcting and supplementing it.
8fcb97e6482f39c77e1b5b513bdc97b96f35b6f7	Walls and towers[edit / edit wiki text]
22846e9cd4f9164df63c82f3acbb30db65eac5da	The walls of Babylon after reconstruction
6661d78176465ad2ae9da235a9d7e181fbb3c565	The early walls of Babylon are known only from the time of the I dynasty and only from cuneiform sources; the exact location of these structures is unclear.
624d5cc7e9d692e943ce4971b2f4eb019c350a3c	The early fortifications of Babylon include the Great Wall and the New Great Wall.
78915734b95572c906fc7251598a5c4d7a26ddb2	The" Big Wall " of Babylon (shum. BÀD.GAL. KÁ. DIGIR. RAki).
381ccfaf8a885ef9eba9169a0254435ade92fd89	The dating formulas of the first king of the I dynasty, Sumuabum, mention the construction of a "Big" / "Great" (shum. GAL) wall around Babylon already in the first year of his reign (circa 1894 BC according to the middle chronology).
15332ab6da830e2236fcaaca905b49c9043f3da4	18 years later, the same wall was completed or rebuilt by Sumulael.
d9ad5f263b2edc3570f43908b01402d1b0b93458	According to the researchers, the "Big Wall"should have covered the oldest core of the city the Eridu, Kumar and part of Kullaba quarters[29]; the plan of this structure could approach the oval[30].
80c2eca337f1c60e311405da9f346e940ded6dbb	The" New Great Wall " of Babylon (shum. BÀD.MAḪ. GIBIL.KÁ. DIGIR.RAki) or the wall of Apil Sin (in the scientific literature).
bf2ef2247bb1ca0ca316d7491b9daaef73ff5190	Based on the dating formulas, it was erected in the second year of the reign of King Apil Sin (that is, about 1830 BC — according to the average chronology).
18bfbc8def075361b640d32a46d00610407ad2f9	According to one version, this is an updated "Big Wall", according to another — a completely new structure.
7442ffb037655fa9697f19208e1e17c8057c44bc	The main gate of its eastern part is quite long (about forty years) they could remain unfinished[29].
4d43a29d8edbf0337d76db012e718ba85000ff69	The position and plan of the Apil Sin wall are unclear: the structure could repeat the outlines of the early "Big Wall" or cover large territories[29].
75b0f252b375d7479d5e49509ef74650ee8bec02	Later, this structure was replaced by the Imgur Enlil wall, apparently fell into disrepair and was dismantled[29].
8733119d1a4c7980294907447491114fd1ffa122	The wall of Imgur Enlil (Akkad. BÀD im gur dEN. LÍL: "Enlil deigned") is the main rectangular wall of Babylon, known from written sources and attested archaeologically (the remains of the wall have survived to this day).
165eff3782ec8a32225489ffdf6e74f363c1f880	The date of construction is unknown, but it is assumed that the structure definitely existed by the end of the Kassite period, since it was at that time that the rectangular, symmetrical layout of Mesopotamian cities appeared (examples of Dur Kurigalzu and Borsippa)[31]. The length of the Imgur Enlil wall around the Western City was about 3580 m (1100 m — north side, 1460 m west and 1020 m — south side).
951a6c930baee2e9d8e55cb6fcecd8814eda6b70	The length of the Imgur Enlil wall around the Eastern City was about 4435 m (1400+1650+1385 m).
f082d4c89c97b3faf5c3d4df110929d6e77004e8	The total perimeter of the fortifications is estimated at 8015 m.
fe3dde457bf7c2d4c85a65b82a8ac5eeea544ea4	On each side of this rectangle there were two massive gates; approximately every 20 m, small longitudinal and large transverse towers alternated in the wall.
d963201a04d3562933b3aa62c3571a180cd41f5d	Under Nebuchadnezzar II, the thickness of Imgur Enlil was increased to 5.5 m.
61f95952e9c941ce41b30805cb97b66a0ecdf086	The height of the wall is not known for certain; there were battlements in the upper part of the wall, towers and gates.
9047964beaebea2be970524d6b98efc972ed9752	The Wall of Nemeth Enlil (Akkad. BÀD ni mit dEN. LÍL "The abode of Enlil"), often referred to as "the shaft" (Akkad. šalḫu).
f6710c99b140558d6d80561c8e8421b8efafe9c7	It encircled the outer perimeter of Imgur Enlil, duplicating the latter.
0bc5136a10bfef000b4f6d4e713e0df5d87fce51	During the Chaldean dynasty, the thickness of the" shaft " reached 3.75 m, but in general, the Nemetal Enlil was thinner and, apparently, lower than the main wall, had fewer towers.
4b22d6f4ad01b3627ef2ee7091e22bcd3c119c33	The gate to Imgur Enlil continued to Nemet Enlil, that is, it was common to both lines of fortifications.
b3412d684277fc80c774816f05b86ea5a3338ebf	The moat wall is the third line of fortifications of the main part of the city.
2e0796f01b7b9ec8028c53e54b4ba799617b6707	It ran along the outer perimeter of the Nemet Enlil wall and was surrounded by a defensive moat.
746de5bae959f42b122e23fcca066d6fb1f90941	The thinnest and lowest wall.
de526581061bb5e9c2f0b2ca561ca3c72c1233f4	It was built in the era of the X dynasty.
5357cb225c6a4d820bb3a45e7257a929c18a7195	The outer wall of Nebuchadnezzar II is a large scale line of fortifications on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, erected by a famous king.
cee819f9a5cb7b5edff59141bf9077455767f9e7	It began north of Babylon on the bank of the river, skirted the Summer Palace of the fortress, circled part of the suburbs and ended on the bank of the Euphrates to the south of the main part of the city.
ee2657aed4bd71282775aeedcff10a11e7ad8446	The outer wall had 110 towers, five gates, as well as a defensive moat with water along the outer perimeter.
912ae8223095f5cd73b6c8a62d9dc27d0e868299	The embankment wall protected the Eastern City from the Euphrates.
28cce12024ecf45845fa4a1140adde1d1bf4e5ad	It was built during the Chaldean dynasty (finally completed by Nabonidus).
dddec35921dccfc4a16d11cd01bcb02065f5488a	In fact, it closed the Outer Wall of Nebuchadnezzar.
279c24e1718d9de02655ba22895a3da7f7e6ce0c	There were towers and gates; through the latter one could access the bridges leading to the Western City.
d4f72b9d5b23e0f9aaefe93c67703626e3171082	City gates[edit / edit wiki text]
0d52c93e3086748b49fe522d023c582550e1923d	The gates of the early fortifications[edit / edit wiki text]
21a36ff6ea0a04c8bc9b5f78a65afb3630ebe6fb	These structures are known only from cuneiform sources, archaeologists have not yet discovered their remains.
536d18c9e42c25000e09a71b93002f2dcb347bff	Since the relevance of these buildings disappeared with the appearance of the Imgur Ellil wall, the gates of the early fortifications could have disappeared quite a long time ago.
4ea38e9e5623c1a4a63761feeed295a40f0edc11	On the other hand, the memory of these structures was preserved for a long time, since the boundary lines between the blocks passed through them, which was reflected in the topographic texts.
018c1ffeff52682b6b860f47e09dae6e3331c43d	It is assumed that the " Great "and/or" New Great Wall of Babylon " communicated with the outside world through the following gates.
5add6a651e63101cf60d8b6da6605baf9414568e	The Great Gate (shum. KÁ. GAL. MaḪ, Akkad. abulmāḫi) is located in the north of the Eastern City.
4524744755fc43e98c9913be6ac9304bb46554c8	They opened by the road to Sippar.
f5950b600b1dda0d7832db8b0ffebe03e3f7a03c	The Market Gate (shum. KÁ. GAL. GANBA, Akkad. abul maīīri) is located in the south of the Eastern City.
2294e197972c573f55a31206e67ac0a169d97dd8	The Akut Gate (Akkad. abulli A ku si tum) opened on the road to Dilbat - in the south west of the Western City; it was named after the city of Akut.
da0c34d0ce154928e6fe72697f22194c52927771	The Gate of Lugalirra (Akkad. bāb dLugal ir9 ra) — in the north west of the Western city.
0f3cff149742f546178ca3a7ed0ae92e7afcbd26	The name is in honor of the deity Lugalirra (Lugal Irra, possibly the hypostasis of the plague god Erra).
34d25ae073482df198803a55d19695bd9ed8b194	The memory of this gate is preserved in the name of the Bab Lugalirra quarter.
6d56b70a2529a3a46589352bf3a68d326b8285c4	In addition to these, there could be other gates, for example, in the east of the Eastern city.
32379e70e0b2b90455367b0e743e728ce96931d2	The gates of the main part of the city[edit / edit wiki text]
cbdf85e59758cf6a33e5c89f097d120b8bf4099b	Eight gates through the walls of the main part of the city bore the names of the most important Mesopotamian deities.
0e72cf8873914b1849a00e1a7e2931c86c9360c1	The portals of the Eastern City have been studied archaeologically; their location is precisely established.
e7c087a0587c5ab72c2d3ef5fe5cc7c0b346a281	The portals of the Western City are identified only by cuneiform texts, their approximate location is known.
cb815cd9abea75e2aa6c2b92ea81196bf727ec8d	In the topographic texts (Tintir), the gates of the main part of the city are mentioned in the following order.
db8877792f0c6e6d07b8629c9356e8c2018b25fe	Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate in the Pergamon Museum
ab61ce6c6d8b58f0a5507ca1abe1615453cfd4a8	The Gate of Urash (Akkad. abul dUraš) is the southern portal of the Eastern city; the earliest mention is in the inscriptions of Nabopalasar and Nebuchadnezzar II.
e4debfabee533072ea8af56067a109bf4376bb83	The gate opened by a road to the south, which ran along the Euphrates towards the city of Dilbat, where the center of worship of Urash (the hypostasis of the god Ninurta) was located.
80fffd331d537bfc159a5872d2289baedad80fc4	The Gate of Zababa (Akkad. abul dZa ba4 ba4) is the southernmost of the two (the second is the gate of Marduk) eastern gates of the Eastern City.
8ab05551abac7b74df35f5ef0b9817823cb232c2	They are first mentioned in the annals of Sinakherib and New Babylonian commercial documents.
118f1124d815f6a5ff400558de5b7e8c7cb30f76	They opened the road to the ancient city of Kish, the center of worship of the warrior god Zababa.
af60a2d1a25c48c490f8ad578501b6d1d6ca34e3	In the" History " of Herodotus, these gates are called "Kissi" (from the distorted name of the city of Kish, Akkad. Kiški).
05e3c30d9862a0a08a9d52704de32804d3d0a168	The Gate of Marduk (Akkad. abul dMarduk) is the second eastern gate of the Eastern City; it was located north of the gate of Zababa.
6498b4c9d95e053f8451e25d4b9a9c7c663fb349	In Herodotus, they are called "Belsky" (from Akkad. dBēl — "Lord", the title of the supreme god Marduk).
28e4eaf6bac0ec2e14a27df5e0f1b5bba5613a2d	The Ishtar Gate (Akkad. abul dIštar) is the northern portal of the Eastern City, the most famous gate of Babylon.
d9f29395568a3fca79a995a45399b20cf7cf86f2	From them began the famous Processional Street (Ayiburshabu Avenue), which continued outside the city on the road to Sippar.
0ccd6a1aa6baccf8d1a24abdde85d5c406c3289f	They are named after Ishtar, the goddess of war, fertility and carnal love.
53d0ffb12323ac705a483d23eb6fc3ca8f1f8a72	The gate was excavated by a German expedition, transported to the Pergamon Museum and reconstructed.
5ca7821c10b560da96531c2904383ef3e16adf43	The Gate of Enlil (Akkad. abul dEN.LÍL) - the portal of the Western city; presumably on the northern side of the wall.
013d2602650d413d7dfa6acc4ce20b9c5bd0de14	They are named after the ancient supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, the lord of the wind Enlil (Akkad. Ellil).
b7b8e6e2246e36ad8ee2f807cfcac384a437bb91	The Royal Gate (Akkad. abul sharri) is the portal of the Western City; presumably — on the western side of the wall, but north of the gate of Adad.
629586a648e37c57c00c2a8d1ea8d8b7062ff4c6	The Gate of Adad (Akkad. abul dAdad) is the portal of the Western City; presumably — on the western side of the wall, but south of the Royal Gate.
63b0cd4ceecb1e806a58eaff04f93d56aa14c9e5	They are named after the storm god Adad.
19c50aff0a7e2cb9f6a4c7691b4a33d276dc63ba	The Shamash Gate (Akkad. abul dŠamaš) is the portal of the Western City; presumably on the southern side of the wall.
b52dd75325f1924f13dfc51e48c57e18b3d83b57	They are named after the sun god Shamash
7b1e91ca0218127cff6d1b5d07dcdd6f26a5eccb	In addition, a well known expert on the topography of Babylon, E. Unger, suggested the existence of the gate of Sin, which he placed in the Eastern City; however, modern researchers consider this assumption erroneous.
e0e2ce5f1003790bde32616a8ae042ff079db53b	The gate of the outer wall[edit / edit wiki text]
69affefdbe9d8c10fb9d0fbe8c8e03fc89991bfa	The gate of the Shukhi Canal (Akkad. abulli ša ídšūḫi) is the northernmost.
749a84f4ff55b2ce451f335d507d71c6586ddaaa	The road from the Ishtar Gate, a continuation of the street of Processions, passed through this gate and went further to Sippar.
dff4659ad5f38b881a40833786a00dc8b1945227	The Madanu Canal Gate (Akkad. abulli ša nār dMadānu) is located on the northeastern side of the outer wall, south of the Shukhi Canal Gate.
2c690ededaff21794504a0dfd136154208947d7c	Madanu is the patron god of judges.
23600b61b890ad3e31e75a1f39425877d64dcebf	From the main part of the city, a road led to them from the gate of Marduk; outside the city, it continued towards the city of Kuta.
ab455d8192fbee291315c3b8570795f47cd931fc	The Gishshu Gate (Akkad. abul giššu) is the southernmost of the three gates on the northeastern side of the outer wall.
ca5edbfd52ad9b702e48e786716f6d5567ccb872	The road from the Zababa gate probably forked and one of the directions passed through the Gishshu gate, from where it continued towards the city of Kish.
a4cf164f37c07dcc816cfbd2152c382810b43e7b	The Gate of the Sun of the Gods (Akkad. abul dšamaš ilimeš) is a portal on the south eastern side of the wall, in its central part.
d7fd609808f155107494928bc7711311499a00cd	The road from the Zababa gate probably forked and turned south in one direction, where it passed through the specified portal.
5cc72b3c5d3b8508cbdfe9b2a65d891b27f9f0e3	Outside the city, the road to St. Petersburg continued the sacred city of Nippur for the Sumerians.
69c24973b5c3bb690c448d7286a554e34e0e686e	The Seashore Gate (Akkad. abul šapat tam tum) is the southernmost portal, on the western edge of the southeastern section of the outer wall, near the Euphrates coast.
35fac6bd0b0fd0d5f2a06366ac9914ba27905711	The road to Dilbat, which began at the gates of Urash, passed through this portal.
96456f99e0eedae39e036ea70bef0590c6f5bec8	Fortresses, castles, bastions[edit / edit wiki text]
1be221f6f9a63328d17ba2736fae6a32ea138ba5	Defensive ditches[edit / edit wiki text]
76a4dfaa0b81c51dc5d000416d5568f2e721ba18	Streets and roads[edit / edit wiki text]
2b70dc123930f621dba4d60ac421a92e5db46b0c	The road of processions before entering the main part of Babylon (reconstruction).
14f4efd490f00eb9e63983cdf94e610ad3ec9523	In front — the gates of Ishtar, on the sides the walls of castles.
8daef2f1704a0c3e667eacbb6d0ea7cd46167282	View from the north.
d0f869ff96ab19deb8bbe59d253715c1fe983fee	The Pergamon Museum.
00b722b5346da06bbdf7270280ee9a937fca1916	The main streets of the city intersected at right angles, had paving, sometimes made of expensive (imported) materials.
d621945d507972c831540376e5bb14219b16aa0a	The most important streets of Babylon mentioned in topographic texts are as follows.
acad7f72fc867021a733cfd1a00c4a9694cc15c8	The Street of Processions or the road of Processions [Marduk] (Ayiburshabu, Akkad. Ay ibūr šabû)
373dae6af963d4dc48bdaf096939c717a0a6121e	— the main street of Babylon (the Eastern City); in the northern part it was called Ishtar Gate Street (Ishtar Lamassi ummanisha, Akkad. Ištar lamassi ummānīša).
0f685eaf46ff076172bbe68706d5f31b9a9a6429	From the specified gate, it led through the Kadingirra quarter, past the temples in honor of Ninmah and Nabu to the Eridu quarter, where it could enter through the Great Gate (possibly a relic of the old wall).
a841c7299de1fae3d5c2c664398b3d7f82acbed1	In Eridu, the processions in honor of Marduk turned into the main gate of the sacred site of Esagila; the street probably ended there.
120a9f5c28e96a52ac7f6afcc1cd6028e9d2b0a3	Nabu Street or Nabu Processional Road (Nabu dayyan nishishu, Akkad. Nabû dayyān nišīšu: "Nabu is the judge of his people") - in the southern part of the Eastern city.
781291aa1cae55a553162f9d1a64c38c9ceabd09	It led from Esagila to the Urash Gate, crossing the Shuanna quarter from north to south.
0a0d8a2e549e7650456688ef6a81d27184156bfe	Marduk Street or Marduk Gate Street (Marduk re'i matishu, Akkad. Marduk rē'i mātīšu: "Marduk is the shepherd of his country") - started from the specified gate and led to the center of the Eastern City, passing through the southern and eastern districts of the Kullab quarter and the TE.
8e90f67aca1fc74e464202827372494fcf834dc1	Eki quarter.
8c1b77da6b82dd8ee844528f6d58ac1a9cc665f8	The prospect of Nergal the Joyful, known from the late cuneiform texts, is probably associated with it.
565bce8330717f1828bdf42d8d69dc9b35164269	Zababa Street or Zababa Gate Street (Zababa muhallik garishu, Akkad. Zababa muallalliq gārîšu) - started from the specified gate and led to the center of the Eastern city, crossing the TE.Eki quarter.
2879fa90dbe49889c8bec323357c1cd9aa1fa17b	Shamash Street or Shamash Gate Street — in the Western city.
280f536c87d1b393fa9d667712e39a01f2a482ef	Adada Street or Adada Gate Street is in the Western City.
70c2055e999fb3b148f970a7e522b1dd3d9d0d54	Enlil Street or Enlil's Processional Road is in the Western City.
3533255d046aceef191404465375d894193af62b	Hydraulic structures[edit / edit wiki text]
6a2a737c62a9bc7d10e4ff1eda7d61f035e12f92	Places of worship[edit / edit wiki text]
0d6e4455d2b98d3e5e729df790fe6f9163817bed	Babylonian Street.
110fdddd62fee2b28c46a9df8c3d9a02099d60ee	Ishtar Gate, Hanging Gardens of Semiramis( one of the 7 Wonders of the World),
081d5518b370261b6858282980133698c2cafb85	Palaces[edit / edit wiki text]
7d2e4650e2610c65f4515d73d34f2524bca76e48	Gardens and pavilions[edit / edit wiki text]
992be8fca0af6e8c9da53b10e6dafff249c88e53	Hellenistic buildings[edit / edit wiki text]
4a6655db11859f4f423b0a504a876ecf11af9365	Residential development[edit / edit wiki text]
02aedf40500f71ba4c6a5e53844179f1de44376a	Other[edit / edit wiki text]
d05ec52e56ae79333c81bf5c5e48ce17deeb4fbb	Research history[edit / edit wiki text]
a5e65c2d0d3cfff2632dfba325a0e81a390ed554	Main article: Assyriology
0be1a884922ed3bb4d92049d958fbbb90df18f7c	Early mentions and testimonies of travelers[edit / edit wiki text]
01c5ebcaa3c78fb7808968a641eaab3f6b5d7405	At the same time, the Babylonian Beros, who was a priest of the god Marduk, compiled a history of the city and the surrounding country[38], but this work survived only fragmentally in the lists of Diodorus, Eusebius and some other authors.
676c924410bd31a5ccb84381ab32f678fab1f790	The hill of Birs Nimrud, which was taken by early researchers for the ruins of the Tower of Babel
ed07f775b624a794d9a74373d734987035018dbf	After the Hellenistic ruler Antiochus I Soter moved some of the inhabitants of the city to Seleucia on the Tigris, Babylon gradually disappeared from the historical scene, turning into an insignificant settlement.
d6495fcfbed8db7ad8e456e41a6465300b723ad0	But the spread of Christianity breathed new life into the image of this city, largely due to its role in the Old Testament history, as well as its special place in Christian eschatology.
dedfc6189b2bcd44dd7e0ecb9e89e2b05eb9df5a	Arab authors have also preserved the memory of Babylon, but their information is very scarce and is often limited only to mentioning the name of the city.
148648797d4bc7317b3e61aba6343d4c63721d28	In the X century, Ibn Haukal supposedly visited Babylon and described it as a small village[39].
e75acdab8e77cd4fef1459ad8ff5cb4c4525c530	For a long time, knowledge about Babylon was drawn from the sacred books of Judaism and Christianity, as well as the works of ancient authors.
19d353610206bbda3955e4adb8055139b757fd32	It was from there that the famous legends about the Tower of Babel, the mixing of languages, Hanging Gardens, the legendary queens Semiramis and Nitokris, as well as real — life personalities Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, etc. appeared.
27def541bfc057d0d2e4831a28dda4ab0ffc5710	Soon these legends began to be supplemented with information from travelers who visited the Middle Eastern lands; the search for the famous Tower of Babel was of particular interest.
b04e422f67cc07f4c9ece5e6bf3dcc828239244d	The first European to travel to Babylon was Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, who visited it twice between 1160 and 1173, mentioning the ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's palace and the remains of the legendary tower[40], for which he took the ruins at Birs Nimrud (historical Borsippa).
f48d0545b2d31ef25e500332d16bce7573cac38e	Between 1573 and 1576 Babylon was visited by the German scientist Leonard Rauwolf, who left a description of these places[41]; when he saw the majestic ruins of the ziggurat in Akar Kufa, he took them for the remains of the Tower of Babel, but, as it turned out later, they were the ruins of the city of Dur Kurigalzu.
d22af773834a80c316f1786528521fe9e95a1b97	A similar view of the ziggurat in Akar Kufa was held by the English merchant John Eldred (English)Russian, who was here at the end of the XVI century[42].
f3adb93c6c4a6c22455d8d8652bc979416d741d5	At the turn of the XV — XVI centuries, Hans Schiltberger, a squire of the knight Linhart Rechartinger, visited Babylon[43][44]
2e5b4929f7cb355ccc213aac017f82e60005a827	In 1616, the Italian traveler Pietro della Valle visited Babylon[45], who connected the Tower with the hill (tell) Babil, made measurements, made descriptions and brought to Europe several bricks with cuneiform inscriptions, collected both in Babylon and in Tell el Mukayyar.
0f454a00349d199a0e27e86ad41b59b792616ebe	In 1765, Carsten Niebuhr visited there[46].
841233155f291e56201f3451f909b93b3ddee92e	Like his predecessors, who were interested in the location of the famous Tower of Babel, Niebuhr connected this object with the tell Birs Nimrud[47].
4fc1914a6f6438bdbb08bbd1e633d79c67a769a7	In 1780 and 1790 years the ruins of the great city was visited by the French Abbot Joseph de Beauchamp (FR.)Russian., described the looting of Babylon locals and trade mined from the ruins of bricks; he gave instructions Arabs of the findings of the walls with images, lined with glazed bricks and massive statues[47].
700adf0617ef1a7e68070754cad54a6daaa5c6d8	De Beauchamp collected some coins, which he correlated with the Parthian period and referred to the large cylinders with inscriptions, but to the last he has failed[48][49]. During a brief visit to Babylon, a resident of the East India Company, Hartford Jones Bridge, managed to purchase several bricks and a massive stone slab with the inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II[47][50]. In the period from the XII to the XVIII century, other travelers visited Babylon[51][52][53][54], including the Venetian jeweler Gasparo Balbi (English)Russian. (1579-1580), the Carmelite priest Vincenzo Maria di Santa Caterina di Siena (1657) [55], the French scientist Jean Otter (1734)[56], and the Dominican priest Emmanuel de San Albert (1750) [57].
8ddbd04864419057ad6da4b9a010069ddfdca705	The first systematic studies[edit / edit wiki text]
d95d03951d7900fed9aea52aca0e3df3c7eb4d4a	Paul Emile Botta
3ebccbee8f7971dcb167a1dcc5efaa73b85e67ec	The systematic study of Babylon began in the XIX century.
dd4a7ccf48c1f8e89c2427a62dc77b2f48b055f6	Since 1811, the resident of the British East India Company, Claudius James Rich, conducted a survey of the visible ruins of the city.
cb8a713f490c7ca8faa6bebe88641a345e0a462b	He gave the names of the hills in accordance with those that were accepted by the locals and conducted excavations on Tell Babil[58].
395329d594248588484c45586b040d76e0a01598	In 1818, the English artist Robert Ker Porter visited Babylon, who collected several artifacts.
1d3e5fabec0bbde84ac08033d0764d79e59b5fbb	He described his impressions in the book, providing it with romantic illustrations, which helped to increase interest in Babylon in Europe.
0d4ad2ff3b1bc40be01d0f5f837aeb4b97b6a3ed	The remains of the columns on Qasr Hill were taken by the British journalist and traveler James Silk Buckingham for fragments of the famous Hanging Gardens.
20e987e51b4249827d236a205edaaa208820ab1f	A representative of the East India Company, officer Robert Mignan, also conducted small excavations on the territory of the city[59].
02f7cc328e194d389998b8a423452b1308fb3501	In 1849, the English geologist William Kenneth Loftus visited Babylon; disappointed in the possibility of connecting the Babylonian hills with the buildings mentioned by Herodotus, he considered further exploration of the city unpromising.
958c65751a89cdefce20356cc8b4b790b83d00ed	Jules (Julius)
d40c292f53bb3133c539dafd42642f04b8c861b7	Oppert
f2db9d7108ab2ee68af13595f02fb407a58352f5	At the beginning — middle of the XIX century, a special direction in the study of the history of the ancient East — assyriology was formed.
27147944b3e046fdbf2fc2254831d92d4183be81	Incomprehensible signs on clay tablets collected by travelers of previous years were subjected to a thorough analysis, during which it was established that this is a special type of writing, the so called cuneiform.
a7f64a464e47b55675f051a8abc16e3b0b0dd5ab	In the first half of the XIX century , G. F. Grotefend and G. K. Rawlinson were able to decipher the simplest type of cuneiform — Ancient Persian (or Class I; in total, three classes were allocated on the basis of the Behistun inscription).
3a1cd868fe73f0732f2d8a1087d5f4714cb44e01	In the 50s of the XIX century.
b1672d3232fdf097e3b7b46a43c2460935f7d681	Edward Hinks was able to decipher another class of cuneiform, as it turned out, used in the Akkadian (Babylonian Assyrian) language; another class, as it was later established, belonged to the Elamite script.
2d200d8514c601278682bf9e1311d8ffb811cff1	From now on, the texts in the language of the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia, the Babylonians and Assyrians themselves were at the disposal of scientists.
f8253d314bb7d649c5467807d543444a26640713	Excavations of ancient cities in this territory have increased the number of sources every year, including those concerning Babylon.
ac3d2f33fd40c4203b34a478913d097de421af99	Ormuzd Rassam.
21ced034d1d79fe0d523597c150cc022d272f87c	Photo taken in Mosul around 1854
e6d88cacea8c947e2f9b81072e49ec2243d04c08	In 1850, Paul Emile Botta and Austin Henry Layard arrived in Babylon, known for their excavations of Mesopotamian cities, primarily Nineveh; from this moment, a genuine archaeological study of Babylon begins.
fc3c2c7e39a14790eb0ed1df1fd138e78d3c76d2	Botta and Layard conducted excavations at the Babil, Qasr and Amran ibn Ali sites, but they failed to create any clear picture of the location of the buildings of the upper layer.
06271889c32f2cbb948c193c88612137238b0a7b	The reasons for this were both the huge area of the monument, and large scale damage to the integrity of the cultural layer caused by the activities of local residents to extract bricks from the ruins of the city.
ef096fc080a76cddbadc303b9918a0962aa266e2	Layard described the finds of glazed bricks, a basalt statue of a lion, clay bowls with Aramaic inscriptions and some other objects.
9efe264a096201d6709e6e94d292dc6c1cef165a	Numerous burials were discovered on the top of Babil Hill, probably dating back to a late time.
76835663983a0a674425aee6b0e87f302868d6bc	Due to the small number of finds, the excavations were soon stopped.
3774b636d5dac3ccb433a58c7e0f1ff80979935e	In 1852, an expedition led by the French orientalist Fulgens Fresnel and the French German assyriologist Jules (Julius) Oppert began working in Babylon.
8ae551129c46bc0abb4248a56a67101427b7309a	A considerable territory was surveyed, excavations were carried out in the area of the pier on the Euphrates River (known from the inscriptions of Nabonidus), many artifacts were collected.
ddea0ace42d96ebc9e1e7a8487dda2bc9471898d	On the basis of trigonometric measurements and indications from written sources, the first detailed plan of Babylon was created, published by Oppert in 1853.
bf16be4795770d9c1bc8d48bb866cd9e5bb86682	However, the most famous sights of the city could not be found then, and scientists had to limit themselves to assumptions on this score.
29322d158af12ce995aa6a54fed1dbb1c60793cc	In particular, it was suggested that the remains of the famous Hanging Gardens rest under the tell of Amran ibn Ali; the ruins of the Tower of Babel of Zh.
2d0fe7149a9bc2aa3ef68cb8ba26bc57376a4f7c	Oppert searched in the area of Tell Homer, but did not find anything similar there.
e4aed185ed1425a97f0907ce160cf2d110ca64cb	Unfortunately for archaeologists, during the unsuccessful crossing of the Euphrates, a significant part of the finds was lost.
6355e0c229ca442045c20c65dde4f3f317ec5e74	In 1854, a brief season of excavations in Babylon was conducted by Henry Creswick Rawlinson and his assistant George Smith.
c04ca56b163e5224fcbc384ef3917fd38e6a1a83	In 1876, the exploration of the ancient city was resumed by an expedition led by the British vice consul in Mosul, Ormuzd Rassam, an Assyrian by origin.
b3c2c3eeb7650a38c1d67c40151d87b58269c139	Rassam agreed with the locals that he would pay them for every significant find.
cf82bc280a2cd267e90c843d8320294502ef3196	During these studies, many artifacts were discovered, including the famous inscription of King Cyrus on a clay cylinder (also known as the" cylinder of Rassam"), clay tablets with cuneiform texts, including business documents of the Babylonian trading house Egibi and much more.
d450b956da0f6cfbba57c9904ba722d47fe34708	In parallel with the research of scientists, there was a looting of the monument by local residents.
e69eb45cb61c9047ac10c041e8108853170ee275	The Arabs dug up not only bricks, but also stone statues, which they burned to produce alabaster.
6487ac7abafbebab39b7d4ed947d29780b3d8d26	To prevent looting, the British Museum sent E.
f1d6b702ee9989621bf0a615885b6c81f217cf80	A. Wallis Budge to Mesopotamia, who agreed with local businessmen that all clay tablets, seals and especially valuable artifacts would be redeemed by the museum.
e53ddbf2edd9eb7fe5869639c6d3d672ccb920ea	However, the extraction of bricks could not be stopped; as a result, the remains of many important buildings (including those known from written sources) were so damaged that it was impossible to establish even the plans of their foundations during further research.
1a5c4d88028b61769cea18adaa20aad255cf2005	The study of Babylon in the late XIX XX centuries[edit / edit wiki text]
86d438117410df81ab01132ee2e028d680c8662d	The moment of the excavations by the expedition of the German Oriental Society
d9cbe3254dfb79c4ea6944e4fb6bb8a2b5b055b6	Robert Coldeway in the vault against the background of artifacts from Babylon.
e3417d6422a2db47ed66933431ac59c9545d1014	A photo taken by Gertrude Bell before 1917.
d4828838779207e0cfcadf5342364c5af3fb1f40	The true discovery of Babylon for science is often associated with the name of Robert Koldewey; he led the Neme expedition the Central Committee of the Oriental Society, which carried out the excavations of the city from 1899 to 1917.
4aeabfafa9793ea0762f45ea2f19f39e2f8dc91a	In addition to Koldewey, other researchers participated in the expedition, including: Walter Andre, Friedrich Wetzel, Oskar Reuter, Georg Buddensig.
84a7733485a8b7e426caa0e212c182fab164dcb1	The excavations were carried out at a high professional level, a significant number of local residents were involved in their implementation; as a result, impressive results were obtained.
ad5d15c569f0038abaaa1d37598881f4f1924587	Koldewey and his colleagues discovered the material of the New Babylonian, Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian times, as well as earlier epochs, but in a much smaller volume (the study of the early layers of Babylon is hindered by the high level of groundwater).
a565cf164c778c8ba6acf0e20131cdb57ead3476	The most documented was the New Babylonian period when the city reached its heyday as the capital of a large empire (during the reign of the X Babylonian or Chaldean dynasty).
35b7f98ac30a34e1a40049de4df4095a043bd197	It is precisely this time that is described in the Old Testament in the most detail, since the beginning of the "Babylonian captivity"refers to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II.
c9fcd35e67f2fa068df1e449309631b1e19bcb21	The power and splendor of the city of that era served as the basis for the formation of the image of the apocalyptic Babylon; thus, the results of the excavations of German archaeologists aroused the interest of the European public.
4045248aa9b5bd18a09abba9647a0bd7ab1b8bf0	The expedition of R. Koldewey managed to establish that in the heyday of Babylon was a large, well maintained city with a powerful fortification, developed architecture and a high level of culture in general.
4a3f73d72d07026d722a9bf24dd3d125464daf9d	It was surrounded by a triple ring of walls and a moat, as well as an additional external wall covering part of the suburbs.
5b31b1eb6248337933fbdff290dc5250dcf01e29	In the plan, the city was an almost regular rectangle with a perimeter of 8150 m and an area of about 4 km2, and taking into account the territory of the "Greater Babylon" covered by the outer wall, the area reached about 10 km2[60].
b060868eca9339ec893475c7b292d3646e7cd4ba	Babylon had a carefully thought out plan: its walls were oriented to the cardinal directions (in accordance with local ideas), the streets intersected at right angles, surrounding the central temple complex, which was a single ensemble.
1bad8cae3cd9c639be96d4ca7f9f6453f6f8f0c3	The Euphrates/Arachtu River divided the capital into two parts — the Western City and the Eastern City; a system of canals connected with the Euphrates, which supplied the quarters with water.
1a1e2e9986694f5435611c8bb28b05be9312950a	The streets were paved, including with multicolored bricks.
fba16984ccba00f88fcf2f1d2bf28f0a06910d0a	The bulk of the buildings were houses of several floors with blank external walls (windows and doors usually opened into courtyards) and flat roofs.
f426fb930f61574c0d3be53d672cf816ef3bead1	Both parts of Babylon were connected by two bridges — a stationary one and a pontoon one.
ca3beee0415c0d7e0bb34b4c0ed21ecde2d96306	The city communicated with the outside world through eight gates; the latter were decorated with glazed bricks and bas — reliefs of lions, bulls and dragon like creatures sirrush.
c01a676719ff5b0555ed2580d79674da489d6b07	Bas reliefs were also discovered on the external walls of the houses.
02e60caba5591c16081946290aad08de797702ef	Babylon had many temples dedicated to various deities Ishtar, Nanna, Adad, Ninurta, but the patron saint of the city and the head of the pantheon of the kingdom, Bel Marduk, was most revered.
036676c0ef8c7c304b6987bbda9204f56ecdf74f	In his honor, in the very center of the capital, a large scale Esagila complex was erected with a seven stage ziggurat of Etemenanki — the Tower of Babel with a height of 91 m;
d36aa4750edd606b478562f46b933e22179484ff	R. Koldewey managed to excavate only part of the Esagila.
2214e3b3f8ff38871adb5b07018f577ea55b9e6a	To the north, on the site of the Qasr Hill, there were fortifications adjacent to the Southern Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II; vaulted structures were also discovered there, as it was then assumed — the remains of the famous Hanging Gardens.
e12a9ff941d64c7ddda0d80b43d7fb22cec5e9ab	Massive fortifications covered the main entrance to Babylon, the path to which passed from the Northern Palace (Tell Babil) along the Processional Road through the Ishtar Gate.
588fc46d45d5c665f2855702bb789d99d4e1b3f8	The Summer or Northern Palace was built in the form of a fortress, guarding the suburbs at the beginning of the Processional Road.
3fc8f4098745cee2bb12aa11acca399aac74614a	The richly decorated Ishtar Gate was completely excavated, most of it was transported to Berlin, installed in the Pergamon Museum and reconstructed.
4e9978ed80c0d6deebc90665c0733202408aedb8	With the beginning of the First World War, excavations were conducted less intensively; in 1917, the approach of the Entente troops forced the German expedition to stop work.[61]
772bad97df57dbcc0b4557f9edecec2015d214f0	The discovery of a large number of cuneiform texts, their deciphering, coupled with the archaeological study of other Mesopotamian cities, opened up to scientists the world of a highly developed culture, the achievements of which, as it turned out, had a significant impact on the development of many societies of the ancient East, and through them — on European culture.
6f61215fd725d192494216080958eda8c3e14695	Already by that time, an extreme vision of the place of Mesopotamian culture in the history of the ancient East, known as the theory of pan Babylonism, was probably formed.
58aa1b8646fda1368312546c508be7c931042c64	Its representatives are Hugo Winkler, Leopold Messerschmidt, Friedrich Delich, etc. — it was believed that Babylonia became the center of civilization for most of the peoples of the world.
e9fa7ee4d5ad313195f2df70d83b4fc48e8cbf8f	The ruins of Babylon in 1932
065516087fc979320629f3df1878d46f9095a20e	During the interwar period, German researchers were not allowed to visit the ancient city.
8e01c4c1520591ab679036a0538624545441b98e	Urgently leaving the monument, the expedition of R. Koldewey was forced to leave many artifacts in Babylon, placing them in a vault; later this vault was used as a rest home for British officers, as a result of which many finds were stolen or found on the black market.
d4af1574d6d30872c1ad0f4a22ac4f98799f1851	The Iraqi Museum, established in 1923, conducted an audit of the remaining finds and in 1926 they were divided between the museums of Baghdad and Berlin[61].
c6df041ffeb80125eee52ac1fdaa329926e07077	The resumption of the archaeological study of Babylon is associated with the post war period.
6e95f8a38ae26da4ceb7a2ee2d0d32490b96e659	In 1956, an expedition of the German Archaeological Institute, led by Heinrich Lenzen, worked there; the main attention was then focused on the ruins of the Hellenistic theater.
b24eab3250b135345deff57da6d30eef49714c1b	In 1958, representatives of a young school of Iraqi scientists began to excavate.
146839256cac8af7e8b93988078894db0db08542	Since 1962, an expedition of the German Archaeological Institute led by Hansjorg Schmidt has been studying the ruins of the Etemenanki ziggurat[62].
8f4e7b9bf163162155be34f84ac83f254e0a4da3	Further research was conducted by German scientists in the period from 1967 to 1973; attention was then paid, among other things, to the search for the temple of the New Year (Akkad. bīt akītu).
f046a3c7e6177b7ee9a2095014b62e3d0b2acafe	In 1978, the Iraqi expedition began to implement a grandiose project for the reconstruction of Babylon; at the same time, the excavations begun by the Iraqis in 1958 continued.
5aa9d827b11ea15bc9b184405d73a786710b2f6d	Since 1974, an Italian expedition led by G. Bergamini has been studying the ruins; the Italian mission worked in Babylon until 1989.
dd525a30fa315354762a6af399004e324b787cdf	The war in the Persian Gulf suspended excavations; in the subsequent time, the ancient city remained an instrument of Saddam Hussein's ideological policy.
04e732bcbcf5fb3cdb5c38133c46cba21d497231	Considering himself the successor of the great kings of antiquity, the Iraqi president authorizes the construction of his own residence in Babylon; in addition, he continues the "reconstruction" of the city, when, without taking into account stratigraphy, new buildings were erected on top of the old ruins, ancient structures were "completed", etc.
6c54623eb73967904d170569d88d8e9245d9ae25	With the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003, all work on the ruins was curtailed.
895f581d7b05869c5c6087dca0cbb1b974007280	In the first days of the occupation, American servicemen set up a military base Camp Alpha right on the excavations of Babylon.
cd528080215e036495295bb9f0c29b0126fad682	As the curator of the Babylon Museum, Muhsin Mohammed, recalled, huge helicopters took off and landed on the territory of the museum, and soldiers dug out stones with the seal of Nebuchadnezzar as free souvenirs.
88a9b3465eb2e4d13425c4b7f6a199c9196d17fd	The base was withdrawn only in December 2004; by this time, the activities of the military and the looters ' brigade had caused irreparable damage to the ancient city.
567326f385a45acb9f06bb4ad7b8cf7c75190eed	Not only small objects were stolen, but also stone statues weighing several tons (heavy machinery was used to load and transport the latter).
2b0d0d63c3cef7422abe9d78b5b5f6e82598d66f	Military equipment crushed the 2600 year old brick paved pavements, the Ishtar Gate was also damaged; sand from excavations mixed with archaeological fragments was used to fill sandbags[63][64].
ced03965bf051f8eef64c3eeabaeec6cd4a4dbe4	In 2010, the World Monuments Fund (en:World Monuments Fund) has started implementing a project to restore Babylon[61].
e696f2ae60291c48ba903b2d665a827695e06e3c	Babylon in the Abrahamic religions[edit / edit wiki text]
d68888a6f29c18cd05e7195c3dcd63cd3206121d	"The Tower of Babel"
d73f858ba4bf4e4af3d3d6bdfd02a7e9c8b762f8	Babylon (apocalyptic)
8c206540a70ff779000ce999650a23d861798bf3	- the capital of the Babylonian monarchy with its power and originality of culture made such an indelible impression on the Jews after the Babylonian captivity that its name became synonymous with every large, rich and, moreover, immoral city.
6d2d8342e398b0c97cdd52d30f5230eb880c97a8	The prophet Isaiah predicted the destruction of Babylon, comparing it with Sodom and Gomorrah (Isaiah 13: 19).
36930567e5e20bfbe45046d690692606a74a4195	The story of the Tower of Babel was recorded during the Assyrian kingdom.
ff83ae8e5118e0c9254db75494e4991c4bd32040	Among later writers, namely Christian ones, the name "Babylon"is often used in a sense that is still a subject of dispute for interpreters and researchers.
03990e2b694757e151fa4f78c4360302f70bd7da	Thus, a lot of arguments were caused by one place in the first Epistle of the Apostle Peter, where he says that "he welcomes the chosen church in Babylon".
9e4860481c0994048dd2d99acaf5f965f49aea64	It is extremely difficult to determine what exactly is meant by Babylon here, and many, especially Latin writers, claim that under this name ap. Peter means Rome, on which even the well known claims of the popes of Rome as the successors of the Apostle Peter are based.
1b0a4ae12a5c1e9798836477fd0bf060c7e3161e	In the First centuries of Christianity, Rome was called the New Babylon because of the huge number of peoples living in the empire, as well as the position occupied by the city in the world of that time.
39fd1207cec0b8f8d52664b86f6725704ded54cc	But a particularly remarkable example of the use of the name of Babylon is found in the Apocalypse, or Revelation of ap. St. John (from the end of the XVI chapter to the XVIII).
c537a0ad2e684e21d0c8bc71357f322374c45ba8	There, under the name Babylon, the "great city" is depicted, which plays a huge role in the life of peoples.
438316a387f3a39a7665d38d3dcf316d616204e9	Such an image does not at all correspond to the Mesopotamian Babylon, which had long lost its world significance by that time, and therefore researchers understand by this name, not without reason, the great capital of the Roman Empire, Rome, which occupied the same position in the history of Western peoples as the capital of Nebuchadnezzar occupied earlier in the history of the East.[65]
2f2ec027605ec7838e07ce3b74f4c7e43f4d7fe0	In Rastafarianism, Babylon symbolizes a pragmatic Western civilization built by white (descendants of Puritans) people.
b249070bd2caaebe4e758e9696add2bc18e2705c	This concept also has Christian biblical connotations, since Rastafarianism is an offshoot of Christianity.
7736013742415de3144f0b8aff1b51505bb10bfc	Rastafarians, like Jews, consider Babylon as a metaphor of an oppressive and enslaving force and contrast it with Zion.
151331c33ddaf83b03e991be04f5a2155b1f1779	Babylon is mentioned only once in the Qur'an, when it comes to angels warning the Jews against practicing witchcraft[66].
2549f6ea0ddc946a8c25511c692bf16552b65aab	↑ 1 2 3 4 The Cambridge Ancient History: Prologomena & Prehistory: Vol. 1, Part 1.
405763bbfbad78541d600ef44ff4883116ac28f2	Accessed 15 Dec 2010.]
ac1075daf65ec0f5dbb3c0f9211c767f7df7dc67	↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 George, 1992, p.
38b8830895ff8415a2ea0977951ca8d8bdd74669	19 Город Gorodetskaya I. L., Levashov E.
83b58a484a4d23a371a4cbe86be8b596cd07a8ab	A. Babylon / / Russian names of inhabitants: Dictionary reference.
72bb16c6e3f17bff54f1f37fed9f3fb6c62ec652	- Moscow: AST, 2003.
69a6babb3c6327b4d83e8fe316d60b977945024a	62.
62c1804f6e97ac71e8a5d1105cfd4f94402a36d3	- 363 p — - 5000 copies.
414051f921894052885c8091762840e8a04c8285	— ISBN 5-17-016914-0.
8ae1122a433bb870a6c76c6f54e5f950288165f5	Русский Russian Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
e0c76d4efbf79694c9f7193855a24ad3e8fce294	V. V. Lopatin.
42a7b98c7bc3a5fa9b9add9f379d38f6e8e8cbd6	M., Azbukovnik, 2001-2007.
523451f08f92a6aeadea5f59c147550945844f71	Мор Morris, Jan. Social development = Social development.
264da89155366f6693d9d207c4c76db8fcf0012f	- Stanford University, 2010.
87ca77a1d59d91b9ad4d0c1031281d865fa3ffbc	- p. 109.
eda4fc1c5321ecb130f50caeb1a9256a8f3f5931	↑ Margueron J.-C., Babylone, la première mégapole ?
121cfc2e015137e1de0a0a0fe2a5a3432ca5415a	//Mégapoles méditerranéennes / Claude Nicolet.
0830c692cb6f81b061798352f6bc60c6335e00bc	Paris, Maisonneuve et Larose, coll.
72b45b9e9afbcca37b37309fc5507a243555382e	"L'Atelier méditerranéen", 2000, p. 478.
0a832b8bcd0fd8f74b95fc0d93eef35d886aa0ec	S Saggs, H. W. F. Babylonians (VI century BC).
7704f0db42d71a49a67a19435368b9cc022b4591	University of California Press, 2000.
681bc67c6560df6a1e125105ab55c6c078d40e49	P. 165.
8d12870d7a2933b0a57f49112e278c6e02c40c63	ISBN 0-520-20222-8.
289f32be1044d0b42a72d1b1903939fabb614e50	↑ 1 2 André Salvini, B. Les premières mentions historiques et la légende des origines.
330054e4e45997281299d620c381f89782ae912d	// Babylone 2008, p.
57dc51806fbae65a42d6604e7eae076b19f2abc0	28-29.
f6a30ae10297fe6a52a968f328c69d70578be19b	↑ 1 2 Lambert, W.G. Babylon: origins.// Babylon 2011, p.
82f46abe268725ee873f09368411c7635d7cb7de	71-76.
665aee48183137962ff59d7f1bc72a9f6f7172f6	↑ Edzard D.O. Geschichte Mesopotamiens.
b7faadb2cf6c74bf5a7131f140fa2db3ffbe2fdd	Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, Beck, München 2004, p. 121.
5aa5b4113695c17730d66ed3b871094243c54dea	↑ Jakob Rost L., Marzahn J. Babylon, ed.
8478e6829df59261aaa8884ce4f7eba101a93520	Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.
8e9f8929cf08398c4e042debf05cd3d4652be56b	Vorderasiatisches Museum, (Kleine Schriften 4), 2.
2817b182d621ce6569e48777d0fc141d35a0215b	Auflage, Putbus 1990, p.
1583359697dc75e4d98e82079bc77b0f62da213f	2 ↑ Keel O.
6e21c0f138f2efa4eab1c5f79810805c369de96c	Die Geschichte Jerusalems und die Entstehung des Monotheismus.
fd410a9b643f852798d0121bc97d7074d09ac435	Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-525-50177-1, S. 603 ↑ Köszeghy M.
97ab88e8e8fbc955a72890c41df649798c1fc95c	Der Streit um Babel in den Büchern Jesaja und Jeremia.
41f7cc1533ff750ed2cc41b4672699907dfdfc72	Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-17-019823-4, S. 116.
a3f8e925c7c7c5cbd7de65a7b197ee2e6ad8133b	↑ Koldewey R.
22af8271646db7cdaed4dbdabd057223b9977c01	Das wieder erstenhende Babylon new ausgeben von B. Hrouda.
c00ce91e5cabcc6a6974a993dbc5424f38732519	München, 1990.
a80041c81c653c8569e6fb96810691b2c313968f	↑ E.
482f2334e315305d08b62133632edef41c74c0b5	A. Wallis.
8acdc731deed50d8066b2b9bd6ab55e7dae53a72	By Nile and Tigris (v. 1).
2f587a4eb0e6fb41c3126e6fc572fc716c366742	P. 299 ↑ André Salvini B. Les premières mentions historiques et la légende des origines. pp.
25c2a2a2214b42479e07c21895bcba6fd37c544e	↑ 1 2 Lambert W. G. Babylon: origins.
bce0c5edad2322595dc14c36583fc56f3243f156	↑ Klengel Brandt, 1997, p. 252 ↑ Gibson McG.
1d98d33461be3b23907b79288dc246bfe34402c2	The City and the Area of Kish.
1510d577c4960360355fadff72b44e56b92ed517	Coconut Grove, Miami, 1972.
b028d85878990e891951c782db6ea40ce080010e	P. 149.
2107c34bee3c3c006ccd6d91f6548ec088900c91	↑ André Salvini B. Les premières mentions historiques et la légende des origines.
904d9b2e42bb147b6bfe89030ae390ba7af60a61	P. 28-29.
2b7b1a99cc1b705a0af87e9fd371268a8365918e	ИД IDV, 1983, p. 194, 238 ↑ 1 2 IDV, 1983, p. 253 ↑ Sharlach T. N. Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State.
ec6e9cb5c45bccba3847008a33f95515cec9addb	Leiden: Brill/Styx, 2004.
10ed8c5a5c0d0fb75fa0d3931e79d1928f002932	P. 9 ↑ 1 2 IDV, 1983, pp.
83a146ed39106616b69ca2e431f292e912d15f2e	320-324 ↑ 1 2 3 IDV, 1983, p. 324 Re Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archaologie (Berlin 1928 ff.) / Encyclopedia of Assyriology and Near Eastern Archaeology (Berlin 1928 onwards) ↑ In the same place.
de0e5bd63d2b9df6f5e79a3211cd503312db3b12	↑ "Herodotus.
299b5424008323e3e5cc224042ab51d443e34597	History.
59026dca41a8cc376f29d73a827896c4b2f4b622	The first book.
217a86fa088145d861ee2b4c76a886523a9d7aa8	Clio " ↑ 1 2 3 4 George, 1992, p.
d34bc2e1314d3d99a873245fb2979742448a6349	18 ↑ George, 1992, fig. 3, p.
e7b60cbf79c3b5c75c3568e5dc07bb15f118ff16	20 ↑ George, 1992, p.
01b800101c92a409f3f9a70a8e60195388d95d3a	15 ↑ Herodotus.
7ed7d4d41749937b851561db915ce9f050cc725f	Clio ↑ Ctesias of Cnidus.
18debe53c1ad722fb360911d860821a70cea7c8e	A peach.
86465f806cf177a0b332d0f75444acb6469585fc	Ксен Xenophon.
26ea0c78f621fde6979ffb3f69b3ac16ba4b931a	Anabasis ↑ Diodorus Siculus.
3bd7ee39e02a813a08c96e9b4b3ed0690f87380b	Historical Library Помп Pompeii Trog.
4e4566ae679c04274287bf4213878302141af0c3	The story of Philip.
274328921285f6b00626b9cf7472d90e02867d16	An epitome.
261c238b713a67320b9afc96c5efaf2a4ec17b74	↑ Josephus.
61484eebfdf3e453ba6150b10d10844014942d62	Jewish antiquities ↑ Beros.
425ac065e7db96fc72c7f1a5da86e56713e987f2	Babylonian History Иб Ibn Haukal Abu l Qasim.
c73ddbad745d400c38442b15c24e07db97c9a4cb	The Book of Ways and Countries ↑ The Book of Travels of Rabbi Benjamin ↑ Rauwolff L. Itinerarium oder Raysbüchlein.
928ec550ae5fa2b35c9b0be330766419860da8c4	Lauingen, 1583 ↑ Hakluyt R.
bb8c40352ed10f853f4f653cc4df5b2efc875413	The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of English Nation.
ca036719fabebaf458759297b10db18d8c3438bb	London, 1589 ↑ Ivan Schiltbercher's Journey through Europe, Asia and Africa from 1394 to 1427 Translated from German
86284f6282211eecdb0618278241e442774b3b52	Legends and legends
91b119f7b93229e37e31ebe05b465330b92d527f	Home Bible traditions Beliefs of the ancients Contacts
09714f7a063281977a8236726457c8c2d4a2d29f	The Tower of Babel.
0a2dff8b6af277f87c4fb64b17817d39e5141929	Legends, legends about the Tower of Babel
3268e7606acbfac5d21bfff7e9cb6ac3b7f6334d	"Biblical traditions
ba1ed27a1990a51e7a902fc6eb3146dd8fc57f6b	The Tower of Babel is a legendary structure of antiquity, which was supposed to glorify its builders for centuries and challenge God.
2a2e1886dda0931bca0ca3aa0bd924915dab6dd5	However, the daring plan ended in disgrace: having ceased to understand each other, people could not complete what they had begun.
6bcd17df63f25b1da182f26f7a4fc8c16a2a47f2	The tower was not completed and eventually collapsed.
da7f5c885a65767c38fa46bc04915ab4172c470f	Construction of the Tower of Babel.
080bd721958059202c83eca86e6a4ede2d7b3249	Some time passed after the flood and the descendants of Noah became very numerous.
f8e7ec61c64cfc5a174ed61590f72ac4f629b30d	These circumstances already show that some people did not learn lessons from the global catastrophe that occurred, but continued the path of resisting God.
3802b8ce66eb07bc8cb4292266b3f9a2821bd570	So the idea of a tower to the heavens was born.
231de227b4273cbae461d6ff1c2783567ca4b00a	This is what the Bible tells about it.
81dfa287b8e5e03fe0a617737f41290fc3bf2cd3	People came from the east and settled in the Sennaar Valley (Messopotamia: the Tigris and Euphrates River basin).
2d1baa779c24845541242ddb426a442493954bc8	One day they said to each other: "... let's make bricks and burn them with fire. ... let us build for ourselves a city and a tower as high as the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves before we are scattered over the face of all the earth” (Gen. 11:3,4).
807009592531ef66c20c213bd53b75961706116e	When the Lord came down to earth to "see the city and the tower," He saw with regret that the real meaning of this undertaking was arrogance and an audacious challenge to Heaven.
f1c1581ca77b6a61d673b61ec6fd0b3ec6c475ff	The city and the tower were unfinished. and the descendants of the sons of Noah dispersed to different lands, forming the peoples of the Earth.
46240463e9b89b8e19d540a49fa7a3998229b1da	The descendants of Japhet went north and settled in Europe, the descendants of Shem stopped in Southwest Asia, the descendants of Ham went south and settled in the southern part of Asia, as well as in Africa.
8b425604d0f036d679ea7f6686021657414cd4bf	The descendants of Canaan (the Son of Ham) settled Palestine, which is why it was later called the land of Canaan.
997f17d4b288f279944996d462efbdb17ab194b0	The Bible notes that the Tower of Babel was supposed to fulfill the insane task of the builders who decided to "make a name for themselves", i.e. to perpetuate themselves, to rally around a certain center.
9d867113db30820af29f33c83997e384778799a0	The idea to build a tower of unprecedented size "to the heavens" spoke of a bold challenge to God, an unwillingness to live in accordance with His will.
d3696985522ef63c47ade92e8e4b9710bab5931b	Finally, in the tower, its creators hoped to hide in the event of a repeat of the flood.
cf4eaac05f744cc19a50dd2cb6875d1cd496efe8	Josephus described the motives for the creation of the tower: "Nimrod called the people to disobey the Creator.
8627e833aa6e4064511cb324d4a45bcc6e69a659	He advised to build a tower higher than the water can rise if the Creator sends a flood again – and thereby take revenge on the Creator for the death of their ancestors.
3f6e0bc814214a6be3b245656c895201f39fd500	The crowd agreed, and they began to consider obedience to the Creator a shameful slavery.
878a6d9077f188224c8d3720583d93243b0f91e7	We started building the tower with great desire."
818b0f9dbea3822479ecfed2a3a721332373e37a	The tower being built was not an ordinary structure.
439d9ad11469f40919b98d63992954a258cb65e7	At its core, it carried a hidden mystical meaning, behind which the personality of Satan was visible - a dark, powerful being who once decided to claim the throne of God and raised a rebellion among the angels in Heaven.
8085aee61087f37d5e4d661259eab9de4f74aa2e	However, being defeated by God, he and his overthrown supporters continued their activities on earth, tempting every person and wanting to destroy him.
317c8fbb3bbcf501fef880697731d688f8c0cc3a	Behind King Nimrod, this same fallen cherub was invisible, the tower was for him another means of enslaving and destroying humanity.
ff0e78b188f8bc534750ac06da0afa7cb5a6061a	That is why the Creator's response was so categorical and immediate.
0ea2afbd3282e62487f1949ef9dcb43782ac7817	The construction of the Tower of Babel was stopped, and then it was destroyed to the ground .
5f6956ce06a2575b7d7987da31b79da304490806	Since that time, this structure has been considered a symbol of pride, and its construction (pandemonium) is a symbol of crowding, destruction and chaos.
82da9cc881aa9fb22f66e2d901966a579eaa7835	Where is the Tower of Babel.
c6eda9ce1c04c58c1ecd0ab5d78470ab9e7f4bdb	Ziggurats
e5a26019246e2ee78b2ce2b8af81deb81c375f99	Such ziggurats consisted of several stepped tiers, tapering upwards.
3c5039eebddf0e4cae7961763b9ba4c130a3880f	On the flat top there was a sanctuary dedicated to one of the deities.
d19cf89cdc10a110b1fcd32f41914baa55a9f982	A stone staircase led up to the top, along which a procession of priests ascended during the divine service to music and chants.
5b9fe2f05ea4e7d9bd35daa8ec3453aa59fdfe51	The most grandiose of the ziggurats discovered was found in Babylon.
eec8ebdb306651c741da0d7a25ea6c363037df58	Archaeologists have unearthed the foundation of the building and the lower part of its walls.
7a37e9210efc560df74d48526fa76d1a758812a0	It was found that it was being restored after the destruction.
c243f90bbdfb444d9eed178923c03798eb396752	The found tower, according to available data, included seven to eight tiers, and the height assumed by archaeologists was ninety meters.
a3cd842690494053d3367a9f6315d85c9ac8375f	However, there is an opinion that this tower is a later version, and the original had incomparably larger dimensions.
5f9cff2804808998f1be1782277e9d2e85547e2e	Talmudic legends say that the height of the Tower of Babel reached such a level that a brick falling from above flew down for a whole year.
bf8d6637c336fc5cf9a14347f72f596a017e21d6	Of course, this should hardly be taken literally, but we can talk about values an order of magnitude larger than scientists assume.
979b4f133197727068798dd5dbe110d300218035	Indeed, the found tower was obviously a completely completed structure, while the structure described by the Bible, according to legend, was never completed.
6d9b2aae23ddb4bb2b323d6826dd664949fdcf82	The Babylonian Myth of the Tower of Babel
afc55e4642589ce4f9b26c1b0177918e23af9d18	The tradition that the Bible brings to us is not the only one.
6ae2d3351f4a7f63f1f4ce12ef8e7bd5ee57bfbc	A similar theme is present in the legends of peoples living in different parts of the Earth.
d124705799292d39e5de2ace2aebabbbcbedac6f	And although the legends about the Tower of Babel are not as numerous as, for example, about the flood, there are still quite a lot of them and they are united in meaning.
b4aa6307f63f0e85f374093d82c435d715cab69a	So, the legend of the pyramid in the city of Cholue (Mexico) tells about the ancient giants who decided to build a tower to the heavens, but destroyed by the celestials.
9763330ae6e376725a927b733780b72e9b74806d	The legend of the mikirs, one of the Tibetan Burmese tribes, also tells about the giants who planned to build a tower to the heavens, but whose plan was stopped by the gods.
e5df6d250c2196363a264f3cd7b63b15414fbb35	Finally, in Babylon itself there was a myth about the "great tower", which was "like the sky".
186c5ac529425f2b36d9c3c4bedbe25d6d7ab5fa	According to the myth, its builders were the underground gods Anunnaki, who erected it to glorify Marduk, the Babylonian deity.
cd8f9d22133a154145daba1b6e690fb924b4d89e	The construction of the Tower of Babel is described in the Koran.
9ed34ac5fd5554c2d6bb8f36ee8d3b36f1d5906e	Interesting details are contained in the "Book of Anniversaries" and the "Talmud", according to which the unfinished tower was defeated by a hurricane, and the remaining part of the tower after the hurricane fell into the ground as a result of an earthquake.
ef5e8e8d0cb5e1cc3083f81270b2575a64fdc005	It is indicative of the fact that all the attempts of the Babylonian rulers to recreate even reduced versions of the tower failed.
f58d3d3275ff6b31f58a74e6cefab55f0f07dad9	Due to various circumstances, these buildings were destroyed.
f965fa1f7dde7bfa784f0c5d1802d182826d1785	Sinaar Country
92d252c0f030f924836a5a3e9741e7557ffc8382	A very interesting story about the Tower of Babel is set out in the Book of Jubilees - an apocryphal book that mainly describes the events of the book of Genesis in the countdown of "anniversaries".
43b4890421601345019db66c80bb9097d628a912	The jubilee is understood as 49 years - seven weeks.
9e9205cb571fe8d47cd01deba4dbca28511f198c	A special feature of this book is the exact chronology of events in relation to the date of creation of the world.
66a221eef045f61c24fbac5211026723d7219902	In particular, here we learn that the tower was built for 43 years and was located between Assur and Babylon.
b26f4ef01fba4da25d582e15ce35a4ee13eace96	This land was called the land of Sinaar... to read
6c128d302e6d28c676c5401d87b78e636dbc5634	The Secret of Babylon
81db6bfc0e156549ab4bcaf293b7b42563d0bae1	At the moment when the builders of the Tower of Babel began to work, the spirit of self destruction of humanity invisibly entered into action.
5f297596e3d60018216d243bbda16389785ba376	Later on, the Bible speaks about the mystery of Babylon, which is associated with the highest measure of wickedness.
a1a65b63dd097c06d712814d6c1a0f2cfd96f492	When the builders of the tower were stopped by the separation of tongues, the mystery of Babylon was suspended, but only until a time that is known only to God... to read
4e405f789e695fb3759a83316c211ac18a9a8b9a	The European Union the restored Empire
ae4ecb68798537f2c0fa3a8bc2c718902ecc664e	Despite the past millennia, the spirit of Babylon has not died out in humanity.
e3865038ac33b5b4e8a418798510b5795b7c7bca	At the end of the XX - beginning of the XXI century, Europe united under the flag of a single parliament and government.
2ecffe3945d108fb34086d800b51fcb83bc92f46	In fact, this meant the restoration of the ancient Roman Empire with all the ensuing consequences.
4b0dfd4b1f8d3ecfc985979e55db3305e09a08b2	After all, this event was the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy relating to the end of time.
3cd0e6271ce607a3603dbf7744f21fdf4a8165af	Surprisingly, the building of the European Parliament was built according to a special project - in the form of an unfinished "tower to the heavens".
cca54c56666b0a7aab49f7f9d864594bda50ee84	It is not difficult to guess what this symbol means... to read
11d18c37d8079a5619f1ff4d97d99b52c596d315	/images/stories/1 Biblia/06 Vavilon/2-300.jpg
08220c1388db3b8c467de617c29369e3fdc67db9	Comments on: 3
502c8ba2a478e671e90e9d2dbd12a703653f50c3	26.07.15, 20:58 Dima
7102e161ce8904768dd3e412ad31c5e9d1d95354	Oh, yes, I remember from my childhood...
4091c5a679323f5c46cb87606783997a28a48b24	The Tower of Babel Legends, legends about the Tower of Babel these stories always inspired fear))
c264087c02e5db97077fec4a690b8dd1690438aa	09.10.15, 13: 53 Dmitry
964fbe3cb92c23d21b7627b45c167be922edd746	By the way a film about Babylon is very useful even Babylon 5 Lost tales Voices in the dark
44032d3cb88099a1751a24dc2788104fb5cf6d95	09.10.15, 13: 55 Dmitry
422bcedb7c3faf096f7ff4356aee8ed3d9bc5fe2	the link in the our favorite comment did not appear film.ru/coment.php?nomer=315633
c3a94deb80cf085b051cd5f3f33e6f22133cd66b	Your name *
9a07bf1c56177b42d959b45976a55ecb26a29364	Your Email Address *
99863a00e8a8d518d7483ba5c371b53355dd9997	The sum of the digits on the right:
87d2fab60c764ea400f8971564962a2af1f18498	It is interesting
efdf5ea5c4d650f045cc5f94db8aec33cc50e084	The extinct Pacifid Between North and South America in the south and between Australia and Eurasia in the north is the largest ...
c681a86f7f4b89bf75e0c9edda6f77f5f9ee708a	The war of gods and people For many centuries, life continued according to the established order.
21cb9e1b96a2bc82390e0c95dd19c1ec87ba5bbf	But one day there was a war between gods and people.
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ae790cf893be6dbb8df6a6a28d57b2109990892c	He instructed the hero to kill the terrible ... the Tower of Babel is far away.
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4b3af1691b4c56efcd66672c3b7e00b3ce9e5dc1	The wonders of the Light turn of the goddess Ishtar in Babylon
f51979cc9729ac07770a4743bf1031c85ad67f21	The gate of the goddess Ishtar in Babylon
149e4c8a5f12301eb1fa7a703cb1f8473a6a1660	At that time, it had as many as seven gates bearing the names of the Babylonian gods.
782bf2b33074405341c8cb599590fe0f9850559b	The gate of the goddess Ishtar in Babylon was particularly beautiful, from which the famous Processional Road began, heading to Esagila, the temple of the patron saint of Babylon, Marduk.
52ca0000b5d6bd6dcb0a2c82de8f78ee5defe0ed	The ruins of the Ishtar Gate still remain one of the most significant evidences of the former glory of Babylon.
41834c65b721d76deff43378dc898baa2217c274	Description of the gate of the goddess Ishtar in Babylon
3b63bc699f67931a1a710a5757bf50e5c1305724	The processional road was perhaps the best road of the Ancient World, because it was intended not for people and wagons to move along it, but for the great god and patron of Babylon, Marduk, who once a year made the way along it to Esagila.
f466c9beee087f6d5b653c671424a8f3e48166fc	And it took its beginning at the gates of Ishtar.
62bcbc813eceb8b5bbfce001b3b25c78999b1fd8	The cult of Ishtar originated in the city of Uruk, of which she was the patroness.
11c22a1d2540e267cf20e8dc7d0d0c61a7c61167	Among the cities of Babylonia, there were seven largest, including Uruk.
16d1acba1b95acc50aad207780614fdd3ab2e9cb	The Babylonian gate of the great Ishtar itself was made double.
23064c032b391435681b0eb9b0e6242d90262b09	The internal ones were twice as large as the external ones.
6949b4659558a74119e893cfa3703eda2e0f0d2c	The glazed brick cladding sparkled in the sun, and the background was decorated with 575 relief images of revered animals.
d1333cec0f316e9c1d2508b276fa4d5c865d0580	In total, about 100 thousand fragments of bricks that used to make up the gate were found.
f92bb195016dbac5e40bc01e5a87f8066391fdab	All of them were collected and transported to Berlin, where some time later it was possible to restore the gate to its original size from real Babylonian bricks.
7551f99d39c3711cd367d9b8448e1f5b0ed3332c	Now the Ishtar Gate is located in the Pergamon Museum (Berlin).
26f1a0d3d520d623eec13d5c1e3ffe4bbaf6dc76	There is also a restored part of the Processional Road.
f2cbc42203be90cdf60c70f41bbf475fa71e89f0	Smaller restored parts of the Babylonian heritage are on display in many museums around the world – the Istanbul Archaeological Museum, the Detroit Museum, the Louvre, etc.
0be9718a2c95ef6ee2e93e13558837ad1c0dec75	The Ishtar Gate in Iraq is still an object of admiration and a place of pilgrimage for tourists, because the 12 meter high structure still reflects the past life of a large city.
eacff5528582a675bd1dcbeb881281281bfba84b	Restored gates in Berlin
f8b7b14df1e57aa4033be5e6bea7c6b4d6406147	Video about the gate of the goddess Ishtar
2fae066b0289529d5b60b17834f67662eb96bc91	Ishtar Gate on the map:
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7ea27882f78fd6eac7bbbe43724c9d217d4aba1b	Read similar articles Ziggurat Etemenanki, or what is the Tower of Babel Hanging Gardens of Babylon a magnificent engineering structure of Nebuchadnezzar Mesopotamian ziggurat in the city of Ur the road to heaven Mycenaean Lion Gate in Greece The walls of Babylon the predecessor of the Lighthouse of Alexandria
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de328b1dcc8b8514314359099985c1cda41a3744	Ancient Babylon
119bcdf8afd58a90640ddf8662f61566e8db2d8a	Secrets and riddles of Ancient Babylon Throughout all times, mankind has been interested in ancient civilizations.
8cd70f66b5a1f6989fb810fe0ceeb64c5b07d417	Nimrod was a descendant of the famous biblical character Noah.
5e4a5a02baa5cfc94b8c7e280b9b1035034b1275	The Bible says that these people came from the East.
7c23991c347e430342c7b9aaf311be59a75b4f30	Some well known historians believe that the builders of the tower wanted to take revenge on God for the flood and "make a name for themselves".
de5e7b0b9664b1d82171e212f954af419d938947	But people did not learn a lesson from the previous disaster and decided to challenge God again.
536c4a98a0737a2bfca648ad854e57a6bab20562	Back then, all people were one flame, and the language of communication was one.
7daae0f66a6abb7f67538d628edf3aea4609266e	It is clear from the biblical texts that this man was strong and cruel.
546a7b06bb25878945de7616d03c631f9d01e0b6	Then God decided to punish the disobedient in another way.
2f7d3fd60238a1a00096e690cae0d7023304e3fe	He scattered all those who were engaged in the construction of the tower all over the earth and created many languages.
3bfb6e36579500f6ccf424d4ea362b7b6b2e2cad	Europe was settled by the descendants of Japhet, the descendants of Shem settled in Southwest Asia, the descendants of Ham settled in Africa and the southern part of Asia.
5a838381a6df2f28b4327c303fccf7e6553eae2d	The descendants of Canaan stopped in Palestine, and as a result, this land was called Canaan.
9030fd886e73423223d0f1d1712f71cd647057ef	After that, people could no longer understand each other.
b9883de5264e00be212b924b5d629caf02712d40	The city and the tower were not completed to the end.
9207f07eaaa0b8f1a7164cdfd8025e9fe5c10696	According to the Bible, Ancient Babylon is associated with evil and pride.
6c64341f813bf284569de4bd1cd5cf2a4a512f28	There is another myth, according to which the Tower of Babel was built by the Anunnaki – the underground gods.
085207dfeb65248ed00d946a74289200ed4f7e15	Their goal was to glorify the Babylonian patron god Marduk.
2da98ae008cc174fd9ddd199c347b10f4b5865e6	No matter how this biblical legend may seem to be an invention, but it coincides with historical reality.
7e09c67277cb75dd844b7dccbbb7c80fe7c7fc64	The time of the death of Ancient Babylon coincides with the time of the beginning of the Great Migration of Peoples.
1e757913126edb1c69812bd03553b3350dd173da	And here the question arises: what really destroyed Ancient Babylon?
6f15b96990304ee99cdd7b926661c10781afd168	God's punishment or more natural causes?
127eeb054ddb0c337ea326f348ed32b88cec4e9b	For a very long time, historians doubted the real existence of the Tower of Babel.
8947e71d0b0826e385503710ed08d99743dd3e23	It took Koldewey fifteen years to dig out the foundation of the tower, but hope did not leave the future world famous German archaeologist.
a0f8a2d5d4e48d3308ac26029eaaf788b886c2d7	The first floor was thirty three meters, the second eighteen meters and the other floors were six meters each.
29d173ef3a43372db58bb8d89e947144a7f1bcf6	The cuneiform clay tablets found on which the fate of the Tower of Babel was discussed also serve as confirmation of the existence of the tower in reality.
a4e6897d137c6c0661439e4c25ae878cc4cb46fd	Another interesting mystery is shrouded in the Gate of the goddess Ishtar, which was also found during the excavations of Robert Koldewey.
60e5f6bf7f27d18e4bb8dc1defae2f49ad92bcc0	It is known that the gate was erected in 575 before.
e484c7c94f77bd3cb21ba30e37a067b09e4e6772	AD under King Nebuchadnezzar.
6e13a0b1e83bf3280541cabaed3ee8b78057c365	The gate was in the form of an arch, with two rectangular towers on the edges. ali sovremennikov.
8bf8a5502dbc0a599c368fb67941707e5225713e	On the walls of the arch were depicted dragons, bulls and other mysterious animals that the inhabitants of Ancient Babylon considered sacred.
cb0492aa50c8ff337eb26cfae668efc7c8cc3911	The bricks of which the gate was built were covered with bright blue enamel.
c3fb0e88f587aa4f9362f8fa704d18602586e0f6	It is precisely in this enamel that the main mystery of the gate of the goddess Ishtar lies.
fec700df9a61a185dd54c5752aceeb2628dd5842	Fragments of the ancient gate can be found in various museums around the world.
797db8574e3e83bd64dd04bbdc63afc3939d172d	Scientists still cannot come to a common opinion about the existence of this mysterious landmark.
4d13b8f761836992d5fe19d9b69f21f4c9c51be0	There are those who believe that the Gardens of Semiramis were confused with the parks in Ninivey.
9c0e090d3a0f5b29de9b414fb616520cc1fed190	We have received evidence of the Gardens of such ancient historians as Diodorus and Strabo.
9af9ca6968d7d08871072bae5a77ef39b24f777a	It is strange that Herodotus, who visited Mesopotamia, does not mention anything about gardens And also in the chronicles of Babylon, there is also no mention of this wonderful place.
6b3ade023c5d18b9c54a657e4e12f5cedf273874	Also, another mystery is that it is not known exactly who was the creator of such beautiful gardens.
fbfdbc2cf8938f427c81265627e8b35f07a810b3	Officially, it is believed that the creator of the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis was Nebuchadnezzar II. There is another version.
b281eddfac2b3eda2e9bfeea1ffab33c53a1eede	Therefore, let's turn to the official version.
5c70de9946942dda26305fb04590ca00b4fde6e8	According to it, Nebuchadnezzar II, who lived in the VI century BC for his wife Amitis, ordered to build the Hanging Gardens of the Seminary of the Pyramid.
a5261a05b7a9e898e6d11a19439ae795a54ce472	Amitis was originally from Media and Nebuchadnezzar II married her for the sake of an alliance with the Median state.
2aca0eb494aac0b935e37c90a2d8223409f506a6	Soon the Babylonian ruler fell in love with his wife and ordered to gather the best engineers and mathematicians to build a beautiful garden for his young wife.
269f399a7ffdad9b872b2dec57f535e7b35ee12b	The problem is that Amitis came from a place where there was a lot of greenery and light, and Ancient Babylon was a dusty and stuffy city.
6865f0ea6df03d94449574904ea699211dd36b5b	It depressed her.
3c9b7e8525c4bff491a326a75584ba20f8a5e1dd	Nebuchadnezzar wanted to please his love.
917141de91f4934c8142123030e0d4511eb4f327	The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis were created on a hill at an altitude of 30-40 meters and consisted of four tiers.
9e97f81d12d243538d6cfd408105fd73819c9633	The irrigation system was also interesting.
dc65cb15765e0e26ac83f7b4b04b00fc0ea0ff39	It is assumed that the water was delivered by slaves around the clock, pumping it from the river.
6db29ad20c055789cff466e1b573915ab6f53b65	Truly, it was a beautiful structure.
8f9941cb21c43aac9345cd8740ed1905043d0e56	The first monument in honor of love in those days.
5a891992b888462aad6ad3dc1f0db0c1b47a1704	The Babylonians were even able to make accurate calculations of the movement of the heavenly bodies even at that time.
7ced9e456deefe9db413c174244c4135c8f9db3e	What was Babylon like in ancient times video:
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24b0700b68f4c9c8b2a12ee2346b418b6d35ddaf	Hanging Gardens of Semiramis
96de1bce8fdb8807abba4b2c1de7a3992e5645dc	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on September 15, 2015; checks require 8 edits.
7f7dfe82dfe85c57b815f1a0f2933d40d4878694	Hanging gardens of Amitis.
685b0db672310991c9453c5704ee8d169b750f5f	Reconstruction of the beginning of the XX century.
fb4f68a9d8e1f1f71b83f9944dbf94d565a8f1ce	A more correct name for this structure is the Hanging Gardens of Amitis (according to other sources — Amanis): this was the name of the wife of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, for whom the gardens were created 1].
b95bab15efae5f63a52efeb6c8a78f514a1352f7	Presumably they were located in the ancient state of Babylon, near the modern city of Hill.
a95f6c2908837e6d24d817ce313774a9a01948d6	According to an alternative version, based on the re deciphering of cuneiform tablets, they could be located in Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian kingdom, and were built at the beginning of the VII century BC.
2499831338ca5dc8c44f3d063e076799bea9bdff	[2]
e57c33eb545a03812bb86701850537b271ec3bc2	1 Appearance history 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References
6a1fcf5f63a9b1470a6543e1dc1eed1ea285b5af	The history of the appearance[edit / edit wiki text]
d463889f3b62cecd8a97073c4c9a1592a26f75ce	The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) concluded a military alliance with Kiaxar, the king of Media, to fight against the main enemy — Assyria, whose troops twice destroyed the capital of the state of Babylon.
4bdb32b6603cbbacbaebffef5940e5fbd62f8dd1	Having won, they divided the territory of Assyria among themselves.
7a05be8fa5a1277bd3ee4849e3aef5fe33cc3bc9	Their military alliance was confirmed by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar II to the daughter of the Median king Amitis.
87d5ba8c86f46806176d4b2eb6e7497b188030f4	Dusty and noisy Babylon, located on a bare sandy plain, did not please the queen, who grew up in a mountainous and green Mussel.
70f99c446127f1ecc0f76ad0b924bf0ff7cc5f76	To comfort her, Nebuchadnezzar II ordered the construction of hanging gardens.
34b91f3cb8e5cd0cb6902f4e3309c55a4a3c391b	However, in historical science, the name of the gardens was mistakenly assigned to the Assyrian queen Semiramis, who lived two centuries earlier.
7492afa6102931a93ea1c0cee2e1ec201bc54e3a	Hanging garden of Phytosten
1e33fb473cf314cf09aeed566b08307fd5e76aa6	Ю. Y. Zinin, "Babylon: from the mist of Centuries to today", Science and Life, 2011, No.
7e37c55e3de5a08b9ba2db74b552c3f6d1f439ba	1, page 64 .
fe153cd539e4056d4a528b85379551f148fa1f97	Alber Alberge, Dalya (5 May 2013).
b98209056046fb16f9796dbe2e1b442471a11309	"Babylon's hanging garden: ancient scripts give clue to missing wonder".
1fbf7aadd3f3b6de9eb05c5d84893616db9d1278	Checked on 6 May 2013.
412eceed2e8cd5cc1b82db0fb9c3f601a93a759f	Babylon.
d96c2c36264a1b55cc526558b6aa5318a7bfbcb6	Hanging Gardens of Semiramis (Opening. Semiramis. Alexander III.)
f06e93977c2a868392344f3ee5e5f8d9a376d2ce	Hanging gardens of Semiramis on Wikimedia Commons?
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da255d23395e8efd7dcde7202f860041bb05bafa	Seven wonders of the world
ac10cdded9edb3dbece18147fef42f74aa2e2e18	Pyramid of Cheops | Hanging Gardens of Semiramis | Temple of Artemis of Ephesus | Statue of Zeus in Olympia / Lighthouse of Alexandria | Colossus of Rhodes | Mausoleum in Halicarnassus
e06e03ba280c121ef0c97b978d43e5bb22b21993	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanging Gardens of Semiramis&oldid=74571275"
950a8e8af10a13d435ee6bce4a58a359efa512bf	Categories: Seven wonders of the world Babylon Architecture of Ancient Mesopotamia
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75a8ffc29cc15e42bb9931ec411ad95a98190b43	Ishtar Gate
cab3885689dd38d682251740d0f343fc3ca8d544	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on May 6, 2015; checks require 2 edits.
293618082b3f696efe645d5059d506bbd49a4ad8	The restored Ishtar Gate in the Berlin Pergamon Museum
c4f685ae40db25dd5785b7951dc9ecb930511641	The Ishtar Gate is the eighth gate of the inner city in Babylon.
20956b240e4fe14342b851d718adfaef79521e24	Built in 575 BC by order of King Nebuchadnezzar in the northern part of the city.
d00e32dcb5b065e50eb799e1097381c9706f5bc0	Appearance[edit / edit wiki text]
e2ba1d4069821c78aa62eac9bd17f755c1831be2	The Ishtar Gate is a huge semicircular arch, bounded on the sides by giant walls and facing the so called Processional Road, along which the walls stretched.
36e1790f434d3838b219fd6c6ba5a278b6061d4e	The walls of the gates and the Processional Roads are covered with bas reliefs of extraordinary beauty, depicting animals in poses very close to natural.
be1fffcbdad8de3b6b0c2e2f1c34473ab39a38ba	The walls of the path are decorated with about 120 bas reliefs of lions.
ed25272ba9f6caa81473a612002b262022abd7b3	In total, there are about 575 images of animals on the gate.
43029752af3f5c9a97b0c837d3f2d6c4c732b2f4	The roof and doors of the gate were made of cedar.
dddb27b7860e0102c2a3f1da907fe996967f84ac	Koldewey describes the gate of Ishtar as follows:
1bbede02b9872b94500d2da345cdd6ebec5f8eb2	Rows of bricks go one above the other.
0d15c2827ccafb18bb50cd3ee0ebffa77cf0ae7c	Dragons and bulls never meet in the same horizontal row, but a row of bulls follows a row of sirrush, and vice versa.
23d39f0d82d7308777c380e997c4acd95d5149d9	Each individual image occupies a height of 13 bricks, and the gap between them is 11 bricks.
e09953c6fc6792d38733bf1f861fb8b5f293c9ee	Thus, the distance from the bottom of one image to the bottom of another is equal to 24 bricks, or almost exactly two meters, that is, four Babylonian elam.
524939d12daf4013934f27ea4f0158722ca8c728	The inscription begins as follows: "I am Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, a pious sovereign, ruling according to the will and favor of Marduk, the supreme ruler of the City, the favorite of Heaven, cunning and tireless... always caring for the welfare of Babylon, the wise firstborn son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon...
4057f6c2d37e1a2e2be9cd918ebc41069ac074d1	A tablet with this inscription is now kept in the Pergamon Museum.
fceb27534d049a84e6752dc8c777cf7c79152031	A smaller copy of the gate, built by Saddam Hussein, was destroyed during the military operations.
4676cc1079b5c5ccd3acadbb76d26ac55b5d9494	Reconstruction[edit / edit wiki text]
e77abfb1b7d9a9558b867c70125eb7a1e2ac28d5	The reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Road was made in the 1930s at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin from material found by the archaeologist Robert Koldewey.
6a2f0540048d934009114aa54a1e6c294d681f0e	Fragments of gates and lions that decorated the Processional Road are kept in various museums around the world.
172f3833c44ebbc4be83e988ee3bbb8138b4aeed	The Istanbul Archaeological Museum has bas reliefs of lions, dragons and bulls.
70a4df0cf8ce25b063e3cc2e7554df2e3274a8ea	The Detroit Museum of Art has a bas relief of Sirrush.
eaad048025eb5b8587135db0848d7dee6f9b7d69	There are bas reliefs of lions in the Louvre, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Oriental Institute in Chicago, the Museum of the Rhode Island School of Design and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston.
b9c272048bc19ff77425905a2b783482df23374e	A replica of the Ishtar Gate was built in Iraq at the entrance to the museum, the construction of which was never completed.
c2c638cc1c37e2f1a56d42166590d09878c7f08c	Ishtar Gate on Wikimedia Commons?
844739fb495acbba95ab1bc110ad9aaf043ebd86	Video shooting of the Ishtar Gate (November 2004) "Sirrush from the gate of Queen Ishtar"
1bcd7086cbd353f38b0cc5c19db10daa068251a3	By putting footnotes, make more precise references to the sources.
b5235cb46a79452d36bb44722ceb5316b09ce51b	Put down more precise categories for the article.
21b94ffc55a4241e7e6cbdf847c17996c40c1124	Coordinates: 32°32'36" s. w.
b800e0df0bde5111d89c805352b82f8f5fc10a9d	44°25'20" v. d.
7e732eb1d43d0f59cb4fa0f35339b8408a756317	/ 32.54333° s. w.
135430a2ae755e22892676ffa91cb7a5328c89bc	44.42222° v. d.
0a61ae0bd351de7b87a200b33949b4070e6021aa	/ 32.54333; 44.42222 (G) (O)
2cf73b49dfe147672e105f0b5c9a14b69f0f2fc4	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ishtar Gate&oldid=74708087"
d8d22b7a25410a53f9cd2d365e9cedd43c637311	Categories: Archaeological sites in Iraq Architecture of Ancient Mesopotamia Babylon
004bd09ddd46ba09ffaba8b087219082adecfac4	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles without footnotes Wikipedia:Articles for clarifying categories
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a29918dacd96da053664e7573fcb6290e80b225b	Last modified on this page: 20: 52, November 23, 2015.
9b5f501840c6c0ffc7da221fe62489167abd1451	It is administratively located in the CAO, it is allocated as an independent administrative unit.
ad7c2540b3c91450359fec7bd8ee29732bb74246	The first settlements on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin belong to the Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC).
d48130120586c80b41a40fa5480698d5076ba2dc	A Finno-Ugric settlement dating back to the Early Iron Age (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) was found near the modern Archangel Cathedral.
ccee4c5b055b886edbc4a704fdc0fee7e1b65236	At that time, the Dyakov-type settlement occupied the center of the upper over-floodplain terrace of Borovitsky Hill (the area of modern Cathedral Square) and may have already had fortifications.
5f70bf6cfc15b274ff700b97520a6d12887c7e76	Initially, the Kremlin served as a fortification of the Slavic settlement that arose on the Borovitsky Hill, a cape at the confluence of the river. Neglinnaya to the Moscow River.
158d70464709712c1c0a71a351bf824df5b59f66	The first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to 1147.
84a505d0d76f2ba54414b53cb8def158dc4fdaf1	In 1156, the first fortifications with a total length of about 700 meters were built on the territory of the modern Kremlin.
e8fdf594dbfcda13c179ae54cf588776b494dd45	The fortification was surrounded by a moat 16-18 m wide and at least 5 m deep.
c68051141647bda7d5d22e3708d16b109048bcea	The shaft was reinforced with oak beams, fastened in the Polish manner.
be70648c93a1c06d309fd8276d1682b25817c4fa	In the 12th century, Moscow was a small settlement, an outpost that protected the way to Vladimir.
6a96441fee2075a7d15e506b5b2fd7efb6c1cfd4	In 1238, during the Mongol invasion, the Kremlin was destroyed.
208749cc4c81e9edaa2fc8775f07ac0d41775aac	Since 1264, it was the residence of the Moscow appanage princes.
9e0dbb71b8c29b894efafa6bbdb917cb1b85f7b3	In 1339, the walls and towers were built of oak.
ef7020b56750ef47795f1850c889810819a89114	In 1367, the walls and towers were built of white stone, in 1485-95-of brick.
79f3cdd5c30e2d660916d2f0a04422247fbf2e1a	In the second half of the XV century, the Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt with the participation of Italian architects and acquired to a large extent its modern appearance.
6fe818b4da553894887c655c6bde46670c610bb0	The towers received in the 17th century the existing tiered and hipped completions.
88f40e13ca65ea8519998ac513467fb3f5f97750	In the XVII-XIX there is an active construction of secular buildings, and the Kremlin Ensemble receives a logical conclusion.
9a69e1534eb060f22c5b581b6df05cc9db9eceb3	In 1635-36, the Terem Palace was built, adjacent to the Faceted Chamber.
9c7429dc82c360d163c670848aa97de0fd473532	In the middle of the XVIII century, the idea of building the Grand Kremlin Palace, located on the southern slope of the Kremlin hill along the river, arose.
2dc1a1d8c07dbedc7bd31b48ae7dd2bea91499b0	The Moscow Kremlin was built in 1485-1495.
0d9f879d5e5ae6c6a4cbabd91839c93884cfa8c7	The architect is Italian Pietro Antonio Solari (Peter Fryazin).
9eba8db66487e543d901d87f560b0db191a8fcf0	Other architects, mainly Italian, participated in the construction of the Moscow Kremlin at different periods.
19c22b8b20ae92e5b545247b1e2fc75ec4e7a942	The length of the Kremlin walls is 2235 meters, the height is from 5 to 6.5 meters.
f3a31fdc6927b3848718dddd73f6199575bb0757	The walls in some places have internal passages.
d37988701a400d8af1bcd5bcce6e23b74a526231	The top of the wall is decorated with teeth in the shape of a swallow's tail, there are 1045 teeth on the top of the wall.
adb107ad6a3a1d80a5f76b6fce63226d204024d7	Most of the teeth have slit-like loopholes.
299a93b4e125fd69dc4fde2b15a4292f5153d14f	Wide embrasures covered with arches are arranged in the walls.
1e05b53c5515260251d68c7b0cce23413ea86e3e	On the outside, the walls are smooth, on the inside they are decorated with arched niches — a traditional technique designed to facilitate and strengthen the structure of the structure.
8d0ac12c61e0e23405bb448e75597c72a40e7b44	Spasskaya, Nabatnaya, Konstantino Eleninskaya, Troitskaya, Borovitskaya, Blagoveshchenskaya and Petrovskaya towers had shoots on the walls
8c441f0459cbbac609583cb3421e0449e5230ef7	Initially, there was a through passage through all the towers inside the wall, blocked by cylindrical arches.
38db78ffc0ab60eb763daffbfde04d86757299e3	Most of the passage was eventually filled up with construction debris, the section between the Konstantino Eleninskaya and the Alarm Towers was preserved.
cd3dcda1b610033eb37c86a94d273fc105d0d12c	There were also hiding places and passages under the walls, in some cases going far beyond the line of fortifications
d601d52815519245f386afd8a29d8821dc291ae2	In the plan, the Moscow Kremlin is an irregular triangle with three round towers at the corners.
4e3b41c4738c5923830894c602b6f3f07d3aa68d	The remaining towers have a square cross-section.
1d1a0f3a8f9edabd59a287e6c609d52f9f607a82	The existing walls and towers were built in 1485-1516.
9df976c76ad930d9d4525e37419aa7a02b0724cc	There are 20 towers in total, the highest of which is Troitskaya (height 79.3 meters).
d9699526e5153cd49d822f38a7bc3501a8f2f8fa	The style of architecture of the Moscow Kremlin is classic Italian, with the exception of the Nikolskaya Tower, designed in the Gothic style.
8d1ebee5df738632d6fa350d1d0457abb985e201	In 1485-1516, the construction of the Kremlin walls was led by the Italian architects Anton Fryazin, Marco Fryazin, Pietro Antonio Solari and Aleviz Fryazin the Old.
b00c89046b6cb14f997e7540f0969d30e237265a	Russian Russian craftsmen stopped treating Italian architects as strangers during the years of construction, and even their names were changed to the Russian way.
9ef60a1236904992aa4e7e5478fcbdbd9a8d57c3	So Antonio became Anton, and the nickname Fryazin replaced the complex Italian surname.
fc2281b3a4dc3ec94d8147b1aecb39a500494861	Our ancestors called the overseas lands fryazhsky, and the natives from there-fryazin.
6604d92f5f6714d5e8430fac6148447dd7dcf738	The superstructures and tent coverings of the towers were built in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Kremlin lost its defensive significance.
6c3721bd067d67c72c3b275f555b09424f440e37	Vodovzvodnaya (Sviblova) tower of the Moscow Kremlin — south-western corner.
65b75c992da5c9b9bfe9388fdc16f6f01575b8f1	It is located on the bank of the Moskva River.
c6bd55d92adfac3b1634c36f1e24228cbde02e9d	The name Vodovzvodnaya was received in 1633 after the installation of a water-lifting machine in it.
d896ec275242887a1d955071483e96f9690e9b6c	Before that, it was called Sviblova Tower.
41dee1083a6833afa5ac30b58e06992875786697	The masonry is made up to the middle of the height with protruding and recessed belts of white stone.
88ff352b8b60a866bffd351f17ece47293249e03	The cross-section is cylindrical.
e81ca3c834eb8c0b2fecdc45d673014d652badec	The covering is tent-shaped.
afc4bbcd7d6a617d8c54397856807f9246e4238b	The height with a star is 61.25 m, without a star-57.7 m.
213a102838b39e20d399416b9e231f1978c37ee7	The Bashborovitskaya (Predtechenskaya) Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southwestern frontal one.
7813512e191b52b7288bffc1d2e7fa266dcea260	It was built in 1490 by Architect Pietro Solari.
15453320621f9b019c1d32142eeb5b3c64b035a9	The name Predtechenskaya was given by decree of Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich in honor of the Church of the Nativity of the Forerunner located opposite.
3cf68207bee6815407fa774fa7b006b687e0f8a9	In the 18th century, the tower was decorated with white stone details in a pseudo-Gothic style, at the beginning of the 19th, a clock appeared on the tower.
bfa1b7b17e4313f1e1c19b495f60b418b0652e25	The tower is a passageway with a gate.
86557fa6379543626dedc2514aea19bfd7c709b0	The cross-section of the base is a quadrilateral.
7409aeb774f31d182321cc3e2265bddc296449e4	Walls: 4 levels-tetrahedrons, the last level is an octahedron.
707c0e3d1724a8cb1fe337c62ee2e8b647e5da06	The covering is tent - shaped.
946bdae7c1db3f8441ca8ac49b569ea8eb04e28a	The height with a star is 54.05 m, without a star-50.7 m. The span of the rays of the ruby star is 3.2 meters.
e7e11627a19c30844fa27a47ca6d3238463cfea1	The Commandant's (Deaf, Kolymazhnaya) tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the north - western frontal.
096556d7ffedab55b40408faa69cdcb2eaaa2d0b	It was built in 1495 by Architect Aleviz Fryazin.
bb2fd3e7ba6a42b4684cd212b95f0b0bf55ad978	The old name - Kolymazhnaya received from the Kolymazhny yard located near it.
0ea21b94c6d804a5e0982e10e2362155965e76f1	Name “The Commandant's room” was received when the commandant of Moscow was located nearby, in a Funny palace of the XVII century.
9a7f9c05b5886e74ad8d297b29ef917688ece455	The Kremlin is called not only the walls with towers, as some people think, but also everything that is located inside it.
ea19c45229c2202fe3f998a204fdb690a96a8f56	Behind the walls on the ground of the Moscow Kremlin there are cathedrals and squares, palaces and museums.
b109adc7cc25e1fdae62893c66edca1a10a9539f	The buildings of the Cathedral Square were built with the participation of Italian architects, so its appearance was greatly influenced by the architecture of the Italian Renaissance.
7c34b8a036309e67811a0c70956a1fbd9090ca5b	This summer, the Kremlin Regiment shows its skills on Sobornaya Square every Saturday at 12: 00.
f84a01ae3a2db29147b9c2a7a8a02885c71104f0	The northern zone of the Kremlin is formed by the buildings of the Arsenal, the Senate and the Kremlin Palace of Congresses.
8701fb4655842a9344c784c3d4d8789073ee7028	The arsenal was built in 1702-36 (architects X. Konrad, D. Ivanov, M. Tchoglokov) between the Troitskaya and Nikolskaya towers and was intended for storing weapons and various military equipment.
02f03bdf3912e2810b6d7ae52994d8df1a909c7c	Captured French cannons are placed along the facade of the Arsenal in memory of the war of 1812.
0527c30768d1b123ec1d5829842ab3db641b18fd	Between the Nikolsky and Spassky Gates, next to the Arsenal, in 1776-84, the Senate building was built according to the project of the architect M. F. Kazakov.
cef91678548d6de7ce663dab87bd8b349c282513	The compositional center of the building is a solemn round meeting hall, crowned with a 20-meter dome located along the axis of the Senate Tower.
12b54ef7f39da3e6f31d423edb44e5db2a764700	The Chudov Monastery (Alekseevsky Archangel Mikhailovsky) was founded in 1365 by Metropolitan Alexey in memory of the miraculous healing of Hansha Taidula by him.
3ad577ac9f8ebe5d9b57bfada7ea8e0a50a122f0	It is named after the central church of the Miracle of Archangel Michael in Honekh.
19c70c2955a049e6d79553686c785a2683a5ba15	During the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, it was burned, it was devastated by fires several more times, but it was always renewed.
b52bf807536afea7368c2c79b8091d66d62e760c	In the 16th and 17th centuries, it became the Great Lavra; in 1744-1833, it was the location of the Moscow ecclesiastical Consistory.
bf4529eaa24a39af5eb78e482a59a05bc0d80e65	Many historical legends are associated with the monastery.
09c5ee8ec002a84a03defd520b3f04d2c43c2dc5	In the early 1930s, both monasteries were blown up and dismantled.
c12a500b67bc56f83a8430641098a39a18a299b0	In their place, the building of the School of Red Commanders (later the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR; architect I. I. Rerberg) was built.
ab1fdab1dd37b0d018eaf8e12d4d2c6814a12e1f	The word "Kremlin" is very ancient.
5abd4ec7278fa540209c2dd978e18871e9727d2c	The Kremlin or detinets in Russia was called a fortified part in the center of the city, in other words, a fortress.
f76f006bc98464edbbaa59315881b6c5561b9c5b	The construction site of the Kremlin was not chosen by chance.
dfe4db5764e4893125719e3ddaf02ecb8259b45b	The Kremlin is built on a high hill, surrounded on two sides by rivers: the Moscow River and the Neglinnaya River.
cfe462a42fcea994853fea42aae058c5cb778037	The high location of the Kremlin made it possible to notice the enemies from a greater distance, and the rivers served as a natural barrier in their path.
bdc51a9fa40bdecf606bdc6add786c77171e048f	During the October Revolution, the Kremlin was bombed.
bf35a0d2e1f64d12c86ac1a6dbb268cc010fca9c	With the advent of Soviet power, the capital was moved to Moscow, and the Kremlin again becomes a political center.
84d9ea7237cb8e235ec5a5cd73510b28bfffbfc7	In March 1918, the Soviet government headed by V. I. Lenin moved to the Kremlin.
4eb4e9246bd24dd77cd1cb4c528bfd561c31720f	In 1918, the government of the RSFSR moved to the Senate building.
d773687672c785227632bccf25daba9e414005d3	The Kremlin was used as a permanent residence until the end of the 1950s.
5c739cac54a51401318773fd8313f460d34628a5	The last to move from the Kremlin was K. E. Voroshilov, who lived there with his family until 1962
b4eff2a1578ea5024005d43ed755ba757ed7a3b6	During the years of Soviet power, the architectural ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin has suffered significantly.
cd7a7a2b5406518af06051aa530fceba63802b2e	At the end of the 1920s, a large series of demolitions of the ancient buildings of the Kremlin began.
dd4c9e41729d4ac7e05a7fc7eb5d5097108322c8	On September 17, 1928, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee adopted a resolution defining the terms of demolition of church buildings and ancient structures of the Moscow Kremlin.
a5bdd00075b3c049bd0580518414240cb7baebc8	Information about the upcoming destruction of monuments reached the Main Science of the People's Commissariat of Education only by mid-June 1929.
6ce1419c658d6478a09060e1a3c402aaec6e0c6a	By that time, the church of Saints Constantine and Elena had already been demolished.
5153b424e78431a0ad8456f3b24278e351a96041	In 1933, the Church of the Annunciation in the Zhitny Dvor, which was attached to the Annunciation Tower in the XVIII century, was broken down.
9e1d43f2ebe90a2d0e7f956a2e76cb9037131943	In the same year, the oldest church in Moscow was destroyed — the Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor, located in the courtyard of the Grand Kremlin Palace.
f2da11b0f19df8e818a8aa4c0eaad02a231d3403	In 1934, a 5-storey office building was built in its place.
a8b6ca838d8335aaf695edcce5f3a95231cfe2c0	There are not even any foundations left of the temple, with the exception of fragments of the foundation of the western narthex, which was discovered in 1997.
2ff1c4d84913ac815453e50d3bd7e924bfc47231	In total, 17 churches with 25 thrones were destroyed during the years of Soviet power.
8f71963118d26f8aedc3a65e62463860ace95e79	In addition to the destruction of monuments, some buildings were altered.
9b805be9cf3edde31880a7b9c4f5e8fd868fcb77	During the restoration of the Grand Kremlin Palace in 1994, all the historical bas-reliefs on the facade were recreated.
c97884eb033c367f347af734116dc5591be131fa	Since 1955, the Kremlin has been partially open to the public, becoming an open-air museum.
440bd90c6aa094d0ef7fb3cfa77db9b0381cae19	Since the same year, a ban on living on the territory of the Kremlin was introduced (the last residents were discharged in 1962) [
cacf2edcf006c17555630577092a49d86de6825b	In 1967, a monument to V. I. Lenin was opened in the Kremlin (sculptor V. B. Pinchuk, architect S. B. Speransky).
31063cf77e2b55ca795d9acaabfac6d3761a575a	In the first 30 days after the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the Moscow Kremlin "disappeared" from the face of Moscow.
e121ccdd25bbb7c8399bd84999bc291ef2f64181	The Fascist aces were quite surprised that their cards were lying, and they could not detect the Kremlin while flying over Moscow.
3dae9ae701f5b8204106dd8f70e92803d7002c5d	The thing is that according to the masking plan, the stars on the towers and crosses on the cathedrals were covered, and the domes of the cathedrals were painted black.
94e68debb868ef7d126b73b41d9df1547fc95902	Three-dimensional models of residential buildings were built along the entire perimeter of the Kremlin Wall, the battlements were not visible behind them.
37e5b456660c429fa7905007ae2be8a84ecc92b2	Part of the Red and Manezhnaya Square and the Alexander Garden were filled with plywood decorations of houses.
d77e59fe948cdf0aa27a51136a766a0bd7da1db0	The mausoleum became three-storied, and a sandy road was built from the Borovitsky Gate to the Spassky Ones, depicting a highway.
bcd2783cde664ef7dde83263f63d1136b8e4eff7	Never before has the palace ensemble looked so democratic.
b05179164e54c4df50513c20077cb6e84d8d5921	In 1991, the Kremlin became the residence of the President of Russia.
d698dbafa0a654207657b6aa98f04e05765578ec	In 1996-2000, the Kremlin walls and towers were restored
b888d623c8602c57ac525edf93380c80c20f89da	In July 2014, President Vladimir Putin proposed to demolish the 14th administrative building on the Ivanovskaya Square of the Moscow Kremlin and restore the Chudov and Voznesensky monasteries that stood in its place
902444a1f59f2ca5f3d6b428dd9f6c1616d32757	The Moscow Kremlin is one of the main symbols of modern Russia, the subject of national pride of the Russian people.
aa5d1f76cea77f889a7b78b17ab12d3e47f1da95	The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin is included in the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List.
dcc6c0245e915df12262a6bc715776b1d0300ed9	Palace and manor complexes of Russia.
fcdef8ef7fd571a1a5ee57958de922b296941157	Read in the section "Architectural monuments".
167c56ecf936cfda0795b93956470b329e76cb39	Nature reserves, national parks, unique places
179f40a386a3d655d56c6b7637eaa633eb51cbca	Architecture of mountainous Ingushetia
3f37dbdcbfa6223f44fdd55d20d4fda2ce4495a3	Temples, monasteries, religious buildings
7733e8122bfccf4e1ce05369f452f0f2083f5b5c	Ancient cities (Suzdal)
a52ea9876c3b2e033ba5764547b82158e6f3b655	A journey!
004e193afc6bdfadff1e5f1b9da3ec462f638568	To touch the beautiful, sometimes it is enough just to stretch out your hand.
a00401fc4838ac1c8b3134f2f60c8cc28059c451	Magnificent palaces, medieval castles, amazing natural attractions are waiting for you.
9baf5ea084a99cc4612a72a32856d39b65fb9e96	And not somewhere far away, but here in Russia.
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13927bb0cf74ed425377f583983f6a015ade539e	You are here: News Architectural monuments Kremlins, fortresses, castles The Moscow Kremlin
334f855747eea6797bc825efc5fa7c67be79afd6	Moscow Kremlin
18cc1751facc8f461630058f8a60c574ecb1d42b	The remaining towers have a square cross section.
4676536e44a4a125898e24f0e5e65f2fc134aa01	Vodovzvodnaya (Sviblova) tower of the Moscow Kremlin — south western corner.
643870372c4c95dd0afd29bead136329f7087129	The name Vodovzvodnaya was received in 1633 after the installation of a water lifting machine in it.
8a899f84abaec25e75a087b21f50c442f7d4b568	The architectural style is classic Italian.
a5c99b49dec83e78b55692de7cf8a4e166efd635	The cross section is cylindrical.
245e8214c67c2fc6956652c58846709310f2c8f2	The covering is tent shaped.
4abcd97f9dc84dddd8756f1938064c44a31ecff1	The height with a star is 61.25 m, without a star 57.7 m.
74026cd1d0169a0f0095fbc358fbd59b41a2c264	In the 18th century, the tower was decorated with white stone details in a pseudo Gothic style, at the beginning of the 19th, a clock appeared on the tower.
893ff28f5434771ef648f474bb436fc09355d942	The cross section of the base is a quadrilateral.
0ed9fae49f624340f62ac277740573b7ee3017d8	Walls: 4 levels tetrahedrons, the last level is an octahedron.
6e17f61fa583eace0aadf75826e607d4b28df222	The height with a star is 54.05 m, without a star 50.7 m.
e86efedfb3eea93c4b7a9014c184985c7c95f34d	The span of the rays of the ruby star is 3.2 meters.
7c9ca7bdc43f5fa698dd382facf1abc55af5d127	The cross section of the base is square.
536abc3c25a5c6dfb058132a39a07c90ca349a7b	The covering is tent – shaped.
e1d30d0c1c6cc17a128cbff1dac28ba7ad694fe6	Height 41.25 m
01a5b3f5dea290ff3edb0e44f2c055e07e3571f3	Oruzhe?ynaya (Horse?shennaya) tower of the Moscow Kremlin – north western frontal.
e4ff0c2b60291d4f806191e50fad72d2ff4fdce8	The name Konyushennaya was received because of the travel gate to the Stable Yard in the Kremlin.
d8bf6d08c8baa41107f5322b41d45edbbc8d20cd	The cross section of the base is a square.
998217580f2db5a792cfd9b281da27ecd464b3eb	Height - 32.65
9147e5f34d46ceabfe6441e74edb6cb68fed21b8	The Trinity Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the northwestern frontal one.
003a902c101c11fe5bc77235b7e72336cc1a7503	It was built in 1499 by the architect Aleviz Fryazin Milanese.
4780fa998c8e4331356444ccb9fb9db1b5ec5ede	Previously, it was called Znamenskaya, Rizopolozhenskaya, Karetnaya.
c51c273461374ad959d32fcf79c9b6abdd43db32	Troitskaya is named because of the Trinity farmstead located nearby.
401c1a9c090dd80b57d20d55691cbc0cb6a95942	The tower is a travel pass.
d451e10aec95ee5dde62ea96faa6b1e445ca5ec3	The height with a star is 80 m.(the highest Kremlin tower)
8a4263230602df533c8e79da65467bca0d112579	Kuta?fya
050f4027e89443f011a840cba81dee543f406a0b	(Predmo?the Moscow Kremlin Tower is a tower opposite the Trinity Tower, at the end of the Trinity Bridge.
03641c2980c00fc2aefcca58206291079e5b49f2	It is a barbican.
ddfb5731dbad3552b5a041ddefa8c43f90e80ba4	It was built in 1516 by the architect Aleviz Fryazin.
ae055e6d82dfb0e45e66ebaa0c7472202a18242e	Presumably, the name comes from the word kut shelter.
b26740c2a057a7cfe49074ff29f7a2ef242e7c98	It is significantly different from the rest of the Kremlin towers.
bb1d55a4a910908acf0cb5fcd02426e1c9e76efc	It had a special defensive significance.
ddb4785717103fd01aab98fcd2b596e323b99b52	It was surrounded by an artificially raised water level of Neglinka, covered the approach to the Trinity Bridge.
d73be79cd77cfa6505778264e2c3146059240a98	The cross section of the base is an irregular oval.
a25ed7da845ea112a7d071da5d3fdb6861723059	There is no coating, the upper part is decorated with an openwork white stone "crown".
627377101bbde8cdc595bdf03333f21ab164c180	Height -13.5 m.
618f55891e78759328bb8731c4a643842cb51e3c	The middle Arsenal Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the northwestern frontal one.
36aa9aa8f82ffd3e536e583490fd16b8a5fccef3	It was built in 1495.
627a9a367548f3ef5539f8da7bf4f8a565357f54	It received its current name after the construction of the Arsenal building at the beginning of the XVIII century.
f8a75e80261236288a587463da0b5435b4155179	It used to be called Faceted from the facade divided on the edge.
ef5465c6c232ad18d8886af404127664eb915461	The outer face of its strongly elongated up quadrangular volume, completed with machicolations and a parapet, has retained its original dismemberment by two flat vertical niches.
2a8d7409052833a75fb01d11a793474bffec413f	There is an observation deck at the top.
f7cb75f273eb81a34f79bd91ea42e11da7178f62	Height 38.9 m
cfd682556549300a609a39397bcaf0d92fefdb8a	The corner Arsenalnaya (Sobakina) Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the north– eastern corner.
875eac31e1064e9148e4c8c9fa32d7b910ec28b8	It was built in 1492 by Architect Pietro Antonio Solari.
aa95b6d949002d351b103850ae58a52ca9a58b49	It had a secret passage to Neglinka and a well in case of a siege.
717a74e3f8d3e1a745fca0d0fa376a6bcc74fca4	The most powerful of the Kremlin towers with four meter thick walls.
66d0c8e2d33adcee49101b21b420b033dc19abf9	The cross section of the base is cylindrical.
1b463dcc298c54e721b427e32bb08e781036c355	Height -60 m The thickness of the walls of the tower is 4 m
e0a4c90e169205c1aa3b9582ae27cbc096af399b	The Nikolskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the eastern frontal one.
e6229149ecbaf0e242b8b20e91463c5010572485	It was built in 1491 by Architect Pietro Antonio Solari.
672e2db89a411ea77c0b26b0efed637b4b3f470f	It got its name from the icon of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker placed on the facade.
b831f72e0bcababe1c950c600e4c62053981d2e2	It is a travel card.
3587eb01ea334f283a50cf2938f2fe5822c22547	At the beginning of the 19th century, it was seriously rebuilt and acquired a pseudo Gothic style.
5d90dbc0b8927d5840bb030efe7b6a21123cfccc	The walls are octagonal.
5ed8a90ac83fad99e5a1a9698d04b59aa3ab370f	The height with a star is 70.4 m. without a star 67.1 m
a431bd2575af6df5a588df03a31a3b1436b0f012	The Spasskaya (Frolovskaya) Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the eastern frontal, facing Red Square.
675e7bddda07fb300d676e927c49455f008c1ebf	It was built in 1491.
684800f75252dcb6407adae016fe035ae409ac96	Architect Pietro Antonio Solari.
9ad6715738234fe646b15ea66edb9c5098650f80	It got its name from the icon of the Savior of Smolensk located here.
67017059afd41fd5ef56a8d8e3ff8ecf4ae342e3	The main gate of the Kremlin — Spassky is located in the tower, the famous chimes are installed in the tent of the tower.
368a18ce61ba7effd7773dbfc936802032d38804	The height of the tower with a star is 71 m., to the star 67.3 m.
d9da3f83f15cf929831ead52406e2c154163999f	The Senate Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the eastern frontal.
b4c3384508ced0e559abdb12430e09d6d0109246	It received its name after the construction of the Senate building on the territory of the Kremlin.
d990c5cc0db025457a1ac264ee9f1b22387584f6	Height -34.3 m.
806c66b9d6a20d430f747355e4aa3c4756c59f65	The Tsar's Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the eastern frontal one.
58b67ec73407dd6bcfaa2d14b519ff647595e36e	It was built in 1680.
5b1189c40b30125fcadc5b6cab6c607f9389cb4c	It does not play any defensive significance.
9035183f148958b0b8fd5d57f7f9f6fc6f7f0489	It is rather a gazebo mounted on the wall.
5a9daaa08ddf6bf2aac5adf8ca2fa78ff7dafa44	Tsarskaya is named because, according to legends, Ivan the Terrible watched the executions on Red Square from it.
a22be2e4e96c858352ceae38bf50d4e55996fc1d	The height of the tower with a weather vane is 16.7 m.
71bc54dbd2f5c50cd2c06227743cd77806fedf6f	The alarm tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the eastern frontal one.
0b0815f52e494ae1c8d77f86e8b11d78809cb5c6	It was built in 1490.
01c5c97b30d1cc3557e07c16909e6f1f69df36ed	It was named after the alarm bell that was located in it.
94b343a57e5dccab285a936d568ce9ed6f2341c3	The covering is tent –shaped.
48dd4e33d27c9da8e8de52978d365917afc6d116	The height of the tower is 38 m.
e7ec978a25697c0286a02bef5ef8eff2456fe1d5	Beklemishevskaya (Moskvoretskaya)
b75df792a89f8832455651f5602757ce316028c4	Tower of the Moscow Kremlin — south eastern corner.
11fa8cde251a56ea08b2a8ba3f886ef0649e6961	It was built in 1488 by Architect Marko Fryazin.
c11560c702cb105d5483f775d58f25a69403bd57	The name comes from the courtyard of the boyar I. N. Beklemishev, who was located inside the Kremlin near the tower.
fda3c06f9d4106d64f219360622f2f2cba6447d9	Located at the junction of the Moskva River with the moat, the tower served an important defensive role.
e8d255f4ea582a7ea3f2ae8bc9f059810355dd99	The height is 46.2 m.
603d27cd8127a80aca72deceaedd701f1efa9a3f	The Konstantino Eleninskaya (Timofeevskaya) Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southern frontal one.
b0db9b0132b4bfa66342390498ca894ae867e0c5	It was built in 1490 by Architect Pietro Antonio Solari.
0b9f91bcf21c587bebed7f3d27467b34d6c127a6	It received its modern name after the Church of Constantine and Elena was built nearby in the Kremlin in the XVII century
834ecf5ebdf10258f9de5a168b30beebbb3892c7	Originally it was a driveway, with a drawbridge over the moat.
472ceaf1f62aa1ae99c297db00bf3f10320f0cb4	The height is 36.8 m.
ea657f457f072ff29e316116ffd52d6015af5f82	Petrovskaya (Ugreshskaya)
66b8e672098e613cbb42512bf32d100973e594b8	Tower of the Moscow Kremlin– the southern frontal.
f10eaefcf10ac55bf89d8472fce0dbc474dc2f86	It was built in 1480.
c5689eb6d0514ac2de0cd93b63a96763d7ed18a1	It got its name from the courtyard of the Ugreshsky monastery with the church of Metropolitan Peter, which from the XV to the XVII century was located inside the Kremlin near the tower
3f1f9a084096b50b6ceb3179e9d2ab8b5e523742	The overlap is tent – shaped.
54703a4a9a4c1e31ecb043f67b76933e2e6ad365	The height is 27.15 m.
a33a8315b327b8d8024e870e8c061c4a11424c69	The first Unnamed (Powder) tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southern frontal.
7ec2f0e201b97e0aabc43055e25841548af3e41e	It was rebuilt several times later.
02e85c6434acd9ec58a721cd20f59721bcaa4960	The name of the powder room was received because of the powder warehouse located in it.
934de055e7169944d22238cfbd077d5edfed76fa	The cross section of the base of the quadrilateral.
dcb75de189c3c0aa21cceba17aa63f92285fc417	Height -27.15 m.
4eb38d700d12f1a8aa497eb5bde5e6adb4982bb4	The second Unnamed tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southern frontal.
3a24dd66b2ad347aabcf4d1d1d51e36f7ee48319	It was built in the 1480s.
69bc5578d6b486a294cdd66ae8f3225cd426c6fd	Height -30.2 m.
70dd90663738ac966ed09d0a334e1f3fcb8190bd	The Tainitskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southern frontal one.
7bb227299e869f150039da7f6094d8623540b4e6	It was built in 1485.
475aaf7f3edfef8a70d54b311ec2696bada214ba	It got its name because of the secret passage from the tower to the Moscow River.
c9909feea714a71cc1e8fe612e867d22163cf53e	The first tower of the modern Moscow Kremlin and the first brick tower.
d951a5806b6737207ce47097389dbe6aa5efc333	Height - 38.4
806e24eefa7f6449bf7338c0f2d3e2bbe03f9246	The Annunciation Tower of the Moscow Kremlin is the southern frontal one.
380c5cd26fe17785e612fa68bb6a5c62f0d28b57	It was built in 1487 by Architect Pietro Antonio Solari.
b07e887978445612e0f70168d3f1d767205db8ef	The name was received from the previously decorated one
3df81effcff8d45808a7584b51c6475ded3106c2	The height with a weather vane is 32.4 meters, to the weather vane - 30.7 meters.
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ccbf6cd52cc5b4e23fe1906a5a8c3fda7bfd69b6	Country Russia or the Russian Federation
22594361dc38f07106107e71338430ae19af2777	State Kremlin Map of Russia Border of Russia Fatherland History of Russia
a2023add7af8b134310ca76cfccd4be3496d875c	The Moscow Kremlin is a large architectural complex, a fortress, the historical center of Moscow, located on the left bank of the Moskva River, on Borovitsky Hill, the most ancient part of the city, currently the residence of the highest state authorities of Russia and one of the main historical and artistic complexes of the country.
466faadd4574d229f252a073767369f2955e63eb	A Finno Ugric settlement dating back to the Early Iron Age (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) was found near the modern Archangel Cathedral.
7d2cdd88c50e24a52fd6e8db45e2019d746a16a9	Initially, the Kremlin served as a fortification of the Slavic settlement that arose on the Borovitsky Hill, a cape at the confluence of the river.
f7a569207530bfb42b4d04ae2e23bd71172a46b3	Neglinnaya to the Moscow River.
88f54ce3789f83cc83a98bfcf318031412a4acdb	Since 1264, the residence of the princes of Moscow.
ad301a63f3ea84c4b708d8a5f9654427b3306751	In the Kremlin there was the oldest Moscow church the Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor, or the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior "what's on the Bor", built by 1330, for the millennium of Constantinople — "New Rome".
fa390b4d92376f08568c4f3d42e37f1b90f14822	The church was destroyed in 1933.
d8bed0374f2cb8975d6c17b8fa052338ac43180b	Moscow princes and princesses were buried here, until the role of the tomb was transferred to the Archangel Cathedral for men and the Ascension Monastery (also destroyed) for women.
891f5e6d6631d38bfe9e7870b3eaef60fba92e50	After the establishment of the Novospassky Monastery at the end of the XV century, the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor received the status of a court church.
1ab99f1cbb7071409e946627bedc21fa02a318a8	As a result of the construction of the Kremlin Palace in the 1830s 1840s, the Church of the Savior was inscribed in the courtyard of the Palace.
9e8cf4226619c2b1884cea834d2a0b67b03285e9	Another ancient building was the Chudov Monastery, founded by Metropolitan Alexy in 1365, which was located in the eastern part of the Kremlin territory, adjacent to the Ascension Monastery.
96052fb4cd73491655d24c0a16a9a54dbc3ce946	It was named after the Church of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael in Honekh, which later became the tomb of Metropolitan Alexy.
4c703dda4325148fad2868a22f826b54d931f382	In 1483, the Alexievskaya Church was built on the territory of the monastery.
3bebd7d867943ab7ebc85407ac6dd5111ba87685	By order of Archimandrite Gennady of Chudovsky, the relics of Metropolitan Alexy were transferred to it.
20403aec69a015a797de19f4e4e3100bdf027fbd	In 1501-1503, the ancient church of St. Michael the Archangel was replaced by a temple built by Italian craftsmen.
423f66d6466b2d34792ef19ec82f8fd4e7a92e5a	At the beginning of the XX century, a tomb was built in the basement of the Alexievskaya Church, where the remains of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, who died in the Kremlin in 1905 at the hands of terrorists, were buried.
725fd820ef6d3cdb3a1c1f7b50de924988d1c745	The crypt of the Grand Duke was located under the floor, just under the shrine of St. Alexy.
101f53bf0dd151f5a0e80434606177559fd6b574	In 1929, all the buildings of the Chudov Monastery were demolished.
309f2c53ab55e2650564adff7dcf189ac2522c0a	In the XIV century, the territory of the Kremlin expanded, it was surrounded by oak walls, which in 1367 were replaced by walls and towers made of white stone (according to archeology, the towers and the most important parts of the wall were stone, from where there was the greatest danger of an assault).
ed59e67584e290af8a69d425cf285c63f28aaae7	The center of it was the Cathedral Square with the Assumption Cathedral (1475-79), the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-89), the Faceted Chamber (1487-91), the Archangel Cathedral (1505-08) — (the tomb of Russian princes and tsars) and the bell tower of Ivan the Great…
8bbdcb660fcf14d3187e4e07018cf16373ad0ee9	In 1485-95, under Ivan III, the fortifications of the Kremlin were rebuilt.
08f919607c5075da52d0604cc23b3651b3dadb60	New walls and towers, taller and thicker than the previous ones, are faced with red brick.
8d8d9e35d2e05ffe3afd26b407907820f84ea43f	In 1508-16, a moat was dug on the site of the modern Red Square, water was supplied to it from the river.
3fe8a8250a96dbd30306eebd5fad6ccb7e9e8336	Neglinnaya.
4d9a5292a7d7ecf86f4ce81eea278b7967fb866a	The Kremlin becomes an impregnable fortress, surrounded by water from all sides…
bab63210879eca99412620c8e144dbdfb0d4fd3a	In the XVII XIX there is an active construction of secular buildings, and the Kremlin Ensemble receives a logical conclusion.
f7975943a7ea8158823bca5033c9c9430e422a3b	In the XVII century, the Kremlin towers received tiered and hipped finishes, acquiring a modern appearance.
f78c19d879c746b62a32278d1c8a7d971702a7df	.. The construction of a Large Arsenal Building dates back to 1702-36 (architects D. Ivanov, H. Konrad with the participation of M. I. Tchoglokov).
efed3e62864968d04690fbfae6f3c1b1fbec72af	In 1776-87, the Senate building (architect Matvey Kazakov).
36a26570d3603d22dfc11965249d333d21c04964	In 1812, Moscow and the Kremlin were captured by the army of Napoleon.
b285b616abd4cd3993f6bdbbfaabc78ae7deb4d2	Retreating, Napoleon ordered the Kremlin buildings to be mined and blown up.
7feae711ce14630fb3864a46633d2c131895e189	Despite the fact that most of the charges did not explode, the damage was significant.
0032aeae7015367317b9649eb83a8c27982db42f	Vodozvodnaya, Petrovskaya and the First Unnamed towers were blown up, the Arsenal Tower was seriously damaged, and the extensions to the Ivan the Great bell tower were also damaged.
b6efc53d0c797227cc58a93536133ff8e398acdc	It took 20 years to restore the destruction, from 1815 to 1836.
08eb4b924543be0c145ad6745fba91ee22b2b785	At various times, its projects were developed by architects V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, A. N. Lviv, V. P. Stasov.
aa223b79bac82eef9fbd99ade65e4cff52247759	But only the project of K.
661a6cf050f6d11594d2009ac89a2fa759f79796	A. Ton in 1839-49 was destined to be realized.
6d49e5d40b1406dfd1eeb5f119e945a9fbae678e	According to his project, the Armory building was built in 1844-51.
7634f7d1464c8e1a45436dd1cc0c1d616de95e76	With the advent of Soviet power, the Kremlin became one of the symbols of the new system.
67e93d35d78b900c692f0705ca936f8c4f915817	In 1935-37, the double — headed eagles that crowned the main towers of the Kremlin: Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, Troitskaya, Borovitskaya and Vodovzvodnaya were replaced with stars made of ruby glass with a diameter of 3-3.75 meters.
7193d5ffc257d74260f993aa4391d5109fcac7b4	In 1959-61, the Kremlin Palace of Congresses (now the State Kremlin Palace) was built.
c7152d960b260d86db2cdca20db5440d15d8af49	Since 1955, the Kremlin has been open to the public, becoming an open air museum.
2fc6131c1781be0f3113d718a1cd14286a8dbea6	In 1990, the Kremlin was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
fa47b6dfa51267f8151c789553c1b67d65760475	The architecture of the Kremlin
6f2a40ea2e1d5ebdd8d224d7913e3316564ea59c	The existing walls and towers were built in 1485-95.
7c6b8982587f008eb1e080a5832b81cf4e3bba28	The total length of the walls is 2235 m, height from 5 to 19 m, thickness - from 3.5 to 6.5 m.
9ac0145abdd8b0153def603323d9a50b440b16e8	In the plan, the walls form an irregular triangle.
c9f20f0de1c6f607908b3d6f9d3334702a7a5c24	There are 20 towers along the walls.
202cbbbbb6a25c442457907395fbf10892a43c12	3 towers standing in the corners of the triangle have a round cross — section, the rest are square.
da35024c2228bef1af9452ff262f133293e2e0b9	The highest tower is Spasskaya, it has a height of 71 m.
816298e0dcb4c410718c092b168492c3b5dced86	Most of the towers are made in the same architectural style, given to them in the second half of the XVII century.
d059215d07dba066e3b86a2e45ae1aab837d88c1	The Nikolskaya Tower stands out from the general ensemble, which was rebuilt in the Gothic style at the beginning of the XIX century.
6642ec1703024b2cf60cea0c7d0e1065afc62e4d	Cathedral Square
cb5a71425ec84825cdc6f2860c5c8b5cd2da78df	Sobornaya Square is the historical and architectural center of the Kremlin.
275a28d98ac21007dd05ca10b3f44dac84e58f30	Its layout was formed in the XIV XV centuries, when the first churches that have not survived to this day were erected on the site of the now existing Assumption, Archangel and Annunciation cathedrals.
236aa22fa77949cabb234b30a1904a101374dfa8	The current appearance of the square was formed during the XVI century, when the old cathedrals were rebuilt, the Faceted Chamber and the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great were erected.
6f8d6aea7782e9ef2dd3586d417a75d7f0dc74b9	The faceted board is built in the style of a Florentine palazzo, the techniques characteristic of this style are also used in the processing of the facade of the Archangel Cathedral.
2d1e394aac67c938614685d9b9e59e9a04e89cf3	Many historical events are connected with the Cathedral Square: foreign ambassadors were received in the Faceted Chamber, zemstvo councils were held.
5e35dcb6da1ac9f517e0ac72c5d2a33b27f51897	The Assumption Cathedral hosted the coronations of Russian tsars and emperors, and the Archangel Cathedral served as their tomb.
d52cae094d0db2887c88bb84bb229318072d832a	Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin
91227956423357dff29ff3a4ccb07c047c724178	Assumption Cathedral Annunciation Cathedral Archangel Cathedral Church of St. John the Ladder and the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great Church of the Position of the Robe of the Mother of God in Blachernae Patriarchal Palace and the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles Verkhospassky Cathedral and Terem churches Administrative buildings and museums Senate Palace Administrative Building (14th building) Arsenal (Tseykhhaus) The Funny Palace The State Kremlin Palace The Grand Kremlin Palace the Terem Palace The Armory Chamber the Faceted Chamber The Church of the Nativity of the Virgin on the Porch The Golden Tsaritsyna Chamber
e3a4e0ecb03f028b5735300cc3f8291daff3c77a	Squares and gardens of the Moscow Kremlin
026533ee0908bb5a875a99db8e5af0f17c0000f8	Ivanovskaya Square Senatskaya Square Sobornaya Square Tainitsky Garden Bolshoi Kremlin Square
fdde42a740d68de809d7859cb9407a035375537a	Monuments
3e050bd4e9749e81b696d0889f589bd6e81aa722	Tsar Cannon Tsar Bell
18eb4648760cccee66c8a622f954a5827410850d	Destroyed monuments of the Moscow Kremlin
d82aaff2aad2dd908be2b8c971783f45570b2826	Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor Chudov Monastery Voznesensky Monastery Afanasyevsky Monastery Maly Nikolaevsky Palace Church of the Annunciation Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker Gostunsky (existed as a separate building until 1817) Church of Saints Constantine and Elena Old Armory Monument to Alexander II Monument to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich
d333c7fb2440e8f6814b09dcff1c72e0729ab09c	Holy places of the Russian Orthodox Church
51d899bd7417d3ae8a1be45f083fb7f1d0fb5a19	Moscow Kremlin Trinity Sergius Lavra Kiev Pechersk Lavra Diveevsky Monastery Optina pustyn
e684b1d7b5af3191ca9b70f40e7639efb7959485	Organizations that operate in the Kremlin
9791d6bb488dddc23131204bb70b5f4539998ad1	On the territory of the following:
a0878cf46e37d484e99b73f0c575dba6eec050c6	Federal Security Service performs the functions of protecting the highest officials of the state.
11118c269e3c080fe5327af8067e4b5fb1dad24b	The official workplace of the President is the Kremlin.
c006894aaab1e62cb470e21adadfadd0239dd2a1	The State Kremlin Palace is a venue for various events.
283a5239313095816ec629083390f048eb9c5fc4	The Russian Orthodox Church uses the Archangel Cathedral, the Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedral, the Church of the Ordination of the Sacrament.
a51e7ab81141056d7e32e5444c4607f5f3288bbb	The State Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve "Moscow Kremlin" - Director Gagarina, Elena Yuryevna.
a812f9b1bc7b0b42af2e03a0d8c6a121bd81b549	Organizes excursions around the Kremlin.
43a9eed4e253c3058cc33c7980bf967e9c70e4f9	Contains cultural buildings.
94aefe07487a737d1d496acff9f1a38584c770ce	It was created on March 10, 1806.
5abe39afb70a18ad288a3878dd2cd45f4096335d	Materials for downloading
465ddc3c02d9d3aac7d397d4c23f0c3bbebdead3	Russian Kremlins (*. doc) The Moscow Kremlin (*. doc)
59cddcb58926fa827f2036d31f2999f4cd39a76a	Map of the Moscow Kremlin
29beba3767932c5b93877c93d0ad560b832c03bb	Map of the Moscow Kremlin with a description
f0473b23762b7a5b9bf9c6b2a3d9d3d4cea0fe5e	The Kremlin the President's House
51609d865506a9712d591761355e6514c46a4f82	Portrait of Dmitry Medvedev
04592171635e48ac8c191a83c4192ede333356ae	If you are interested →
88f8c0f2314d7fbdf0dff8d0c2b14fb635853f69	Anthem of Russia State symbols Patriotic program 2008 Open Letter Geography of our supplies
fbbd13aab87f9be82403908407693e80dd150f0d	Russia The Constitution of the Russian Federation The patriotic program of the Russian Federation The Country of Russia or the Russian Federation The state power of the Russian Federation United Russia the party of the parliamentary majority
aa0c97a461002c2af4d7153b8844f3e4f4189579	State symbols Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation Anthem of the Russian Federation Flag of the Russian Federation Draft Law on state symbols of the Russian Federation
8a7557301e34dd33655869bc7fa3c446ef1c8cfc	Leaders of the State Medvedev D.
7c0dcc36d5a079ca353d2b42a38b2fb102735db9	A. Putin V. V. Presidential elections in Russia
887f3d8c2dbe50feae9699eda94af4718351296f	Portraits Technical characteristics of portraits Order of photo portraits to any point of Russia
e69c2d6a3ef2d97a4d1e964059701c4bfcffdebe	Organization Business information Open letter Charity activity Guarantees for the execution of the order Geography of deliveries
8773e52bdb9264344fdcb6de8569177eb978173e	+7 343 213-35-25
e3d88dd047a999754552c965006a7dcdbcca5d70	620000, Yekaterinburg, a / z 3
9d46c7b8a215a1b76a054309cc7a51eee1c813e0	Email address: polit.portret@mail.ru
e9dff569a2f80e9b119643aacd5254d53aec2d0f	© 2006-2014
026d2329cee53bf3fa632fd346d20f77d4a9d4c2	Polit Portrait Company
fd94fc673fe8cb3134193a3dbf63984555d06b43	Website Creation Web Solutions Studio
96aa04a151e3f6181641f732b0428acf8c9909ae	This term has other meanings, see Moscow Kremlin (meanings).
2a248524c31eb071204f62be1c8becb0cc21c913	View of the Kremlin from the Bolshoy Kamenny bridge City of Moscow Year of construction 1482-1495 Kremlin area 27.7 ha (0.277 km2) Length of walls 2500 meters Number of towers 20 Number of gates 4 Height of towers up to 80 m Kremlin towers:
db27bf5b0698b7ccd0407b7f1b390cdf6718540f	Vodovzvodnaya • Borovitskaya • Armory • Komendantskaya • Troitskaya • Kutafya • Srednaya Arsenalnaya • Angular Arsenalnaya • Nikolskaya • Senatskaya • Spasskaya • Tsarskaya • Nabatnaya • Konstantino Eleninskaya • Beklemishevskaya • Petrovskaya • The Second Nameless • The First Nameless • Taynitskaya • Blagoveshchenskaya
d78d1f9080b3bc1d30b35090c68fdcfb6942ebaf	Wall height from 5 to 19 m Wall thickness from 3.5 to 6.5 m Site kreml.ru
2932e852b68d4f9b51db35a8c0938f63052c990d	Cultural heritage
2bd155f4045c19b8e6f0d1c410d22cbcd294f4fa	Of the Russian Federation
287e64796fdc66dfd237c7cda3301f5cfacf6de5	object # 7710353000
00775866b2c8fec53960bfc6905a350e980a0095	UNESCO World Heritage Site
8f50b4f558d5664607b7ca92629c6435bb6cbca5	Reference: 545 rus.
094f38ec461482990c72b74939c5deeae151d460	* English.
4a6ac4a6eac31186eff25431dc60513d5c0e5be1	Year of introduction: 1990
b938f3b5057db4c306a391064eac03b414a9b37a	Type: Cultural object
79fe274956957ae644c339a8c3cdb0b26db7a360	Criteria: I, ii, iv, vi
c47370d4a7ba5427b6398b7541130c84ef45c5e7	Coordinates: 55°45 ' 06 "s. w.
97f36059681bd999d06f5a8617b719ba997e189f	37°37'04" v. d.
dade953f39fdd65ee18f60b48a44430deb545304	/ 55.75167° s. w.
9e0070b3122de2ab0dc03ab87d28fe0051657f26	37.61778° v. d.
581946d9aa3cebcab614cab7cda75576b8fb7e37	/ 55.75167; 37.61778 (G) (O)
ba31ca43c7027c748488a02cd4059fe99c557078	(I)
427341d5f47c33c8577d828ac37ff554b0bc730f	The Moscow Kremlin is a fortress in the center of Moscow and its oldest part, the main socio political and historical and artistic complex of the city, the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation.
b2940b709c613d2d0852598c051235b78281f122	It is located on the high left bank of the Moskva River — Borovitsky Hill, at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River.
38680e440f1a2840b7bb6c094b2429623a862934	In the plan, the Kremlin is an irregular triangle with an area of 27.5 hectares (ha).
651648c72b792cfec10ee7c038006ebf3ef5595e	The southern wall faces the Moscow River, the northwestern wall faces the Alexander Garden, and the eastern wall faces Red Square.
0703de73cd0cd965243bbb695e45e3428987ed40	1 History 1.1 Antiquity 1.2 XI XIV centuries 1.3 XIV XVII centuries 1.4 XVIII century 1.5 XIX century 1.6 The beginning of the XX century 1.7 Soviet time 1.8 Modernity
672819ec5ee5257edf0223c6151d151d79c4a491	2 Architecture of the Kremlin 2.1 Walls and towers of the Kremlin 2.2 Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin 2.3 Palace buildings 2.4 Other buildings 2.5 Squares and gardens of the Moscow Kremlin 2.6 Monuments 2.7 Lost buildings and monuments of the Moscow Kremlin
c188ec07c01e7465ffee5bf87360f38e7ec2e7dd	3 Organizations that operate in the Kremlin 4 Interesting facts 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Literature 8 References
1e4841dd5d857e7044a2a704a6bc11c447e01453	Antiquity[edit / edit wiki text]
a7534ac956ebc08c81e6034227740c52d66f6f49	The first settlements on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin date back to the Bronze Age (II millennium BC).
7a0834bf95ca4e5a707febaccec70dc9b97e94bd	A Finno Ugric settlement dating back to the Early Iron Age (the second half of the I millennium BC) was found near the modern Archangel Cathedral.
59f28d6e321245a2857dc02c28015661bd646564	At that time, the Dyakov type settlement occupied the center of the upper over floodplain terrace of Borovitsky Hill (the area of modern Cathedral Square) and may have already had fortifications.
f726478ebc995da2713b7b02634875a0fee57c31	From the northeast, the village was protected by two ravines: one to the north of the current Trinity Gate went to the Neglinnaya River, the other lay between the Petrovskaya and the Second Unnamed Towers of the modern Kremlin[1].
2fa6921a7d022acb43fb1f8e3a5f5e7296e67501	XI XIV centuries[edit / edit wiki text]
092c6ac3d3b12fa603817963b251f519a6af2060	The Moscow Kremlin under Ivan Kalit, painting by A.M. Vasnetsov
e94eba8614e45668b920bbe3952d098ad4eebf60	Following the Dyakovites, with the beginning of the Slavic colonization of the Oka and Moscow River basins in the X century, the top of the Borovitsky Hill was inhabited by the Vyatichi (possibly mastering the former settlement).
fa554cc4a195bf2c0abcae864b8a5607baffffcb	Presumably, the village of Vyatichi on the hill consisted of two fortified centers — the first, larger in area, was located on the site of the modern Cathedral Square, the second occupied the tip of the cape.
56d1f59eae8f61f7ed5b1fe5e2fb34f5519b495b	Presumably, both centers were protected by a ring fortification consisting of a ditch, a shaft and a palisade.
587fda438e38d1461da6e422f2217e7e789d9dd3	Vyatichi included two ravines connected by a washout, which performed the same function in pre Slavic times, as part of the defensive structures; the ravines were transformed into a moat up to 9 meters deep and about 3.8 meters wide.
38b74a18e6e872a971c6c99ef5b9bcd1ff9939e9	Presumably, a certain political and administrative center was located on the cape part of the settlement: during archaeological excavations, a Kiev hanging seal of the end of the XI century was found here.
b977bc60cf5242c4c858451976334d251e3edea5	Both parts probably had their own cult centers — the upper one in the area of Cathedral Square, the lower one- "under the Forest", on the site of the Church of the Nativity of John the Baptist that stood here.
0450cadd18d638c127afa2566fa2d8af39ec5962	The Kremlin toponyms "Makovitsa", "Mountains" and "Bor"also belong to the pre princely time.
4d9c193af07c1e1a3c9fac1780ef3fc1488bd744	These two centers were surrounded by the posad, which stretched along the Neglinnaya and Moscow rivers.
9cb1dd12fca5edf0ecdffeda372cc3ac34def3a8	The development and prosperity of the settlement was connected with the trade routes running here: there was a lively trade between East and West along the Moscow River.
2f9728a4b80431de1a776933b27c8112813cfc14	In addition to the waterway, two land roads passed nearby one to Novgorod (later Volotskaya), the other from Kiev through Smolensk to the northeast; both roads were connected at the foot of Borovitsky Hill by a ford across the Moscow River (in the area of the current Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge) [2].
86ce38a28fba9425e2ed09a9fcb06ef8ea26db2b	In 1156, the first fortifications were built on the territory of the modern Kremlin with a total length of about 850 meters and an area of about 3 hectares.
bbfe156b1e46a4b5cce5246ed9d9b93f5ba916ed	The earthen rampart was about 14.5 m wide and 7 m high.
84f7bfd8afc1f2d88c95e1a747e4f152b323f0fb	For those times it was a typical average Russian fortress.
de211c69fb21fba78b94f06103a6399055a66fd1	In the Kremlin there was the oldest Moscow church the Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor, or the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior "what's on the Bor", built by 1330, by the millennium of Constantinople — "New Rome" [3].
3897da90223c2834a0a2723f2f3fbeeb751e2653	As a result of the construction of the Kremlin Palace in 1830-1840, the Church of the Savior was inscribed in the courtyard of the Palace.
b2da54a916724776fc6860d716115d0d4656a8be	Another ancient building was the Chudov Monastery, founded by Metropolitan Alexy in 1365, located in the eastern part of the Kremlin territory, adjacent to the Ascension Monastery.
d700603239695d1a3810f6e831556c9091e05825	XIV—XVII centuries[edit / edit wiki text]
f6ceb4d46f39246c0c7412e37984f496303b7cf5	The front chronicle: "In the same year, the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich laid the stone city of Moscow, and its construction began"
21f8c0b2222e333ed4ee6b4789cb0fdaa981420b	In 1366-1368, under Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy, the wooden walls of the Kremlin were replaced by walls and towers made of local white stone (according to archeology, the towers and the most important parts of the wall were stone, from where there was the greatest danger of an assault)[4]. From this period, the name "White — stone Moscow"is often found in the chronicles.
3394a6f7afe7add26805447266d194bbc659480e	Soon after the construction of the white stone walls, they twice — in 1368 and 1370 withstood the siege of the troops of Prince Olgerd; in 1382, Khan Tokhtamysh fraudulently entered the Kremlin and ruined it, but the fortress was quickly restored.
e50c6cff4017827e8b462ec883bb8fc0caaa7b82	Gradually, the dense wooden building of the Kremlin was replaced by stone, which was facilitated by frequent fires.
7388a5ea3d6d5462a6334a7e341841dae70c6b26	In 1404, Lazar the Serb assembled and installed the first clock near the Annunciation Cathedral in the courtyard of Prince Vasily Dmitrievich.
8150ad74522b74db59e8ddb01344ab6d7d3a937a	By the middle of the XV century, the Annunciation Cathedral was rebuilt and expanded in the Kremlin, a church was erected in the Metropolitan Courtyard, later called the Rizopolozhenskaya, the merchant Khovrin built the Church of the Exaltation in front of his house.
09bc57ee5e7a4e8e2a030fca6ff27828e41e3082	In the late 1450s 1460s, the Church of the Introduction with a stone chamber was built on the courtyard of the Simonov Monastery, at the Nikolsky Gate, a chapel of Praise of the Virgin was added to the Assumption Cathedral, a church of the Epiphany was erected on the courtyard of the Trinity Sergius Monastery, a stone church of John the Baptist was erected on the territory of the Grand Ducal court[5].
fdf5f84d37ac160243f4a43df2f3aeaee389640e	Gradually, the white stone fortifications of the Kremlin were decaying; the strength of the material was insufficient and the structures "floated" — the annals of the XV century contain many references to the restoration work carried out.
e13dd6aca146d18d2f88fcf554a2b14714114591	In 1462, a large scale repair of the walls from the Sviblovaya Strelnitsa to the Borovitsky Gate was carried out by V. D. Ermolin[6].
2b629728087df2a61575e3393a2917815355ef9e	The defense of Moscow from Tokhtamysh in 1382, Painting by A.M. Vasnetsov
4481e561c394a66b5b88301cec533a6957d27a60	Vsekhsvyatsky bridge and the Kremlin at the end of the XVII century.
5b2e4cc0dc1a96cbbca0b059c51ef30344e20917	Drawing by A.M. Vasnetsov
b2309978ee15a54de88d6ed64f7de640da2fe607	In the second half of the XV century, under Ivan III the Great, a radical restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin began.
094646d092429be3ab87181c4ca91edfa5092ddd	The new Assumption Cathedral was the first to be built, because the old one, built by Ivan Kalitoy, had already become very dilapidated by that time.
48c3286212636a8c852de43f54f8630571633041	The construction in 1471 was originally entrusted to the Russian architects Krivtsov and Myshkin, but the building, brought to the vaults, collapsed in 1471 during an earthquake — "the lime was not glued, and the stone was not solid"[7].
4d2313ef87b80269badb4bb2ebbc4114b0856485	Ivan III invited the architect Aristotle Fioravanti from Italy, who erected an existing building in the likeness of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir by 1479.
da0d17180d6d1f6f068ee8767dbf093d9d092d97	In 1484-1486, Pskov craftsmen erected a new Sacristy church, and in 1484-1489 — a new Annunciation Cathedral on the basement of the former church.
d180ac40e598ccfebdef102563ac051bd41c6ff5	By that time, following Fioravanti, other Italian architects were invited to Moscow.
cda6bff6627c01207ba0d324b125c7447c6699ca	In 1485, the construction of a new Grand Ducal Palace began, which continued with long breaks until 1514.
ce3ae7e1ab5141dd0862c31f19c2136776e7de54	Earlier, the front part of the palace was built, from which the Faceted Chamber built in 1487-1491 by Italian architects Marco Fryazin and Pietro Antonio Solari has been preserved to this day.
9215ae67fbd4038a205ed10b5415392c2044226b	Aleviz Fryazin was engaged in the construction of the princely choir and the inner wall separating them from the rest of the Kremlin territory; he also moved the front part of the palace to a new place — from the south side to the east, facing the Cathedral Square.
69f96fd79213b4b21ba528da6ff425007695a465	Despite the fact that the construction of the palace was led by Italian architects, its architecture completely preserved the principles of the construction of ancient Russian choirs: separate stone and wooden volumes were erected on a single high stone basement[8][9]. With the construction in 1505-1508 by Aleviz Novy of the Archangel Cathedral and Bon Fryazin of the Ivan the Great bell tower and the construction of the State Court building between them, the formation of Sobornaya Square as the main square of the Moscow Kremlin was basically completed[6][10].
b50057f4dd075036a0ec6d707898738a25914573	The plan of Moscow from the "Notes on Muscovy", edition of 1556.
451c7e8625a2bbf2be4bbd2660021612ab3bfe88	The Kremlin and its surroundings are shown
e477d83fea7189ea627e4362904e564856d5dba7	Kremlenagrad
b863d0289f4dfa5096d53b542e4c8dafc34e8998	At the beginning of the XVI century, new temples were built in the Kremlin by Italian craftsmen: the cathedral of the Chudov Monastery (1501-1503), the Cathedral of the Ascension Monastery (1519), the Church of John the Ladder (1505-1508), the Church of Nikola Gostunsky, the church of John the Baptist at the Borovitsky Gate is being rebuilt (1504)[11][12].
b2156ce64d2deb18515b05ec4d67e7e74282dd8c	Simultaneously with the construction of the Grand Ducal Palace and the renovation of the Kremlin temples, the construction of new Kremlin walls and towers was underway.
8dedca9a3352637c26242e24c96aef2be59b7853	Starting in 1485, for a whole decade, under the leadership of Italian architects, the white stone strands of the walls and towers were dismantled, and new ones made of burnt bricks were erected in their place.
ab7bf12a45b9bf302bc753fe3450336d2d94c484	The area of the fortress was increased due to the annexation of significant territories in the north west and reached 27.5 hectares, and the Kremlin received the modern outlines of an irregular triangle[13].
03adc7837a3e207544ad66e8190c7b03944fddeb	The shape of the towers and the completion of the wall in the form of battlements resemble the Scaliger Castle in Verona and the Sforza Castle in Milan[10].
9ca16003fa3978cd64dc70493493628a982fefd8	In 1508, a moat was dug along the walls, the water coming from Neglinnaya.
a3b714763bb4752d0cf34fa7bb9a4b8c4b014195	The Kremlin finally turned into an impregnable fortress surrounded by water on all sides, isolated from the city that had grown by that time[11].
126f1940db8d058ff0445a0fefb6396fa26a85b0	During the restoration of the walls and towers in 1946-1950 and in 1974-1978, white stone blocks were found inside their brickwork, in the lower parts and foundations, used as a backfill.
75ff369366f03f2f1e9bcde336d7758e72c652f0	It is possible that these are the remains of the white stone walls of the Kremlin of the time of Dmitry Donskoy.
a1c7e791f8245cdcf405b9121960c40d5c004ba4	At the end of the XV — beginning of the XVI centuries, the main Kremlin streets — Spasskaya, Nikolskaya and Chudovskaya were adjusted and expanded[14].
4b54475b1d0f269c1c361e30ca9f163157af47f0	By that time, there were still many courts of boyars, clergy and appanage princes in the Kremlin, who settled mainly on Podol and to the north of Sobornaya Square.
17850b08c83851ec8e4b31e46250624cd3c09739	Under Vasily III and Ivan the Terrible, as the struggle with the appanage princes escalated, their courts were seized by the Grand Duke and transferred to his confidants[11].
2f91be468035b4c515c12636039a348a29f5c1d5	In the XVI century, construction in the Kremlin was mainly reduced to updating and improving existing buildings and ensembles.
0e1829af8dd432e6909f2e3513c58d32f0324d93	In 1532-1552, the Resurrection Church was added to the bell tower of Ivan the Great, the Annunciation Cathedral was rebuilt in the middle of the century, churches of the Solovetsky Miracle Workers and Three Saints appeared in the Metropolitan Courtyard, the Grand ducal (then royal) palace was repeatedly rebuilt and expanded.
f33353bc36289d9c0687b10de69af2ca63e9bd3e	Ivan the Terrible lived for a long time in the" oprichnina yard " outside the Kremlin; after the abolition of the oprichnina, new Bed chambers were built for the tsar in four chambers near the Church of the Savior on Bor [15].
175e84f19add26d507c336f14d5e5b557a041d0e	The first images of the Kremlin have been preserved from the end of the XVI beginning of the XVII centuries: the plan placed in the "Notes on Muscovy" by the Austrian ambassador Sigismund Herberstein, and the plan published by the Dutch cartographer Gerrits Hessel, called "Kremlenagrad"[16][17]. The latter gives an idea of the then existing nature of the Kremlin's development.
8acbe0766b20838ab7e110dfab660d056edaad85	Among the closely standing buildings, the distinct outlines of Sobornaya (Tsarskaya) and Ivanovskaya squares are visible; from Ivanovskaya Square, two streets lead through the north eastern part of the fortress to the Spassky (then Frolovsky) and Nikolsky gates; the entire south western part is occupied by a new palace complex, the construction of which went on during the entire reign of Boris Godunov and was completed in 1691-1693[specify][18][17](unavailable link from 05-04-2015 (275 days)).
78a3b81efcc8dcb529680d83cf56c957cafeb3f9	The Iranian diplomat Oruj bey Bayat, who visited Moscow in 1599, concludes in his notes: "The houses in the Kremlin are built in the style of Italian architects and decorated with beautiful ornaments.
0ec70041d4104b995d138d3bc110529f15702cd2	The tsar's palace is especially beautiful..."; he also writes about the large number of wooden buildings in the Kremlin[19].
095e707efa9dae35d9c2749aa6f5794c3e3f13db	In 1610-1612, the Kremlin was occupied by the Polish Lithuanian garrison of A. Gonsevsky.
fd41d5ba763bd7ecef5b95296f424a78afed4381	In the XVII—XIX centuries, there is an active construction of secular buildings, and the Kremlin ensemble receives a logical conclusion.
fbc43595fb20119531d7c6f91fcb024d8a500d9a	In 1635-1636, a Terem Palace was built adjacent to the Faceted Chamber.
d8342ea5eda1e97e354006d2c380f8fa53aea97a	In the XVII century, the Kremlin towers received tiered and hipped finishes.
88a29ba4ca55ef3a5d5c0a0426cece08d6afa4fa	XVIII century[edit / edit wiki text ]
8ab70c876251c8a7ea3f34ecec77a0e40bd310bc	The scheme of the Kremlin's development by 1914 (from Sytin's Military Encyclopedia)
ad74cfedaeed00a62f961cadcd0b45eba5288339	With the beginning of the reign of Peter I, the significance of the Moscow Kremlin changed markedly — the tsar moved first to Preobrazhenskoye, and then to St. Petersburg, and the fortress lost the status of a permanent royal residence.
d4f6068c4e1011216a7a5364cf8e117437c146a6	At the beginning of the XVIII century, the nature of the Kremlin's buildings also changed: after the devastating fire of 1701, Peter issued a decree in 1704 prohibiting the construction of wooden buildings inside the Kremlin[20].
2bd19db12130f8ca857518598c7fd0fad0a7e9e4	In 1702, on the burnt out part between the Trinity and Sobakina towers, the construction of the Arsenal building (Tseykhauz) began, which lasted intermittently until 1736.
8cb3bff572340291a89c21299d5e7d5dd783587b	With the beginning of the Northern War, there was a threat of an invasion of Moscow by the troops of Charles XII, in connection with which Peter I ordered to build bastions along the Kremlin walls, and fill the moats drained in the XVII century with water.
59294ab21bdba7ecb649f7fce3cde6a8077420b6	However, it was not necessary to use these fortifications — after the victory of the Russian army at Poltava, the danger passed[20][21].
13fcc7253fd8ddb558704359ff397ea1d2751c63	Under Elizabeth Petrovna, in the 1743-1750s, the ancient Dining Room, the Second and the Golden Chambers of the palace were dismantled and replaced with a small richly decorated building of the Winter Palace designed by V. V. Rastrelli, built under the supervision of D. V. Ukhtomsky.
86ac59c1e11fe20932a5d2d777693a05ec3fcd56	At the same time, Ukhtomsky erected the gallery of the Armory Chamber on the site of the demolished building of the Grand Treasury and was engaged in the restructuring of Orders.
ccc9335d283e26afc2faf14458396f493f4eb571	When the Kremlin buildings were dilapidated, the task was primarily to repair them, and if it was impossible, the old buildings were allowed to be broken and restored "in the same way as they were before"[22].
6abb319370e6f0f58594f71e221fd962fb97ad68	In 1768, a special state organization was created for the construction of a new Kremlin Palace according to the project of V. I. Bazhenov — the Expedition of the Kremlin Structure[23].
cdbb44a65878a74962483490d79b012c205258b6	When preparing the site for the new palace, the entire building of the south eastern part of the brow of the hill was eliminated, many monuments of ancient Russian architecture were destroyed, including the southern part of the Kremlin wall, along with the Tainitskaya and the First Unnamed Towers, were dismantled.
c7d7c69f1a3904acd43fa9891049847a776c5008	Bazhenov set himself the goal of "updating the appearance of this ancient dilapidated and discordant city" in accordance with the prevailing aesthetics of classicism at that time — it was supposed not only to build a new palace, but also to carry out a radical redevelopment of the main streets and squares of the Kremlin, leaving only individual cathedrals and buildings of the Naryshkin and Petrovsky Baroque[24].
f1506f0543c85c0dd898e4a527662ecf79c0003b	However, in 1775, the construction of the palace was canceled, the official reason for which was called the siege of the Archangel Cathedral; the huge costs of reconstruction and Catherine II's dislike of Moscow contributed to this decision.
3562304b744f2d906386fe18460cffdf8aec9e61	The dismantled wall with towers was soon restored to its former forms[25].
096737d71ad4a8aafdd32b89c05f32331653f5bd	In 1775, a Projected plan was approved — a plan for the reconstruction of Moscow, for the implementation of which a Stone Order was created headed by P. N. Kozhin.
af0a13860d3db13fa0314e0956332a7bea671de7	At the end of 1776, Kozhin compiled a separate report on the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin, which assumed the creation of regular squares in the Kremlin, the construction of new palaces and government buildings with "the best facade according to the rules of modern architecture".
3184624057390403f1d437bf3b01ee7f984e155c	At the same time, the construction of new buildings was supposed to be carried out at a distance from the ancient buildings, which were carefully preserved[26].
8c90c25d00d131c7505f4cb601f4d9787196a57a	In 1763, by the decree of Empress Catherine II, the Senate was divided into departments and two of them — the one in charge of the rights of the nobles and the judicial one were transferred from the capital to Moscow[21][27]. To accommodate them, in 1776-1787, according to the project of Matvey Kazakov, the building of the Public Offices (Senate) was built, which became the first major building of the Kremlin in the classicism style.
5e4295b248b3815df3074cdcb2c9712374ba30f0	With the construction of the Senate, the last private possessions disappeared from the territory of the Kremlin[28].
d8a922f4e2791595e1e5cd032fca8f79e0f9bf90	In the same years, Kazakov built a Bishop's House and a Gothic portico of the Chudov Monastery on Ivanovskaya Square[29][27].
c0c5da05a0da809a650afc383929e18e2204bef1	In 1797, Kazakov drew up a new plan for the general reconstruction of the Kremlin, which was caused by the coronation of Paul I. Like Bazhenov's project, the Kazakov plan for the reconstruction of the Kremlin remained unfulfilled, but it confirmed the idea of the Kremlin as a single architectural ensemble[29][30].
5a8482faf3a8b6f4345c1868c2df46e73ac5a370	XIX century[edit / edit wiki text]
4a6f0855fa30e643550d902a03339c6ed7620c2d	View of the Moscow Kremlin from the Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge.
9d1b268b704379ff67eb92c8eda1bbff287f0ade	Vasily Vereshchagin. 1879.
46617b970ef429767a69edef36de9d2f0071793e	In the first years of the XIX century, the Kremlin began to be perceived by contemporaries as a symbol of the historical and military glory of Russia, which caused the appearance of bright pseudo Gothic forms in its buildings.
3213b47516afe820bbd69bb7aca91273b45aad07	The architect I. V. Yegotov used Gothic elements in the reconstruction of the Funny Palace and a number of other Kremlin buildings[31].
afcc8c4b8a9040ed7e141f7142c48c94d9ab1b85	At the same time, at the beginning of the XIX century, many ancient buildings were demolished.
ebe67ab84a9d1108450b82a32c71b382cb449b1f	Among others, the famous Coat of Arms Gates, the Sretensky Cathedral, part of the Funny Palace, several temples of the Ascension Monastery, as well as the complexes of the Khlebenny Palace, the Tsareborisov Courtyard and the Trinity Courtyard were destroyed.
c7d3c2baaa2c38c2af1114ef76f5d807488069d1	In 1812, Moscow and the Kremlin were captured by Napoleon's army.
cda9bb5fcd481ec188da8660201960c12eab3910	The French army entered the Kremlin on September 2, 1812, and Napoleon himself on September 3.
cc8281b813d4a1b194530cab11ab2bf403433fbb	However, the very next day he fled from the Kremlin through a secret passage under the threat of spreading fire[32].
78bc9fb44a88b521427c2a979fc9ad6224e97e45	The Arsenal, Vodovzvodnaya, Petrovskaya and the First Unnamed towers were blown up, the Corner Arsenal Tower and the extensions to the Ivan the Great Bell Tower were seriously damaged, the Senate was partially damaged[33].
c7e88af0cd1298042505af7800a5af6729ec68b0	The restoration was carried out by the architect F. K. Sokolov; a number of towers were rebuilt according to projects and under the supervision of O. I. Bove.
ce3fd259d154568b3869d1be6908d742feeeba74	During the reconstruction of Red Square, Beauvais gave the Nikolskaya Tower a Gothic appearance.
268ad4dd3fdda404529a16eed75a8278e33927ab	The arsenal was restored and received a new finish later — in 1815-1828, according to the project of Moscow architects A. N. Bakarev, I. L. Mironovsky, I. T. Tamansky and E. D. Tyurin[27].
560cfbc3d4846599228aa8cd8a47a2ac45862012	At the same time, captured cannons were placed around the Arsenal, which were sent to Moscow by special order of Alexander I[34].
25c340bab8dbabc39c47f675aed357ed80ef2b65	In total, it took more than 20 years to eliminate the consequences of the explosion in the Kremlin: the last work was completed by 1836.
946012c7ea9d5e01ac4e5b776785482df3bebb46	In 1817, a parade ground was set up on Ivanovskaya Square for a military parade, for which the ancient temple of Nikola Gostunsky was dismantled in one night.
7a71bc702a978849547ca9e0c6b16968cca93f5d	In 1823, according to the project of V. P. Stasov, the tsar's palace was built, which again turned out to be small, and already in 1824, the metropolitan's house, which had been bought earlier by the treasury, was also built and began to be called the Small Nicholas Palace from 1831[34].
b2b707dc12ed3f415cb2ece2dddf5d58d304a8c9	By the beginning of the 1830s, restoration work began on the ancient monuments of the Kremlin.
3518e34b594dc325a1e218b72644af46e27a7b85	One of the first academician F. G. Solntsev and architect P.
740315e578fb4e3b619f070d3a1de94af66a31a6	A. Gerasimov restored the Terem Palace in 1836-1849.
246eab76bdb203af44c8f4fc964b85b9d4596da0	In 1836, the architect O. Montferrand raised and installed on a special pedestal the Tsar Bell, which fell in a fire in 1737 and lay in a pit all this time[34].
d1687319aa62034c33f37fe3116af695a19fd7a3	View from the Filaret extension of the Assumption Belfry of the Kremlin to the east side.
40dad2786a4a61c5600d486526af36601377ae11	Stills from the film Moscow in snow decoration, 1908
2733f35d5e395afbfedfec8fd592e2805feed9d7	By the 1830s, they returned to the idea of building a new royal palace on the southern slope of the hill along the river.
a047a1f5cd338f7a35f5b84aaa0b7e0ebeddcb06	In 1839, Nicholas I commissioned the construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace to the architect K.
31d2c08fb675892275b1c7cca72bc7567a14acef	A. Ton, according to whose project the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was being built at the same time.
74df8d2c3c30fbee92b1362e4c2eb7b28a51d7c5	The construction of the building took about ten years and was completed by 1849.
3027248549312fbed862a7cfe5bdaace3eb89e0c	Even before its completion, the small church of St. John the Baptist on the Bor was dismantled, the scale of which did not correspond to the new structure.
42e6632c3456985d5b5b6a4d39b21e843398987c	At the same time, all the old palace structures were dismantled, with the exception of the Terem Palace, the Faceted and Small Golden Chambers included in the general system of the new palace.
13df3d64ebdc0251bd5a15b8dfca2eb814daa73f	In 1844-1851, a new building of the Armory was erected according to the project of Ton; the old chamber was rebuilt into barracks[35][36].
a278ff54300e3f84a1bb2b7088fe03e371476235	In the second half of the XIX century, no significant alterations were made in the Kremlin, with the exception of the restoration of the Funny Palace by N.
d3dc29ce955085b38b1a59329acf711643beaaeb	A. Shokhin, which returned the building to the appearance of the XVII century[37].
7186a7d33dca5146d0e701e93f2629125dc64d70	In 1893-1898, a monument to Alexander II was built on the south eastern side of the slope of the Kremlin hill (the project of the sculptor A.M. Opekushin, the artist V. V. Zhukovsky and the architect N. V. Sultanov) [37].
8efb5cf79ed23f6f056585d2c974d2e576bdfccd	The beginning of the XX century[edit / edit wiki text]
7340df9933f58f806a5b8dbdf44fc3689181cf92	In 1908, a cross monument was erected between the buildings of the Senate and the Arsenal near the Nikolskaya Tower on the site of the death of Prince Sergei Alexandrovich.
680ddc526d97c011dd4104671260ec371d2f5c1f	The Kremlin's plan. 1917.
cf489918f6a22b9f766e4d0b5cf47fe68ad4eaeb	The passage to the territory of the Moscow Kremlin was free for everyone.
0f4d8be527f4a8aa996d35982840e6b664a9ed49	It was customary to enter through the Spassky Gate, bowing to the icon of the Savior.
dac72d18b1cb4a55ed611d07a7447cb47357effb	The emperor and his family visited his Moscow residence infrequently, therefore, taking a free ticket at the palace office, the visitor had the right to walk through all the Kremlin palaces.
3814aeb6ffdfa187c769515d77a6ffcf536fda44	During the armed uprising in October and November 1917, the Kremlin, on the territory of which there were detachments of junkers, was seriously damaged by artillery shelling by revolutionary troops.
95efc7361eb64a80aaa554346ab45b7c85087d9b	The walls, the Spasskaya Tower and the Spasskaya Clock, the Nikolskaya Tower, the Beklemishevskaya Tower, almost all the temples on the territory of the Kremlin were severely damaged, the Small Nicholas Palace received great damage.
62068ed9c47c9a6a40bc55997d68595ae05af37f	Soviet times[edit / edit wiki text]
085c7fb00a76d3b00b1c2a24df7722ae680208a7	Chudov Monastery at the beginning of the XX century
152ce5654c4dda5448fda173c02d8509657379a3	Ivanovskaya Square, the Small Nikolaevsky Palace,the Chudov Monastery with the Metropolitan Building.
3bc2b9c9c611ad1a4503d44415e3293fc084face	Palaces and cavalry corps become his residence and the place of residence of Soviet leaders.
3fda9f51d2faf70d582c6ca2ead0dad2492b9d8d	Soon, free access to the territory of the Kremlin for ordinary Muscovites is banned.
9af27ed41c75b792c56aed0f734f8d6d8ae99c0a	Churches are closed, and the Kremlin bells are silent for a long time.
9e3d7b19508845ebbb9c290f7da4affb3e38e5dd	According to the historian V. F. Kozlov, at a meeting of the Moscow City Council, People's commissars were offered three accommodation options: the Noble Women's Institute, the Reserve Palace at the Red Gate and the Kremlin.
2cb33475e0144b086844437b82b13c65136af437	At a meeting of the Council of People's Commissars, there were objections to the latter, since the territory of the Moscow Kremlin is a favorite place for Muscovites to walk, and if the government is located there, free access will be limited, or even completely stopped, the closure of the Kremlin cathedrals will cause discontent among believers and the population, and it is not appropriate for the government of the Soviet republic to be located in the residence of the tsars, but the chairman of the VTSIK Ya.
1a7e1a0a174be54a6fa1a7ca290d22185d4fda1a	Sverdlov: "Undoubtedly, the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisie will raise a howl — the Bolsheviks, they say, are desecrating shrines, but this should worry us least of all.
b5da17e04ddc817018d9f4db562d70631baa7526	The interests of the proletarian revolution are above prejudice."
bd9a6e633a2cd1789ce82035f2f73de7cdfc7c02	The Petrograd Board for the Protection of Ancient Monuments and Art Treasures sent a desperate appeal to the government to leave the Kremlin, because " ... the occupation of the Kremlin by the government creates a monstrous threat to the integrity of the greatest monuments in their world and exceptional significance."
05ea8cda15bfbd495cefc562adbab330d4ec1d40	This appeal (published in 1997 by an employee of the Kremlin museums, T. A. Tutova) was not even considered.
a8219af6d88a08ba159c49f2468663324e2644f6	In 1918-1919, under the direction of architect N. V. Markovnikov, the restoration of the walls and towers of the Kremlin took place;
cb954c74a14d36ff3f7e23064e6b4c6754dc7d58	I. E. Bondarenko, I. V. Rylsky and D. P. Sukhov took part in the work[38]
d668eee04bf824ec6f9a67468e5883646949b0dc	The author of a study on the destruction of Kremlin monuments during this period, Konstantin Mikhailov, writes in the book "The Destroyed Kremlin" that "in the XX century, the architectural ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was destroyed by more than half."
8e79141bc8d93e6425d270dc0b3190021845c2de	On the plans of the Kremlin at the beginning of the XX century, you can distinguish 54 structures that stood inside the Kremlin walls.
5dd142651cd69b7d911fe19aeda37dfa53d189ba	More than half of them — 28 buildings no longer exist.
65588e12119afe214d9c3fc84bc3d1e7a7134195	In 1918, with the personal participation of Lenin, the monument to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich was demolished.
6156427532360b8eeeb75bf5da50169d136e4930	In the same year, the monument to Alexander II was destroyed.
6e258f3a7b7a64e9fbbec37986072a9490ef83da	In the mid 1920s, the chapels at the gate icons were demolished at the Spasskaya, Nikolskaya and Borovitsky towers.
a56b01aad5d585dafc9780d871f59df68cff37c6	In 1922, during the campaign to "withdraw church valuables" from the Kremlin cathedrals, more than 300 pounds of silver, more than 2 pounds of gold, thousands of precious stones, and even the cancer of Patriarch Hermogenes from the Assumption Cathedral were seized.
9390bb112687e814ce6733922116673d8ff7662e	The Grand Kremlin Palace began to be adapted for holding congresses of Soviets and congresses of the Third International, a kitchen was placed in the Golden Chamber, a public dining room was placed in the Faceted One.
0d13a51ead03c83d3fcfd67991b0664ecca16b6a	The Maly Nikolaevsky Palace turned into a club of employees of Soviet institutions, it was decided to arrange a gym in the Catherine Church of the Ascension Monastery, and a Kremlin hospital in Chudov.
11f17660e3b47e4a98c5e96e5966a55c51f4d704	The author of a fundamental study on the Moscow temples "Forty Forty" Peter Palamarchuk estimated that on the eve of 1917, there were 31 churches with 51 thrones in the Moscow Kremlin.
ee65da5f554032526b3d2b7b2b4119c66ebef18c	Information about the upcoming destruction of monuments reached the Main Science of the People's Commissariat of Education only by mid June 1929.
30b38cda5d6c7c3183a0a9ed75f14ee1e42ee8b4	The head of the People's Commissariat of Education, A.V. Lunacharsky, sent a letter to the chairman of the Central Executive Committee and the CEC of the USSR, M. I. Kalinin, condemning the planned demolition and carrying out such a decision bypassing representatives of the scientific community.
77c08385b8dfd19daaed49994dc17ba843b3912d	At a meeting of the Politburo, this letter was called " anti communist and obscene in tone."
02afb4e368f51a1ffb30a5bad16df71852175900	In 1929-1930, two ancient Kremlin monasteries, Chudov and Voznesensky, with all the temples, churches, chapels, necropolises, service buildings, as well as the Small Nicholas Palace adjacent to the Monster Monastery, where the headquarters of the defending junkers was located, were completely demolished.
6e7da2304bf4b2fad9241b562ac407638898b357	Thus, the entire eastern part of the Kremlin from Ivanovskaya Square to the Senate Palace was completely ruins until 1932.
9b6cc3e1b56e314caab2cee7933e146eef8f7214	At the end of 1932, the building of the military school named after the VTSIK in the neoclassical style was built on the site of the destroyed monuments.
6f0c63d15aab7b881c3e24e5a97ac2a1f41fc117	In 1934, a 5 storey office building was built in its place.
86992c8aa912c404142d67bef2c97ac256db9dbb	The "Red Porch", the grand staircase, along which Russian tsars and emperors passed to the Assumption Cathedral for coronation, was broken at the Faceted Chamber (restored in 1994).
c046064b844ee8b4434c2728450a55a30ca6cad7	The facade of the Grand Kremlin Palace before the revolution contained 5 white stone bas reliefs in the form of the coat of arms of Russia double — headed eagle and a few small bas reliefs of coats of arms of the historical holdings of the Russian Empire (Moscow, Kazan, Astrakhan, etc.).
62e8d82d29f673bf0f727e8df4aaf2f0ad20c581	After the revolution, they were cut down, the Central place of the eagle took a bas relief of the coat of arms of the Soviet Union, and settled around the letters "C" and "C" to the left and "C" and "R" on the right.
31e73c48b0d8acb9ddb6aa49c585f172624ddb84	During the restoration of the Grand Kremlin Palace in 1994, all the historical bas reliefs on the facade were recreated.
6d70d3827e13d300d2e99e70faaabcfc1b286a9c	In the 1920s and 1930s, the premises on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin were also used as residential: the leaders of the Soviet state, the Communist Party, and employees of the Kremlin commandant's office lived in them on quite official grounds.
ac8d7a30cfeefe8e0571f8d4dfd670bf2cf22eb2	In 1920, 2,100 people were registered in the Kremlin, by 1935 their number had decreased to 374 people, as of 1939, 31 people lived permanently in the Kremlin, including Stalin, Voroshilov, Molotov, Kaganovich, Mikoyan, Kalinin, Zhdanov, Andreev, Voznesensky, relatives of Lenin, Dzerzhinsky, Ordzhonikidze, etc.
a70cf4ae87621cf8335ab347e9d61e2038a2399b	The last to move from the Kremlin was K. E. Voroshilov, who lived there with his family until 1962 39][40].
382350dc7dc4626ad0eb01aa95109e9021173dde	In 1935, the double headed eagles that crowned the main travel towers of the Kremlin: Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, Troitskaya and Borovitskaya were replaced with stars made of gilded copper covered with Ural gems.
4ba3f924f71111d0045643a1c4c98cdf83cee752	In 1937, the gem colored stars were replaced with stars made of ruby glass.
0877c52ab6b0d8dabd93123777ed3a8e769dbfa7	The ruby star was also installed for the first time on the Vodovzvodnaya Tower.
a4df7a2665228e19822f3e3dde4e3b7c5365addc	During the Great Patriotic War, the Kremlin was disguised in order to avoid its destruction.
e0c1f072bda207b3cd4095f169b2fe764f04ec93	The walls were painted with the streets and facades of other buildings, the green roofs were repainted, the ruby stars were extinguished and covered.
feb7855784690f84018bea770aa822869fdf3f61	The mausoleum was hidden under a two story fake building.
f143e979b57304c753f5be5de43a8ed0c9bd3a3d	The work was supervised by the architect Boris Mikhailovich Iofan.
95d7bcafcae5ffd810c1fe2d2c5b8cb8601a05b3	The Germans could not carry out targeted bombing of the Kremlin, since the Kremlin visually disappeared.
705b27fd8d3d0853013c9ad0b44c894462306ee7	During the war, 18 high explosive aerial bombs weighing from 50 to 500 kg and about one and a half hundred incendiary bombs were dropped on the territory of the Kremlin and Red Square[41], which did not cause catastrophic destruction.
06ac34672c9289b5251ec3f75178aab88d72ca45	Since 1955, the Kremlin has been partially open to the public, becoming an open air museum.
3c17198f97b0750d206e96d62d8b3e930057d2a9	Since the same year, a ban on living on the territory of the Kremlin was introduced (the last residents were discharged in 1962)
c62cc7f64539c3dcd87091d4e95e28728d3ea61d	[ In 1967, a monument to V. I. Lenin was opened in the Kremlin (sculptor V. B. Pinchuk, architect S. B. Speransky).
4c9acc5b5a4873d8cf98646baf01a4a987d77095	The last major construction of the Kremlin during the years of Soviet power was the Palace of Congresses, built in 1958-1961 according to the project of architects M. V. Posokhin, A.M. Mndoyants, E. N. Stamo, P. P. Shteller and N. M. Shchepetilnikov.
9726cd6d7ee11606de1c5f4b1b3c5bc45d2124f1	To clear the space for the new building, the old Armory Chamber, the Synodal Administration, the Officers', Kitchen and Grenadier Corps and two of the three Cavalry Corps of the Kremlin were demolished[43].
7be1bca9f22e649090bc4a57faedd3350a9164d4	During the restoration work of the late 1960s and early 1970s, the clay tiles on the Kremlin towers were replaced in many places with metal sheets painted "like tiles".
12be3cf49dfd27cebd4601330af6123a6b546337	In addition, in connection with the construction of the memorial "Grave of the Unknown Soldier", part of the surface layer of the wall between the Corner and Middle Arsenal Towers was cut to a depth of 1 m and then laid out again to create a monotonous surface in color and texture, designed to serve as a background for the memorial[44].
4cf3723b4af49d01e0ca979dc12024baaedc2286	Modernity[edit / edit wiki text]
e715924a3b7bbc09ab6375064e2fcc2192eb1f1b	In the 1990s, large restoration works were carried out on the territory of the Kremlin, as a result of which the Red Porch of the Faceted Chamber was restored, the Alexander and St. Andrew Halls of the Grand Kremlin Palace were restored, the Senate building was restored[45].
3a4a12a8182d777f671e42d5228907d2905772b4	In 1996-2000, the Kremlin walls and towers were restored In July 2014, President Vladimir Putin proposed to demolish the 14th administrative building on the Ivanovskaya Square of the Moscow Kremlin and restore the Chudov and Voznesensky monasteries that stood in its place 47].
aa1cc1e838fa0fb7c1b55caeb37b3e8cb4e8cff4	The architecture of the Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
5ef5d1dba3868004777772fc9d0c6160b6cec8b7	The walls and towers of the Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
43ef646434ea0f0ce29a7d1d498e063e69ec3561	Main articles: The Kremlin Wall, the Towers of the Moscow Kremlin
5a4bd59866632e54fe52029434234bbdaf355b72	The total length of the walls is 2235 m, the height is from 5 to 19 m, the thickness is from 3.5 to 6.5 m.
497c3687ae9009afdb3a4233d6da70d1a525a1e8	[48] In terms of the walls, they form an irregular triangle.
2c61004b5f3a56fa8ad06c90c94a78202b13f1a2	Most of the teeth have slit like loopholes.
e670341147aeac5ddd5d47af0a94b77c5f8a0132	48].
b34c17d5b24be6b25c17334d23801c77f4f2ae5c	The tallest tower is Troitskaya, it has a height of 79.3 m.
abba57cc28f09b565675b657a7290de59595c368	The Nikolskaya Tower stands out from the general ensemble, which was rebuilt in the pseudo Gothic style at the beginning of the XIX century.
6f56ea2c172304c123067ba672d7a6d81c540090	Brick walls were placed along the line of white stone, with a slight deviation to the outside.
1cbd4f3e5dc748ce861caaa968746ae815c5a8c4	Starting from the Spasskaya Tower, the territory of the Kremlin was enlarged in the eastern direction.
7670c913941f40d85f23b7bc20163f1850498e12	The Tainitskaya Tower was the first to be laid on the south side in 1485, and five years later the entire southern part of the fortress was built.
c95821a6bfab98d0a9b9183d8cb6be66030beaa9	For the construction of walls and towers, large (30x14x17 cm or 31x15x9 cm) bricks weighing up to 8 kg each were used.
ec0177870942750c738080384d0ccec5496a154b	The front walls were laid out of bricks, which were filled with white stone.
2bf0453cbfe43f189fe276604ad2bb888fcdaee4	The highest walls were erected along the Red Square, where there was no natural water barrier[48].
68ac95193d769a650b7ec08ac9a454f175cdfa5d	Spasskaya, Nabatnaya, Konstantino Eleninskaya, Troitskaya, Borovitskaya, Blagoveshchenskaya and Petrovskaya towers had shoots on the walls Initially, there was a through passage through all the towers inside the wall, blocked by cylindrical arches.
eca98bf297230b56c56c9c2a7f799fa32dd9814e	There were also hiding places and passages under the walls, in some cases going far beyond the line of fortifications 49].
f19543119666b1b9ea1cd3d40e3eab777049de2d	At the beginning of the XVIII century, Neglinnaya was taken further away from the walls.
f986ce08f3d542324963d3c4ac04bb0e55a4d82e	To install new guns on the towers, loopholes were combed out.
fd5fe47b97ea2cc6432155754de1d0703d56f874	At the same time, the originally existing plank roofs of the walls burned down.
0a8d1f1a69d51cca79819361c2fa64600bc0ff29	In 1702-1736, a part of the wall was dismantled for the construction of the Arsenal, which was later restored.
a7480a3a892895e7c78d873a86ebfe4a1f9d2c29	In 1771-1773, part of the southern wall between the Beklemishevskaya and Blagoveshchenskaya towers was also dismantled for the construction of the Kremlin Palace according to the project of V. I. Bazhenov, which was later restored.
95f19085da6a04033eb082f2cc34361d6a07d41e	In 1802-1805, major repairs of the towers were carried out, during which almost all the branch archers were dismantled.
4fc5930c9a2dd4f340bc6c538bb4ad9dacb8bcb5	The war of 1812 caused heavy damage to the walls, especially the Nikolskaya Tower, towers and walls along Neglinnaya were affected.
372381105d76b659cc5948468bfa97038bef3c0c	Repairs and restoration of fortifications were carried out from 1817 to 1822.
41e3ae3ce5380a17fa07f037af6d12a1d8369e58	During the repair work, pseudo Gothic decor details were added to the exterior of the Borovitsky and Vodovzvodnaya towers[49].
d0ada3dd8b64b21df9c58de4c9bb929cebf95436	In 1866-1870, the restoration of the walls and towers of the Kremlin was carried out by architects N.
4cc1dd3777e0d5f6f0b9b04d067690137a5f9c41	A. Shokhin, P.
6318f7955fdf44b1edbc0aeb79400bade2d4d8a8	A. Gerasimov, F. F. Richter, who sought to give the buildings their original appearance.
6f372f0422556de8a573592884e9877a1c5a4a65	During the restoration, pseudo Gothic decorative details disappeared from the Borovitsky Tower, but many elements of the original details of the walls and towers of the Kremlin were lost and replaced with inaccurate copies[49].
22a0bcf6edaa32daf20ac51dbfee6c95b04738ca	The damage to the towers and walls was caused during the alterations of the second half of the XIX century during the adaptation of their premises for household needs[49].
7930cfcd040e9f0d774c5667b7eb1de62f73e399	The Nikolskaya and Beklemishevskaya towers, which were damaged during the revolution, were repaired in 1918.
2f3cba65ce5b1a2e97142dccf9f58a13ac70a1d4	The survey and partial restoration of the walls was carried out in 1931-1936.
32454f09905fbebfba558e9d58dd36ff28054426	In 1935-1937, ruby five pointed stars were installed on the five towers.
9086d8baf9026d647adab4dbb96796d5029bf2c8	The next restoration of the walls and towers of the Kremlin was carried out in 1946-1953, during which the walls were cleaned and repaired, loopholes and parapets were restored, details on a number of towers were revealed, the tops of the Spasskaya, Troitskaya and Nikolskaya towers were covered with sheet copper.
cf5416f8f9736e2b7d35ac80752237c206d76b13	The restoration commission included prominent scientists and restorers: I. E. Grabar, V. N. Lazarev, M. V. Alpatov, P. D. Korin, D. P. Sukhov and others[50].
b45a9d84a955fd2f68f579f509559a1c4235b713	Vodovzvodnaya Borovitskaya Armory Komendantskaya Troitskaya Kutafya Srednyaya Arsenalnaya
4dd2d93a96af42864002817f004eaf126da63baf	Corner Arsenalnaya Nikolskaya Senatskaya Spasskaya Tsarskaya Nabatnaya Konstantino Eleninskaya
239f81658ad2682bc2fccd8d5e05b400c4dd2c2c	Beklemishevskaya Petrovskaya The second Nameless The First Nameless Taynitskaya Blagoveshchenskaya
8093d91c926db3b597e3c5f1c41995982df7d981	Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
3b7f1d31bfafe9956d1525e2ccd120a88d5fd81f	Assumption Cathedral Annunciation Cathedral Archangel Cathedral
c5c113d72432fe42853baf7a8ea75158f2a998a5	The bell tower of Ivan the Great The Church of the Position of the Robe of the Mother of God in Blachernae the Patriarchal Palace and the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles
3c1b914cab520a7cfad5899334e0bb5e3784848e	Verkhospassky Cathedral Church of the Nativity of the Virgin on the Porch
16ce282fb190fc00aa37e7b8af9b277e05636d2d	Palace buildings[edit / edit wiki text]
1dd8764efe86049ceb95de2d9b99814c392a5831	Grand Kremlin Palace Faceted Chamber Golden Tsaritsyna Chamber
5a035c1ad3a5397eeb24e5df017673245f4982c3	Funny Palace Teremny Palace
958c78efb1b51bc89fc012ed295ffced238d71f9	Other buildings[edit / edit wiki text]
7702362e9b9ef53f8410abd876248065f4475517	Arsenal (Tseykhauz)
65128e9994259c61f32f8346e32cf7aa8692f55d	State Kremlin Palace (Palace of Congresses) Senate Palace Armory Chamber 14th building of the Kremlin
e7f9a42518746e8a05d17f00bc19630ab14898c1	Squares and gardens of the Moscow Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
014e93a0f84caf46c275f5ab803937790917b721	Ivanovskaya Square Senatskaya Square
b5508f27f73d48852a7c222b9d35df1b68b35462	Palace Square Red Square
8e807470de01ad457e4febf6caf4943d41eb0e8c	Cathedral Square Tainitsky Garden and the Grand Kremlin Square
63c8543209ba7166f0cf8e5ac29049ff8f9bd04d	Monuments[edit / edit wiki text]
94386488fa1b276fda032f25b5b9c512f6cea023	Assumption Cathedral
fd01331d8b6e6df45f3afeb1ef8f0024339275db	Annunciation Cathedral
338ceb182ebc697250b733a012f70b55519182f3	Archangel Cathedral
ca4dd3d6feddeccdc2f6d6ad2688b16417299492	The bell tower of Ivan the Great and the Assumption Belfry
7d145bde9dd09a7ec6fe6effacddc6dbbde8ac68	The Church of the Sacrament
a801bd0773851abee5fef6b6cbccc8c9c320d97a	Tsar Cannon
cadb67d2708a2ed32674b518f82937d22bd71db5	Tsar Bell
71c798390eec77b4e7ce9db145e1610cc6919fb2	Vintage cannons
288d106322a5e8a4786960c1797e32be2d059b03	The Arsenal building and old guns
25e39ae94fa9883c47bfb0d6f95e4c260ff68574	Tainitsky Garden
3450127b2c648605e685063cc153d5de3d83add7	Armory Chamber
c26edca6817a195f91a9ce6c112e19378f740e33	Patriarchal Palace with the Church of the Twelve Apostles
64b1f7f242aa5390036f6b73af7e1b8f6d1e343e	Faceted Chamber
39ab38b75ddf262ebc744646cddb4b8010dfc4cf	The Grand Kremlin Palace
7ddba38ee09e8c59868af8ddf66659c47af866a6	The State Kremlin Palace
556e65e96912147cb47b6be24dfd5aa0e53d5d41	View from Ivanovskaya Square
d69537abe6d764d3dda159e919058a54fcb3ee3e	Arsenal Building
259b6901cda44965061907be7d899dde76f4d9c6	Kremlin cathedrals
31718dad598165bc6af389da6f33622c6be4dd6a	The Senate Palace
57c8cdeb4c90242f1bfdecfc648b4d44cf776498	Lost buildings and monuments of the Moscow Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
45a3576a08677525f64b26f28420e8dc0050ca26	Afanasyevsky monastery Voznesensky monastery Kremlin Kirillovskoe podvorye (podvorye Kirillo Belozersky monastery)[51]
c9067f72b7f71d77c72945b0a8f402fb66bd462b	The Kremlin Krutitsky compound (the compound of the Krutitsky monastery)[51]
cd077d689cee9131972dec49942dfc57fb901527	Chudov Monastery
19b6034231609239ea7102f72c37a2ea48186504	Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor Church of the Annunciation in the Zhitny Yard Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker Gostunsky Church of Saints Constantine and Elena Palace of Tsarina Natalia Kirillovna
6d67c96a17caed6d190f9aea501a964c522df2f4	Maly Nikolaevsky Palace The Old Armory The Lion's Gate Monument to Alexander II Monument to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich
92f02c4389ebfc586fa33a7c44cf4e5ef59cf238	Construction of the white stone Kremlin in Moscow.
b0cbaaaccc5d060c6886232ef6de746b20ec8187	[Postage stamp using a miniature from the chronicle.]
86d79b6ccfe9604d62c5cbfc78e142f4df1884b3	Organizations that operate in the Kremlin[edit / edit wiki text]
4785a333b833e5b21a444886f8f92334a0a2342a	The official working office of the President of Russia is located in the Senate Palace and the reserve office is located in the 14th building.
99703b2534ac531400f3d6c5367c4550c3e8724c	The State Kremlin Palace (the Palace of Congresses) is a venue for various events.
fc6adea089cad7d723a229b4c93728d1a314b2a6	The Grand Kremlin Palace is a venue for official ceremonies (presentation of state awards, credentials, etc.) with the participation of the President of the Russian Federation.
b663a9ad8886393260513301c9172cc16f6f876a	The Russian Orthodox Church uses the Archangel, Annunciation and Assumption Cathedrals and the Church of the Ordination of the Sacrament.
04cedc6c6c4eb98e6e6ec16266f51e505f228abc	The State Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve "Moscow Kremlin".
a4efe9adcff5138c4f5cff4d282c7818e339f5f0	The Kremlevsky Food Processing Plant provides state receptions, protocol events and celebrations on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin.
fdbc1fce866bd3af6447ec176ec68e65db274d15	Interesting facts[edit / edit wiki text]
e54292faa961fb5f1edb5ecd48a4f29a420d58ca	Painting the walls of the Kremlin with red paint (2010)
794b6bfc6f161c45f8f66ad8d378150f92b115e8	The Kremlin is the largest preserved and still operating fortress in Europe[52].
816f6b92f2db8122bd8680c8afdf75505736bde5	The teeth of the Kremlin walls in the form of a "swallow's tail" (merlons) have the same appearance as the distinctive teeth of the castles of the Italian Ghibellines.
f14ee4a3624c747fbcafc5dc59f61a5ec054dc7b	According to historical descriptions and paintings, from the early 1680s to the early 1880s, the walls of the Kremlin were painted white[53][54]. Currently, the walls of the Kremlin are periodically tinted with red matte paint.
7b1facf515f9f52934c98a6d019ea84a05bc16f2	In 1941, in order to disguise themselves as residential buildings, windows were painted on the walls of the Kremlin.
86ef04006ee58f2a57821cbf59df5c0db5dcb158	Post No.
1fbe6af6ca8e6d529162944ed60835dc78fb5c10	1 Lenin Mausoleum St. Basil's Cathedral State Historical Museum
66cbf05b93d980d278d9f07e075bafb95fd61108	Diamond Fund Kremlin Stars Painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace
3d119f88355cca1a24baacd06d8fb6fe503ccaa1	The Resurrection Gate of the Administration of the territory of China City
eca2e086d29eb4808634d9ec7b15941bd1a471cc	Памятники Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p. 261 ↑ Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p .
ecebc97c08eae7cab0ffddfd14a6efa40e4e2ec6	23-24, 259-261 ↑ Reference books.
fc534bce7c14472fc41e399743e2e6421b9cd68f	Non preserved architectural monuments: Spasa na Bor Cathedral ↑ Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 263 ↑ Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 265 ↑ 1 2 Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 266 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, p.
e3ecf90d5d27d23d61f8ecfb1e61d0ecf145d4ce	67 ↑ Architectural Monuments, 1983, pp.
d10d2a38f51761a05ab9d6d47b18aeb9e549290e	266-267 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, pp.
9a60c7b2b4175bb54921be5487acda8dc242f444	68-71 ↑ 1 2 The time of the grandiose construction of the Kremlin (II half of the XV the beginning of the XVI century).
70c7fba6f14d2052f8d836e1565184c2e99ccc4f	Museums of the Moscow Kremlin.
272cf0e8c7df58c5d434ca7ea864e029e2a8a892	Checked on January 12, 2014.
25d53c5fe8ad2a46a0255bf00d2736ec2ef7a2e7	↑ 1 2 3 Architectural Monuments, 1983, p. 268 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, p.
65d9b3da90d778abaef217767e5a6e70d04876bd	72 ↑ Monuments, 1983, p. 267 ^ the Monuments of architecture, 1983, p. 269 ^ the Monuments of architecture, 1983, p. 270, 272 ↑ Monuments, 1983, p. 272 ↑ 1 2 Kudryavtsev M. P. Project of the Royal chambers of the Kremlin in axonometric drawing of the XVII century // New attribution.
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2811f408286a897286926388527cc563654e440c	— S. 79-93.
0af71d1fdb8082a029b364d6e1909e729b20bab5	Памятники Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p .
f53ac952ef68daed905987def13c2eedefc1c2b0	271-272 ↑ Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p. 276 ↑ 1 2 Monuments of architecture, 1983, p. 285 ↑ 1 2 The center of Moscow of the Mother See (XVIII century).
17e8319f1405495389aa6dcc75c5584b830e37a0	↑ Monuments, 1983, p. 289 ^ the Monuments of architecture, 1983, p. 290 ^ the Monuments of architecture, 1983, p.
afb571e7b54e7ef97973bb1f7df2a0994360b660	291-293 ↑ Monuments, 1983, p. 293 ^ the Monuments of architecture, 1983, p.
2b4225929ec3ede6b24e10a6f7cefa8a1de4eba0	293-294 ↑ 1 2 3 Monuments, 1983, p. 344 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, p.
010888762018411e9cac08483f5ee147d9a20002	80 ↑ 1 2 Monuments, 1983, p. 294 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, p.
dbc7cc5a85d09277856fa93ab4d11a2be8ff4494	26 Памятники Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 295 ↑ Vaskin A.
993e318ab134972a1c24cdcae240dd2114412bce	A. Moscow of 1812 through the eyes of Russians and the French.
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b4276697a946602b7123b17176ba1d880c9e6526	- 528 p.
49be3e8379b8685d6b723eacd68dff5d497fe41c	Памятники Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p. 296 ↑ 1 2 3 Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p. 297 ↑ Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p .
d42b986035fa8c67b646d4953fd04cdec173922f	297-298 ↑ Ikonnikov, 1978, p.
67a6a72896beb237d3f345d781d459188b81a0d2	76 ↑ 1 2 Monuments of Architecture, 1983, p. 298 ↑ Architecture of Moscow 1910-1935 / Komech A. I., Bronovitskaya A. Yu., Bronovitskaya N. N.-M.: Art XXI century, 2012.
919a68260e8c7d21728e9e22528ac73f28397c51	255-260 — - 356 p — - (Monuments of architecture of Moscow).
201841a7c8fbe82a843c854c923c770b663d6f33	- 2500 copies.
f4b074629381946a412e8e9b93d8fc3ed8cedd36	— ISBN 978-5-98051-101-2.
c4d66f3205c2d9122bc7b2e17253defdc033aa8c	Алексей Alexey BOGOMOLOV.
b5eb7c271b4789a61f98d95f05482ab1dfe9f0fb	How the Kremlin was settled.
f586bf2ce32e632041e3a8abefd579e85977ea17	Komsomolskaya Pravda in Ukraine (14.06.2011).
f9c92bbeed66d337e59344d1ec5f5cf45972b2fa	Verified on February 1, 2014.
fe24d7714c6ba9b7ec88bf99832d021667da8d65	Александр Alexander Kolesnichenko.
57fae689fb696897866602e98cd686fa7a6163f0	The secret history of the Kremlin: how its walls were demolished and a kindergarten was built.
88ec4939371654ae2cd7985e5ad41890e8b571d1	Arguments and facts (17/06/2009).
f7a91d637bc120aff878bbf630166fc1e0595e00	Девя Devyatov S. V., Zhilyaev V. I., Kaikova O. K.
69b400232ea05a9c6e4b6daee3e8440c2e3df2fb	The Moscow Kremlin during the Great Patriotic War.
2fb1abeacbff86271f836b0e0140dbb030bdf00a	Moscow, ed.
9792c33aeb0c4ba916ded7656842f3c54a3c019b	"Kuchkovo field", 2010. p.
fc7d872ca324e09d750b2b4fd3536f46a93c68d8	90-91 ↑ V. Snegirev.
467974f8774f832e93cea7c9ed63adb30413ce42	Behind the wall "Rossiyskaya Gazeta" No. 3826, July 21, 2005 ↑ Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 299 ↑ Schenkov A. S., Pavlova M. P. Restoration of the walls of the Moscow Kremlin in the XX century ↑ The twentieth century.
85c78595900259fa952a226ada3bdf8925fe8556	Стены The walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin — the latest restoration.
9e2d3787c569d0d74a20cb94f30d107162073608	Central scientific and restoration design workshops.
11bf6cbe73a8c101a66e12afa8bf39bd37d91841	Putin proposed to restore the Chudov and Voznesensky monasteries.
8dc32548b9c73c8265d36abf9daa0290c12c56b8	Lenta.ru. Checked on August 3, 2014.
176ecd097d5db9fcd42013d2cae836761e636da9	↑ 1 2 3 4 Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 300 ↑ 1 2 3 4 Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 301 ↑ Architectural monuments, 1983, p. 302 ↑ 1 2 Zabelin I. E. History of the city of Moscow.
2b3131b451910bed87dbfd538eb1449313a077d2	An essay by Ivan Zabelin.
d695c64121be496c776c827ec07ae7c8344a519d	Written on behalf of the Moscow City Duma.
8d36e641201f868623d58529fbe95eb9ac539e37	- M., 1905.
e50980f91919dbde57c3297a61565abccde955e1	Тайны Secrets of the Moscow Kremlin ↑ Artemiy Lebedev.
9896d7c9ec0478a9d84ecb247356f12f046889d7	The White Kremlin ↑ Kuindzhi Arkhip Ivanovich.
ed786543d50a6f23688283bdc4003d33dd5ec61a	"Moscow.
f8a5be3ddfc737c841ae66578226f5ae6d6befd3	View of the Moskvoretsky Bridge, the Kremlin and St. Basil's Cathedral"
d84cdb023b1e402abdeb4494854bda77edc396c2	Tikhomirov N. Ya., Ivanov V. N.
74221c0aaa86c2cb6b1143fd584be7385b1d7c3d	The Moscow Kremlin: The History of Architecture / Ed. by A. D. Kudryavtsev;
ea730bbb69245ae3e038842db2d4946696176f7d	Design and layout of the artist A. F. Serebryakov.
cea419fff16a215eb326f012eb86b015c53babe4	- Moscow: Stroyizdat, 1967 — - 260 p — - 30,000 copies.
78bac1929810094667a6389456db0a7762425654	Antiquities of the Moscow Kremlin: A Collection of articles / Ed.
9e6c451f9514269ae1f0f687439a080981a61db9	N. N. Voronin, M. G. Rabinovich;
e311f40a07de5d1ba1f572f0adf784b6eb88ae6d	Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
23b60c9beb72fe1b791c2a1ecf76dbd09869acd2	- M.: Nauka, 1971 — - 296, [18] p.
e4c489ac3db8a1f3e7d2aee48490a911752747f4	— (Materials and research on the archeology of the USSR, No. 167; Materials and research on the archeology of Moscow, vol. IV). - 17,000 copies.
9e4d481206c6de227dcc12e1dc17057fad0fdcf0	Libson V. Ya., Domshlak M. I., Arenkova Yu.
ba4ab0b0198ecb57864c504b9c43544008ec75c0	I., etc.
62226c8067d9be19cd9fa0669e79d84395edab3c	The Kremlin.
586bae6dcfa402c16932e5d49181ecdfcc70301a	China city.
3c24276445a79e5bc1cd79f6f70f7740943b9566	Central squares / / Monuments of architecture of Moscow.
65e7dd01199b6720bcec2452ba1c504945a36a11	- Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1983.
bdea64ddfbb884729f494716a637c6254ee5705d	257-345 — - 504 p.
06ec850e2b654567f42d27b1ecff566cc8546e88	— 25,000 copies.
667c174f78b90618363e89630dd4056133913a53	Ikonnikov A.V.
7b878c10f5646391f270b97bcae816970fe06e95	The Stone Chronicle of Moscow: A guide.
78ab5102404e349dffcb8521c2ce157aa93c8942	- Moscow: Moskovsky rabochy, 1978.
6e771087982fae7912a3c2575683a7563d2cffda	- 352 p.
14e04dd0a2500a7bcaef24ddf1f4d07dee46d64a	Fabricius M. P. Kremlin in Moscow.
1cb6838b98c5e43cf2c17fd0fd4df75a0e30c53e	Essays and pictures of the past and present.
7d9dab4d0673ecea7ce61688d3dd1b9bd2752d7e	- Moscow: Edition of T. I. Hagen, 1883 — - 334 p.
91f2028c37f8ea01f2d6b17ad443c80d1da3ea97	Fedorov B. N. Moscow Kremlin.
7de9e15b33160fc3f1a0dc289ca11caa2f774fc2	- L., Artist of the RSFSR, 1975.
b77f2728200ed5be21c7271919c9e0fab15c6b39	(Series "Monuments of Russian cities").
0dd8ddf422fce2de7713c39ae7f8eb160175be4d	Mikhailov K.
c794c52954c0905c5eb9469a0a56647f2cbf0655	The destroyed Kremlin.
ad7e9b848c4b3be252235c16c56bbf5df314f081	- Moscow: Yauza, Eksmo, 2007.
7129f8f04b034c927eecab78345b4f239bb1dcf1	(Series "Moscow, which we lost").
05902b0c5ededcc513fed46633d842c9cd4f1325	History of Russian Art, vol. 1 / Ed. by M. M. Rakova, I. V. Ryazantsev;
02963278e2743d4fb1aa4f3c3a6332c858db60e4	Order of Lenin Academy of Arts of the USSR, Research Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts.
3e36ba4b70070d62a136e99260436c88035e40ab	- Moscow: Fine Art, 1979.
9c4f6be0cd663f10e21fcfc11240a441c3cd6eef	- 360 p — - 40,000 copies.
b697bfd7f7808cb14332fb24d0482e3554aab31b	Falkovsky N. I. Moscow in the history of technology.
525348616ad2939c556c5bbd14e4e2afad9aa506	- Moscow: Moskovsky Rabochy, 1950. pp.
7ab1ae30cc641960af4547b2dd52e6583794ad1a	9-25.
dcfe48e49fd17733756ec38da703fdecb110cacb	The Kremlin. read Catherine Merridale.
dc40b635b623c5354210f29e34fd3513fc2b0609	Red Fortress: History and Illusion in the Kremlin.
239fb058f7a725baa7cd22aa2b674a2fb486ecf8	- Metropolitan Books, 2013.
32dcac1c9ac4967769e285362e80823772f84f4c	- 506 p.
01a3056c372818fef58b700ac183428d029619b5	Bartenev S. P.
c991337fc5494babb193de0d14078e7c2fd2b404	The Moscow Kremlin in the old days and now.
016707d151ff5864896c45719aeda64e11a867fd	In 2 books M., 1912-1916.
e5c36fd6fa82fe5f2e87d75f374ec85ab789c185	Book 1.
c8ced7c47450290a05e34118ab04150fc68b18c7	A historical sketch of the Kremlin fortifications.
059b6288837921f6a1171de986fe651de7bec573	Book 2.
b271cdf8fbaeef26140d89d8f150f89400e24c2b	The Sovereign's court in the Moscow Kremlin.
b3715328bb435ffe25c5e59d7ca8f48f578961c0	House of Rurikovich.
b9312dc58b35191cb910f785e979c7a5b2dcd626	Vol. 1. M., 1912.
4ecae600411aca96dcf3fa779c75cc3b0321898d	Vol. 2. M., 1916.
42acaf83d135b806f4f931f621a88c192043a372	Devyatov S. V. Moscow Kremlin.
a445e4f1d143c08976b216c6d53b155b737eb826	M., Kuchkovo field, 2010. 472 p.
bb42df5a01b7b6e88c4d9ca5b027e42862761b83	Devyatov S. V. Red Square, Moscow, Kuchkovo Field, 2013. 336 p.
874c4be73ff38a341a5c6f3e5365425186ca5932	Devyatov S. V., Zhuravleva E. V.
bdcda68f18bdbb5511dac4eb7fa49c9878d7fd40	The Moscow Kremlin at the turn of the Millennium.
6924cf4ef0b325c1ff1caeada3152fa39d8c48e2	4th, ispr. and pererab .
268119f258148ca0a29f050b6bd70bef02c1a6b4	M., Monuments of historical thought, 2010. 509 p.
a659e16838929767893ef19b5bc0e96442685b8c	Devyatov S. V., Zhilyaev V. I., Kaikova O. K.
466638e29fcc4fd464846b04fe90b48fd1e390f7	"Kuchkovo field", 2010. 332 p.
24aba89bc4a3d3ce95eaf57d280454eeef5b7e22	Vyueva N.
ef7fdbdfc509a1e84cb70d5439b4b3c3b99bd744	A., Devyatov S. V., Demin N.
c01b442843455079ebd4d9532ca647157e8b7a76	A., Zhilyaev V. I., Kaikova O. K.
eb0cbdccad8fe6cf084d148e0e30a314242b8e3c	The Grand Kremlin Palace.
fdf8bed36fad936c581cf2a28d4f6479ceb22380	2, corrected. and add.
acb1ad4de7cd4cb41228424eeefa14f54f856deb	M., Planet. 2010. 416 p.
5d702cf174bfe15a5033b2673cdd8ef2012c1414	Veltman A. F. Memorabilia of the Moscow Kremlin.
1ddc312ccd2f785cb704ddb52d4a1504fefd1583	M., type.
0d80eff317310ba651d9fbfd794adc265bae4815	N. Stepanov, 1843.
39bfc1e9177c31f3b575d382c9586e42a5117fb1	79 p.
ba60e67046afff59ceb7c5156379d1d8a08e61ec	Portal "Moscow" The Moscow Kremlin in Wiktionary?
6a31654f4c458cf90b9f51a739305ddd81d4526a	The Moscow Kremlin in Wikicitatnik?
6b15bb6c63500a84f83b81286c8c9157e291be96	The Moscow Kremlin on Wikimedia Commons?
670f1fb68c4c8a7aef3f8f3d2256f5899fc79db4	The Moscow Kremlin in Vikinovosti?
84a443866aa137b6061722865493488ad7352973	The Moscow Kremlin in Wikigide?
d060acfc3614729c5d65432102cbc645ee3ece62	The Moscow Project
1a0796dcbf5fac4f6fa8eca31e9574c930fcfb5b	UNESCO World Heritage Site No. 545
8d114f24314a018635ec6bd50b9898378542b21c	rus.
349cd34c6de1d6e3b5ea39c0273c9eac07081e88	• eng.
04584733ae7c7d6d4aeb4aa3cbf3a027d1ecd95d	* fr.
1def8e5c8dbe05c331e4dc612c56d71e057603ed	Website of the museum of the reserve "Moscow Kremlin" N.
85f9162cd2e3a508161cfe62d045ab607d29791e	A. Naydenov.
78e1cb21910fd8c50070fe03934b0b25e1f7be13	Moscow.
9eb903e930a75edec767c8a51df62d50ce10c32f	Cathedrals, monasteries and churches, part I: The Kremlin and Kitay Gorod, Moscow: 1883.
cf123949583fdac238f979fa94fa9d8b53b31e77	(electronic copy of the photo album) Photos of the interiors of the Moscow Kremlin in 1896 The lost buildings of the Moscow Kremlin Moscow tourist portal.
d4ae7d4afd15ffdc15aaf6ef4add7c77c6c66b94	The Moscow Kremlin (Russian) (English)
cec8f44fb5f159ed42d5baedd152a0df6472ed1c	(German) A walk through the Moscow Kremlin The first spherical video of the Moscow Kremlin
5f2bdd23c8088928fa5b1b74041c889884e20a1d	Moscow Kremlin Administrative buildings
bcbb0a5d6e5bd1deb21cb0f3d681a90a1c4474a4	and museums The Grand Kremlin Palace | Faceted Chamber | Teremny Palace | Funny Palace | Patriarchal Palace and the Church of the Twelve Apostles | State Kremlin Palace | Senate Palace | Old Armory Building† / Arsenal (Tseykhauz) | Armory Chamber | Diamond Fund | 14th building† | Golden Tsaritsyna Chamber / Maly Nikolaevsky Palace† Monuments Tsar Bell | Tsar Cannon / Monument to Alexander II† / Monument to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich± ± / Monument to V. I. Lenin± Squares and Gardens Cathedral Square | Ivanovskaya Square | Tainitsky Garden | Senate Square | Palace Square Cathedrals and monasteries Assumption Cathedral | Archangel Cathedral | Annunciation Cathedral | Ivan the Great Bell Tower | Patriarchal Palace and Church of the Twelve Apostles | Church of the Ordination | Verkhospassky Cathedral and Terem churches | Cathedral of the Savior on the Bor† / Chudov Monastery† | Ascension Monastery† | Church of the Nativity of the Virgin on the Porch / Church of Saints Constantine and Elena† | Church of the Annunciation on the Zhitny Yard† |Church of the Nativity of John the Baptist on the Bor† / Sretensky Cathedral† Attractions Walls of the Moscow Kremlin | Towers of the Moscow Kremlin | Coat of Arms Tower† | Necropolis at the Kremlin Wall | Kremlin stars | Kremlin Clock Notes: † - has not been preserved to this day * ≠ — was destroyed and recreated again * ± — moved to another place
3a4f40b4bdb53401eb0e7593321ffdfb127b182a	Towers of the Moscow Kremlin
8f035780adc015fb04d11e311a5aec62935a758b	Vodovzvodnaya | Borovitskaya | Armory | Komendantskaya | Troitskaya | Kutafya | Srednaya Arsenalnaya | Ugolovaya Arsenalnaya | Nikolskaya | Senatskaya | Spasskaya | Tsarskaya | Nabatnaya | Konstantino Eleninskaya | Beklemishevskaya | Petrovskaya | The Second Nameless | The First Nameless | Taynitskaya | Blagoveshchenskaya
aafafec9cd8086ffe971aca577ec5d1870a6e3e7	Rings of Moscow
47a1ac7d48cf3e39c76cd12ea33c3bd2d6151b85	Historical walls and ramparts: Kremlin • Kitay Gorod • Bely Gorod • Zemlyanoy Gorod • Kamer Kollezhsky Val
056fc2b139fbcb42686437ee7fa4105e6b0670ba	Automobile rings: Boulevard Ring • Garden Ring • Third Transport Ring • Fourth transport Ring • MKAD
2c8c8ed29588a0c881d4fe85b96ad2e861439d24	Metro: The Ring line of the metro • The third transfer circuit (project) * The Big ring of the metro (project)
0fe1efdc358a1161418314c4a0d590e58eb6a3cd	Railway transport: Small ring of MZhD • Large ring of MZhD
7db674cfc7c9f513d65e40abd26f78f377ee584e	Ground public transport: Trolleybus # B • Tram # A (now incomplete)
c5a29e37179173591b64c52d59362f97eb96ce13	Ring roads of the Moscow region: A107 Moscow Small Ring • A108 Moscow Big Ring • Central Ring Road (project)
3d073832b830b4a0d1f106ead826863f547e31ee	Rings of skyscrapers : Stalin's Skyscrapers • The New Ring of Moscow (project)
1a0419fc66aef56a3d52c659d6a3701faff368ac	Other rings: Defense: Golden Ring of Air Defense;
841ac911464ec92ea7b9d3b1c3663cc1839d9626	* electric power industry: Moscow Electric Power Ring
2c57a1566ca9c79a0025f9eb3717b82a1e270ba9	UNESCO World Heritage in Russia
48b7c7c538106ae1caa62492884db3c0c9460f51	Natural: Virgin forests of Komi | Baikal | Volcanoes of Kamchatka | Golden Mountains of Altai | Western Caucasus | Central Sikhote Alin | Ubsunur basin | Wrangel Island | Putorana Plateau | Lena pillars
a993affa3e7973fbda91cd16719122915cda7850	Cultural: The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square | The historical center of St. Petersburg and related monument complexes | Kizhi / Solovetsky Islands | Historical monuments of Veliky Novgorod and the surrounding area | White stone monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal | Trinity Sergius Lavra | Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye | Kazan Kremlin | Ferapontov Monastery | Curonian Spit | Citadel, old town and fortifications of Derbent | Novodevichy Monastery | Historical center of Yaroslavl | Struve Arc | Bulgar
2fa7a4313192d454b047b300a287066df84157a0	Kremlins
76030daa1bb26b3f4ec50952d5164d187a389c26	World Heritage Sites: Moscow | Novgorod | Kazan | Suzdal | Yaroslavsky | Solovetsky
6dc60584aab89856cfba302abbc22bc6a6af81da	Mostly or completely preserved: Astrakhan | Verkhotursky | Zaraisky | Izborsky | Nizhny Novgorod | Porkhovsky | Pskov | Staroladozhsky | Tobolsk | Tula | Alexandrovsky | Rostov
e68e47f23057b2073bfdf983cdaa590b1f36f9c0	Partially or fragmentally preserved: Vladimirsky | Vologda | Vyazemsky | Gdovsky | Kolomenskiy | Mozhaisk | Serpukhov | Smolensky | Syzransky
5396a2c4166a0387fb59b6c7400943f0a3a815f0	Only the ramparts have been preserved: Belozersky | Bryansky | Velikoluksky | Vereysky | Volokolamsk | Galich | Gorodetsky | Dmitrovsky | Dorogobuzhsky | Zvenigorodsky | Zubtsovsky | Karachevsky | Kashinsky | Kleshchinsky | Meshchovsky | Mikulinsky | Mosalsky | Mstislavlsky (Vladimir region) | Mtsensky | Novosilsky | Odoevsky | Opochetsky | Peremyshlsky (Kaluga region) | Peremyshlsky (Moscow region) / Pereslavsky | Radonezh | Romanovsky | Roslavl | Rostislavl Ryazan | Ruzsky | Rylsky | Rurikovo settlement | Ryazan | Sevsky | Serpeysky | Soligalichsky | Old Ryazan | Staritsky | Torzhoksky / Toropetsky | Truvorovo settlement | Uglichsky | Yuryevetsky | Yuryev Polsky
f0e717283f00df17837ee9eaa699e474a3b2ea9f	Lost: Aleksinsky | Bezhetsky | Belgorod | Borovsky | Voronezh | Yeletsky | Irkutsk | Kaluga | Kostroma | Kursk | Murom | Orlovsky | Pronsky | Rzhevsky | Sebezhsky | Solikamsk | Starodubsky | Tarussky | Tverskoy | Khlynovsky | Cheboksary | Cherdynsky | Ufa | Kholmogorsky | Shuisky
e83ed854cce3b984b63e70d7b7ec7640b1f30310	Historical localities and districts in Moscow Historical localities Right Bank
fcbf4625c7e8903f18740447a249cfbae0a1d96c	rivers of Moscow:
11dd4257b90d11dce6dd760a9e4cf0700b66eae5	Babiy gorodok • Berezhki • Vorobyovy Gory • Danilovka • Dorogomilovo • Zamoskvorechye • Kadashi • Kanatchikovo • Tanners • Boilers • Red meadow • Poklonnaya Gora • Potylikha • Setun • Tatarskaya sloboda
1e42b5174fcb4ee26e19c2c698f7ecca1741e709	Island:
68d172398449dbbb7df26137e9bc663ca8e767b9	Balchug • Bersenevka • Swamp • Gardeners
9c7ea3b5c31b04df1a9bfe685d1a4aae98c318d9	The left bank
bce8c052574f8ed99e9105f89ba1dd5b455690fa	rivers of Moscow
d9a5b63f0b9f657233b8c1af2d4f493c6e825a47	before Yauza:
4124608317887b6366196fcf879c4f3995caa280	Balkan • Borovitsky hill • Butyrki • Butyrsky farm • Vagankovo • Vasilievsky meadow • Vsekhsvyatskaya grove • Devichye field • Ermakova grove • Zhabensky meadow • Zaneglimenye • Zaryadye • Ivanovskaya hill • Kashenkin meadow • Koshelnaya Sloboda • Krasnoe Selo • Kulishki • Kuchkovo field • Luzhniki • Likhobory • Miuses • Novinskoye • Oktyabrskoye field • Printers • Podkopaevo • Presnya • Samoteka • Serebryanyki • Serebryany Bor • Straw lodge • Sushchevo • Syromyatniki • Testovo • Three mountains • Usachevka • Khamovniki • Khitrovka • Khodynskoye field • Church hill • Shiryaevo field • Yamskoye field
97a39d112cdd0ad8f5373d9135d3cc1336b59232	beyond the Yauza:
ce8f754ef940a066764f6eb1f61768688a64c8b0	Arbatets • Annengofskaya grove • Blagusha • Vvedenskiye gory • Elokhovo • Zayauzye • Krasny Kholm • Lefortovo • Moose Island • German settlement • Pererva • Pokrovskoe Rubtsovo • Matting • Simonovo • Sokolinaya Gora • Sukino Swamp • Taganka • Tyufeleva grove • Shvivaya hill
f3ff8fd53de630f9f464df061848060841dc8aec	Historical districts Areas within
2f4c39cd5cbdee9533d1c00e3fc8c213ce2a1c44	historical walls
e3c2e2f8877f128a1a5e5363d624eb6b815e5374	and shafts:
356bbc2f35449f7b9fd9457a5e8e2b2071f1069c	Kremlin • Kitay Gorod • B ely gorod (within the Boulevard Ring) * Earthen City (within the Garden Ring) • the territory within the Chambers of the Collegiate Shaft
ef19dfd0f4b037766004823f4be912e0a897885b	Historical districts,
130a5e79bbc74c3dc8976d41401f5e9fe275d310	named by
88a454f5ebce2445898863b86954ca0d5bbcb727	localities:
1f66939b444ec674379867c90cb498bbee4a9d27	Alekseevskoe • Brattsevo • Butovo • Dangaurovka • Dubrovka • Izmailovo • Karacharovo • Kudrino • Medvedkovo • Tushino • Fili • Cherkizovo • Chertanovo
00a2ddca72fdfd6d5e6d258307130641485c39db	Areas of mass
1284dbce5292fa9135da09315f85f6cd5c87e3c9	residential development:
de6eb1e5fb97a0c3ccc96a07246c0271f2c7bdfa	Alyoshkino • Babushkin • Beskudnikovo • Bibirevo • Biryulyovo • Veshnyaki Vladychino • Volkhonka ZIL • Golyanovo • Degunino • Ivanovo • Lenino Dacha • Medvedkovo • New Kuzminki • Orekhovo Borisovo • Otradnoye • Sandy streets • Tushino • Fili Mazilovo • Khimki Khovrino • Khoroshevo Mnevniki • Southwest: Belyaevo Bogorodskoe • Davydkovo • Zyuzino • Konkovo Village • Matveevskoe • New Cheryomushki • Teply Stan • Troparevo • Cheryomushki • Chertanovo • Yasenevo • Yuzhnoye Izmailovo
a999154878ea13ff1b35848fc2aa65952f054663	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moscow Kremlin&oldid=75399411"
99730b15cc9c38710d7bcf0598e2e8088e2dddf0	Categories: Objects of cultural heritage of Russia World heritage alphabetically Rings of Moscow World Heritage in Russia Moscow Kremlin Kremlins Fortresses of Moscow Historical districts in Moscow Official residences of heads of state
dbb76b53bcc97a7a3402b6e672b03423281155ea	Hidden categories: Articles requiring clarification of sources Wikipedia:Articles with non working links since April 2015 Articles with links to Wiktionary Articles with links to Wikicitatnik Articles with links to Wikinews Articles with links to Wikigid Articles with links to projects
6bb6b1fcacafbf074b8a2da5433279c2cfee5c53	Wikinovosti Wikicitatnik
18ac5aea235b527b64046a90e4f63c3e846d38e2	Afrikaans العربية مəرى Azərbaycanca Belarusian Belarusian (tarashkevitsa) Bulgarian Català Čeština Cushla Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego עברית Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Ido Italiano 日本語 ქართული 한국어 Kurdî Kyrgyzcha Latina Komi Latviešu Lietuvių Macedonian Bahasa Melayu മലയാളം مازِرونی Dorerin Naoero Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Sardu Scots Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski Simple English Slovenčina Slovenscina Srpski / Svenska தமிழ் srpski Toикikӣ Ukrainska O'zbekcha / ўzbekcha TiếNg ViệT Winaray 中文文
96f7f48910fff50a52ba4ca0fa5dafbbe2cdc45c	Last modified on this page: 14: 16, December 29, 2015.
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c5497bca58468ae64aed6c0fd921109217988db3	Events
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5bc5b79e62cf1c5d1707b33bd69adea6b0d111b2	Moscow Kremlin Home / Famous namesakes / Names / Patronymic names / First name and patronymic / Horoscopes / Tests/ Events Moscow Kremlin
cde2ebe155df0a7d11eb62a19251f7fc08d906b0	The Moscow Kremlin is the oldest and central part of Moscow
c2ac36b341783e5aedc1416fae45bc86f39b925b	(the capital
646976fdc1b1a9e1e1847498befdaa96780f4301	On the Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of the Moscow River, one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles in the world.
629335063c80f79a7f35553e75d909105c5c1c99	The area of the Kremlin in the plan is an irregular triangle and is equal to 27.5 hectares.
e2a37f0e4727d1e624c35522cb97d6f57193e5bd	The laying of the oak walls of the Moscow Kremlin took place on November 25, 1339.
f37692a4154497c36455e35e1fc1dc876d6592fa	The history of the Moscow Kremlin is closely connected with the most important events in the life of the Russian state.
69e452cfb7fcb1af661ae2562168b8703473aa6a	In 1156, at the behest of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, a fortified settlement center was built — the Kremlin.
eb6d0f32d3f3286509aabb575fa3f7e9594e883e	The choice of the place for construction was dictated by strategic considerations: the Kremlin on a high hill at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River with the Moskva River should protect the mouths of two navigable rivers — the Yauza and the Vshodni.
0e92edaf1592b6a200ff37cbb8d5266f4be9d21c	The beauty of the place also played a role — the hill was covered with a dense forest, and in front of it were picturesque meadows cut by loops of rivers.
67be0ef618de2607609d41fbed146107c6b526a2	The very first Kremlin occupied an area of about four hectares.
d7c998700cdb89abdcd6c22b68e9f85e5cef3796	In addition to wooden walls, it was protected by ditches and earthen ramparts.
ce62e5b396d4452f271d906051581c952ec39f81	In 1339, under the Grand Duke Ivan Kalit, powerful oak walls were erected around the Kremlin.
f6302d2fadaca43c2e0361ab3d857af88a2a5895	In 1367, the walls and towers were built of white stone, in 1485-95 of brick.
89e9f31392e11cea18c3b096bf307cc166347712	In the Kremlin, Moscow class monuments of Russian architecture of 15-17 centuries: the Cathedral of the assumption (1475-79), the Annunciation (1484-89) and Arkhangelsk (1505-08), bell tower of Ivan the Great (1505-08, built in 1600), the Palace of facets (1487-91), Terem Palace (1635-36).
020e604748be50d511e5453c4b491e4682248e32	1776-87 built in the Senate building in 1839-1849 — B. Kremlin Palace in 1844-1851 — Armory.
f19c6debae18ecccbd8ccabbc2035926b766ede2	In 1959-61, the State Kremlin Palace was built.
b37b72ff30858d50a05272d57c7e7544515685e7	Among the 20 towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the most significant are Spasskaya (with Kremlin chimes), Nikolskaya, Troitskaya, Borovitskaya.
4e8fcc49fe21b5829eeb3f8c613a7d4a7b41caf6	The remarkable monuments of Russian foundry art are preserved — "Tsar Cannon" (16th century) and "Tsar Bell" (18th century).
b0b48061f33715bc45a11fd1a8d6792ac2188299	In 1991, the State Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve "Moscow Kremlin"was established.
8fc5b338d110b62a75a0bda8ed798a6f6a1f1585	The Moscow Kremlin is the residence of the President of the Russian Federation.
816ff12462369527ef22fca4d195ee9d31a59e62	Historical sketch of the Kremlin of Moscow The oldest archaeological finds on the Kremlin territory date back to the 2nd millennium BC .
aabd2d7a2f2a9ba12e91feaeb8f7634fea604b0e	Slavic settlements on the site of the Kremlin existed no later than the 11th century.
3c7c4d11486be98b757bdb890d09cd8a3ce08b94	In 1145, the village on the Kremlin Hill was surrounded by the first wooden walls and towers.
ba125d5e1a04bc8658a2942e28214cbbae8ce051	It was first mentioned in the chronicle in 1147.
7c6becef42946ed081db8a6f745fdd2e84cd4d6b	The convenient location — at the confluence of the Moscow and Neglinka rivers, the river route from the western Russian regions (Chernihiv, Kiev, Smolensk) to the Vladimir Suzdal Principality passed contributed to the growth of the settlement, selected from the Kuchkov boyars by Prince Yuri Dolgoruky.
03eb800c50af80d139082f29747d7c30cadc1373	The wooden fortress (in ancient times it was called "grad"; the name "Kremlin" appeared no earlier than the 14th century), built by Yuri Dolgoruky in 1156, became the protective gate of the Vladimir Suzdal principality.
6f54fdbb4a812b1085af1f576dcd7cf43fc06012	The river roads were joined by land roads converging to the Kremlin from other Russian cities.
a81682a373ec0bec004f3322aa456c21d24f236a	The original settlement of "Kuchkovo" occupied about 1.5 hectares in the southwestern tip of the Kremlin Hill, the detinets of Yuri Dolgoruky already occupied 5-6 times more territory.
dff24cdd00987b6660d5683969d16f3a87d9dc83	Under the protection of the fortress, a torzhishche, the future Red Square, was formed.
1b34ddbfcfd49575a5be6940ee4a482f28bd82f5	In 1237, during the invasion of the Tatars, the city was destroyed.
ef11c7ffc68552147fa9b4e09323b98c9fbf2cec	Under Ivan Kalit, the Kremlin was expanded and surrounded by oak walls (logs in diameter reached one meter).
90f09b8a7cc23eee0d13d27daab10fdc66e3bf6e	At the same time, several stone churches were built inside the Kremlin (the remains of the foundations were found by archaeologists).
e6b6d8fd44e915fe90303188cd290bca65fcb9f8	The first white stone walls made of stone from the Moscow region were erected in 1367 under Dmitry Donskoy, and the territory of the Kremlin expanded almost to the size of the modern one.
c6e0215f72bd33c2369cf19fbccf467d446cc9d1	The invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382 again caused terrible damage to the Kremlin, although restoration work was undertaken.
8c1c497e666d27879f38b688f5a5eeb968254eb6	In the middle of the 14th century, the Chudovsky Male and Resurrection female monasteries were founded in the Kremlin.
0c9dbb297b6fe597a2437d6b4f8c0bbc2800fe8c	In the second half of the 15th century, the old white stone walls of the Kremlin became dilapidated and partially collapsed.
ebb75779f4d5f7400ff9a422f599f26413fa964e	For its reconstruction, Ivan III, perhaps on the advice of his wife Sophia Palaiologos, decided to invite Italian ("Fryazhsky") architects, as the best in Europe at that time.
e9513abfe3b770e2ae7af8f457d2e172d436850c	The reconstruction of the Kremlin began with the construction of the new Assumption Cathedral in 1475-79, located in the center of the Kremlin triangle: the old stone Assumption Cathedral no longer met the requirements for the main metropolitan church, which was supposed to contain the graves of Russian metropolitans and take place weddings to the kingdom.
d8fac3947fa20840bc3b3e5695cc1d854088ea92	The Assumption Cathedral, built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti in the traditions of Vladimir masters from white limestone and brick near Moscow, marked the beginning of the ensemble of the Cathedral Square.
7df42efa37c89423016ea736b4fd53ad7a3d7221	In 1484-88, Pskov craftsmen erected the Church of the Assumption and the Annunciation Cathedral.
67f848cb1009f3ba19aff4fb6d9ff6d62971ed17	The second most important Kremlin cathedral is the Archangel Cathedral.
8e17a7657ea46e1e29b0cdde368d859a76312951	It was built by the Italian architect Aleviz Novy in 1505-1508, thirty years after the construction of the Assumption Cathedral.
ccf00a2ada63d8420ff00c63ed9632a828ee9087	During this time, the Russian state finally threw off the Tatar Mongol yoke and strengthened economic and cultural ties with European countries.
a00d93c22e5c94d7876188fe2d1611e5296aedfd	The stone Sovereign's Palace with a Faceted Chamber (1487-91) completed the formation of the western side of the Cathedral Square.
b42e17672dc791c909d0f5f725277eb34ef478ce	The bell tower of Ivan the Great became the dominant feature of the square, the Kremlin and the whole of Moscow.
33ac4bbe351df9be7e8fd34ab69e0a130d1cb02f	The Kremlin walls and towers, built (1485-95) taking into account the fortification requirements of that time, have been preserved with alterations to the present time.
cf4ade66692103e258a2d97bafdebcadb5667c2e	By 1516, work on the construction of the moat from the Red Square was completed.
2e01e679b49da5d204d83a8f42653099abec8191	During the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was occupied by the Poles and held by them for two years; it was liberated by the people's militia of K. M. Minin and D. M. Pozharsky on October 26, 1612.
6b8ad9f15d99cc7e8d829d7efa916b24eae36321	With the accession of the Romanovs, intensive construction began.
00da134508c113da32d49a4a2e2198e58db0e5e3	Next to the "Ivan the Great" in the 1620s, the Filaret belfry was erected, a stone tent (1624-25) was built over the Spasskaya Tower, a clock is arranged on the bash.
2c677a14204b078d3a41e6b48190f7ca12c63b8a	A decade later, the Terem Palace and palace churches were built, in the 1650s the Funny Palace, the Patriarchal Chambers and the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles.
e51ad21bd56891693372df2314d76e3e3e645e85	In the 1680s, all the wall towers (except Nikolskaya) received a tent like completion.
980f62cf48cc0dc893fed63d13fe30581b90de6d	Peter I takes measures to strengthen the Kremlin militarily: the construction of the Arsenal begins (1702-36), the Kremlin walls and towers are reinforced with earthen bastions.
259974750e7feaae109296c905231a671fc7d319	The transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg temporarily stopped new buildings.
ff3823bc9d093f12d9122e6903fa198f0875ce3e	At the behest of Catherine II, V. I. Bazhenov plans to erect new structures on the site of the Kremlin.
6fa547bd67a83978408b6d5bdf9cea4c71aad338	Freeing up the territory for the construction of a new palace, in 1773 a number of ancient Kremlin buildings and part of the southern wall were demolished, the foundation of the palace was laid, but by the personal order of Catherine II, the work was canceled (officially due to lack of funds, in fact — due to negative public opinion), and the walls were restored.
b582a3493ffd22b552e7160adbae4345e94e6823	In 1776-87, the Senate building was built.
332ae6f686094d0f63e57f67faf1c80fec5720d8	The invasion of Napoleon in 1812 caused huge damage to the Kremlin.
4a5c9dffd6ccd5007851b2e1b3f8417be191f2af	The French, in search of valuables, desecrated graves, looted churches.
1af0640380853040b197d53c50693f81f2813599	Retreating, Napoleon ordered to blow up part of the walls, towers and structures.
7c452f964eda9e03d351312f3de16e6bcb9c5596	Restoration work was carried out in 1816-19 under the direction of O. I. Bove.
a697f67b33ffd6166857f43056d7c7e20c48f987	In the 1830s and 40s, the Grand Kremlin Palace (1839-49) and the Armory Chamber (1844-51) were built.
1e8d9241afd82d769b5fab830b71df1799654027	By 1917, there were 31 churches in the Kremlin, including two monasteries.
683d8a0d6d5d9c128bbc1b4d064e4607de9ccfef	During the October Coup, the Kremlin, occupied by a small detachment of junkers, was bombed, which continued after the surrender of the Junkers.
37bbcc2a41aa94f6cbafd555a22290c009ec8580	In November 1917, revolutionary detachments entered the Kremlin.
e93ab818a0777cecb75dbb6167e697b09d634bf0	On March 10-11, 1918, the government of the RSFSR moved from Petrograd to Moscow and settled in the Kremlin in the building of the former Senate.
879783dd737ee72113a4d2bf3b0b8c3085cc7315	During the years of Soviet power in the Kremlin was built the building of the School of red commanders to them.
e372daaa3693fedd2b0995fef461f78bfd7c2b63	Of the Central Executive Committee (1932-1934), and the Kremlin Palace of congresses (1959-1961), the five towers set of the stars (1935-37), on special pedestals of monuments of Russian foundry art King cannon (1485) and the Tsar bell (1733-35).
19ae6a3a00a0700d3491a61d0529764a7862f730	The walls and buildings of the Kremlin has been repeatedly renovated.
2a22c44e72adf798e7f1b9c1c8d13f9531aad67e	On Easter 1918, the last service was held in the Assumption Cathedral, after which the Kremlin churches and monasteries were closed, their partial demolition began, and a strict access regime was introduced in the Kremlin.
0399fae03fd96fe1b759c84539b66852985cb6a8	Since the mid 1950s, access to some museums located on the territory of the Kremlin has been opened.
2cf159ef138f122dcf11f1e06d118a449e818c72	Since the 1990s, worship and bell ringing have gradually resumed in some churches.
f37a26219d1a0b001c5c055b7de97e54a9a7a0f2	The first was built in 1435, the Taynitskaya tower with a gate and a secret passage to the river.
968e79072de801784782b2d22ec7c2f1afff6c31	Then, in 1435-38, two round corner towers were laid: Vodovzvodnaya and Beklemishevskaya.
1e14fcc453ef3ee5320b82bb448364bd81a018e3	After that, the construction of the southern wall with towers along the Moskva River was completed.
a4fc6577be9536ca05484c34acbbb812d4b2e2b2	The main entrance to the Kremlin led through the Frolov Gate, then called the Spassky Gate.
36a6849d393110c98eb3c850d6817138a40d0f13	In the 16th century, a wooden superstructure with a clock and a bell was made.
e88eda4e82524d90eadc85a54b90f840a826f318	In the 17th century, the Spasskaya Tower, and then others (except Nikolskaya) received decorative tent finishes.
c8a6e25d4792945aeab003502c994137aa267b5c	Today it is difficult to imagine how the Moscow Kremlin looked like for one hundred and eighty years without picturesque superstructures over its towers.
b5d86e49e844fd3f74464db857c2f145234d1045	The Nikolskaya Tower with gates (1491, architect Pietro Antonio Solari) opens onto Red Square.
706e760437880db9c8a8b7ea4ec1d1371d660669	In 1805, the tower was built and rebuilt in the Gothic style by the architect K. I. Rossi.
591124a5233faf50dd88db209aaba6f5f0de1c8d	In 1812, it was blown up by the retreating troops of Napoleon, but soon restored according to the project of O. I. Beauvais.
9144564c1fcdc868836b8efecded0115f60c4097	The Kremlin wall, facing Neglinka (Alexander Garden), was closed in nature and had a single travel tower in the center — Troitskaya (1495-99, architect Aleviz Fryazin).
c3878df76969b5e4dc4c2f848ae5389da67e0058	It was built by analogy with the Spasskaya Tower in 1685.
4d11e3411f3db0fab65bd035b656766ee3afbd18	A stone bridge on arches, one of the first in Moscow, was built across Neglinnaya and Prudy opposite the Trinity Gate.
7ed5bcb37cb609bbbdf890bde3a5352b04008819	Access to the bridge was protected by a branch strelnitsa Kutafya Tower.
7f6920cdd73557b5aca4f954a1372cbdc107a248	The wall at the Moscow River ended with the Borovitsky Gate, through which they entered the royal palace.
377e59e2b2af8e6d54bf7988a1ce6051a8c1ff6f	The Borovitsky Tower, built in 1490 by the architect Pietro Antonio Solari, was added to the tiered completion at the end of the 17th century.
f07e975d19c2631d5cc48d0c4536172c11024312	Along the Moscow River, in addition to the main wall with towers, there was a lower wall parallel to it without towers.
71af7c1a950dfcddfc6631acb0142ab0103879f2	This is due to the fact that the southern facade of the Kremlin was the most dangerous in military terms.
481d2c2d520d8860d70723537fc1a344975a2d1f	In 1495, all the buildings across the Moscow River from the Kremlin were demolished, which increased fire safety, opened up space for shooting from guns and improved the viewing of the Kremlin from Zamoskvorechye (gardens were subsequently planted there).
48682132cc1c5027636aad8c92684d5a73896e0d	In the years 1680-1681, the Kremlin Towers received picturesque superstructures that doubled their height.
697949cb78bf0a2caf944ba11659a3f64e0bb917	They enriched the architecture of the Kremlin, gave it a fabulous appearance, which is characterized by the Russian compositional principle of tiering.
a503a49af2e0ad704c0c7e0aa10f01aa0eac958b	Archangel Cathedral In 1505, on the site of the white stone Archangel Church of 1333, the construction of the Archangel Cathedral begins, which then became the grand ducal, and later the royal tomb.
4afb482a9cd2f2ec147e17fcfa4b4cddfa14989b	The architect Aleviz gave a new appearance the temple features features of classical architecture of the Italian Renaissance, expressed in perfect proportions and forms of order architecture.
3296d221dbcf7c60139587f06e51df4362303173	At the same time, he preserved the traditional cubic architectural composition of the Russian cathedral church.
3c80bd6f87f50b910925900c1acb56442e11ebf4	The Archangel Cathedral, with its proportions and classical facades, made a strong impression on contemporaries and became an object of imitation.
80ac53ac23c1aa6393aebb10dcb50652861c03c9	The preserved wall painting dates back to the 17th century.
0e6be2453527c875e64064c44606b580aa3bfa55	After Bazhenov's attempt to build a new palace, for which grandiose earthworks were carried out in the Kremlin, the Archangel Cathedral cracked.
ecbb59b5dde0c61ad88cf382df3e94323e0e3c46	The Annunciation Cathedral, the Red Porch and the Church of the Assumption In 1484-89, the Annunciation Cathedral (the Cathedral of the Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos) was erected by Pskov craftsmen southwest of the Assumption Cathedral, which became the house church of the Moscow princes.
af735241fc5319c38458745cb4bea5812a18bc3b	Initially, the temple was three domed and had an open bypass gallery.
51619b3504a0de690c73dd3b377978fd548adbcb	Then the gallery was built up, and the temple was enriched with six more chapters.
025f6910f948431831a6b0ef2b0a3ce9a6742277	The Annunciation Cathedral attracts attention with a fine white stone carving of architectural details and a high basement.
a86ae4e3e090eae687a950354fef03e76f33fab8	The interior space is small.
8b25cea99a72208ec6bf54d520912242ce723ec1	The iconostasis was made in the 15th century, it includes icons by Andrey Rublev, Feofan the Greek, Fyodor from Gorodets.
56899d0b3b5cb17f9392f7029fe7aed8070fcfd4	The walls were painted in 1508 by Theodosius, the son of Dionysius.
29868f2c5f876420a903c75509a6ea637dd428e7	The floor is covered with printed jasper.
c5b54892fba0a1333c510db925e5137f3232f54e	Between the cathedral and the Faceted Chamber there is a Red porch designed for solemn royal exits.
73578aa47481ffd2e770560099dc3c30440385fb	In the 1930s, it was destroyed, a canteen for employees of Kremlin institutions was built in its place; in 1999, it was restored.
19dc92c612226aba887d5f584cd144b155d4108b	Adjacent to the western wall of the Assumption Cathedral is a small single domed church of the Sacrament (in honor of the position of the Robe of the Mother of God in Blachernae), built by Pskov craftsmen in 1450 in memory of the deliverance of Moscow from the raid of the Tatar Tsarevich Mazovsha, which coincided with the holiday of the position of the Sacrament.
cc0e457d50b9bc5a93ae09994d86074d096e58e6	Its architecture is a kind of fusion of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
247a16fd7d754e1449fbfb9abd9d4c4e7620abcb	The compact and at the same time monumental volume of the church is completed with elegant keel shaped zakomars.
9faef25ca8b98de7c31bdc4e3723b61cbc6fbf55	The bell tower of" Ivan the Great " plays an extremely important compositional role in the ensemble of the Cathedral Square and the entire Kremlin.
e0f2e5bda307572e988ac07c2c2a2f70a5d8c162	Its lower part was built on the site of the church of John the Ladder (14th century) by the architect Bon Fryazin (1505-08), and Petrok the Small added a belfry to it (1532-43).
c2de8f2d63d5318fc90d2ec0026a0f6430b59314	Under Boris Godunov (1600), the tower was built to its present height, and then in the 17th century, the so called "Filaretov Extension"was erected on the north side.
58806c04ed00d8d665c0db1dd01ccc0add0430ec	The resulting picturesque group of buildings is dominated by an octagonal tower - "Ivan the Great".
cb63e07b3a540c1a0eec2d84de23b4fe33a9567a	There are 21 bells on the bell tower and belfry.
1b0c49f464da0680d86dfc6a6bdb55ead89e68df	In 1812, during the retreat of Napoleon's troops from Moscow, the belfry and Filaret's annex were partially blown up, but soon restored (architects I. V. Egotov, L. Ruska, D. I. Gilardi).
ea5b8089a9e678921b50051ffcbb1b38efbfed33	The picturesque group, consisting of buildings of different times, makes a surprisingly solid impression and separates the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin from Ivanovskaya, where the buildings of Orders and central state institutions used to be located.
4229ff01135a1d4ba18c6480fa03c78c16d7b5d6	"Ivan the Great" noted the Kremlin hill as the dominant point of the Moscow state of the 16th 17th centuries, on which the main city highways radially converged.
35103ed7f338edceacb181ed46c5b0e8cbca33e0	The pillar of "Ivan the Great" was the dominant feature of ancient Moscow.
cbfc0dc0a553465d486e9b158d36091b8ade0579	The Kremlin Palace was located on the opposite side of the Cathedral Square, from which the Faceted Chamber — the main throne hall of the palace has been preserved.
c857a92eac2d97226b38cb56ace704ef27f61edf	Faceted chamber.
6497ac5ee7b3c62d26ce7a664c7f21e8e846e818	It got its name from the faceted rust covering its main facade.
b7f35390a4375504ac86611f10564f92a55ae67d	The facade was built by the Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin (1687-1891?) The faceted chamber is a single column structure with an area of about 5000 square meters, covered with four cross vaults.
066db35ff44f1360bc55b90d7e40043b6564d630	The modern painting was made in 1881 by the Paleshan masters according to the inventory of Simon Ushakov.
85ee063b4349addbf73c676f562893e3d9cd3a80	The Faceted Chamber is adjacent to the vestibule, above which there are rooms for the queen and her entourage (women), so that they can observe the solemn ceremonies that took place in the chamber.
d4231271b2499992d86fd7992e4af9eee139cefb	The wooden Kremlin Palace, which stood behind the Faceted Chamber, burned down in 1636-1637, the living quarters of the palace, the so called "Bed Chambers", were re built (of brick) and became known as the "Terem".
53b64503f9b0664d7e20b806229e2225f6abdc9e	This palace has a stepped three dimensional composition.
16bcf462f16e2dea8610d48e047196c75f896fe1	The upper terem was intended for the royal children.
d363d7c6d79e68b4070f8bfab165c1ddf0a1fa13	Teremny Palace.
933dd8e6d4aa48e05fd138922a46b6233219edbc	The upper part of the Facades of the Terem Palace are richly decorated with decorative paintings and glazed tiles.
5374fa460848384073acf06ef8579f3acf9c195e	The interiors are covered with" grass " patterns and decorative carvings.
67619d416816bb29feee755dd60fa3aa2e261f42	The stoves are lined with polychrome tiles.
d3102d1831f85e7b77156dc9da497e6d3bbf000e	A unique piece of blacksmithing art is the Golden lattice that protects the main entrance to the palace.
5979ad2b4763654180e23be3c91afac108a3e52c	All the rooms were decorated with paintings that have not survived to this day.
aa43eb385f856c892b0253e45253c27c238aff8b	The Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory Chamber In 1838-1849, next to the Terem Palace, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built according to the project of Academician K.
636b7e655b2da4e31d4b47ef42d8ce41fc7461f6	A. Ton, which was supposed to combine palace buildings of different times.
9a114ee1c9ebcc8db7104bb25f8209666c6b5083	The length of its main facade is 117 m.
c090ab66e69e4c37e08ff8089c8742273261d299	The palace is characterized by an eclectic mix of different styles, characteristic of the architecture of the mid 19th century.
0cd87b082f2b20aa754b2482cc94e75473de1c66	In the plan, it has the shape of a square with a courtyard.
58820aedb267b90455ba378c0e5951f3af28d357	There are about seven hundred rooms in the palace.
60bb4f23fe9dedec244c8cf4bb2ee9f172b0c9c5	The facades and interiors are designed in the Russian style, the propagandist of which was the Tone.
96e7884b5ab397083658a17447b3b8344ed3a1d8	On the first floor of the palace there were residential and utility rooms, on the second — the front rooms with two light halls.
244fa6c7c8f7bc408cc5456056374c0c0952205a	The halls are dedicated to pre revolutionary Russian orders.
1e9f6edf2cdf9d0c0ec46d6864117c90b5b7f01e	The largest of them, St. George's, is covered with a cylindrical vault, on its walls there are boards with the names of military units and the names of officers awarded the Order of St. George.
a20876037f89177e4d3d267671733020547a44fb	In addition to the Vladimir and Catherine Halls, there are also St. Andrew's and Alexander's halls.
1bdea1664e32b382afd9499ad792a736cc8c863c	They were rebuilt in 1934, restored again in 1999.
6c905e38474cc9b35b4c15d271e52a99e8ee8ca0	Solemn receptions are held in the St. George's Hall, the inauguration of the president of Russia takes place.
5c9b7d4976a86b5d4bd2a3677c7c49a4e9f55320	In 1851, he built the Armory building next to the Borovitsky Gate, which is similar in architecture to the Grand Kremlin Palace.
5bdf29de8d85a34b6b9c9d923b1617fbf8001112	It is a rectangular two story building, on the second floor of which there are two light halls, the walls are decorated with 58 marble bas relief portraits of medallions of Russian princes and tsars by the sculptor F. I. Shubin.
c44199a25101f4b0f20c5e74024990bae25b0f54	Since 1806 a museum, since 1813 it has been open to visitors.
b74bc75c25432f20d05fee4ee73db324e33f3b21	Arsenal and the Senate The northern zone of the Kremlin is formed by the buildings of the Arsenal, the Senate and the Kremlin Palace of Congresses.
8fca948efd79f82166b2e36a0fcfaadcde5661c0	The building was repeatedly burned, and it acquired its final appearance in 1737, when the architect D. V. Ukhtomsky built the second floor; in 1816-28 it was restored according to the Beauvais project.
b3927a9c86b921bd5dd91d4a0984ac5f08d36c12	The compositional center of the building is a solemn round meeting hall, crowned with a 20 meter dome located along the axis of the Senate Tower.
d9643e566a8901595df31a3a456f6c1d314f8d0c	The beautiful Corinthian colonnade, the coffered sphere of the dome is one of the highest achievements of the architecture of Russian classicism of the 18th century.
8e3ba1b698b65842664169d56a8e1098a94163e5	Triangular in plan, the building has three courtyards.
a37b5ba41b82239e0edae712f642355e7f649788	In 1959-61, the building of the Kremlin Palace of Congresses was built opposite the Arsenal (architect M. V. Posokhin).
ce5e71da38ad9ce2112125fb7de0ee458997dc8d	Its architecture has the character of an official parade and is dissonant with the surrounding monuments of the Kremlin.
f6ff3f71c38374123942ea0e6a20872e563cb86e	At a height of 29 m, the building is buried in the ground for 15 m.
de460914bcb83c9e43f7da59e0c0d4f0eddb6a05	The meeting room is designed for 6000 seats.
3797c92806bd51be99bbced9ee9978c4adf1c9ef	Today, the building is used as the second stage of the Bolshoi Theater.
16fad546aa8a1c199fcad6d2471a565e97ab3314	It was severely damaged during the invasion of the French in 1812: the altar of the cathedral church was turned into the bedroom of Marshal Davout, the shrines were desecrated, the relics of the founder of the monastery, Metropolitan Alexey, were thrown out of the shrine (later found).
2eb4208391b2e42c211a64a4a8a8ed11c3bd45fc	In 1918, together with the nearby Voznesensky Monastery (founded in the late 14th early 15th centuries by Grand Duchess Evdokia, in the monastic life of Efrosinya, the widow of Dmitry Donskoy), it was closed by the Kremlin commandant Malkov as a "nest of counter revolutionaries".
af9341eafb901a9284f4d6b4d885189fc07fca65	(V.
4007f932c6da2eab969523086faca1b4c99e4ee6	A. Rezvin)
23a7f25f0294a3b2695d9f991ef65933ca1922b0	Do you know how the Kremlin was hidden?
b726923955c01eb2346aa3f2840cc2ac8818a037	Three dimensional models of residential buildings were built along the entire perimeter of the Kremlin Wall, the battlements were not visible behind them.
f04094dd57a85dd2ba9ea08b7f5cc1e1e1f51b35	The mausoleum became three storied, and a sandy road was built from the Borovitsky Gate to the Spassky Ones, depicting a highway.
00098d52adb7f33d6de99ff54318b02ec5cb9334	If earlier the light yellow facades of the Kremlin buildings were distinguished by their brightness, now they have become" like everyone else " – dirty gray, the roofs also had to change color from green to the all Moscow red brown.
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153f5aa0de9c4ca88c336cda5a85412de6ce40c7	Holidays and weekends in Moscow
d18a788a440ad02e3f8bb9bece0ff541ee05f885	Moscow
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cdd816030f14b80e340abee68697ebfd95dd5f42	Bus tour "Lights of Moscow at night"
6e8704caeec3c1813d3a9dae3542d362a97e8427	Excursion to the Mosfilm film studio from the company ...
425cd00ac4d90358dc5b5e6e92776300ee3bdff2	"The vulture is removed" - sightseeing tour of Bunker 42
28aafcd100ae564d4450552eb5f0cccfbebc0ca5	New Year's bus expedition through the streets of Moscow ...
d0835a14b965d8b990c0d0eb36e782a1b9c180c1	Where to go in Moscow "The main sights of Moscow" The Moscow Kremlin, past and present
1d466b5fa28bf00f3fef4ef2a54f9ac265050ccd	The Moscow Kremlin, past and present
c6a71621d483305a1a3b7070c6d300ba2fadc00f	1 103252
12d474b9a7f2080d9e33ff9511c5e21cd5920fa1	Time: daily from 10: 00 to 17: 00, Thursday is closed.
dc1113ec0bce6c4f75f03dfc8a0e5fdacaebb318	The Moscow Kremlin is the main attraction of the city.
04eafa606d8e4bcc17a4bc9c9ccc6c2a1eb300b6	It is quite easy to get to it.
9234c8db0a8db99fa7992d1618a24135efe4070b	There are several metro stations, leaving which you can walk to the Kremlin.
44f8b9564dc404185ccbb1c6c84ca49fcd110100	The Alexander Garden station will take you, as you can easily guess, straight to the Alexander Garden.
a6b36012ff70e9fd57c141224febcb7a05215688	There you will already see the Kutafya Tower, where they sell tickets to the Kremlin and to the Armory Chamber.
00c7f89d5298333a532948c05c778d7db1a2dbcc	You can also go to the metro station.
6dde3bce573aa45f79d128b3276aacc46b5d340b	V. I. Lenin Library.
7cc70d29df49439e6c413e3e6141cb38cd8e8b7a	In this case, the Kutafya Tower will be visible across the road.
50748974ed3cf8b8946fc3ffdbb484c0816ed098	The stations Revolution Square and Kitay Gorod will take you to Red Square, only from different sides.
80aba416240cdfda379b4c4be2b9cfed7b5ed913	The first is from the State Historical Museum, the second is from the Pokrovsky Cathedral.
277e64f5b2189e79958ad85f7ff0804928a3e939	You can also go out on Okhotny Ryad – if you want to walk along the shopping mall of the same name.
9aa399f0a97efd81ce2a6d03a35d88efc3d30500	Just be prepared for unusual prices)).
e1dc627c6401ddf270aa745f93e6192fd89d3185	About prices to the Kremlin museums.
48d955f24da23902bb8d3bd3aa656414d25a147c	Visiting the Kremlin is not a cheap pleasure.
7121b00aa15678d559ca4a6c81dacaae159a369f	An hour and a half visit to the Armory Chamber will cost 700 rubles, the Diamond Fund 500 rubles, a walk around the Kremlin with an inspection of cathedrals 350 rubles, without cathedrals – 200 rubles.
ed3b3779ae34b959dea82f378da94f54bc685f2b	For more information about museums and some nuances about visiting them that you should know, see the links.
5cf4e824626d0e64563e54b4b3b039ca1e0d68ef	If I manage to escape to the Kremlin, I will write about it.
a28b42a4a375c4e1e7d8e6c61d5675a2d9539488	The history of the Moscow Kremlin.
8f83a50ea56cfc9dcf3710d911f3376a4ffd5564	In the old days, there were different times.
2472545623ea5784c9869a5ca24f9b91b7dac4b2	It happened that countless enemy forces attacked Russian cities.
5fde99d8adc9f7deb88175f8b49bbb8adbc05b43	That's when the residents of the city gathered under the protection of their Kremlin.
c08423f1ef806d422457af5fb432c37b2b66983d	The old and small took refuge behind its powerful walls, and those who could hold weapons in their hands defended themselves from enemies from the walls of the Kremlin.
1824adef606baa93056b863e7ef012e71b066369	The Moscow Kremlin is the main attraction of Moscow
0f3a84275ce96270eb39f1345daf0e070ee08d56	The first settlement on the site of the Kremlin appeared about 4000 years ago.
b6f630f496f44af0839756cd8952b7fae036b5fa	This was established by archaeologists.
dabf16905489dd7c17e286f77340428db34c22df	Fragments of clay pots, stone axes and flint arrowheads were found here.
ebe5d774d1bc8d84a7e876697aac44631a6a70d2	These things were once used by ancient settlers.
5c585722b6445f5c16a80a9ce55d83cf7c16814d	Originally, the Kremlin was made of wood.
2579c42219bd7ef9e0112fba082aaa192cd76821	An earthen rampart was built around its walls for greater reliability.
d051a6e45ff29aeafe5e22ad6e12781aeb808bde	The remains of these fortifications were discovered during construction work in our time.
fd1a8ebece091b7ea7d9b8d116dcbb6baeaac38f	It is known that the first wooden walls on the site of the Kremlin were built in 1156 by order of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky.
720fa6a075c71c0dd3c415f330cc9f0e73e32dae	These data have been preserved in ancient chronicles.
e1ab7b57f1dbb563b52def55a87d74b14bcfe7aa	At the beginning of the 14th century, Ivan Kalita began to rule the city.
50d4815f371053ab305bde7c7a91612175f9cf56	Kalita in ancient Russia was called a bag for money.
01d3acfbba3521bbcbdc4ccf228c3f05fea553b5	The prince was so called because he had accumulated great wealth and always carried a small bag of money with him.
7cc4f3871b36f715929fdd222512ca35322bab0f	Prince Kalita decided to decorate and strengthen his city.
18ca04a3c55247bfe896fd37c9bde39ee528fba5	He ordered the Kremlin to build new walls.
7b031b8f44e890ab0f682f25e00f18d399682266	They were cut down from strong oak trunks, so thick that you canot even wrap your arms around them.
95c8ac8989eee6844b5f636a25117164dce1e68e	Under the next ruler of Moscow, Dmitry Donskoy, other stone walls were built for the Kremlin.
539b4ab9adcf5d488cbd50061d7fea0d2d6cc042	Stone craftsmen were gathered from all over the district to Moscow.
d44b3e83db01fa34ce0e1e70a08260075f8516cc	And in 1367. they set to work.
7676ab67c0d0300444c9a39bc936f721d64b1d5f	People worked without a break, and soon Borovitsky Hill was surrounded by a powerful stone wall, 2 or even 3 meters thick.
0619c7e8e50e775e1836dc1c2c25a3dc300961b4	It was built of limestone, which was mined in quarries near Moscow near the village of Myachkovo.
a5a4685c12715b19b3bdeb2ea9aad87e2ba68fd2	The Kremlin so impressed its contemporaries with the beauty of its white walls that since then Moscow has been called white stone.
ad5adb1f6fb7ac68cee1796011d1bc9376003a78	Prince Dmitry was a very brave man.
d96ee3e735655552479a4e5905747f798cfd6c9a	He always fought in the first ranks and it was he who led the fight against the conquerors from the Golden Horde.
32b4191181cc723ca9171eb366a48e869125f6fd	In 1380, his army defeated the army of Khan Mamai on the Kulikovo field, which is not far from the Don River.
5209adb715d9173a5bdb03e729440760336fbc5a	This battle was called Kulikovskaya, and the prince has since received the nickname Donskoy.
322cec2d2096848b3903091a3874b4e916625aff	The white stone Kremlin has stood for more than 100 years.
b88d70d0cf6db07cbcc798683ea28e2c2af2e1fe	A lot has changed during this time.
689c96ee5fa7fc39d4d1ac3e0a0eae3be3715e19	The Russian lands have united into one strong state.
e095b44b66d4f5335b528423f5f7668a6ba91c57	Moscow became its capital.
1fa4ed06eddac302bda6d190e469a110db6c01b2	This happened under the Moscow Prince Ivan III.
d299c988bdf4927877d8a31f7ffdd20df78790d7	Since then, he has been called the Grand Duke of All Russia, and historians call him "the collector of the Russian land".
e0c967ddf749eb3b4726b8c1bf3ab8fb9f0b89ed	Ivan III gathered the best Russian masters and invited Aristotle Fearovanti, Antonio Solario and other famous architects from faraway Italy.
689023e4eb6ddc2c01953f2610cfa4de47ea3dc1	And now, under the guidance of Italian architects, new construction began on Borovitsky Hill.
e3eac2af0de2de3313ad1864ba39139c33839ed0	In order not to leave the city without a fortress, the builders erected a new Kremlin in parts: they dismantled a section of the old white stone wall and quickly built a new one in its place - from bricks.
59bd10e33e7531d9661cfba986263d52ce3ef1a5	There was quite a lot of clay suitable for its production in the vicinity of Moscow.
f8088a34b496681f3dd55ab0819b982cd3a5f739	However, clay is a soft material.
df584150196bd5bb0dce5fb1a3690a479dd30f9e	To make the brick hard, it was fired in special furnaces.
922d740e7c7e56a8f3a882821954d5a7864f8f39	Our ancestors called the overseas lands fryazhsky, and the natives from there fryazin.
50a87302c7833bc71e84073854607a1562f9a981	The new Kremlin was built for 10 years.
6ffa71868d08140323bbaf3a620dfa68c223c5f4	The fortress was protected on both sides by rivers, and at the beginning of the 16th century.a wide moat was dug on the third side of the Kremlin.
9e0f910da393f134a2cf1c1da9e30eb26e29e68c	It connected two rivers.
228d1d0245e0941ab81905d0ddb9443fe9f33856	Now the Kremlin was protected from all sides by water barriers.
c1ee8455d78d8e07e5c9df5ebe7e5dce56e30b40	The towers of the Kremlin were erected one after another, they were equipped with diverting archers for greater defense capability.
1ffd6576b66da580d0118bfe03c783a6742d3de9	Along with the renovation of the fortress walls, the construction of such famous cathedrals of the Kremlin as the Assumption, Arkhangelsk and Annunciation took place.
1657a91373b30645a8b4b3632f2ea770c86103bb	After the wedding to the Romanov kingdom, the construction of the Kremlin began at an accelerated pace.
d409ca7768d2a8805d6f844379fe449e82e4fa08	The Filaret belfry was built next to the bell tower of Ivan the Great, the Teremnaya, the Funny Palaces, the Patriarchal Chambers and the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles.
bcda1b30c6c46dd9f40a7cb468e96a440fd40886	Under Peter I, the Arsenal building was erected.
5683a1f00ea0dd47ba9e632f28bd1b4940545623	But after the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, new buildings were no longer erected.
af5d6c6cb47df1d04114ff0833792d854f7c552a	During the reign of Catherine II, a number of ancient buildings and part of the southern wall were demolished on the territory of the Kremlin for the construction of a new palace.
cfa06986b8f1e7c641a68eb649d3e869870fc599	But soon the work was canceled, according to the official version due to lack of funding, according to the unofficial version because of the negative opinion of the public.
3595ebb43fafa2440509e22db372b16591706495	In 1776-87, the Senate building was built
0d3917194825891285010f7dd4a2235b3aa52a1f	During the invasion of Napoleon, the Kremlin was severely damaged.
88f88daf1cfeb166d57a9a01483133ee467b0bcb	Churches were desecrated, looted, and part of the walls, towers, and buildings were blown up during the retreat.
35ec93914d639d16256c5d1512936f25782db033	In 1816-19, restoration works were carried out in the Kremlin.
86f5e9c001bb635225ffd9cdad0692b5b784f234	By 1917, there were 31 churches in the Kremlin.
0123b33480d0f99b7c26163ee498c4d3bd096174	Under the Soviet regime, the Kremlin Palace of Congresses was built on the territory of the Kremlin, stars were installed on the towers, the Tsar Cannon and the Tsar Bell were placed on pedestals, the walls and structures of the Kremlin were repeatedly restored.
9e839ed909c1f3b3394ad5440c88b14b50e4135b	See other famous sights of Moscow
b2e6f5770b7a73d502479d7037c01cea26de8995	Where is the Moscow Kremlin, past and present
49a28052790b2c8ac21b00933a040dc5dc5fb9ee	Metro station
2015116e1b038ba2653d25a82e1c24c3ac8b9e18	Alexander Garden, Borovitskaya, Library named afterLenin, Okhotny Ryad, Revolution Square
2fbec8642c09d88490bd9d67cba80237916e5524	Placemarks:Interesting places The Kremlin
504a497cd37cd08124b846a70db14ecba661da8c	Novospassky Monastery
b9895e4d5ed0ed6ef72d2cabea77461922e73d50	Pokrovsky Cathedral - St. Basil's Cathedral
0ed10291fb66e5a0bc6c1b036932f78dfc7503e6	Reviews for the recording - "The Moscow Kremlin, past and present"
f676dde5e42821dfb4eec44e961ee5693cb1cd9d	sasha 15/05/2011 at 20: 38
b47227730eca3ef8afb72d815ec8762ae28dc72e	I really like it !
5ae61dd118124aab46c1400a96add632ce46865c	And especially the story!
65bd13e8fb6d8cb39429237aaf8a605f8e92c63e	Although I will not pass it soon, because I am all Russian in the 3rd class !
ebea84bd0ae3a6df00d1cc2d11f62a69e8164705	I did a doclat about him .
c5a22243b047cb0b13ce5a3bab9a0502a62b0a31	Correct about the Mask !
eb33f9301fc01e73a1804cb724438a9e43a19578	The Kremlin rules !
6b2bd26e44304c27b68a5012ae7b15cd6edf69a3	Leave your review for the recording of the Moscow Kremlin, past and present
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3d3e32b6ec05ac3f67012746e6748dcaf24e7bcd	Return" at the Megasport Sports Palace
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bfa6cca36e563b1ce7bb369a2d7ee0b3e25e1267	Anna's latest comments: On January 6, we visited the exhibition.
6095d693789cf6f1faa9a423ac7ea95534fa4519	Alex: We tried to go to the museum on Zubovsky - 750 rubles....
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396409495f9f9462ae5854e3616cde87bf552057	Svetlana: Yesterday, after standing for 20 minutes of the crowd through the frame, I had...
89c63d5eca9fc1fc04bb07417786c0bb4f597ca6	Anna: The long awaited holidays have come!
1482073e2d2c5c5646517b526258b7b9dba1abfe	Natalia: I really liked the exhibition .
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c2b3ea70c696b2d0159be800fc86e5d955b70a22	In the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin on 13/12/2009
720744f8b8fc9bc8591fb39f1150cfe542e0edde	Japanese garden in the Botanical Garden 21/05/2015
a1ec8c59a873970505a372366ca239e082ee01f5	Moscow Zoo 12/09/2010
0de4929db8e690a0a5f0b2cd0a3143aa7f0c2b3a	Sokolniki Park 27/06/2012
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684f91ea3de42e5c75fa98cfd3ec5e4c87f5068f	Recent entries Exhibition "The Story of a journey" in the Vlachernskoe – Kuzminki estate Christmas evening with Sweet Epil Ticket to the New Year's show "Chinese Circus" in Gostiny Dvor with a 50% discount%
47e04472836a1bcf13694c6bdeeefdc1c33c20b0	New Year's master classes at the CDM on Lubyanka New Year's holidays at the CDM on Lubyanka Ticket to the New Year's play "Mother Snowstorm", "Secrets of the Snow Queen", "New Year at the school of sorceresses" or "Masha's New Year's adventures or how to become a Baba Yaga" from the Experiment theater Bus tour "A Christmas fairy tale in the Ethno World" from the Stolitsa group of companies Passing the quest "Beyond the senses" for a team of 2 to 4 people from the CRSQUEST company
44224f9bc6853127b419f72dc02af17cbf8205c0	Do you want to know where to go on the weekend?
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2798585de95227aa16f9ddef987bb078e2ca1501	Interesting Places of Moscow © 2009-2015 All rights reserved.
a5fe6eeaeaf305686577004add4f6ed63d302ab4	Copying of the site materials is allowed if there is an active link to the source.
b05a6160d9a315c196b5f5d1c3c3223aa4b5b844	E-sports (outside the CIS is better known as English e Sports) is a gaming competition using computer technologies, where a computer simulates a virtual space inside which the competition takes place.
8415ab8b2a9faf425eacf4eb7dad5ad5a0cd28b2	All computer games, and competitions on them, are divided into several main classes, distinguished by the properties of spaces, models, a game task and the developed gaming skills of esports players.
d27fcf844443310cc36b0a01d7c1549b57e9bb54	The website of the FCC of the Russian Federation indicates that 0.5% of the population actively plays computer games.
6018c8b2580c8d227ae7b6eb251b01307481cfcb	Large competitions can gather up to several thousand participants, and the duration of the games reaches 10 continuous days.
803490eb025dc14d7d79f482c24eed80f39345f9	The history of esports began with the game Doom 2, which had a network game mode via a local computer network.
afed5d8981f47f241bb9ca6e7ff7311c933e9955	Due to the popularity of the game Quake, in 1997 the first league of esports players appeared in the United States — Cyberathlete Professional League.
a7d3855382b56721dd28a5fdb0928ff5312c9116	The history of esports begins in 1997, when CPL was founded, which made the first tournament in the Quake discipline[2].
1d2abe8f5398ad474860b11e494a47979fda521e	But the first game with the possibility of cooperative combat was Doom 2.
0666cd8fa169bc12976e92119bfb30822a29c5cc	Russia has become the first country in the world to recognize esports as an official sport.
de2464a117fe76f168f57b30ebeea94d491935e5	This happened on July 25, 2001 by order of the then head of the State Sports Committee of Russia, Pavel Rozhkov.
5b347ef3e943d485e1dd248c4715b2bbf7d3aaf7	After the change of leadership and the renaming of the State Sports Committee of Russia into the Federal Agency for Physical Culture and Sports, as well as in connection with the subsequent introduction of the All-Russian Register of Sports (VRVS), it was necessary to repeat the procedure for recognizing computer sports on March 12, 2004 by order of the head of the State Sports Committee of Russia Vyacheslav Fetisov.
dafb55008d9e7b0fa70458985fdb8cd417ba042c	In July 2006, esports was excluded from the All-Russian Register of Sports[7] due to the fact that it did not meet the criteria necessary for inclusion in this register: development in more than half of the subjects of the Russian Federation and the presence of an all-Russian physical culture and sports association registered in accordance with the established procedure.
107e888448c8717036db01f3e20f7d8101b58856	Esports competitions are held all over the world, including international ones.
17d661052a8ab31ecdb57dac6a4dde2d262afaed	The most significant and analogous of the Olympic Games[9] is the international tournament World Cyber Games (WCG), which was held in various countries from 2000 to 2013.
29610c40f7d62185d35c10972a0353817cee22da	In addition to WCG, Cyberathlete Professional League and Electronic Sports League are regularly held.
8b8cf2ccc4f2d604a9536b29b2947c6526872203	In addition to competitions with a prize fund, there are a number of semi-professional leagues that organize competitions in the form of online cups and ladders.
8969b23f7d3f0c91ae137a3943fb2b9449f1e010	The most well-known and popular ones include ClanBase, ESL, etc.
9c162fe1718d66ec2f59cbefdf35b575154fc7f6	In addition to the protocol that confirms the fact of the tournament[10], Russia has strict rules for conducting competitions established by the Esports Federation[10].
24b1ae2f39b569f7b500d0d3488a1c25492f95bd	According to the protocols, athletes are awarded ranks and rating points in the All-Russian rating system for computer sports.
e182b3ce34f84a54c30f59cd1a2c69757c135dfd	In addition to the protocol, it is mandatory to have a team of judges, which consists of the chief judge and the game judges (if there are several of them), line judges, observers and technical judges.
975a3099cd46d0e862ce9937ba2fdc4cb63e6bff	The winner of the competition in esports is the player or team that showed the best result in the final battle.
4a428337a101b9db5cbe15aef6d70179e8a9bd2b	You can't use any games in esports
464f4df78fb39228f4f2ea19a320671c46249ae7	For example, games that contain an element of randomness that prevails over the skill factor of the game are not suitable for competitions.
f88e865b5c4da9c2351138d6d1dcc072415ca6d4	Thus, games of the MOBA or RTS genres often fall into the category of esports disciplines[11].
6d59a5664922458ba8f83a8650cc971aa21f8bac	Warcraft 3 was one of the main and spectacular disciplines.
86f4cf17a4c01dfc07e4340911ec4e9cb3ca9ebe	With the release of the second part of StarCraft as an esports discipline, Warcraft 3 began to weaken. The last major tournament was WCG 2013.
7673885e77d03759d6a75c8936471620a7a096ea	In 2013, the esports discipline League Of Legends was recognized as a real sport, and its participants were recognized as real athletes.
4063ff11e2a4f5e8e31f358f91bac143d8df1575	This makes it easier for players from other countries to enter the United States through a simplified visa system.
2dd3659c6fb000820499d1201ceeec0fc220a777	There is an ESL in which more than a million dollars are played annually.
1079f9ff76ed8b7336b38956c2272ab9bbfc16da	One of the largest esports organizations in Russia was the National Professional Esports League (NPKL), which was established in 2004 and was engaged in conducting esports competitions among professional gamers.
018177719aa2e9fcd1c4570826405cceb0074533	For the first time in Russia, the NPKL applied a show format for holding esports matches, created one professional esports club (already closed) and launched a regular championship organized according to the principle of the largest sports leagues and associations.
c66e0b7a639e42db5983105dad89d9f9d3f2cf4c	Currently, the league has ceased to exist.
52b0f9dca47df7e8c924f6ad6c268eb4bcbcee9f	Esports organizations exist in several CIS countries, including Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.
80190be06872821cc60c164d82c0e26373820780	One of the largest tournaments in the CIS countries was the ASUS Open[source not specified 788 days], held quarterly since 2003.
087be686db90f1f247d98f0550836e908bba7a74	The prize funds are one of the largest among the CIS championships — up to 1 million rubles.
28adeb21ba4933a9602ff2f8c8bea38b3315b061	WCG qualifying games, the winners of which go to the World Cyber Games Championship, are also one of the prestigious competitions of the CIS countries.
42ecbcc5696d682e7fc282f003bada276824d44a	At the moment, WCG has ceased its activities.
3e707ed0ca71c4ea20621c367c83d10100c272e6	TechLabs cup has taken a stable position among the CIS cyber festivals since 2012.
3c878a14a8f459988e9e5248b7da98b3ae639e02	Moscow, Minsk, Kiev and Almaty are four cities that have been hosting the TechLabs team for the festival since 2010.
98ccbb5d2933d0e266ca91975ebdfe98c371d3d1	There are also various non-commercial tournaments, for example, RDL (Russian Duel League for Quake II).
4ab7dbbdfeae19c75e60baa5a6fb965cd3ad990c	The largest individual Starcraft 2 league in Europe is the Russian RSL project-Russian Starcraft 2 League, organized by sc2tv.ru.
7d3e0b00bce99fe6aedf79bc166367cab6f4eb0f	The largest league for Counter Strike Source and Counter Strike: Global Offensive, as well as Dota 2 for 2014 is the CSPL league.
b4b8ed60e47069d1fe82f3d8731e49a4c4f5950a	There is no Internet and computers in remote cities of India, but at the same time there is no problem with this in large cities.
f224d86e90140f46cc63f37c673aac3d9da35dee	For more than ten years, the dominant discipline was Counter Strike 1.6[16][15] and regularly participated in the World Cyber Games Grand Final and Electronic Sports World Cup.
fb85b97e8afcb9534cd4249f6acf712169131de3	The debut performance on the world stage was WCG 2002, where the TUI team lost all the matches, by the way, together with them in the group were the champions of that M19 tournament[15].
651c74b01df176c90ae36c617dac595140aa7799	The two most famous teams are ACID (participants of WCG 2003, WCG 2004, WCG 2005) and Team ATE[15].
131d9478738b4c57c8311f018dc7eb82c1d8c195	The most famous players are "r4iD" and "RiTz".
aaa93bb5aa03a95135475f991776510f0b25b3bd	With the advent of free to play MOBA games League of Legends and DOTA 2, the outdated CS 1.6 is losing its position, it should be noted that LoL is a somewhat more popular game in this country, and more tournaments are held on it[15].
8f40257deb96474895869ecfca4fa8625bab8624	Frag portals are the promotion and popularization of these games nation.in and afkgaming.com.
9da3b313516a705bba3ac9eaf3939f43c47656c7	Due to the proximity of Mexico to the United States, most gamers use consoles, not computers.
69abbf30d8a5f55a5861b8459b6009545a53b5b7	StarCraft II is the most popular discipline supported by three organizations: Team Quetzal, Team Neo Forze and xGamers.
7be5527321c7723cbb5e14e49e980f03f5bd2384	In the League of Legends discipline, their success; 4th place at WCG 2013[17].
a602312aa6f91e3a580dcb8decdab5496b21e368	Team disciplines in Italy are weak, for example, at WCG in Counter Strike and DOTA 2 disciplines, Italian teams do not leave the group.
f9d592344a7e1a27bb65d85ee28a8b55682a3f60	But, in individual disciplines, they earned one medal at the ESWC and a dozen at the WCG[18].
5c842ce5aa46a21d4922a547c09d7b994397c97f	In Italy, the StarCraft II discipline is popular, where three organizations dominate: Old School Clan, InFerno eSports and Team Redbyte Italia[18].
3adb12278c497192cbddbba5666f5130ca336b4d	Esports are actively broadcast on sports channels.
6e16fd6ca60cb13dfb10aee33c764bc0b8d7aed4	In 2007, the Counter Strike: Source season of the Russian Championship was broadcast on the sports channel 7TV with the submission of the National Professional Esports League, where 32 Division A matches were shown once a week, each game[19].
06afe32c14dfa3359d0943bebaaf7af0b2310a23	The article on the formation of esports on the pages of the official website of the Team Empire esports organization proves that esports has achieved recognition as one of the sports disciplines, because there are long-established rules in the disciplines, the intellectual abilities of participants are used, mandatory training is carried out, and, finally, interpersonal relationships are also an established fact[11].
33687096d8c3f26dd73b19193e8c0c2323046d36	On January 27, at a special conference in Seoul, the Korean Electronic Sports Association (KeSPA) successfully promoted esports to the ranks of second-level sports disciplines.
ff347fa647ee5f4f903fd470f52911b6252d4152	So far, we are talking about the recognition of esports only by the Korean committee, in order to claim something serious, you need the recognition of the IOC itself[20]
435d62c6d551426f7cda5cfea2bb0bea06b2bda9	Electronic championships do not have a clear organization: one world tournament can be held every month, therefore, more than one world champion may appear in each discipline in a year[21].
04601a361d7921d8b886ab6778be78cbae530629	Even major championships can delay the payment of prize money to winners.
cd293a6fcca65a7e6987f24e224ca51f72f73c2b	For example, ACON5 2005 did not pay $ 5,000 to the German team defusekids for Counter Strike, which took third place.
44952788f6181db0c70a1d7d063dc195822d351c	In response, one of the team members — Yannik Bindo-wrote an open letter describing the situation[22].
a16a5539e4c7d2c59b0f5f758869085db1a3b3b3	Like any sport, millions of people bet on esports.
01be170bd13504ab22419bb744c821a7830bd014	Today, esports is on the 8th place in terms of betting volume among all sports.
2f2e8f628ac617b9680767068055f40182877a9d	Analysts say that in 2018, esports will overtake football in popularity, and will come out on top.
ff250f51aa88779c309e0b51f8663b0d39252d4d	But since esports is a new phenomenon, not all bookmakers accept bets on it.
16434b0e171f73c2456182d18528af385b8d04db	Egamingbets is popular in English-speaking countries, and Betsstore is popular in Russia.
9ce4f0f0c6689a1ec096f6435a6fe019408ee19e	The bookmaker's website usually has match statistics.
2ad4afccf0c8a7c97ac1333357ba993adcd628c0	You can also look at the probability of winning your favorite team.[source not specified 193 days]
3053892aaa8521d71921ba94042c0477c50e012d	Large competitions are held in special places where the public can watch the players sitting at computers, and track the progress of the match on a large screen, where images from the screens of the players are broadcast
c669074ff0252ea456ebb028f5458db5f642480d	In South Korea, due to the large number of spectators, such competitions are held at stadiums.
736f8086561fcc78379b7f9024f05eaeed28943b	Smaller-scale competitions are held in computer clubs and Internet cafes.
38b3ad3727af850dfff37979717238baeb161396	In addition, there are online competitions that are held via the Internet.
bfb7e9029917e019dca55de0136a87963d5f91d9	In 2015, at The International 5 Dota 2 World Championship, the prize fund of which is more than $18,000,000, the American team Evil Geniuses won more than $6,500,000
8a71b4295af9752863cc7b2ce47e22fa8a4e025e	One of the members of the "Evil Geniuses" team is a 16-year-old Pakistani boy Syed "Sumail" Hassan
eeb1ec01a2c1716436a828ba3af691f9647438f1	In 2014, at The International 4 Dota 2 World Championship, with a prize pool of more than $10,000,000, the Chinese team NewBee won $5,000,000.
4dbfc25d75fd1d02cd18da9dae3e7ddf77db41ae	In 2014, the prize money of The International 4 Dota 2 World Championship will amount to at least $10,931,105.
43485d0aa526edff6a3bf977c30329aa32819a0c	Of these, $ 1.6 million was provided by the organizers of the tournament — Valve, and the rest was collected by the voluntary purchase of an in-game compendium item by the players.
e39173d5506c9c0d7fe9fc2a654d2c0f786899b9	In 2013, SK Telecom1 won about $ 1,000,000 for the 3rd season of the World Championship at the RiotGames tournament for the League of Legends game.
3fe3ee37350a8266bf3503145c8e94f1222cad27	The prize fund of the season was $ 2,050,000 per season divided into 14 teams[23].
e9ca401841f1c621d215097ee875ef61d4eec3fb	In 2013, at The International 3 Dota 2 World Championship, with a prize fund of $ 2,874,407, The Alliance team won $ 1,437,203.[24]
30d30db2147265b069455fa167c196198590ed6a	In 2012, Taipei Assasins won $ 1,000,000 for the 2nd season of the World Championship at the RiotGames tournament for the League of Legends game.
883907a99fd162999014b274bb23222de0fffce7	The prize fund of the season was $ 1,970,000.[23]
12f86c47e05f6ee5f139715efdd1cff532b04597	In 2011, the Na'VI team won at The International Dota 2 tournament.
7863439b114ce1cad875d06c64d06ddda99a68b4	Per team (5 people) they received $ 1,000,000.
76a1301a26bc3a342350eeb55d104fbd77727ca4	Previously, at major competitions, the prize fund reached $ 1,000,000 or more.
a9d8423925bae88205117bba0ee98ee0e6b54f92	The biggest prize in the history of esports competitions was won by Jonathan Wendell, who performs under the nickname "Fatal1ty".
d88148ce2ddc683e7aa7f270e2c041fe2f46b020	In the final of the Painkiller competition in 2005, his winnings amounted to $ 150,000.
02a7984b8d3f0986783d533109cced13db21d3f4	Salaries of Korean StarCraft players range from $ 20,000 to $ 600,000 per year.
9f1ed41b523be3408178327b81c6e5d8a243d9b7	The prize funds of major competitions are most often sponsored by companies associated with the production of components, peripherals and computer software.[source not specified 781 days]
0c8a998b0a1d733d7d107258a2be65245741f0f3	In 2002, the Russian player "uNkind" took first place at the World Cyber Games for the game Quake III and went home with the amount of $ 20,000[2].
ecec8c14bfe9ed41cb09f3309791df6b3f40e28b	Also in 2002, at the World Cyber Games, the St. Petersburg Counter strike M19 team took first place and took $ 40,000 with them;
7197b2dca96af62dec7bae0fd9a1810823032ac8	Still in the same Quake III, the player "Cooler" took first place at Cyber [X]Gaming, held in Las Vegas, USA, and won $ 20,000[2].
a1480cf9a1b8189c36f8355fe96e5e71976d97ee	In 2005, the 3D.Androide player won a silver medal at the StarCraft competition, earning $ 10,000[2].
4038d062f1a0c3e816d2df3ba3a4dced6a4c5df6	In 2006, two Russian players "USSRxAlan" and "USSRxMrRASER" took first and second place in NFS: Most Wanted, receiving $ 15,000 and $ 8,000, respectively[2].
8629611f77208af20c854e5523aae6cfb60cecb4	In 2007, " Logitech. Alan "(ex." USSRxAlan") won a bronze medal in the discipline NFS: Carbon[2].
a4da6d342f48b5a372840b5b63b038512e29f517	2008 brought us the Russian final in Need For Speed and bronze from Dmitry Kostin under the nickname "Happy" in Warcraft 3[2].
1a7356f2b6498af12f1800982e4f514056bd2994	In esports, teams of players are traditionally called clans.
a18df412726b1fe39131dd224349186846af61fe	Some types of computer games, such as Counter Strike, are created only for a team competition, while others allow you to play both in the "1x1" mode and team to team.
81a12a8b4835c81f337dd9bede0983a11c3bbfdc	There are several major esports associations and federations in the world.
31f5725efc808cf328c445761e4053b517785024	If associations are called upon to improve and protect esports from the position of players, trying to raise salaries, establish some guarantees, then federations, on the contrary, are interested in the interests of the audience and the competitive part.
c32fc32910dc594887a74f7ef28254ba82fa2bc2	It is the latter that set the rules and entertainment of the match.
ae42efc98bbf4e687cdc2b370c059e0b7d30b7b2	The FCC of the Russian Federation is authorized to create a Russian national team based on the annual results of performances at the main competitions of the year, the ratings of athletes and the submission of the Presidential Council of the FCC[25].
8f7f8b299c307f0771ce32f9a686e42865a731a4	The goal of the national team is to win the championship in disciplines and strengthen the prestige of Russia, as well as patriotic education[25].
85ad9ba33ae317b8c25f84408f946843eabf3a5b	In addition to other regulations and regulations, the FCC has issued methodological recommendations for teaching computer sports[26].
38815b5b99808604846659392a49dc94408fa1fd	It is recommended to first master the initial computer management skills[26].
bdeb7302f308c6f780a57e64395e4131ddaf6bf9	After that, with the use of a trainer, the player learns how to control the game[26].
cb3475e20d9782c5bc95b466d1a99e9da4c6126a	Among other things, computer setup, viewing games, developing tactics, improving game techniques, as well as special preparation for important competitions are regulated[26].
785b6dafb3996b59fdce7c7f7d71bd58e4f51810	In 2007, Mousesports, Fnatic and SK gaming formed the G7 League — an association of the largest esports organizations[27].
a614ae9fb5522afc0a6627ec6f2ae86ae39f274b	The motivation for this was the organization of transfers, cooperation with leagues and tournaments, and maintaining a rating of teams in different disciplines[27].
15e8da0d79072662312e5522635850efaab11c7d	During its existence, the association boycotted (G7 members did not compete at competitions) CPL Winter 2007 and ESWC 2010 for non-payment for previous tournament seasons[27].
d9706146f607c429311acd87232a0856524377ec	On March 23, 2013, the first meeting of the National Electronic Sports Commission was held, the purpose of which was to create a professional gaming environment with appropriate rules and responsibilities that are fair both for large organizations and for newer and younger ones[28][29].
2d07fb3a0a446aed8fa2b49ba9cc319657449076	One of the most popular newspapers in the United States of America wrote a huge article on the first page about dota.
2de7f9074a089ccd098243a9488a0f31210c507a	We are talking about the New York Times, which recognized interesting moments in the topic of esports for a general audience and tried to describe the recent events, especially affecting The International 2014.
be5e3b926d1a3c2587f7ed23e26eee3a16e79664	In the first part, we talked mainly about The International 2014 itself and the description of esports as a future sports discipline along with traditional sports.
b371019bf279921b84546a2d53fa238c71f3e4c6	Popular sponsors and the chosen ways of developing esports in the United States of America were mentioned.
4a194ba821533ac96846e221e82c6c5402de478b	The next part of the article concerns the life of a progamer.
13c3e4b495edf4451ade761196264a6c3f5edf88	An example was the bronze medalist of The International 2014 Peter Daguerre, whom you know by the nickname ppd.
8cdb3fd25ffa4b04f3f5173e629a4d8cee84edf9	The next part of the article was reflections on the growth of esports in the coming years.
38ac05ec1101932293beba6c6832b31b06c62648	The editors are also interested in the possibility of establishing esports as an official sports discipline.
1aa45a79b626a27b4a9cf1d32813b112137c574a	Using the example of this article, we can trace how esports turns from a hobby in narrow circles into a mass phenomenon.
86f1799a2c345d45818f1327b81227cf450ecbb9	Esports is gaining momentum not only every year, but also every day.
0762ebee624887df3d6a02c5e4936b9b142b0765	Very soon you will be able to say that you tried to break into the professional scene when it was not yet "mainstream".
9d05399d8988b368e933cc34c1547a5cf1b2d67a	And now we can only wait and watch this most interesting process.
29073dc106ef613696a75cc6acc94a2cbb11e932	A truthful article was published on the website of the information agency, which draws a line between gamers and people with gaming addiction.
27a4df7c500495d1fb070b5f73fb6223e680d9bc	In this article, the author of the domestic media does not invent and does not support various myths about esports, which are often published in the Russian press.
f58e1b8bac28013029062c04900aea62f29922c0	The article is an objective view of esports from the outside.
872f5453527b70a836107e64488c5ecb50617817	These are the impressions of journalist Dmitry Vinogradov from visiting the Techlabs cup tournament, with a total prize fund of 300 thousand dollars.
767b6d2848fd468077ad09269d81a7692f406c7f	The article deals with the question of the existence of esports as such.
7bcf7fd7231fd33116eab52c14bf5311e797c2f6	The author of the article seems to consider esports through the prism of an outsider who sees a tournament where real players are present, and not just people with a gaming addiction.
d004295232c648d73def65f72d05d70b36a5db27	It describes the atmosphere of the tournament, and how the spectators and players behave.
b76324aca8301497828418f0080a5b95fc302c14	We are also talking about the well-known teams Na'VI, Astana Dragons, The RED and how much professional esports players earn.
c0ea835ae1f17c07ffa1035107ab8f407030f288	The article also touches on the question of how much gaming can be a profession that you should devote your whole life to and make a career in it.
5037a5965c6fac3931aa6261357ab8f50705120d	Andrey Noskov, who was once a professional esports player, also talks about his role in esports.
0814dd3ecbfb5a7fad745162fcbd0ee6c197bfc5	Now he is the owner of the cable TV channel cyber game tv, dedicated to computer games, and his own team The RED, which plays World of Tanks.
9ae6ae7eec2167a519da163af7cf6aee12e819cf	After reading the article, you will learn the comments of a specialist in adolescent psychology regarding the issues of gambling addiction.
73ace5e79be884a6cfbe10f5613fd57a8d29570d	It is claimed that playing 14-16 hours a day is harmful.
eafadcd92febf2d141b35a5b28fe6a0d002320ac	The article describes how a passion for games can affect people close to a gamer.
0263899460268216df88594fe367a3a00ad555ea	Increasing the prestige of the country.
0e479af022a31a6a11080e507927ed364c5b8f2c	Formation of young people's interest in information technologies.
909c8c7d7aeccd0da9a4e2852cedba95ff060afb	Esports is not a spectacle?
34059e28562af16d67e754582371f8b9595551e7	The one who created this stereotype definitely does not know anything about esports.
60bdb6a34003f2efc7aed7bc12b9d315c3c5f02c	Development of a new area for investment.
8fd39b51702e295761d8bebc4ec093657c721a7e	Any business is less profitable without advertising.
df559738fb9853deacc62ea590f52854d9b36d73	Computer games competitions have all the formal features of a" traditional " sport.
17fca3ae3801b70bd8a1c7f961b302dc2dad7c4b	There are teams, fans, tournaments, uniform rules and broadcasts.
7b33be7f871fb0862e2204af368bfce002561172	The Russian Ministry of Sports has clear criteria by which a particular sport is officially recognized.
a18c89eba5aabc522f9fe68024697dcd5744c7af	For example, sports should " promote the physical and intellectual development of a person's abilities, improve his motor activity and form a healthy lifestyle."
ca83e8e1e1ef16f3d0dba30691c317abd12230ff	The official list includes a large number of sports that many would call strange, for example, "cheerleading" and "Yakut national jumps".
b216237132fc1b044452df6a82ce9eff6235d1e1	Streams Video Tournaments
a7a1dbbd3f7426c6aa2a5667d51abd6d2756cc20	Events Help Partners
2525cbf7da10bdd8202c3db3db3148ea6ced2603	Block on the main page:
f3bc7599dea22c792f234612f53cc449dc881ced	A true article about esports from RIA Novosti
00741a03074f0be0a2a70bfc41752fdaf5983c0f	+10
5e55e5d8acb15cfd25742b391cd6b61f71bb56e7	14: 35, November 25, 2013 by Swiss Larson
0ebf39e9e031448321fb537329f1172d6fd4d12b	Full material:
a40a3b0856bb3dec7b8afc4f2c5427425eeb7cbe	A true article was published on the website of the RIA news agency, which draws a line between gamers and people with gaming addiction.
a923057797b7d633d1c2682c08504ffb7eae2d29	We are also talking about the well known teams Na'VI, Astana Dragons, The RED and how much professional esports players earn.
04afb9b65b8df7453def67be6d34bd58f9eef4ec	Read the full version of the article " The Gamer's Way.
39fd5fd24b88b21875d854dddc95cd91fed5a068	You can lose your health or become a champion " on the RIA NOVOSTI website.
7502c1a6da54465c224cd7217f380468fc5c38f3	3987 source
5a639a14762e188319f572198fa085c39969e1c1	14: 35, November 25, 2013
d742b1ec5835e8d48463346e0e81cf79b5e9a4aa	from Swiss Larson
eff670dab41a97501d3fe7afe19d04117ea54b0c	Best comments
aef7e5073ba932e3ad229ad34f42a47754bfe189	+22
4f1b30705c95b5d345bab9349710824229082967	#4 toli
75a1c1dc664ddb6229ec3892e26d970253f76891	15: 19, November 25, 2013
6fcfd2be4aa7d9633eb0b519b89557b1241c145d	for me this is an ordinary article by an ordinary journalist who does not know what esports is but retells various stories that he has heard
4620992704e7d1d537565e00bc71b0ed31fda9e0	PS " The article is an objective view of esports from the outside.
a4aaf7f8bf2c5a82a39c020aca085daf43aa88fa	These are the impressions of journalist Dmitry Vinogradov from visiting the Techlabs cup tournament, with a total prize fund of 300 thousand dollars."
951135450b0fd727683dc01e1eff0ce9abfd7585	imho if you invite a progamer to any journalistic party, he will also write an article in the same context and with the same pseudo psychological nonsense, finally that they do not have willpower that they compensate for something there and go away from reality well, and further along the text as in the article. well, of course, it will end with the fact that journalism in its modern form is no different from the most popular profession. who pays he also orders music
5c81a1be3f64e5b04d14721410a4ef3bfd574b80	#1 BoBr796
b6a0126491841fc4c97d13d2c08b5805e6521e4d	14: 48, November 25, 2013
7cb4ffa7a710cc9deaaaf743d43fcf3bd37a366c	I especially liked the phrase about:
44198bb42a736345154a8818cf404b617ebe2b3c	"404 Not Found
fe689d0701324f8205b73b0ee2aa7df614009d28	nginx"
8c72448d09474593998a0877d7191b678331dc13	in the last hyperlink!
a03fc554af15d820364c367b9cc3afaf59d601c5	14 comments
525bd9a7b11d6aba86e060c008c2838bcca52cae	#2 GG.o2
28a94b6b1d646cacfc28fa961765da476192e09f	14: 56, November 25, 2013
2310ab655012a50bcb13c11ca07db930c8c3fa2e	#1, Fixed
132d3603c56e4510f334da2300e029e1275eb0bb	#3 GG.Snake
50cda8a582cc3c684aed6c64161aa27411fc4000	14: 59, November 25, 2013
544fea0de318e77f47fa23bf7d072fb739f9c202	I liked the article and learned a lesson for myself
bf8bf1a08e9e7528b036dc22bf18a0053f3b4cc1	+2
99fae5ef008b5d54ddead008827605e0889ba699	#5 Vorian
c717e4c23f7a9bd38dfb9ffea77b9ad2205ee099	15: 31, November 25, 2013
d554635541684e8a0c3e8202e70293a0b329f96a	in this article, the author of the domestic media does not invent and does not support various myths about esports
745dad83f588e714610c80f85582ae6ed4a38cfe	Yes, he started supporting them from the title of the article.
041792d53bcd39d23c08a9ec666b553225fde5c4	However, in the course of the material more or less came out, but it catches the eye that the journalist just had an editorial task and he did not really bother writing a detailed material.
a2ce2f28268bb35bff3e948809ed350cbe262ed6	#6 DreamS.NeoPhix
f5aa430917acaee62179c8569dc369fcceb80be4	17: 12, November 25, 2013
34a70b5d5e81dc89e242f24aa20f0923881f2180	#5, Well, at least without negativity, and it's nice.
39b22eced0750746e43557040440013026ebca75	#8 unrealCO
35602d1e455281cb08765b9720cb2a84de9d3205	20: 39, November 25, 2013
4448dc6890af7af51e785d84c867c1d51952b796	I wonder where he found gamers in dirty basements?
c6669348d81c78da05af2d018f95462fe6d97bfe	#9 AzBuki
2171ac545854b3e6340b4b78a1876fc8ea64bd84	20: 57, November 25, 2013
9ce475ef4a3e42e92ea0445bbb5f07c7181c0270	He didnot even know that literally 10 years ago, real gamers came out of these basements, who developed the entire training system, etc.
ff2d8b8d85b7d60469d7efa3c32165b010abf4e8	And already connecting the mass media, this is a reaction to the public, which is still only 1%of the population of the country is interested in cyber sports and which mouse is better to buy for a shooter.
cdea4665b8dce1ff6be65f79815a19b86fc9f776	There were 26,000 people on Blizkon this year, 27,000 in 2010.
59f77c4e9a67315a3d3f7b09854830f70e9dbe7d	In the future, this interest will grow or fall, perhaps those who have now invested successfully will be able to take the lion's share of this new industry, which is still little studied for the majority of the population.
c3eb2e08a333f87795a2662904443c8e1ded5334	Or maybe it will remain the interest of 1% of the country's population.
644b1060c0b141201ef9fa21f3618874d5aa9028	( 1% is about 1.5 lam. )
803263c7002504601e94136bafebea1abd53105d	+3
e79645b6e55fe830005dd1540e55fc377c6abdeb	#10 AliKk
e018af7c87041d72ed33492b8c14b4f13d3d2422	21: 12, November 25, 2013
7e9ece84202f75d3d17368e27597f64d099022ec	It's only about drug addicts and esports players... and there is no category of ordinary gamers anymore?
994a1e965168420fb7357fd70d80bac00e84190b	Who want to relax for an hour or two after work or study and play?
840e7afb37e7bf7dae08a3708b0b72bad7b13030	#11 taffed
e37e8b79a4224aa30053f241771ee6e0f821c9e1	22: 33, November 25, 2013
6aa17b77970f447ab38a3ccaf4f8ec1b3a3c0f1f	#10, extremes are more interesting, journalists are always interested in sensationalism.
f148dee743a0f8dde67c480065ae5f98f4e8e088	+7
eea9dc63cfd3b02767782f34935322fc6e8c748d	#12 adrena1ine
4cf40a5b78da54ba8cb80b9239864956cd4afc40	14: 28, November 26, 2013
f2ff55bece26b17150339eff42bfd6f78a8dfd6d	I would disagree with this article.
e3e78cd308060e26e546727222bad6c0f73e551a	In my opinion, a person who is not particularly versed in this can not reason sensibly.
148f591b9e13aad6c0cf0ef2d288c1f50f4b7dda	Let's try to figure it out.
da99e66cbe091dba7196ffbbd8f8826f8141bc45	My friends are constantly going to bars and drinking beer.
7d439aeb2e6c0d1202c04a3ef8a1c2924f0fcf77	(They are not drunks).
d420125f77c742236b68266f3c12fd56f33dd580	They are just resting according to their words.
df55b111d5f926565c5b54f08324e287085ac5ee	Nevertheless, the trend is visible and the regularity of their campaigns is becoming more frequent.
403f728bea3dee6a6cbe46728fb9c144e9e49fdd	People have a lot of interests in the modern world.
429095a436918b080e574d6cc69ad6d2d75af030	The fact that the overwhelming majority of people spend days in social networks. networks - is it not scary ?
aa45e663ff1a1318f400bd0af1ead6cda3b0a0e0	The fact that % of marriages concluded by people who met in networks exceeds % of real acquaintances is A FACT.
07776b890c6514d226114ef78d14b429e2474bb1	Almost everyone has blogs , Tweets, etc.
4f77732bb6c5c79670b3f4f0bfa4eafc9325a9fd	How many youtube views per day ?
9bb244efa2d56f77ea25b48f621c1d9af0527145	Technologies have grown and it is not true to expose only GAMERS in this light.
c38865c478eff8f34aa8497a8b4d6149986f0191	All people are sick !
b5301d6635959ac0e095f8c5487a73352f69c874	Tell me, what is the difference between a person who spends days sitting in forums and social networks. networks, or playing Dota ?
21a5870ba636dd1fabee89082b889a1158a3bc19	The difference between a sick gamer and a cyber athlete is the same as between a good blogger and an ordinary girl sitting in a group of Justin Bieber or Roma Acorn 14 hours a day discussing his next clothes or passion with her like minded people.
e21ab4a820249700d71189810548e1023437ed1f	The gaming industry has grown a lot over the past 15 years and it has become part of the Internet, the audience is constantly growing.
dbd9ca4bfcfcb382569fb95a8bf9d26e1afd5583	If someone had told me in 2000 (That people would "stream" their games and get a certain income from it, and some of them would regard it as work), I would have thought that he was crazy, at that time there was a boom in computer clubs and Lan games, and the main cyber sports event of a big country was without a doubt WCG ! the qualifiers were held all over the country and the best of the best gathered in Moscow for the grand final.
64cdbe3d951594d84a6b3a8e959a7e9b756ee6e3	And now what is WCG ? just another tournament, which is far from the largest and does not attract many top players.
c03fea9f5ad32c85338193416cd91964d38afec3	Let's return to the concept of "streamer".
8a68bf72b9508a39b78aef3f4c4674c21b866804	After all, he does not necessarily have to be a cyber athlete, other qualities are valuable there, but he can also surpass many professional players in terms of income.
271fc9b889be1c3e586e86ce30a8d191ccf13a72	Bottom line : in my opinion, it is better to let my child play Dota, LOL, SC2, and anything else than to wander around the entrances with friends and smoke spice or some other rubbish , as for the physical development of children, then I am 100% sure that parents themselves should pay attention to both the education and health of their children.
430c5041eb9b9aaa5a661b8b8a1247c96155dbe6	I have a beautiful daughter who plays tablet, goes swimming, English and does well at school.
bf761ce73a407d603c007a362517b2a8c2aee066	I worked 10 hours a day for 14 years (q3, cs, wc3, dota) and did not become a cyber athlete , but I absolutely do not regret it, and I remember this time with great pleasure and delight, I have great friends and good people from those years, that's the number who were cyber athletes and if I return the time back, I would not change anything !
42387b2ac09ca1e400fb765028b755ee73dc8a2f	Thank you all.
c1d47336fbfb6e56d23693cf2d38a25964ecd998	Play for fun !
8a7b60a6a98af0d4c9e867ea40f28a9bdd1b6756	#13 KpucmuaH
63c89ca0c91dc4b37b910d2949eded828c9152cf	14: 53, November 26, 2013
b36e9936ddd80043c19c5967bb014dfef67f723e	the author of the article is a noob with 46% of wins or with 50 apm , so he sings about gaming addiction and knowliferstvo
b8dedebdaebbed0063fef6c8be69bbbbe89bed3b	#14 pridoha
189b861c3efbfe22c619914c821b6f4d24e7a6e1	21: 11, December 2, 2013
671880bfabc33b2ca5c60828fbd82502cff2b9ff	a cool article from a person who does not know anything about esports, written at a very primitive level, and this is RIA?? yes, fuck them, it's a pity you can only leave comments there for 72 hours.
39229b724100e2263c6b00930176aa90bc687c37	Thanks to such journalists, people have the wrong opinion about things.
f93b722d5dd4c98bb9801cf14c2cbbe4fac08d65	Enrages.
7984b0a0e139cabadb5afc7756d473fb34d23819	-1
54b035392cac39722e0bdd0d65b0d50a3b11fca8	#15 TrashHunter
00838c8a80309f5938a46a4aac1f77a04210d53e	17: 37, December 6, 2013.
3cccf03cd0ea143480edb47f251484ecc943586d	"A true article was published on the website of the RIA news agency..."
2dd20715d25266c8104e710e676b84bfadbeb620	Aha, how could such a thing be written at all?
c6ced241447339fda9500702757cd71b16a1ec9d	The article is a mutual PR.
d752f26af0e4dcc33cb071a47804f3ee3e22ab32	This is a common practice.
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03af90ec5691a0778a82b6ae67db7685ab2fb091	Esports Photography The characteristics of Athletes in a team depends on the discipline
f891e21503d65bbcd124cbca9e938264d52a9151	Inventory of personal computers and input devices
3ed4ae5773986a601e0cc11d6bf404983c2e8983	Disciplines
c077e8595ac60b43944eeaca670236d4bf5389fe	Quake Live, Counter Strike, StarCraft, Dota 2, League of Legends, World of Tanks, Heroes of the Storm, Hearthstone: Heroes of Warcraft, Halo
20be02394edeced9fc13ade3981f8c70328af3f5	First competitions International Federation Name IeSF
8558ad7b6378fc04891441ff581ea6f125ec685d	Related Projects Category:Esports Portal:Esports
2225bed952641e31b62c91db310a80beb65accc9	E sports (outside the CIS is better known as English e Sports) is a gaming competition using computer technologies, where a computer simulates a virtual space inside which the competition takes place.
4354529a95cec856ec6a457ff742bd370527fac1	1 History 1.1 Recognition in Russia
52150bbd76275ecdf04feb3f7c5a562be4c4ef4a	2 Competitions 2.1 Semi professional online leagues
3f9535eab03397513bb2385261f7beb4b52daf3c	3 Requirements for conducting competitions 4 Rules 4.1 General 4.2 Disciplines
6aa43c38a7f639601461c509d921e49c3a11b848	5 Esports in the countries of the world 5.1 USA 5.2 CIS 5.2.1 The most influential people in the CIS
2da2ffb1db78c89b757cef8fcb554633f618a80c	5.3 India 5.4 Mexico 5.5 Italy
49a6690a7ff7abd5fced9693ed12af61d64f49ec	6 Broadcast on television 7 Esports as one of the sports 8 Criticism 9 Bets on esports 10 Holding competitions 10.1 Prize amounts 10.2 Teams
854f38e32c5010f107c8dea5c83909a60b79fde0	11 Federations and Associations 11.1 Russian Computer Sports Federation 11.2 G7 11.3 National Electronic Sports Commission (NeSC)
b5212d0d19448c9ebd049964f41eaec7c76b878c	12 Notes 13 References 14 References
d6de57ac7198dbb21b91cce03bd26d8fbff711ad	2].
2bc65687327141fe9bb11e24eccdba5019afcdcf	Recognition in Russia[edit / edit wiki text]
4605b8d79b786a6ed3d45451ef9c6de8ff80378b	After the change of leadership and the renaming of the State Sports Committee of Russia into the Federal Agency for Physical Culture and Sports, as well as in connection with the subsequent introduction of the All Russian Register of Sports (VRVS), it was necessary to repeat the procedure for recognizing computer sports on March 12, 2004 by order of the head of the State Sports Committee of Russia Vyacheslav Fetisov.
42518c77b42ae780754bef1ca4173831951c003d	In July 2006, esports was excluded from the All Russian Register of Sports[7] due to the fact that it did not meet the criteria necessary for inclusion in this register: development in more than half of the subjects of the Russian Federation and the presence of an all Russian physical culture and sports association registered in accordance with the established procedure.
d9cb64229a28ada916a054b7a1c25ac21ced2063	8].
8ed90bb0481043bfec9e23efe79f0713e398be99	Competitions[edit / edit wiki text]
6cfe1605bd9c8174c2315de70746c887c78e4ea1	Semi professional online leagues[edit / edit wiki text]
29a24c96ca6458a6bc2ad2326b83d93337f87f69	In addition to competitions with a prize fund, there are a number of semi professional leagues that organize competitions in the form of online cups and ladders.
746dbe2a91e177c92bed043b7b31fb019b9f55c9	The most well known and popular ones include ClanBase, ESL, etc.
3ddfd8a76d33f2ae550a555c33713a24c0f6a5c6	Requirements for conducting competitions[edit / edit wiki text]
61dd3fb56202139e0135f80b8f869a178a0470ad	According to the protocols, athletes are awarded ranks and rating points in the All Russian rating system for computer sports.
075ed3e1defcece4e095a1f5414d852c409ad885	10].
4fe307b208c400ce51b4b12e7b957523ee39e430	Rules[edit / edit wiki text]
dbebcd18171ef061bdbe7644d14c71c754e6087f	General[edit / edit wiki text]
e77667e43a2e71e886852f51dfe51a1f0fcf4d09	Disciplines[edit / edit wiki text]
492436c6ffd0b6a70c6f3682d5479b5d62e9a442	You canot use any games in esports For example, games that contain an element of randomness that prevails over the skill factor of the game are not suitable for competitions.
009439b570f601efeacd512bb3601d1a608c48a8	With the release of the second part of StarCraft as an esports discipline, Warcraft 3 began to weaken.
3ec3b7908f9811adad671464b4e58af62ef25ddf	The last major tournament was WCG 2013.
da0a573ec075d36fff55d1a74fe336865de1675e	12].
8f7fa8311ce3565e99387a350eb3711ec16b8d63	Esports in the countries of the world[edit / edit wiki text]
e5a8c296e32962c8b563dce7a8a52a56662a5568	USA[edit / edit wiki text]
27155684908a807fa717efeaaf26225d75807f51	There are also various non commercial tournaments, for example, RDL (Russian Duel League for Quake II).
f6dcfa961ff3ddd32b9d8e3417560711e8698318	The largest individual Starcraft 2 league in Europe is the Russian RSL project Russian Starcraft 2 League, organized by sc2tv.ru.
ec3fdb2d8783317564e3b3e9ad06b911705ffb7c	The most influential people in the CIS[edit / edit wiki text]
67e7b3fc19057dae7f418034bd91493e8ee68f45	In January 2014, the site kanobu.ru published a list of "The most influential in the CIS gaming industry"[13][14]:
45aed1818a66992c6aced94bfd76acc2b52066e7	Vladimir Nikolsky is the operating Director of Mail.
ac3f916a98493907b034c92ba6598ff28475c702	Ru Group Gevorg Sargsyan CEO of Innova Sergey Orlovsky Founder and CEO of Nival Nikolay Katselapov Co founder and co owner of Wargaming Public Co Ltd Sergey Klish General Manager of Playstation in Russia
e4089b8b4610f1c60a9119bfa92edcebfd09f560	India[edit / edit wiki text]
b317f705c5be1207cadf01d5e23bd224a9c350f3	Frag portals are the promotion and popularization of these games nation.in and afkgaming.com. 15].
4aacd25e44ce161b526518d7317781565f6b97f1	Mexico[edit / edit wiki text]
5237728d3d72bf4c3014f15cce5ca432e75fda8f	In the League of Legends discipline, their success;
730b9c7ed8a671fe8fb44dbf504f25b3c02ed5fd	4th place at WCG 2013[17].
b5dafcffc0f353e9dc7f3a79630348e033211075	Broadcast on television[edit / edit wiki text]
331d97546df74baffba1a162fc81d1b7b0817053	Esports as one of the sports[edit / edit wiki text]
8fb71aaa9ac6be7cd6d7edb42cb274edfd96029a	The article on the formation of esports on the pages of the official website of the Team Empire esports organization proves that esports has achieved recognition as one of the sports disciplines, because there are long established rules in the disciplines, the intellectual abilities of participants are used, mandatory training is carried out, and, finally, interpersonal relationships are also an established fact[11].
e180195cab48963fddd9b27aa6e454c9f9f0d54b	On January 27, at a special conference in Seoul, the Korean Electronic Sports Association (KeSPA) successfully promoted esports to the ranks of second level sports disciplines.
cfd4e6c8bb21bf2db8bc7d81fe371104d5a91dec	So far, we are talking about the recognition of esports only by the Korean committee, in order to claim something serious, you need the recognition of the IOC itself[20] Electronic championships do not have a clear organization: one world tournament can be held every month, therefore, more than one world champion may appear in each discipline in a year[21].
463146cc628e7389d35c5384e077b2bd21258357	In response, one of the team members — Yannik Bindo wrote an open letter describing the situation[22].
ac426825b6edd8d00c91598e10be1c416b4f2ff5	Esports betting[edit / edit wiki text]
1888f4f05f65893fcfddf14a5ec68713fb22805f	Egamingbets is popular in English speaking countries, and Betsstore is popular in Russia.
498d09d6b4a0b0837f8d3daeacb03742b4e7bafd	Conducting competitions[edit / edit wiki text]
77fafb78f990d1aa69f3e9cc4cd8e7a27892d2e4	Large competitions are held in special places where the public can watch the players sitting at computers, and track the progress of the match on a large screen, where images from the screens of the players are broadcast In South Korea, due to the large number of spectators, such competitions are held at stadiums.
f735b2f50a75302952650a4e0b9b4c391a8b41a5	Smaller scale competitions are held in computer clubs and Internet cafes.
0c0b5c8bb9783d3d802b56cd66048628967d6d83	Prize amounts[edit / edit wiki text]
ee5d063b6c2c9dec139ad9a5b89a8efe23547cfe	In 2015, at The International 5 Dota 2 World Championship, the prize fund of which is more than $18,000,000, the American team Evil Geniuses won more than $6,500,000 One of the members of the "Evil Geniuses" team is a 16 year old Pakistani boy Syed "Sumail" Hassan In 2014, at The International 4 Dota 2 World Championship, with a prize pool of more than $10,000,000, the Chinese team NewBee won $5,000,000.
4cf6fab849e36dba5c6fe2be6c9434c156cb6052	Of these, $ 1.6 million was provided by the organizers of the tournament — Valve, and the rest was collected by the voluntary purchase of an in game compendium item by the players.
afc0990fbe68910c6a8ce0d49546159ea7f8b777	In 2013, at The International 3 Dota 2 World Championship, with a prize fund of $ 2,874,407, The Alliance team won $ 1,437,203.[24] In 2012, Taipei Assasins won $ 1,000,000 for the 2nd season of the World Championship at the RiotGames tournament for the League of Legends game.
5a62497653abc9d19f6c11fb100703bc9db305a2	The prize fund of the season was $ 1,970,000.[23] In 2011, the Na'VI team won at The International Dota 2 tournament.
1cdce915a9e471581d4d0f884b18014456c91767	The prize funds of major competitions are most often sponsored by companies associated with the production of components, peripherals and computer software.[source not specified 781 days] In 2002, the Russian player "uNkind" took first place at the World Cyber Games for the game Quake III and went home with the amount of $ 20,000[2].
d4b942dfb8412a1edb74a20ed258332bc012751d	In 2007, " Logitech.
b69c0e38e591f774cdd47580b770cd6710ce5638	Alan "(ex." USSRxAlan") won a bronze medal in the discipline NFS: Carbon[2]. 2008 brought us the Russian final in Need For Speed and bronze from Dmitry Kostin under the nickname "Happy" in Warcraft 3[2].
773a780c02e24bcf7360933856f0539679c5e8c2	Federations and associations[edit / edit wiki text]
9cf6df9fef0203ddbb16790a4ee5ba28308e8a31	Russian Computer Sports Federation[edit / edit wiki text]
7d9eef0631c875e24c2d855a3c891f3ed7d5cc86	Main article: Russian Computer Sports Federation
be920db9f51415f9175a8d87e6d3ffcb52f59c18	During its existence, the association boycotted (G7 members did not compete at competitions) CPL Winter 2007 and ESWC 2010 for non payment for previous tournament seasons[27].
e5f15c86c325a4de91c0341f9290d5476ef631f5	National Electronic Sports Commission (NeSC)[edit / edit wiki text]
e17b328480ff0240e758b58864a2d533172890de	↑ Show compactly
6e8713c12b6ee37a43a976cec33cf1aa30b4cd6e	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Methodological recommendations: Computer Sports.
310b83773bc6500c2a0b1c1810e368832672aa91	Verified on February 23, 2014.
2c5a77bbd6ef6d4acaaece5fe9dec7f4dad98f30	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Esports: Is it a sport?.
01173fd1cf069756a7bb851ef8ca9b13379ec33d	Verified on February 28, 2014.
4c8a94a5aa263826a654237e53044793a56b5d0f	↑ Go to: 1 2 Order of the State Sports Committee of the Russian Federation No. 449 of 25.07.2001 "On the introduction of sports into state physical education programs" ↑ Go to: 1 2 Approved by Order of the State Sports Committee of the Russian Federation No. 225 of 14.04.2003 "On the list of sports recognized by the Federal executive Authority in the field of physical culture and sports" with subsequent amendments.
289deb9e7b87594525ef46e3ac0ad6c9ceae74f0	↑ Order of the Federal Agency for Physical Culture and Sport No. 414 "On Computer Sports" dated July 4, 2006 ↑ Regulation "On the All Russian Register of Sports (VRVS)" (approved by Order of the Federal Agency for Physical Culture, Sport and Tourism No. 273 dated September 28, 2004) ↑ ProPlay / News / Esports no longer has an official status ↑ See.
b5414977f4062eac583e01c20ca6bd1ec0adc878	Order of the Federal Agency for Physical Culture and Sport of July 4, 2006 No. 414 "On Computer Sports";
b53ed7d728699924c6c57d4c839949965cdf890f	The Regulation "On the All Russian Register of Sports (VRVS)" (approved by the Order of the Federal Agency for Physical Culture, Sports and Tourism No. 273 of September 28, 2004).
1d643980fdf4a4d5c6675f4635b6dbe17a394a19	W WCG Concept (English).
4dfeaa4d682971fac3e002b9f852a152554ebb10	World Cyber Games.
b0f2120de79e7055234884f942b2c52169fc2c5f	Verified on August 21, 2010.
b389d9ce1d3861173d45abdf261eee091b6ca8e4	Archived from the original source on February 22, 2012.
dfbf7c141b33dac47835ef8f9ec96e7a29de288c	Перейти Go to: 1 2 3 4 About the registration of the protocol of competitions in computer sports.
9d174bdd64875c629a575030c29e3e1202c8956f	Verified on February 24, 2014.
6f466b41416a7518e810c45a163ab897f482619c	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 Esports as a sport: formation and development, 2013 ↑ Go to: 1 2 Andrey Kiryukin.
eb26059d62922f7bcc66195b36d12250d12f43e3	Farewell 322 for WarCraft III. Verified on February 25, 2014.
30aea94cef5192506697b4f927d4e4931ba5ee9f	Кири Kirill Rusakov.
30ed551e1220374f2758dea4f2e307157fab4608	The most influential in the CIS gaming industry (29.01.2014 15: 38:45).
681149dd5811d6ff0cf27e75764ed7e371a27238	Checked on February 28, 2014.
d21af7af15669de50e14658cd634f5512ebec1c8	↑ The most influential people in the CIS gaming industry.
bbd742fef7bcafe6d83bc789784b014c41dee22c	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rostislav Grubi.
a4a4216fbb582d725b32223d448d777ba7d17c90	"Esports Globe": India.
c8fbc8b07da774ac975f43548251d1a305c609e1	Checked on January 28, 2014.
e88dea083bbb948e0008a0ea19a03ed4718d2a7c	↑ Talk Esports Asia #4 - eSports in India.
767535cee934b1d6eda1c8fa8b91c01c7c403b78	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 Rostislav Grubi.
3cf462f66f79f86079e5e6e274f420bae1c95c63	"Esports Globe": Mexico.
6897545ae6a5f8170db53674ae0d922d2f70fe9a	Checked on January 29, 2014.
ccf545d5a734288d67ee6342fcf834e052154c70	↑ Go to: 1 2 Rostislav Grubi.
405645e630ccd3430ecc5af117936a17345dda6f	"Esports Globe": Italy.
5af37deacb0a6037233afe2dac56e8467d94a7a7	Verified on January 29, 2014.
513577f1a4df09f499d37033a1f9fd39a1572ca8	↑ The third Championship among professional esports clubs will be held in October 2007.
9e8cae05de83ad819af6c76e96ba09730cc16921	Киб Esports: stars, tournaments, bets, lifestyle (09.04.2015).
fdf9256052cb20720f67e7697401f9562140c633	Киб Esports > Esports in Chinese.
508d6c892e3282aad02df841822508b1c0418446	Report from ACON5.
c1ae2abd1d9333f185ea3526599a947a36a727ab	Checked on January 20, 2014.
e1dd3fcf4379314d67e02ec4b2f956101a514c29	AC ACON5 a scandal over money.
15955d863534959111690b4e8b8f8613e52dc754	↑ Go to: 1 2 esportsearnings.com. Prize money in esports. esportsearnings.com. ↑ Top 100 Largest Overall Prize Pools:: e Sports Earnings ↑ Go to: 1 2 Regulations on the formation of the Russian national team in computer sports.
7401c92b14a63eb311b6bf7569dcda5fec8788c0	Verified on February 25, 2014.
76198e4d6e1836749112f8d6c603d5aab21ffe1c	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Methodological recommendations for teaching computer sports.
b06cf1c32d9f0a23bbec69735cdcef089817868b	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 DotA 2 / Doters of all countries, connect!.
2b982039e3008ae4683580b4569d5be88cb6d932	↑ Other | The first esports Association in Asia started with a failure.
7aad43ad73fff4e758e58f6d8b565035c611c73e	↑ E Sports organizing body formed in the Philippines.
8ca1b1d36c6247a67729694697560a5c68688acd	Alexander "El'XANDER" Ovodkov Esports as a sport: formation and development / / team empire.org : internet site.
aad1f1b2ced7b2c74284d98cd744e4c24c17f4d3	— 2013.
56d71a5e9dd5037334bec3a0a6f9fca5f6fcf917	Russian Computer Sports Federation.
b8aacac0ef247015b420f139f5d9d7202e9bc2fd	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esports&oldid=76222671"
4afb0e9e233cf5f6a197ab1cc5af287e6fc0909c	Categories: Esports Sports excluded from the All Russian Register of Sports
015108c70283bb0c99b3bff4a9743063b90a2c89	Hidden categories: Articles with links to missing Wikipedia files:No sources since December 2013 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:No sources since August 2015
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f3e5e08ef5af007392d0bd6db0d03ddb0b0d1a12	Last modified on this page: 14: 55, February 4, 2016.
6ac88bad8ab59bc86174ffef61add19701486406	News Stories Analysis of the Game Shapito Atlas
734a78cd06d0929c433f487754d18bf073e43bf6	EN
b65f6297e3e2a1365de00f2fb4c141674acc6168	ChatYvoit
e28ad0d964665fda4f821b6929b89fa30933a1f4	About the Projectmeduza in English Advertising Show in order
de763b03e9bb3f9a46d7e8c8f9853534c810f1fa	Log in to Chats0
4c21ab3e1078e4dc12aea8c14dc4ae795bbdf99b	GPS teleports from the Kremlin to Vnukovo.
4394e6d59e3701eacb0490e49867ca2a495b48e3	Show in order
ddcb1c936a0ba17f055c72e212baf97faff55952	Reply Complain Delete Ban Open Profile
69afc723656642b58b6be8910076ed49eaa8dde0	Do you remember how to guess from books?
fd117c38482acc6ad14b294ad042e55968263d99	The game "Jellyfish"
2dd0ca8b30a6b9d861dd4331a4757197399e4359	Debriefing Esports is an official sport.
2e64bb9dce93b1f05bd89cc23e2591e91557a4f4	Are you serious?
a20235d81e853e12d72ecab542fdfd5821046391	10 cards 09: 32, June 10, 2016
59f5edae809ebe75334d0c9fc5faf8133188ebe4	1. What happened?
94d8b97976a2f65b4cbd10f54394312fe8e0bfd3	2. Are you kidding?
a42316f895381722a772160708165fff3e52ee8f	Is this a sport?
3334b8e2d1e19f73a5b05f38d9d6076d62492ff0	3. Esports competitions are held for all games?
25666a35d11883b29e550f49c85a3f673ccf0546	4. Is anyone really ready to watch other people play games?
b4f6056b7785652ea885dd4929006ee5c7ae24e7	5. What are the most popular games?
f6dae57834fc2ac1b55af915b5799f7032861428	6. Is esports popular in Russia?
242a4ba0d92529438480d7ad9f23bd74cca3d940	7. Where can I watch esports tournaments?
aa2ba4b7f2a51b42a392743f3a1b3b9427bfbbbf	Are the tickets expensive?
3730480eeb83ac0ecab20c17b5d8728b5d674730	8. Are cybersportsmen unwashed guys with thick glasses?
a173149a6ab3773c4fd302752b4a80598fa0451a	9. Is esports not harmful?
b9e3447f91ca7c9a8e9b3d5050fa94da3720a4d2	But after all, esports players also get less money?
9bbd4cfd02f77e6bc84afdc2a55e9ac2822e7520	01 What happened?
523c739d403e988502f4efe41ceb4edf244ea74b	In Russia, esports (competitions in computer games) are officially recognized as a sport.
89556c4f02575088b8720882ffffb1bd56ffaccf	02 Are you kidding?
3200d07e4acf9b108b8fcd0c989a086a9ad16bc9	Yes, this is a sport.
4c7b1cab0bec0ca9b24021fdedd29a738ea6ec53	One can argue about how much esports meets all these criteria, but computer games, according to which tournaments are held, certainly require both intelligence and a good reaction and develop motor activity.
84ecff58968971320e222d62dff3a183f95c7843	03 Are esports competitions held for all games?
d54bd4d98a5741dccc2aa7bc9c92f13dfec35e43	The game must meet certain conditions — it is important, for example, that it is possible to put the players in initially equal conditions.
6b4859df837115ebdc295e02b44ee610282ff5c2	The success of esports disciplines (that is, different games) is determined by the number of professional teams, tournaments and the number of people who are ready to watch these tournaments.
06f0470a7847aaca423df0a4d10bdfded777281f	04 Is anyone really ready to watch other people play games?
bf2e017a8f57d9fd18ab6141bff47a6a57a739b2	Yes, indeed.
38769af07d8f31b6c58d86efd38bf95846bb50e1	The main matches of major tournaments are watched by millions of people.
cc00a2c6734f64e67fdedbcd3425479e91f36ec3	For example, the final match of the League of Legends 2016 World Championship was shown on ESPN — and it was watched by 36 million people.
3a42197e4c7352d185fa119bc2bb0d88ae093cb5	Tournaments are increasingly held at sports stadiums, gathering tens of thousands of spectators in the stands.
9023bbfabb33c3743cdad519f53c56670be6e58e	Fans watch a multi player video game competition during The International Dota 2 Championships at Key Arena in Seattle, Washington, US August 8, 2015.
1130801168b1a0bc6c8d74db86d06f7573fb4ddf	Photo: Jason Redmond / Reuters / Scanpix / LETA
0c8a7d340c629c53b4549d995bc1a6cd4a001340	Millions of people subscribe to the pages of popular teams on social networks.
b9302dc3e0b3b2904ec202ec0cbda4f59d8d975f	They produce branded clothing lines and even create their own media.
09b5b7cadb5ea24cf5f4f83ede8c685d2ccbc192	05 What are the most popular games?
1d02487dd538b89e88ddb44cc34199de3b1b89cb	Right now there are four leading esports disciplines in the world:
a371d74d874863a74f62ef8c090f98e07233f78f	League of Legends and Dota 2 are team strategies where you need to destroy the opponent's throne.
0b6f85cd80aa533196ea6ab568ae05e15279e567	CS: GO is a new modification of the classic team shooter Counter Strike.
0adc9e78e7386eb5854ffd5457f81407ceb52241	Hearthstone is a card game (we are talking about collectible cards, not aces and threes) based on the world of Warcraft.
aa18b6d903ade361c654cffe15b78e6a125f2c1f	At the same time, there are many very popular games that have not yet been able to become successful from the point of view of esports, for example, World of Tanks.
d3f6206b41a56e2a856c369332f8be76146255a3	06 Is esports popular in Russia?
c53c562dab4b33b3e42f3bc4d8e5719439a9c155	Yes.
0f830845b4e95e0d1b866f4641dc7f62979e9019	And here we need to make a reservation right away: it is important that esports is popular not just in Russia, but among the Russian speaking audience roughly speaking, in the countries of the former USSR.
17bf5de0e060db819d3ee122eca6fd069b4b2cb7	This is what allows Russian language broadcasts to gather an audience of 200 thousand people.
c4baa6ac516bb6b0a564a95522e433edd994a50d	Tournament organizers easily sell out all tickets, and esports commentators on social networks have more subscribers in VKontakte than Dmitry Guberniev.
29776705481b0416ab1731459895faf028b1beb3	There are also very famous esports players in Russia — for example, Dmitry Kupriyanov, the first Dota 2 world champion.
d4290eeeb1f259a05b6cad03a7cb39208e4eae1e	Or Denis Kostin, who plays for one of the most popular teams in the world — the Ukrainian team Natus Vincere — and constantly gets into the lists of the best CS: GO players.
83863e1d293b940a271350fb18bc2f70a40c3b33	07 Where can I watch esports tournaments?
cfd16ddac4bc094efe9edcbc0cbdc4cc74d13509	You can watch the broadcasts on the Internet, it's free.
dd783f6ec0810f15fca4398c0aea057c913cb2d6	One of the main advantages of esports is the general availability of broadcasts.
864598b816679b2db344a7d87852ce9de778f705	No regional restrictions, paid subscriptions or satellite dishes.
72a6be7796f01c9b806cf7011fc53d9e51f34abf	You only need the Internet.
d688f2c09adbf9a32aa894775937ee87080a9fef	99% of tournaments can be watched for free in the game itself — you just need to install it.
0afbc5a8250b7d29cd60cd6800666873b1c0567b	You can also watch matches in the esports streaming service Twitch.tv. Or you can just go to YouTube.
b164974e864ff9841af359df7a44b3333cd4d254	08 Esports players unwashed guys with thick glasses?
b14de82147f68764ce8cf8a3f2d08bf56a8c41b6	Modern professional esports players are not much different from football players or hockey players — they can easily be filmed for the covers of glossy magazines.
9398cc203fbc1c43c2117f60815f18cff2cfaca5	This is how, for example, Ryan Freakazoid Abadir from the Echo Fox CS: GO team looks like.
e60a05acf7d28c97c083142f33a9ba515db1e4e8	09 Is esports not harmful?
647dd0bf24931d0c50395354c579a7997d791620	No more than sitting in front of a computer in the office.
abe9ff4c211138f27358d2b1f88ed315b86bb2c0	If we compare it with football or weightlifting, esports is even safer: there are almost no injuries here.
3d84684bcc2d849c0dd13722c7099b3005599b0e	In addition, unlike ordinary athletes, esports athletes rarely have to sacrifice their education for the sake of a career.
1941f56f67f9d554a6f4615d10cba036df436443	10 But after all, esports players also get less money?
0a9a700157ef819c184d846f17841d98768afc0c	No, it's not like that.
e07a7ada20750338a8626d8684d7a2635f90856b	The best professional athletes receive hundreds of thousands of dollars.
7fbacb77136991a9910325a122322b6eb052f5e2	Tournaments attract huge audiences, so advertising in broadcasts brings serious profit.
731ea67b948643448dcc1e4fafccdaa1027d6083	The prize fund of the Dota 2 World Championship is $ 12 million and continues to grow.
8ea2b803546d2ee32d3254c4f0fbcf53189ca814	Author: Yaroslav Komkov, head of the "Esports" project at Sports.ru
287c4f348d7cd133ea2f2a4e89933434ac4d1075	I have an idea of a card for you
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4ee265d17b949f75c881c2bd5a6e6cf37aa3d7bc	Which weapon do you prefer?
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ae3d59872d9bd61d61bc79801f4b8fa77d192e8f	AK47
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255f7969bc6d6905fec6d50ecdbda5000eedb426	Famas
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ea8703a4cdf578ecc5f6a695084b6ebb35e7b1e3	Home "2007" September " 11 " The first article about esports in a big magazine!
c333fa9a834bbd8a9217e5ee1589fa695ed057be	The first article about esports in a big magazine!
f51eb468b44bd9ed76a73443617f34ec58805b17	15:00
b603ed589e67d6717c4e6ea62412b473c92fc2a5	This article was written by me for the magazine Digital Kazakhstan August.
19288661a3c6191a6852258763c091ce11ab9e6f	Esports is a sport!
e6128cc2f0d9e4afaa02472b2112005489c35290	We all play some games that have become an integral part of our lives.
cfe31b83f3326e9901c94dd88ed991d343015999	There are games for the soul, and there are professional ones, which will be discussed in this article.
e23701bea50b6db33fc3d146ed71946e1b247bf8	What are games: entertainment or professional industry?
e6492078b359881a5007da4d097bb29aa8f512ac	Entertainment is directly related to games, but games at a professional level are a slightly different concept.
f85b8db44be7c103c319d8d8d5ac52929d3d805e	Esports is a computer game at a professional level, and with prize funds and world competitions.
aecb1e1d717b3c9ca69e8af1cd93c2748bbfb611	In many countries of the world and almost all European countries, this sport is so developed that big money is spinning in it and esports competes with physical sports without any obstacles.
3dece8623479e08204415ba8d5c5dd043237de1e	There are many esports tournaments in the world with prize funds of $ 50,000 for the first place, and this is only in one game discipline!
0fe71ca95a7a808b250f8a23e72de51c026b6634	List of leagues and tournaments held worldwide:
0ec3f7d8515bf2711a1d02b50732300ce60ef9a2	WCG (World Cyber Games), has been held since 2001 with qualifying rounds in different countries of the world.
6f87c2cd804315b59d72adc5c83f76bddb2be58a	Sponsored by Samsung Corporation.
15664d8e6a40b5dfcbbb49d32de57cf0728ac2f9	The total prize fund of the tournament, including the qualifying rounds in each of the participating countries in 2001 amounted to $ 1,200,000 dollars, constantly gaining momentum now is $ 2,500,000.
ffd1680152e2c89290f10df99beef2a35b3d0a1b	The number of participating countries has exceeded 70!
1f1f85a901afcef70efaf830b588265969d801ae	ESWC (Electronic Sports World Cup), sponsored by various companies and held in Paris.
5019fb5196dd61854e97bd8dc90fe1c832aacd0d	The total prize fund of the tournament is $ 500,000.
3d0796a9ddb3ccd11f0905cf03b544ae09dbe275	ESWC also includes game disciplines, where only representatives of the fair sex participate.
ddec49edb1c50a5c2d705be81d0ad957b9344b88	ESWC also cooperates with MTV and Canal+TV channels.
5c02b1cba3ab2911e09a6dd2bf2c6efc53d61e1d	About 40 participating countries.
6a3a9847fd7dc24c331c9e11a6a4491218ed004a	CPL (Cyberathlete Professional League), regularly held in the United States since 2000.
454d4da51a3166db5c720e1ac665ab7ca6a06cda	Over the 7 years of its existence, 300,000 players have played at the tournament, and the total prize fund amounted to more than 3 million dollars.
5774de1dc482056cc68ff26c7172247e983d9f27	CPL cooperates with national TV channels.
9df1ce5be5624630dd570137c01939f43e73daaf	CAL (Cyberathlete Amateur League), a league held in the United States for amateurs, in which more than 600,000 players participate.
4a29c23dd99b4138463b58cf889b5d3bae7f0537	CAL has 60 game disciplines.
dc11b4c4ed8ba4f90b7660b070e2851b05b45e0f	ESL (Electronic Sports League), held in Germany, includes 113 game disciplines and more than 700,000 participants!
cdfbe20dc8c9de72df089c1b345f2fde0c92f209	WSVG (World Series of Video Games)
444cee232c3e9fdb67b134dd60a4012bb7fdc81f	- held in the United States, has more than 100,000 participants, as well as 250 hours of video broadcast on national TV channels.
6ac9ff6ac984b831164157a2062fff278231be35	List of tournaments held in the CIS countries:
0538ab12b04ac37c43d33e3c7063b9c770ff3eae	Asus Open has been held since 2003 and takes place 4 times a year.
0c27fd876dde02ae3504a0779a426af7437872a9	In the first tournaments, the prize funds were up to $ 3,000, and now $ 40,000 is constantly.
6adc617cb558d5135b27bc92bd7b8b1ad717670d	This tournament gathers the best players from all over the CIS, and the qualifying rounds are held by more than 10,000 players.
9c81c732e440989cd4bdf5a73f5b6e0c5ed3cff8	NPKL (National Professional Esports League) is a Russian national esports league that has no analogues in its system of holding and in which, for the first time in the history of esports, a Championship was organized according to the club competition system, which is used in big sports (football, hockey, basketball, etc.).
e0aa087134d82d4b1c78653b4fb35695c50b3387	Many people believe in the stereotypes that games are harmful to health, lead to psychological dependence, cause outbursts of aggression, and so on... in fact, all this is wrong, or rather, these stereotypes apply to all hobbies.
b5c5fdb33f7f31340a135bc3a31ec265570be6ba	Now we will try to break them.
24facf623ca8f147d34eb91b5fe058857a15ab4c	To begin with, many people believe that esports is not a sport as such.
f351b75423d8552b5f6dc87cba7cff664fc1d08d	No one gives a logical explanation.
5109889f95078fdfea29eee55659534938ac2ebf	To begin with, let's look at what is sport in general?
2bb039bc7c0860a276e13f86d14c8a1ed9d1785c	Sport (English sport, short for the original disport — "game", "entertainment") is an activity of people organized according to certain rules, consisting in comparing their physical and intellectual abilities, as well as preparation for this activity and interpersonal relationships that arise in its process.
c2a1e5f286d96245667d31f26b5ae66398fdb01a	Usually, sport is a specific kind of physical or intellectual activity performed for the purpose of competition, as well as improving health, obtaining moral and material satisfaction, striving for perfection and fame, improving skills.
321080a1ba9f763c0e50f7c3a89754783aa9cac5	Well, isnot this present in esports?
089e9f7ad8fdd2aa7f7f559eda38cc84df8abb9e	Isnot there no hard training, discussion of tactics, competitions, morale and emotions, fame and fees?
569e869459597a7cb04f24de1f8c6cbc55683a0c	All this is available in esports and is developed no worse than other sports.
d8cd01f42e7a11fe9c6d2c5859608685fa90318f	If you watch the final matches live, you can understand the seriousness of the games.
b1f1600647bd4a6a32d7e27de98849047729bc00	The next stereotype will be the harmful effect of games on health.
15718f702cf7fff596936a21810de9659ae3fdd8	It is strange, but I have not yet seen a person who would not break his leg (football) or arm (judo) during training or a match.
7eaf702aae96f19bb414874ac5a244a55e28b06f	Even the most harmless work in the office causes more harm to the body (a person sits at a computer and types a report, he may not get up from the computer for hours, while being nervous) than regular training sessions.
5a32bfd697b3a0061fe3b75c48fe6d59e9ad3f38	In general, if you do not sit too long for games, but follow the training schedule, then your health does not deteriorate.
2fa36e3dc91578eb2085afeafa48f05e7b4ec5e0	A person improves thinking skills, dexterity.
d85ce07b4414c6b5d962f26406096fd70c0d67c6	Attention develops (often missing for schoolchildren).
988a7c6b2f1e1b32e3369514abe9f774597a2856	Many former players use their skills in poker, and poker is an intellectual game rather than a gambling game, since playing poker does not mean playing for money.
166b96d30f02b2c32b3bf85c828e198d93c5d1f5	Many people believe that violence in games provokes violence in real life.
9d74670cfac6a722ab0416839fe4c1ebacad166b	I wonder why?
72f086d64785ee07bfbdbc25df158e28e6c9b27c	The press often mentions such "facts" that 2 American teenagers, having played enough, took dad's guns from the wall and went to shoot at passing cars.
18d2a12cdfb3a7133eaf239d6fe1d1916931462c	Then no one was injured, but except for the reputation of the games.
a1e1ce7edfbd756754290bfa11305f11ff058fa0	I wonder what the guns on the wall did and why they were so easily accessible?
5afb916cbeb0d831130fc265e52689536243f4a6	Further, the world was shocked by the news about a big shooting in one of the American schools again.
d06f64c2bcb9ed7d04db47919e69ed91706efea0	Then 36 people were injured, the killer himself shot himself.
7901043bcee023b3c1ff313d995fcd679930f9fa	It's not hard to guess why.
48e6fc096f09239ac9f641a9c50dbcd8e931e514	Of course, he was an emigrant and the "Native Americans" often mocked him.
814ac0828491b919086e8f55ec2ca60c30fd514a	These facts make it clear that it is not the games that provoke violence, but the mood of the people in the country.
80220e93b807019ca18478b46213e6cd82390df6	There are more than 110 nationalities in our country and we have no national enmity or at least some hostility to others, therefore, our country has developed much more in moral foundations than the same America.
c68520a675acd8369eb05b5e4fea18fdf14c0f37	Therefore, I do not believe that games provoke violence or other evil.
f4aa6b422531a9acc9c0ccf5a9328e089043d2a6	By the way, there is much less violence in games than on the same TV, and this is a fact!
babc8ff72c1101983e4b736822ab32feab0417ba	Those big words that computer games form psychological dependence are not only erroneous, but also provocative, since the same hobby falls under these words.
8056d1a1c7f86d660b85ec560e6895dc937786bb	If a person likes to do a certain thing, this does not mean that he is psychologically dependent and needs to be treated.
aa43c1a517714545ba9903daec83e2430fef0d0a	I like to read.
dcc65e2f581105b62fc53b767bfe1e70595dd508	I'm sick and I need to be treated?
c4e0e3f22585f46469dc8967dae9df2fdd9a1a58	Strange, donot you think?
49afff0a20612c2dcc41c8f1fd757a711879111c	Oddly enough, but the parents believe that their child was flown out of a prestigious educational institution with a bang due to the fact that he spent too much time in a gaming club.
9328d184c503f2a7c9df4fdddc70733d4067e9ba	Well, if he spent it in chess training?
c073483015de4e0a0b04cc510fac282f9d4b43ac	Chess would not be called a " bad " game.
54d33e0abd59926793edcda9a4b8019f2f0a8a2f	Everyone should set their own priorities in life.
101ec8aa4b78b2b977706478dfb7b6e8562911d5	I know many professional players who perfectly combine playing and studying.
479c6bbaa0c35816a9566ac24ec0dd34d2816c10	Draw conclusions.
c7a545e1c88e7116cfc6041e305e3f6de6be8a34	Another stereotype – esports is a children's hobby.
ee54692c9fc09400717b8422b489f5905fee1432	Interestingly, if gymnasts finish their careers at 22, is this considered an "adult" sport?
0fea4bf2b47e3be4a0c1d4f2c639429e4f44194d	And they started from the age of 4, or even earlier.
3798f32e018f4d5d5f287a268213302567d7cd2d	The main age category of players starts from 16 and ends with all 27!
4a5522a9965932792c8d9874dacb319ffbcd3eea	Although there are talents who are already able to compete with the already established champions at the age of 15.
d5d5dd4364d5f4d3c49463f0c9d6137197c29e59	The final matches of the World Championships are held in arenas, up to 40,000 spectators watch the matches only on the Internet, 5,000 can watch live, while buying tickets for $ 40.
8e08811ed8d4ed4fd217d0521b16f5bc54352c7b	Recordings of the final games are distributed on the Internet and are downloaded by up to a million players.
32eb4b450f822884c6376305107a4553189574a1	In Korea, matches are broadcast live on television with comments from professional players.
228ed8aeba6cc68d25fc42aab5e7680afcf5364a	Here are some statistics about Kazakhstan's participation in the WCG World Championship, which is fully sponsored by Samsung Corporation:
647e6f86891878fba32a655f1a6ad7784c9075ca	2002: Kazakhstan takes part in this event for the first time.
def66ac557ddf51485728e6fd0fd7b68e8ecafd4	Result: 7th place in the overall standings in all disciplines.
69c5431f9064f968ff14db61e3ffc7fa335cbfdd	Moreover, the seventh place is shared with Canada and Hong Kong, which are among the legislators of the game for several years.
286b65f11bc5ebb65daff47bcbe72246d5cc519d	For the first time, this is not even bad!
79e81d6737f19b6df7970a868ed1c1cba25d8af0	2003: 12th place at the World Cyber Games.
03c6083c74874ba319754c36d0f868695679bb78	2004: 24th place at the World Cyber Games.
b8abdf9aa241bb2134f2bcb9bbd72a92d4760b60	2005: my favorite and the most successful year for Kazakhstan esports!
52b234b40bf0483d1ab4b42fc78b6dc435edc0c9	I call this year the year of the renaissance.
786e5dee2846ec0012a4ac3f3ebd93a7fb9db518	We have finally shown what we are made of.
5297da47c9990497ef62d5194938864cc2a03268	Kazakhstan took the 9th place in the overall standings, but at the same time Kazakhstan took silver in one of the disciplines!
00abc661312df9fc03bb12a579f4fdd2f472c135	The team "k23" (Kazakhstan 2030), which participated in the discipline Counter Strike: Source (5x5), won the 2nd place, beating such developed countries in esports as France, Germany and Russia.
7717fc85c3457b828252683ccd1ee95ac2e993c8	The first place was taken by the Americans, as they have the financial resources to participate in such competitions and to prepare for them.
68f0047674008319b10c96df4b94c2413f7ff173	The second place speaks for itself.
86b624e4b859973b72625aa8f2bd7d1de16acc58	Kazakhstan has moved from 24th to 9th place, which is a worthy leap to victory!
e618c1f418a8731bbf884dd9fa4057d2c784a962	The news spread around the world that Kazakhstan, a country that was only average in terms of esports, took second place.
992ce4819f421f94e8b382e3a00c77040bc4cba9	Kazakh players realized that they can not only play on an equal footing with world teams, but also much better than them.
808f47548e4970182d92794bc035e4e5d18f1faf	A decent game is possible only after a long practice, which is impossible without sponsoring teams and holding competitions.
8b81ace503c5b2b1543ce84667c6cda09933efa7	2006: 17th place at the World Cyber Games.
7858db3fd3868508b9650072bedb095f758e870a	Given the fact that the statistics of the places occupied by the countries start counting from the moment of the first speech, and for us it is from 2002, we are holding up well.
3880da3023dfd84b8841f47fecc1b1c4ea85e6c7	What prevents you from attracting sponsors?
6416a097d67cfd1e797d9f59b075f735d98f5ad3	Not all people who have the opportunity to sponsor esports know about it at all.
93fa85fb8a63677e56f3e5836d7d6ee26cea8651	Among the companies, only those directly related to esports and information technologies, or rather companies engaged in the sale of computers and accessories to them, have such knowledge.
35df32f61ce13a303e56efc3cff713b19b1238f8	Many world famous teams are sponsored by such market giants as Intel, AMD, nVidia, ATI, Asus, MSI, BenQ.
6478859d87edcae16d27cfd07300053941fcdaf4	The list can be continued for a very long time.
f3daa906a5d952e2387c1d67b6fc5902321b182b	In 2005, the Ukrainian team attracted a company producing paints and oils as a sponsor.
c13a7cd5761bd93debaca34511abbed214c10961	These guys took the first place in the Russian championship, which gathers the best teams from all over the CIS and continue to win, the result is that the sponsor's brand began to be recognized abroad.
66b6fbb355d4d93fb926648566b2f9e3e081dd35	And another interesting example: the sponsor of the Polish Pentagram team is the G Shock brand, this is a children's watch!
0c54d518238cb8895841b4058b6c84e2d8d4bd7c	The result is that the team has won several prestigious events and has already been world champion twice, and in a row!
053394c03fc78cbe7abe5c6b5fef6e868d8a83f0	The leading manufacturers of computer equipment, sound equipment, and various fields of entertainment are sponsors of the teams.
b50aa21a247b9ef2954ed8edda4198f5ed11b851	Players are not only sponsored for trips and training, they also receive a salary.
26c5e376052e44cfcd494942c49cc89e3229bbd7	In Kazakhstan, almost no one is sponsored, okay, beginners, but also those who have twice been the champion of Kazakhstan.
c9fb5ad2cabdba077c6a3e16fed53c6747f93d28	Maximum – a free game in a club or an Internet cafe.
1d4f2ac9a11e9d16013dfab0287e0a4b31d585c5	The network of online clubs "Omega Sector" is the leading one in the country today.
a600344cf0673420a49b437bcc28ec1d0c9cbe02	Naturally, the management tries to improve the service and fully meet the needs of the players.
257b436b900359aa9ef1b472cda1ef28c0e0ae7f	Now they are doing it, there are very few left, namely, "Omega Sector" is able to become a platform for holding international tournaments, which will not just be a clarification of the skill level of players, but powerful media projects, in which there will be a show and a lot of interesting things that will gather a considerable number of viewers, as well as sponsors.
9f03db590d2795abac54fd959a3659244522b4d2	At the moment, the audience is the main driving force.
6b0565b85ed50357ad5241a2d7eeaae570c5272f	We need to tell the people that esports is not sitting in clubs, but a real sport with serious excitement during competitions!
301f8375993c0bdc3662e72630f07e112d239ae8	The people (meaning adults) have the impression that computer games are bad...
78bb6245155b3e448f752d5f80abf14909aca72e	Wrong!
58af3ae1b1efba785b0dd228f34c2fc8ec2164f9	If we look into the essence, we will see a real sports excitement, which is present in all types of physical sports.
a5467cb92fbe5525c05eb3dd557f5bdc620a0485	Even intellectual sports, such as chess, attracts a large number of spectators and participants, although chess is not a very dynamic game.
e045dab616d2cf594e0a24138a57a6526f6e7492	In Kazakhstan, almost all young people play some games, so it is necessary to give them the opportunity to develop further.
1585859c7b26c4d696837efcb8d6431e7aff381b	Beginners eventually become amateurs, and amateurs in turn become professionals (if of course they have the talent and desire to win), who are able to bring money to themselves and their sponsors with their level of play.
cd714308f70be02ded3be4cbf7308b5f10a00da7	It is impossible to develop esports on a kind word.
e7e620bdc7d7e68a162a2ad3c01a3c21c3119169	We need financial investments, which are simply not available at the moment.
ce011a0d35d7954eb7511aadcbcdb201f987bab9	You canot train for a whole year to lose in the qualifiers for one of the championships.
19881343f90b0612d6b6ab6cb87769787c47b9eb	There should be a lot of championships with real prizes.
8a526fc7c019609ebed0ed6fc7fd099bb334a6e9	For many players, the first place may be more important than the prize, but if there is an opportunity to get real money from it, then everyone will try.
bd9467b26c0090ffbb8653c26b224527fd77f078	The development of competition both in the game plan and in business is a successful guarantee of successful growth.
c38882ff5449727d079682bfc4d293998a939e1e	At the moment, in 2007, 4 big championships were held in Kazakhstan, or rather in Almaty.
4dda6efb9c736aacf297dd93cff7dec88104fb7e	Now I will tell you about them in more detail.
ac52b863a2626f912d89d37e86ac28041877ddc6	On February 4, the Internet club "Omega Sector 2" hosted a closed invitation tournament "Arbalet Cup 2007", which brought together the best teams of the country, and the champions of Russia were also invited.
5633aff3407f9b7f7f45daf1a4bc7bfdd6861fae	The prize fund was $ 10,000.
0a69354b5780faf364f8c95669d40865b4a13e46	In mid May, Almaty hosted the selections for ESWC 2007, held in Paris.
e8eab0a4ce314361ff7f6fda65e42398a2c1f11c	The main prize is a trip to France for the World Cup.
3479a2a5616cbea2a435ad3357ccfd2759ef17f8	In early June, Alser Computers sponsored the "Alser Challenge" championship, where the main prize was a powerful gaming computer, as well as computer accessories.
442ee99817c5ee055edf65e0c6d5913f9bd0b737	At the end of June, a closed invitation tournament "Arbalet Masters #3" was held with a total prize fund of $ 10,000.
b9962d3d9fabe8e170955d57e5e05621734305cc	The 2 best Russian teams were invited to the tournament, which competed with ours.
ab4d12b97cd4f1d3f9022e75ea01268ac4ed5e25	Next, we are waiting for the qualifiers for the WCG World Championship.
aec8774d048f12352060c0a9e3448a599f796e6c	It is safe to say that this year was the most interesting in terms of esports events in our country.
6b35dc2771f6a06dd4e6d445296c3cc7763b87de	Esports is gaining momentum and should soon reach the world level, if there were no problems:
45dcd348497fd807672b2a0ed01c7659e19a28aa	1. The lack of really high speed available Internet.
6f4e6cf07986ce4ab4a97132299ae6d81059ba7d	2. A small number of championships.
5df6c22aae966e9457f35c17523edcc7d8fcfcd0	3. Lack of sponsors.
f84ec9fbeb8b9285076bdc7b928b54dccbc37bb6	4. And the most important thing is the lack of state support!
81428dbac008563403e375999135be94fbc5a850	Esports has an impact on:
c65b1efe6e9aab7442a2324daf728a4bc601272d	1. Increasing the prestige of the country.
8b230423c796e09ded56e777cade512cd31fcec6	Since the players are considered advanced people, they know who Borat is and what he has done to our reputation abroad.
fe64caa380012e8dfd9fb85d195d8e7346c8a426	This can be easily corrected by organizing world class competitions so that foreigners can see our country with their own eyes.
8e7b6f488a51ddcaaa887312261f83c856a913be	I am sure that they will immediately change their opinion after what they have seen.
a9cbadb49188e3c12e460f6316f1a234aab40bac	Also, a film crew and journalists come with each national team to any World Cup or big tournament.
893f38432fe4152f2d0333c7e506acebc2050054	2. Formation of young people's interest in information technologies.
3958edb33647c52b93d2956e10898925169bbc34	Esports, as games in general, are directly related to information technologies, which is why players attend IT exhibitions and similar events.
a4d141628d989c56e0b27ac8a2a7a72a236dc460	Using the Internet, players not only learn new technologies, but also establish communication with foreign "colleagues".
66609b93226fa6b1859f76a6f8caa2e1906eba94	3. Formation of a culture of communication between regions.
4f88b9735dd1ea80aee7eb64a1520a74afda7a22	The regions will begin to communicate with each other, exchange opinions, experience, and of course, find out who has reached a higher level at the competitions.
b2cc64a50cc6ab4f4817deea235b630448b70de2	By arranging friendly meetings, the regions will be able to develop and already compete for the capital of esports – Almaty.
58b8bd25ab25dc7b81cf6ba390117feb6804f999	4. Development of a new area for investment.
b9458ed8f006b8070de41fff020654580e467fa4	Big championships, good press coverage are a big plus for investors or sponsors.
32b4cdd5dc87eb38d3014ee42752122c9dd27e0a	5. An incentive for the development of high speed Internet in all regions.
bacbddedc5166929d288fe88558d5bfeea007442	Since there is a monopoly of the Internet in our country, its development is somewhat slow, since there is no competition.
594ba418fcb51526795be63998423703ab7178af	But there is a more interesting way to develop it faster – this is kipersport.
533454436e9ebf862159bb09727dd367833fbc13	An online league was already held in Kazakhstan, where 100 people participated in 20 teams, but due to technical difficulties, the league ended in the group round, but all the players waited for the finals for 2 months!
f43a5e96717e743d977c3431a58d819764683a13	This shows that we have something to develop.
2ca6acc9d7f5e0858a0c7d13f642f4d4594a42fe	Author: Sobig.
8223ed43359fc30abbc12a5813365d158678fcc7	Views: 1178 | Added: niXL | Rating: 0.0/0 | - Rate - Excellent Good Not Bad Bad Terrible
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b94a1505614f1e0e696ede1b8290ca38ac275edd	Spam0 1 Zhelezkin (22.03.2009 00: 33)
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7ae8433733916225d2138d985ccefa90d38e0bd9	Article about esports and TI4 in the New York Times
b6e0497b9d56cb4c638a7f665b5e605c5b1d6698	By dreamknoxville, 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 16
119c32a55adfaff2e68440cc6b7412bc35c576cf	We will provide you with the main essence of this article.
23336ff658f5fa04c992e8e5669953b40b81a236	The Dota 2 video game, like many others like it, takes players from their bedrooms to a virtual world where they can fight each other through keyboard and mouse clicks.
343875d145aff32c5e9ff1ec9582eb2d7367bbd8	Except for one of the sunny days in July, when each attack by one of the teams caused a burst of applause and broke the ovation of the audience.
eca71371fb1a0adcd003ec97984832d6c2264503	More than 11,000 spectators gathered at the Seattle Basketball Arena.
a1352ef52c1959d6c139a1bf22b6715dfa00ac8e	The participants fought for a huge part of the prize pool of $ 11 million, which is the largest in the history of computer games.
eac9053987ed28137f7b89998c36b124d7f35ddd	The developer, Valve Corporation, has made another huge step towards turning a computer game into a sports discipline that would be watched by the masses of viewers.
bcb8ee928df71bbdeb9498abe12ca06cf9414c09	By the way, if we touch on the topic of computer games, the industry with a revenue of $ 20 billion has long bypassed the music industry and is coming on the heels of the film industry.
6e824468c5ba3073bc33d3ee07e196977808abe8	And the beauty is that it is only gaining momentum, and its subsidiary industry, esports, is already beginning to show teeth.
e10fe0b196269b10fdabaa588ddf70c7ff35fca9	Success in esports is already beginning to be significant.
c1c5d510eabfa902314b35dc2ed866381bb4a8b7	Gaming tournaments are located in huge arenas, and their audience exceeds the top sports events.
f332d55deb6854dc96589aad279c732f102d7bc7	As for sponsors, Coca Cola, RedBull and American Express choose esports.
dcaae2de2f6a2c0abb883446702d0a37ab72239d	The prize amounts already reach millions of dollars, and top players receive a lot of money, which automatically pushes the younger generation to try themselves as a gamer.
eba7988baac3e340a92138f1277f4a412503ed65	Last year, the US Department began issuing visas to professional players using the system of traditional sports athletes.
f8e9a960df7419d491feae2a2491b2afceb43033	This year, Robert Morris University in Chicago has allocated about $500,000 in scholarships to esports athletes, which is the first experience in the United States.
7897a3df9f5809a1c3c157ace28d4f694b5b9878	In addition, the Ivy League is a league for universities across the country.
4239b8fa7f1d5f2bf74acc746966dbb16e89b1f3	Last week, the web giant Amazon acquired Twitch.tv, the most popular stream service for gamers, for $ 970 million.
8beb25112ca3b32d2cef4606e5e178f46988a6eb	"Everything is developing so fast that it is getting out of control," said James Lampkin, product manager of ESL (Electronic Sports League), one of the largest leagues in the world, which attracted more than 73,000 spectators at the tournament in Katowice.
eb0cd43a54f65383ff87d263032e4df432e252c9	"We donot know where and when it will all end."
c9198ffb6d1eb68bbe337bc8d7a9d03591cb4d81	Peter is the captain and drafter of the Evil Geniuses team.
70ae8f53e958a8394ea1533173711e702cca9cc8	When he doesnot have to be under the gun of hundreds of cameras and the gaze of thousands of people, Mr. Dugher works from his bedroom in Fort Wayne, Indiana.
8970dd5000d749c36d669ca9ef16c4561a25fa0f	On a small table in the corner of the room are the sources of his earnings: a computer with 2 monitors, a webcam, a mouse and a keyboard.
73484cb6ba7fa726789979e1f03cd3c86544d2ba	Mr. Daguerre himself wears glasses, is a tall and thin young man.
d15a00424143149c08889bcbcf230ffd4ad323d7	As a child, he played on the school football team.
4662cf9277428a0a639cf323e21791ec56c0d585	A poster of Peter in a football team uniform hangs on the wall.
07104355e990db63579d1c4989eb7c3f9a2f3be7	The young man looks confident and calm in his 22 years.
01c2ce3b966bf84a61125457200775f0e8297654	His age is about the same as the rest of the team members.
04d30aa5028f4b97ab33754cccff50e973205a02	There are not many professional gamers after 30 years.
8b7e059bac840037643e580076e6b2141d2dac65	Last Wednesday, as on all other days, Mr. Daguerre's working day began at about one o'clock in the afternoon.
94b194cb764a6a05ae7e56f4c00451629caff98c	Teammates from northern California, Vancouver and Sweden joined him via the network and began to hone their skills in Dota 2 over the next 4-5 hours.
b543fd5d41391e04ddb0a4b2200e8d1dbfd05d51	"At night I have dreams about Dota," says Peter, " sometimes I dream that I am a hero from dota."
928577acaad226e891cca635bd19fb909503d551	The whole essence of the game, the abbreviation of which stands for Defense of the Ancients, is a battle on a square map with passages for players between two warring bases.
76e52883d8564b4c26516c71f7eafb0334359d60	Players can choose for themselves one of more than a hundred heroes, each of which has its own characteristics and disadvantages.
fb54e8c35e5158cdbcd96815de6b96a690af2722	To win, players must act as a team to destroy an enemy structure, which is called Ancient.
373e36feec92e5b3f99d681bb426c9e9c249c7d3	This goal is achieved by destroying other buildings, killing hundreds of monsters and other players.
e82c8347ad0a14575cb65473fd6f053e6edc907e	Using a microphone connected to his computer, Mr. Daguerre talks to his teammates in a calm and even voice, using jargon that is incomprehensible to the ordinary man in the street.
b62c302fa784c824ce89fa36ab9cd4abc37559a6	Evil Geniuses win the first two training matches.
d687aefc2802ffb72f4145b78805568ec92d8052	During the third game, one of the players lost concentration and started making mistakes, allowing the opposing team to get ahead and increase their advantage even more.
570dabfdc73fff83c7df052c294471cd7f7be8b1	Mr. Daguerre lost his composure at that moment.
fd324344aefb4095c1d7e0a00220e7629f9e1dda	"I canot play dota like this," he told the player, " everything you do doesnot make any sense.
4a407ab6326824834596940e7f829266cf54cd06	Just follow us."
133a49871e73892e6a0edcedcb5170768e6a957d	After the end of training, Peter usually starts streaming, like other players.
c92f70c075f589638ff6439ef6a7aeae98c1cf5d	The streams are located on Twitch, and the audience is more than 9 thousand people.
1631f463e6b3f85a432d7a8fa841bcea19d6639a	Peter has been spending less time broadcasting his games recently to rest before going to China for a big tournament, which is just one of a dozen that he has yet to get to this year.
1c1e0729eadc4d5cfb0598983bb3dcac4592c2fb	Mr. Daguerre notes that physical features are not as important for an esports athlete as they are in traditional sports.
f9caf4e44cc3977bf351a80a466f986ca3993eb8	He lists only the brain and fingers as the main tools for starting a player's career.
c0fc6999e6123d697395e9f20fe422dde0ac520d	The main thing, according to him, is to focus on what you are doing.
f0a1647ee8e1406b1d8dad6111cfc694850a1eb8	Go to your goal, not paying attention to failures.
eb2a4be9ec8c6582745b100995f1d641ebb914ea	His desire for video games went against the dreams and hopes of the Dagher family, especially in his youth.
1b0b44ac33e79868dbe6b35d8f374cd1287ddd0e	As you know, most of the top players had a similar situation with their parents.
557b8252de7f2b2abd4f93116baa5b900ae49759	"I, like many players, sacrificed everything," said Mr. Daguerre, who almost graduated from college, but now does not attend it.
0f450d9faf2f6b0cbe6dc3c2f0e22e1ba0e1482f	"We sacrificed everything: friends, sports and school, just to play more."
cdfa7b9ef0b864c3b543a2a3405a9f9b14e95a05	Mr. Daguerre earned a small amount of $20,000 last year, but this year he has already earned more than $200,000.
435de20431979d53d2ace4f53ec96519f2b32ecd	Peter had recently intended to purchase a condominium in Fort Wayne.
73fa929d31731200b9dc5cd8dd317f56eac14343	His father, Joe Dugher, is very proud of his son, but he is very worried about the length of Peter's career.
c0d927c2850ca90c04092188d4ab94e1f2f7fc4b	"It took us a very long time to realize that everything is fine with Peter and everything is going according to plan.
c009dd1a5112e475597c09ea5946c2be2f3d33f4	However, Peter has to finish school, so he needs to find time for this.
981452b07d7692200b5af26739785a6ae68f754c	We say this, but I do not know if Bill Gates ' parents reproach him for not finishing his education."
d696950d8362482b3d3b1e2e981597aa8ed88d21	- Joe Daguerre.
c72cba65315eb2a386d5adc39fdfd7d4821781b7	Companies that come to esports have high hopes that a large audience will help bring good earnings from advertising.
f94e8983ad5d95a6781f537df80e9b93eaee2592	Thus, the sponsorship of tournaments is a permanent and profitable thing for investors themselves.
ebbc05a9c5e00ab2101843b34665ecaee1e3a9a8	This is already happening everywhere.
ea9c4ef5f3b8d7a33c9bccb3a38e0b4a2a55ca60	T Mobile USA, a large and well known corporation, sponsored the Evil Geniuses team at the tournament in Seattle.
d8bff1d1b2d0e5abeef897af11d4923f1b6d2494	Coca Cola helped with the organization of League of Legends pabstomps in cinemas and theaters in Europe.
aaf9faf49ee0638f72ab3da4a0504654dfc6bbe4	In addition, the company has released a series of products with images of champions in South Korea.
949f55d5fd76e08a2d2b32410bf3681b1b5762cb	"Gaming is not the same as it was in our childhood," says Matt Wolf, a 45 year veteran of the gaming business, who is now the director of the esports investment department at Coca Cola Corporation.
dfd7efae1a381fa70b64b9e4a0b150a476491aed	- This is a huge media platform that has various forms of financing and financial benefits."
b07f5c9398d77565be29d62a7882b122c57b7c19	For marketing departments, the main attraction is the audience: the sphere mainly involves men from 18 to 35 years old, the same group that is now almost impossible to get with the help of traditional TV commercials.
2ee41e008737cdf4980f9961680d627b41036f95	Major competitions and online broadcast services offer companies a new way to reach this audience.
d6954a8d6a4b2dcd43facb72a2992cf6c9dfc688	The very idea at the top of the companies that create games is to create and offer sponsors a way to earn money from their own investments.
2b31d77c49733eac02b6e31425cd88b281d05a25	The more money is invested in development, stimulating it, the more money is obtained at the output, which, in theory, should attract an increasing audience to games.
10fa643c5fe1edcae444fba0bb54754cebab89ce	And the more people who are interested in games, the more money will be spent on games and in game items.
7dfe51424de7977d07397d5625c9eee75ad5b0d4	Peter Vorman, executive director of Newzoo, a company that studies such a phenomenon as esports, says: "Now gaming companies are interested in producing products for players, as they are confident in its payback.
7beb2c8cb31ed9b3cfd9c785ff94ed0420d29622	People continue to discover new games and esports, so there is more and more money in the industry."
6c4d829552a386829f850200be01bcb9bee27abc	But to continue this cycle, the industry, apparently, will need to somehow change people's opinions about games and gamers - roughly speaking, to prove to everyone that the skills acquired through games are useful and can be applied in society.
0164676aa3409806f12e6d9459beb586fd3e8b19	When ESPN2, a cable sports channel, launched a program about the Dota 2 tournament in July, Twitter was flooded with angry comments about this show.
81fbd5f1a0d8213f306dc46f1843a78bcda482f6	People did not understand why they should show esports on a sports channel.
715037fe4e0e98a48a3bc68bd7b6d8a9dd280873	Mr. Lampkin from ESL said that he does not worry at all about such opinions and this attitude of the majority.
6dbd34a3a2741073e814281fc97e75621c2e12bf	His argument about whether esports is a sport or not sounds exactly like this:
b443bf1b80a92ae2edb659ed72af8358281f7ed2	"If you donot want to call esports an ordinary sport or something similar, then it doesnot mean anything to me.
b2da3517942a0ac6de34d71edb84dcde7e78e13f	Your opinion will not change the fact that esports is developing at an incredible speed and the scale of this development is noticeable all over the world."
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d120c804c10c9c3cdaadafa696db75cd80e0b4a0	Announcement of professional games on September 4
324b155deeca03a9e574eb866d15b10e1f9acfc8	Titan will not be able to go to the WEC LAN Finals
7e7f5c999b98d2db699e47a3c8ce75d1f01626e9	Techies got a new ability!
bb11a8e3f8712e36e7cd9d1c615a4e3dbb03336a	Rules
321793f659118cbb729468ffb68ce70dbd414c57	At the moment, the following rules apply in the comments: http://dota2.ru/forum/threads/pravila portal.1694/ (the ban period is issued at the discretion of the moderator).
f7d3077c0bbb1bb5ea5d61c0a5f4eaba69ef01d1	Corpsegrinder 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 24
d435a6cdd786300dff204ee7c2ef942d3e9034e2	23
fd2f8a9943201be39c22322c6003aabfbef2efe8	The dota is only getting more depressing, though popular....
811b604bb5a08a2aa5e285d0ec56d1cd8db8fd47	exFAT 03 Sep 2014 at 14: 26
16c05ccbbd4c64228ce90d54ca99f864356b768c	It's just that you're getting more grown up
68f6c8aafb40a55e004013e0edefa62e30ec52e0	Corpsegrinder 04 Sep 2014 at 15: 26
2aa78ee98d6b2b239d3448fe49be5d50e7f0fa34	Everything is possible. :D
de0499b6cba2c1cea9975303630cc431e186b541	AfaQ 03 Sep 2014 at 17: 18
ad25595d8803064fbcafaa7d42dcea695f83cf8b	Take a couple of months off) It helps me to regain interest.
9291aa3af315de1e7af8e990816d8f9d1313c3e1	If it doesnot help, then exFAT is right.
c1027d5d6f618416f0ae1c562a475e15c7471c21	Elishcancan 03 Sep 2014 at 11: 45
6df37544a587b0314173224a2a55a9de3391aa61	And matchmaking does not reach hands to fix, so that dudes with 50 games and 5k MMR do not get to other 5k MMR and with 2k games, fucking Volvo.
f4b955d2ccaea78692d4cc2c92105fade93f801f	The only place where I get pleasure is Ability Draft, and in other modes, to get pleasure you have to win, and to win - sweat.
35a86796135e83043fca9a8bb9a58a8d0f0e35a2	Dota brings fun with friends in fulpati, but not with 4 strangers, with whom you have to win to get satisfaction,and to win, you have to take all your fucking nerves.
11ea11d2b81e9f49fe167cd0f886ac5fc9d3f503	Acana Warrior 03 Sep 2014 at 14: 52
def03a29bf06dda7befac55709c21a3c23ee102d	-3
fdf54a84d305911c011cac33f65cccf51c403972	If you donot like it, then donot play.
28594d5494a8e45ba662c7aaf375956aa4f7ab25	Jawbone 03 Sep 2014 at 11: 17
19dd59c90c8616ab8574702f19e31aec511147c7	Dota2.ru filed the article, as the New York Times filed the article.
d83353defd3d628a818f79d51d9ee08a99457a6a	This is in the spirit of <url>.
9abeeeeba435168814e7508945142758df50ea0d	bod.
9c29af415d23c9d9a9fec86fd405c4eaf5ade90f	Boss niger 03 Sep 2014 at 08: 25
647993409dce78c7eaf27b10c9a5d172d2295255	Cola, you were like a brother to me.
8284cacbfc786dd2e908c238861144639253705c	I loved you.
8e9a4b24e5e6e44724de859d44357d309e3f372c	Seageee 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 22
f113ae320ed0cbdaa5b580bd0f714f5bda91e338	Worthy :)
1ed2cb0b5638eba55d43ba31101cfd7ba8e231ad	Camtsov 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 27
15ed1091a1029656eebf1a815bad74e287fb07e8	I read it a week ago on the sltv website
b21bd147e4dad759cf2600f99a5357886293a194	VasyaTriNaVosem 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 30
1485b16caafbea34f2616e460d945175fec9e81c	The Alps are somewhere nearby.
2d75cbadecb8dfff50642c732d9628d7a8df8772	#middle|~PwN DsFX 03 Sep 2014 at 03: 11
bbbd76a500cb6ecb201942e227b6ef7d78150b5e	Just basically about what is already in everyone's heads - only more chewed up and formulated, plus a little patriotically written) And in general, it's a good thing)
47f6782feec25b3b7211e4b274174d0e31edc036	ferzrrn 03 Sep 2014 at 06: 46
e0ae58aa988f642444b8533972893cdb452900a8	"As a child, he was playing in the school football team" what?))
7fd4ad079ecbce18cdb5792a7b256f1de56df199	Torantes 03 Sep 2014 at 15: 38
c07aa86c1a2104abeea604e924f9dc17c778824b	Coca Cola, RedBull AND American Express CHOOSE KAPPA ESPORTS
986fb6b5e231b78961fc2b76c282ca9dc70ac898	cliknik 04 Sep 2014 at 10: 26
b4eec7d856681d30c28d93291154040415f43204	It's a good article, I liked it, it's just right to read before working with tea.
2754673194a3ae78cdec6f04cea451371a884cea	Just the guys, from the PPD photo, the 3rd paragraph is up.
4f297f03113e8bdddeab6eef5bfb3f5b2a909ba0	The phrase "Evil Geniuses win the first two training matches." fix pls;)
081f9875a1acfe58156063a7b4981b1aa6a07bf3	Harukaze 04 Sep 2014 at 12: 31
cd439f3fcdc5734623d215d0525988847ca8553f	The Jew York Times, as always, started everything with an analysis of the players 'income,the organizers' profit, etc.
6675d91f8aae5dd7653a7abd7d8ab20ba8a362c8	MaRFRey 04 Sep 2014 at 20: 28
0777396dd6af553eb3c820b7ab885246f4b999ce	"Using the example of this article, we can trace how esports turns from a hobby in narrow circles into a mass phenomenon that is gaining momentum not only every year, but also every day.
08c4f284d98811f2cc5d0c7e7e155a33be269e07	And now we can only wait and watch this most interesting process, " I thought after reading the end, I will understand the meaning of the whole article.
9ff790d8623ea6d0adcd7fee3ed3847a88dfdd7d	But what does it mean "Very soon you will be able to say that you tried to break into the professional scene when it was not yet "mainstream" " if dota is already mainstream ?
bd41e2cef7db1ca04c9ca7783943d7f4085617be	Everyone who played or didnot play knows it.
25a9ba99a93c6147cee8a9e8f945c4413b5be1d5	Here to break through 5-8 years ago, you can confidently say that you wanted to go to the pro scene outside the mainstream.
a24dc1eb6f7f841abb8aafc38a20a178dd02cb3a	And now dotka is a gathering of the school, which automatically means that the mainstream has come.
dd3bffdf337ad0b3a87822db8684f881e5d555ef	Legal God 03 Sep 2014 at 16: 42
049d0b0b133300b32d3ac966370073b4a0c0af05	Hmm, 6 years ago I would never have thought that they would write about dota in the newspapers.
b03f03cb994b23e54c268dab6593b51b774c7189	grnthmb 03 Sep 2014 at 22: 43
2ea7dbada1279b7f7c964b7929faf5ef88bb4316	6 years ago, doters were not considered people
207336d5089244668a2b60247faba7580e97946d	FAlendark 03 Sep 2014 at 20: 41
90cd10d022a3de8ac0e1b6be1a4fdb2552094fd9	6 years ago, I would not have thought at all that there would be a dotka tu and it would be so catchy...
6cb624937c656f5ec41ae279fdee28440b2a31ae	Napoli 03 Sep 2014 at 09: 26
53d76ce96e3b25bc5e33a8962ae38e40193030d2	I told my Father that I would play, and he kicked me in the stomach and said that f*lan and I will go to work when I finish University(
ec9586f3373a2bab711177bb5acb16ee69655b8d	SuperPuper01 03 Sep 2014 at 10: 11
2c827f5265e69aa8bc9991c173bec2bc9fcbae09	I did everything right
e42124fef848b70ee027e827c6506f6ea908eb4f	Eldenhor 03 Sep 2014 at 03: 28
39a28d38b27d077bf9fe4f5a49e1b2087c4e7902	-6
bb34d630aa8e901419d0eed68b7730472d26d2ff	The whole article is a solid hype, who needs this PDD?
58d068cccb576268224bcd015912236c74d1c5c4	What kind of cameras is he under?
223c602b1aabf5a93bce22cef2fbc27c1dad457f	No one cares about nerds, that's who remembers the faces of the winners who won 11kk dallars?
58dbc3602acdaab7fb527caebfc84554344829d6	They took the money and dumped it in their Tajikistan, that's all.
14b1b4bc8346519a10cda10ee8ed1964acaa4697	Ankh 03 Sep 2014 at 09: 38
0c6050880998f7f0aa0b865cc01d2c77c091af41	And who won the 11kk?
f11bbf2d821ddc974c9fc74df1aa7f2a2c5ad843	vladisser 03 Sep 2014 at 15: 18
5fb5672e2cd95cf98938ee052514ec47b13474cf	Well, you know that it's not 11, but somewhere 3...
507a047ccb668d9be372e74f2e3a4092eba05695	DimakSerpg 03 Sep 2014 at 18: 34
c8c82c8ce12a7f11f2a12ea7a9e8fce6c3cae3aa	It's not good to be envious...
97b6a29f797003dd78e24b578d66252884810ff1	solohin300 03 Sep 2014 at 08: 21
565e8bd101bd602536fe79ba40584a1561da3581	-7
450d39dee449962cf413f9f4873296d59f81019c	If the miner is not added this week, it will be very mean.
057d26dbb9b003e70e4608b1cb406e1389e78ef7	It's just that they have already promised it for the 3rd time!
7317b864a90e2ceb2f758ac6ce714afdd625a8b5	Hurry up already!
3847acbfb7ab63662e951be04534711086a4210f	I'm unlikely to play for a miner, because the first dota was enough for me,I'm just waiting for ARDM and arcana for other Persians!
84811b702d665ab8d480e83120d6865caf80f11a	divide by zero 03 Sep 2014 at 10: 36
400c5eaebffec1059c283e8bc8a246d61aa07931	That's it, sorry, we'll add it now.
305c4a6aad7820bd715b4ec0f48f46523f3fc021	We are in a hurry with all our might, I have already put a paper on the table for the authorities, saying " solohin300 is unlikely to play for a miner, but I am already very dissatisfied."
da01dc36d9f8a46df4956497bbd0fa30381b38ff	They said that they will be introduced any minute, wait.
d24fc85067c62849a2feb99fd9ff86764748c2dc	LaniS 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 20
b7a473697b449336ffa89ad58b46ab604991f258	-12
e48e358aaddaa17222aef637bb11f60c24796868	with connection
37ca34301966b32496b722f1ab5bd809a2c6e53b	Deidara 03 Sep 2014 at 04: 26
2d5a3023298fdbdfc360b5f16e6c0cb1468ce88b	FAker where is the movie
c980129c960dc24a2f9b8766b1980794235d9fb9	Tony Darko 03 Sep 2014 at 10: 22
825b89a986b0423c02eadde4d15eba0d0456fba6	༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ Give DIRETIDE ༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ
23987d57703120d33c1b8ed6ae4acbbb286c9082	Limney 03 Sep 2014 at 22: 23
c8f9d9621d341481d46eb75e893b8f10d6964bd4	༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ FAKER CHTO S FILMOM ༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ
36e9d07390cd7f57b538243edd8900b81c1bdc61	EdwardZed 04 Sep 2014 at 17: 18
97acb15179ce949f269b333c013ef89aab47bdc0	༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ PEREVODCHIK HUESOS CHTO S FILMOM ༼ つ ◕_◕ ༽つ
1c8d6a97903b6712690882ca75b36c5c93fe0cdc	Torantes 03 Sep 2014 at 15: 44
82c7af12e90d60b0961c42c324a21bacc145adb0	What movie (I'm newfajeGG)
bc7b79dd6254ab460fac809155b63eef8507f242	FunnyMaKS 03 Sep 2014 at 18: 18
4615ad1921dc0f7edd1dce8e0b9cfe2db0c9ba22	the film will be on starladder, you are for " bali to twist this topic
c9b516de89a7c9458fbb7df6d57abf04676c1c46	Jimmy the Tulip 03 Sep 2014 at 02: 40
81b55851117dbb37200f6adfd64902486137de37	-113
82f85223653c131e8488ac192fcde73acb8b60d0	A lot of letters and 0 sense, it would be better to drink more about the miner vidosik
9bc44a9d5697203c29f51eff2a90598c5dfa8228	xstrannikx13 03 Sep 2014 at 03: 21
c6db06f5e4a5071bddd6fb512e18c4d089e87463	for sarcasm ++If it was him))
e63ffa35282a1fa111121afabcc34e79f667a63d	It was autism.
6545c2fbce3821b7fb8628dec6012ade4acb46f5	RoMka 654 04 Sep 2014 at 19: 28
708abec48013734f7c8d2d27e59ac539ddb4ac4f	This is Pasha from 5b was
bde2515c5e10f68a3e489d5a33fcf36bb8c32ded	dimon4ikus 03 Sep 2014 at 16: 34
413eb32104d697d2d75b5dfde422a9c299130f44	-8
4adfca6587a1b0a23d0441788cdc2d5096b51e96	fuck your miner fuck you need it damn what are you so happy about the miner stupid hero
7c1fc6a47bf9723bba1e529f7be639ac03baf9d1	RoMka 654 04 Sep 2014 at 19: 30
eb7f9c00e11838797a2594f74d409f8c8b59904d	The hero is normal, but his vir rate will be inversely proportional to the number of livs on him
5e4282d8b386d3349ac87e8e12e98c936fce706f	In order to leave a comment, you need to register or log in under your account.
7456a251e7e4af6f84126bbe872e6b3ea7d4f444	Memes
4d17e978746630132738e97ab1c23410b026e1c8	Artois
cb4e5208b4cd87268b208e49452ed6e89a68e0b8	32
a8762838ce7404c64013f47ac52560504afed7e5	Montarol
61188f24396807ba7ca38919a158766de935852e	197
7864fb77f4d56883935032f290b5b22ec226e439	FUERTE_
84a70bdea5863dcc1e84461ea3f9de24eb873c51	Nikinator14
74f39697ac328c6325ce068b6aaca626abc0bf63	Before
2f38169a712e499b917900e244feafc980a814f4	Trace
c0fd1695cfa5ce203399ba38f2c89512a8b518ef	Need help
304123193d77d7363453cb2045a126872a61b0d2	Freebie from vpgame in honor of the Chinese ng
12c6fc06c99a462375eeb3f43dfd832b08ca9e17	22
11e9d1df07399c7463ca3c35bd80981dc4a0f938	A little analysis about HeidenPool (°° ʖ °) ☆ ☆ ﾟ.
bc7e0db999c4c62874ae69c4256387dee7331cf1	* ･ ｡ﾟ
2a2b47bf21a372f267deccbb420567f3d450b3c0	142
f909a886aaf40327773537a33a7173b1c3936028	What kind of business in the net to mess up?
d7e85405a689b4996ee5bb51b030c8173adbf461	build a system file for the dota2 stream, csgo
b4c96d80854dd27e76d8cc9e21960eebda52e962	68
f6df689d258e738946283953d5314990e5bb5c1e	Choose Nokia Lumia
c8306ae139ac98f432932286151dc0ec55580eca	102
e70aecf017ac8f25b98d035f5adfdba356e1498a	I am 3k garbage, you will waste your time in vain.
7c48dd197e9fad1b4212d2c40624c2513ddb25da	Alliance vs VP - 27 days Win Streak +322 CD 3.0 Dota 2
b00168585f7b81b68f0ef02ffa919c710fb6f592	366
befee3d2ac80c8d11f84035ebf39bc8512f5c6f9	v1lat is visiting MEG's Show
08d55d01921d987568b19a5fd67bc17b74d6c36f	447
6ea59ebe32b35407ca4a837a593df4bddce34e6f	Then and now: Heroes of the last patch
21f139620428c49b92c5f31b18f4496fa3a7e4d8	today at 00: 12
6f9478d488b69f989e7228fd97883521f54e4c6d	The first successes of Resolution and its team
1417a44c904bcaee2e797b26b0f5b9c79601f263	yesterday at 22: 36
e354ee399cb89fc0b6e4da418e4dc2e374e5fd16	Boosting Show
988116df87705281c34c3df8f05d9256dea3f949	yesterday at 19: 30
1ad18660b4bc73ffd04c8d1c059f5027de97660e	Zen dots.
4d918d49f7097162e11cb917b9d5ca1d13a51a07	Part 3.
a9feeecc2d5aab3fe001a5856cf9df1894959e6d	yesterday at 16: 51
0be1b9e30f43687f28ab05f5e05b01a0c6c46159	Foul play
238ee6ccdd0a4ce1fef61f1e39dc04c10b4a7264	yesterday at 15: 10
74985da267c6803b262f117de72af2d02e48029f	Streams
d5592939403f52b3a2d3075129695707cac71fc0	JustANYway
1b80848c20de014c2f04280e9227419a61595d38	Meow ♥
1f29b440d44e5201a52f561f6a193ddffc718b41	8768
2263fc1bb8b2ce040e52d57a7d018a14c4e8abf9	CarTmaNzbs
3fad939c1e41b0f764fdd4d573e0a7408d0b11d2	beta.faceit.com
ee2dbd5d6d82d0833069b07e7dd2848d3bf4d83a	Matches
e3f40ce713033b1ad18f3f97a9957060b5557d5a	compLexity
1a32c1c12174c6619ecc4d757ab4d752524bc6f8	LIVE 1 h 56 min
04b83f3b15688f750bf6fa731ea587e0595c9e24	Infamous
46ee53bfbccec6754acefa8f1b74e8d54d443ff8	ESL One Manila 2016
3e01bdd7cdb05d70f250244bac7e1c5d4fab6ba2	Team Empire
50324d0c4fb9931c360bf664e7b7177085f1efbf	LIVE 2 h 56 min
bcfd170b5cd3a9f1f15ed709de5c645f5a16c8fa	Digital Chaos
3518264d6530c9c955da36bdeddf53b0848d20a0	Captains Draft 3.0
b71452e64b9c6661d849673fa9f42074d8df45b6	COOKISS
d205abee3d2a71688a6b66568be289a94050031c	END
3c942a11c553a9ae8b744103f2898659dc1d3722	Ad Finem
b70831e2a055f48562b84d762116d193f5df45a6	WePlay League Season 3
2c898dd44deb3683b7c520c8b8b137c84db5550a	Team Spirit
29df917a2391b14cd0caef824eca597b86141035	Mamas Boys
814b492f8ccc2bd71a2b6d6967fbbaa05ce940a2	Dota Pit League Season 4
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30ddd4c2c8fdb891eaf1ade2de8d43b1b205d034	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born on May 26, 1799 in Moscow in a noble landowner family (his father was a retired major) on the day of the Ascension holiday.
85948856b2d066ad47d4502370d16b7f890ae6f0	On the same day, Emperor Paul had a granddaughter, in whose honor prayers were held in all churches and bells were ringing.
70e5dfdfb9da2bd9e442980acb286cc2b2d42d47	So, by coincidence, the birthday of the Russian genius was marked by universal popular rejoicing.
4227ecbb45aef87fccc877b5d028fcc702bb0da0	The poet's birthplace is also symbolic: Moscow is the very heart of Russian life, Russia.
13c3d6028576b059054495b7889f1e48603c9008	Pushkin's father Sergei Lvovich and mother Nadezhda Osipovna, nee Hannibal, were distant relatives.
b50b7b9fbffe055a9357525e600697eb24d4cd8b	The ardent passions that guided the ancestors both on the paternal and maternal lines had their influence on Pushkin.
952be42d2c47afe13f28e410dc697a3648731933	The family (besides Alexander, there were also children Olga and Lev) belonged to the most educated part of Moscow society.
4d8aa5027d8d2ffb43aade95cc36e3f980830d91	Poets, artists, and musicians gathered in their house, or rather, in the apartment that Pushkin's parents rented.
addd62fc8cf9a573fa3f80e575375211e5932339	The poet wrote his first poems in French.
e603e8cb55e073e581ef6c9044b2162cd1ba687b	The Lyceum years are a period of intensive creative development of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
a4d22d8f73ab2e0af4e3026f5a7737ca74918e47	These years have shaped the poet's worldview and political beliefs.
ec9211c0fb9e3c45d7751da888a7f60d4084f826	Pushkin's lyceum lyrics are full of the joy of life.
d91e339b35f25e5d2f48bec99a7662b1e646b62b	At the lyceum, the poet wrote about 130 poems.
9fba3c859dbe2b9bb948a7ce5871918fafbab19d	According to V. G. Belinsky, "the future national poet" is already visible in the lyceum poems.
dc5556ea01a5abcff01904959e576ee36f469a78	The program of classes at the Lyceum was extensive, but not so deeply thought out.
bda5cbc6c2d436ef77489672a5efc1a7fe28b9e7	The students, however, were intended for a high state career and had the rights of graduates of a higher educational institution.
82391f80e0f5a46df43fef50ab80e9b3a11ab9f2	Pushkin kept the Lyceum friendship and the cult of the Lyceum for life.
d196fb3ec553b324df03f1e2b7ec1283e0cc4a89	Lyceum students published handwritten journals and paid much attention to their own literary work.
0cadb7bf02306f17dcda76510898a64e823e67fb	At the graduation act in 1817, Pushkin also read his own poem "Disbelief".
ab88742949f4cb33af6777782f1135dfc9521d51	At the beginning of June 1817, the lyceum students held their final exams.
142f3d18c2ede915a8bd116646d6bd1daf6ef186	After graduating from the lyceum, Pushkin was accepted for service in the College of Foreign Affairs.
8d5c568dfc12eab7e73186bb7005d34eb3a05ecd	The poet's independent life began.
2bd00d8d2f6af1f19a944af144a81bec7fa97890	His communication is very wide: hussars, poets, literary societies.
ce9d82c332f03c868a4016c9a9630ee98b2300d2	But Pushkin did not dissolve in this diversity, he was looking for himself.
f9447b03ef7b458a62ed9e1b3be23958aceae18b	He becomes a regular visitor of the theater, takes part in the meetings of "Arzamas".
9a2f50352c7db3badb76388f756644e1e7e63aa9	In 1819, he became a member of the literary and theatrical community "Green Lamp".
65515f3b1fcf79f6d55ee9e2c29e21bb9575688b	During these years, he was busy working on the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila", which was started at the Lyceum and met the program guidelines of the literary society" Arzamas " about the need to create a national heroic poem.
1dd784cd93939f36d93b5cfd0d2fc5c4434829d4	The poem was published in May 1820 (according to the lists it was known earlier) and caused various, not always benevolent, responses.
915cdb7c9366cd98e328667c875699024704d312	Already after Pushkin's expulsion, disputes broke out around the poem[20].
9e4c55657ffe1bd9b1e47c355170b08733cd182d	Some critics were outraged by the decline of the high canon.
baefbc7c77567199c96ade1c0d9ba0b63bf88072	The mixing of Russian-French methods of verbal expression with vernacular and folklore stylistics in" Ruslan and Lyudmila " caused reproaches from the defenders of the democratic nationality in literature.
faaf9817003102421eade968d2ebb838482f2bda	Such complaints were contained in a letter by D. Zykov, a literary follower of Katenin, published in the Son of the Fatherland[21][22].
b41a5028e0c145586c1dfeafa06bba646d46bdcb	It was a question of his expulsion to Siberia or imprisonment in the Solovetsky monastery.
84f38200d12afd140a29273160c008490366d921	Only thanks to the efforts of friends, first of all Karamzin, it was possible to achieve a commutation of the sentence.
3fd77142b4df7aed342f4d34f7d32fdac895a9fe	He was transferred from the capital to the south to the Kishinev office of I. N. Inzov[23].
d1b4b4ee777987558c9e4dbfda7bb59780a16668	On the way to his new place of service, Alexander Sergeevich falls ill with pneumonia after swimming in the Dnieper.
2e293540ad32f3ca596a35101b41945b7a38436b	To improve their health, the Raevskys took the sick poet with them to the Caucasus and the Crimea at the end of May 1820[24].
e5d2e86e62cf36423072adfc8033f0f80f55619d	On the way, the Raevsky family and A. S. Pushkin stop in Taganrog, in the former house of the mayor P. A. Papkov (40 Grecheskaya Street).
e36dc0e2fa2bcfc3a744e03a6f8ae539daead32c	Almost all the summer of 1820, Pushkin lived in the Caucasus, where he began the poem "The Caucasian Prisoner".
d47378525d5d4864ef3eeb2a5425c08b3e3af63a	Having visited the Caucasus and the Crimea, Pushkin lives in Chisinau and Odessa, meets with the Decembrists V. F. Raevsky, P. I. Pestel, M. F. Orlov, etc.
9bd6f0030a1dc2eb4866ac4fd97bbceaece4b9d8	The poem "Gavriiliada" (1821) is imbued with the spirit of atheistic freethinking.
a0a8ef01e2b89e8d80c09500d57cdf58788fb286	The southern exile is the heyday of Pushkin's romanticism.
f2b741c2da4daee4a117d29d11a0dc6e14932992	In these poems, for the first time, Pushkin clearly outlines a philosophical approach to the problems of freedom, love, and personality,
9d6fb52f4c7e374f827e25fa8d2312e5a4e47940	Personality and society, the boundaries between individual freedom and its arbitrariness - the central theme of the poem "Gypsies" (1824), which reveals the hopelessness of a self-willed individualistic life position, its tyrannical essence.
b9355321963a98158e83fab4eef5d5bf1937700f	Being the pinnacle and the last phenomenon of Pushkin's romantic creativity, this poem sharply raised the question of happiness as a tragic philosophical problem and opened the way to further research of Pushkin's main theme - man and the world.
81916756b96e4f4e84269ad40dccadf2dd76162d	The years spent by A. S. Pushkin in southern exile are not only diverse and lived with a mood, but also a period of intense creativity, a time of deep reflection.
907c9d1b821af459403721a34b5e9a98ff8d661e	In Chisinau, Pushkin joins the Masonic lodge "Ovid"[29], which he writes about in his diary[30].
2db00b5ea024d55fe83377a1a9e622bfa427c7b8	The poem turned out to be fragmentary, as if concealing something unsaid, which gave it a special charm, arousing a strong emotional field in the reader's perception.
1d82eeb49809e1e1a2d541b558cafdae1f96db3d	Here he spent two years, read and created a lot, in the evenings he listened to the fairy tales of his nanny Arina Rodionovna.
03b405844b6ab23043f246f6cecea0bca8199f6d	Trips to the neighboring landowner Osipova brought variety to his lonely life.
79eb1bf5d49f46990f7fe82a22bb1b440846b3ad	There he met Anna Kern.
1b1f5c339922f3ad05c1c063e5feb7c53c141d67	In Mikhailovsky, the poet saw the life of serfs up close.
8640d9652efc35b1a3c06d23fb8105e5d1b1db2d	He wrote the poem "Gypsies" – his last work of a purely romantic nature.
396a136c35ed0adba020ac41d4406b02e9fa1322	His attention is drawn to historical topics, especially periods of coups and historical crises.
cac5def42bf72fc541030d73d4a8e0f279473495	In Mikhailovsky, with great spiritual enthusiasm, he writes the historical drama "Boris Godunov", continues the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"..
9e199d6193eda67412c2bf12860ad52f7de811b8	In 1824, the police in Moscow opened a letter from Pushkin, where he wrote about his passion for"atheistic teachings".
189439b3035544a742aade9fdd48ce63f8d5da24	This was the reason for the poet's resignation from the service on July 8, 1824[37].
97626c301ef8c5939610e530d22afac26fe65044	He was exiled to his mother's estate, and spent two years there (until September 1826) — this is the longest stay of Pushkin in Mikhailovsky.
8595e36d93bb41718d0fa2b2fe03b42528410274	Soon after Pushkin's arrival in Mikhailovskoye, he had a major quarrel with his father, who actually agreed to the tacit supervision of his own son.
361e77913c027980e526cbfd1f3ab749f993d1bd	At the end of autumn, all of Pushkin's relatives left Mikhailovsky [38].
36ce74a3f3d014e6a9a75afbec66b888f19ab7f6	Contrary to the fears of friends, solitude in the village did not become disastrous for Pushkin.
dba4fa7460e75586cb4ed0ef5a7221f4161cee16	Despite the difficult experiences, the first Mikhailovsky autumn was fruitful for the poet, he read a lot, reflected, worked[38].
a71d223c955bb1f0d72216d0b57cea7c4f0f9fa1	Pushkin often visited his neighbor on the estate P. A. Osipova in Trigorsky and used her library[39] (Osipova's father, a mason, an associate of N. I. Novikov, left a large collection of books).
9979c903c9db77af31a95b0244496712da471962	From the Mikhailovsky exile until the end of his life, he was bound by friendly relations with Osipova and members of her large family.
8268ebbf8b99470560f0921733626da739e877a6	In Trigorsky in 1826, Pushkin met with Yazykov, whose poems had been known to him since 1824.
c0413d71ac230649f15694a0731c2e72ce06037a	In the autumn of 1824, he resumed work on autobiographical notes.
d63685b9db1c13f3f46de916ee5b5db285f834f1	In 1825, he met Osipova's niece Anna Kern[K 4] in Trigorsky, to whom, as is commonly believed, he dedicated the poem " I remember a wonderful moment...".
80e384b73722abf9623b7440a6d8bbed46c8a7f5	A month after the end of the exile, he returned "free to the abandoned prison" and spent about a month in Mikhailovsky.
943fbd7bfc8801b90d35678d090adc98c7644544	In the following years, the poet periodically came here to take a break from city life and write in freedom.
032ee88a9abbd42054f58305ee2cad8d1cb56d8f	In Mikhailovsky in 1827, Pushkin began the novel "The Blackamoor of Peter the Great" [40].
56dd942881f2972a07a0b4cd4eb5ba4e96bc0dd8	In Mikhailovsky, the poet also joined the game of billiards, although he did not become an outstanding player, however, according to the memories of friends, he wielded a cue on a cloth quite professionally[41].
7c595b4a871af5a590751eb6d18ec2c28f279b66	It was during these years that Pushkin's interest in the personality of Peter I, the tsar of the reformer, arose in his work.
6ba33542745eec7e988cc37f89ec0144eddf61ad	He becomes the hero of the novel about the poet's great-grandfather, Abram Hannibal, and the new poem "Poltava".
eb239b5a5b8ff5adeb5dd912ef4bbf58a4f051ed	Within the framework of one poetic work ("Poltava"), the poet combined several serious topics: the relationship between Russia and Europe, the unification of peoples, happiness and the drama of a private person against the background of historical events.
e13362c4443ee5c96749e57da126e51dd9b36a7f	According to Pushkin's own admission, he was attracted by "strong characters and a deep, tragic shadow cast over all these horrors"[43].
30cb3fbd365108354f593c394bcea8a5be4819e4	At the same time, after his poem "Poltava", the attitude towards him in criticism and among a part of the reading public became more cold or critical[45].
9f4abd6337a4e5e1877e25962fd19f1c1516d05a	In 1827, an investigation was launched into the poem "Andrei Chenier" (written back in Mikhailovsky in 1825), which provided a response to the events of December 14, 1825[46], and in 1828 the Kishinev poem "Gavriiliada"became known to the government.
62da9c8b33eda26a230f89d9b2447a2620c76675	These cases were terminated by the highest order after Pushkin's explanations [47], but an unspoken police supervision was established for the poet.
6a05806f7582cc9b282b4e692116b6300efa8da7	In December 1828, Pushkin met a Moscow beauty, 16-year-old Natalia Goncharova.
eb8038435f90749c98e9fa1b4939bcc4ad864ecd	At the end of April 1829, through Fyodor Tolstoy, an American, Pushkin made an offer to Goncharova.
88152ea2f4670d8ecc6e58ee3168e54d725552c6	The vague answer of the girl's mother (the reason was called Natalia's youth), according to Pushkin, "drove him crazy."
eb83c9eddb64e58800206fc0a14c2f6bc7ca97dd	He went to Paskevich's army, to the Caucasus, where at that time there was a war with Turkey.
856e0a55cfcfdbce60c24a91a9719781cc1a68b6	He described his trip in "Journey to Arzrum".
b3bd9381c33700a10ea5999793f20d56e706660b	At the insistence of Paskevich, who did not want to take responsibility for Pushkin's life, he left the active army and lived for some time in Tiflis[48].
2e5df1048dd8d0a549cab554320af69b6f4bd139	When he returned to Moscow, he met a cold reception at the Goncharovs.
a3b009878ab4bf7df26be30e3cf0983f6543d714	Perhaps Natalia's mother was afraid of the reputation of a freethinker, which was fixed for Pushkin, his poverty and passion for the game[49].
85f8266582493aa7f6adc5bbdd5a351a359943e4	In 1830, Pushkin wooed Natalia Goncharova.
44ab989e449e171b375cf773a09e8e9912ff73eb	On February 18, 1831, they were married in Moscow.
8ded40f3889d0e8ace576b2e1de7a164df09eed5	Marriage became for him both a source of happiness and a cause of death. "I am married – and happy," the poet wrote. – One of my wishes is that nothing in my life will change, I can't wait for the best."
1c065395b3ab5cf543e1486712e111d1bda8fc69	In the spring, the newlyweds move to Tsarskoye Selo, where they rent a dacha.
481e3f95ee21ddc0abcad72684276bd0d2bc8994	The tsar made him a chamberlain at the court.
947aa47f2ab737f204d8241c9c145f5bf4b9ecd9	By granting the poet a court title, usually given only to young people, the tsar hoped not only to humiliate Pushkin, but also to undermine his public weight.
2dbb6f96e30ee5b3a72a13b8d29ca6b5473e1d09	In addition, Nicholas I wanted to see the poet's wife in the palace, who attracted his attention.
e9bd6135c5cfef6419ae445cb80f8d68015fb233	In such conditions, the poet's creative work could not be intense.
8713735588522c1827e2a2ea85cae1a6b0c7cb0e	Since the middle of October 1831 and until the end of his life, Pushkin and his family have been living in St. Petersburg.
768c86e9ba6b57962d3a2b0ae6fe8880cd2d8d54	In 1832, a daughter, Maria, was born, 1833-a son, Alexander, 1835-Grigory, 1836-Natalia.
d0a4f2cfba03c56c5a8a240d33dff6e3b44ad075	In 1832, while visiting P. V. Nashchokin in Moscow, Pushkin began writing the novel "Dubrovsky", which he left unfinished at the beginning of 1833.
58f7e263183955e77d7487e39d7056ead9a98d39	The poet gradually got into debt not only to private individuals, but also to the state: by lending money to Pushkin, the tsar hoped to enslave the poet and tie him to the court.
030142437a938010fcad501c09a62cc63b71b48c	In July 1831, Pushkin received permission to use the state archives to write The History of Peter the Great.
3e84d21e33ab314382e2334d25a79d8b03bede51	On August 18, 1833, having received official permission, the poet went to the Kazan and Orenburg provinces to collect materials about the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev in 1773-1775.
d1fd5acefbbc9b64cfa844a37e2c45a7f9dac9fe	On the way back, he stopped in Boldino, where he stayed from October 1 until mid-November.
efffd8e2533757a56a00eb3e8893ccaad1bc4238	Here he wrote, using the scientific historical material collected in the St. Petersburg archives, as well as during his newly completed trip, his "History of Pugachev".
ddd5e7e102b42a7aa529f09987086c39491f07de	In addition to her, the poems "Angelo" and "The Bronze Horseman", the story "The Queen of Spades", "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish", "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Heroes", the poem "Autumn", translations of Mickiewicz's ballads "Budrys and his Sons", "The Governor"were written in Boldin.
f842e69553fcdd7532bb0038a9cef30bfff1e2f0	Pushkin was obliged to give each of his works to Benckendorf for viewing before printing, according to the latter's request at the very beginning of 1832.
ba02a01fe68f01609cb86dd544532c40904b180d	The maintenance of the family, the social life to which Pushkin was chained against his will, having received the title of a chamber junker in 1834; financial assistance to his parents, sister and brother, who was completely irresponsible in money matters, constantly demanded money.
43179fbebb710a2200bb767d3d4e8b171ceba7e1	In 1836, the total debt to the government, according to Pushkin's own calculation, was huge - 45,000 rubles.
a43c7dafd7b4a5fd4e395a7d50344914385ef87a	Since 1831, Pushkin was listed in the service of the Board of Foreign Affairs, but in 1834 he asked for his resignation, while retaining, however, the right to work in the archives.
02744d1e1d1004858dfda77b70e0b652861425c7	Immediately after returning from Boldin to St. Petersburg on October 19, Pushkin participated in the celebration of the lyceum anniversary with M. L. Yakovlev.
7b5ab3a24516101dbb1bde01533ca73f01af3c77	He visited St. Petersburg University, attended a lecture by Nikolai Gogol.
0c5d3f5f1ab08d7c852202c86503c99018c0a784	Published at the end of 1834, "The History of the Pugachev Rebellion" did not improve the poet's financial affairs and did not even repay the loan taken for its publication.
f3ac275d4f727a469627682376c05878bc79b877	Trigorsky.
c79a97c08c481371f69f5e926ffde5f9c2b063b7	The poet does not abandon the idea of leaving St. Petersburg.
5021d2e33906ebbfdec7263c0a98377b012d8d15	In the spring of 1835, Pushkin spent only a few days (from May 8 to May 12) in S.
beb51648c465318287176e1f360cbfd8df10790e	Mikhailovsky and S.
8d92b5339be80972c31b14270c5dbf07daaa60a7	On his return from there, he petitioned Benckendorf to leave with his family for the village for 3-4 years in order to engage in literary work and limit expenses in the capital.
86050c0ae2adbc6ead6ada1a353cd822649ad8e0	In response to the request, he was given a loan of 30,000 rubles and allowed a four-month vacation.
29d3e08d3c662dd043a29f780105aea981ab1837	A poem "...I visited again", the beginning of "Egyptian Nights", sketches of other works were written in Mikhailovsky during this visit, which ended on October 20, 1835.
cb960f18dd18fcac9f35b536942ccb0a58338656	The year ended with a request to Benckendorf to publish his own magazine "Sovremennik", the first volume of which was published on April 11, 1836.
a817a84edbe10245c96b5d2adf4f88a7f5ab046b	And contemporaries believed that Pushkin had left creativity and was engaged only in daily magazine prose for earnings.
175bb24dd73c8d15c52820ef61e1c03aa4769097	The reproaches of criticism, the loss of contact with the reader could not but suppress the poet, whose inner life was often incomprehensible even to close friends.
938aa41a69312afee8cb42b422524741d4a6d04c	The last major work of Pushkin was the story "The Captain's daughter" - "something like "Onegin" in prose" (V. G. Belinsky).
91edc74be0ca32f7364c9f92bd15551194d16b50	This epic and psychological work, perhaps the best in all Pushkin's prose, was created since 1833 in parallel with the "History of Pugachev" and was completed on the lyceum anniversary on October 19, 1836.
0013f5ffe2661cb64f24b49d27e1eb6c113803e2	Pushkin's wisdom received its highest expression and completion in these verses.
c4ee646c4052b9e3ee9f56a5c2601880b7efc6ed	In the spring of 1836, Nadezhda Osipovna died after a serious illness.
0f1b91fad0abdc16d606a7113eeb06c8f79809ae	Pushkin, who became close to his mother in the last days of her life, suffered this loss hard.
bcf7562f55e90f715a8ccc7919c60aa3f088c401	The circumstances were such that he, the only one of the whole family, accompanied the body of Nadezhda Osipovna to the burial place in the Holy Mountains.
a90e8d85962c42cb8032060270528213d058fce1	At the beginning of May, Pushkin came to Moscow on publishing matters and to work in the archives.
70d479aa38f263d8cb697542b24141c95006a536	Having learned that Levet Weimar was interested in Russian folk songs, Pushkin made translations of eleven songs into French for him.
86d1b7e2107b90eaa8d765e9067dd97cb041294e	According to experts who studied this work of Pushkin, it was performed flawlessly[64].
6ed8233f05808ea12207457483e3d36e66f2fcf7	In the summer of 1836, Pushkin created his last poetic cycle, named after the place of writing (dacha on Kamenny Island) "Kamennoostrovsky".
5e0133839c9b24f275e36f381ed7392fc5dbc3ed	Perhaps they were intended for publication in Sovremennik, but Pushkin refused it, anticipating problems with censorship.
86332bdc44604abc5a0357a505935b40aa1dcf96	Three works, undoubtedly belonging to the cycle, are connected by the gospel theme.
dfcac2c1d8a91f1d3f736c537a98b7d4366db48c	The end-to-end plot of the poems "Hermit Fathers and Immaculate wives", "How he fell from the tree..." and "Worldly Power" is the Holy Week of Great Lent[65].
5a25ee458089a8c044d8ec0f50a58ce661a4fb0f	Another poem in the cycle - "From Pindemonti" is devoid of Christian symbolism, but it continues the poet's reflections on the duties of a person living in peace with himself and others, about betrayal, about the right to physical and spiritual freedom.
3332fdd4a0e5cdc7cdfbfe018c2ffa0fe683879b	Since 1836, the St. Petersburg aristocratic society has entwined A. S. Pushkin and his wife with a network of intrigues and vile slander.
45d90584f7360ce30d871159cacb32266540fd5e	This was facilitated by a wanderer around the world, a French emigrant, an officer Dantes, who persistently courted Pushkin's wife.
8c78eda55179128b22a6ad5b7ff89b669eefdd13	The situation became unbearable, and on January 27, 1837, a duel took place between Dantes and Pushkin.
fd1846453ccb0ffdd559a2760a1f98bfa71aa426	Pushkin challenges Dantes to a duel, and as a result receives a fatal wound in the stomach.
7745e66aa16bd852f42f409e1e53baa98d802058	After terrible torments, the poet died on January 29, 1837 in his St. Petersburg apartment on Moika Street, 12.
01fb3e10c549f8d0c9e7135382627e0ac4784fed	Emperor Nicholas I, knowing about the poet's serious condition, promises to provide the family with prosperity and pay off all debts.
1029ec02704a6486e1b028de055574ce29d8203c	On February 6, 1837, A. S. Pushkin was buried next to his mother in the cemetery of the Svyatogorsky Monastery.
0f8031cdef8dc7c567403cf0074a05d6e45f24f5	It is interesting that the future classic of Russian literature remembered himself from the age of four.
b8e2e17852a8a8c0523c6e150252c4750f075af6	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin loved books so much that he collected more than 3,500 copies in his home library.
b1c9d30fcb85f423d4d4fab3d34b7bc50957d5ca	He was also a polyglot, knew many foreign languages, including: French, Greek, Latin, German and some others.
461422b9d6dea1955c5edb895eff46f617c1a505	Pushkin by nature was a sarcastic person.
e16ebea72c76779c2f2db3c8296a096e4539d58b	His jokes and mockery of friends and contemporaries often led to duels.
9bbf412c7ddff6c8faba496240dee5c7d1d2705a	In most of the fights, Alexander Sergeevich's friends managed to reconcile the duelists.
74f4c1236d986c6151bd1b49ecadd7402e5f3e53	The first duel occurred when Pushkin was still a lyceum student.
31e838d3122f55051743a06a9440f164dc1de499	The last 21st duel turned out to be fatal for him.
226fec3dbd9e427e695f64c4588e4478360e3f25	January 14
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21a12310d18a1b9a3c432701456f275d4d318910	Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin.
24c051309f561ea0f864fee2e553f9ad05723d1f	Biography of Pushkin.
07c58063214f3f521bced4ac9de42542f0eb5de8	The years of Pushkin's life.
ce4e75a491b0c4226e1452edd5e8a32a07aa409a	The Life of Pushkin
84fe6e4e40e2ffa320bac18b4aa3992afc35dfc7	The birth of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
c7a124369ff6f7fb874b6549d6affd6ad5d1adab	Date (year) of Pushkin's birth
ea8fd30b99c34209bd9dbdeb41823fe0cc6c62b9	Russian Russian writer, founder of the new Russian literature, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin [26.5(6.6).1799, Moscow, - 29.1(10.2).1837, St. Petersburg].
4aa48f6bc48b3d84537cec555c779527ff601054	He was born in the family of a poor nobleman, a descendant of an old boyar family.
9090fca97c704f3a1ceda9543c68a5d9cfec50c4	Great grandson (on the maternal side) of Abyssinian A. P. Hannibal, a military figure of the Peter the Great era.
6c1b871db368433726cc12f156ee7cfd41bd46f0	The first poetic experiments of Pushkin (have not been preserved) belong to early childhood.
3b2e164d95ac24d1ddec88e7ee3f777747aaf29e	In 1811, Pushkin entered the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum; in teaching and education there were features of educational freedom of thought associated with the spread of revolutionary ideas, the patriotic upsurge of the era of the Patriotic War of 1812, the liberal tendencies of the first years of the reign of Alexander I.
47aa230f3f33c51e02d4e8466b63399898e1db7b	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin at the Lyceum
9f7f280467786b3c7205294cd1a5337c1f551c38	With great directness and originality of using the canons of the rationalist poetics 18th and early 19th centuries that require strong consistency between the theme, style and genre (ode, Elegy, Epistle, etc.), it creates a number of poems high perfection (including "Memories in Tsarskoye Selo", 1814; "Town", "Licinia", "rose" all - 1815).
5ef459c35a206fc742323c16c877995ceb287433	His talent is not so much the student follows the traditions and samples (school of karasinska, French for "light poetry", K. N. Batyushkov, V. A. Zhukovsky, Voltaire), as spontaneously test their limits, feeling his own style (signs which are particularly evident in such poems as "the Dream," "Wish," "Friends," all - 1816, etc.).
2b6f9607b647d4c54c7dee09cd516ec88350e844	G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky pay attention to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
784dcd23eae8ca056c0d804b5f307a09a38ae7fc	Lyceum student Pushkin participates in the literary society of Karamzin "Arzamas", which is fighting against the ideological and aesthetic views of conservatives who have united in the" Conversation of lovers of the Russian Word", gets closer to representatives of the free thinking nobility, including P. Ya.
3507be04468533799f9f5a78dcd7a1d46a690869	Chaadaev.
dbcd6a3c9f855efa4edcac9ce8777c075e3d5484	Creativity of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin
28d69bb9d320142f7acca75cd8a4311f65275cc2	In 1817, Pushkin graduated from the lyceum, received the rank of collegiate secretary and an appointment to the College of Foreign Affairs.
ac341614c65f2ebe9639354ef0edcb59db93e954	The poems of the 1817-1820s reflect the turbulent St. Petersburg life of the young poet, participation in the literary circle "Green Lamp" associated with the "Union of Prosperity", the heated political atmosphere.
404a1d03e90150e0a1d71babb78d56baf2fac195	The pathos of revolutionary love of freedom and denunciation is intertwined in them with the motives of the bacchanalian ecstasy of life, journalism - with lyricism, tradition with new, romantic trends.
dd46fa550cb8205d7caba9f5a774e69dd2544254	Without giving up the artistic achievements of poetry of the 18th early 19th centuries, Pushkin seeks to overcome the dictate of its standards, to move away from genre and style regulation, to achieve freedom of poetic expression
b53403c469ad6bf08c4fafea9c1321e0d7d3345c	("Krivtsov", "Zhukovsky", "Attendance", all - 1818, Dorida, "Revival", 1819, "I fight the sign...", 1820, etc.).
f450f34f154ebc28d90659ffe07f194f1bbf578b	In the same direction he works on the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (published 1820), where the magical story is accompanied by a lyrical reflection of the author's paintings the heroic "old" is riddled with humor, the romantic pathos; a Convention of the genre of the poem the tale is combined with the vitality of the characters, stylistic richness and linguistic freedom.
dfb182ee2a63d67be1280de1e174e0357f7c37b1	The poem caused fierce controversy and essentially marked the beginning of a turning point in Russian poetry.
2cc905c7cec4e23e815753455c81b4be165f982d	Pushkin's political lyrics of 1817-20 ("Liberty", "To Chaadaev", "Village", etc.) and his epigrams differ in many copies.
24a74b3999f4ceb87ba773acb82ce6c220f7cef0	Not being a member of the secret society of the Decembrists, Pushkin becomes an expression of the aspirations of a whole generation of noble revolutionaries.
3d8cdfa9755f84d60eb49fc3870c353883615dc3	In May 1820, under the guise of official relocation, he was exiled to the south of Russia.
85bcbb8991169c3e64542dd6892aa8179c24da9d	Pushkin and the Decembrists
39ef3f6e90c0580e84fde9456fdf40f4243bfd66	The revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe, the peasant and soldier unrest in Russia strengthen Pushkin's thirst for revolutionary actions, reflected in the "Dagger", etc. verses 1821.
e1d46ce6b8abdef39de2cd2f096d5fbbc7195770	The southern exile is the heyday of Pushkin's romanticism. the most pronounced of all was in the poems created here, which firmly established his fame as the first Russian poet due to the brightness and novelty of characters and colors, virtuoso skill, consonance with the attitudes of advanced social and literary circles.
a51628ac2a25d12acb9cdc00baffb76c3c90b5a7	In Pushkin's work, "southern poems" played a big role: "The Caucasian Prisoner" (1820-21) largely prepared "Eugene Onegin"; an important place will be occupied in the future by the theme of rebellious "will" and moral law, stated in "The Robber Brothers" (1821-22), the comparison and opposition of harmony and the elements, meekness and passion, "angelic" and "demonic", begun in" The fountain of Bakhchisarai " (1823) by the contrast of Maria and Zarema.
1bca73a50be0679059da96da5417d2c6c274650f	In these poems, for the first time, Pushkin clearly outlines a philosophical approach to the problems of freedom, love, and personality, In these years, in the spiritual life of Pushkin in crisis (exacerbated as the amplification reaction in Europe and Russia, and the dramatic circumstances of his personal life and sense of "lesnichestva"), reflected in poems, full of gloomy skepticism ("Freedom sower desert", "Demon", 1823, etc.), meditations on the mysteries of human destiny and ways of history ("the song of the wise Oleg" 1822, "Why have you sent...", 1824, etc.).
10235f0dee19349c4895457c471a94a2d570f21e	Gaining perspective on the world as the historical integrity with its objective laws, Pushkin poetically aware of the limitations of rationalism, with its traditional understanding of the world as obedient object of human activity, and the one sidedness of romanticism, with its juxtaposition of masterful identity to the world and its laws.
eb95cf359a5d3f934e3f1a1ffcb31caf832135e3	The differences between Pushkin and the literary and philosophical views of the Decembrists are clarified (with the unity of the ideals of political freedom and social justice).
32cddd7c4d75d486d8e5ccb4bcada18294587a5f	During this crucial period, work begins (May 1823) on the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", where historically and socially opposite types of consciousness will be embodied - skeptical (Onegin) and dreamily romantic (Lensky), and the ideal of a harmonious worldview will appear in Tatiana.
1386ad5c4ccd986d9c99cb5a71d7924527d9e766	Personality and society, the boundaries between individual freedom and its arbitrariness - the central theme of the poem "Gypsies" (1824), which reveals the hopelessness of a self willed individualistic life position, its tyrannical essence.
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f4565681b449a75c0283b1e09f4c76eaad1b9f4c	Pushkin, Alexander Sergeevich
05953a6820830aef941a7c09eb97f806f74e1b74	This is the stable version, released on December 20, 2015.
9e3c4c3c9f1de92c5b77c616d3014a91caf160d3	The queries "Pushkin" and "Pushkin, Alexander" are redirected here; see also Pushkin (values), Pushkin, Alexander (values).
b0567cc3232032cfeb57c6e0426600c53c0787b8	Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin
ac1d4bc04bd49847b4f8dac33898aee2d11c8488	Alexander Pushkin,
412cd98c78c18c677051adc3b93d722773c2c4e0	portrait of the work of O.
87c9b7a27533e3f1c9c67f25ece4e693414e35a1	A. Kiprensky.
99522d7be66064d61eed9fa57c8ca9a41c4457ca	Pushkin: "I see myself as in a mirror, but this mirror flatters me."
f162ef098538e626a5697a4a9f51f86659ef62ba	Birth name: Russian Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin
49dd22a538b9063dcc065dcbc5c07d9191b12191	Pseudonyms: Alexander NKSHP, Ivan Petrovich Belkin,
b1182df7cd61f1fc0c2b9ea491c4b36e7f69561f	Feofilakt Kosichkin (magazine)[1], P., St. Arz. (Old Arzamas), A. B.
a5ca0c57e7ef139d57bf97a7aba4d3b82cc25bc3	Date of birth: May 26 (June 6), 1799[2]
2e249d67bbc356557424c8f382740367e5bf1d61	Place of birth: Moscow, Russian Empire[2]
424c5f1b60ac53aa655d7c081f9de13272e8c1a2	Date of death: January 29 (February 10), 1837[2] (37 years old)
9ec33e3fa776e9b89683b25f69afb70c95ae4cc8	Place of death: Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire[2]
0ac67f004eb8fd04b8e7a0f4af3a101750941288	Occupation: poet, novelist, playwright, literary critic, translator, publicist, historian
7c90119862bf9d70fab03ecd680ca16e0d641606	Creative years: 1814-1837
67a13ad0d1d9745e9b8040ee89579384c8df9f2a	Direction: Romanticism, realism
cfde6400ea29d5fa5c268cf914b85aa5ca57e27d	Genre: Poetry, prose, play, criticism, journalism, History, Translation
11040a70fae593b0c404540147f8d1796348ad88	Language of works: Russian, French[3]
50daec641b144ddad9e1187948842f2044d8e6f8	Debut: To a friend of the poet (1814)
caf95262bf63232baea95bf9ca58a6b68d014dcb	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (May 26 (June 6), 1799, Moscow — January 29 (February 10), 1837, St. Petersburg) was a Russian poet, playwright and prose writer.
e32988fb559c2f30334cd3d26faf0c9eb80849c2	Even during Pushkin's lifetime, his reputation as the greatest national Russian poet developed[4][5]. Pushkin is considered as the creator of the modern Russian literary language[K 1].
3a7cd0f7a9f1505930feecfdbd3fd94da54091e4	1 Biography 1.1 Origin 1.2 Childhood 1.3 Youth 1.4 Youth 1.5 In the South (1820-1824) 1.5.1 Pushkin in the Crimea 1.5.2 In Chisinau
60ddf37f63aaa420e441b5dc271dc74b93a56f12	1.6 Mikhailovskoye 1.7 After exile 1.8 Boldino 1.9 St. Petersburg 1831-1833 1.10 St. Petersburg 1833-1835 1.11 "Sovremennik" 1.12 1836-1837 years 1.13 Death 1.14 Descendants of Pushkin
6fcb6d171857af0a7d14cdbab8f3d9f4533e0fbe	2 Appearance 3 Pushkin's Work 3.1 Pushkin's Literary reputation and Cultural Role 3.2 Studying Pushkin 3.3 Denying the Significance of Pushkin's Work and Criticizing His Cult 3.4 Works 3.4.1 Poems 3.4.2 A Novel in Verse 3.4.3 Dramatic Works 3.4.4 Poems 3.4.5 Prose 3.4.6 Fairy Tales
0d1a415a501d9bf8820c8d08193635f8abd1b249	3.5 Collected works 3.6 Editions of letters
de3ce15cdfbf4bd628474ed260e2935d12b73970	4 Pushkin in culture 4.1 In chamber music 4.2 Film Adaptations 4.3 Musical Theater 4.4 In literature 4.5 In cinema
f632e08d2912608f5d2d7e54671b8fd7b96e5eeb	5 Memory of Pushkin 6 Background information 6.1 Addresses
12532bbf865b6476733443ccf0d71b0652703bd1	7 Comments 8 Notes 9 Literature 10 References
44ab85a252adb7ade8ca36fec4157a862c1f725f	Origin
994ca3769fd28b0f7dbf84cf1413852326fae403	Pushkin's family Tree
693d7a989c4aa107c34eec62b246f89eb41a6ad9	The origin of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin comes from the branched untitled noble family of the Pushkins, who, according to genealogical legend, ascended to the "husband honest" Ratsha[6][K 2]. Pushkin repeatedly wrote about his ancestry in verse and prose; he saw in his ancestors an example of a true "aristocracy", an ancient family that honestly served the fatherland, but did not win the favor of the rulers and was"persecuted".
f5f33683a3f498355974230a1be78aee73846e8e	More than once he turned (including in an artistic form) to the image of his maternal great — grandfather, the African Abram Petrovich Hannibal, who became a servant and pupil of Peter I, and then a military engineer and general[8].
339417e2055638a740ec8b21e76ac21a307bfe8e	His paternal grandfather Lev Alexandrovich was a colonel in the artillery, a captain in the Guards.
bc9d3651624c4ec9a4e1eeec6ee69c86675ff404	His father was Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767-1848), a secular wit and an amateur poet.
d2c339c417a5f0245ee1d1fe60ca14d78884ab4e	Pushkin's mother was Nadezhda Osipovna (1775-1836), Hannibal's granddaughter.
2c928450ec49653500a0407d6b0497853cb6be50	His paternal uncle, Vasily Lvovich (1766-1830), was a famous poet of the Karamzin circle.
56cd8fb9767caaebd3cb7f77b93bad965ac83c05	Of the children of Sergei Lvovich and Nadezhda Osipovna, in addition to Alexander, a daughter Olga (married Pavlishchev, 1797-1868) and a son Lev (1805-1852) survived[9].
73606964237a201c7d0f31e9ae09fb7de5e01d02	Pushkin was born on May 26 (June 6), 1799 in Moscow.
a85922d237f0e63f21756d85d3d9fa73755d3650	In the metrical book of the Church of the Epiphany in Elokhov (now the Epiphany Cathedral in Elokhov is located in its place), on the date of June 8, 1799, among others, there is such an entry:
626fb26f044a2a515c9e74c73dea84186bf2f3f9	May 27.
fa306d7dcdb5765e9626a43903380e73915d658a	In the courtyard of the Kolezhsky registrar Ivan Vasiliev Skvartsov, a son Alexander was born to his tenant, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin.
3cba3a9470a0889aae7c4d64234ea6cc6d0bc555	He was baptized on June 8 of the day.
0a48b79cb19301079c36b3bda93e3a493b7c483e	The recipient is Count Artemiy Ivanovich Vorontsov, the godfather of the mother of the said Sergius Pushkin, the widow Olga Vasilyevna Pushkin[10]:6
30fea1bbdcd818daac4d69380080e01f2e25640c	The future poet usually spent the summer months of 1805-1810 with his maternal grandmother Maria Alekseevna Hannibal (1745-1818, nee Pushkina[11], from another branch of the family), in the village of Zakharov near Zvenigorod near Moscow.
882f3e34ca3861ac927863546fc2e8d499b4a359	Early childhood impressions were reflected in the first experiments of Pushkin's poems written a little later ("Monk", 1813; "Bova", 1814), in the lyceum poems "Epistle to Yudin" (1815), "Dream" (1816).
cd7a5728046184baee37e43e26b3ff634b3787fb	The grandmother wrote the following about her grandson:
9237f6d6e9fb4ecba7f1edf218bb7c16d6a25a72	I donot know what will come out of my eldest grandson.
256422ee0cd660dae80fa6867e44d605462a7f4c	The boy is smart and a hunter for books, but he studies poorly, rarely when he passes his lesson in order; then you wonot stir him up, you wonot drive him away to play with children, then suddenly he turns around and diverges so that you canot calm him down: he rushes from one extreme to the other, he has no middle ground[10]:40
b2370d58ad8583864bee7877ddafbd3995d8415b	Youth
402d29640e877f9e97dc620f799856ca846e7b64	Nadezhda Osipovna Hannibal
759671c0781284aa67632e2e28d4b56ed59cbf82	major Sergey Lvovich Pushkin
26857f2532dcef2f70d1336b9a814d6dcfac6920	Pushkin spent six years at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, opened on October 19, 1811.
d7995023a185af5571dd79e9876b66dc840f152b	Here the young poet experienced the events of the Patriotic War of 1812.
d4454dd550f6bdbe23b824e692d8a74b2600d12c	Here, for the first time, his poetic gift was discovered and highly appreciated.
646099e972d27faf0eaaad0bc9c4fb4bc5bfae63	The memories of the years spent at the Lyceum, of the lyceum brotherhood, remained forever in the poet's soul[12].
e8ea4bcac8cc69fd130cb595cc0f3996d57e82fb	During the lyceum period, Pushkin created many poetic works.
8bdbd210c4f23d05c02ade8a78e2d80615bba0ef	He was inspired by the French poets of the XVII—XVIII centuries, whose works he met in childhood, reading books from his father's library.
d40967c2a42583acb86b0e36a6b1f9beac62bd67	The favorite authors of the young Pushkin were Voltaire and the Guys.
6263e6f540a819d2d163fb9e3b884c5bd57bd016	His early lyrics combined the traditions of French and Russian classicism.
c0e676dbf681f0fc022e63847360d3d137811055	The teachers of Pushkin's poet were Batyushkov, a recognized master of "light poetry", and Zhukovsky, the head of Russian romanticism.
b94a89aaae57614bd4ae34365ec13d9bc010bfbd	Pushkin's lyrics of the period 1813-1815 are permeated with the motives of the transience of life, which dictated the thirst for enjoying the joys of being.
01453970dc3df41e95d4e067000eedd7ba078f57	Since 1816, following Zhukovsky, he turns to elegies, where he develops motifs characteristic of this genre: unrequited love, the departure of youth, the fading of the soul.
572557994eacad559e953c312a98774c48affbca	Pushkin's lyrics are still imitative, full of literary conventions and cliches, nevertheless, even then the novice poet chooses his own special path[13].
9fb9c92649a7a4cae540029110855338ee9c5c36	Without focusing on chamber poetry, Pushkin turned to more complex, socially significant topics.
9230dbe4ac3359c2de84f465bc8903fc1abde0ed	"Memories in Tsarskoye Selo" (1814), which earned Derzhavin's approval — - at the beginning of 1815, Pushkin read a poem in his presence, dedicated to the events of the Patriotic War of 1812[14].
4fea4f45832dcba2c45c1b85f3eb77f831950610	The poem was published in 1815 in the magazine "Russian Museum" with the full signature of the author.
b42963eddf721a4af3a631fbbb296c6d5faafc95	And in Pushkin's epistle to Licinius, the modern life of Russia is critically depicted, where Arakcheev is brought out in the image of the "despot's favorite".
dcfc471a3b86421268caa85de583b3aa6c392983	Already at the beginning of his creative career, he showed interest in Russian satirical writers of the last century.
000ac6b702e48fff48029977961ff74885aebabd	The influence of Fonvizin is felt in Pushkin's satirical poem "The Shadow of Fonvizin" (1815);
1f38645fb8f5b4d4c9fe18aba15b74daa3ad3ba9	"Bova" (1814) and "Disbelief"are associated with Radishchev's work[15].
e032353ef728c5f86c1e063cf03ead0dd3b0f967	In July 1814, Pushkin made his first appearance in the press in the Moscow based magazine Vestnik Evropa.
ddb3815b79da6abdfb45a1780fbd5f4922bbc570	In the thirteenth issue, the poem "To a friend of the poet" was published, signed with the pseudonym Alexander N. K. sh. p.
15794e36934b0be4388de0193a6c2146f860f746	[K 3][10]:60.
10dcad3943d5ca679228b0d777a60eb672517f72	While still a pupil of the Lyceum, Pushkin joined the literary society "Arzamas", which opposed routine and archaic in literary work, and took an effective part in the polemic with the association" Conversation of lovers of the Russian Word", which defended the canons of classicism of the last century.
1207d1c260d3d0579a0e5e6b85202c9dcda7cb0d	Attracted by the work of the most prominent representatives of the new literary trend, Pushkin was at that time strongly influenced by the poetry of Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Davydov[16].
3a4ebe35eb3f8708aa7db2cdcbceb0414e056193	The latter initially impressed Pushkin with the theme of the brave warrior, and then with what the poet himself called "the twisting of the verse" - sharp changes of mood, expression, an unexpected combination of images.
5e1e421858b2e45c9935a63b84623e78f23f51e2	Later, Pushkin said that, imitating Davydov in his youth, "I learned his manner forever" [17].
f77ace31a92849adc13123d7f169e7d3dc9eda69	Pushkin at the lyceum exam in Tsarskoye Selo.
f5a2a79a0307b763e501660b5459f59b5457607a	Painting by I. Repin (1911)
22edb8de844e4ef79bef7c55c3fa3f6b7f7384ed	Pushkin was released from the lyceum in June 1817 with the rank of collegiate secretary (10th grade, according to the table of ranks) and was assigned to the College of Foreign Affairs.
28f09a27be827a39e078884d13cbb1d3253c4974	(he was accepted there in absentia, while still a student of the Lyceum)[18], in In 1819, he became a member of the literary and theatrical community "Green Lamp". which is led by the "Union of Prosperity" (see the Decembrists)[19]. Not participating in the activities of the first secret organizations, Pushkin is nevertheless connected by friendly ties with many active members of Decembrist societies, writes political epigrams and poems "To Chaadaev" ("Love, hope, quiet glory...", 1818), "Liberty" (1818), "N. Ya.
db9947f0030816f820648345397be7f4bfdca1b1	Plyuskova" (1818), "Village" (1819), which were distributed in the lists.
76e80fdcd1c8117b0cbf627d30760efe263f8039	The mixing of Russian French methods of verbal expression with vernacular and folklore stylistics in" Ruslan and Lyudmila " caused reproaches from the defenders of the democratic nationality in literature.
b5add9ffc3a43fc5c226c4986ccc549408baa40c	In the South (1820-1824)
f0517776895050830e1644eb32e99c3dd12404a2	In the spring of 1820, Pushkin was summoned to the military Governor General of St. Petersburg, Count M.
e9e395e3b5a031243f613cd8185f6ed9939ca422	A. Miloradovich, to explain about the content of his poems (including epigrams on Arakcheev, Archimandrite Photius and Alexander I himself), incompatible with the status of a state official.
fcaaf570df2d920028699d594c0a3df1745e05d2	On the way, the Raevsky family and A. S. Pushkin stop in Taganrog, in the former house of the mayor P.
84bf6a0545471a15cee67dd187c337343c02d65c	A. Papkov (40 Grecheskaya Street).
e077a4b2c23921c2040c14ed70aab7de426170d3	Pushkin in the Crimea
563c94d8f35c04b70732afd4ec608f27a22e38d9	On August 16, 1820, Pushkin arrived in Feodosia.
eccd87b7e428785ce460e3c0a24e6e24bc0a1c6b	He wrote to his brother Lev:
dc6c86cd5988301173d69740652a4a18f8ca2192	"We came from Kerch to Kafa, stayed with Bronevsky, a venerable man for immaculate service and poverty.
bf8d40c0dd20f5b0f52da56f29f3e27813347b6b	Now he is on trial — and, like the old man of Virgil, he is planting a garden on the seashore, not far from the city.
027705915163163ed155a310a5860f8fe060a003	Grapes and almonds make up his income.
41ef5ec7341b33e1e382c476665afc838bbf3707	He is not a smart person, but he has a lot of information about the Crimea.
24848dcd47f958e581fb7e066edde95f60be6275	The important and neglected side.
4feffc0dc153af41816a8ed602550a38b621b5f2	From here we went by sea past the midday shores of Tavrida, to Yurzuf, where the Rayevsky family was located.
51d2821af9864bace4e0ae6577f833f1a8eccc78	At night on the ship I wrote an elegy that I am sending you"[25].
cf9ba5ae40f5ccd6e9eb6e61db6300bc7409c6e2	Two days later, Pushkin and the Rayevskys left by sea for Gurzuf.
e075680444b37ab831fc0d5f899368d9bf899acc	Pushkin spent several weeks in Gurzuf in the summer and autumn of 1820.
8b8354205df3976c0321aa430160196e353b1ead	Together with the Rayevskys, he stayed in the house of the Duke of Richelieu; the poet was given a mezzanine in it, facing west.
f26f81368793870d93f8fcafc4b83d8a52146d3a	While living in Gurzuf, the poet made many walks along the coast and in the mountains, among which were a horseback ride to the top of Ayu Dag and a boat trip to Cape Suuk Su.
8d8095f47e57b9c83f406edd3a1d934b91c5d2b3	In Gurzuf, Pushkin continued working on the poem "The Caucasian Prisoner", wrote several lyrical poems; some of them are dedicated to the daughters of N. N. Rayevsky — Ekaterina, Elena and Maria.
34c450fd771d4d5a5be4289181d57c6b510e6058	Here the poet conceived the idea of the poem "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai" and the novel "Eugene Onegin".
6b2dcd606adab5b2db5bd08bd9539ba4938d3c16	At the end of his life, he recalled the Crimea: "There is the cradle of my Onegin"[26].
8af5eaab4d312f2554f9421e427977186b2f9b77	In September 1820, on his way to Simferopol, he visited Bakhchisarai.
4c86c314a83fdc85e6f475aed426ea95055faffa	From a letter to Delvig:
c323dcb3c3035c9676004cbf6971f25b683e0249	...When I entered the palace, I saw a ruined fountain, water was falling from a rusty iron pipe by drops.
3acbf1e944ce52eb261dd87a03aa94d911cf535d	I went around the palace with great annoyance at the neglect in which it is decaying, and at the semi European alterations of some rooms[27].
40ec06e593665caca0622aadddc2f6fb43713f94	Walking through the courtyards of the palace, the poet plucked two roses and put them at the foot of the" Fountain of Tears", to which he later dedicated his poems and the poem"The Fountain of Bakhchisarai".
c261cb8d90588d174d0e2cba9fb2ea7d2361988d	In mid September, Pushkin spent about a week in Simferopol, presumably in the house of the Tauride governor Baranov Alexander Nikolaevich, an old friend of the poet in St. Petersburg.
39215f9a4571721950ddbacaa7ca3a237f36ad67	Pushkin also used his impressions of visiting the Crimea in the description of "Onegin's Journey", which was first included in the poem" Eugene Onegin " as an appendix[28].
03f72733fd69a67cb2592ef283918813ee4c9dcb	In Chisinau
e616a3815d4fc10a2ce014f941a172f3a62d8fbe	Only in September he arrives in Chisinau.
62941da97212896a5cea73426bc90442d303dddf	The new chief condescended to Pushkin's service, allowing him to leave for a long time and visit friends in Kamenka (winter 1820-1821), go to Kiev, travel with I. P. Liprandi in Moldova and visit Odessa (late 1821).
40deef48373726b5ac102c3cab638d37e0ccd72b	Russian Russian poet's poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" was the result of the school of the best Russian poets, but Pushkin's first "southern poem" "The Caucasian Prisoner" (1822) put him at the head of all modern Russian literature, brought him the well deserved fame of the first poet, which always accompanied him until the end of the 1820s.
e75eb0c9ebc9ccbd95b7d784ef9668dfb6821b14	Later, in the 1830s, he received the epithet "Russian Byron" [31].
69836846bd4cd628ed1465cd819f3b8c7ecb6f1f	Later, another "southern poem" "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai" (1824) was published.
f05c8fd18ad04768ff1605b62fc21129f2a13a54	P. A. Vyazemsky wrote from Moscow about this:
1bf70590c72ca59a3671d331b7f653cbec038090	The appearance of the" Bakhchisarai fountain " is worthy of attention not only of poetry lovers, but also of observers of our success in the intellectual industry, which also, not to be angry, contributes, like another, to the welfare of the state.
d3f3aa2cfacbe3487c7acb06c29b74488f4cc0fc	The manuscript of a small poem by Pushkin was paid three thousand rubles; there are not six hundred verses in it; so, the verse (and what else? note for stock appraisers a small four stop verse) cost five rubles with an excess.
5af3eba0ca9303b1f42786f869b54c3415915792	A verse by Beiron, Casimir Lavigne, a line by Walter Scott brings an even more significant percentage, it's true!
6d4649260d14e6f702b3ea6ade7a130850603ca4	But let us also remember that foreign capitalists collect interest from all educated consumers on the globe, and our capital is circulated in a close and domestic circle.
7223dd0e20efad7bfc2f3b3cd92d8e02f6bbaed4	Anyway, the poems of the "Bakchisarai Fountain" were paid as much as they had not been paid for any Russian poems yet[32].
0368315f9d253840c8319e9120b5aef04c454b6f	However, the poet is trying to appeal to the Russian antiquity, outlining plans poems "Mstislav" and "twerk" (the latter plan is adopted and dramatic form), creates satirical poem "Gavriiliada" (1821), the poem "Brothers robbers" (1822; special edition in 1827).
d7d3ff993ccf142f561d13ac1b365c62e334689b	Over time, the group has matured the conviction (initially hopeless tragic) that the world has its own laws, to shake that man can not, no matter how brave and beautiful it thoughts.
f4082b065f311389e3155edfe994e90c0ef87971	In this vein, the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was started in May 1823 in Kishinev; the finale of the first chapter of the novel suggested the story of the hero's journey outside the homeland, modeled on Byron's poem "Don Juan".
d1a109126d89906680fb71fb3dd74d481f5f1968	In the meantime, in July 1823, Pushkin is seeking a transfer to the office of Count Vorontsov in Odessa.
c3580a83722abe3cfb477b63d059826d5375560d	It was at this time that he realized himself as a professional writer, which was predetermined by the rapid readership success of his works.
16ebfefa12a2afab37137163ecf626a9faf6dca0	Courting the boss's wife, and, possibly, an affair with her and an inability to perform public service, aggravated his relationship with Vorontsov.
c03ca12c697cfae008b21b84b48b25aa8156a7bf	Pushkin's four — year stay in the south is a new romantic stage in his development as a poet.
00cba3776bcacca79177d465d75ea29709bb44d3	At this time, Pushkin got acquainted with the works of Byron and Chenier[33].
122370ad535b615fe0c71485320351e5cb39cd5b	Fascinated by the personality of Byron, by his own admission, the poet was "crazy" about him.
ef944465c4d39d8963cc138ae298875c9550919b	The first poem he created in exile was the elegy "The daylight has gone out...", in the subtitle of which Pushkin noted: "Imitation of Byron".
6b33e1fcaea8ee2304ad520e707b5cca64852d39	The core, the main task of his works was the reflection of the emotional state of a person, the disclosure of his inner life.
c5e798806a0141a330179f92ef1494059a39351e	Pushkin developed the artistic form of the verse, referring to ancient Greek poetry, studying it in translations.
59cb2e34368026fde89c5cc9c3404a44f7646120	Rethinking the imaginative thinking of ancient poets in a romantic way, taking the best of the work of his predecessors, overcoming the cliches of the elegiac style, he created his own poetic language.
8cd43d9d2c97acef6437d4094b8d5597eb1e684a	The main property of Pushkin's poetry was its expressive power and at the same time unusual conciseness, laconism[34].
89bba7232d943040c43eb1bb7df49f526d757287	Formed in 1818-1820 under the influence of French elegies and lyrics by Zhukovsky, the conventionally melancholic style underwent a serious transformation and merged with the new "Byronic" style.
66cc8dc431602bec99bdd176573b9057c4632b4a	The combination of old, complicated and conventional forms with romantic colors and tension was clearly manifested in the "Caucasian Prisoner" [35].
d205e43792b654ce90246129bd95a8c2ed6ee74c	Lifetime portraits of Pushkin by Xavier de Maistre (1800-1802), S. G. Chirikov (1810), V.
3bc7a351ac2cd3f61fc135cc14a4c48c8efb0175	A. Tropinin (1827), P. F. Sokolov (1836)
b51a14d29e45fbb8fa2722d760a891aa42fe11a5	Mikhailovskoe
1a2db5756ab54e7c4927c1840d3bb35f8d5dc877	The young poet first visited here in the summer of 1817 and, as he himself wrote in one of his autobiographies, was fascinated by "rural life, a Russian bath, strawberries, etc., — but I didnot like all this for long"[36].
172a135b83dcb6bd8298fef5ac0fb6485756f697	Pushkin often visited his neighbor on the estate P.
21f532c4153d48d4e88480ec4aae0f1e607836c8	A. Osipova in Trigorsky and used her library[39] (Osipova's father, a mason, an associate of N. I. Novikov, left a large collection of books). From the Mikhailovsky exile until the end of his life, he was bound by friendly relations with Osipova and members of her large family.
7f9756a634a4d3a3bed40a948e846a67f111fedd	Pushkin completes the poems begun in Odessa, "The Conversation of a bookseller with a poet", where he formulates his professional credo, "To the Sea" - a lyrical reflection on the fate of a man of the era of Napoleon and Byron, about the cruel power of historical circumstances over a person, the poem "Gypsies" (1827), continues to write a novel in verse.
43cf63e23b2b6f09e908e2588b591415ef49edd6	In the autumn of 1824, he resumed work on autobiographical notes. left at the very beginning in the Kishinev time, and ponders the plot of the folk drama " Boris Godunov "(completed on November 7 (19), 1825, published in 1831), writes a comic poem"Count Nulin".
965a73a2a09c377fda0a615fc916d8317e36f875	In total, the poet created about a hundred works in Mikhailovsky.
342b6c3bb1c217de0c25b3b58fd6aa8e5fdb5255	After the link
6888205c604cf8a7e1808495dde5bb89731d39d2	On the night of September 3 to 4, 1826, a messenger from the Pskov governor B.
3925c80ab88d68434a5f849fc112bbfa045ea6e5	A. Aderkas arrives in Mikhailovskoye: Pushkin, accompanied by a courier, must come to Moscow, where Nicholas I, who was crowned on August 22, was at that time.
7a20746a7cb7c1cde9b951aebbe890f6140faa67	On September 8, immediately after his arrival, Pushkin was taken to the emperor for a personal audience.
dc78dfe208c487213e45b8bb8098bca28847c295	The conversation between Nikolai and Pushkin took place face to face[42].
87f26b4a27f11a36a5abe2967251acdeb0507b14	Upon his return from exile, the poet was guaranteed the highest personal patronage and exemption from the usual censorship.
a5eadaf2d56a8c59f9cb9b9305865bb1c35d3e3a	He becomes the hero of the novel about the poet's great grandfather, Abram Hannibal, and the new poem "Poltava".
56637c133d82773e0baf3a6de0d9800bbc92d0c4	Published in 1829, the poem did not find understanding either among readers or critics.
14443811e30bf0f7fc87d3649d733d1c46d1da76	In the draft manuscript of the article "Objections to the critics of "Poltava"" Pushkin wrote:
5c1d518943086330f57f7a7946bf7d115f7017a8	The most mature of all my poetic stories, the one in which everything is almost original (and we are only fighting from this, although this is not the main thing), is "Poltava", which Zhukovsky, Gnedich, Delvig, Vyazemsky prefer to everything that I have not yet written," Poltava " was not a success[44].
174f336902b52e1173e3b72a0e78dff308256124	By this time, a new turn was marked in the poet's work.
f959788cda1283db44573e0d459114d2b84b368d	A sober historical and social analysis of reality is combined with an awareness of the complexity of the often elusive rational explanation of the surrounding world, which fills his work with a sense of anxious foreboding, leads to a wide invasion of fiction, gives rise to sad, sometimes painful memories, intense interest in death.
e0d7b6820c6f64140608450d41174322acda010f	In December 1828, Pushkin met a Moscow beauty, 16 year old Natalia Goncharova.
66d972a34f2e656b69cef5115d32465d4e41a46c	By his own admission, he fell in love with her from the first meeting.
47a6b59cba32058271ec138d76249a189af25d87	Boldino
a26dd99f18b0cd595f6f1bbaa8204da6775e6b3f	Main article: Boldinskaya autumn
215636db00901461b8081c3601e1149b2dec0768	Portrait of N. N. Pushkin by Alexander Bryullov (1831-1832)
6c86645e75028cc3def561c11eb57951bb65959a	Pushkin feels the need for everyday changes.
38e21cd0dc03b4743b53e380b015135f15c2ea44	In 1830, his repeated matchmaking to Natalia Nikolaevna Goncharova was accepted, and in the autumn he went to the Nizhny Novgorod estate of his father Boldino to take possession of the nearby village of Kistenevo, given by his father for the wedding.
2f6d9f82c760a7ca70dd4f9b76ea2ece383a75b3	Cholera quarantines detained the poet for three months, and this time was destined to become the famous Boldin autumn, the highest point of Pushkin's creativity, when a whole library of works poured out from his pen: "The Stories of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin" ("Belkin's Stories"), "The Experience of Dramatic Studies" ("Small Tragedies"), the last chapters of "Eugene Onegin", "The House in Kolomna", "The History of the Village of Goryukhina", "The Tale of the Priest and his worker Balda", several sketches of critical articles and about 30 poems.
288fe142e7012d77252a1581bdb8821a796d33b2	Among Boldin's works, as if deliberately unlike one another in genre and tonality, two cycles are particularly contrasting with each other: prose and dramatic.
59a583231e450b95682840993e1baf2a6b4d7ceb	These are the two poles of his work, to which the rest of the works, written in the three autumn months of 1830, gravitate.
e5f069f4b54fa25ced8538c3a353509c7fd9db77	The poetic works of this period represent all the variety of genres and cover a wide range of topics.
67c7fd9d0ab409d4b70101e326f204842af62285	One of them - "My Ruddy Critic..." echoes the "History of the Village of Goryukhina" and is so far from the idealization of village reality that it was first published only in a posthumous collection of works under the changed title ("Caprice")[50].
c60b3b4053956ced05925de99d3fd96a14422887	"Belkin's Stories" were the first completed work of Pushkin's prose that has come down to us, experiments for the creation of which were undertaken by him repeatedly.
99040607e95f227b5648b49b03a4fbc537fdb7a0	In 1821, he formulated the basic law of his prose narrative: "Accuracy and brevity are the first advantages of prose.
02455b61105818daf9cd506e9822a62b8babf8f4	It requires thoughts and thoughts — without them, brilliant expressions do not serve for anything."
1468a572816a9a640d3f80833fefc90028314a89	These stories are also a kind of memoirs of an ordinary person who, not finding anything significant in his life, fills his notes with a retelling of the stories he heard, which struck his imagination with their unusual nature.
61934e83e75c1dc134c27c7bc72849b3c41d9921	"The Stories ..." marked the end of Pushkin's formation as a prose writer, which began in 1827 with the "Blackamoor Peter the Great".
b9ea83a423a2d8bb43f6d3b79cb321bb0fd31273	The cycle determined both the further direction of Pushkin's work: for the last six years of his life, he turned mainly to prose, and the entire, still undeveloped Russian artistic prose word[51][52].
84cb75c6f2efbc31c190cdfc1010a0a5f6e0e0f3	St. Petersburg 1831-1833
f9f896b37a22397e938849a53838d810c4614928	A reduced facsimile of the Pushkin manuscript (prose)
c99960d12cf699783c0a3ee1830b11eb75db8db4	A. S. Pushkin.
211b591ec89531fdffd767d401fd3129d0447130	Portrait by P. F. Sokolov (1831)
e26ebc8f31aa0195dd1282f0f81107205ebfacaf	At the same time, Pushkin took an active part in the publication of the Literary Gazette (the newspaper was published from January 1, 1830 to June 30, 1831) by his friend, publisher A.
638f33692ce166d8dcf7b114de9d2a90265e57e3	A. Delvig.
f8491232a40e975426b605204d82e0dc33b17256	Delvig, having prepared the first two issues, temporarily left St. Petersburg and entrusted the newspaper to Pushkin, who became the actual editor of the first 13 issues[53].
d1032edc9ba1e235fe7077cf91e82fc83ba4047b	The conflict between the Literary Gazette and the editor of the semi official newspaper Severnaya Pchela, F. V. Bulgarin, an agent of the Third Branch, led, after the publication of the newspaper's quatrain by Casimir Delavigne about the victims of the July Revolution, to the closure of the publication.
5e651f28ba807336254553b59d592742b25a4cbb	On February 18 (March 2), 1831, he was married to Natalia Goncharova in the Moscow Church of the Great Ascension at the Nikitsky Gate.
dcb753eee046c501b773733055a65bf4a0de9ce2	During the exchange of rings, Pushkin's ring fell to the floor.
7ee93e635e185f9dcfedc60efd3c864956f7c363	Then his candle went out.
caf196ee04ec2e84cf23edfb0bae694b85fe8e15	He turned pale and said: "All are bad omens!"
9038e67ed59b003f66ea52b67d926a6a85f37f8d	[54].
6265dc2244a83fc67b83586d0062ecc2d27e1eb2	Immediately after the wedding, the Pushkin family briefly settled in Moscow at 53 Arbat Street (according to the modern numbering; now a museum).
9c55dd3e0c5d30b16f2351eb8346acc07c5c6f44	The couple lived there until mid May 1831, when, without waiting for the end of the lease, they left for the capital, as Pushkin quarreled with his mother in law, who interfered in his family life[55]:62.
c63abec1b63248a689d93467a972cd94088680fc	For the summer, Pushkin rented a dacha in Tsarskoye Selo.
fd4f094ad67868c9f2d5a4d471f55c7480a016ed	Here he writes "The Letter of Onegin", thereby finally completing work on the novel in verse, which was his "faithful companion" for eight years of his life.
25ff58703490d14c6fd8c8bc43d36688f16369ca	The new perception of reality that emerged in his work at the end of the 1820s required in depth studies of history: it was necessary to find the origins of the fundamental issues of modernity in it.
04a7b61a09203cfc1c829cef4f145833c07b5dfc	In 1831, he was allowed to work in the archives.
dd1aa0ec57486718f987f8d23f490aeac51e29bc	Pushkin again entered the service as a "historiographer", having received the highest task to write "The History of Peter".
73f288b7cbf9bef448d9dfb7c5721b05cc92c5d5	The cholera riots, terrible in their cruelty, and the Polish events that put Russia on the verge of war with Europe, are presented to the poet as a threat to Russian statehood.
7d3078682b67c0f4462dad87d3358c8f9c401f84	A strong government in these conditions seems to him the key to the salvation of Russia — this idea is inspired by his poems " Before the tomb of the saint...", "Slanderers of Russia", "Borodino anniversary".
760b09263c3e9a39d4d600301f3617d86e985df0	The last two, written on the occasion of the capture of Warsaw, together with the poem by V.
c9e696204e771e28536c755830aedba300f9f2bf	A. Zhukovsky "An Old Song in a new way" were printed in a special brochure "For the Capture of Warsaw" and caused an ambiguous reaction.
47abb4b40feb6f49905960fe79886f43b68bac65	Pushkin, who had never been an enemy of any nation, who was friends with Mickiewicz, nevertheless could not accept the claims of the rebels to join the Lithuanian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Poland[56]: 236.
628326b198b5e3e576cceea12ff2ebe1d928ffa4	His friends reacted differently to Pushkin's response to the Polish events: Vyazemsky and A. I. Turgenev negatively.
e0ac29ce2d9e99a2beb31caae404af81e24d1aad	On September 22, 1831, Vyazemsky wrote in his diary:
477a79072cf8fb4fff61db744bc4ba48b95ecc2a	Pushkin in his poems: Slanderers of Russia seem to them a lump out of their pocket.
78f0634cf0dd832d81fbb971608c259528a439cd	He knows that they will not read his poems[K 5], therefore, they will not answer questions that would be very easy to answer even for Pushkin himself.
7058940b1232ae098afbe7b2e59c84a4012bdd1a	<...> And what kind of sacrilege is it again to combine Borodino with Warsaw?
e8b9679e155a68c9644db4298e768b54f79142e7	Russia cries out against this lawlessness [57].
ad43307b747cfae41ab83c0f34a021bd37a409fb	After the publication of the poems, Chaadaev sent an enthusiastic letter to their author, his position was shared by the exiled Decembrists[56]:232, 236.
84a2c60def9f9807c50579bdc946d3d9c1c385ef	At the same time, F. V. Bulgarin, associated with the III department, accused the poet of adhering to liberal ideas.
6c22763df8dcac9bdb91096e72d02e43b4f09fc9	Since the beginning of the 1830s, prose in Pushkin's work has begun to prevail over poetic genres.
deae5c0cb6edb7c2edb701befb84997e58045274	"Belkin's Stories" (published in 1831) were not successful.
80be1174dc673e27e5c383cadaabe0b2af0e2134	Pushkin is plotting a broad epic canvas a novel from the era of Pugachevism with a nobleman hero who defected to the side of the rebels.
c75447aedd988f5a135cabe8507a434a544dbb4a	This plan is abandoned for a while due to insufficient knowledge of that era, and work begins on the novel "Dubrovsky" (1832-33), his hero, avenging his father, whose ancestral estate was unjustly taken away, becomes a robber.
cbd2514172d26030fdf14c4c79d4a1ca870caee4	The noble robber Dubrovsky is depicted in a romantic way, the other characters are shown with the greatest realism[58].
df56fbbb7c3c26596f0a0d14b09aced666204609	Although the plot basis of the work was drawn by Pushkin from modern life, in the course of his work the novel increasingly acquired the features of a traditional adventurous narrative with a collision that is atypical in general for Russian reality.
e0fdd498bb9fc4259f4172b50bb7724b24baf274	Perhaps, anticipating the insurmountable censorship difficulties with the publication of the novel, Pushkin left work on it, although the novel was close to completion.
94b706b717d530ef5d0ea00016ed815e5f21ac3c	The idea of the work about the Pugachev revolt attracts him again, and, true to historical accuracy, he interrupts classes on the study of the Petrine era for a while, studies printed sources about Pugachev, seeks to familiarize himself with documents on the suppression of the peasant uprising (the "Pugachev Case" itself, strictly classified, turns out to be inaccessible), and in 1833 undertakes a trip to the Volga and the Urals to see firsthand the places of terrible events, hear live legends about Pugachev.
ad20d6455bda3f9aeedecab4d6dab0c2270c6dd2	Pushkin goes through Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan and Simbirsk to Orenburg, and from there to Uralsk, along the ancient Yaik River, renamed the Urals after the peasant uprising.
567c07afad1fcfce68f477268bb5ac2a4ca88cc9	On January 7, 1833, Pushkin was elected a member of the Russian Academy simultaneously with P.
10ae92d5db30d6c2614d30e53284240f6684ae52	A. Katenin, M. N. Zagoskin, D. I. Yazykov and A. I. Malov.
6bcdab34715022ab3aab02a8857ed16f5df1ce6a	In the autumn of 1833, he returned to Boldino.
4d1229f44532a1ca60df2653210f83efb7a8ea7c	Now Pushkin's Boldinskaya autumn is twice as short as three years ago, but in terms of value it is commensurate with the Boldinskaya autumn of 1830.
b030f1c783e4d3d8014c628924ccf32ea79366f5	In a month and a half, Pushkin completes work on the "History of Pugachev" and "Songs of the Western Slavs", begins work on the story "The Queen of Spades", creates the poems "Angelo" and "The Bronze Horseman", "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish" and "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Heroes", the poem in octaves "Autumn".
1189e843025edc9afff1492fe146945925e99abd	St. Petersburg 1833-1835
1f8df28c2fc570a7641744037b5f5b1e095f702c	The family tree of the Pushkins, (watercolor, unknown artist, the beginning of the XIX century; the central museum of A. S. Pushkin)
6211f437aeafa9d8d643dc7e4b19313e4b888ae5	In November 1833, Pushkin returned to St. Petersburg, feeling the need to change his life abruptly and, above all, to get out of the custody of the court.
5934402f9c25dcba20e3d33a316a8d3c0de4d246	An authentic Pushkin device from the museum on Moika, 12, St. Petersburg
7c8543b5271ae1484f33381873f5f2a536ece3ac	On the eve of 1834, Nicholas I promoted his historiographer to the junior court rank of chamberlain.
0c211a3c3ddc76fd24f396aefcc784b8fd5c8602	According to Pushkin's friends, he was furious: this title was usually given to young people.
c7730c6b57725b4d467f89c7ad6c79e68c654365	In his diary on January 1, 1834, Pushkin made an entry:
bddcb38de87cd282f93b0c430c3f0ccfc498e25b	The day before yesterday, I was granted the rank of chamberlain (which is rather indecent for my years).
460edba4e772df903dd5c86a3b7b6d696bb7681b	But the Court wanted N. N. [Natalia Nikolaevna] to dance in Anichkov[59].
7a781c5abe1f420dd3fa61c966f3fedb69f29f7d	At the same time, the publication of the "Bronze Horseman"was banned.
581309b2b7bd820ae13fc0384235ded0777375b3	At the beginning of 1834, Pushkin completed another, prose Petersburg story — " The Queen of Spades "and placed it in the magazine" Library for Reading", which paid Pushkin immediately and at the highest rates.
3d49a0208b62b7341abee78aee6cc7e64e64d45a	It was started in Boldin and was then intended, apparently, for the joint almanac "Troichatka"with V. F. Odoevsky and N. V. Gogol.
5d5cb363ed779c99a7da3211b22b93119ccf4195	On June 25, 1834, Pushkin resigned with a request to retain the right to work in the archives, necessary for the performance of the"History of Peter".
f90f38973197f1ca34fd982186098f8c1a78572e	The motive was indicated by family affairs and n the possibility of a permanent presence in the capital.
f1d5a256e0b8035dbeb4e7d3022274cfada6b633	The petition was accepted with a refusal to use the archives, thus, Pushkin was deprived of the opportunity to continue working.
b688b40bc5b81c5c27bc9de743a46ee1ae2bfb5b	Following Zhukovsky's advice, Pushkin withdrew the petition[60].
726b0cb8c76ee57ce4adff28afcd60f3572ab556	Later, Pushkin asked for a vacation for 3-4 years: in the summer of 1835, he wrote to his mother in law that he was going to go to the village with the whole family for several years.
effdfe690d2d65cfd983f35fa81466712e18a167	However, he was refused a vacation, in return, Nicholas I offered a six month vacation and 10,000 rubles, as it was said, "for recollection".
e91b5721872f8812b15fca58b40c01a6c1a71f30	Pushkin did not accept them and asked for 30,000 rubles with the condition of deduction from his salary, he was granted leave for four months.
b0d46f98d5a536de2aa7e73e0638d51c94b12135	So for several years ahead, Pushkin was bound by the service in St. Petersburg[61].
eab07fa7357a00887c00a78dba00f4ec0dbcf38d	This amount did not cover even half of Pushkin's debts, with the termination of salary payments, we had to rely only on literary income, which depended on reader demand.
0bc50bac1a00fb553bdca7056ec2b342a814f995	At the end of 1834 beginning of 1835, several final editions of Pushkin's works were published: the full text of "Eugene Onegin" (in 1825-32 the novel was printed in separate chapters), collections of poems, novellas, poems, but they all diverged with difficulty.
cca2eedb2e7f413dd71d4620967ed36ec9ac60f6	Criticism has already spoken in full voice about the grinding of Pushkin's talent, about the end of his era in Russian literature.
1eded937e01577f8d4fcbed686eb6bb48df7c789	Two autumns — 1834 (in Boldin) and 1835 (in Mikhailovsky) were less fruitful.
96d0dbe01bb152de5da07bfa6838913dbf6f16c2	For the third time, the poet came to Boldino in the autumn of 1834 on the complicated affairs of the estate and lived there for a month, writing only "The Tale of the Golden Cockerel".
afda8dce96f14bbe7bfdcf63b996ced8a3ffbdae	In Mikhailovsky Pushkin continued to work on "Scenes from the chivalrous times", "Egyptian nights", created the poem "I visited again".
aa8e6a7859afecafb4f0fc35f0cd944f7751c884	The general public, lamenting the fall of Pushkin's talent, was unaware that his best works were not allowed to be published, that in those years there was constant, intense work on extensive plans: "The History of Peter", a novel about Pugachevism.
60259ab5f22d442bc4a606f4162da823d1c92982	Fundamental changes have matured in the poet's work.
be1eead943a89b58b962b52d5e7b2efc8e8b7704	Pushkin the lyricist in these years becomes mainly "a poet for himself".
ebe12added667dddca369688c916d41b49f1a4f7	He is now persistently experimenting with prose genres that do not completely satisfy him, remain in plans, sketches, drafts, looking for new forms of literature.
f1b956f9efe2cc482abc6eb919185f43e18d43d7	"Sovremennik"
c6dad42c921dc174de332d0ad48f316503b88173	Main article: Sovremennik (magazine)
2ab40a5c67aa4a34f578ee6a36c159ce872e963b	According to S.
b48115d941737574a1c9912f5ea109d18cfbcefb	A. Sobolevsky:
109c8b0880dfc09baf3b7cf0b67dd6299b9b9313	The idea of a large time based publication that would touch, if possible, all the most important aspects of Russian life, the desire to directly serve the fatherland with his pen, occupied Pushkin almost continuously in the last ten years of his short term career… Circumstances hindered him, and only in 1836 he managed to get himself the right to publish Sovremennik, but already in a very limited and tight size[62].
5a4334d545cd2f2efb36c5778799940e782dff56	Since the closure of the Literary Newspaper, he has been seeking the right to his own periodical.
e404380c7f63728b36c14b823573fcfc3e9c417f	The plans of the newspaper ("Diary"), various almanacs and collections, the "Northern Spectator", which was to be edited by V. F. Odoevsky, were not implemented.
1ba425f59bee7b531f5c9d523c32da8ba89761f9	Together with him, Pushkin in 1835 intended to publish "A Modern chronicler of politics, sciences and Literature".
25506aff34560bddbcf1b6e5d7cc7b551458b5bd	In 1836, he received permission for a year to publish an almanac.
519a5c74c23253572e3793aef15b41808d4fe006	Pushkin also counted on an income that would help him pay off the most urgent debts.
9d491223a115280d9de517ee457937dbac1a08aa	Founded in 1836, the magazine was named "Sovremennik".
92073d1c1e2991ac46b85ae13cdc63ca0228b795	It published the works of Pushkin himself, as well as N. V. Gogol, A. I. Turgenev, V.
00693a3a2c9e9407d8f8e1fa97dd537817b32bf2	A. Zhukovsky, P.
777f4f8e58e3e0d3b7a5ef6f2dea8b3a7149c2f7	A. Vyazemsky.
1cb3fdada2e23e60f64e3ab3c0b5aaa897d1309a	Nevertheless, the magazine did not have a success as a reader: the Russian public still had to get used to a new type of serious periodical devoted to topical issues, interpreted by hints, if necessary.
67fd6f6c36c6c2d3a10b73aaae5ebabbe5971d7a	The magazine had only 600 subscribers, which made it ruinous for the publisher, since neither printing costs nor employee fees were covered.
6d27f3611aa4b8e57cbc54446c7d535d9955600c	Pushkin fills the last two volumes of Sovremennik with more than half of his works, mostly anonymous.
228bfc56cdd814709a3e320a086ea2ace737a61f	In the fourth volume of Sovremennik, the novel "The Captain's Daughter"was finally published.
362dea05f4a4665984190feaa476cc82d676af26	Pushkin could have published it as a separate book, then the novel could bring the income that he needed so much.
634c37985b66a16562e4f12faeafd9bf7a4a4499	However, he still decided to publish "The Captain's Daughter" in the magazine and could no longer count on simultaneous publication as a separate book, at that time it was impossible.
d96027f065a4778f6fd095b8b591556040b5ef5a	Probably, the novel was placed in Sovremennik under the influence of Krayevsky and the publisher of the magazine, who feared its collapse.
82c1e61fc5f38c144b191d41692261b896c496aa	"The Captain's Daughter" was favorably received by readers, but Pushkin did not have time to see the reviews of enthusiastic critics about his latest novel in print.
64db4ccb65daeb9e2969eee59ef060e6bf6f1c88	Despite the financial failure, Pushkin was busy with publishing until the last day, "hoping, in spite of fate, to find and educate his reader"[63].
4877de1cacfa5d23228e1505442a702011b44b72	1836-1837 years
038cc93876455698bc7a24d08aedaf64ce3b933f	This was his last visit to Mikhailovskoye.
698a1870ef36968cc570ffc5b6c275d8d9283885	He hoped for cooperation in the "Contemporary" of the authors of the "Moscow Observer".
2a1999e560d35b4ed2671dd0256997cf94593900	However, Baratynsky, Pogodin, Khomyakov, Shevyrev did not rush to answer, not directly refusing.
d62eb8cb622045f8a54e2a5ddacdcb5efc95b311	In addition, Pushkin expected that Belinsky, who was in conflict with Pogodin, would write for the magazine.
4dc84f01d863919ba82ed29a927210837fc44c24	After visiting the archives of the College of Foreign Affairs, he was convinced that working with documents of the Peter the Great era would take several months.
cd35e854a375e6fa35fb7cec98e919a8855ac244	At the insistence of his wife, who was expecting to give birth from day to day, Pushkin returns to St. Petersburg at the end of May.
4cd1a04eae6670ec267256cab9055c59de2a71f7	According to the memoirs of the French publisher and diplomat Levet Weimar, who visited Pushkin in the summer of 1836, he was fascinated by the "History of Peter", shared with the guest the results of his archival searches and fears about how readers would perceive the book, where the tsar would be shown "as he was in the first years of his reign, when he furiously sacrificed everything to his goal."
3212076c2b170ce05d071e246fbe0b83b0e49d73	The exact composition of the cycle of poems is unknown.
a77d182ab5124e3659b1bed23813278caf3eb5ef	The end to end plot of the poems "Hermit Fathers and Immaculate wives", "How he fell from the tree..." and "Worldly Power" is the Holy Week of Great Lent[65].
41f073b30fbf942d3c6c4f856e0db18a5c5d1049	According to V. P. Stark:
91150ef7dd63f371a29bf06ad3719c5bd6a45bc9	"This poem formulates the ideal poetic and human credo of Pushkin, which he suffered all his life"[66].
08742a525586347f7b1c4ace01e4b968fe8f2ccf	The cycle probably also included "When I wander thoughtfully outside the city", the quatrain "In vain I run to the Zion Gate" and, finally, (some researchers dispute this assumption) "Monument" ("I erected a monument to myself not made with hands...") — as the beginning or, according to other versions, the finale — Pushkin's poetic testament.
0161b59989a973c8f2b9d73b83c6a2492cdf1afd	Main article: The Last duel and the death of A. S. Pushkin
5350d8927c319ca633519bc7ca96938ec05b33c3	Pushkin's Duel with Dantes.
ff52daaf4e3e958c4c272b855ce3bee51a2fdc0b	A. A. Naumov, 1884
c5921f5f34930579a222d7bc500b34bce152a163	Endless negotiations with his son in law about the division of the estate after the death of his mother, worries about publishing affairs, debts, and, most importantly, the courtship of Dantes ' cavalry for his wife, which became deliberately obvious, which led to gossip in secular society, were the cause of Pushkin's depressed state in the autumn of 1836.
6c33a3585b3a877ad7c2329c1b96a776c7e9ae39	On November 3, an anonymous lampoon was sent to his friends[K 6] with insulting hints to Natalia Nikolaevna.
6c8f4f99ee48e58a9c7cd89fde4b54b7c413e901	Pushkin, who learned about the letters the next day, was sure that they were the work of Dantes and his adoptive father Heckern.
65b5517f26eace6f7f49b787328da2bcb636554a	On the evening of November 4, he sent a challenge to a duel to Dantes.
b7215a392709460ee9b1d315ceb4b5ce928bc31d	Geckern (after two meetings with Pushkin) achieved a postponement of the duel for two weeks.
e662e1f9e5e0072653cbb12fbe77357382ec839c	Thanks to the efforts of the poet's friends, and, above all, Zhukovsky and aunt Natalia Nikolaevna E. Zagryazhskaya, the duel was prevented.
ac6bff0067c8acfdc75a3b93605c880610c19fb8	On November 17, Dantes proposed to Natalia Nikolaevna's sister Ekaterina Goncharova.
fc71f59c08795666ee266a59adc2324df58c9b7f	On the same day, Pushkin sent his second V.
6fd2bcb19b1e244e07c7de46ea6ff40f1822ef68	A. Sollogub a letter rejecting the duel[68].
2d2286dba5fc84e4e5eed50ef80dcf3bc667c114	The marriage did not resolve the conflict.
c5ba2b5f79787477620e46027c9b93c3b4253a49	Dantes, meeting Natalia Nikolaevna in the light, pursued her.
9378220df18b3e385014098939bfcbd97470ce3e	Rumors were spreading that Dantes had married Pushkina's sister in order to save Natalia Nikolaevna's reputation.
b051c985b1c34941ed401da018d31a2b1f7c25db	According to K. K. Danzas, his wife suggested that Pushkin leave St. Petersburg for a while, but he, "having lost all patience, decided to end differently"[69].
0f9665a4f305bd7f6860c9b73a5debd863999c45	Pushkin sent a "highly offensive letter"to Louis Hecker on January 26, 1837[70].
0aeaae65eb48e0bebff5b4971f228517a2260053	The only answer to it could only be a challenge to a duel, and Pushkin knew it.
9ea832e996ab6b3c7075c919e37061864d770fa0	A formal challenge to a duel from Heckern, approved by Dantes, was received by Pushkin on the same day through the attache of the French embassy, the Vicomte d'Archiac.
62be889d97226ce4521835448eef59e61d1de929	Since Geckern was an ambassador of a foreign state, he could not fight a duel — this would mean the immediate collapse of his career.
5487615ede1710a76f22e4e8c9e8bc33cee5dbbf	The duel with Dantes took place on January 27 on the Black River.
d179d8cb445fd20d5299e08ff64968ef8c511c78	Pushkin was wounded: the bullet broke the neck of the thigh and penetrated into the stomach.
6ccbf7366ab123d99e221228fcb6a9b1bf455b32	For that time, the wound was fatal.
594886ae239585ca7a86e176fb3f7c984612065f	Pushkin learned about this from the life doctor Arendt, who, yielding to his insistence, did not hide the true state of affairs.
92452da42e9fb4c9afeaca3982a682f80a10eba0	Before his death, Pushkin, putting his affairs in order, exchanged notes with Emperor Nicholas I.
a4bbd2e1d1ffff612df79d40b550bdf876e7cb57	The notes were passed by two people:
0fbdfe4a947a36f50b94ac2b793da8d772492ff0	V. A. Zhukovsky is a poet, at that time the tutor of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II. N. F. Arendt is the life physician of Emperor Nicholas I, the doctor of Pushkin.
e30b5e1c2ee937d12518d729c27f578c3aa342f9	The poet asked for forgiveness for violating the royal ban on dueling:
ad2a4bc906b668691ddbb2539d45dac4dc2d5709	... I'm waiting for the king's word to die in peace…
77b28be5dfe1698f6a2152a29cd92e2315c4c017	Your Majesty:
d87dac7ff3c770341189531d49a090096fe0bc86	If God does not tell us to see each other in this world already, I send you my forgiveness and my last advice to die a Christian.
472cdf7b3f8bc147cbf06539411aa91766a8a61e	Donot worry about your wife and children, I'll take them into my own hands.
fd03a5b15192ad9db90923936bad98396b77182a	- It is believed that this note was passed by Zhukovsky
9fc068f87d4148d60b5c4b78bbcc819bbc253662	Nikolai saw Pushkin as a dangerous "leader of freethinkers" (in this regard, measures were taken to ensure that the funeral service and funeral were held as modestly as possible) and subsequently assured that "we forcibly brought him to a Christian death"[71], which did not correspond to reality: even before receiving the royal note, the poet, having learned from the doctors that his wound was fatal, sent for a priest to take communion.
d908d50f933a9dcaf6cbc8b9302f717490280759	On January 29 (February 10) at 14:45, Pushkin died of peritonitis.
7aa79b4b65f3b25a132effea9631357795373bea	Nicholas I fulfilled the promises made to the poet.
94a5b453074bccdcdcdedc38e0bfdb77f38417d1	The order of the Sovereign:
ecdac7207ad7d47c9f709a1eaef392cf0ae220b8	1. Pay your debts.
9d4c1946bbf863cb6fa7aabea781460049402e46	2. To clear the mortgaged estate of the father from debt.
cbc43741e978783207237fef927fd607d3bc7b44	3. A widow's pension and a daughter's marriage.
a3caa6704f075c8a14e950b05816012160390309	4. Sons to be pages and 1500 rubles for the education of each for joining the service.
05969978aff0484abd569b164d50279311b28f8c	5. Publish essays at the state expense in favor of the widow and children.
ba003e32ccf87b7073b3e6a140ddc0d418ca3923	6. 10,000 rubles at a time.
f1e6d37b823c84e0d9f7ebb4926a7fd0249f936b	At the request of his wife, Pushkin was put in a coffin not in a chamber junker uniform, but in a tailcoat[72].
4124c20fff206732648e5464fcafa418dbba6062	The funeral service, scheduled in St. Isaac's Cathedral, was moved to the Stable Church.
3a45118cc70a72882bada9e35d41da94c7cff1f3	The ceremony took place with a large gathering of people, they were allowed to enter the church by invitation cards.
6b7dd7342010957f5c67155234cb087f57a70fe6	There were also, as usual, the most absurd orders.
d23ac97706deb4241c3c40af782a87e6db61e0e5	The people were deceived: they said that Pushkin would be buried in St. Isaac's Cathedral — this was also indicated on the tickets, and meanwhile the body was taken out of the apartment at night, secretly, and put in the Stable Church.
0dcf86df00d3ecf360323ec1e4f23a88c87363ac	The university has received a strict instruction that professors should not leave their departments and students should attend lectures.
20a695786f37082e9eead881aec662a734c22cb2	I could not resist expressing to the trustee my regret on this occasion.
fe347f90ab18e54850c66a1844234dafdc93eb1e	Russians cannot mourn their fellow citizen who has done them honor with his existence!
b228265280786967779dfa5fe93c82763c0b170b	From the diary of A.V. Nikitenko[73].
2354dde0f436f91b656f4a8e0cbbbbd581a15387	After that, the coffin was lowered into the basement, where it was located until February 3, before departure to Pskov.
3c6a0217c761127803da55c1ac6d495c68a1a350	A. I. Turgenev accompanied Pushkin's body.
2541c246e5be7d438bdd363695857f0fe20ecb60	In a letter to the governor of Pskov, Peshchurov, A. N. Mordvinov, on behalf of Benckendorf and the emperor, pointed out the need to prohibit "any special expression, any meeting, in a word, any ceremony, except for what is usually performed according to our church rite at the burial of the body of a nobleman"[73].
1f0c14f2ae775238873185e4f76909bd4c960bfd	Alexander Pushkin was buried on the territory of the Svyatogorsky Monastery of the Pskov province.
26ab01bc08fc32e905e8327c0e072ad7f2c5c096	In August 1841, by order of N. N. Pushkina, a tombstone by the sculptor Alexander Permagorov (1786-1854) was installed on the grave[74].
638d366fbb7e1d93425b2c200c45bb70dcba4de1	Descendants of Pushkin
4bda33ccada31f5d1eb5493ff1cfdf7d001d91bb	Main article: The Descendants of Pushkin
15d403b9d225ab00b20788b417a95467408be309	Of Pushkin's four children, only two left offspring Alexander and Natalia.
a0e5c604ee3dd6df02c904f2e3d9b817645a4702	The poet's descendants now live all over the globe: in the USA, England, Germany, Belgium.
953597d21484441bc26fc0f66c901f0bd86acb52	About fifty of them live in Russia, including Tatyana Ivanovna Lukash, whose great grandmother (Pushkin's granddaughter) was married to Gogol's great nephew.
badab3e892c3e535358c13609b3a400fa396f2c3	Now Tatiana lives in Klin[75].
98c319517fbf666d62fad434b7fe366d0f731abd	Alexander Alexandrovich Pushkin is the last direct descendant of the poet in the male line, lives in Belgium[76]
41def7a0febe741da87c5b79ce78ce27b83f3ae7	Appearance
229d165caf0ce82380c79709f41a8040ca408b89	Self portrait
1443e0d3cd95603e764d15c1f84af70d21b822d1	The height of A. S. Pushkin was 2 arshins 5 vershkov and a half (it was measured by the artist Grigory Chernetsov on April 15, 1832)[77]. This is 166.7 cm, which at that time was quite a lot for a man (the height of Pushkin's wife was 173 cm)[78]. Contemporaries had different opinions about Pushkin's appearance.
452f9e12912f41dbee66fd30b3cc6aeae8035198	To a greater extent, they depend on the attitude to it.
1d6508f5bdd0ff60073e12b6c30cfb66b894a6b1	In the conventional sense of Pushkin never been called beautiful, however, many noted that his features were made perfect, when it became a reflection of his spirit.
e3dba3756d9bee9718edac0cb3147a4dd5973087	M. V. Yuzefovich especially paid attention to the eyes of Pushkin, "which seemed to reflect all the beautiful things in nature"[79].
70d2021056243b858ef5427af0e8c361107c2cdb	L. P. Nicholas, who met in 1833 Pushkin lunch with Nizhny Novgorod Governor, describes it:
82410e8867a474054c80a289e8d7eef4d321620b	"His slightly swarthy face was original, but ugly: a large open forehead, a long nose, thick lips - generally irregular features.
1f0048d7dd70f9078380971e5f4c61da911bbac9	But what was great about him was his dark gray eyes with a bluish tint — large, clear.
dd38e9271398ff509714d6b2cdddfcdbc38021d2	It is impossible to convey the expression of these eyes: some burning, and at the same time caressing, pleasant.
1ae997f645997c10d34431ea46fd7f5fb742a7bb	I have never seen a more expressive face: intelligent, kind, energetic.
5e411167f16938ac5ca46717872fb2beaedb7c01	<...> He speaks well: ah, how much intelligence and life there was in his unskilful speech!
da2441d33c8258631cce2531d17f3464b36b2f01	And how cheerful, amiable, charming he is!
cdae96b362763ec244df2e9371d63ac57b52fb51	This fool could like...
bdca107ae77d3369a2c2ff0bd4b6deea9a3eaa5b	" [80]
5f10b6fba653ce7cf7c44aab4a74a9f0ec76a3e6	Pushkin's creativity
dd13408bb3ebc28a2f8839a87a1bf6e74f352e9d	Pushkin's literary reputation and cultural role
c0731f5545d7bf49148d19f5f46162bd666733fb	Russian Russian poet Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin has a reputation as a great or the greatest Russian poet, in particular, the Encyclopedia "Krugosvet"[4], "Russian Biographical Dictionary" and "Literary Encyclopedia" calls him so.
52f823efd0fe4ff180ace3d497b3452d0be516f2	In Philology Pushkin is regarded as the founder of modern Russian literary language (see, for example, the works by V. V. Vinogradov), and "a brief literary encyclopedia" (author S. S. Averintsev) speaks of atalanti of his works, like the works of Dante in Italy or Goethe in Germany.
5f76b8775411ea9d5640bf36221e534e2cef8f7a	D. S. Likhachev wrote about Pushkin as "our greatest national treasure"[81].
9fa9306774cfdf824e7383f9a21b7e3bae59929d	Even during his lifetime, the poet was called a genius, including in print[5].
53d17e20db757a7eff464970f19a6a2ceb000b93	Russian Russian poet Since the second half of the 1820s, he has been considered the "first Russian poet" (not only among contemporaries, but also Russian poets of all times), and a real cult has developed around his personality among readers[82].
5e56407384ce05cd5fb93c50e19e00b1bf77e3f7	On the other hand, in the 1830s (after his poem "Poltava"), there was also a certain cooling of the reading public towards Pushkin[45].
8f99fe5169814fa5591adc306d9f3cdadfc60854	In the article "A few words about Pushkin" (1830), N. V. Gogol wrote that " Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon and, perhaps, the only phenomenon of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he may appear in two hundred years " [81].
49b848a58216d1fa263231e6ccf343168814c539	Critic and philosopher Westerner Belinsky called it "the first poet artist of Russia"[83].
c76b72915d096b5754da0c8692939d8563808466	Fyodor Dostoevsky said that "in "Onegin" in this immortal and invincible your poem, Pushkin was the great national writer before him, and no one ever" and talked about "universality and vsechelovechnosti of his genius."[81].
ca892c04a610767d4d774371e1d4eed15f4cd577	The most succinct description was offered by Apollo Grigoriev (1859): "And Pushkin is our everything"[84].
520c3c9ba0d0ed314666387946a29c0070cf3581	Studying Pushkin
4617d4b5b526b1f0dd54cae468481c01d4adb56c	Main article: Pushkin Studies
e1f347e4666376a94114fd09cc839aab71966cc0	Russian Russian culture's understanding of Pushkin is divided into two directions artistic, philosophical, and essayistic, the founders of which were Nikolai Gogol and Apollo Grigoriev (in this series — many Russian writers writers, including Fyodor Dostoevsky, Marina Tsvetaeva and Alexander Solzhenitsyn, and philosophers), and the scientific historical and biographical, founded by Pavel Annenkov and Peter Bartenev.
cd9485ad83d2cf5963e527eaaf64aaf800ac9a79	The heyday of scientific Pushkin studies in Russia at the beginning of the XX century is associated with the creation of the Pushkin House in 1905, the Pushkin Seminary in 1908, the appearance of serial publications about Pushkin.
f6647a71ab30e567be034d7fb44833ff094cdcb2	In Soviet times, under the conditions of restrictions on the study of Pushkin's ideology, Pushkin's textual studies and studies of his style received great development.
8eea6f667617c4a0d9e1f5a74e8658c8e68f75e3	A number of important achievements are associated with Pushkin studies abroad (Poland, France, the USA, etc.), including in Russian emigration.
3b416a016fa77205b0209f0acea5875cae1e447f	Denial of the significance of Pushkin's work and criticism of his cult
75fd6e84ad589f80328b4683e1c983798c21dffb	The"sixties" publicist and literary critic Dmitry Pisarev denied the significance of Pushkin's work for modernity: "Pushkin uses his artistic virtuosity as a means to dedicate the whole of reading Russia to the sad secrets of his inner emptiness, his spiritual poverty and his mental impotence"[85].
d14f76b348adc158fd5711815f127e3f83d3e3c3	Many nihilists of the 1860s, such as Maxim Antonovich and Bartholomew Zaitsev, stood on the same position.
3c8a80fb55b0162b0baf4146bbedb3f2e4e051bb	V. Mayakovsky, D. Burlyuk, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, B. Livshits called for "throwing Pushkin [along with a number of other classics] off the ship of modernity" in the manifesto of the Futurists of 1912 "A Slap in the Face to Public Taste" [86].
a9eeca0b8e5d7925feddcbeb2ea3cd06196f0eec	Further, the manifesto said: "Who will not forget his first love, will not know the last" (a paraphrase of Tyutchev's words on Pushkin's death: "The heart of Russia will not forget you as the first love").
cb2c8f462f73373c30613939cef768955d8b1438	At the same time, the highest assessment of Pushkin's work was given by Innokenty Annensky, Anna Akhmatova, Marina Tsvetaeva, Alexander Blok.
6893d2cfce207ea0cd1446a9170bca2517c030e4	According to a number of researchers, since 1937, the official ideology in the USSR has been instilling the "cult of Pushkin"[87][88]; "the cult of Pushkin becomes part of the cult of Stalin"[89].
eba01f02e101bbf0a211715634d6a5bde7e86812	There is also an opinion that "the purely communist cult of Pushkin was built on exactly the same model as the cults of Lenin and Stalin"[90].
4b3946faa1020869e54ead5d6af449419529f063	Works of art
4677ae2c48ac6acb9dc2fa29097d4a078003e794	Main article: List of Pushkin's works
372a0aea712ff7ed4999df4f515a38aaea6e5d27	Poems
c6140350d4541aaa318da1431f2f806b210def5f	Ruslan and Lyudmila (1817-1820) The Caucasian Prisoner (1820-1821) Gavriiliada (1821) Vadim (1821-1822) The Robber Brothers (1821-1822) The Fountain of Bakhchisarai (1821-1823) The Gypsies (1824) Count Nulin (1825), facsimile reproduction of the first edition of 1827, pdf Poltava (1828-1829) Tazit (1829-1830) House in Kolomna (1830)
19241c5d22a114dc49a78890cb543937d961044f	Pushkin's autograph self portrait with Onegin on the Neva embankment
27aa46f39a1a74155f24f2c806ec7328acf67c86	Yezersky (1832)
0e95d5d3fe6115b0c37b6424345d04c3d543cc73	Angelo (1833)
543f9656ba59159024ed50fa8eace84b5d0b9bdc	The Bronze Horseman (1833)
53e18767517806eae9e04df5a248455e70765ca3	A novel in verse
d154fd6eaeb5979de176773602f7f2c7dd92dbcc	Eugene Onegin (1823-1832)
89e4d39b738f8ab5a913b4d0cfec49979a7af08e	Dramatic works
0d06acc12f18bfb3a2211b90b7c253f659aa8755	Boris Godunov (1825) The Miserly Knight (1830) Mozart and Salieri (1830) The Stone Guest (1830) PHOEBE: Pushkin.
b19b709ca953d6eff47655a35381061ab27ab886	The Stone Guest — - 1948 (text) Feast during the Plague (1830) The Mermaid (1829-1832)
79f58e7cb122d4d9b4065531a49a6da450757949	1813—1825 1826—1836
097d071561bc676e1cfbdf057f28dc300c998cc6	Prose
2923caaf3b359d80904a83950153c95a4f7fe172	The Blackamoor of Peter the Great (1827) A Novel in Letters (1829) The Stories of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin (1830) Shot Snowstorm Undertaker Stationmaster Young lady peasant
08f944158a73cd67888e9b13b825bd388f3786ac	The history of the village of Goryukhina (1830) Roslavlev (1831) Dubrovsky (1833) The Queen of Spades (1834) The story of Pugachev (1834) Kirdzhali (1834) Egyptian Nights (1835) Journey to Arzrum during the campaign of 1829 (1835) The Captain's Daughter (1836)
504b609c0c1e5c97fccc694ba1b35acd252b291e	Fairy tales
6913edb38006ea1b779a934ab9d33830c2c71a08	The groom (1825) The tale of the priest and of his workman Balda (1830) the Tale of medvedykha (1830-1831), the Tale of Tsar Saltan, of his son, the glorious and mighty Bogatyr Prince Gvidon Saltanovich and of the beautiful Princess Swan (1831) the Tale of the fisherman and the fish (1833) the tale of the dead Princess and the seven knights (1833) the Tale of the Golden Cockerel (1834)
d8d41c2ba244efc950d90b895921d5caefaf8999	Collected works
2fc2b5c83eb349b9ce71e68cc5c66a073e825202	The first posthumous edition of Pushkin's works (1838) in eight volumes, issued in favor of the heirs, included only those works that were published during his lifetime.
fc71533394eaa586a57027007082410cf1486cde	The publication was printed "under the special supervision of the Minister of Public Education", in whose department there was censorship[91].
94c39f895e2c01dbc912c430861e3ddddb1f3109	According to the response of S.
6b1755deb95f6ac512f2e66092bdd39140d3419e	A. Sobolevsky, it came out "badly by the grace of Atreshkov"[K 7][92]. Numerous typos, corrections, omissions, distortions of Pushkin's texts were made, the publication was not complete even in the declared volume.
206692a1d9397155286d3a4d6074a9761039c7b2	In 1841, three additional volumes (9-11) were published.
d5dfc113d71f3f73184b8f01794f8c95b1220ce4	By the beginning of 1846, this collection of works was almost all sold out.
ca8f0b056a55c59b9aea352f6c073f4419bf0673	The new collection of works was conceived only as a repetition of the 1838-1841 edition.
3f895c481decc3f46c44f5e96db7c250fc405e6d	However, these plans did not come to fruition.
54115185a5b4c0189db90a0e3407bdfd111f08ed	In the winter of 1849-1850, the poet's widow, who had married Lansky by that time, turned to Pavel Annenkov for advice on a new edition.
6beb8d16f9cbe97467f51f7adbcb2e4845668264	Annenkov, who had at his disposal all the Pushkin manuscripts kept by Lanskaya, at first did not dare to take up such a serious matter.
f0f9dd908a88e76972e42f6f9d7375a1c3bfd08c	He was persuaded by his brothers Ivan[K 8] and Fyodor, who got acquainted with the papers.
7ac4d56d6bf3ea52b3adb60fab36d8594a584766	On May 21, 1851, Lanskaya transferred the rights to the publication to I. V. Annenkov under the contract.
39cd05be22bbc4b8d91719a0dd20325739c2730c	Brothers P. Annenkov wanted, so he took matters into their own hands.
922c3f8f4b1f5f861f2c59c0d62ffd6fb5cbb8df	P. Annenkov also came to the decision to write a biography of the poet[93][94]. N. DOB so responded to the appearance of the collected works of Pushkin years 1855-1857: "Russian <...> has long been ardently wished for a new edition of his works worthy of his memory, and met the company Annenkov with admiration and gratitude"[95].
1bf999fa4a01d3771b73c7101593c25c82bb43fe	Despite all the censorship obstacles, Annenkov carried out the first critically prepared collection of Pushkin's works[94].
ce49a58744d7f2413a7928dbbe8425aa2a7e95ec	The Annenkov edition with additions and changes was repeated twice by G. N. Gennadi (1859-1860, 1869-1871) [96].
0bb1061ebe0f9b450a2ce9c595f1f256ede2756e	After 1887, when the rights to Pushkin's works expired for his heirs, a variety of available publications appeared, which, however, did not have important scientific significance[96].
48edc7744c124301f65ed6396e02106df711d21b	The most complete of the works published at the beginning of the XX century was the collected works of Pushkin (1903-1906) edited by P. O. Morozov[96].
7aef71b59abde551385f14603f8226bd25af8242	The release of the Complete Academic Collection of Pushkin's Works in 16 volumes was timed to coincide with the centennial anniversary (1937) of the poet's death, however, for objective reasons, work on it stretched for many years.
04f6f9d96c36c48451437da3a8f3b0a2f2148ea2	This publication combined the work of all the most prominent Pushkin scholars of that time.
6a046adf38661acae9d100d9cc51330688eb4277	The collected works in 16 volumes still remain the most complete set of Pushkin's works, in the scientific literature, when quoting Pushkin's texts, it is customary to refer to him.
3c37851ef325a0b4c204336924cd26453375718e	In terms of textual research, the collection became a reference point for other academic publications of Russian writers[97].
3b3b4d35ffa1ea02f3dbe16de9bd419f6a4b2c89	Nevertheless, this" Complete "edition does not include volumes with Pushkin's drawings and texts that made up the collection"By the Hand of Pushkin".
efee34c317fbf1a6574425898839a6a99bf7d2ef	For censorship reasons, the ballad "Shadow of Barkov"was not published[98].
6287219d18a693b5186f78fce7d0785afbe2d6fe	Detailed comments on Pushkin's texts, which, according to the authorities, delayed the entire publication, were omitted, this is one of the main shortcomings of the sixteen volume book[99][100].
966d1f1067018b83e10fd97359b575fd8aa8f015	Editions of letters
bdb871284c78302f7e2c79271d5e5b2f94174832	In 1926 and 1928, two volumes of the edition of Pushkin's letters (1815-1830), carried out by B. L. Modzalevsky, were published.
53920576adf41ed45e7f93147c3d48d18f055779	The third volume (1935, letters of 1831-1833) was prepared for publication by his son after Modzalevsky's death.
4fe4150d6ba2f38d35ec2a44d0efdea29e42d97a	The undoubted value of the three volume collection of letters lies in the preservation of Pushkin's spelling and punctuation.
6ccdb45799349f6fc22621056e47ad2932599d9d	An extensive commentary on the letters is a full fledged encyclopedia of the life and work of Pushkin and the Pushkin era in general.
70292f152b8a2b0c4549eaff3a179af655769db9	The disadvantages of this publication include the exclusion of profanity from the texts of letters.
2bb029f82a81b7b2b9265c48bfd46bdac6f833f5	The 1969 edition "A. S. Pushkin.
5306ddb7ca0189fc7345df8651a9324c5bf9746e	Letters of recent years" (general edition of N. V. Izmailov) does not reproduce the author's spelling and punctuation.
458a38884e5c2c4420b49d1014a91491029a64c7	To date, the only edition of Pushkin's letters that does not contain banknotes is "Correspondence" in three volumes edited by V. I. Saitov (Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1906-1911).
1b9cd56f57bb56c5245e3abe548ee9df2bb2a43c	"Correspondence" was published in a small number of copies and was distributed exclusively among members of the Academy[101].
82d355b0c39519f4dc669083877b6edbae8d81b5	In 2013, the publishing house "Slovo" carried out a reprint edition of "Correspondence"[102].
90e3544133595bdee1afc17965abd4a5d7212031	Pushkin in culture
89f8966ff00f342479ca9b222ab29957d894d107	Adaptations of Pushkin's works
6f20e720c814ae218d9d22de839089d9536d1ec2	In chamber music
855fa99df52ccfc2cdb6fe2c86ace7883a71f83e	Many composers wrote music for Pushkin's poems:
638c12940aefdaa60679c8270217f253bae4e9af	A. A. Alexandrov: romances to Pushkin's poems.
46eb22a2e2efcbd9233b323a43af560731dceb9b	A. A. Alyabyev, author of romances to poems: "I loved you", "Alas, why did she Shine", "Circassian song", "Winter road", etc.
e5cde807ea901aa1c3c2f5564f1948d3847e5594	A. S. Dargomyzhsky: romances on poems by Pushkin.
90896856aef9faede21d0b2589bebd73ea0e2f4f	C. A. Cui: romances on poems by Pushkin.
80094b564f4e88b0ad3f5e07754ec62ca4831695	P. p. Podkovyrov: songs by G. V. Sviridov, author of 6 romances on poems by Pushkin (1935);
acbc56b6a629a4f9f5c0631be4bb1f0bf8900084	Musical illustrations for the film adaptation of the story "Blizzard" (1964), which includes a song cycle based on the words of Pushkin;
41c4e1c5a251cf06ca22481db9b19fe20e6e6d28	Oratorios "The Decembrists" based on the words of A. S. Pushkin and the Decembrist poets (1954-1955, not finished).
6630ccdaeed9b253958891f875071016037187bf	I. I. Shvartz wrote two romances based on the poems of A. S. Pushkin for the film "The Stationmaster" (1972).
a1450baca8bf2bf79f00968d1cce978eddc0c6f9	Film adaptations
917d6dbaa1ed7cd4bd646bbd8c9359892282729b	1909/1910 — The Fountain of Bakhchisarai 1910 — The Queen of Spades 1911 — Eugene Onegin 1913 — The House in Kolomna 1916 — The Queen of Spades 1918 — The stationmaster 1930 — The tale of the priest and his worker Balda (animated, not finished), directed by Mikhail Tsekhanovsky 1936 — Dubrovsky 1943 — The Tale of Tsar Saltan 1950 — The Tale of the fisherman and the fish 1951 — The Tale of the dead Princess and the Seven heroes 1953 — Aleko 1954 — Boris Godunov 1958 — Evgeny Onegin 1959 — The Captain's Daughter 1964 — A Blizzard 1966 — A Fairy Tale about Tsar Saltan 1966 — A Shot 1972 — Ruslan and Lyudmila 1972 — The Stationmaster 1973 — A fairy tale about a priest and his employee Balda — an animated film by Inessa Kovalevskaya 1979 — A Ball 1979 — Small Tragedies 1979 — Autumn Bells 1982 — The Queen of Spades 1984 — A Fairy Tale about Tsar Saltan 1986 — Boris Godunov 1989 — Boris Godunov 1989 — The Noble Robber Vladimir Dubrovsky 1995 — The Young Lady Peasant 1999 — Russian Riot 1999 — 2000 — Onegin 2011 — Boris Godunov
9ca9dd07722d947f576d6675f57fa975a305b190	Films performances
ba4057337f54b3a20d9b9b8ec97c9b984cf04637	1999 Angelo
0c814e08383d977448219184a8e1a77d3b46a318	Musical Theater
1f230be23e4be6c909f89f1f1586343a2b18ffd9	1 821 Ruslan and Lyudmila, or The Overthrow of Chernomor, the Evil Wizard (ballet), composer F. E. Scholz.
8de467c9c7e2c24336340358641a5d9739d8734b	Production: Theater on Mokhovaya (Moscow), 1821 1823 The Caucasian prisoner, or the Shadow of the Bride (ballet), composer K. Kavos [103] 1825 - "Finn".
af12e20692232090e4e586bd9c11375405b4fd4d	A magic comedy in verse in 3 parts with a prologue by A.
aac9abd2c0100bbcee546bf8f67319a05a659e39	A. Shakhovsky, based on the poem by A. S. Pushkin "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (staged: April 23, 1825 at the Bolshoi Theater in the benefit of A. T. Saburova and A.M. Saburov)[104]. 1831 The Black Shawl, or Punished infidelity
819a0c990da57d2967a798bb8399a24874008269	(one act ballet to the combined music of various composers (based on the poem "The Black Shawl"by A. S. Pushkin)[103]. Screenwriter, choreographer, author of musical processing A. P. Glushkovsky.
0b3508fe2f9a9f2fca1f1b4685149dfc8dd1f095	Production: December 11, 1831 at the Bolshoi Theater (Moscow), artist I. Brown, conductor D. P. Karasev; performers: Muruz N.
9862b7e51741e14da2f4339c11acb688f60af10d	A. Peshkov, Olympia T. I. Glushkovskaya, Aspasia F. Gullen Sor, Zeida E. I. Lobanova, Vakhan Zh.
a44ca3135be7a729173b747204fbc65be50c190b	Richard [105] 1842 Ruslan and Lyudmila (opera), composer M. Glinka 1850 — The Queen of Spades (French: La Dame de Pique) (opera based on the story), composer Fromantal Halevi 1856 — The Mermaid, composer A. Dargomyzhsky 1858 — The Caucasian Prisoner (opera), composer Ts.
675bc0fb745b8832643b6d4aa7d25fe5140ee3f4	Kui 1867 — "Goldfish" (ballet), composer L. Minkus[103] 1868 — The Stone Guest (opera), composer A. Dargomyzhsky 1869 — Boris Godunov (opera), composer M. Mussorgsky 1878 — Eugene Onegin (opera), composer P. Tchaikovsky 1883 — Mazeppa (opera), composer P. Tchaikovsky 1891 — The Queen of Spades (opera), composer P. Tchaikovsky 1892 — Aleko (opera), composer S. Rachmaninov 1896 — Dubrovsky (opera), composer E. Napravnik 1897 — Mozart and Salieri (opera), composer N. Rimsky Korsakov 1900 — Egyptian Nights (ballet), composer A. Arensky[103] 1900 — The Tale of Tsar Saltan (opera), composer N. Rimsky Korsakov 1900 — A Feast during the Plague (opera), composer Ts.
6bd443551562d7d03e9fd65aaa9297bb0451f2e8	Cui 1903 The Miserly Knight (opera), composer S. Rachmaninov 1908 — The Golden Cockerel (opera), composer N. Rimsky Korsakov [106] 1909 — The Captain's Daughter (opera), composer Ts.
ff72993fefd554f3cbdc80b9bdcba7cbc5b6351c	Cui 1922 The Moor, a comic opera in one act, libretto by B. Kohno based on the poem by A. S. Pushkin "The House in Kolomna".
77836317709b93addaced93a544c17be64fbf5ef	The composer I.Stravinsky 1934 — the Fountain of Bakhchisarai (ballet), composer B. Asafyev 1937 — The Golden Cockerel (ballet to the music of the opera), composer N. Rimsky Korsakov[103] 1937 — in New York in the Mordkin ballet company — ballet to the suite of N. N. Cherepnin "Goldfish", choreographer Mordkin 1938 — The Caucasian Prisoner (ballet), composer B. Asafyev 1940 — A fairy tale about a priest and about his worker Balda (ballet), composer M. Chulaki[103] 1940 — Count Nulin (ballet), composer B. Asafyev 1943 — The Undertaker (ballet), composer B. Asafyev[103] 1946 — The Stone Guest (ballet), composer B. Asafyev 1946 — The Peasant Lady (ballet), composer B. Asafyev 1949 — The Bronze Horseman (ballet), composer R. Glier 1949 — The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Heroes (ballet), composer A. Lyadov[103] 1953 — Goldfish (ballet), composer M. Logar 1971 — Miserly Baron (opera), composer Ya.
5276e88d17a3b4f19c7003aee070dc8c26654a26	Napoli 1982 A Feast during the Plague (opera), composer A. Nikolaev 1983 Count Nulin (opera), composer A. Nikolaev 1984 Dubrovsky (opera), composer V. Kikta 1997 — "Tsar Nikita and His Forty Daughters" (chamber opera), composer A.V. Tchaikovsky
a3bfb234db0cf7cb9e58e98d4aea4b954b6512ac	The image of Pushkin in literature and cinema
4fc6f24cc42554df40094abf04c6fb13566f1167	In the literature
bc4546b08676e3e939fbd1d016f9b9af0615cbe3	A. S. Pushkin has become a character in numerous works of art, some of them reflect his biography with more or less accuracy (for example, the novel "Pushkin" by Yu.Tynyanova), others do not set biographical goals for themselves.
b607b3b26e40b370c0249d976b73bc26c5632309	M. Y. Lermontov responded to the death of Pushkin with the poem "On the death of the poet", and M. F. Akhundov - " East
d52e4b4a8f6ef8d4fbc4655a66bdd36db53ba0e9	EN LT
60098b5bbd42e0f75c7043971a7e6cb3e2ae25f8	Exhibition
f2c63bf8689656007a934835448b6b36284850a2	The life and work of A. S. Pushkin
5ba76c0a656462209a3613078ce845576b177208	A. S. Pushkin and Lithuania
ecbb766b6dc19b07c328d73dea49eb0eb2b29964	Memorial
aa5db72deec6005c0c26b85385ee510ac71967e5	Collections of the Pushkin Literary Museum
461ce3216f70318aee3af25949e745b24f15e58b	Cultural activities
609d8942274ea06651cad851d45a85e3652f1edf	Expositionlife and creativity of A. S. Pushkin
44e181b7c3a1c1bfe599c266d009f1ec8f5ce382	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799-1837)
59c2c20e093635c948bb6c929193e955f76a6e72	The exhibition introduces visitors to the main stages of the poet's life and work.
365cdef8d6d0964d54376a721050c32ab88ec5fa	1799-1811 Childhood.
a75cec5f36f157ce715573a743ea4af3bd9b6067	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born on June 6, 1799 in Moscow.
1c6d79247a79a4590a90733ba6945f1126eb5d06	His father, retired major Sergei Lvovich Pushkin, belonged to an old, once rich, noble family, and his mother was the granddaughter of " The Blackamoor Peter the Great” (later the Russian General Hannibal).
5f75a7e7a38e8b83836e9f282e25d9996102ea75	Father and mother, captured by high society life, paid little attention to the children, of whom only three grew up: the eldest daughter Olga, sons Alexander and Lev.
a398783fc64f62de5af772ed19c31ca2e1f6940d	The other children died in childhood.
179891bd85f39cae05153b712b6da337c838d8f1	They were brought up by frequently changing foreign tutors, about whom A. S. Pushkin had unpleasant memories.
f2f16f3d631d1395ae56537991680ede478c0c61	In childhood, his best friend was his nanny Arina Rodionovna, an illiterate peasant serf, whose songs and fairy tales instilled in her pupil a love of folk poetry.
dfae95bc1c79b1ce18e0ab72946ebfa8a0eb3b7b	1811-1817 Lyceum years
bb826b2123d129503a47f3905575ca478aa51640	A. Pushkin entered the Lyceum on October 19, 1811.
1b762276d3109ed73861d89dd369bc570e7dc695	1817-1820 St. Petersburg period
6678ca39359377c6ebed1254b700f1436ab33367	The years of life in St. Petersburg were for Pushkin not only a sometimes cheerful, carefree life, but also a period of rapid spiritual growth.
2c8e0563857653ef8ab2701da0b417394b3581ed	The young Pushkin proved to be a carrier of liberal sentiments, which were lived by progressive patriotic noble youth.
fb106417718b7e9116b5bd14ec575a16ca529416	At the end of 1817, he wrote the famous ode "Liberty".
2bed14432b9683232ab6f85c3b833ec3791fefe8	Pushkin's name became more and more famous, his work aroused interest, his political poems were especially popular.
587a13d49de10fe70ded22895016b341d1063b3c	Dissatisfied, Alexander I decides to send him to Siberia.
48cbc495727ea996de8445c616e7fa7ebced3f89	Only the intercession of Karamzin and Zhukovsky saved the poet from a more severe punishment: Pushkin was exiled to the south.
124bd06e1cf3e89d799e994265b480f6da7d1718	Officially, this link was framed as a "transfer in the service".
2d861018bfe908ce6f20c25eab736c251627b6aa	1820-1822 Southern exile
5f55ff6b69ab3b5b79bd74bb76d59533bada4a77	There was created a romantic elegy "The daylight has gone out", poems "The Caucasian prisoner", "The fountain of Bakhchisarai".
1c281442c8d5dab01017f2fe9eb529c521fdc682	1824-1825 Exile to Mikhailovskoye
d550e69477fb41f9f68f0f3fffce1dd77579743d	Marriage to Natalia Goncharova
72f294fec7ec71dac4b224b4c7ee5e0da17efb83	On February 18, 1831, A. S. Pushkin was married to Natalia Goncharova.
46acdc09cd2fd12a843da7e6023a0cd5af36b17a	Marriage became for him both a source of happiness and a cause of death.
8f7f407b04e51deec2359c18f425590ccdac7265	"I am married – and happy," the poet wrote.
249b240226b6ae28669adb82258e8b7688b803cd	– One of my wishes is that nothing in my life will change, I canot wait for the best."
84bcc3032f824ca518f0047eae0dda0103f85f60	After the wedding, Pushkin and his wife moved to St. Petersburg.
cfd13832c32992321e658e9a957c8a9f7e150b1c	Financial matters were also getting worse.
81530b66f8a99ebe16b0ea073d9ffee037f8cae0	A broad lifestyle required large expenses.
381fe3aae2e1174602ca0cf28d1d6545922d796e	The family grew up.
1eabf0ff2904e6272d8e6575a76be9d397d1c183	Children Maria, Alexander, Grigory and Natalia were born.
982dd8aa1ff91beda73ac0ac23718a35647f674b	Two of his wife's sisters also lived with the Pushkins.
22b4febcf31ca826f1313a692bbe31653bd27e18	"Back | Up
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364e1deccd3541aa55138d0e811471d45c97b931	Visit to the museum
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0f7f5d37f5f392a3f8b9aa69c52000d6b9c7e4ef	Biography of Pushkin
31400fd2b7f2cc0d6644641a6c78f80bf78c81ff	Summary of contents Summary of "The Captain's daughter" Summary of "Dubrovsky"
6e875951a6f9aa1374d93572de657c12ded57355	Presentation
2b362248c591c65bdce981a98fee64daddc54d44	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799-1837) was a great Russian poet, novelist, playwright.
493de498959d80cbb67897be30ca8bf10c4be119	The author of immortal works in verse and prose: the novels "Eugene Onegin", "Dubrovsky", the famous poems "Ruslan and Lyudmila", "The Caucasian Prisoner", the story" The Queen of Spades " and many others, as well as fairy tales for children.
dc177e98cd1fd5a5956bbac547361c20ce9007d3	Early years Education and the beginning of the creative path The poet's work References Personal life The last years of his life Interesting facts Biography test
6f3375a6252bce3d36e518f19240517d756c8132	Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was born on June 6 (according to the old style, May 26), 1799 in Moscow in the family of an untitled noble family.
35c6ebc7c4bb1607478aab2074663043bb07f6bd	The poet's maternal great grandfather was the African Abram Petrovich Hannibal, who was a pupil and servant of Tsar Peter I.
b8140a126832ac6f5d99e1e90aa011951a09079b	In the family, in addition to Alexander Sergeevich, there were several other children a son Lev and a daughter Olga.
84a64bb1a55009992693e5eceaf6a31558bf8cb9	From 1805 to 1810, Pushkin spent a lot of time (especially in the summer) with his grandmother in the village of Zakharov near Moscow.
cca9debac34e9117e197274607597d18639f7367	It was my grandmother who hired Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva, the nanny whom the young Pushkin loved so much.
9674d208783ba4e57443cd94ad86765dc0595f48	Education and the beginning of a creative path
47b56605724e7d4c1568dead5b0ba2678d0b91ff	In 1811, Pushkin studied at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum.
c470b461bf70fc27ecda6035c510a2a0da8ea58a	In the biography of Pushkin, it is important to emphasize that for the first time his poems appeared in print in 1814, in the journal "Vestnik Evropa", where his verse "To a friend of the poet"was published.
bb68b9557019ee6441fc2cd9514682b6a5be57e0	During the same period, the poet was accepted into the literary society "Arzamas".
5ac0bda9f4070f1b7610bb953a115bb1cbbaf3f9	Voltaire and Evariste Guys were the favorite authors of the young Pushkin.
03d928f5954feace7d56fb6f4f4e3b9ed4dabf8d	The works of such classics of Russian literature as Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Fonvizin and Radishchev had a huge influence on the further work of the young Pushkin.
27ba122e2cc9ee1b9d734d00af678a4d333d1a63	Pushkin graduated from the lyceum in 1817, and graduated with the rank of collegiate secretary of the 12th grade, after which he was appointed to the College of Foreign Affairs.
16c9c1436bc737c868fdfe950b91e5baaeed2d1d	The poet's creativity
a93ed7f348433d2f47b4795a7eaef8286f2a4539	In 1819, Pushkin was accepted as a member of the literary and theatrical community "Green Lamp".
a0af86bd0b7158bdf1a0b70528742615ceff8aed	During the same period, he was actively working on the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1820).
fac5911bd918aaf36cad45f0d3c964e071a8e9c5	In 1821, Pushkin wrote the poem "The Caucasian Prisoner", which makes him one of the greatest writers among his contemporaries.
2bed39d1fa89fe14dc1403d7887a4703ad9cb975	A year later, work begins on "Eugene Onegin"(1823-1832).
1e960c3245e3a7f364f500bd30eb3624f1827f83	In 1832, the poet conceived the idea of creating a historical novel about the times of Pugachev, for which he studied all available materials (many of them were classified at that time), traveled around many places where the uprising took place.
c636bd7e9c8d84f8604021ab20423df783042878	After all these trips, in the autumn of 1833, he wrote "The History of Pugachev" and "Songs of the Western Slavs", as well as the poems" Angelo "and" The Bronze Horseman", and began work on the story"The Queen of Spades".
f653ca0d80f07194dbfafb899233b9912066cbe8	At the same time, Pushkin begins work on the novel "Dubrovsky", in which the main character has to become a robber.
34b32d0dc93e8e691ddd666da57ca1b20a1ca3a7	Pushkin's Political Lyrics of 1817-1820 ("Liberty", "To Chaadaev", "Village") aroused the anger of Alexander I, and Aleksand Sergeyevich could be exiled to Siberia.
df263aadf87ff1788576959b1e1451408cf01b76	Only thanks to the efforts and influence of Karamzin, Zhukovsky and Krylov, exile to Siberia was avoided.
174c065b023aedadb7e8429d0feff2bbfd7c8471	So, in May 1820, Pushkin, under the guise of official relocation, was exiled to the south of Russia.
cfb80de14a8b60b14d889fb54d5988d29b844658	During the southern exile, Pushkin became very interested in the work of Byron.
7cb71212cacf2dec3bf4a234dea749db8755f02e	In one of his letters, Pushkin ironically spoke about religion.
f24d07888b24f1d55eac965a45823bdae6ace31a	The letter was intercepted and delivered to Alexander I.
6d90ebf77a2e2e1f639fd81c2a1e92c7548ca800	The result was the dismissal of Pushkin from the service and his second exile, to the village of Mikhailovskoye (1824-1826).
6cd9176551bc3f8e687611f48c917cbdd7eaf66e	Personal life
4beb1c8c2dbcb767c930a8619e70445134dce274	In 1836, there were already four children in the family.
f50bf48378886d22bc46a6eccd76a317998f5fec	The last years of his life
eba7f1ebcee132d170d668208e01abb215fe15da	It is important to note that in the biography of Alexander Pushkin, after his promotion to the rank of chamber junker, he decides to leave the service and resigns.
d29c1f4c50cdc258e4ce9f35d089069ae0526e43	The poet's position looks quite disastrous, since many of Pushkin's works are not allowed to be printed due to censorship (for example, the poem "The Bronze Horseman").
7833a1df7c5e5c5063ad21ac8db83bb1bd7c2ab9	In 1834, Pushkin completed the novel "The Queen of Spades", which he immediately sent to the magazine "Library for Reading".
453f83076ec75f8766108d434bc8ad5230ecab6e	For the story, he receives a high fee, but it is not possible to solve financial issues.
a11f9600046b0c89baf6a4c39fa84fcabb76c9f8	In 1836, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin decided to publish the magazine "Sovremennik".
0034fe37c7a8edcb3414fe1b34c28db77501d014	However, the magazine is not popular with the public.
92bffda8e4f1cbf7722c5f952f770cad5416912a	In the fourth volume of this magazine, the historical novel "The Captain's Daughter"was published for the first time.
12abfdace46cfc88a9f2c1299210a1a787c87bc9	In 1837, a conflict arose between Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin and Georges Dantes.
3321908999088eba12bbc6063051f0e27f57b97e	Subsequently, the monarch fulfilled all his promises.
7c441b6ac16db816dc6899f24e763ac5b6776ace	The poet died on January 29 (February 10), 1837.
1f79481097b9b0b66bf789d1cb5ab3c4beec258d	Recalling this time, Pushkin said that while on a walk, he felt the vibrations of the earth.
2f9162e8b6f79d3b00bbf8059f48d6e6241ba349	Just at this time, the last earthquake occurred in Moscow.
a4109f4d21030429127c642cc2ed1c43e8489e2b	At the same time, in early childhood, there was the first brief meeting of Pushkin with Alexander I. Walking with a nanny, little Sasha almost fell under the hooves of the emperor's horse.
9ca08d779929e57eaa47406b463468a5ee7e156c	The tragedy was avoided — Alexander held his horse.
28acaa64e9ba32468a45de64546d9b1abc239b1c	In addition to creativity, there were two other great hobbies in Pushkin's life – women and gambling.
f210acaba85a8e93de82d646e57e426b97e5af2c	Having a special charm and charm, he attracted women to himself.
d915a27dfbc4b9696282e0bc3a1023ef6442a65f	The poet's first love happened at the age of 16.
2f64102969ee74ff277097040475830d5fe05f0d	From then until the end of his life, Pushkin had special feelings for women.
f683c119cb1a03ff47a377ba73fd64e8fddabecd	He was also an avid gambler.
da1082ce9cbbcb2a04892becb2808f22d0b415d9	Because of this, the poet often got into debt.
368d733e10adbc2e1920736c9b1f195316b03a55	However, it was his love of cards and the need for money that spurred Pushkin to write works, for which he sometimes paid off his debts.
1d036268863470632b4540e3abae999cae7b84f3	Biography test
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4b71a4ef4b19c2e478f3a39c2005c1fc860acdd2	Date of birth June 6, 1799
4c6d9aba8627b5a2033e5f7fcc2ddc28f3337d1f	Zodiac sign Gemini
711864d7f5979b2d02ac746eb417f9a70d0ea97f	Date of death February 10, 1837
d0032adc15befebcbe11b37e5ac447e43f9bb9cf	Place of birth Russia, Moscow
96e8d241dd328d5494eaf50f36bec67cea7620f7	Full name (rus) Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin
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77b13a60946b68d6d8e4aa83829c66868168e9dc	BIOGRAPHY OF ALEXANDER SERGEEVICH PUSHKIN
c78cb947dd78f6fc151df0f47c84cf95800f15a2	The future poet was baptized on June 8 in the Church of the Epiphany in Yelokhov.
17f163ba8cc64969be4552210c451c5ec2a6990b	The general gallomania that prevailed in society, French upbringing in a family with French tutors (fortunately, they were successfully balanced by the poet's grandmother Maria Alekseevna and the famous nanny Arina Rodionovna), access to the wonderful libraries of his father, as well as the poet's uncle V. L. Pushkin and distant relatives of the Buturlins - formed Pushkin's mind and child's soul.
28cd2ae75b66d97ec509fe49fe99a31cb4c71c98	His nickname at the Lyceum was "the Frenchman".
65f84d4502214efc0aaf58774fff94da0b3905d1	At the age of 12, having received the rudiments of home education, Alexander was taken to study at a new educational institution that had just opened on October 19, 1811 - the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum near St. Petersburg, the place where the summer residence of the Russian tsars was located.
4d0c84e34c1002242672d0316136fca83bd3b2a9	The small number of students (30 people), the youth of a number of professors, the humane nature of their pedagogical ideas, focused, at least for the best part of them, on attention and respect for the personality of students, the absence of corporal punishment, the spirit of honor and camaraderie - all this created a special atmosphere.
29741b15e70f2cfba564561bef12fed9fc4263ab	"I started writing at the age of 13 and printing almost from the same time," Pushkin later recalled.
9d190c4991e268b5f17aa79335624b35e5627d3b	From this issue, three friends of the poet became participants in the uprising against the tsar on December 14, 1825.
9a9dee41463a8dee983439882d2a12587db9c40e	In 1815, Pushkin triumphantly read his poem "Remembrance in Tsarskoye Selo" at the exam in the presence of the famous poet G. R. Derzhavin: "Old Derzhavin noticed us and, going down to the coffin, blessed us."
a86179bcdfae87cb31580d155efcf93a473f19fd	Soon Pushkin moved to St. Petersburg and entered the College of Foreign Affairs with the rank of collegiate secretary.
000ab002a5806d5a3fb0cf9557c9b69cee4201b6	"Arzamas" and "Green Lamp", theaters, fashionable restaurants, duels – "thank God, they are not deadly," as E.
d458fb0cadddd93e184c271911a7f1621626ebed	A. Karamzina reported to her brother Vyazemsky.
810016b014b4fa61a096d146499d7d6850936b9b	Immediately after graduating from the Lyceum in 1817, and then in 1819, after a serious illness, Pushkin came to the estate of his mother S. Mikhailovskoye, Pskov province.
f17dde44c5e87ebbc050c0437d310769da566be3	In the first years after graduating from the Lyceum, he wrote the poems "Village", "Brownie", "Chaadaev", the ode "Liberty", the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila".
a0b7061263778a9ca11c708d90e4bb6f4d845a2c	The ideas of civil freedom and political radicalism that permeated Russian society after the victory over Napoleon were reflected both in the poems and in the behavior of the young Pushkin.
9698a3ed68c0cb298affad5489c9361d2db5f233	"Pushkin should be exiled to Siberia: he has flooded Russia with outrageous poems; all the young people recite them by heart" - this was the decision of Tsar Alexander I. Thanks to the efforts of friends, Pushkin was exiled to the south instead of Siberia.
79e4ed98eb55b05ee611f54f5b6ff4574bb143df	Officially, it was a transfer to the service in the city of Yekaterinoslav under the command of General I. N. Inzov, the governor of Bessarabia.
93371ff92668f078c7662f59be0192df86f98fc8	"When I arrived in Ekaterinoslavl, I got bored, went for a ride on the Dnieper, bathed and caught a fever, as is my custom.
f92bda1b0e0e266558569f7ac0e9c25a683d1a2a	General Rayevsky, who was traveling to the Caucasus with his son and two daughters, found me delirious, without a doctor, over a mug of iced lemonade.
1e5749489386e82d5977912b3e96ec9d0ece6c84	His son ... he offered me a trip to the Caucasian Waters ...
65bbf63cc6c33eb38416fc113e853ccb3a9e2f48	I went to the wheelchair sick; a week later I was cured" (from the poet's letter to his brother).
9dcc535a29df5436b000a40ab406cb145ece13b1	Then, with the Rayevsky family, through Taman, Kerch, and Feodosia, Pushkin arrived by sea in Gurzuf and spent three weeks there: "I lived in Yurzuf, swam in the sea and gorged myself on grapes;
eb7deeb888e497e2e18d99cce7bcad717614e59d	I immediately got used to the noonday nature and enjoyed it with all the indifference and carelessness of a Neapolitan Lazzarono" (from a letter to Delvig).
94aad52d29f566922888b432915a552e3a40c4d1	Soon, through the St. George Monastery and Bakhchisarai, Pushkin went to Simferopol and then to Kishinev, because Inzov's office moved there.
59e57e1a08f7283b7c1cfd4736b36a1b2000608c	Not bothered by almost any official assignments, for three years Pushkin lived in an apartment with Inzov, taking advantage of his constant location and warm care.
0330563939a46032432f761de6568c45b566e17a	The poet traveled from there to Kiev, the village of Kamenka, to Odessa, Akkerman, Bendery, Izmail, and other places.
903b50615fbfb9472531000ee682304c5ad84dfd	The impressions of these years were reflected in Pushkin's southern poems: "The Caucasian Prisoner", "The Robber Brothers", "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai", "The Gypsies".
382473ac922e6d75ba2e67db4e5f2cffad1959de	In Chisinau, the poem "Gavriliada" was written, and a novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"was also started.
ae045f41ea3be7ef01ccd16615b2cc47b575f6cf	In the village of Kamenka, Pushkin became close to members of the secret society, the future "Decembrists".
6a2ec4d259dbab53f4bb621d96aa8a50614a1b0e	In Chisinau, he was admitted to the Masonic lodge "Ovid".
9dec98811dc064dbf9527fedfe1e5312588d251b	The noisy life of Odessa" in a lively variety", with its colorful society, Italian opera, Parisian restaurants attracted Pushkin.
4b02c5b673e52a7391d9346ff991c849e7fb1e94	He moved there in July 1823, being enlisted in the service of the governor of the Novorossiysk Territory, Count M. S. Vorontsov.
18f121c8f779cea4f6de17ad1e44365436d49fe2	Their relationship for many reasons did not work out, and a year later gr.
ad4e799d4c1af3ff28054d747bd31335bb80d533	Vorontsov found both a reason and a reason for the removal of Pushkin to the estate of his mother S. Mikhailovskoye, Pskov province.
b2636e9b49eaf9b09d8e490bd3832f67c7454453	The poet received an order from the Odessa mayor to strictly follow the indicated route toPskov, having received 389 rubles for hiring post horses.
dcc3e78c055b5aebc90b0661319416559c9c08bb	4 kopecks.
f2ab0e01db81bcd86f5fdd6cbb8f4fb2db157ea2	"Our Pskov is worse than Siberia, and a fervent head can not sit here," friends lamented about him in S.
5655a52b46bb52f6ace5e041d8ed50f9fd4454ea	The situation under the double supervision of civil and spiritual authorities, on the bail of his parents, irritated Pushkin's sensitive nature.
eddd2e1e1883aac071769ddcbfcb0ea0aea66d21	He made plans to escape and in desperation even asked to change the place of exile to any of the tsar's fortresses.
2f3ab65564c0b1eca476a3ebe3d1a41305ec684a	However, calmed down by the letters of friends, he resigned himself and soon noticed: "I am in the best position to finish my poetic novel ...
67a946f2245c310d3d119e2035116b904e07218e	"("Eugene Onegin").
7c344a0a47f25393df7179f430cf27f2d5a2f849	His friends and neighbors took a heartfelt part in the fate of Pushkin in S. Trigorsky.
bf7c53e9e87d629c27adc83631846dd6583a7c9a	Communication with them, as well as observations of the life of other neighboring landowners, gave the poet "colors and materials for fictions that are so natural, true and consistent with the prose and poetry of rural life in Russia" (A. I. Turgenev).
56e01b9d4d45db0fcde861d67aa060b4937b1445	The novel "Eugene Onegin", half of which was created in Mikhailovsky, is rightfully considered an encyclopedia of Russian life.
9ae8465fc3cbe4b98ed46c9fc88a8cadad5c9709	Russian Russian nature impressions, the charm of the ancient Pskov land with its "noble mounds" and ancient settlements, communication with peasants, with nanny Arina Rodionovna - "everything excited the tender mind" of Pushkin, contributed to the comprehension of the soul of the Russian people, the national foundations of life:
30e12997d4873a5a80609dab76a924b0c76b8695	Here I am a mysterious shield
05428ef745fa28af9042cd0ac102dd3048a85202	Holy providence has dawned
d077b0eab30db8b19b2a7a70b87cbded7881a36e	Poetry, like a comforting Angel,
9299b9b4a731aa2e8c8f1cb51499f02833bb360e	She saved me, and I was resurrected with my soul.
5b3893cdc0f7b70ce4be827e82f7e5af9918f1b1	According to the poet himself, his creative method has changed in Mikhailovsky.
bbedc0ccce9c14a7d0541321a383356a27d2a9e6	From the romanticism of the first years of his youth, he moved to "true romanticism" (realism).
8119768dd985d6c8d0e424263c5ef19d07a92ba4	His talent grew stronger: "Je sens que mon ame s'est tout a fait developpee, je puis creer."
c7bac7e0e562eff3c452aabbd96a911e10b16b72	About 100 works of the poet were created in Mikhailovsky: village chapters of the novel "Eugene Onegin", the tragedy "Boris Godunov", the poem "Count Nulin", the end of the poem" Gypsies", such poems as" The Village"," Imitations of the Koran"," The Prophet"," Bacchanalian song"," I remember a wonderful moment...", " I visited Again...", the beginning of the first work in prose - the novel" The Blackamoor of Peter the Great " (on arrival in 1827).
33d5dc6ebdc37c5e16cac5de21b3cc3aadd1c9d4	Here, on his father's land, Pushkin received an impulse to all his creativity in the future.
80024f7f9af93968a5dffed66a7c81a4146192d3	Friends considered Mikhailovskoye the poetic birthplace of Pushkin.
2e54d929606c816f12731098073861484d66a1de	The death of Tsar Alexander I, the uprising in St. Petersburg on December 14, 1825, in which many friends and acquaintances of Pushkin took part, changed his fate.
813c60df7463909e14b9f7aa97aa9b287c6960dd	The new tsar Nicholas I urgently summoned the poet to Moscow, allowed him to live wherever he wanted, and declared himself Pushkin's personal censor.
75eea5036385d3d311e889d1ff2db6bdd920c517	The latter circumstance sometimes made it difficult to print some of Pushkin's works, which he was constantly concerned about, having no other sources of income.
77cb2bc9654de4425c621aaa3921d28e36f7cc60	Pushkin is not allowed to go to the Caucasus (to the active army), they refuse to travel abroad.
7f472ce4c33eea437a5f87ebe08e9ebde31cfe7d	Until 1831, Pushkin lived alternately in Moscow and in St. Petersburg.
4701b89a66aa6570aca9e6f4f21fa76b2e5afac4	Twice after his exile, he visited Mikhailovsky.
6772e3451d21d478f955ce8936be437b38728fe7	I visited Tver friends relatives of the hostess S. Trigorsky P.
1b0b018f942b170fcc41a6efacaa6a26fdc8a523	A. Osipova - in p.
44b47682a30e28c6fd45cd17a1defba2190a2fe3	Bernove, S. Pavlovsky, S. Malinniki and in the Staritsa of the Tver province.
1f5fb5349c95ac4b0440e20102a8f1a26de7df36	In May 1829, he wooed the young beauty Natalia Nikolaevna Goncharova in Moscow.
b10a93a5afc8623344f51fe0b20358f7a80edfb7	Having received an indefinite answer, he immediately left for the Caucasus without the permission of the authorities.
6825c42528f8fcd5af849e840689e9c2cb9c08b9	Pushkin described this journey along the Georgian Military Road, vivid impressions and numerous meetings with friends, participation in the military operations of the Russian army that took Arzrum in his autobiographical work "Journey to Arzrum" (1829).
8fb4431a505de728d7f63e3c8cc196b0464e74da	Upon his return, the poet had to give a written explanation to the request of the chief of gendarmes A. H. Benckendorf.
541724392b8af5e8bca71f560f35caf52438b546	Earlier, the tsar required similar explanations from Pushkin about the "Gavriliad" and the poem "Andre Chenier".
4ac9e45018b5e871e1c5fc6eed9bbba89582d37a	A secret supervision was established over the poet, which was officially canceled only a few years after his death.
6164c8427d4e0f1defddfda15301e43e9254972e	The life of the poet of the second half of the 1820s was complex and contradictory: journal relations and the fight against censorship, denunciations and dangerous political investigations, Benckendorf's reprimands, as well as unclear circumstances of his personal life.
3a094910ea87af417ec265c004c1d2e220daa4ec	But with all this, poetry and creativity have always remained the main thing in life.
9cea3ace5589d38871165e974250c69c7efc10ed	During these years, the poem "Poltava" was written, many poems, articles in magazines, "A Novel in letters", dramatic ideas were maturing.
924a9ca6b3cd6ffb00af63e5521199481d7aaf8d	On May 6, 1830, Pushkin's engagement to N. N. Goncharova finally took place.
870fd86bfaec42c4e56137fd804b4318532dac78	His father allocated him the village of Kistenevka with 200 souls of peasants, located in the Nizhny Novgorod province, near his own estate with.
5a5f546d6e9e49906ea1682b2c0493ce87710551	Boldino.
74d8672ffa2246b209b4c99c57d93cd8f1730ab5	The poet went there to arrange the affairs of taking possession of the estate, hoping to quickly manage, then mortgage the estate and return to Moscow to celebrate the wedding.
c5f828526f71f9ae25b71b623570b67821db9f80	However, the cholera epidemic that began in Moscow and quarantines established everywhere detained Pushkin in Boldin from September 7 to December 2, 1830.
fdcfe5decf341446afa5be6eea9278147f9c8930	He was worried about the life of the bride, because it was dangerous for her to stay in cholera Moscow, he was tired and depressed.
be7f433e945383c20ad3695584c942c0a0656ed6	His first poems in Boldin are "Demons" and "Elegy"
f331c1179febefed2689285be6ec88a60ce6857b	("Crazy years of faded fun ...").
e4d6a7d884dbd86e953aa7a9cbca0db713fae8b1	Soon the tender letter of the bride calmed him down.
843421049b2731a3d3272b1e7c40b02fe06bd047	The combination of silence and leisure, and at the same time the tension generated by the sense of approaching terrible events (revolutionary upheavals in Europe, cholera in Russia), spilled out with an unheard of creative upsurge even for Pushkin.
94987ac43a0a20f11ad19fb183236a11aa5dd355	"Boldinskaya Autumn" of 1830 stands apart in the poet's work, when he created "Belkin's Stories", "small tragedies": "The Miserly Knight", "Mozart and Salieri", "The Stone Guest", "A Feast during the Plague", the poem "A House in Kolomna", the entire novel "Eugene Onegin" (except for Onegin's letter), the story "The History of the village of Goryukhina", "The Tale of a priest and his worker Balda", critical articles, many poems.
da394bd302e30ee4994166eb48079292672328a6	In the Boldin autumn, Pushkin's talent reached its full bloom.
92aaf03442d0c28b2c7ea282488d7c160afde172	On December 5, 1830, the poet returned to Moscow, and on February 18, 1831, his wedding with N. N. Goncharova took place in the Church of the Ascension at the Nikitsky Gate.
4d8063e4ff68a9678c23c47956e9079cb4f4b2d8	He spent the first months of his family life with his wife in Moscow, renting an apartment on the Arbat in the Khitrovo house (now house 53).
9910bfad344740436c0d4212dd2e9dd4a2a94450	In May 1831, the young Pushkins moved to Tsarskoye Selo - the place of the poet's happy lyceum memories.
27890fbc0e6c74e8a5205a3c5ede93b216551505	Here is written "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", on October 5- "Onegin's Letter to Tatiana".
8448027d7110b01fa6b3b0f83528da1e6be0fafa	In 1832, a daughter, Maria, was born, 1833 a son, Alexander, 1835 Grigory, 1836 Natalia.
a2fbc5a7ec84f53f5253e1edeacdb6c086f60bda	On the way back, he stopped in Boldino, where he stayed from October 1 until mid November.
0d1c2f8e1b16db033ee11a14542731f5cdd833c0	Publishing matters are becoming more complicated and delayed.
ba0efbc73a51be2d750f0e2053be2f3c139a0738	He was refused.
4409d1aabddd7d207c3e8bb03662c8d6bfc81ca1	In the autumn of 1834, Pushkin lived in Boldin again for about a month: "I have been in the village for 2 weeks now ...
2e6652a432a5bb996249d7de3c280675c4956655	It's boring ...
c848f9edab0434bd2bcafb63273d7fd45f87b0a7	And poems wonot come to my head, and I'm not rewriting a novel..."
b59d3681c528ca2ca870dc867ea1d3ef93c1b6c6	(from a letter to my wife).
b80dbe23c900647eaedaeed6e6a461ae955c3e38	Only the "Tale of the Golden Cockerel"is finished.
34e1d9bc85eac13e673b61f6950b50ff18083d6a	In the spring of 1835, Pushkin spent only a few days (from May 8 to May 12) in S. Mikhailovsky and S.
e978a515ffe092d66da1d99a1d294dd259e8ecd2	In response to the request, he was given a loan of 30,000 rubles and allowed a four month vacation.
3c3f87697fac0ada5aead66fb5d4265a97f8b5d7	In a sad, depressed mood, Pushkin went to Mikhailovskoye on September 7, 1835.
422c3bb4f0e7b7d5fb0122f7ae2febd8193f844f	"I write through the stump of the deck I roll.
2015080e9217ad917c363cc88422f602b087e134	For inspiration, you need a calm heart, and I am not calm at all" (letter to P. A. Pletnev).
11f42897da84348df4658ecf28089fba0b76f82e	"By the end of his literary activity, Pushkin introduced non literary ranks (science and journalism) into the circle of literature, because for him the functions of a closed literary series were narrow.
9383fd038a722a67450606c0985ef579d1f5c406	He outgrew them" (Yu. N. Tynyanov).
0203efbfb6a08e63075c7837fb8d2caa3f17183f	Only death, which opened access to his manuscripts, showed that among them "there are amazing beauties, completely new both in spirit and form.
fd144c57f72e89ea21550dceed624feb7e03ac31	All the latest pieces are different ... with strength and depth!
3306bae6ef84973aeaee36339ccb2bc47b8450e1	He was just maturing" (the words of E. A. Baratynsky).
500e2a8f1f5a7f0c8ddd05b698dc7f4131964290	The simplest and at the same time the most important principles of humanity Pushkin expressed fully and deeply in the last, in fact, in his life poems of the so called "Kamennoostrovsky cycle" (written in St. Petersburg on Kamenny Island in the summer of 1836): "Hermit fathers and wives are immaculate", "Imitation of Italian", "Worldly power", "From Pindemonti".
294f1813b04d967597bd92a4ea332f86a60b04d7	In 1834-1836, he was thinking about the novel "Russian Pelam", where the whole of Russia was to be shown from the Decembrist "Union of Prosperity" to the dens of forest robbers.
57a8140ca6a1e50186e9b51be358ab244c8d9251	At the same time, he began a story from Roman life (perhaps this mysterious plan should be connected with his long standing desire to write a work about Jesus Christ).
42964f7857c8b12d3803f0828e73db979a4d665e	In April 1836, circumstances force Pushkin again - for the last time!
f0c100c75dcdc787f9157dddeb58d2741c3b4281	- to visit Mikhailovsky.
8e4842559bf411862417164f01dbd53f31b80275	On the very day of Easter on March 29, his mother died, and Pushkin himself took her body from St. Petersburg to the Holy Mountains and buried it in the Assumption Monastery.
e8bb863bfda221996bcf0e68254e14625631a9d8	Here he also chose a grave for himself next to his mother, as if anticipating his imminent demise.
3b05679fc24f6a4e740623c0032a99eca8e9f385	At the beginning of 1834, a Frenchman Baron Dantes, adopted by the Dutch envoy Gekkern and enrolled in the Russian guard, appeared in St. Petersburg.
3c850be8afba2fbc4bfd5f6ad4862d2b41519df8	He fell in love with Pushkin's wife and began to take care of her strenuously, which gave rise to numerous enemies of the poet for insulting rumors and gossip.
586e3ecf37220f1ddbed0a6b1791a064506b4d4e	On November 4, 1836, Pushkin received three copies of an anonymous message that listed him in the order of "cuckolds" - an allusion to the infidelity of Pushkin's wife.
4cf7ae6b4d7c51ba7dcc39279e08197ebc132609	Pushkin challenged Dantes to a duel.
9477be65153454abe0ad59203d31d119742cba5c	Dantes accepted the challenge, but through Baron Heckern, his foster father, asked for a delay of 15 days.
1e5f6b9130aa5d93677bff6374f4456bb94d6e88	During this time, Pushkin learned that Dantes had proposed to the sister of Pushkin's wife, Ekaterina Nikolaevna.
ccd9dbfe131f68b7bc614e96e1aa9d5c8de8c89b	After convincing his friends, Pushkin took his challenge back.
65e2f491ac6d6c0d5b187c0891adf938ab65c526	Dantes ' wedding took place on January 10, 1837, but his persistent courtship of Natalia Nikolaevna did not stop.
f1bf63e4e2a060fd1532ae8195ee9986aea20f6f	Old Gekkern also began to intrigue against Pushkin.
4f956b5f996c6fc4ef54476f6aad3495f76c28f1	Out of patience, the poet sent an extremely insulting letter to the Dutch envoy, Baron Haeckern, in the hope that Dantes would be forced to challenge Pushkin to a duel.
9e39579faeb710f41efa1d77ddac34b96c9ed4cd	And so it happened.
27841c330171fe3c43616f0585469dee8147c594	On January 27, 1837, at 5 o'clock in the evening, this fatal duel took place on the Black River on the outskirts of St. Petersburg, where Pushkin was mortally wounded in the stomach.
7179b02db7d687e19e211e12de0436b8e9addf45	After living for 2 days in terrible agony, Pushkin died on January 29, 1837 in the apartment he rented in the house of Princess Volkonskaya on the Moika River embankment.
a668b509974407a87f429d11e6081eb8f3a3120e	His death was truly Christian.
4a4ffff2141c564efb5e65d5f1b637377a6a7d57	Having learned about the inevitability of the end, he expressed a desire to see the priest.
b00cf754ac7b3adec7c66181618d491ade93de59	Father Peter from the Church of the Savior on Konyushennaya Square, the closest to the poet's house, confessed the dying poet and received Communion of the Holy Mysteries.
45ab66b6f60ab0696642d56a468a9cdb2527fa50	"I'm old, I donot have long to live, what can I cheat on," he told Princess E. N. Meshcherskaya (Karamzin's daughter).
2c3b40680011fdbfc196288a0fd50a3067d19623	"You may not believe me, but I will say that I wish for myself such an end as he had."
a11006d5f8a85d577849d90d7f5b73659fbf6b0a	Pushkin died as courageously as he lived.
bc9ca27a9fb2790b2781f5a136acf6a6b035df91	Calling his wife and children, he made the sign of the cross over them and blessed them.
938645c8c0cef2a57b7e9a04b7b7fa93e8dd1fde	I said goodbye to my friends.
8b3aa4f9676e256bc9a89e97cb104143348f1e7c	"Life is over.
ac076c8cc3f1f496af915e04cc3e6af44a0c902e	It's hard to breathe, it's pressing, " were his last words.
7d2c33aaeb9af2efd1ab74b30fd17d38443ab3b6	"The sun of our poetry has set! Pushkin died, died in the prime of life, in the middle of his great career!.."
b52f9b1fbdf3da7bbc88579dfd62c319d7d90c5d	- wrote the St. Petersburg newspaper.
011c3b43dfcfb884b2c977deea603e59ca52df85	His funeral service was held in the Church of the Saviour of the Miraculous Image on Konyushennaya Square, and at midnight on February 3, the coffin with the poet's body went to the Pskov province, accompanied by his only friend A. I. Turgenev and a gendarme captain.
7a572fb0bdc52866e7c0f9f9fd5752498aa36d32	On February 6, after the liturgy at the Svyatogorsk Assumption Monastery, the monastery clergy, led by Archimandrite Gennady, performed the last memorial service at the poet's body and, in the presence of two young ladies from Trigorsky, buried Pushkin at the altar wall of the cathedral.
acc7eac013a7e89d928d30681a5a308dcb98921e	"We committed the earthly things to the earth at dawn ...
8498bad5dd2f9f251f327c739d84d74d85ca90b3	I'm bringing you raw earth, dry branches and only that, " Turgenev informed Zhukovsky.
9f9d8b3e1d2d45b0183c99a125b030e27e9ebccd	The poet's death was the beginning of his immortal glory on earth.
1913a882078fa8b95be6aa410c3c6810f1cc9bf9	Today, every year on February 10, June 6 and August 21 – on the days of memory, birthday and arrival of Alexander Pushkin in Mikhailovsky exile – a Litany, a joint prayer for the repose of the immortal soul of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, is held at the Poet's grave.
69fe222ad4f17bae23e0524ad3b4ea93c4925742	Currently, his grave is declared a national treasure of the peoples of the Russian Federation.
66b851ee683c8b828b386f1dde86f7caa10fc006	Mass media about us
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7fda07ca4cd8f96f56e27e6a845470e7541a0934	181370, Russia, Pskov region, Pushkinogorsky district, Mikhailovskoye village
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fd891bfe4a07f3fd736b2a31490b251690c8bafe	Copyright © 2011-2016 A. S. Pushkin State Museum Reserve "Mikhailovskoye"
50144f491a7ed1a3274134aa6119bb047e7a30f5	Apycom jQuery Menus
5e692eca029aaf34911835ff76dc1dbfbcc0619b	Take part in the survey
5397e0583f14f6c88de06b1ef28f460a1fb5b0ae	Yes
816c52fd2bdd94a63cd0944823a6c0aa9384c103	No
742199bff4eae9f481e5ec03577d8fcae6b61996	The first expedition was assembled by Christopher Columbus from three ships - " Santa Maria "(a three — masted flagship with a length of 25 m, a displacement of 120 tons, the captain of the ship Columbus), the caravels" Pinta "(captain — Martin Alonso Pinson) and" Ninya " (captain-Vicente Yanes Pinson) with a displacement of 55 tons and 87 people of the expedition personnel.
e3d0de1603b73a711083544f767a92e755d9e369	The flotilla left Palos on August 3, 1492, turned west from the Canary Islands, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, opened the Sargasso Sea and reached an island in the Bahamas archipelago (the first to see the American land was the sailor of the "Pinta" Rodrigo de Triana on October 12, 1492).
ded0b383c36ea58097ef66381c6d8263f34b0fb8	Columbus landed on the shore, which the locals call Guanahani, planted a banner on it, declared the open land the property of the Spanish king and formally took possession of the island.
843ebf38958d0464a1dd7449e3ba462c8a6cc9d7	The island was named San Salvador by him.
42dcbb2260a77c22f50de4b55f437da09349d093	For a long time (1940 -1982), Watling Island was considered San Salvador.
391870dee22738566dc0ccc2cc7d27f6bd9181f5	However, our contemporary American geographer George Judge in 1986 processed all the collected materials on a computer and came to the conclusion: the first American land seen by Columbus was Samana Island (120 km southeast of Watling).
92c44e5b60e6e6aaec6b43b1bdf6d1dec96b2cbd	On October 14-24, Columbus approached several more Bahamian Islands, and on October 28 — December 5, he discovered part of the northeastern coast of Cuba.
f3f5ddbaa33d41bbe23e6a01303cd7e0dac5c7cf	On December 6, he reached the island of Haiti and moved along the northern coast.
ef50e285ae8992855a83f591aa221ffce0adb44d	On the night of December 25, the flagship "Santa Maria" sat on a reef, but the crew escaped.
e65547cddf777e003ee31422cb23d7a4610bad97	For the first time in the history of navigation, by order of Columbus, Indian hammocks were adapted for sailors ' bunks.
21643bbecdd74e21b172b6a398ad4d8b5f32b79b	Columbus returned to Castile on the Ninya on March 15, 1493.
76342d14aed626633f0c3ea218623db6bb468c3d	From America, Columbus brought seven captive American natives, who were called Indians in Europe, as well as some gold and plants and fruits never seen before in the Old World, including an annual plant corn (in Haiti it is called maize), tomatoes, pepper, tobacco ("dry leaves that were especially valued by the locals"), pineapples, cocoa and potatoes (because of its beautiful pink and white flowers).
697883796e1e4623606a111ae2a76e4d08602102	The political resonance of Columbus 'voyage was the "papal meridian": the head of the Catholic Church established a demarcation line in the Atlantic, which indicated different directions for the discovery of new lands to rival Spain and Portugal.
9c23a03751b428210888a565c77bfbcab351f9e5	Columbus was the first of the reliably known travelers to cross the Atlantic Ocean in the subtropical and tropical zone of the northern hemisphere and the first of the Europeans to go to the Caribbean Sea.
5e3db67a834de36d6bfff4b56b6c50f930130ee7	He discovered and initiated the exploration of South and Central America, including their continental parts and nearby archipelagos-the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico), the Lesser Antilles (from Dominica to the Virgin Islands, as well as Trinidad) and the Bahamas.
e5d1e985e2968544df1078c51b13e8086d5c8350	Columbus can be called the discoverer of America with reservations, because even in the Middle Ages, Europeans in the face of Icelandic Vikings visited the territory of North America (see Vinland).
ab2b95703142e4a17ea2c16db1d7f680e64d6e01	Since there was no information about these campaigns outside of Scandinavia, it was the Columbus expeditions that first made information about the lands in the west public domain and marked the beginning of the colonization of America by Europeans.
309793efe87121321731a08a0a999efd6aee7e5d	Between 1492 and 1504, Christopher Columbus undertook four research expeditions by decree of the Spanish Catholic kings.
44e9ebb3f0cc67358c6c84b2150bce5bb841488a	He described the events of these expeditions in his logbook.
4b39f27aba5cbbf91e573c8f7c54e8a36624ffab	Unfortunately, the original journal has not been preserved, but Bartolome de Las Casas made a partial copy of this journal, which has survived to this day, thanks to which many details of the described expeditions have become known.
9fa4ae067765d55c217709ed34e4b049498b9796	In his first expedition, Columbus equipped three ships-the caracca " Santa Maria "(the flagship, the owner and captain of the caracca was a Cantabrian Juan de la Cosa), the" Pinta "(the owner of the ship and its captain Martin Alonso Pinson) and the third was a ship that is often called"Ninya".
cf31ac34ad8af8e3b518d372e4b4ca27ad44bd0d	The length of the vessel is the largest-17.3 meters, width-5.6 meters, draft-1.9 meters, displacement-101.2 tons, crew of 40 people.
555e93555d2856f3b04d493124df8299b470ccb6	The captain of the Niña is Vicente Yanes Pinson, the maestre and owner of the vessel is Juan Niño (es: Juan Niño, the older brother of Pedro Alonso Niño) and the pilot is Sancho Ruiz da Gama.
178ce5bbbbeee02a97c52b500d4c9c8c7b9d7471	The flotilla team included only 100 people.
e19bfee30c922d1fa18b980d5041370b22c4c43d	For the first time, a European set foot on the islands of the Caribbean Sea — Guanahani (Bahamas), Hispaniola (Haiti), Juana (Cuba).
3f3aa57a705e04697dd83b1ffdb25ab8c04602f7	This journey began the expansion of Spain into the New World.
df8813aeceea68a560c9a48badba0e164d8f69ab	However, there is no doubt that it was one of the Bahamian Islands that are part of the Lukaya archipelago.
7d8c8b563e4c9860a6150badea5d9b0a8e19fd8f	Later, for quite a long time, these newly discovered territories were called by Europeans the West Indies, literally "West India", since it was necessary to sail to this "India" to the west, as opposed to India and Indonesia proper, which in Europe for a long time were called the East Indies or, literally, "East India".
b9eab16422917694d2ede7440c9baf4288fdd837	August 3, 1492-Columbus took the ships out of the harbor of the city of Palos de la Frontera.
c606d08e8e00de626ad1965cc8e991f0df09ab03	September 6 - After fixing the leak on the "Pinta", the hike continues directly to the west from the island of Gomera (Canary Islands).
65a3bd971fd94e6464b5b1d7c22dc867d008b1f8	September 16-bunches of green algae began to appear on the way of the expedition. Gradually, there were more and more of them. The ships went through this strange water space for three weeks. So the Sargasso Sea was discovered.
a9df3f494615d3f6a0b51e560c1fa18187d028da	October 7 — at the request of the team, who believes that Japan has been "skipped", the ships change course to the west southwest.
09b579a482a399c6adb7ac001a2bff31b9fb9e9f	October 12 — at two o'clock in the morning, the sailor Rodrigo de Triana discovered land from the Pinta. Even the day before, the sailors noticed the lights.
1d56dc496491fed1562ad2ca3d42f1b7ff15ae33	October 13-Columbus landed on the shore, hoisted the Castilian banner on it, formally took possession of the island and drew up a notarial act about it.
09a00386c94297e6a13215a33e7a3b0396454da4	The island is named San Salvador (for more information, see Guanajani). Its coordinates are 24° s. w. and 74°30' s. d.
1bc6f22f7b39636f92c366d4308844d8070a36bf	On the island, the Spaniards saw local residents. Perhaps they were Arawaks.
f50bc27f0685c45f0dc091ce3014c62328fa33ad	Arawaks went completely naked, ritual patterns were applied to the body. They had no iron weapons.
4781c1645fce351e34bc60fe81ee8622cc82171a	They traveled by sea in rowing canoes that could accommodate forty people.
8b2fdbeb48fac1ae4c457fdb12a1dba9564c3f94	It was here that the natives gave Columbus "dry leaves" - tobacco.
dc31cf8abee4e30b16a4df8a53c7d557a0d44cd4	Seeing some of them with pieces of gold, Columbus tried to find out its origin and, having captured six Arawaks, forced them to show the way further.
c183d4d4d9fac8f18deae3157a812952c6609c47	For two weeks, Columbus gradually moved south, discovering new islands from the Bahamas.
cf758ab1abd0f10aae9ecf403f2bb0a713191821	The local residents wore clothes made of cotton yarn. In their homes, the Spaniards saw hammocks for the first time.
ab8456997094da0c220cfd22c324c16f57787c39	From the residents, the Spaniards learned about the large southern island of Cuba.
a52d6d8ef3b613467476bdbd0954ec9072b41094	October 28, 1492-Columbus landed in the Bay of Bariey in the northeast of Cuba, 76° s. d. Communicating with the locals, Columbus decided that he was on one of the peninsulas of East Asia.
26e795f39aed807694a10998dc254c6e555b667f	However, the Spaniards did not find any gold, spices, or large cities.
6d6e59d4872c39a25f0561c1b854e12093a02793	The houses of the inhabitants were built of tree branches and reeds, they cultivated cotton, potatoes, tobacco and maize (corn).
19801cdd96d0787a82a7be0ab3b4e9b5e844dd12	Believing that he had reached the poorest part of China, Columbus decided to turn to the east, where, according to his ideas, the richer Japan lay.
968c39c90d150218472bf5814a07bb34f499d863	November 13, 1492-after learning from the natives about the island abounding in gold, Columbus moved east, in search of it.
2c0ec5c64bbd876063a57c354835f5c57ec78972	November 15, 1492-Columbus in his diary for the first time describes the tobacco used by the Indians.
9eda627246fb10a9c9c8f695d6f1500371737342	November 20, 1492-the "Pint" disappeared. Her captain Pinson Sr. was distinguished by unauthorized actions and repeatedly left subordination.
05c0c9b3059055011971c0258123bf06a319005b	He left Columbus near the island of Cuba, hoping to discover an imaginary island.
755ae36814866c73905aa50e5f51b97d16d5f823	He was also later the first to discover Haiti, and the river where he landed (now Porto Cabello; this river originally bore his name).
b6bee1a549b104e45af782135db0d71f186947ec	The two remaining vessels continued eastward until they reached the eastern tip of Cuba-Cape Maysi.
2459f81062a79cd85d94bbc4aec0d4eed40d2043	December 6, 1492-the island of Haiti is discovered, which Columbus called Hispaniola, because its valleys seemed to him similar to the lands of Castile.
a6257ba24159e111770f01c079f80d51bdc90649	Moving along the northern coast, the Spaniards discovered the island of Tortuga
85abad144e7187175a2bb59baf350e715bedfebf	January 6, 1493-off the northern coast of Hispaniola, the "Ninya" came across the "Pinta".
7f50b00496e31d2b82d465e7b9d5b2f532dd16be	Pinson Sr. explained his absence due to the influence of weather conditions.
83a5e589f730c56922532cb9cdebc4f280d964c7	January 16-two ships set out on their return journey.
12f9528544b6e56361de3c7d8bc112391dcf09d7	February 12-a storm arose, and on the night of February 14, the ships lost sight of each other.
2a079ad50ae723ab6c15ef5a7d88d802872be0bd	The storm was so strong that the Spaniards were ready for imminent death.
28f30abf736852e59787ce678cb9703171cbdbd6	February 15-when the wind subsided a little, the sailors saw land, and on February 18, the Ninya approached the island of Santa Maria (Azores).
1019e32ee10476ee09dd52ccc03fa528ba4f67d5	On March 9, the Ninya anchors in Lisbon, where Joao II receives Columbus as His Serene Highness and orders him to be provided with everything necessary.
5dfbfef8095ed04b906a0934353f0560c0a1589b	On the same day, the "Pint" also comes there.
d86443b4c10585a4cd0692e91531632ccd6783b1	Columbus brings with him natives (who are called Indians in Europe), some gold, plants never seen before in Europe, fruits and feathers of birds.
6a1931d3d2b21f6eb399a69d57e82eae8a6a16b3	In 1452-1456, Popes Nicholas V and Calixtus III granted Portugal the right to own lands open to the south and east of Cape Bojador, "up to the Indians".
7523fe48a97fae630333c597d5afe5a2f5424ada	The return of Christopher Columbus from his first expedition and the news that he had discovered the "West Indies" (West Indies) alarmed Portugal — this discovery deprived her of the previously granted territorial rights.
f0f255e45ee97fbe05e19b9e7e038af2fdd9257a	Castile, however, refused to recognize the papal grants, citing the right of first discovery.
bccf4a466abf08a4224053a5eb0b47d3c6262348	Only the head of the Catholic Church could resolve the conflict in peace.
b210e69b8b473514c0a6fbb2cf21ef7147528548	On May 3, 1493, Pope Alexander VI announced that all lands that Castile had discovered or would discover west of the meridian passing 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should belong to it, and new lands that would be discovered in areas east of this line should belong to Portugal.
b8322ab4c8d984c9814be083bfefeef14cfbcbcb	The papal decision formed the basis of the Spanish-Portuguese negotiations, which a year later ended with the Treaty of Tordesillas of June 7, 1494.
f20e401102971f96210a05c5859ba23bd182feb8	Columbus ' second flotilla already consisted of 17 ships. The flagship is the Maria Galante (displacement of two hundred tons).
8071fb197049cc7a4936d4b96aae3eb87ab79213	According to various sources, the expedition consisted of 1500-2500 people.
ea2237bf9981ab255a04fab4b6acafc006715668	Among the participants of the 2nd expedition, the pioneer Juan de la Cosa, the notary Rodrigo de Bastidas, the future conqueror and governor of Cuba: Diego Velasquez de Cuellar.
8d3f11870aa3228fcc9043475c3ce0e0bbf8c3c9	It already included not only sailors, but also monks, priests, officials, serving nobles, courtiers.
7ca2fc69ff862fd4ef00bb881c4625d632311213	During the expedition, the complete conquest of Hispaniola was carried out, the mass extermination of the local population began.
0f9163de9321cf7ba751b94e855ba65b04e6e6ce	The city of Santo Domingo was founded.
46696b3aeb8f8bf310fc8a84c38c2acdc2ccf212	The most convenient sea route to the West Indies has been laid.
f8bb39b3e3b24fc3a39931d7bbe210c082ae58b4	The Lesser Antilles, the Virgin Islands, the islands of Puerto Rico, Jamaica were discovered, the southern coast of Cuba was almost completely explored.
f7a19603f6680aaa5aa445fe74283b26a48bb770	At the same time, Columbus continues to claim that he is located in Western India.
f812d217231489af5a32d3852231b6322ba32260	September 25, 1493-the expedition left Cadiz.
42603a35a2818bfe692f83f75a961fc992cf32fa	In the Canary Islands, they took sugar cane and dogs accustomed to hunting.
6b4a831d392537292a8aa39ece06c688d5bb908b	The course was about 10 degrees south than the first time.
b815f99677d039657af0eabe348b89083aa96dff	Later, all ships from Europe to the "West Indies"began to use this route.
228e8737edeadf5e9c00750f638ff7e590f6fdaa	With a successful tailwind (in the equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean, the winds constantly blow to the west), the journey took only 20 days, and already on November 3, 1493 (on Sunday), an island from the ridge of the Lesser Antilles, called Dominica, was discovered.
83ef2853d965ef73531a77a94e7dfdebd71fc3e7	November 4-the expedition arrived at the largest of the local islands, named Guadeloupe.
90b9a510efc2d1cca9dbb41aa68b74d5ce24cb13	On the open islands lived the Caribs, who raided the islands of peaceful Arawaks in large canoes.
b066e20037edbcc6b76a1a8c590ae99705c7f8eb	Their weapons were bows and arrows tipped with fragments of turtle shells or jagged fish bones.
a6baa45c28de6152640f14ae4548906589dff5b3	November 11-the islands of Montserrat, Antigua, Nevis are opened.
d306836c3c3e39ade48c3768656074533d300bde	November 13 — the first armed clash with the Caribbean took place off the island of Santa Cruz.
fb21bbadbda0db1d1e631100c8d61de1135719ea	November 15-an archipelago is discovered to the north of Santa Cruz, which Columbus called the "Islands of Eleven Thousand Virgins" - now they are called the Virgin Islands.
502d16d4db8a7a6bca54c1fa90b27f6b178a33bc	After circumnavigating the archipelago from both sides, the flotilla vessels joined up three days later at the western tip of the ridge.
dadfff83d3ff10f75b71f55de3834725caa4b521	November 19-the Spaniards landed on the western shore of a large island, which Columbus named San Juan Bautista. Since the XVI century, it has been called Puerto Rico.
12f4a0483d802dec0458cf8b3e38c164b4e22380	November 27-the flotilla approached the built during the first expedition to the island. Haiti to the fort of La Navidad, but on the shore the Spaniards found only traces of a fire and corpses.
ec7ad44b315748077af9fe6dc765628223d8330a	January 1494 — a town, La Isabella, was built to the east of the burned fort in honor of Queen Isabella.
cdca4929dc8afc66fb3ecf5e260ae3980460192b	Many Spaniards were struck down by an epidemic of yellow fever.
d4dad5af50e00840edd204438fa7c32ec473007b	A detachment sent to explore the interior of the country found gold in the river sand in the mountainous region of the Cordillera Central.
1eb6d3f1fba0a87dbf67706fe51de3c9463449d6	March 1494-Columbus made a trip inside the island. Meanwhile, in La Isabella, most of the food supplies were spoiled due to the heat, and Columbus decided to leave only 5 ships and about 500 people on the island, and send the rest to Spain.
e89872e9ddae86df9202998f54a32d268c3ac6a8	With them, he told the king and queen that he had found rich deposits of gold, and asked them to send cattle, food supplies and agricultural implements, offering to pay for them with slaves from among the local residents.
8a48ce85bf42e30ff6c70a7e0ec89f62cd3574cf	April 24, 1494-leaving a garrison in La Isabella under the command of his son Diego, Columbus led three small ships west along the southeast coast of Cuba.
3f31b8659f6946384f4c6517f8888b32d0a60c57	The account of his journey in 1492 literally blew up Europe.
65583cf0b507b4dc4576cb0306628789440649ea	But this was not the end of Columbus ' travels to America - he visited there three more times.
f9bc238d488b919c135e0cc2fa37b613bf6a2c7c	During the second trip, he explored Cuba, believing that he was already on the mainland.
b21de1b5a7664b9a65424080c7b22db8d2fa6f40	Only during the third campaign he reached the shores of South America, and during the fourth – Central America.
8cf56a80b2646708a7d01ec48547d06d9a1e276a	The fact that Christopher Columbus discovered America is of great importance.
0c738e5186aaf94a7c0fcb0be5774e81210dcf63	He discovered two new continents (although he believed to death that he had paved the way to China) and many islands, including the Antilles, the Bahamas and the Virgin Islands.
ea07e3972066fb3ec470ad8ea9637b7c55f747a1	As a result of his expeditions, Europeans became addicted to tobacco, in addition, the Spaniards cut out most of the indigenous population of the open islands and America itself.
c9feaa7794da4863b6968d685582f3900aff89fb	Christopher Columbus also discovered America for Europe in terms of a new source of gold, territories and free labor, but he was not the first European to visit there.
ca829d1898df8369398a694703374d117a19441a	500 years before him, Scandinavians visited the area of Canada, but only a small number of people knew about their travels.
37094866b378890c76fe0cc0bed2711bca376104	And six centuries later, the route of the great traveler was repeated by the famous modern traveler Fyodor Konyukhov on the giant yacht "Scarlet Sails".
129ae418a36cad8193a8a27abd54ed384bc2150d	There was not enough room for everyone on the Ninya, so Columbus left 40 people on an unfamiliar land, and he himself went back to Spain.
292fcd63f7aeb656ae07bcbf78492b54441348a6	During the voyage, they discovered the "Pinta" and both ships sailed together.
ea3210a6630e719e437f13d390d88367b7c4034e	On March 15, 1493, they returned to Spain.
48658a890976e8399b4411a88837c3e769a06ccc	Columbus brought with him only a little gold, strange tobacco and other plants, as well as a few captured natives, whom the Europeans called Indians (believing that Columbus brought them from India).
b733872b3424c41d6bf8452a4cf608677c7476f5	After that, the romance ended completely.
00cfae6da5ec31210fd49e657cff47c9749c2678	In less than a year, a flotilla of 17 ships under the leadership of Columbus sails along the already known route to conquer, plunder and conquer.
9279477b9c866a8c748f11088afcb4a2d704558d	Then there were the third (1498-1500) and the fourth (1502-1504) expeditions, but Christopher Columbus did not understand until the end of his days that it was he who discovered a new continent, called Amerigo Vespucci simply and beautifully – America.
70866f5d30d0d23e9361c17ed70141d98c44a882	Columbus died in 1506, in poverty and disgrace, being seriously ill.
ffd618fe365a36e79ca4f3d8eaf7d453f5428140	Only years later, the significance of his discoveries was recognized by right, and October 12, the day when Rodrigo de Triana discovered a new land, became the day of the Spanish nation.
d4282c72a9d10c6f255646d656936f0f45e45fde	Meanwhile, the unhealthy climate of some inhabited islands, which caused great mortality, the natural failures of the first settlers who followed Columbus with the most ardent dreams, finally, the envy of many for the high position occupied by a foreigner, and the harsh temper of Columbus, who demanded strict discipline, created many enemies for Christopher Columbus in the colony and in Spain itself.
d265f30ff7cda21b861ab944d735ed13d73c0254	The discontent in Spain took such proportions that Columbus found it necessary to go to Europe for personal explanations.
13e12a6e30519f83ebeef25f362e94ff5b2a5f06	He again met with a warm welcome at the court, but the belief in the wealth and convenience of the new lands was undermined in the population, no one was eager to go there anymore, and when equipping a new expedition (May 30, 1498), Columbus had to take exiled criminals with him instead of voluntary colonists.
883d253fb5bb83de3f94292e0be61b34bfa0621f	During the third voyage, Columbus discovered the islands of Margarita and Cubagua.
a991d7a81b7fb0477679c0ca53080c593dfbbf80	After the departure of Columbus from Spain, a party hostile to him managed to gain the upper hand at court, it managed to denigrate the brilliant traveler even in the eyes of Isabella, who more than others sympathized with the great enterprise.
7400cdab575d0254be6fe621a18bd85816ca3b36	Columbus ' personal enemy, Francis Bobadilla, was sent to audit the affairs in the new lands.
a6e98a623887241caffafd3b59d42c912c57713a	Arriving in August 1499 in the New World, he arrested Columbus and his brothers, Eigo and Bartholomew, ordering them to be put in chains, and the man who prepared the subsequent power of it, who rendered invaluable service to the whole Old World, was returning to Spain in chains.
76604b6ac01645908c6edf15c97b65bee867a75c	Ferdinand and Isabella, however, could not allow such a disgrace, and when Columbus was approaching Spain, they ordered him to take off his chains; nevertheless, Columbus was refused a request for the return of all his rights and privileges.
b1c97b4800f6d41f2cf8dbe835761db406869e02	In 1502, Christopher Columbus undertook his fourth and last journey across the ocean and, having reached the Isthmus of Panama, had to give up the desire to penetrate into the Indian Ocean, with which, as he thought, the Caribbean Sea connects.
e8d3d8193c03117b90fde23bfab06822d78bbaef	It was only after the expeditions of Balboa, Magellan and Vespucci that it became obvious that a completely new, unknown land lay beyond the blue expanses of the ocean.
2a5dbe41a5135433c3789dc98f131449deb102ce	But they will call it America (after Amerigo Vespucci), and not Colombia, as justice demanded.
edcfbedfb884dd62b52e026e6f1258316d009cce	Subsequent generations of compatriots turned out to be more grateful to the memory of Columbus.
0e145be3f40a2eb4e1e436b3e295d9e669b67b6b	The significance of his discoveries was confirmed already in the 20-30s of the XVI century, when after the conquest of the rich kingdoms of the Aztecs and Incas, a wide flow of American gold and silver poured into Europe.
1071d3236c19114c7ca59aa2fb785af2438b7f73	What the great navigator had been striving for all his life, and what he was so persistently looking for in the "Western Indies", turned out to be not a utopia, not the delirium of a madman, but the very real reality.
f6c5219c956c86dd31714460c3542d16139b5f72	His name is no less famous in Latin America, where one of the northernmost countries of the South American continent is named Colombia in his honor.
190355886cc5c5732a7d69051c4d9fdebe4a98ba	However, only in the United States, October 12 is celebrated as a national holiday — Columbus Day.
a30ba7df7c0d9c0cb88e4ab7bf8185577be8e4db	Many cities, a district, a mountain, a river, a university and countless streets, cinemas and pharmacies are named after the great Genoese here.
0bc7d360045ce7a59448929b841d9ec6f3cba31b	Columbus received his share of fame and appreciation from a grateful humanity, and this could be put an end to.
a5e05b1eff9d0a7be15bc9b0906a5260e64943b8	But almost immediately after the admiral's epoch-making voyages, people appeared who disputed his right to the laurel wreath of the discoverer of America.
1be809a5609029546be82be9016797aca3bc52a5	And over the years, their number has not decreased at all, but has grown.
f318959501b05b2a87eab7171f319940bf989346	In the United States, the clashes on this ground became particularly acute, since there were many immigrants from Italy and Scandinavia.
3fd46f278940b553d61de14715fa780dc5144571	In the 60s, after the Norwegian X. Ingstad discovered the remains of a Norman settlement of the X XI centuries on the northern tip of Newfoundland, it is widely recognized that Europeans (in this case, Vikings) 500 years before Columbus reached the northeastern coast of America and even tried to settle there.
c14b26df20b1f5895bdcfc97a504c2f60a53cd4e	The arguments were weighty, and in the fall of 1964, US President Lyndon Johnson signed a bill on the recommendation of Congress on the annual celebration of Leif Eirikson Day on October 9.
78b271b5654c97931162976295b4b76b0a30d843	Thus, Norman was officially recognized as the discoverer of the New World.
a973cf9f307ed7c3fcd14fa22d0c8983d1ee9c4e	13th century 15th century 16th century 17th century 18th century 19th century 20th century
a01db5fedfc323c1440357118c4f9d38f8c8f285	Great travelers and their discoveries
14a7a10e12cace493e8c3f08f057d9eaaab0b5b0	puteshestwenniki.ru
a9fa663b8f54db66a0328b9e8c46185711b28c34	Travelers of the 13th century Travelers of the 15th century Travelers of the 16th century Travelers of the 17th century Travelers of the 18th century Travelers of the 19th century Travelers of the 20th century
c3dfbd5aaf074f4a705b9d38e87937f6a5e4c579	Christopher Columbus.
f4809742f47ab0c37b9618d1f5c316f72e42a144	Biography, travel, discovery of America
5b10f8d2822303e19beff6d536d6090608d054ce	Category: 15th century
3603600b745318ce7199127c5d6a5a169601ae52	Until 1492, Spain's possessions extended only to the Canary Islands, but by the middle of the sixteenth century, its colonies and subordinate territories existed in the Caribbean Sea, most of North and South America, as well as in the regions of Africa.
fe85a10fb746c523eca9bcf5b3af66379c9ec40f	At the same time, Spain did not wage aggressive wars.
63ac0e6d7986474b265dc012d0544e27b1ce06a7	Instead, the Spanish monarchs used two methods: marriages with representatives of other dynasties and sponsoring their travelers.
70766d5ab9c4cfa7f35721d1b10208eb61224e74	The biography of Christopher Columbus, an outstanding traveler, is still full of mysteries.
6e75a6d197ef3f87ef882ac8edf9b1a2ac259ea3	Some consider him a great navigator and a national hero, others an unsuccessful manager and a ruthless invader.
9f917e4c3ee4016869bf2b27419057e83efaea64	He was born in 1451 in Genoa.
22e5d94b5b8156b66cdf19283167056ef9b1f846	His father was a weaver Domenico Colombo, who did not have a large fortune.
701fc651c8bcafc85567c4e7a2bb24246589dddb	The story is silent about the details of his childhood, but apparently he studied well, since, as an adult, he spoke several languages and was very well read.
548d83195d26de28baa372abe7b00f0e608138c3	He first went to sea when he was 14 years old.
1342e33df061232eaf3d8f2a0afee51ff8a807a2	The passion for the ocean remained with Columbus for the rest of his life: he took part in trading campaigns in the Aegean Sea and to the shores of Northern Europe.
020db7dc69a7dcb2b33730aa4924df27de2f2420	In 1479, he married a resident of Lisbon and settled in Portugal.
6734a6d043f6a3b6f72654adc52c8f446b6422fa	Here, in the biography of Christopher Columbus, an accident occurred - in 1485, his wife died.
088f8af410cb1bd9cfea6ec15f31d903812f64db	Then he and his 6 year old son Diego moved to Spain.
98f19df676d3c25129b6d3cb1f8f606bbed3261c	Columbus ' journey in search of a western route to Asia was conceived during numerous sea voyages and reading books on geography and theology.
078115ff0f250785f7bb8b4d90825804372de118	For four years, the navigator tried to get support from the Portuguese, then from the Spanish court,but failed.
d2fe99ad6d36a0eccaebc6dd332af77bc9e3a6db	In the end, Columbus received the support of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella.
6b93d9a0b34cffe0a467d1ce2bed4757a49a6071	His conditions, in case of success of the expedition, were: the assignment of the knighthood and the title of Admiral of the sea of the ocean, the appointment of the viceroy of the open lands and ten percent of all the found wealth.
6341e7b0dd9597797c0027a2431e4965e9b2dec3	In return, the expedition was to return with gold, silk and spices, spread Christianity among Asians and better explore China.
b4f5301d6d64b4d2d4dabff38767659e588b988f	On August 3, 1492, three ships, "Pinta", " Santa Clara "(also known as" Ninya", which means" baby "because of its small size) and" Santa Maria " left the coast of Spain and headed west.
e9afa91dfcf977e1e6fd5e49cae7cb416c61b722	The journey of Christopher Columbus and 104 other people took five weeks much longer than expected, since at that time geographers did not guess the true size of the globe.
d1683bd053e504d24dabfcca5f25a6aac878beba	The crew members were dying of hunger, thirst and disease.
31d098b7ef5abc95f7fc0639d885bfa25b25ceb4	Finally, on October 12, 1492, one of the sailors, Rodrigo de Triana, noticed land on the horizon (the area of the modern Bahamas).
a60a22067578d6436d1aa7465e015ede89be370e	In fact, this moment was the historical discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, but the latter was sure that this was an Asian island and named it San Salvador.
637f63f469618e0a6b9e2b831897ba0d2c141f7b	Not finding any riches on the island, the navigator decided to sail further.
c5b3acf5cf6ba90ff03cc729340d223314fa99a7	However, instead of China, Cuba was on his way.
20ff40dddf0f0979449eff1b18614d84a907bd2d	During the trip, the Santa Maria was wrecked.
d9e73e74bc92b2b21fb369b32f88e42506d72f71	"Pint" at this time disappeared without a trace.
c7e8f94dd22beef14d0e3a871e59b46cc4f347cd	Christopher Columbus also discovered America for Europe in terms of a new source of gold, territories and free labor, but he was not the first European to visit there. 500 years before him, Scandinavians visited the area of Canada, but only a small number of people knew about their travels.
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e1ae2fe5d8819b411f334845f61f4c127a7f89f6	Christopher Columbus the discoverer of South and Central America.
daf806fa50e03245858245fade84d9a1cccece2b	The Columbus expedition.
b88d4be2b84de32f361d216a31831124379a9930	Christopher Columbus biography
ae112cc3276153da255781cfbfe8ff6aac844a2a	CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1451-1506) navigator, Spanish admiral (1492), Viceroy of the "Indies" (1492), discoverer of the Sargasso and Caribbean Seas, the Bahamas and the Antilles, part of the northern coast of South America and the Caribbean coastline of Central America.
435f4e24c72b606f352222422257b380473efded	Engraving by Johann Theodor De Brie, 1590
2f95d8afd362c2a83a4eb22e76064578653731bf	Three quarters of my life is in swimming.
a155ad33eba60225acc04f9833725338e7e262a0	Among the great figures of world civilization, few can compare with Columbus in the number of publications devoted to his life, and at the same time in the abundance of "white spots" in his biography.
de1d4c8a911f07a907467135656287270c2a99a5	More or less confidently, we can say that he is a Genoese, was born in a poor large family.
d29a64806493df29efef53ca7ad36ffdd9d6d28a	The head of the Domenico Colombo family.
6ac4e0c38d3fe4ee257222e019dad2c88c116358	In 1465, Christopher Columbus entered the Genoese navy, where he was wounded.
310f3128cc61ff817f0ae142ba0fabbfc49a5e41	In 1470, he married Dona Felipe Moniz de Palestrello.
7273a84ecf0969d9d2c7b538e804950f0ff2967e	Until 1485, he sailed on Portuguese ships, lived in Lisbon and on the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo, engaged in trade, mapping and self education.
d1b4050996d793f1ab7a4390696cec2cc9212cb7	It is not clear when he drew up the project of the western, in his opinion, the shortest sea route from Europe to India.
f3594976b8ebf8aad81a3b55909bcbe93f766434	In 1483, Christopher Columbus proposed a project to King John II, but after a long study, Columbus ' "excessive" project was rejected.
8a1c47350dabea751067c0ed0f578bd64fd77e52	In 1485, Columbus moved to Castile, where, with the help of merchants and bankers, he sought to organize a government sea expedition under his command.
098ac74ada69652698fa6b289d07d33692dcfcc8	1 expedition.
6a0138ca4e58279a60a4656721fbab1dc08b9449	The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492
d51e5276ece5d52af9d8621d97260948b71fa02b	The first expedition was assembled by Christopher Columbus from three ships - " Santa Maria "(a three — masted flagship with a length of 25 m, a displacement of 120 tons, the captain of the ship Columbus), the caravels" Pinta "(captain — Martin Alonso Pinson) and" Ninya " (captain Vicente Yanes Pinson) with a displacement of 55 tons and 87 people of the expedition personnel.
bb4749c7b74055505bfd59a1839f9c85b6f2d64f	The first landing of Christopher Columbus on the shores of the New World: in San Salvador, Wisconsin, October 12, 1492.
bf5e36173035c3f9f386f36981dd80ea53f5222f	The author of the painting: Spanish artist Tolin Puebla, Theophilus Dioscor Dioscoro Teofilo Puebla Tolin (1831-1901)
cbb0f3e90bbd92ee42d262d9c9a55f9b5705adab	Publisher: the American company Currier and Ives (engravings, lithography, splint paintings), published in 1892.
019e91d84d826877f4431d61b1335fd77c6225fc	2 expedition of Christopher Columbus (1493-1496)
8c92835b00e8325a17a10ec3f1bf28765f290fd5	The second expedition (1493-96), led by Admiral Columbus, as viceroy of the newly discovered lands, consisted of 17 ships with a crew of 1.5-2.5 thousand people.
0b4a76c47585a44671359d30c9a3952adc182715	On November 3-15, 1493, Columbus discovered the islands of Dominica, Guadeloupe and about 20 Lesser Antilles, on November 19 the island of Puerto Rico.
7e58ef938e90d94b4d62bd08764a28d505c1d6b9	In March 1494, in search of gold, he made a military campaign into the interior of the island of Haiti, in the summer he discovered the southeastern and southern coasts of Cuba, the islands of Juventud and Jamaica.
a564ff52a38168a806131f8c6b46ebb4642b8924	For 40 days, Columbus explored the southern coast of Haiti, the conquest of which he continued in 1495.
89d63b22427dfc7913ea28b79c922665af06de9e	But in the spring of 1496, he sailed home, completing his second voyage on June 11 in Castile.
107203ca6cdb50800985f1a034b8331e9c333a90	Columbus announced the discovery of a new route to Asia.
a77ab9920a5360676c29012553da7b2c2a9b0e4e	The colonization of new lands by free settlers that began soon cost the Spanish Crown very dearly, and Columbus proposed to populate the islands with criminals, halving their sentence.
89febaffd77049f2053b6a754bba334c1527c0fd	With fire and sword, plundering and destroying the country of ancient culture, the military detachments of Cortez passed through the land of the Aztecs — Mexico, and the detachments of Pizarro passed through the land of the Incas — Peru.
7e677cd9567cce2d99de032e6d9116c893ec78c3	3 expedition of Christopher Columbus (1498-1499)
164115d021545b97f892ed59457429037f719345	The third expedition (1498-99) consisted of six ships, three of which Columbus himself led across the Atlantic.
e67198826e5cfd257b2663bd3d878308d72b7102	On July 31, 1498, he discovered the island of Trinidad, entered the Gulf of Paria, discovered the mouth of the western arm of the Orinoco Delta and the Paria Peninsula, marking the beginning of the discovery of South America.
5f3277ea9071a59b97ae259766f5b20f2fee5053	Leaving the Caribbean Sea, he approached the Araya Peninsula, discovered Margarita Island on August 15 and arrived in Haiti on August 31.
8bf8ff787add94e9adf8daac48114a26795cd87d	In 1500, according to a denunciation, Christopher Columbus was arrested and, shackled (which he later kept all his life), was sent to Castile, where he was waiting for release.
a9e73da4503ba4e82cf8bd7db85d29c1d74c166f	4 expedition of Christopher Columbus (1502-1504)
41d3ca1e16af093c1c0961ec112190c7296b8493	Having gained the king's consent to continue the search of a Western route to India, Christopher Columbus on the four courts (fourth expedition 1502-04) reached 15 June 1502 Islands Martinique (an island in the lesser Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean sea).
7e07dabd64d80505f431c4a497cef151d5d8abb1	On 30 July 1502, made up of the Gulf of Honduras, where he first met the representatives of the ancient Mayan civilization (known for his writing, and mathematical and astronomical systems), but did not attach any importance to this.
b9315376c59ba3f342ead56e9500f0ad8dbfa591	From August 1, 1502 to May 1, 1503, Columbus discovered 2,000 kilometers of the Caribbean coast of Central America to the Gulf of Uraba.
9455a70fd48e80fa905302ad1ae966a3a187c321	From the Indians of the country of Veragua (now it is Panama), he learned that the South Sea (Pacific Ocean) can be reached through a narrow hilly plain (only 48 km).
b53ab5cded04bee405fb7e2e59cdff8b3c175b77	But not finding a water passage to the west, Columbus turned north and on June 25, 1503, he was wrecked off the coast of Jamaica.
7a18c5e970c30aeee4b588a666cdc21f78ad2db0	Help from Santo Domingo came only a year later.
4e3ddaea57cdb1edd39ffd4cc11789ac67f3f962	The Spanish ship takes all the surviving members of the expedition.
cd82205d5f4c1e11d84f2a08ecfdb2204346c923	Christopher Columbus returned to Castile on November 7, 1504, already seriously ill.
622013ce6b3891e4dfe838ad13e6df33af535e49	The expeditions of Christopher Columbus.
e2b2654c0c9bd40bdf888ffc1c5160d4e1e2becf	Map of 4 expeditions 1492-1504
f7cdb5990f469fe7572c9531145cb81ebf62d5d7	Video.
2154a9cdc3a79f9e5d50b2ec924b4f989b069826	The discovery of America.
02e3787b8434697792787a78f5cf57e36dea2bf6	A scene from the movie "1492 Conquest of Paradise "(1992), when Columbus first saw America.
9e65c68249db42428fb5b52f82aab798f6f7b070	In the role of Columbus, the wonderful Gerard Depardieu
3e0312a18bcc16c928bb90424dbc0a0433a46def	1000 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 1950
e8ea9c58111dc865c6db0f093ef9b685bac2659e	1470 1550 1580 1590
65961f7f1b8e1c54de535225bef1a9772745758f	^ UP ^
f10ab540e2937b78296ab9cbd8e87885cc9f342a	Copyright © 2006-2013, Leonid Tomov
f1872f91c4de7c0e06cecb91f5cf91774cdb9548	Russian Historical Library
a414fe3db9bc6c20833f7a2e7d89d9b5724ef3bd	Columbus Christopher a brief biography
f11fa7232fb2d7b7f8382c55e87c5b21ef1cf057	Christopher Columbus briefly
2459603bbdf432a98c21cde4b590ade1a1d7d200	Content:
7e7474a461ab2ee87dcf99fd695e26c4b4322017	The origin of Columbus and his dream to open a Western route to India
7110da06be40679be302429175ae1b9c19c13561	The Discovery of America by Columbus (briefly)
d04473f998aa1d43e86805551796e910a8294048	New expeditions of Columbus (briefly)
3f40c5f2f1797db06b1313debe7f0c360bf72539	The Death of Columbus
1f063a8d4c557482317202a21282d6fa123331bc	A MORE DETAILED biography of the great traveler is given in the article Columbus.
e745226b37a5d612c0532a2f38b005b194de9f8c	Read also illustrated articles The first voyage of Columbus, the Second Voyage of Columbus, the Indians in the time of Columbus, The History of the discovery of America, The Conquest of Mexico by Cortez, the Conquest of Peru by Pizarro, The Voyage of Magellan
84a62067d671d075943b121ed08755cf381911e4	Christopher Columbus (in Spanish – Cristobal Colon), was born in 1446 in Genoa, was originally engaged in his father's weaving craft and undertook sea voyages on trade affairs, went to England, to Portugal, in 1482 was in Guinea.
127b797051b8eddd80c9b3184999a7ef55824167	In the same year, Columbus married in Lisbon the daughter of a noble Italian sailor and then went with his wife to the estate of his father in law, to the island of Porto Santo, lying northeast of Madeira.
bf7a2beff4aea8dd142747b30dd616c7cc976943	Here he found nautical charts belonging to his father in law, from which he got the first information about the islands and lands lying to the west of Europe.
d3204abcb0bee1ba1f0901440b540a42d210359a	From time to time, the sea washed up on the shores of Porto Santo, then the trunks of a strange tree species, then a mighty reed, then the corpse of an unfamiliar human race.
8df1199ee766d340e81af4857758b52b10478ecf	Unaware of the existence of a vast continent unknown to Europeans, Columbus saw in these signs the confirmation of the testimony of ancient writers Aristotle, Seneca and Pliny that India lies on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean and that it is possible to travel there from Cadiz in a few days.
4a377c0c659e38989dfd9bb1c85754aff59213c7	Portrait of Christopher Columbus.
c42ab50c66d14af0bb5cefce8b02135b97d18609	Artist S. del Piombo, 1519
d2438022baca86702a663a387329313ab38e0fb7	So Christopher Columbus matured a plan to open the shortest and most direct route to India, without skirting Africa.
d0b9a6f346d31b6340db468a57b78fd84d86ec23	With his project, he turned (in 1483) to the Portuguese King John, but was appointed by the king, a commission of scientists recognized the idea of Columbus as a fantasy devoid of foundation.
c0397d2e12c29c9a57c1e7dd95b32a6e8f1898da	The failure did not disarm Columbus, and after the death of his wife, he went to Spain to get the necessary funds for the implementation of his idea there.
92528171201709677761530a9336dd57449b5593	In Spain, Columbus was not refused, but the equipment of the expedition was constantly postponed.
20705a33dbae131c62bed52e666cc133ea986297	After staying in Spain for about 7 years, Columbus had already decided to look for patrons in France, but on the way he met the confessor of Queen Isabella in a monastery.
7f09473e5741315052bd2f7c93f64ae5f194f50f	He was very sympathetic to Columbus ' bold idea and convinced the queen to put three ships at his disposal.
6f7bfab9353a93028de47408cb551bee6d7730b6	On April 17, 1492, Christopher Columbus signed a treaty with the crown, by virtue of which he was granted broad powers and rights of the viceroy in the lands that he would discover on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean.
229f91560bdddf03f847a5b9555791bcb5257245	[For more information, see the articles The First Voyage of Columbus and the First Voyage of Columbus briefly]
4ebed840e38593a75bdf602ce0ea0f1ac6ae15ac	On May 28, 1492, three ships, "Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Niña", with 120 crew members, left the Palos harbor and headed for the Canary Islands, from there they sailed in a straight westerly direction.
af30267691629f21ee6791d0b7894b2214bf1b7d	The long voyage was beginning to inspire the sailors with distrust of the feasibility of Columbus ' idea.
d8a9d13b622dba2145a0f9196b57f1f5c831f4e3	However, the surviving diary of Columbus does not mention anything about the mutiny of the crew, and the story about it seems to belong to the field of fiction.
5563aea22a8f3f3a99fb95588b5125334a45a57f	On October 7, the first signs of the proximity of land appeared, and the ships headed southwest towards the land.
6f5d834af8d4c5cae2ce98bdc6843f25bf7e7d64	On October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on the island of Guanagani, solemnly declared it, under the name of San Salvador, the possession of the Spanish crown and proclaimed himself its viceroy.
19982ab531c3d820534c8007ff4091f60dc58eb1	Further navigation in search of gold bearing lands, which were reported by the natives of San Salvador, led to the discovery of Cuba and Haiti.
cd5c4067e3afae2113c1aacd6dfc095cd928cc1e	On January 4, 1493, Christopher Columbus made a return trip to Spain to personally report on the success of the enterprise.
2b9451188c07385a4069804b88a2a5fd1f46f8e8	On March 15, he arrived in Palos.
1225d11a625bf0d4224992c14b3085ae4cde01b3	The journey from Palos to the royal residence, Barcelona, was a real triumphal procession, and the same brilliant reception awaited Columbus at court.
90ab06188ff35377735918a3da6389602ef0519f	Columbus before Kings Ferdinand and Isabella.
a60b58ab9b93428f98a39a2bd1370b4d4bc30690	Painting by E. Leutze, 1843
00236276e11ef39aaa3a20841ec9dddc65b0bf02	[For more information, see the article The Second Voyage of Columbus, the Second Voyage of Columbus briefly, the Third Voyage of Columbus briefly, the Fourth Voyage of Columbus briefly]
a4865c83865293a94590cd4db9faf0a844d1cc64	The government hastened to equip a new expedition with Columbus, consisting of 17 large ships with a detachment of 1,200 soldiers and horsemen and numerous colonists attracted by general rumors about the fabulous wealth of new countries.
e40aa73a697fb91be4815fd693669609d55d02bd	On September 25, 1493, Columbus set sail, after 20 days of sailing, he reached the island of Dominica, on the way he discovered the islands of Maria Galante, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico and others.
6ca68203eca231a41f0aba83131975458360ca71	Having laid a new fort in Haiti instead of the fortress he had previously built, destroyed in his absence by the natives, he headed further west to reach India, which he considered very close.
1efb44586fa1b432665faf67a4de072db25e707e	Having met a dense archipelago on the way, Columbus decided that he was near China, since Marco Polo says that a group of islands of many thousands lies to the east of China; then he postponed for a while further searches for a way to India in order to establish more firmly management in the open lands.
9526ebe596bf6ab4a273e0043fdd94378e0d7df5	On November 26, 1504, Columbus arrived in Spain and settled in Seville.
5ab02a1540d9e9e82bf857c1fff641d5ea785b68	All his requests for the return of lost rights and income in the countries he discovered remained unsatisfied.
1a402670c2df2566c4aee2f180199da3620bb72f	With the accession of the new king Philip to the throne, Columbus's position did not change, and on May 21, 1506, he died in Valladolid, without seeing the fulfillment of his desires and at the same time not realizing the true significance of his discoveries.
37557c050536de912a70b668c77b45430b53af8b	He died in the belief that he had discovered a new way to India, and not a new part of the world that was unknown until that time.
0d7011b9ef98c70efeec881751f0c783a00ce245	After his death, Christopher Columbus was buried in a Franciscan monastery in the city of Valladolid.
d7b230c7f3d8096cc2fee7a3496db0b1127b9eb1	In 1513, his body was transferred to Seville, and between 1540-59, according to the dying wish of Columbus himself, his remains were transported to the island of Haiti.
1641ab78c07e501b70a7b1a3057d63a640b66de0	In 1795, with the annexation of Haiti to the French crown, Columbus ' body was transferred to Havana and buried in the Havana Cathedral.
549bd2b4979e42a502e9debe0f04c9b8c3b96fd4	Statues to him have been erected in Genoa and Mexico.
76fe95cd3fe21d4fc3053002d958ca34264a2260	Columbus left behind a diary of his first trip, published by Navarrette.
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963ff2902268c904a0e0f9bffd040c096fdfd873	More on the topic...
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46d0b32c94a2a0ff26004869b102fe4f0a89a8a9	An unforgettable journey of Columbus: exactly 520 years ago, America was discovered (PHOTO)
04dad400751fec0c9848ae82ec4b984d043f79de	11:01 12.10.2012
ec3b2c97e734b7352a0c5f9bd8617853e1884ae3	, Alexander Fedorov
6fae5585d9c9b90b0ac34e4bbf9793eb02c77ba9	Monument to Columbus (Havana).
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7648a7bfa68c1db09e1e6d382f8c5297ee79f457	Materials on the topic:
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84c4ca86d446a5add55471b28ef5d93baba0737b	Exactly 520 years ago, at about two o'clock in the morning, on Friday, October 12, 1492, the sailor of the Pinta caravel, Rodrigo de Triana, shouted: "Land!
fb0e84ec354fe634b45198d9465baccb6cf26a76	Earth!"
9858d6195e92c23aaca3db33cf7a20735d54dae8	The captain of the "Pinta" was the legendary navigator Christopher Columbus, and the land that de Triana saw was one of the Bahamas.
730b8c2952d825011f9209a7c8df4c956a62cb61	In this journey, a new continent was discovered – America, although Columbus did not know about it at the time.
5920e21400abbba877648fce0706f6b3f006a655	On the one hand, the discovery of America is an amazing romantic story about brave travelers who rushed to meet adventures.
3b8268282b09772268266394c34fb18c5788aabf	On the other hand (alas, closer to reality), the Columbus expedition had frankly greedy motives and bloody consequences for the indigenous population of the lands it discovered.
8ccc4057ad443f11449562758ca41bd82fcac2fb	Three caravels under the command of Christopher Columbus left the port on August 3, 1492.
06ee9ea32ebf72827ca2387185471df55e41b90b	Columbus ' journey could not be called an easy walk.
fe669b0ec71345375332d6fd566c2027f2eb706e	The admiral was going to meet the unknown, and he had to fight not only and not so much with the harsh waves and winds, of which very few fell on this journey.
eeddfb26494a78f2e7cf992810f118dcab6ca796	The most important problem was the morale of the crew: the sailors were very afraid of what they might meet along the way, and quietly hated the foreign admiral
f52944c8afbd1667f4979de922c6f7ef11ae54a7	(Columbus is a Genoese by origin.
c2b6a2b01137a2ef5795b3a8b3dfba778b76b876	To tell the truth, few people then believed that someone would be able to return alive from this expedition.
ccdc4851cf1cabc1def340888b5a8bfccbb83717	Nevertheless, the ships continued to sail due west, and after two months of travel, they were lucky: On October 12, 1492, the expedition landed on the shore of one of the numerous Bahamian Islands.
c2f3f4c1de86bc76af576ba2f4e6543bdc196e3b	Columbus was obsessed with finding gold and believed that he had come to India.
79beb9984fbe3da17854d501366294507a90b6f0	It is easy to imagine the admiral's disappointment when he was met on the island by poor naked natives who not only do not speak any of the languages known to him, but also have practically no gold.
067e712b4dc104d488b54df62b60d5de934f7be5	The caravels of Christopher Columbus.
515c8e36648e175cb8b4222575416dda7474be8f	In the hope of reaching the rich gold, spices and silk coasts of India, Columbus continued to sail further and further.
18fa5876871c41a13069c755bdfe7d71ebe1171f	On October 28, 1492, the caravels reached Cuba, and on December 5 – the island named by Columbus Hispaniola, or "little Spain"
c913a1ab038a452e7d89e9537ad7dc898f2d41dd	(now – Haiti.
27e44cb2b9b273758f3f9aa34c75adbf7e5dd6e2	The Indians on all the islands welcomed the guests cordially, gladly exchanged goods, filling the holds of ships with gold and jewelry and receiving in return cloth, perfume, beads and various treats.
f3f59cc320e9a0dde9219d5e57730b25a9934eff	The discovery of America, or the Dream of Christopher Columbus.
ad4940eb4163d582769662d46555c3d790a9872d	Visiting Haiti was the peak of Columbus ' first trip.
9013b9f7ce47ce570911fdbaac9413b4bbfb75da	There he lost one of his ships, the Santa Maria, which ran aground due to the negligence of the crew, who celebrated Christmas too hard.
7377907f0192bf3b385a184deb32d8b23b6ff5e1	The first alien settlement was also founded there – Fort La Navidad, in which 39 sailors remained, whose tasks were to establish control over the island and search for gold.
c68635bde05573c7ef033faf1e89148b8a05b82d	Columbus planned to return to these places a year later, and therefore, on January 16, 1493, the two remaining ships, the Ninya and the Pinta, set off on their return journey.
d5ac652d8dd8ff18b0fc2ae25e741d84351b5d02	Swimming routes.
78061f3569f187d9d8d96ea8523f98718a9b0a3b	The sarcophagus of Christopher Columbus.
5a6d90b713ebea630991351bada1ed7fcb279f45	Interesting facts about Columbus and his travels:
168d27657384663c525ce1e8774d77085d2f5880	1. Columbus called the population of the lands he discovered Indians, being sure that he sailed to the shores of India.
d824f68640dee63f5d75153a2b1c5066a4072419	2. In the middle of the first trip, on September 13, 1492, Columbus noticed that the compass needle began to deviate to the north.
44d14bb3bd94029f5f8028976b37d05456a968dd	In order not to frighten the sailors, he did not want to admit it and later attributed it to the fact that the compass operates in a new space in a new way.
0e3bef0bc2bd495126f78b8dcf6e396c4282d7af	In fact, he discovered the dependence of the magnetic declination on geographical coordinates.
1b6b721c6efce8e65eb7e03a67a418cab4554106	3. The capital of the island of Puerto Rico discovered by Columbus is now called San Juan.
9fa2273a75cc8b5f295677e5c5e2bf4cb655e68d	In fact, initially everything was the opposite: the island was called San Juan, and its capital was Puerto Rico.
f284ad8a4c39f3ceb35e58cfc0c718929e4b8f9f	The cartographers got it wrong!
edc1e7de124606a8cf6bf3265d00f1f065b8c3d2	4. During the fourth expedition, the Spaniards landed on an island they called Costa Rica
52e98533f988ebd331e5f48310d1b1dc94ccb0b7	("rich coast".
b35abfc9a3bf7e3d8fdfd3cc579530457a761001	They believed that there were large deposits of gold on the island, but they were mistaken: Costa Rica is extremely scarce for anything of value.
c0bfd95dfa9d0835eb70604bc19f3f5f88fbcbf5	5. The film company Columbia pictures is named after Columbus.
fac9ec5084fa925e1cf177c120a9782798a8f463	Topics: Interesting facts in the world of science, Research, Research of Russian and foreign scientists, Scientific research and discoveries in the world, Foreign history
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98fd29ed2ded1e4cfc29ba802b0f4a74be4c64b3	Readers ' comments
313513e497a17d7dfdf03a2bdfc58df3aa01ebe0	03.11.2012, 22:06
7c04994483c90d718d35d3ffb147cc3a31256f8f	sirius
1ac86b035716cbb80e5543dc3fed60cb1d61563e	If the film Avtar was shot in Russia, it would have a completely different plot...
18ecd51d68d44ede08f83da9a307d9502f85f589	For example, how the Russians together with NAVI raise the Pandora Virgin Land...
5cc7a1346cf1ffe3068ad1f08523caec3ce2b3f0	Feel the difference..
0f25ca7a72dde68a3963da7dd84ca04e5476e056	to answer
504fb5d7446606795b0be0d1df2b25c743063d7d	discussion branch
d2627d37621b97696dd25c8d44612b37a369fa55	12.10.2012, 14:42
16a20b3d6e4f0b9fd1ddd52c24fa7f0c609aa9bb	Vladimir
f3e6e382aca52479a9e6a4e159b1c341642cba9c	...one of the Canary Islands.
6d8e530f4315860b630925656dc50a82201af6cc	Maybe one of the Kuril Islands, or one of the Cayman Islands?
187e9b805015138f4ae02406e1ce3a097d728cf5	The author!
62b35850a36586c290fda067ccc9744665c9f6b2	Make friends with geography.
de014fd6933bd37c11518ccfc3c879f50146cde9	12.10.2012, 14:41
0ec6cd4add24ae0b82401a1cb9787fd4abad5b47	Serge
baacdef21e8d74ec3cc811f922ac09863b8e0ad0	By the way, it is on the example of the conquest of America that the coordinating and fundamental difference between the European and Russian civilizations is visible...
aaa566cae1419c77246227cc3a44b8665df6cef8	The Europeans almost completely destroyed the local population and settled their territories, driving the survivors into reservations.
675322f96299641bee0a80372e2f9f03726d0009	The Russians, having landed in Alaska and the west coast of North America, existed with the local population in relative peace (to the extent that newcomers can be at peace with the natives)..
143904147f14956c6b9a947b4d5acad50337c2ab	And from here it is clear that Russians will never become Europeans because of a fundamentally different worldview.
c4a744e50a1525f0a9cc2aff9a1556d1eb26ace8	Therefore, Europe will never "love" Russia and it is senseless and suicidal to drag Russia by force to Europe...
93d335a73e0a328e8c35fbf2b76246599033cb03	All comments (4)
44a1bf7178a455c73a970b1e3a0f9d4291374d89	]]>]]>
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3bc1d56914fa07d8e5091a2870d1304fc2628d41	Pre Columbian Voyages to America: Myths and Reality
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6ddcfe836df54bbe3d5fcaf78127b1cb72f0a3ff	Did the ancient Maya have artistic works and other records?
85d6c3fe15a82d3ccb51772d6c1c2732d8200d5b	Is it possible to detect them today?
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678f2b8e35c0fa869942ef6e5e381a7abadded8c	Was Cortes a Quetzalcoatl for the Nahua, and was there a cult of this god in Tlascala?
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e2ee86ee1abae82edeeb61e6d3bf473abf0b6586	Columbus and the Discovery of America
711296c2f73c5246c4282f038a96098497ac4673	Gulyaev Valery Ivanovich ::: Pre Columbian voyages to America: myths and reality
2431cfc6bdc7b4b448c6638158a2b6e04d5f3645	(instead of an introduction)
d0f4b667ab96755ef0ad965d325455f88ff46a25	"It was midnight on October 11, 1492.
e4a890f247c087fce1948c8f2036178932195e1d	Just two more hours — and an event will happen that is destined to change the entire course of world history.
ad4ad92011b9dde1ac219116c089336c4bd4def3	No one on the ships was fully aware of this, but literally everyone, from the admiral to the youngest cabin boy, was in tense anticipation.
939ea22e70c73bb9ec9d5ce4d1f8b5363017c7e4	The first person to see the land was promised a reward of ten thousand maravedi, and now it was clear to everyone that the long voyage was coming to an end...
e4359f8b017e00d3756a2d61e35e9a5972599fc2	The day was running out, and in the bright starry night three small boats, driven by a fair wind, were rapidly gliding forward...
52c56ce1e378d80d00295e92f003e3a98fe0fffa	" 1.
ff69d678c24f38791e533e8a3ecc0dff3d10c3dd	In such a solemnly elevated tone, the American historian J. Bakeless describes the exciting moment that preceded the discovery of America by Columbus.
418ff598425b88adbb6e758d05ba6a3ebaeecde1	Three small wooden ships - "Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Ninya" set off from the port of Paloe (the Atlantic coast of Spain) on August 3, 1492.
77d81eabe0af13f75bc13b0236bf484c31cf6dd1	About 100 people of the team, the minimum of food and equipment.
e2aeed84b118fe83225a1ca9d4f10bde46ddfe1d	At the head of this expedition was an extraordinary man, obsessed with a bold dream — to cross the Atlantic Ocean from east to west and reach the fabulously rich kingdoms of India and China.
cfabc34f4f3864fbb926df280fdd7898726d06ff	His name was Cristobal Colon (the Spanish version of the name Christopher Columbus).
0515d85f6178ecc074fa3f947ebf04cf5daa5ea0	He was a native of Genoa and was at that time in the Spanish service.
a6d0d745f468e27bb8a5be5c986b6d603d421dbc	Two months of the hardest sailing on the ocean expanses.
4480d3ab548cedbf29e4a946266293bf0ef2ded8	The last piece of land — the Canary Islands was left astern exactly 33 days ago.
9d1b149dd2c49701632caed4b9f0267222424060	It seemed that there would be no end to the sea desert.
94d3dc5c4e8443ee6e4351a496d7b811b9ed2494	Food and fresh water supplies were running out.
0743ff47654718fb5e1efe8987e192300489ab6e	People are tired.
9fdd9f400c88acba2eca981f8c3e9e88ecbbf4db	The admiral, who had not left the deck for hours, increasingly heard exclamations of discontent and threats from the sailors.
df479fbc28a67dec8e064465251056074690882a	But now the most difficult part is over.
08786b5a0c4aade30a6e62dd2d327d7557bcded0	All the signs spoke of the proximity of the desired land: birds, floating green tree branches and sticks, clearly cut by the hand of a man.
b36e0851c73855ffac7167642bc5b2870503d262	That night, Captain Martin Pinson on the" Pinta " went ahead of the small flotilla, and the watch on the bow of the ship was the sailor Rodrigo de Triana.
6884fdb5bffb0c2c940031d3e599e4f06a22cb01	It was he who first saw the earth, or rather, the reflections of the ghostly moonlight on the white sand hills.
81ac86192ae37a313e2de2c1e50876e6a786a47c	"Earth!
6390c4a99bfa67694558d212e779beb1d7af23aa	Land!
c20bde32f9ea8fbf13521fc1701b118507df0f3b	" shouted Rodrigo.
2d20dcf38e29928561aa5ab09f3d182897145393	And a minute later, the thunder of a cannon shot announced that America was open.
6ec1c87b0158bea3e7e2c947e6a7096920fdccd1	All the ships took off their sails and began to look forward to the dawn.
e6d3ced1e40aab6ad7bd32bcb0bb18b09290f9f3	At last it came, a clear and cool dawn on Friday, October 12, 1492.
cd7e6184d81e2906776313925153e9e8f8bbaf06	The first rays of the sun illuminated the land that was mysteriously darkening ahead.
f7a44705abeb3f6358a531678af0319752e33498	"This island," Columbus would later write in his diary, " is very large and very flat, there are a lot of green trees and water, and there is a large lake in the middle.
7f40c219d6aa0dd9b7159011bf33fc35c87d5c20	There are no mountains."
1a54bd097ec0f49419706de234d38c1a4d4dde09	Boats were lowered from the ships.
accc3eae5806ba46fc5cdcbffc26c8c726c1ff25	Stepping ashore, the admiral hoisted the royal banner there and declared the open land the possession of Spain.
cf38026b6bb4375fa2452cb023be80e9bcd488c2	The island turned out to be inhabited.
825a7583fcec37f928da960015f89728f71d704f	It was inhabited by cheerful and good natured people with dark, reddish skin.
2988e5d8b8f1b2184ad56a667a78dabd7aa71539	"All of them, writes Columbus — walk naked, in the buff, and women too...
97544ab39c023462ce6b0a248c10257d7625eb2b	And the people I saw were still young, all of them were no more than 30 years, and they were stacked well and the body and face, they were very beautiful, and the hair is coarse, like a horse, and a short...
11d8ef83ae09e4ccbb1fe5696af90516f9f79dd2	Facial features have correct, the expression friendly...
e4953b47ecfdcbc464c7e78e53f0df23d0089346	Color these people were not black, but such as the inhabitants of the Canary Islands..."2.
1d19eff24441a521d8dc7a5ce3f6364119c05930	The first meeting of Europeans with American aborigines.
afe046740d72432fe27a86622e28bcd1f59178ee	The first, most vivid impressions of the New World.
68b501b7df61f1cc01a94aa0859817aabc6aabe3	Everything here seemed unusual and new: nature, plants, birds, animals and even people.
bf26bb9b33018a0f9f9f94952fdeabdfd729578e	The Indians themselves, if they were correctly understood, called their island Guanahani.
2ac0dde7d44dd15cdb9cc28e8f422f7fce1cbf7f	Columbus also christened the newly discovered land with the name San Salvador (savior).
4d1c0aace99183a6e6452011f703ecf99419d7f0	There is no doubt that it was one of the Bahamian Islands3.
cd9e32b1f23ae43ef16a7b85593f48da441a02a3	From here, it's just a stone's throw to Florida,and to the impressive land masses of the Greater Antilles.
10d6b961b972a446c8f9377e68b3a2e45f02ad25	The discovery of the" Western Indies " has begun.
814441cc8838e998a16f0304f1b8f842f88bd347	And although on that momentous morning of October 12, 1492, the life of the vast American continent was apparently not disturbed by anything, the appearance of three caravels in the warm waters off the coast of Guanajani (San Salvador) meant that the history of America had entered a new era full of dramatic events.
cdd56a9406d5a610a08296b1c93f130d357ff189	The return of Columbus to Spain in March 1493 on two surviving, but badly battered ships turned into a true triumph of the great navigator.
5381b791a6ccb4b1507109df7ef085067156e9d7	He was showered with numerous honors and awards by the royal couple and received a firm promise of assistance in carrying out future expeditions in "India".
8633da8a1d09541dc77261d7a230f28e2f842ecf	Of course, the real gains from the first voyage were small: a handful of pathetic trinkets made of low grade gold, a few half naked natives, bright feathers of strange birds.
b413143e799614bff5b58b425dd3f616fdd74de9	But the main thing was done: this Genoese found new lands in the west, far across the ocean.
aa88bc30212a2945ba0afe102394fd4173f27578	In anticipation of future fabulous profits, the royal court and the Spanish moneybags opened a generous loan to the admiral.
14b3bee60d449c14d12746f1cde46f53e9a8daf5	17 ships and more than 1,500 people participated in Columbus ' second voyage across the Atlantic.
bdad6ee4a1d39539bb157c2e6f8ae048780c1412	New large islands were discovered Jamaica and Haiti, inhabited by numerous Indian tribes.
e126804a6ef03d0f46b75f097fa3d8a09b6075dc	However, gold, spices, precious stones — everything that the participants of the expeditions and those who financed them so greedily sought - could not be obtained.
f60eb98cdafa1fec44b7aed665ac84354dda3c16	The star of Columbus rapidly rolled down.
7f44f35a9d0806446e378f72f67bf1ebb9a2f513	However, he managed to organize two more trips to the Western Hemisphere, discovered a part of Central America (Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama), where (mainly from the Panamanian Indians) he exchanged a significant amount of gold.
609d15bbd10267684c646eac4cee43376876c065	But the royal court and the arrogant Spanish nobility did not receive the main thing — the treasures of the Chinese and Indian rulers.
cb36d022b091044425bc71abaa2b693e0c272cc1	The great navigator died in Spain on May 20, 1506 in complete oblivion and poverty.
fb473d79dae1f8b2b8a99743f462be1922aa68ab	Contemporaries, as often happens in history, failed to appreciate the true significance of the discoveries made by him.
0a3268fdf34b872026d2ce4a7ba17257d1dc375d	And he himself did not understand that he had discovered a new continent, considering the lands he had discovered to be India until the end of his life, and their inhabitants were Indians.
46238cbc2fee96b20923f504c5c4b15b7e233ad2	So, although with some delay, justice has prevailed.
3f54edd380a917a626c52eab8f0bc62921e6043d	But almost immediately after the admiral's epoch making voyages, people appeared who disputed his right to the laurel wreath of the discoverer of America.
dee30b064fbe53681a10e4d9f9146737a22fba32	Who was not called the predecessors of the great navigator: the Phoenicians, the Israelites, the Greeks, the Romans, the Irish, the Arabs, and, finally, the Scandinavian Vikings.
e7bc776e0bc71c5e225992b5386ae81520eef8ea	However, the former holiday — Columbus Day has also been preserved.
700bd0c15cab371d29af45c16ff8dc5b19151d92	But it so happened that the "Norman bill" was signed on October 9, and, therefore, despite the indignation of Americans of Italian origin, the holiday of the Viking Leif was three days ahead of the holiday of the Genoese Columbus.
4408ca4c6dd87570238a49803d017a28b4dfed4d	Passions were heated to the limit.
bbe1a55b902b0e323fb7a2d118c5bdf3312c225b	On October 12, 1965, violent demonstrations of Columbus ' supporters began in many places.
9490b1d78902f9cb59b6f4fc81dfe9944798d35e	They were attended by Italian Americans who protested against the claims of the descendants of the Normans, who believed that America was discovered by their ancestor.
1e36723465ac91525f772149c7c956f58fbfb079	And it all started with the fact that two days before the holiday (Columbus Day), an article was published in the very influential New York Times newspaper, not without intent, about the discovery of a map of the XV century depicting a part of North America (an area called Vinland by the Normans), which excited the minds of Italian Americans who did not want to give priority to their Columbus in any way.
23314a54f401031babbdf738b9ce460e70b216d3	"Scientists at Yale University," the article said, "reported this morning (i.e., October 10, 1965 V. G.) about the most amazing cartographic discovery of the century — the discovery of the only pre Columbian geographical map of those countries of the New World that were discovered in the XI century by Leif Eirikson"4.
5aa2246d5e0f305e38e2ad2cabc354c509c90330	The map itself was placed next to the article.
3e516deef7bdcb5f38b41bd8910853660ac25ddf	In the upper left corner, the inscription "Vinland" was clearly highlighted.
032ea6911fb83d22b016d0aee345cdc6f9597576	Experts determined the time of creation of the map about 1440, that is, more than 50 years before Columbus ' first voyage to the shores of America.
e90c615f4903e701211a5b9f05c86abcddc825f6	The fact that the very eve of Columbus Day was chosen for the publication of this sensational material especially angered Italian Americans, who saw this not only as an open challenge, but also as tactlessness.
713da197bea1d5cccf4bdf2c8c1682e464269b88	However, some time later, serious doubts appeared about the authenticity of the Vinland map.
496d4d432ce5fbbd32e1ba9cbeba149b5746e80d	But the deed was done, and the Norman priority in the discovery of America received solid support.
23d8aa0f61933ea1d2a8a0e3b240fd3f242cb3d6	Of course, there is a lot of ridiculous and far fetched in this whole story.
eda717dc92677be8d1a3aa0f5e38179e44501b84	The paradox is that at first, US citizens diligently memorize the postulate on the school bench: North America was discovered by Vikings 500 years before Columbus.
10cefaa7288ce3aa4f4a69a185c37f24ee5b3e50	And then 10-15 million Americans of Italian origin seem to forget about the brave Viking campaigns in Vinland and, declaring them just legends, continue to diligently honor their great compatriot as the only discoverer of the New World.
0ea7a41e8fac6d8ab12a825e6e2a619591e29259	But Columbus himself never set foot on the land of North America and did not even see it from a distance.
962a3115df9ca89e72f60bb7f93d4e929510bcc8	He discovered only the islands in the Caribbean Sea and part of the eastern coast of Central America (Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama), and even then during his last, fourth voyage in 1502.
e5de9b13849ff7f700c9cacf46a850c4799f0f94	Therefore, there is every reason to consider another European, John Cabot from England, as the discoverer of North America.
6fc5c14a740c9cc43967a057b431c0229fe86e12	On June 24, 1497, he landed at Cape Bold of the island of Newfoundland, and then explored Cape Race of the same island.
68ad48e1a329266a2958fc7cd1e625ee1edbf7fd	In honor of this event, the strait between the peninsula of Nova Scotia and the island of Newfoundland is named after him.
c62c3a41ed4366f2a21414057ea27fb3c5207faf	But the Italians got the palm again: John Cabot's real name was Giovanni Caboto — he was an Italian sailor in the English service.
ecda2ae61bcd7e8ad75db661131473f4ddbda3d2	And yet Columbus deserved his fame.
a2d8d892a0b1d9ce52e0d1703ecbf9e07b6a37ed	"Although Columbus never saw the North American continent and until the end of his days believed that he had discovered India, he remains at the same time the main figure of the era of Great Geographical Discoveries.
029ddcdb2bcf54c73d5d08c221957bb7c24b7639	His services to humanity are much higher than the deeds of the Vikings"5.
c79b020430ce8e7afef8323df7586e93f14d6276	The great Genoese not only discovered new lands unknown to "cultural humanity" in the west, but also laid the foundation for strong and regular ties between the Old and New Worlds.
252d0d399b476b0870261a8b77e3e4a4e0ce1eb6	The role of the Vikings is not diminished at the same time.
8684436628c5e4797be10051fab2592301544483	"Today," writes the famous German writer K. V. Keram, " we can say only one thing: the Viking landings in America are interesting from many points of view, but they did not change either the worldview or the economic living conditions of both Europeans and native inhabitants of the American continent.
243f598fb2567b9b0588a91c6f481a363584cc4e	Columbus did it"6.
c3e70224a8fad0ed5045511ad1a43808cf696adf	It seems to me that the fathers of the trustees of the ancient American city of Boston came to the wisest decision: they installed bronze monuments to both Columbus and Leif Eirikson in the last century.
efbe59d5248018ecf34d32e4b669b523cd5d73a6	It is also important to understand the correlation of all known cases of pre Columbian voyages to America with the discoveries of the great navigator.
4c9f2c87b2cc649f69bc178ae618d826e4d84239	In my opinion, the most objective statement of this most complex problem was made by the well known American historian J. Fiske is the author of a fundamental two volume work on the discovery of America.
1d3fd1f465d5670debc35206406a7ddb3c629adc	He's writing:
9c91e7befd23f096faae51ce54ac7f0d56b0af06	"The contact between the two worlds began, in fact, only in 1492.
689d515c0ad103f73815950b041c5600e54b4bce	At the same time, I do not intend to deny at all that random visitors from the Old World could and did appear earlier than this time.
74a3295c54f358c585990ecacf23dfb6d29bae33	On the contrary, I am inclined to think that there were more such random visits than we generally assume"7.
b0c8cc4d8a344a5c951575a3564b4fc950aad22e	Speaking about the role of the discoveries of the Vikings, who went from their colonies in Greenland and Iceland to the shores of North America, he notes:
aea7e5050542f4110e13964c7a4a67b76862a954	«...All these ancient voyages before Columbus had no important historical consequences.
e02dfc30ee2fa9fa6ff710b34bc6182df9688ce3	In the matter of colonization, they led only to the establishment of two unfortunate colonies on the Greenland coast, in other respects they did not make any real contribution to the treasury of geographical knowledge.
23473443d68a4ce9464c72806ac143b018f4bba3	They did not make any impact on the minds of Europeans outside of Scandinavia...
538d9d5785207db89730f5e155d9258e46fd2a0f	Travel to Vinland was forgotten by the end of the XIV century...
5b1dc7597fe53d13a91ada6d452aff707fc5ed35	There was no real communication between the eastern and western halves of our planet until the great voyage of Columbus in 1492"8.
158ded329ac138a40d697a48265d4204ee0b8241	In general, one could agree with this assessment.
61c35b2a82a252efae4c3a9285edf88a3f58f689	But let's not rush it.
b4510c46a033085a41cb68cf7c3b3ae26ec37410	Let us also allow one of Fiske's opponents to speak out — the defender of the priority of Polynesian navigators in the discovery of America, F. Kuilichi.
a97efb45faa9482666e13dc86b1c8e7529a6c119	He is of Italian origin, which means that he is a fellow countryman of the great Genoese.
891794d97c982538616fef073cdccabc86ccb4ea	"In the Mediterranean, "he writes in his book Ocean," the descendants of the proud Phoenicians sailed near the shores well known to them, and only occasionally the most daring of them crossed the entire enclosed sea, making a passage of no more than 200 miles.
541ca98358ed74232b1e761704753e648c8c6625	However, the Phoenicians did not often dare to sail far from the shore.
4973d6a044972781117ca8c3ddb9589577966805	Portuguese navigators have collected a lot of information about the Atlantic Ocean.
857f7eed97aff375ea390d635e0f2da1f5f07ad5	But it took as much as 600 years before the Azores and the island of Madeira, located relatively close to the shores of Europe, were discovered.
39be649a9ba1de80595c8cc64e6c461ec83bd724	Some ships reached the African coast.
cecaddc62ae6b233f5a0673dc003845015adef98	However, they did not dare to swim further — they knew that after crossing the equator they would lose sight of the North Star, and this would mean certain death: the mad travelers, according to the ideas of their contemporaries, would either be boiled alive in the boiling water of the ocean, or would fall into the abyss, falling off the edge of the Earth.
abe827fbc32f473bfb5c1e8fe090c3147f81abe7	On the opposite side of the Earth, Chinese junks sailed from one island to another, but they never lost sight of the mainland coast.
01bbb66daf8e7d349a821f05872ab720ea80d681	Traders from Arabia and India made quite bold voyages, but they did not go far into the open sea.
d9c4a6cf290654b07f03d515c2d4abf856345990	Only in the north of Europe did the Vikings venture on campaigns that can be compared with the campaigns of the Polynesians...
5b31878d19a2e6c0b7211a01ac45f60918de88ae	The latter had a difficult task to enter into a one on one struggle with the Pacific Ocean and overcome it.
2fefb66d48d4085f2701bbe90d88e12ec0c03cfb	Without maps, without more or less perfect instruments, guided only by the stars and relying only on the mercy of the gods, they performed genuine miracles.
38ecb4c8e3dfce98ed48ec7f32e7579bfe60b9e4	It took a good seven centuries before a native of Genoa, a Spanish citizen named Christopher Columbus, on three large stable ships made his famous journey, much less long and dangerous than the trips of the Polynesians on fragile canoes"9.
2fde69aaeac0f2294818e51f6144ffd38f938f7c	There are a great many examples of such a confrontation of views and opinions.
63d839a63c9b82f981a1d5a62ed78e7f5038742a	The origins of all these disputes go back to the misty haze of centuries, to the historical moment when Columbus set foot on the sandy shore of the island of Guanahani.
f9006bb67f6df6d1f9f156bcbf5834417a2c97ec	Both specialists and the general public have always been concerned about two questions, the solution of which in one direction or another significantly changed the view of the history of pre Columbian America: where does the culture of local Indians originate from and did Columbus have predecessors?
4e95483e13a98a46747e66cba121685f9b6810ef	Some authorities vehemently denied any possibility of any transoceanic contacts of the inhabitants of the American continent with the outside world in ancient times.
caa23c5f8f0eb66554fe8651beac36d93d4e0e3b	Others, on the contrary, tried to prove that it was not difficult for a person to cross the ocean in past eras, and therefore all the cultural achievements of the Indians have their roots in the civilizations of the Old World.
3c8116cd6ff5180d80407a7d7be4922226d40a79	Over the years, not only scientists, but also diplomats, officials, writers, religious figures and even entire states have become involved in this dispute.
7cc4f91ec19445d67cd70f6de68ef7f5d3995bad	The defense of national prestige and the inviolability of the dogmas of faith, vanity and thirst for wealth, the pursuit of sensation at times gave the polemic too sharp a character.
91261adbeee87afb2961207207dfae6cf1317ad3	However, this polemical intensity, which has not weakened until today, serves, in my opinion, as an excellent proof of the great scientific and universal significance of this topic.
c207029bec121abbf770f1204c697e14f3cba910	This is all the more appropriate to say on the eve of the approaching 500th anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.
5654a583d2ab65aa420d67c05b585ef8da4d0806	The literature on pre Columbian relations that has accumulated over the past four centuries is huge.
383d86a3c08d4e38090a8c47d6e129cd8afbe1ec	The arguments of the parties are often very confusing and incomprehensible.
b87c4ae2a0cea0934cd778c97acc061497848435	Often, old hypotheses that have long been exposed and rejected by science acquire new shiny clothes thanks to the efforts of interested persons and again rush to take a place in discussions.
4f1d4c3b03e8666fe4558636b54b99b7204b90fe	It is far from easy to understand this sea of facts without special skills and training.10
428bb8ec34c13a33aba5e840832e58a98f2c4a7c	Therefore, the author expresses the hope that this book will serve as a guide for the reader , interested in pre Columbian contacts of the Old and New World.
992880d19663d03f629d1b26382d26db47c94880	1bakless J. America through the eyes of the discoverers.
7a9fb37e5b8ba740f5e6f23758ff1228bd15dbf5	- M., 1969 — - p.
40a37c405e6e634488c6f1c241f59a7d78574281	2 Voyages of Christopher Columbus.
ca0880eb47825632ee36b48120f50f02ef678e4a	Diaries.
d4226db6117e33d2a8e805d410e8d95017f81122	Letters.
1fc25fdcf066cff3b99418e56d84e525b2c4b5c4	Documents.
f538bbf688d1813e6d6919cd142eb2f3693b26ce	- M., 1956 — - P. 89.
e89cb73fe2f1826c34feb71312363f536f51e9e0	3 After the publication of the historian E. Morrison (USA) in the 40s of this century, most researchers believed that Guanahani on the modern map corresponds to Watling Island.
4f746de6b0a6e81c5b8a539bc956d8edfc6bdeac	And only very recently, in 1986, a group of specialists from the National Geographic Society (USA) using a computer identified Guanahani with the island of Samana Kay.
1768773c0688bb7755e373a350da25d790027469	See El Universo.
aab54112c924a86671b8fb1cb9e63286ae21c005	— Quito, Ecuador, 1986.
dfd15b192c03cfb0f14478e5fefca48d0f8ee304	— 9 oct.
5fbd6c3306c4934b5110a51347fd3d081384209c	4 Citations by Skelton R.
6ee0a891e28a1e03301439fec74792beb5c2c84f	A., Marston T. E., Painter G. D.
b8b68d6f3a01ebdffa8355218675fff8646c3675	The Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation.
5082cfafa92f5659f8bbfd43d730f4f719c2a5a8	— New Haven and London, 1965.
6668ee0c267542867e1098b0471f31e07305e767	— P. 17.
8d0de4673f95f699caeabd19e674f95a3ecb3815	5Ceram S. W.
540199d269569564e28d7f3401f00921fba320ee	The First American.
86653c88ed83a23c6804024eed78278679732dd7	A Story of North American Archaeology.
73f6926bbe3924be5f7d125e2003ddf366b76f8e	— N. Y., 1971.
61da0ed01cc10c2da6edd218a2de153bd3ef986b	— P. 15.
a5fb5487e5d2b32707d3b99757953803e54e3ac1	6Ceram S. W. Op. cit — - P. 28.
4c184691ab4fb10ddf99809586630c2b7523b1a7	7Fiske J.
354675d06bc709ac4e6986d290ed92aad20611d3	The discovery of America with a brief outline of ancient America and the Spanish conquest.
f369aa382a319a4893f0227f35252fdfce1c71c6	- M., 1892.
d5a33df1bbb8ee907e5c21b29a9681d3101e017c	- p. 105.
a09afde83d7e018020b8f88d3c8cee661764e3c4	8 Ibid.
7f1c377cbbe7e7821bf135360be736f84d463ce7	- P. 173-174.
f30daaf50a1e43d1ab0eadb84f10023f4dccb49b	9 Cm.
e847b040e5647eee25627a5e429aab8f4772ca8c	Kuilichi F. Okean.
e56675031b928f878c73a497fdd0ce79b4ec4254	- M., 1976 — - p.
7083edc795f8dd8f2ac8e0e91a22d0a4ef88f015	72.
c3f792653fdc41bda3ba4baef8903747b78b696e	10 The problem of pre Columbian relations between the Old and the New World is covered in various ways in countless books, pamphlets and articles of both a popular and purely scientific nature.
a43fdd51d313b93c0c3a4b9d34812d19e6acd44c	The most important works are considered to be the works of O. Kendall (Kendall A. The Art and Archaeology of pre Columbian Middle America: an annotated bibliography of works in English. - Boston, 1977);
ecb709db90048b6a3093d2190f3ff0c6c436d8a0	S. Jetta
d74597ea374f301d955a9670b41813b44d02be41	(Jett S. Diffusion versus independent development: the bases of controversy/C.
a33bdd4b3fef15188c5a59de5620bae48c510435	L. Riley et al.
f45b85ba0cf68b77d0c220df1354085914d553a7	(eds.)
03c79b3627c13f5d9a4f3d86ecf46c2737bd10b4	Man Across the Sea: Problems of pre Columbian Contacts.
4349bb7a132f6990237630ce366ad1fcf04cc789	— Austin, 1971.
a798b013a972a6ba973286702f9a4ac6f3d34084	— P. 5—53); pre Columbian Transoceanic Contacts/Jessee D. Jennings (ed.).
c8334aa046c733ea810942efb468d727fdbb3c24	Ancient Native Americans.
c56c8ef7107d4227b6a6e67c618afe13b67618fa	- San Francisco, 1978, - P. 593-650; as well as the Subject catalog of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, USA (27 volumes and appendices) (Memoirs of the Peabody Museum. - Cambr., 1957. - Vol. 11-12); the book of E. Fingerhut (Fingerhut E. R. Who first discovered America? A Critique of pre Columbian Voyages. — Claremont, California, 1986).
fffa98fb24b529efba43aa4134b7b34bfe143528	The main literature on this topic was written in the 50-60s of our century, that is, at a time when the discussion about the possibility of pre Columbian connections of the population of the two hemispheres of the earth reached its apogee in scientific circles.
7e38a7194b62d05f48cf413c5739660b0e054c74	Of course, some important publications appeared later, but they did not contain fundamentally new facts and provisions on this problem.
9133d3171936a19afc85111e35a10d203c03cc32	In recent years, in connection with the approaching anniversary of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus, scientists have again become interested in this topic.
f9e8455c47b3bd2ef146dfd09fcd029e80562195	Previous page ::: To the beginning :::
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cb6f72ef1b5c4b5c39deca05308cafe76f66ab4c	UnCopyrighted © (Sam, Maxim Stuflyaev, 2003-2016)
bf11634b895869cb6010929c5e5c1c1ad248a900	Please send your comments and suggestions to mesoamerica@narod.ru
3eb2423280a79275ae8d8e99faf3c042c21a9648	When using the materials, do not forget to put an active hyperlink to the site
067b0bffc5f4cf33af8549fbb92918b2da0ce905	Columbus, Christopher
256200ee2ec691a746708a3f8e02f60391374ff9	This is the stable version, released on October 20, 2016.
5af7b9cb9920dc390ab5bfa8c16aa801531fe496	Christopher Columbus ital.
c0dabe8473d2069ac2268631655932ddde572103	Cristoforo Colombo
71f1ae0c048b1598985d219e9eb40692054a77a9	Posthumous portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo Occupation: navigator
456148a915874f0603d9c79cdd44b4aacc7bbbee	Date of birth: between August 26 and October 31, 1451[1]
22c620392c7fdccf2d9ccce646e6d40a725b0a6d	Place of birth: Republic of Genoa
bd2f2eb0567aeb0a46d73d176cf5e184699405f3	Date of death: May 20, 1506(1506-05-20)
f8e57a80ba5fb4b46abec38198afc1ddda92035c	Place of death: Valladolid, Castile and Leon
93403bd4d03915ed36618f9f241032de84026983	Father: Domenico Colombo
10b8fbbe750318d484e6f87dcd42fb2fc953255a	Mother: Susanna Fontanarossa
5890708867dcc9caa72b8f2f1e607e8b3dc24c17	Spouse: Felippa Moniz de Palestrello
ee9822bef1d4558e2cd5be7a4a754013307e0f96	Children: Diego Columbus,
b616b3c08affd972eb7597ead02a5f4a72758ed9	Fernando Columbus,
e46dd0f66a87032dfba9662d7bf6c9411f6af7f1	Autograph:
4b419f38a316d6a665fd18b7531a020ec88046d6	Christopher Columbus on Wikimedia Commons
99d00c92b468a4ef828dbf50d910e64dfd8ee0f1	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname Columbus (values).
8aa52f140fe4df54f1c0f858b897630d194068bf	Christopher Columbus (ital. Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish Cristóbal Colón, Lat. Christophorus Columbus; between August 26 and October 31, 1451 (1451)[1], Republic of Genoa May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Castile and Leon) was a Spanish navigator who discovered America for Europeans in 1492, thanks to the equipment of expeditions by Catholic kings.
8df95e5344a7d12c5d782bdef24cf8452749a098	He discovered and initiated the exploration of South and Central America, including their continental parts and nearby archipelagos the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico), the Lesser Antilles (from Dominica to the Virgin Islands, as well as Trinidad) and the Bahamas.
96bc0b0479f2cc981f390c297ab19616f4046759	In total, Columbus made 4 voyages to America:
92eb83fdf8dda5a645d3fa46441f991097cc6016	The first voyage (August 3, 1492 March 15, 1493).
8c155176bb2f2277fee4f266eb7c6bb4fb4c9455	The second voyage (September 25, 1493 June 11, 1496).
9d85aa317737d4d75b14c0baf737ec801caa4f4c	The third voyage (May 30, 1498 — November 25, 1500).
86cd6492fef62fbf5a3eace7c70b502b993df7cd	The fourth voyage (May 9, 1502 November 1504).
930d86b6f997f895c569a68729c41e4f9620cfae	1 Biography 1.1 Youth 1.2 Expeditions 1.2.1 First expedition 1.2.1.1 Chronology of the trip
a2a13e2247d3e7d62b2ffb59c502c5cfdff16d3b	1.2.2 Section of the world 1.2.3 Second Expedition 1.2.3.1 Chronology
f354f04b69940bc47ebbe5ae926e64def84ab753	1.2.4 Third Expedition 1.2.5 Fourth Expedition 1.2.5.1 Chronology
b04a44c43071638c8d934b0bc89b580beaf09ac2	1.3 The last years of life and death 1.4 The fate of the remains
f50012dc1378c9eedbd65896429663855aab82e5	2 Mass colonization of Hispaniola 3 Expeditions to South America of Columbus 'contemporaries 4 Descendants 5 Columbus' Coat of Arms 6 Memory 6.1 Monuments 6.1.1 In Barcelona 6.1.2 Works of Tsereteli 6.1.3 Demolition of monuments in Venezuela
d66f2a9705a6ce1bb272acfceea19d350908bd71	6.2 Named after Columbus 6.3 On the money 6.3.1 Columbus on the columns
f4e37fea8922cb7353521549f6696df128d6ce6a	6.4 In philately
83bebcd012d3e1ff52071f5916171102af155c9c	7 Filmography 8 Notes 9 Literature 10 References
d6f154a8202d90107c51e90600fc38397ee7e6b2	Youth[edit / edit wiki text]
840c89b911c9e71cdd275943e205e761ddbcef2e	Artist D. Vanderlin.
351ac851158bf110ad637257bd7124ed9b2c7ff0	The landing of Columbus in America
298d6983d95c670030cdb9d994b0c18df54e88cf	Columbus was born in a poor Genoese family, his father was Domenico Colombo (ital. Domenico Colombo), and his mother is Susanna Fontanarossa (ital. Susanna Fontanarossa).
b0115dcc33919ffd1643f10314fbeb0314f81fd3	Estelle Erizarri hypothesized that Columbus was a Catalan, not an Italian[2].
93d7ec5227b6bd2b87398d3ed19a8a06f08a4900	According to the researcher, based on official documents and personal correspondence of the navigator, Columbus deliberately concealed his origin: most likely, he was a converso (a Jew converted to Christianity)[3][an unauthorized source? 256 days].
6a572a923506420a3e7e076221eda9edb0685814	The exact transliteration of his name from Spanish is Cristobal Colon, but in East Slavic and some other languages he is known as Christopher Columbus (Christophor transliteration of the Greek name Χριστόφορος).
779b27b82d42bea963000ad72cb156f926906ecd	According to the old version, in addition to Christopher, there were other children in the family: Giovanni (died in childhood, in 1484), Bartolomeo, Giacomo, Biancella (married Giacomo Bavarello).
4abc028f6f677d2f5a4be5681efca33dd43d15c8	Traditionally, six cities in Italy and Spain dispute the honor of being the small birthplace of Columbus.
2b100dc2e77107627f139082317954162a5190d6	The appearance of Columbus is known from the portraits that were painted after his death.
472b5a2f634b0b2a4b058e174e79a1d03c9e8bd6	Bartolome de Las Casas, who saw Columbus in 1493, describes him as follows:
a0533ea4f0d8aad749476d5289b5ca1675a38cef	He was tall, above average height, had a long and respectable face, an aquiline nose, bluish gray eyes, white skin, with redness, his beard and mustache were reddish in his youth, but they turned gray in his labors.
764fce1858a942ab5c6d685c584caa6e85036827	He studied at the University of Pavia.
27bee04aa128d3854b1f370ad03de7906928ee25	Around 1470, he married Dona Felipe Moniz de Palestrello, the daughter of a navigator of the time of Prince Enrique.
33ead8106b658437f91bf16a29320cd33d0ee553	Until 1472, Columbus lived in Genoa, and since 1472 — in Savona.
7054512df794dfc5d815f926206ff8970a6c9391	In the 1470s, he participated in sea trading expeditions.
8fdc5d45d192f190327ceed565c818660f3060dc	It is believed that as early as 1474, the astronomer and geographer Paolo Toscanelli told Columbus in a letter that India could be reached by a much shorter sea route if you sailed to the west.
233151243a2860341d9c37960ccb7182fefee01b	Apparently, even then Columbus was thinking about his project of a sea voyage to India.
ff49c0a2f5ee9f00b4c5266fc315a89ee7b1bc6e	Having made his own calculations based on the Toscanelli map, he decided that it was most convenient to sail through the Canary Islands, from which, in his opinion, there were about five thousand kilometers left to Japan.
9bd3b7235f418fe71fced4d31b4799ecaf2d7148	A modern map and a version of the Toscanelli map.
b04e07dbeaa6048577246a5cf58e407e2d8765b4	North and South America are depicted in light blue.
18de8e7a7efcbf35032129a0b7afcc1eb19be523	In 1476, Columbus moved to Portugal, where he lived for nine years.
04bbc0ac8f24bb27db20e50f11bb0166ef6f8445	It is known that in 1477 Columbus visited England, Ireland and Iceland, where he could get acquainted with the data of Icelanders about the lands in the west.
2d2d640cf5bb81894c7534ed9e43f96f30eabbfd	During this time, he also managed to visit Guinea as part of the expedition of Diogo de Azambuja, who went there in 1481 to build the fortress of Elmina (San Jorge da Mina).
bc4fb41938ef732529a9543189af3e24fe4cd9a9	The first appeal of Columbus with a proposal to sail to India to the west was in 1475-1480 (the exact time is unknown).
63bf64d0cdf65c30fd6ef91c14e4ad57a285c11c	He addressed it to the government and merchants of his native Genoa.
d7f688e91bbf019deff39cbfcff3378e40f835d4	There was no response.
969f9bdc13ad12b23765112aab4348230da80ccf	In 1483, he proposed his project to the Portuguese King Joao II. At first, King Juan II wanted to support the bold project, but after a long study, the project is rejected.
229e7c015260a374cf82d3cb7a741f335fb9e864	In 1485, Columbus and his son Diego moved to Spain (fleeing from persecution).
289a1523661e0af9af2b32acddd0da4e6f1872d5	In the winter of 1485-1486, he found shelter in the monastery of Santa Maria da Rabida.
42ea5110e39fd763be9a6062177ba94bc1b79be8	The abbot Juan Perez de Marchena received him and organized the first letter to Hernando de Talavera, his friend — the confessor of the Queen, with a brief summary of Columbus ' ideas.
ba318247303ff9293a18f032b9f9b5284fce9674	The King of Spain was at that time in the city of Cordoba, where preparations were being made for a war with Granada with the personal participation of the sovereigns.
06815158a136c61df7ede4db1a3db2c335719b80	In 1486, Columbus was able to interest the Duke of Medina Celi in his project.
5f5101b2464c1391399b32ad9addd153ccaffeeb	Since his own finances were not enough to organize an expedition to the west, Medina Celi brought Columbus together with royal financial advisers, merchants and bankers and with his uncle, Cardinal Mendoza.
09ef9a3da1320e1840cdfa56b7862b583a539c3b	In the winter of 1486, Columbus was introduced to Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, Archbishop of Toledo and Grand Cardinal of Spain, who, in turn, facilitated an audience with the Catholic kings.
aa99ba0f65419cd36342d120ca1f5b587659db58	A commission of theologians, cosmographers, lawyers, monks and courtiers, headed by Talavera, was appointed to study Columbus ' proposals.
c5e8d6ed5f145f21d93d40663e6ed45e989429d6	The commission met for four years, but because of Columbus ' secrecy and his unwillingness to disclose plans, it never made a final verdict.
9ec5c5daf77db639610d73d76721e785f2ca732a	On April 20, 1488, Columbus, who was following the royal court from city to city, unexpectedly received a letter from the Portuguese king with an offer to return to Portugal:
6e659670f9ba8f047a7de75ef658ed62850a1243	And if you are afraid of Our justice regarding some of your obligations, then know that neither after your arrival, nor during your stay in Portugal, nor after your departure, you will not be arrested, detained, charged, convicted, or prosecuted for any reason arising from civil, criminal or any other law.
97549a8e51c365be3759732cfd2672e5b714e180	Columbus sends his proposals to other addresses: from King Henry VII of England in February 1488, he received a favorable response, but without any specific proposals.
d118a0632886be15939925b34bdafe3f92f8bffa	Isabella of Castile and Christopher Columbus.
c08c438cc8330c6f0403f9d400d7dc335cf581e4	Monument in Granada
b12f865a68690928e10cf9ee80d3b7a4ec0d2fd0	In 1491, a second personal meeting with Ferdinand and Isabella took place in Seville.
d4448d083533ecee9f22564ff22510a147c61b3b	The result for Columbus was again disappointing: "In view of the enormous costs and efforts required for the conduct of the war, it is not possible to start a new enterprise."
e723d89594e96cf2ff7d4d5ace5f2adda1f94b8c	It was decided to return to negotiations after the end of the war.
5283ff7be0da20d96b246bb9774b3edf4d2f76e8	In 1491, Columbus turned to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the largest magnate, the owner of about a hundred merchant ships, but he was also refused.
d91ff70013bded2d484a03f30031ff782911fd8c	Finally, in January 1492, the long awaited event took place — the capture of Granada.
3652a07ac9eff1d36ee2147bf96acd23ba5b0fc7	Columbus, apparently, greatly overestimated the victorious enthusiasm of the king of Spain: when he formulated the conditions under which he intended to discover and own new lands (appoint him viceroy of new lands, award him the title of "chief admiral of the sea of the ocean"), His majesty recognized Columbus's demands as "excessive and unacceptable", negotiations were interrupted, and the king left Santa Fe.
525f45e7ad0e1fd6ced20de228adbe829a44f2cd	Columbus left for Cordoba in February 1492, and then declared his intention to emigrate to France altogether.
9f31f130a4887f4af674b480120736f4a89ae19f	Here, Queen Isabella took a step forward.
c621ca0fd15ead423195ba6b59e377cd6cdac1a5	During the previous meeting, Columbus shared with her his idea about the possibility of striking from the east at the Ottoman Empire, which was at that time carrying out a massive offensive into Europe by land and sea, and even about the likely liberation of Christian shrines in Palestine, lost by Europeans since the Crusades[4].
650878c28cae568144c3ee77ca5fed853b87ea89	The idea of the upcoming liberation of the Holy Sepulchre so captured the heart of Isabella that she decided not to give this chance to either Portugal or France.
16190feda04711d9e0313f249288b41ad50b02b6	Although the Spanish kingdom was formed as a result of the dynastic marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, their monarchies retained, however, separate independent administrations, cortes and finances.
bdb9906c96e901b69b27f164e5f39b28c7f02174	"I'll pawn my jewelry," she said.
ae448aeb85defcc3eb3d087c7543bf6c93b3fa00	On April 30, 1492, the royal couple bestows the title "don" on Columbus and his heirs (that is, they make him a nobleman) and confirms that, if the overseas project is successful, he will be Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Viceroy of all the lands that he will discover or acquire, and will be able to pass these titles by inheritance.
49fa0dd7400facfe519e244617a4add4a735cf02	Nevertheless, Columbus had to find the money for the equipment of the expedition on his own at the expense of the lost state tax payments of Her Majesty the Queen of Castile.
3be9326106e58e180a4774b67b66c408b32c2c2d	In addition, according to the contract, the eighth part of the expenses was to be borne by Columbus himself, who did not have a penny at all.
d3d27d6afe03ef1f0df4664a9f0a9d94595371a5	However, Columbus was helped by Martin Alonso Pinson.
c9befaa94d4c14b5e220d29ddd395250dabc1e27	One of the ships, the Pinta, was his own, and he equipped it at his own expense; he lent Christopher money for the second ship so that Columbus could make his formal contribution under the contract.
4c2660396c4ffaa9a107e167ca4b7dc42685fd2a	Expeditions[edit / edit wiki text]
23cd4ab0638c515103af26d8aa406832f966d3a5	Map of the four expeditions of Columbus
b9c95f54f827668c7b037e23015b1764461bcb26	The first expedition[edit / edit wiki text]
5ebcd2d49978ab647454c9d5a71bc331c974612e	The first expedition
2929aed5b8bfa8f08db699ebb5384778025eda98	In his first expedition, Columbus equipped three ships the caracca " Santa Maria "(the flagship, the owner and captain of the caracca was a Cantabrian Juan de la Cosa), the" Pinta "(the owner of the ship and its captain Martin Alonso Pinson) and the third was a ship that is often called"Ninya".
165289edc83c609663c7e0adc4859da49f3977e4	The length of the vessel is the largest 17.3 meters, width 5.6 meters, draft 1.9 meters, displacement 101.2 tons, crew of 40 people.
f907a1ee07e2b681b8c0663d1712de2ce3834924	In historical science, it is considered a debatable question about which island, called "Guanahani" in the local language, and named "San Salvador" by Columbus himself, was discovered on October 12, 1492: Watling Island or Samana Kay Island.
45fa89b8210b35bcac2713598f91617547b13357	At the same time, Christopher Columbus considered these new lands to be East Asia — the environs of China, Japan or India.
d3da0878b13e970c514575c412b62832f1101a5a	A copy of Columbus 'ship" Santa Maria"
cac81eb2876fd20a20c5cadda7aeee585cc46904	Chronology of the journey[edit / edit wiki text]
218d56ab093e298ed5883538a21fe45c8ee1189a	August 3, 1492 Columbus took the ships out of the harbor of the city of Palos de la Frontera.
26cfce0a5f957387bd436d164b5376b114f6a72f	September 16 bunches of green algae began to appear on the way of the expedition.
7dd44937ea71aa8317748105df58568035b4d2fd	Gradually, there were more and more of them.
56291f37f5ca17fc9b76c9fa24f55a4e0b6ee4ed	The ships went through this strange water space for three weeks.
58c2510859f564a61ff5612e42f93030b3dde704	So the Sargasso Sea was discovered.
c4feb8cf7839c26d2339f3f25224785113c0b08f	October 12 — at two o'clock in the morning, the sailor Rodrigo de Triana discovered land from the Pinta.
5ae3c03247cfd6e0ac2dc8e598e6ba4e877002d7	Even the day before, the sailors noticed the lights.
7410c11b2d353eda3d608271e0b999fa7e70e695	October 13 Columbus landed on the shore, hoisted the Castilian banner on it, formally took possession of the island and drew up a notarial act about it.
74ae9630ac10f36e1800b27accc93df6b8a58be7	The island is named San Salvador (for more information, see Guanajani).
0bf07849c20b0b1cad9d4fa459377879f81778f9	Its coordinates are 24° s. w. and 74°30' s. d.
54636b07fa26701e0a3c84def9dc52762074d196	On the island, the Spaniards saw local residents.
06d3400e057035cfd5c7d314731a38018ad42546	Perhaps they were Arawaks.
e1252ed0def5c189641c34d82cdb44554c5cddfd	Arawaks went completely naked, ritual patterns were applied to the body.
e4d3590a0052363298ee14efe0c6d194ad0868c9	They had no iron weapons.
afd6d29185de1fe6791b2bd6e4b5bb46a714521b	The local residents wore clothes made of cotton yarn.
2c1ca32245f994009057613da1a418e0ab60f12d	In their homes, the Spaniards saw hammocks for the first time.
dff58263c8ca2d6a1df458b8ffab13c1a03e60b2	October 28, 1492 Columbus landed in the Bay of Bariey in the northeast of Cuba, 76° s. d.
3f673f108cacb59c3b3e282c0fca332f35c3e188	Communicating with the locals, Columbus decided that he was on one of the peninsulas of East Asia.
69a5300e61bd45965a16fa8fec2a4fb7488181cb	November 13, 1492 after learning from the natives about the island abounding in gold, Columbus moved east, in search of it.
30b9ec43b697dbeb2e7e6a00dcd06aaec9de0e45	November 15, 1492 Columbus in his diary for the first time describes the tobacco used by the Indians.
856e74cbf0fbf7c2df6a2b5246a178c56c482751	November 20, 1492 the "Pint" disappeared.
752f727e61fe42433f54f9f2981d75c73bd291e1	Her captain Pinson Sr. was distinguished by unauthorized actions and repeatedly left subordination.
abff985b981a7454f9ff96931b5fa3b86456cda3	The two remaining vessels continued eastward until they reached the eastern tip of Cuba Cape Maysi.
833bdce66a61552eb04c7d9e27f936fbedbe69ee	December 6, 1492 the island of Haiti is discovered, which Columbus called Hispaniola, because its valleys seemed to him similar to the lands of Castile.
e6bb7267ad23db175755420cea0761bc34621215	Columbus declares the open land the property of the Spanish king.
fce7aac608f2b574b176795ce4d8ac89768246cb	An illustration from 1893.
84d7c51aae95e5033cd52fa850620f5da3ed932f	December 25, 1492 - "Santa Maria" sat on the reefs.
f239ae21cf47604e00f61d3c40cf8750cd9a2668	With the help of local residents, they managed to remove guns, supplies and valuable cargo from the ship.
13fad244e42a65b6d501e9f2b24d875ce9b633e4	From the wreckage of the ship was built on about.
667d9ddca7fd325ae179230f9a598fb2ad4833e0	Haiti fort, named La Navidad (Christmas).
02749cc94f8806678082ba8dfef993b2b733c1b5	Columbus left 39 sailors here, armed the fort with cannons from the Santa Maria and left them supplies for a year, and on January 4, 1493, taking several islanders with him, he set sail on the small Ninya.
a1238d29f35986e506720427121c32721e9c3d65	January 6, 1493 off the northern coast of Hispaniola, the "Ninya" came across the "Pinta".
83c195805059d163deaae450bfd073725d103732	January 16 two ships set out on their return journey.
15f5e9f56ee10649726f2d388b3bc907d6a5a9ae	February 12 a storm arose, and on the night of February 14, the ships lost sight of each other.
d1682ee32a62ea9447b7f4cc123a4a9bc30f86ff	February 15 when the wind subsided a little, the sailors saw land, and on February 18, the Ninya approached the island of Santa Maria (Azores).
9a3bde2f56656fa2f981b7a012b4aa2dc6a6436e	March 15 - "Ninya" returns to Spain.
6b2d15bc7b03e02125a960e3b875d281e098c871	World section[edit / edit wiki text]
bee6b6d67bfba9226d3d9b553d0d398f8556b525	The papal decision formed the basis of the Spanish Portuguese negotiations, which a year later ended with the Treaty of Tordesillas of June 7, 1494.
ec3433565df609d8454a5548589a8f6f42a751f4	The second expedition[edit / edit wiki text]
0a4406b8e9e01a41a1769e72c9f64cf9af41198b	The second expedition
4acfb1f3dda85b32919c38c1f0dfe24fe47cd24a	Columbus ' second flotilla already consisted of 17 ships.
c36015c9057dcbc9df7e88cc7b9a4334c2e8c57f	The flagship is the Maria Galante (displacement of two hundred tons).
10a422280edba146b5ea596b94201bf3c033ae73	They brought horses and donkeys, cattle and pigs, vines, seeds of agricultural crops, for the organization of a permanent colony.[source?]
d1e135e9d6954c25cd6cddc4c600f3108d01fc45	Timeline[edit / edit wiki text]
2753641ccdeda3a1530a2e6a57f6ffdd600f72b6	September 25, 1493 the expedition left Cadiz.
7236095098900d0693248d83ed9019b6acffce00	November 4 the expedition arrived at the largest of the local islands, named Guadeloupe.
b91c47cd918dcbfda7ec7ebcb40826f35d6702e8	November 11 the islands of Montserrat, Antigua, Nevis are opened.
3de68303702bb05c3efaaa64658d2292fedbbbe1	November 15 an archipelago is discovered to the north of Santa Cruz, which Columbus called the "Islands of Eleven Thousand Virgins" - now they are called the Virgin Islands.
ec73c81247b8bc86c9ba771d59501a656cc231d8	November 19 the Spaniards landed on the western shore of a large island, which Columbus named San Juan Bautista.
8150110157a357b3c4d14454dc6d85cd7e53a8d4	Since the XVI century, it has been called Puerto Rico.
c375aa57b161aec9018178f672cb9836b6b8ae22	November 27 the flotilla approached the built during the first expedition to the island.
4f0436761b349cffd3bebecce4d8d3a1a4271337	Haiti to the fort of La Navidad, but on the shore the Spaniards found only traces of a fire and corpses.
2d6f9a45ef4487ff4f8d987f3b49db28b8d3a696	March 1494 Columbus made a trip inside the island.
1e212eaf48992d3d0c8ba17325ff4cac1ad68bfc	Meanwhile, in La Isabella, most of the food supplies were spoiled due to the heat, and Columbus decided to leave only 5 ships and about 500 people on the island, and send the rest to Spain.
4f136ca329e4673768b5fe745e6f958c5f5347bb	April 24, 1494 leaving a garrison in La Isabella under the command of his son Diego, Columbus led three small ships west along the southeast coast of Cuba.
cf98841cb0dd276ffa7f021efe44aa7bb4a7c284	May 1 a narrow and deep bay is discovered (the modern city of Guantanamo with Guantanamo Bay).
84ab7ed8296776c78d06aa9b6877c8ee882ead40	Further to the west are the Sierra Maestra Mountains.
17680ffa87bc13459d46c17d5f622bcf8f56e4a7	From here, Columbus turned south.
e06ad283acf599a82a919eacf633aeb76bb6bba2	May 5 the island of Jamaica is discovered (Columbus named it Santiago).
24dcc8b235623279f293a33451d11054556a2ca5	May 14 after passing along the northern coast of Jamaica and finding no gold, Columbus returned to Cuba.
884d65c073a9900491504fd9442b29c42f273e48	For the next 25 days, the ships moved through small islands along the southern coast of the island.
48f4e5f7e22c98086bab2a8ca0b2555bbc5543a9	June 12 after passing almost 1700 km along the southern coast of Cuba and not reaching only 100 km to the western tip of the island, Columbus decided to turn because the sea was very shallow, the sailors were dissatisfied, and provisions were running out.
95474e07f8c8f7dff3ad73e64ad00921ba738ac1	Before that, in order to protect himself from accusations of cowardice that could follow in Spain, he demanded that the entire team swear that Cuba is part of the continent, and therefore there is no point in sailing further.
07ecd27992c1efe8d765b284de961bf8c485e17e	Turning back, the flotilla discovered the island of Evangelista (later named Pinos, and since 1979 Juventud).
bc60b54f3957fea76f7db4957cc6f8ab520915a4	June 25 September 29 on the way back, we rounded Jamaica from the west and south, passed along the southern coast of Hispaniola and returned to La Isabella.
6a43e6f1d151f8c8963c44eddda833dead5b71f6	By this time, Columbus was already quite seriously ill.
b2b10aba7be41d2970bfb53a8a25678e9efb7b01	In the past five months, Columbus ' second brother, Bartolome, brought three ships from Spain with troops and supplies.
b17bcdf56a7ec401968881719a28067a362cdaaa	A group of Spaniards captured them and fled home.
5fdead4f272f9da234ddd6e31f0d4ab1d7331ac9	The others scattered around the island, robbing and raping the natives.
4aceed214e132bf8ceb87db75d7b8735785707ce	They resisted and killed some of the Spaniards.
0f464987ade867bc27cea36145a6db8f8f1334bb	After his return, Christopher was ill for five months, and when he recovered, in March 1495 he organized the conquest of Hispaniola by a detachment of two hundred soldiers.
4649f60ec915bd611973c18f617b270474ce36cd	The natives were almost unarmed, and Columbus used cavalry and specially trained dogs brought with him against them.
3d9e89bd7db3763ef404ef71eb6d347737def24a	After nine months of this persecution, the island was conquered.
276bfada88b77ea7b6e6d41fb4abfe49c3c85f50	The Indians were taxed with tribute, turned into slavery on gold mines and plantations.
5c81faf0d990892c0ab969af60d74d5891d6a918	The Indians fled from the villages to the mountains, died from unknown diseases brought by colonists from Europe.
fa1cbf58255912f8f4b14cbcb9730e078bd27e1f	Meanwhile, the colonists moved to the southern coast of the island, where in 1496 Bartolome Columbus founded the city of Santo Domingo — the future center of Hispaniola, and later — the capital of the Dominican Republic.
046878c39f0ea44386578fa27f12b7a376e9053c	Meanwhile, the Spanish royal couple, finding that the income from Hispaniola (a little gold, copper, valuable wood and several hundred slaves sent to Spain by Columbus) was insignificant, allowed all Castilian subjects to move to new lands, paying off the treasury with gold.
f52302bc107de6e90cdb08178890148f50b146dd	April 10, 1495 The Spanish government broke off relations with Columbus, and Amerigo Vespucci got the right to supply India until May 1498.
9dd6c2552381fd1de0e104440bbdfe62380c28fd	On January 11, 1496, Vespucci receives 10,000 maravedi from the treasurer Pinelo to pay the wages of sailors[5].
2dfb4f705be7990633393bc6d67d5e3855541413	In fact, he signed a contract to supply one (if not two) expeditions in India in Andalusia, in particular the third expedition of Columbus.
74492e108934127ecefe200f35ea0107a37d4e62	The success of Columbus's enterprise inspired Amerigo with the idea of leaving the trading business to get acquainted with the newly discovered part of the world.
a7290bf88c8f7b65d15a9da7c6d19aa7d8f6ebae	On June 11, 1496, Christopher Columbus returned to Spain to defend the rights granted to him earlier.
416125bd0facaa997117fe13cdd2e1960350536f	He provided a document according to which he really reached the Asian continent (see above, although in fact it was the island of Cuba), said that in the center of Hispaniola he discovered the wonderful country of Ophir, where gold was once mined for the biblical King Solomon.
a63b1855ced7b74153bc1eceb3f4375af5857dec	In addition, Columbus proposed to send not free settlers to the new lands, but criminal criminals, reducing their sentence by half.
ef9ba5949eb85104ef35f6fa4603220cd55460c1	The latter proposal could not fail to find a response from the ruling elite, since, on the one hand, it freed Spain from undesirable elements, reducing the costs of their detention in prisons, and on the other hand, it ensured the development of newly discovered lands with rather desperate "human material".
61521c25a528cff7ec158592dcc519f2df11e0b2	The third expedition[edit / edit wiki text]
0e93a2a0adf861a1e1c71c3406e260550baa33d2	The third expedition
c864ea51c57124ff3e93cf94086aec189620234f	On the third expedition, we managed to find few funds, and only six small ships and about 300 crew members (among them Juan de la Cosa, Pedro Alonso Niño) went with Columbus, and criminals from Spanish prisons were accepted into the team.
650a9ec36626e55f45be5baacf6dbaa7741d8ca1	On May 30, 1498, the flotilla left the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.
21b58f50abc659a4e90c529d38eebd79fb37e247	This time Columbus decided to stay even further south, believing that gold could be found only closer to the equator.
09b22128ae6babe3edd65929939459318ddd080b	From the island of Hierro (Canary Islands), three ships went directly to Hispaniola, and the other three led to the Cape Verde Islands, from where he headed southwest, intending to stay as close to the equator as possible.
70e45b026cabfbfbb19a9bd7e15a259946a9c6a1	The ships descended to the latitude of 9°30 ' s. s. and then followed to the west.
681d0ec5ad4101ec4468b663224ba029aef1ebc7	On July 31, the island of Trinidad was opened.
6934e53c9359a96a2e5159b89c93f42b942fa4e4	Columbus rounded it from the south and came to the delta of the Orinoco River and the Gulf of Paria, which he explored for about two weeks, but, overcome by a serious illness, was forced to hurry north to Santo Domingo.
de66aa0d51ca6f92d349a03dbd37d757533d2c78	On August 20, Columbus arrived in Hispaniola, which he found in a deplorable state.
8b7b6b64d6d7333fc14bb774137362ef876de33e	The colonists raised an armed rebellion against his brother Bartolome, which ended with the fact that Columbus was forced to introduce a system of enslaving the Indians for rebellious colonists (Spanish repartimiento — distribution), each of whom was assigned a large plot of land.
0cb5d33971aff55a346dc1eacb7573ee469dc086	The Spanish royal treasury received almost no income from its new colony, and at this time the Portuguese Vasco da Gama opened a sea route to the real India (1498) and returned with a cargo of spices, thus proving that the lands discovered by Columbus were not India at all, and he himself was a deceiver.
1186ab8f678473f40b9a595ecc3893a5ed55a82e	In 1499, Columbus ' monopoly on the discovery of new lands was canceled.
e1c5cad9c7b7c7cc9a8268b7759b6e1c57e2a767	In 1500, the royal couple sent their representative Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola with unlimited powers.
49ba89569ba6284fa7faddb2088f876c5528efc3	He took all the power on the island into his own hands, arrested Christopher Columbus along with his brothers, put them in shackles and sent them to Spain.
b6839b7ea0bbcaba78c8e59df72c40246644e5d6	Upon their arrival, however, local financiers were able to convince the royal couple to drop the charges against Columbus.
7b21604d48175bed83819069552a592aad99cf3c	The fourth expedition[edit / edit wiki text]
1c40eba2e695af02041f77c60757d06a9395fd35	The fourth expedition
df34185d00ada622b3a68d74d29eaa38f377a0cc	Christopher Columbus still wanted to find a new way from the lands he discovered to South Asia, to the source of spices.
f7be875d5e026ab1bc8d083399264ddc8aaa6fd3	He was sure that such a path existed, since he had observed a strong sea current off the coast of Cuba, going west through the Caribbean Sea.
a3fd3b03b470232d0015f324f07e857905187ad8	The king finally gave Columbus permission for a new expedition.
39b4572e8b4047ebd240e3a3b3366f2a9b947f87	On the fourth expedition, Columbus took with him his brother Bartolomeo and his 13 year old son Hernando.
95e96c8c8fa775923c75e0e3aa9aa634c8fc80d7	During the fourth voyage, Columbus discovered the continent to the south of Cuba the coast of Central America — and proved that the Atlantic Ocean separates from the Southern Sea, which he had heard from the Indians, an insurmountable barrier.
7c92ff64ad8fae71a293c2298ebce28bae51b5b1	He was also the first to report on the Indian peoples living near the South Sea.
a42d19f4e248a2f48448cb3809bc4d144fff1a12	May 9, 1502 the beginning of the expedition.
398b72c3b364f7eebab8449ea1928243a3505cae	From Cadiz: 4 caravels, the flagship - "La Capitana" on June 15 moving through the Lesser Antilles, discovered the island of Martinique.
16f521338e3bd8da7974c082cc8c2aa47733bb0e	June 29 fleeing from a sea storm, he asked the governor of Hispaniola, Nicolas de Ovando, for permission to take refuge in the harbor of Santo Domingo, but he was refused.
12fab3318c4a8133812b5a48552083913c8612bd	Fortunately, the ships of Columbus coped with the storm.
9d4a61772dc7cc690721440ca0a27ed42ef82afd	July Columbus moved west along the southern coast of Hispaniola and Jamaica.
c860577cedf7ef333bfef8a724ffbe62abfe169c	He intended to reach the mainland in the west and find the strait by following the coast.
c0729acbc288b4066888d405617ca59203bda2f1	July 30 Columbus approached the northern coast of the land inhabited by the Maya people (Honduras).
b81be5e97738a8131c6caa0f55f401a7a680f76a	Bartolome landed on the mainland and formally took possession of the country.
ea677198368c9ac56ad2f1fe546010f52552d84a	September 18 — open the Mosquito coast (Nicaragua) and "Gold coast" (later — Costa Rica, the "Rich coast").
dfec4c9df73db5fad3b070156fbb79f2215feecf	October 5 — Indians of the country of Veragua Columbus learned that to the South sea (the Gulf of Panama in the Pacific ocean), you can get through the narrow but mountainous strip of land (isthmus of Panama).
0b51a2e883e140c09d9dfce79fafed66ea8a2b0b	October 17 Moskitos Bay is opened.
8f165db0394e460a50ca52d961e04d8a7e35f61c	Local residents told about the existence in the south of the country, inhabited by warlike people who ride animals, wear shells, wield swords, bows and arrows (obviously, we were talking about Peru — a highly developed Inca state, whose inhabitants used llamas as pack animals).
29a820e7cd1d4540261868f84afaeccba833599e	November - Columbus ' ships struggle along the coast of Panama.
5e8ce9f67803d3a26adef085ea165d5755ff49bb	December The expedition celebrates the new year 1503 in the bay, which in 400 years will become the northern entrance to the Panama Canal.
cdfc2e54fdbdf247fb050feee031d6b4cec9e195	Columbus is only 65 km away from the Pacific Ocean, but he will never overcome them.
613ae46d88afc5930bf45448a50f0c5db8fdddf4	January 1503 Columbus returns to the Bay of Mosquitos.
060fdc15356806080ee2c21d98d608f3865680bb	He wants to leave the colony here under the command of his brother Bartolome, but the local Indians are so belligerent that he refuses this intention.
5b723d307bf3c480ba23ddb8ca2d9e6194d9bf65	April 16 Columbus goes to sea and resumes the search for the strait, moving east.
569d0ad31e93be0e620ce0b73c4570b85e7b9646	May 1 Reaching Cape Tiburon in the Gulf of Darien, Columbus learns from the Indians that there were Europeans in this area two years ago (Rodrigo de Bastidas, 1501), which means that the search for the strait can be stopped.
ccaa30ce6fd1cfea90909637dda3be80209db5fa	Columbus turns the ships north to Jamaica.
83e5146afa3593e5e359aafea8cd1371bbf6e479	June 25 Columbus, after long wanderings at sea, during which he discovered the Cayman Islands, manages to bring the ships to the north coast of Jamaica (200 km from Hispaniola) and run them aground.
6e1e6c64f243958a09b0fd5034de35def8f673d6	July Columbus sends an envoy to Hispaniola in an Indian pie with a request to the governor of the Spanish colony to come to his rescue.
73a2cd412256fa7db010db45800a8c590ab6ec75	February 29, 1504 Christopher Columbus uses a lunar eclipse to intimidate hostile Jamaican Indians: "... The admiral rescued the expedition by resorting to an old remedy that can confuse simple minded Indians.
cc5a87ed3e4a1261e3971bc2b8b95ec06bb16ed1	According to the calendars, he knew that there would be a lunar eclipse on February 29, 1504, which he announced to the Indian Caciques as a sign of heaven, dissatisfied with the poor supply of the Spaniards.
1e64f12813484503c6022127ec6979bd42ac1757	When the eclipse began, the stricken Indians were able to they said that Columbus was praying for their salvation, which would be granted if they resumed the supply of food.
354f57f41cc2397f99de97248a605a332d6aaf63	The Caciques agreed to everything, and from now on the Spaniards had no food problems.
76c5eeba244da19bd05991a1354b9459bca4e694	" - Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo and Valdez about the fourth expedition of Columbus (1502-1504).
205edee12e5d6297dc45288ff849d5273e052e04	June only a year later, a ship arrives in Jamaica, equipped at the expense of Columbus himself.
df3965445af79376060d635e4fc81bdaa240fba2	He takes all the surviving members of the expedition.
86b35cfb494adaf01b9c5fa955041549fdc19f3a	June 29 Columbus leaves Jamaica.
cf0d6652a99d69caa1a2c45b9ced728bbe981a5b	They get to Hispaniola for a month and a half.
bb44575e3b58772de0b4f1873360c59070097026	September 12 the Columbus brothers leave Hispaniola and reach Castile through many storms.
07b1fa2b0cb957bf36872133b2c17e65bb26638c	The last years of life and death[edit / edit wiki text]
62f061262bc07289edaaad3afd42618d7e3ce44b	The seriously ill Columbus was transported to Seville.
04cbcaec976a07b318cad77fc895b56c171060f6	He could not achieve the restoration of the rights and privileges granted to him, and spent all the money on fellow travelers.
63623674cf230a6b563265a422a320b78d83012f	On May 20, 1506, in Valladolid, Columbus uttered his last words: "Into your hands, Lord, I entrust my spirit."
d0a801f7a405eb83fe7ee21e2d012115ff010cf8	He was buried in Seville, but his contemporaries almost did not notice his death.
01013158605d3f24d2da6a58d8ea4e1161b020f8	The great importance of Columbus ' discoveries for Spain was recognized only in the middle of the XVI century, after the conquest of Mexico, Peru and the states in the north of the Andes, when ships with silver and gold went to Europe.
3b2e1f8672c3e0256f76f4a5781f0f11368c2a9c	The fate of the remains[edit / edit wiki text]
24c5b2f7489e91b26814e6167a29296428cf525d	After the death of Columbus in 1506, his ashes were first buried in Seville (Spain), but then the Emperor Charles V decided to fulfill his dying wish and bury him on the land of the West Indies.
056009f33c088ae91a799e1807ca992024ac07be	In 1540, the remains of Columbus were taken to the island of Hispaniola (the so called Haiti at that time) and buried in Santo Domingo.
ce983d96adc8d48fb97877e8b6e5a4d564ed9efc	When at the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries, part of Hispaniola passed from the Spaniards to the French (and became known as Haiti), the ashes were transported to Cuba in the cathedral of Havana.
342c9fa4b8bd30154a4a12dd897f59e5fbfc6610	After the expulsion of the Spaniards from this island in 1898, the navigator's ashes were again returned to Santo Domingo, and then to Seville.
52945c49e55f9bca480f4fdb6c95de9d96d4b5a6	Columbus ' grave is located in the Seville Cathedral.
12938763ffbb9162e2b2e83f19f4309f8f14ef0f	However, at the end of the XIX century, during the restoration of the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, the oldest in the New World, a box with bones was discovered, on which it was written that they belonged to Columbus.
f0c22a6e7dca006b646ee6aa02e6d9a63914cb8a	After that, a dispute arose between Seville and Santo Domingo for the right to be considered the place where the great navigator rests.
5a9b73273d2be4530706b68bcfe53ff6eb082ee1	In 2003, a group of geneticists and anthropologists led by Jose Antonio Lorente, professor of forensic Medicine at the University of Granada and the FBI Academy at Quantico, began to study this issue.
c1b5a1556739fb48b588c1b05d7334a42f8d5cab	Analysis of the alleged remains of Columbus, exhumed in Seville, showed, however, that they belong to a rather fragile 45 year old man, while Christopher Columbus, on the contrary, was very strong, and died at the age of 55 to 60 years.
2793c57a9af2381ae2f95d53ea3ee8d5f0031c4b	Now it is the turn to study other remains that were exhumed in October 2003 at the base of the Columbus Monument lighthouse in Santo Domingo.
c195f30dcb27e529970f88a649190b2012b71df2	At the same time, it cannot be excluded that the remains of Christopher Columbus were generally lost during numerous crossings.
98c437ddb5ca2b290d2bf0b27d38462b323acd01	Mass colonization of Hispaniola[edit / edit wiki text]
c03f370a995f13c5b7e210abc0ff3ac94e9ab560	Spain began to receive gold mined in Hispaniola, and pearls collected on the Pearl Coast (the southern coast of the Caribbean Sea).
7051aa0e9a79948eb8cb8b8188e22527a5c18ca5	Hundreds and thousands of people who wanted to achieve wealth rushed to Western India.
b1bf38295bdb7ea5317ad096dbe77c3dddaf1aa8	Since 1502, the mass settlement of the Antilles by the Spaniards began.
5bd5b62ee578993956e4f1eb5b4c19b6e15a30f6	The Spaniards committed mass atrocities against the local population.
224f88744c12a821c59443ae154f7c9bae2d2c7b	In 1515, the indigenous inhabitants of Haiti were already less than 15 thousand, and by the middle of the XVI century they had completely died out.
176e39554b124e887e42158f8068d1ad3f519b2f	Slaves from the Lesser Antilles began to be imported to Hispaniola, as well as "savages" from Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.
4b6ffdc1797ce5b33be46f1ccc59fa42b30fccca	When the indigenous population began to disappear there, mass slave hunting in South America intensified, and then slaves began to be imported from Africa.
7e1e7895f68947ddb5d037b26b6128862a746c0b	Expeditions to South America by contemporaries of Columbus[edit / edit wiki text]
1c08d4f1bea544c529215e9ea52d0396c596d001	Immediately after the abolition of Christopher Columbus ' monopoly right to discover new lands in Western India in 1499, participants of the famous navigator's previous voyages began to equip their expeditions there.
c1016c9b473c430379c022599353e3d18fe2c596	The first were Pedro Alonso Niño (May, 1499-1500), Alonso Ojeda (May 20, 1499 February 1500, 1502), Vicente Yanes Pinson (December 1499-1500), Rodrigo de Bastidas (October 1500-1502).
719da241cfaa1f2a7b16007b4f1a231d9109ec29	He was accompanied on this expedition by Vasco Nunes de Balboa and Juan de la Cosa.
d0a20bedfd94f45853af42525dc9e0a6a17ca37b	In 1499-1500, Pedro Alonso Niño visited the Pearl Coast to the west of the Gulf of Paria in the Caribbean Sea and brought home 38 kg of pearls — this was the richest overseas production of the Spaniards in the XV century.
dd02292a8f337251a24db1382188f00886af22e8	With Alonso Ojeda, a representative of the Florentine bankers who financed the enterprise, Amerigo Vespucci, also went on an expedition in 1499, as a pilot and cartographer Juan de la Cosa and notary Rodrigo de Bastidas.
96dafe5c8c85a50f2f7e7f0613db2bd7518026d4	Approaching the South American mainland at a latitude of about 5° s. s., Ojeda headed northwest, walked 1200 km along the coast of Guyana and Venezuela to the Orinoco Delta, then through the straits to the Caribbean Sea and to the Pearl Coast.
8375e2a210597dd48e781b2660aff86846cdf6b0	Meanwhile, Amerigo Vespucci, moving to the southeast, discovered the mouths of the Amazon and Para rivers.
ea711dea9846ffe9b40f220349d3cada9ff56a39	Having climbed 100 kilometers upstream by boat, he was never able to land on the shore because of the dense forest.
176293a1da96f4d17386e10eaf04df14771da260	The movement further to the southeast was extremely hampered by a strong oncoming current.
0c85c5e5bab111a347b5f827626a7389202bf395	This is how the Guianan Current was discovered.
782139e9168c59ae53790717a1df57246afb1789	In total, Vespucci discovered about 1,200 kilometers of the northeastern coast of South America.
c0f8f056f265c9eacddb10bf99759c67615ede77	Returning back to the north and northwest, Vespucci landed on Trinidad, and later joined the ships of Ojeda.
889623ee322294e8b667706ce292be62e5926a5f	Together they explored the coast to the west of the Pearl Coast, discovered the eastern part of the Caribbean Andes, participated in armed skirmishes with unfriendly Indians, discovered the islands of Curacao and Aruba — the westernmost of the Lesser Antilles.
f83419600518e8a61c18df5f95721cbdc65653d3	The bay to the west of Ojeda was named Venezuela ("little Venice").
767a2cceade115c206b1e8a34ff5f270ddf57d0e	Later, this name spread to the entire southern coast of the Caribbean Sea to the Orinoco Delta.
f6f21860d89f84976866a1d8e15d3a4a03ac2a8f	In total, Ojeda surveyed more than 3,000 kilometers of the northern coast of an unknown land and never found an end to it, which meant that such a land should be a continent.
d96771b12d70625b8f664f37094cbbd72871b947	In December 1499, another member of the first Columbus expedition, Vicente Yanes Pinson, went overseas.
c7da9de17c1f975990d991d4527fe1ab2ad0c353	He was the first of the Spaniards to cross the equator, and on January 26, 1500, he went, as it turned out later, to the easternmost tip of the South American continent — Cape San Rocky.
e023144f35d90f1132086beadfd16fd59639341c	Pinson landed on the shore and issued an act of taking possession of the country that would later be called Brazil.
5de9ada7c8634d8222f78b0f1c8efc7104293c05	Moving from here to the northwest, Pinson, for the second time after Vespucci, discovered the mouth of the Para, the Amazon, reached Guiana and the mouth of the Orinoco.
f0b5a5a34795d09f4195d2ff1deebed656f75583	In October 1500, Bastidas sailed from Cadiz on two ships.
95d181fdc17cc9f93034404ac50660c6761bbe92	After reaching the shores of South America, Bastidas explored about 1000 km of the Caribbean coast, discovered the mouth of the Magdalena River, as well as the Gulf of Darien and the Gulf of Uraba (the northern coast of Colombia).
b3a58fab3ece109289afc12eda751e71d42b9514	The members of the expedition were the first to explore the interior of the continent in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region.
9b2337ed3d2b267c40ba652c9f010f0fb0ea1e85	He was forced to return to Santo Domingo, having previously been the first European to set foot on the Isthmus of Panama.
1c14564c11dd14ea19787925b0dc2b311dc10c03	During the voyage in 1502, Bastidas found a lot of gold, but on charges of illegal trade, he was arrested by the governor of Hispaniola, Francisco de Bobadilla, and sent to Spain.
dc83ed6a8361b057d7286cc354b26f1bee4003a9	At the same time, several more Spanish expeditions took place (the main purpose of which was to search for gold, pearls and capture slaves for sale in Spain), but also Portuguese expeditions (the discovery of Brazil by Pedro Alvarish Cabral on April 24, 1500, two expeditions to the Brazilian shores of 1501-1502 and 1503-1504 by Gonzalo Coelho with the participation of Amerigo Vespucci), as a result of which the outlines of the northern and eastern coasts of the new continent began to become clearer, and it turned out that a significant part of it is located south of the equator, which means that it canot be Asia.
31b4410ba472463b71495db7be351498ed8161c9	Columbus with an anchor and his noble coat of arms. 1920
c0a4037da8bcad359ae0519e70dd7582a2895321	Posterity[edit / edit wiki text]
e54564f0adbd40c5ccd9f1645ed5ecd3e8025623	Christopher Columbus had two sons the legitimate, Diego, and the illegitimate, Fernando, settled in Spain, from an affair with Beatrice Henriques de Arana; soon after the death of their father, they became very wealthy people and received huge incomes for their time.
e43b4ba5bd53a19ec6627ab06e8e6c2b4e324205	Diego Colon (1479-1526) was the eldest son of Christopher Columbus, the 4th Viceroy of New Spain (1511-1518), who also held the titles of Adelantado and Admiral of the Indies.
78721f24f4aab7846c9f1d3e9611ae76a1ee7933	After the death of Diego, his descendants were assigned the titles of Marquis of Jamaica and Duke of Veragua.
c456222928ba0782aef0bd1f2bea813053fe3e92	Fernando Columbus, or Colon (1488-1539) was a Spanish writer and cosmographer, biographer of his father Christopher Columbus.
d808e5399fa87db0ab849e6b5ddebf5e6a9dbedc	Coat of Arms of Columbus[edit / edit wiki text]
874115f22f0dac17e6502102f1c53a7cbbda3113	For his great discoveries, Columbus was granted a noble coat of arms by the Catholic monarchs, on which "the castle of Castile and the lion of Leon (Spanish castillo — castle, Spanish león — lion) were side by side with images of islands discovered by him, as well as anchors — symbols of the admiral's title"[6].
ff21b2663e9bcfcfca4bbcdaddfff3c9d7d88a11	His son Diego married the niece of the Duke of Alba and demanded from the Spanish crown the provision of the Isthmus of Panama (the country of Veragua), discovered by his father during the last voyage.
447fcf8bff3f9404756296ae7336837a210944bb	Disputes over the status of these lands and the rights of Columbus ' descendants to them dragged on for almost 30 years.
cd982fc90ee1b58e46b842398c482a9050922a85	In 1536, Columbus ' grandson announced the renunciation of his claims to the lands discovered by his grandfather and to the income from them, for which King Carlos I rewarded him with a solid pension with the titles of Marquis of Jamaica and Duke of Veragua.
fc62aaa82672cf22606a7e7f1dbf96ce96aced3e	In the future, these titles were carried by the descendants of the eldest daughter of Diego the younger Alvareshi, and then the Fitzjames (descendants of the Duke of Berwick).
8abb6c173b1bbb3da7ed9d7b1eb02b3453f20cd0	In the XIX century, the bearer of the title "Duke of Veragua" as a sign of his descent from Columbus and he changed the name "Fitzjames" to "Cristóbal Colón" (Cristóbal Colón).
6465ed41e967b928308caaf6f7d632cbf98c7644	From the youngest daughter of Diego comes the Guadalest branch of the Catalan family of Cardona.
d2730ac8521993ddd2470eb5a0896926b1995f10	Many films have been made about Columbus.
315ccaf2e59cf101325d89d63a8bdfff0a46f773	Including: the English "Christopher Columbus" (Christopher Columbus, 1949), the Italian TV series "Christopher Columbus" (Christopher Columbus, 1985), the Anglo American Spanish production "Christopher Columbus: The Discovery" (Christopher Columbus: The Discovery, 1992), the Anglo American Spanish French production "1492: The Conquest of Paradise" (1492: Conquest of Paradise, 1992).
9d4fc2cbc905f1f56c11e4670c5daf3dbbcd0844	Monument to H. Columbus in Barcelona (Spain)
b32515299e4c73fd3d6700375d0efb1a26227359	In Barcelona[edit / edit wiki text]
b7667a8bf3664af987b45928967d43405478de92	Main article: Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)
3758a5b52582a67b8a0b378b1e73d9cac1be4602	In Barcelona (Spain), near the Rambla Boulevard, a 60 meter high monument dedicated to Christopher Columbus was built for the World Exhibition of 1888.
20bd215bb506c95dff20a345d23df3ce38943005	It is located in the place where Columbus returned from his first trip to America.
2cf5d7ce361abd19163e50a096226aef3a39f87e	Tsereteli's works[edit / edit wiki text]
d00a5b16ec2894355dcb311d9d7e153ff2b7d02f	In 1991 and 1992, to mark the 500th anniversary of the discovery of the American continent by Europeans, the Georgian sculptor Zurab Tsereteli offered to buy his huge statue of Columbus at the helm of a Spanish caravel to the USA, Spain and Latin American countries (at the moment its smaller copy is installed in Spain) [7].
61dc9f8465f897ebce1a3e525b28238ba1028ae4	The statue of Columbus has a height of 90 meters, which is twice the height of the" Statue of Liberty " without a pedestal.
eef96582e4ba2dd2248427f6a838e1f87db697d6	The sculpture weighs 599 tons.
f130997d1bbac7df70970b3f6b7141f5e2b54391	The Baltimore Sun newspaper called an article about Tsereteli's Columbus "From Russia with 'ugh' " [8].
2ceb9f394054265e56343825beafd09f58521e9a	Subsequently, the ideas implemented in the monument to Columbus were used by the sculptor in 1997 when he erected a huge statue of Peter the Great in medieval clothes of a Spanish grandee, at the helm of a Russian sloop, 98 meters high, on the arrow of the Balchug Island between the Moscow River and the Drainage Channel in Moscow by order of the Moscow government.
6c5b694ea4291ca9e1d474a236f69a064632ff54	In July 2010, it was announced that a statue of Christopher Columbus by Tsereteli would be installed on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, near the city of Arecibo.
e05fed1a5b11a05ca18ebe8aa44faa3cabcf1ffa	The statue was kept divided into 2,750 parts, and to put it together, according to the government of Puerto Rico, it takes $ 20 million.
12c26571d0ed718de29a1cc790cb88752d48f966	The statue, if installed, will become the tallest structure in the US controlled territories in the Caribbean [8].
591aec8773c4d4ec6a505d7ee90a896e47f337db	Demolition of monuments in Venezuela[edit / edit wiki text]
d400839d57b32d7f9d12fd97d6f4de80b8c13917	2004: a group of supporters of Hugo Chavez broke and took away a bronze statue of Columbus in an unknown direction.
051a5fb5082aa9a9b21fdf412cf3746e63e60491	March 2009: According to the Associated Press, the prefect of Caracas (the district of the capital of Venezuela) ordered the demolition of the statue of Christopher Columbus.
cf816b5df1a931c2ad1fd6451ed435e964e50d0b	President Hugo Chavez warmly approved of this decision of the official, saying during a televised speech that, having reached America more than 5 centuries ago, Christopher Columbus initiated the genocide of the Indian population of America[9].
fd87264142b336a85a978159dd19e80429e560ad	Named after Columbus[edit / edit wiki text]
e770472b842d4384d5272703658c746bc2271eeb	Toponyms
b5718c756f9704a479fdf49eaa42c257c0a3821b	Colombia is a state in South America, Mount Cristobal Colon in Colombia, height 5775 m The Federal District of Columbia in the United States The Province of British Columbia in Canada A city in the Panama Canal Zone Colon Province in Panama Colon Department in Honduras Colon Square in Madrid Square in El Puerto de Santa Maria Square in New York Square in ZelAO Moscow[10] Streets in Volgograd[11] and Astrakhan[12] Localities in the United States, bearing the name Columbus and Columbia Toponyms in Latin America, bearing the name Colon The historical state of Great Columbia on the territory of modern Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama
88d89df5fe970268a30c79bbe9ad8502a84d82ad	A crater on the visible side of the moon.
c1f6112221582a78a569ba317f59f0d63b6ea7df	Aster
508a8f962106a16685a7abb5f17b3dbf40e2af16	After a long time working at Microsoft, Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington founded Valve Software in 1996.
cb6b6bacfe70bffda71286f27de43e13c0f9ccad	After purchasing a license for the Quake engine, they started developing the game Quiver (the working name of the game Half Life).
d43ae8794cd668cd5785d6504113c0273da85b2e	Professional science fiction writer Mark Laidlaw was invited to work on the script.
10a5a17a21e887233bfd82124e1cc0659fd04d16	The game was first demonstrated at E3 in 1997, and became a real hit of the exhibition.
7dcfb40e0a41c13a382d377a1d9f938987a844aa	The game was planned to be released in 1997, but the release took place on October 31, 1998.
bced942626d14ee222f1836d1d3a619984587577	The game became a landmark and brought fame to the developer.
bc5ffa90dcedb889170dff41ea4b98e7accc3765	After the release of Half Life, Valve did not release anything for a long time, and additions to their best-selling game were created in Gearbox Software.
5331c5c378691ca94cf49c00441006aa4cc85756	So in the wake of the success of the game, several add-ons were released: Half Life: Opposing Force( OpFor), Half Life: Blue Shift (BS) and an exclusive add — on for the PS2 version-Half Life: Decay.
784d341d67f3b24c537289fd44940e7bca0c7b13	In addition, many official modifications were created, including network ones: Counter Strike (CS), Team Fortress Classic (TFC), Deathmatch Classic (DMC), Day of Defeat (DoD), Ricochet, Natural Selection (NS).
e33bde360fc64175a7f1a578f0c77a5e7b42591b	In the official additions, the incident that occurred in the original game was played from different points of view: Adrian Shepard (in Opposing Force), Barney (Blue Shift), Colette Green and Gina Cross (in Decay).
b8b64abfbc26da25450fd0c7a44c1ec11b4888b4	In conjunction with the second addition from Gearbox Software, a modification was released affecting the graphic component of the game, called High Definition Pack.
405db9ea6fe9f99d17610e79c37c46ca46a79eb0	In 2003, the first demonstration of Half Life 2, the sequel to Valve's first hit, took place at the annual E3 entertainment industry achievements exhibition.
b48e47658c92e0f8fe75efab9f3f55d4e12bb0ee	Together with her, the company told about several of its technologies, which eventually became very popular.
6e4c270839c2ba1c1c1a2e57825e92b5bcc59238	One of the technologies was the Source game engine, which has a modular architecture that allows you to expand its capabilities easily and indefinitely, with the possibility of integration into already released games.
3937cbff5df0eeacba635586c923088e5526ab4a	The second achievement of the programmers from Bellevue was the Steam software shell — a single utility for launching, updating and buying all Valve games (and later, other famous developers, including the eternal competitor, the authors of Doom, id Software).
24651c68af3b210233689e3f9583516f2e58d8d3	After several postponements and the theft of the alpha version, Half Life 2 was released on November 16, 2004 and received high ratings from many gaming publications.
53577992f82f7d018c3695ab63c956f5b3b34820	Next, an additional level for HL2 appeared on Steam, demonstrating the variability of the game engine.
d577599dd33ef5601bcd997cada5b7782f9b28f5	It was called Half Life 2: Lost Coast and its main feature was support for the then newfangled HDR lighting.
d2e9dfa025f0ac8ed1a5b47e5ddc8c809a7477a6	The next step in developing their ideas and demonstrating the capabilities of Steam was the transition to the occasional release of new games.
85372e9c8b94bbca347fce03877e017c6e02c9bd	Stating that it would take another nine years to create a full-fledged third part of Half Life, the developer divided the sequel into three parts (Episode One, Two and Three), committing to release them within two to three years from the release of HL2.
35ce86618118d9b20f3628edea674b542ed53338	However, there were a number of delays, and the release of episodes was stretched.
e9dc0eceea4d9ef7ffb5b80ae6c3f51df69b26bb	At the moment, only two parts have been released, and the details of the third have not yet been disclosed.
f6c902b458b9da7f7f0d23d70864a309b0abb208	It is worth noting that for Valve, the main platform has always been the PC, although even after the release of Half Life, an expanded version of the game was released on the PlayStation 2.
182d4b24e46f780fe1c7e430d5e050d7e9f1560c	The second part also appeared on consoles, or rather on Xbox, and a modified version exists on arcade machines (mainly within Japan).
6d0def137c20d378f9d64c6fe18c66cb8f502654	Only together with the launch of Episode Two, Valve made a big entry into the territory of the console market.
f2cbf3912f27bda0929d2d93216b1a4bc86ce00f	The Orange Box collection was released, which included updated versions of Half Life 2, Half Life 2: Episode One and new games Half Life 2: Episode Two, Portal and Team Fortress 2.
d287e8b36e96d0529a8fd06e10f789cf290f2d01	This collection appeared simultaneously, both on PC, and on Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.
8392dea9ef75ade619aacc855b7d9f3ddd42e726	During the creation of the collection, the company borrowed the idea of achievements, which appeared with the Xbox 360, where there are achievements in every game, for the PC version of The Orange Box.
63e20e1723c0b2dafe70c1c86228083e3d2425cd	The first game that included support for achievements, but was not created by the company itself, was the Audiosurf arcade.
ee42c7c7e2c64eb6ab7495f8ce7cd10bd8cb2dde	By the time of the release of The Orange Box, Steam had its own social network — Steam Community.
f74460c36c6d46571f9299eb9695daef52c9b874	Anyone with a Steam account could fill out a small form, add a graphic avatar and get their own page at the output, which would display data about him, the games he passed and his Steam friends.
53e11f3d4c3ed7674f465f9230aca9df192cf44c	Participants also got the opportunity to create groups, in this regard, the chat functionality was expanded (in one of the Steam updates, it was possible to enable the display of the date and time when the message was written in the chat) and the Friends system.
c630607d4c8e3220aa556ec3156b402a82674f3f	The new game from Valve was called Left 4 Dead, and combined survival horror with a first-person multiplayer mode.
0d95b428cc4eaf6cf0089784c5d69eea63fa4098	The game was created by the Turtle Rock studio, which became part of Valve Corporation on January 10, 2008.
8694455c9d5e591ea056e41df6e7e5ae718651e7	The game is based on the Source engine version 37 for Windows NT and Xbox 360 platforms.
07e51253f7c42053c64ad8d7b15bf12c03e76b03	The Certain Affinity studio is responsible for porting the game to the Xbox 360.
69b538c652961f243c10f6bb35c3c1c76e54409e	The version for the Xbox 360 console differs in the presence of a split screen mode and a different system for creating matches.
0fec5f724f7e780ba1b7c55fec7ec3702c0a9222	For the first time, information about Left 4 Dead appeared in the Christmas issue of PC Gamer UK magazine for 2006 in the form of a six-page article.
9d5de5553d054b333e22ac6fd401abbf819e9632	And for the first time, the audience was able to try out the game at QuakeCon 2007 and Showdown 2007 LAN, held in the city of San Jose.
f8442b4d0654710d7b429ba05f1ccbb58387b639	On November 6, the demo version of Left 4 Dead became available to those who made a pre-order through the Steam digital distribution system.
6bb08c3c466ce5a01864bcdbf18b8a8e09bd7d0d	On November 11, 2008, it became publicly available.
37c3bf4d2fffb172c9fbcbd31e94c7c3ddbd7df0	On November 18, the game became available through Steam.
6136a761faf16f7d62236f5f621592e81bf9cd54	On November 20, the boxed versions were released in America, and on November 21 in the Old World.
21b3707246fa060aa608e8447b2c7bc2190bf7b0	The game was well received in the gaming markets and among players.
c2b7609989e0303742d267638452ad8f1af11175	The founders of the company are Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington.
1ed4f3e8609e79f17efd1751375edc6de28cb04e	Separately, I want to talk about the first of them: Gabe worked for a long time at Microsoft on the Windows operating system, and then on the game Doom, which, in fact, inspired him to create games in the future.
99ed00fee880094568aec5b1eb12f865af348425	He is still the CEO of Valve .
d3e752ae4f8256d9c415a64ec21f976ff305fcfc	And in 1996, he and his friend Michael co-founded Valve.
aad8404a09f7043edee8a4e0a9d89d1c76839ce7	As Newell later said in an interview, they thought about the name of the company for a long time, tried to visualize it and eventually came to the conclusion that the valve is the best fit
d07c27549868f4cf230295b5a08866bbd49e85c6	After the company was founded, they immediately started developing games.
312553e9eeccbcbd0a959a46bb333137a0d84359	First of all, they bought a license for the Quake engine, which at that time was famous for its achievements in 3D graphics.
31c77cc75785a355eacc8506a3e5318fb0b8b70b	The engine was heavily modified and was named GoldSCR.
cb0474670fac8c83e8e3b798e64c5246d8ff0173	Subsequently, Half Life games were developed on this engine.
9eb5d6b76ae8a7e987b0c2b7dd776064b0644e29	Of course, Gabe Newell collected a lot of profit with Half Life.
15a17375a6cea3e11cddc8786649aec2c02bd131	To help him, he was able to gather a good team of game and software developers — this was required for two further ambitious projects: Steam and Half Life 2.
48daf63ba92174e5e4caa72a8ea69845ec87597d	Here, in the year 2000, we will finish the first part of the article about Valve.
7205835666a71fc3fa59b4d44f5df719c5af62d5	The next part of the article will be released very soon and we will talk about the development of the Steam project and the continuation of the famous Half Life series.
ac2b1863de35090afb8a7a2ec786e43e684a7f7d	This story began in 1996.
6ddca0f71e12a17dac3ea7087e618dd1057ec87d	Unknown to anyone, Gabe Newell quit Microsoft after 13 years of corporate slavery.
dc5434972eedb4bf008e705b4c1504fe3ae41349	He decided to start his own multimedia company, and took his friend Mike Harrington as an assistant.
142bbc5528abb29e934f7c22d80ccdebd9542dac	Their dream was to create a scary computer game in the 3D first-person action format.
6beff18690448c82579e7a91abf45d60a0d30ccd	At the beginning, they didn't even know what to call the company, but decided to stop at the memorable word "valve", choosing the name Valve Software.
e7bfbd4919ddd6cb3fe75b7bf53664ca9d262f02	To simplify the development process, the founders purchased a license for the famous Quake game engine.
44c7ae79a775604468966dac7a9d4a510cffe053	After a year and a half of hard work, the first game called Half life appeared.
adcb876f9b56eea716c3d6da33515ea39d758591	It was science fiction from the first person.
8bbd67fbc3809bc36f14e2c9481c1c9c7d085fbe	The game made a real splash — more than 50 gaming publications recognized Half Life as the game of the year.
4bcb73100550b5e1f11b7e5d3631b0557384d12d	However, the creators did not stop there, but continued their work and in 2000 released another hit – the computer game Counter Strike.
5b622df68922dd462ea7f5bdf7754cfcb2614bbc	This is a multiplayer game based on the confrontation of two teams — terrorists and special forces, world tournaments on which have been held for 12 years.
4e026f3254f1a63e35fb514d875c5b0522ee2b2b	Now more than 300 people work within the walls of Valve Software, and the net profit for the last year exceeded $1 billion.
a285648f3eb8ddad17cba1fe7afcc944ae23d58b	There are three factors to note here.
69042cb1dc28ef7f469e50efe4ec715da222a8ad	To begin with, the founder had 13 years of experience at Microsoft.
02ea04b0e8af7ce9ebff6dbff8c6b5a02f852de8	Secondly, the license of the famous Quake game was purchased for the development of the game.
23cbc23fe5506cc8d1de8cd6bbd022fd012134d9	Third, the addition of artificial intelligence to the gameplay has become a revolution in the entire industry.
baf0faacf5559b734847ddd0a2a38e74889fdfd4	If you work in an IT corporation and have been dreaming about your business for a long time, take the first step! Write to us on Facebook-MitinKhomich936
fa2e855ee7b1f6f3fd0bbe9b3db04e4106df5598	Valve Corporation (formerly Valve Software) is an American computer game developer company that created a series of computer games Half Life, Portal, Counter Strike, Team Fortress, Day of Defeat, Left 4 Dead, Ricochet, Alien Swarm and Dota 2; game engines GoldSrc, Source, Source 2; software: Steam, Valve Anti Cheat, SteamOS, SteamVR; as well as hardware: Steam Machines, Steam Controller.
641c2aaba7f04b2c59b4880c2b09467c0433fe20	It was founded on August 24, 1996 by former Microsoft employees Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington[4].
2d7d8ebad95a73b07703cef21cac18f7632ff1bb	After thirteen years of working at Microsoft, Gabe Newell, together with Mike Harrington, founded Valve Software in 1996[4], under the patronage of Sierra Studios.
d28d1f690cac4b05f9163e66eee1f31ecea60175	To simplify it, a license for the Quake game engine was purchased, after which a one-and-a-half-year development of the Half Life (HL) game began[4].
96fcf885a4b09ec13d6c651bf94e6b7a5ab0c633	The working title of the game was "Quiver" [6].
81f01bcdb205508ef46c4e85aaa6ed0be5c0339c	Professional science fiction writer Mark Laidlaw was invited to work on the script[7].
b3ba5d8f88a7c490232fdb9468d62b02ce996394	The game became a science fiction three-dimensional first-person shooter[4].
9de8b34eff25c240fa006c5a0850d59057e34d0c	Gabe and Mike wanted to create something similar to DOOM, the same dark creation[4][6].
d5f0c8cdc399dbf56528145a36a05b4aea35ebe0	The game has received more than fifty publishing awards, including the title "The Best Game of All Time" [6][8].
c0ee2b1232686601a2c1d4a8c670ca1cc3079168	Next, Valve focused on the development of the SDK, which was released in April 1999.
e702a7f0d20192d4488be7d0e7deb96a2dded10a	Min Lee, together with the developer hiding under the nickname "Cliffea", use it to create a modification of HL-Counter Strike (CS) [6], a multiplayer shooter based on the idea of opposing a terrorist group and a special police unit.
5480f3cf70938f185371efc23558c09c8e19733e	The game has become one of the leading esports disciplines[4].
646b0317f1b5e78e668b2b01a07ba6b8af8dba65	The success of the game inspired the company and it immediately [8] began to create a game no less large-scale than its predecessor[6].
f0ebd4bca3ce031a194a4956e4da968cf4c9b975	The entire development was kept under the strictest secrecy[6].
581ddf45a8556b22d66699831d00eb65b2b71116	After 5 years of development, Half Life 2 was presented at E3 2003[6][8].
ccd4f2b61129a4b6b86ba8473547550ba2ca423e	The game was made on a new game engine-the Source Engine[8], because the graphic part, at that time, was out of competition[6].
481137a92aadb38235ae58ec630f8a444df67e67	Almost all objects in the game could be moved and deformed[6].
390d37b3fb8268f286f4ed513f6dc0e1cab8b907	The game took the first place on the site metacritic.com in the list of the Best games of all time[9][10].
2032cfb43fcf9e711c77a6a32e817c3238b63848	The new engine became an excellent help for modders and promised the company eternal youth at this expense[8].
7ec3f835cc824ec52ca70d13f867ae05be98bc5c	And the company was counting on the community: an SDK, documentation and a set of utilities were provided[8].
a38a11142fe64363ef5b7db0046c8b1eb3ed49ed	The company wanted to concentrate modders on innovations and gameplay, and did everything possible for this[8].
9119eb1286e2c588579fecf53fafc0b544471f67	The game does not use, but is implemented in the engine, for example, the change of day and night and deformation[8].
da1d73627dca7a870e17f4daccb8c439f4667b81	But showing and releasing a game are different things.
6e4059ca7880599c69040c4817e7901ddfc5f916	The game was not released in September 2003, as promised[11].
c44dc5ca28fb36c0ab5d794a7562d6e4f5a513b8	On the contrary, the release of the game was already postponed for an unknown time[11].
9b7d2d4aab476c4cc6fc5a8c28b05b9aca705106	But there was a leak and the HL2 demo version got into open access[11].
a51b424a795a456030657698e01da2cfab9bd328	This situation almost killed the company, but it did not give up, found the money and the release took place on November 16, 2004[11], collecting more than 30 "Game of the Year" awards[12].
8fe1c7990ad20a10ecb1049197ac77c4f74b177e	According to the founder — Gabe Newel—, the company decided that it was not worth keeping the fans waiting for another six years, because the model of creating episodes was taken, which allowed producing no less high-quality games in just a year and a half[13].
d38f56eafefd652fb85fe8e574248dc7dbd1ad27	The final stage and a crushing blow to competitors[14] On October 9, 2007, Valve released The Orange Box[15], which included the following games[16]: Half Life 2, Half Life 2: Episode One, Half Life 2: Episode Two, Portal and Team Fortress 2.
84540fb60393d847037c88c333a0d0c947ce661e	The collection was simultaneously delivered for PC, PS 3 and Xbox 360[14].
ab26e0f15d1ed66c573ed99e12d5c7f0142fb755	As a special feature for all these games, an achievement service was developed (similar to the achievements on the Xbox 360), which worked through the Steam service and was available for implementation in games distributed through the service[17].
4e0993bd51b89e911ce1932da98b9cbae2a5b58e	There was also its own social network-Steam Community -, also based on Steam, for this purpose, personal profiles were implemented, the ability to add friends and an in-service chat was finalized[source not specified 422 days].
c6e1a5f016198570aa56818f281685e2fb6df18d	On November 18, 2008, the game Left 4 Dead was released.
c6e5a7a2f992f98efe8d1b2cbf2b787e9d1beb4a	On March 5, 2010, Portal 2 was announced.
37adc87441c30c0e0e0f25d4740bb5404aad2b69	On July 19, 2010, the third-person network shooter Alien Swarm was released.
b2b4f635357981b35f7bb8907ba7deb949b44c99	On April 19, 2011, Portal 2 was released.
4373d569977589902e1093c02cb7ba44bae365c5	On August 21, 2012, Counter Strike: Global Offensive was released.
d62c7fbbb9918204c6d9203e39d587c687a9ae59	In 2011, Valve announced that it would release a multiplayer Dota 2 game, which will be a continuation of the modification for WarCraft 3.
3db7bced55c2862ae994fc5262435502a3ed4075	The main developer of this modification, better known under the nickname IceFrog, also joined the company.
7b0cf76edecb2f80b4c78f1a9cf4a73a569c57ce	On September 23, the company published the SteamOS operating system based on Debian[18][19].
13166ffcff43627330be175270801d53ec2e1e40	This was the first of three stages to "capture" the living rooms[to clarify] Valve.
4915374b7fc8c501a71f5a6ffeb588b506275a9c	As a first step in helping the Debian community, Valve has made it possible for all Debian developers to download the company's games for free[18].
abef1a7926149e6e0b8c54ae158a9a6709f84a5d	SteamOS uses the Big Picture mode user interface[19].
eb07832f4d1ab8c4e649a9c0cca9600fc85e0354	The operating system will be delivered in a Steam Machines mini-computer, however, this free OS will also be released separately for independent installations[19], which will allow third-party companies to create their own devices for SteamOS[19].
ee6cd54d590f8e24934a1b88106509e90093d6fa	This operating system has the ability to broadcast to a TV from a stationary PC, access to the Steam Cloud (access to all purchased games from any device using a single account)[19].
dd5bd62b13eadcd6150a9d057d3736bd0daeefc9	Music is officially distributed through the Steam client and the audio player is built directly into the client[21].
116fde885c19335e84d47c906a3ccb27aea23eb8	The interface is available in Steam Overlay mode[21].
fc0df503a186e472f3cbf813b6b1a66959f9a866	At the end of 2014, only basic playback capabilities were provided, but, for example, it is possible to create a playlist[21].
c6722d7f5627b3ba6a4cc1910c0c120ff57f5be6	Both local audio files on the user's machine and soundtracks from games purchased on Steam are available for playback[21].
3eb0578a52a57c10e6c27d7fa1f619feffdbaec3	In honor of the opening, Valve made free music albums of the games of the Half Life and Portal series and the documentary film Free to Play[21].
0d90da62ef730787de41bdb109bc5e781c0f05ba	One of the stages of capturing the living room was the release of a video set-top box and a controller for it[22].
22c9e82b1faae3a108abcc4c175e31c27dc45fe7	On March 1, 2015, Valve Corporation presented the SteamVR virtual reality helmet at the Mobile World Congress, which was developed jointly with HTC.
15311f3db7f0dae96db93bae240e79a6ddeb1062	The history of Valve began with the fact that Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington left Microsoft and decided to develop computer games instead of working on Windows operating systems.
1a6313d6106ea56c955029ce3c5c9426b7f9585d	This was done under the impression of the results of the work of their former colleague Michael Abrash, who left Microsoft a little earlier and joined id Software, which was engaged in the development of the Quake game.
28c032b29c525f87bc43d244da4515693523aeaf	By the way, Gabe Newell will later try more than once to lure this talented programmer to his own company.
3feb7191f8ffe89c10d752f9f2ae4c62ef19b4f2	Anyway, on August 24, 1996, former Microsoft employees founded their own multimedia company called Valve Software.
cc24aaa5584762712245789f6e6202295ba15120	The natives of Microsoft planned to start with a science fiction first-person shooter, so to speed up the development process of the game, they purchased a license for the Quake game engine.
cede27845ca27cf8335d18295f6fb9037fd536a1	By the way, they covered all financial expenses with their personal savings — at least for the first time.
5000ff699969bb2f9caff0cb98063058f80bb3dd	Two years after its foundation, the young company Valve Software presented to the world its first game called Half Life.
716fac45e74e8fc22fd20789809a88ca55497432	The game was a phenomenal success.
9e1f4348806505323c59fd4940d02cf30acc26a5	The whole world has learned about Valve, which no one has ever heard of before.
1803af5f303d7742bafedc563edd342cef93fb3f	Half Life was not only positively received by both critics and ordinary gamers, it was so professionally developed that some foreign publications called it one of the best in the history of computer games (for example, PC Magazine Gamer).
04fccbac8a8905ff89a2c15bcfca5660b6c34794	The fact is that the vast majority of Valve developers were new to this industry and did not have a rich experience in developing computer games.
5a575f404dc3298db4c332a3f5057fe93bd8512d	The popularity of the game was due to the advanced intelligence of opponents, as well as the presence of in-game scenes.
03d155ea012184633bda8d5d02d4a01851789f45	Of course, after such a success, Valve immediately started developing the second part of the game.
20576b17986382d3ab03fd9ec8ca242d5a6a8f85	Subsequently, this will lead to the appearance of such multiplayer shooters as Counter Strike and Team Fortress Classic.
60eb59ea7da7d64daf1c0cbdab36eb2535136fb2	In early 2000, Mike Harrington left the company and went on indefinite leave.
7343645db35343c7a2509bec25b851c2c60972c5	Gabe Newell bought out his share, becoming the sole owner of Valve.
f09b3691325b28a56df101810337fd0d0dbc95b6	Harrington returned to work only in 2005, when he founded his own company called Picnik.
4cdb815251f561c324b7f8f103a77f9abf168001	His new business was focused on online photo editing services using a browser.
89f4b5d1f5a7d719f181608a996ab097ac6a5c72	This story is well known: two enthusiastic developers downloaded the SDK set for creating Half Life modifications and developed their own multiplayer game, not suspecting what success awaits it.
8f0c4e2607584a7beb4f78b4d34a46cf345f010f	Their very first versions of Counter Strike were so popular with gamers that Valve paid attention to it and invited two developers to work with them, promising them comprehensive support and assistance.
621c66dc8beeee6a169a6f0116eddb8d9111163a	So Counter Strike ceased to be just a modification of Half Life and began to develop independently.
ee16e93c5fab09415db011b1e6680d9fd136fd8d	Before starting work on the second part of Half Life, Valve developed its own Source Engine and Steam service.
c103b6368827c5d46aced9ee7248efa1ecde26da	Speaking about the engine, it can be noted that it was distinguished from the previous one by more realistic "physics" and the ability to move and deform almost all objects in the game.
b876b196bda86d9a1750b762fe717041c06635b9	Half Life 2 itself was released in 2004 and made no less impression on users than the first part.
d71979457287922a562cbffd640393c4dafb24a3	It has received a variety of awards-from the "title" of the game with the best scenario to the "title" of the best PC game of all time.
4679f3adddb9f50783b4db19855570be69b2ccbf	In general, Half Life 2 has received over thirty different awards.
3213f1fe175bf5315e7ec9f6a989b61bbbbbcfa3	However, there were several circumstances overshadowing this success that disappointed fans of the Half Life series.
e02572afc1afa6e13446f2acba3b4486fab938a3	Firstly, the release of the game was postponed several times.
24f0c1d6ee37a0ba973a5018cb0bb2a77bb84af3	Secondly, users were required to perform online authentication and install the Steam service on their computers.
63772dc7b2f7b256108cd041abde62a0a437d63b	Players indignantly perceived the imposition of this service on them, and had every reason to do so, since the first versions of Steam worked unstable.
3c60ce563cf38994d71a2754a31f7455a76944db	To date, Valve is working on many projects, starting from the new Source 2 engine and ending with its own virtual reality system.
bb5664a207ca8097be44551e5d6748910fd458e2	This company has already had a huge impact on the gaming industry and esports, and there is no doubt that it will continue to do this in the future.
c2f414fdbcbc91bb0916fc1d5f555a1f03cadf3f	In itself, Valve's success is largely due to the company's management model, which Gabe Newell adheres to.
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ed427c9cffedd9f1329d0be0eb685d0160a94e4c	Thursday, February 25
aee2fc4d752e8dc3c50473b310983a7ee28bc984	News of the hour 22: 11
702149efa5db1d85b5c4ce69cb674eb78fb013e0	Yandex called the requirements of the draft law on news aggregators impossible
4b584cead7c1c2c8d977687c75b4e7ff3e555f20	22: 17 A draft resolution on the resignation of Aivaras Abromavicius has been registered in the Rada
74793f320e11256058eb7135eb9ed566e0cfa873	21: 57 RBC: Igor Shuvalov signed a directive on the beginning of the privatization of Rosneft
82df2b5a6b6a88aa9051ea8916318a9d0721b59f	21:53 The agency "Apostol" by Tina Kandelaki is put up for sale
509dc57eb47a5fbb8863ac3050cb95089e242b5b	21: 34 In Moscow, the road conflict ended with shooting
339c2f5bd45f3279a7e1409a39f7f35c7817c1b5	21: 23 The Ministry of Finance may determine the levels of the new budget rule in the autumn
3c24642eeaf87153700a50e45ae5c6d42b6ca2ec	21: 14 Google CEO met with the European Commissioner for Competition
21b04ba390e27e33276272b2879e923ec51181e9	20: 59 Own funds of management companies will be tied to the assets of the principals
4fe4c9b44df4bafb65d3f883aefd39cbeb97c715	20: 55 Lokomotiv drew with Fenerbahce and was eliminated from the Europa League
713176eb43150e2295ea9442dcb892309effadaf	20: 33 Sergey Lavrov discussed with John Kerry media information about the Pentagon's demand to "push Russia"
3e82d58658a9309f3e91e99108e935901936ae4e	20: 25 As a result of an accident at a mine in Vorkuta, two people were killed
f593caff520aecf7fae242fcdaac6d2adfe9e5ab	20: 19 The Russian wanted by Interpol is delivered from Bulgaria to Moscow
2973ac0ce6956d7be6a4bb30ae64303e3b5312db	20: 15 The term of house arrest of the person involved in the case of violations in Domodedovo has been extended for two months
9a0778ea835cb3daedbbd6caf82050a93df33f08	19: 58 The United States is discussing with Arab countries the use of ground forces against the Islamic State
744be201a073f7924c2674037e915cb7ec326591	19: 57 The Syrian Kurds supported the cessation of hostilities
8ffc8ca0f09274dae28635d03ab0886a5e275564	19:51 The creator of the online game World of Tanks became the first dollar billionaire in Belarus
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a892bbd21a06c5586b951a7723c734fd7d4ef5cb	Yes, selectively and only with imported vaccines
94fcf048ac3cd2bf17a8ece3ec7b76e0bbe94d22	I am categorically against vaccination
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2913833b48b2894352d88e1660f11e59aa09d3c6	In detail
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03c159a1109791b4a94cec9a3a0f1a4eb8215ba7	The history of Valve, or Success from the first game
347039aac6e3b11f494cb0b57c0fc85d980d209a	22.05.2014, 11:16
792e2002d4bfe544d8e215344de2f02ba3292254	The history of the creation of the famous Counter Strike began with the fact that one of its authors quit his job at Microsoft for his own business.
63c243da882a7c16eae9cfd31346c3abd4181388	Yuri Mitin and Mikhail Khomich talk about how the head of Valve Software skillfully used the experience of working at Microsoft, visionarily acquired the engine of a successful game and brought artificial intelligence to the gameplay.
d8ae9865d1f82c48380431f5bdbad9a559687ea3	Mikhail Khomich, Lecturer in Innovation Economics, Lomonosov Moscow State University:
0e1668f8536380ea7cc3915331f90eec2ad1b24a	Their dream was to create a scary computer game in the 3D first person action format.
024127fec16ad56863bf6e0d708d02f90f24daf2	At the beginning, they didnot even know what to call the company, but decided to stop at the memorable word "valve", choosing the name Valve Software.
876e4cad2813b8d06cf59594b8ea35641d0cc9a9	How to make money on a banal shooting game?
a7d2243583c300d90795960db17ee6fc131ffa20	Yuri Mitin, expert on innovative entrepreneurship:
c81628a91d275af921a82c4754f73b0bfa7678e0	If you work in an IT corporation and have been dreaming about your business for a long time, take the first step!
7373b12b3a8daeb5c3625ba421f5fee2240d5c73	Write to us on Facebook MitinKhomich936 Learn more: http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2030767
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11f3242118ff2add5d117cbf216f29ac578f6ba6	Microsoft
172ecd90dfdb7af014ad7f2054b1fbef2c9c5302	Lomonosov Moscow State University
6452ccda8754de8a5d82e39fc17d4b9b13b31b76	Discuss: (0)
0254c6df2aae081f5331a395bb93c904bdafa96c	"Kommersant FM" from 22.05.2014, 11: 16
96526fc6efe098c9c6df94252412831b9ccb9466	Authors:
42afbc4d7e3d161fdb071bd8ba12f7c2530d3675	Yuri Mitin Mikhail Khomich
cf322d376164574d08aba6dc2910a61574e026df	Print Send to print Discuss Discuss
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4c16a5c208a2a957bca0438bb31485a39bf0bc5c	Minsk agreements
689956d12a84135be1379823483a32ec2366bd74	"Until the judicial system of the Russian Federation becomes more independent, doubts about its effectiveness will remain"
65a01e54a156bea05a55c2f627b71194db911796	"This bill is not made to be adopted"
d59ffcdf7fe827fcf6acec0ececba6692ef6a07b	CTP policies will not be changed immediately
8b998ba5ea3d401c22b9b2bedd225f09f2374109	The communist will be prevented by the host
0325da4d6550bdfe57dfd3aeb9f327708b51af03	"Locomotive" got off first
efd5f3be095f713c8354da096574cd7353a56b96	Investigation in the field of oncology
e807d780d8317080b4fc442348d26e1fe9fbd54a	"A real concentration camp for entrepreneurs has been set up in Moscow"
b5f3e638781358e9398a84c1beab6d543cd855bd	The mountain blow fell on the mine
a9e81f95a91e5ed00449babf1e8f90a717774120	go to the main page
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1e857b8a2bbde9d346bba34ca94c4c05ac6f6ed8	Photo Gallery:
96ce06d01e8def03687fdc4a2d1a4b6c0227b0ff	Photo of the day: February 25
e13d057380f30e46ceea5901fc364e740dab7bc6	A thunderstorm in Brazil, horse fights in China, a demonstration in North Korea and other bright photos of the passing day
4db802c4766930bd6021097d28240ecb2db3803d	Perestroika in Korean
389c04ff31ced7efe7e829687280ad90ac17cbba	Modern architecture of Pyongyang
acb0d1e4deb6f12cab275fcd82cb964cdae53e39	Special project:
3aaf2567770cbcd5b98f9dd2525b71b9e8dd453d	The game in the ruble gate
a9c572e965b21b9182ff2bf2664ff522b3b3b343	The preparation for the World Cup on football rested on the devaluation
58ca150d9d1b6bdf4ce7513bf14bbf380223197e	Brit awards 2016
ceddd60d41968833765ecb36f9ebaa1c576a1f9a	The Brit Awards ceremony of the UK music awards in the field of pop music was held in London
bc3a89d409777b0e0ed00f661191b216532a0db2	Day in history: February 25
cd893c9db9ac31ae283943f125b231e574301183	The inauguration of Viktor Yanukovych, the report on the exposure of the cult of Stalin's personality, the crash of the Boeing 737 in Amsterdam and other events that made this day memorable in history
583c2b0601359f6b1e69a5e00764f800de85d4cf	They drowned
6df54a085c823f89eff42c1f7f6fda8a4a35007a	The biggest accidents on submarines of the USSR and Russia
8450149ef4e729d535d545c4fa95c075ebcd16f5	The "garbage crisis" in Lebanon
4d9eb396a15bbe73ee881f58229c2a9e7c635fc9	A new scandal broke out in Lebanon amid problems with the cleaning and disposal of urban garbage
dec6b417b6259f385d2cd42269603f240d9254fa	The genius of our time
0923ea90f3e40fa9fe4a42e3f31dff649dee619c	The life path of Steve Jobs is "one of the great innovators in the history of modern capitalism," as the American newspaper The New York Times wrote about him
97ab2c3cf7fbf892ac768cefd839206878e4507b	On the festive front
fb2fb1b852ecea8960a12195264ab2cff3e7038d	How to celebrate the days of the armed forces in the world
c84dbed413a40f8f77126e0ed1a2c4d6a0b635f0	Sony World Photo Awards 2016 Shortlist
51290ae3239c2473f9bbcd0a2e76aa77f6beba60	In February, the shortlist of one of the most prestigious Sony World Photography Awards 2016 was published.
0dc8eae6304c4c31a1ed52473f4fa1427ed57002	Works included in the list
f18c737bc26992fce2ed3af9d13023c84844a2fa	Unconstructive solution
ce3a1fe6b48f1198d7d459a865dd9b36be68ba01	The largest collapses of structures in Russia and the world
e9838ff530a161f2ba188c49591b52dd18b1fe86	Gossip column
ab39057ec7d287f41b09c09e2502499963a9648c	A party on the occasion of the release of the "100 most stylish" rating of GQ magazine, the opening of the exhibition of photographer Sebastio Salgado "Genesis", the premiere of the film" Trumbo", a gala dinner of the jewelry house Damiani.
c0a2dbee4d930f56fb505c11764feed453b79ba6	These and other social events of the week
3989d9c7dbf49b445363f73723246f374a915a23	Verdun meat grinder
8d9c29545fc6bc99fb520ce34299ace8255715dd	Exactly one hundred years ago, on February 21, 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, which went down in history as one of the largest and bloodiest military operations in the First World War
bcfa4d342962caf6820d3247543f4fd57407fa37	Mir "Mir"to the world
6c9c2b770e85d43460da5d785ae04e2b5985d43d	The history of the Mir space orbital complex, which instead of the intended five years existed for 15 and forever entered the history of world cosmonautics
84c8051e466632ddae60847d86150e95c09735c8	special projects
552d2ef517d10967d56b8d410dcd9fc12d42f6cf	Who is competing for the 2016 Academy Award "Kommersant" presents the main nominees
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27e62657b197a7ce47ace2e65e52b0de7b2c9d67	Dollar exchange rate forecast Analysts ' opinions and forecasts on how the ruble will behave on February 24-26
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a5001c0ed88268b7a86e0be5b0210dc63db2085b	256 GB memory in smartphones will soon become the standard
7ef3eb163707b4b63ef6838a4b92a350ef3bf426	A full fledged mobile Assassin's Creed has been released on iOS
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82ff9b246790d7ddc7211069260cdd9bdf234e44	German Leica will make cameras for Huawei smartphones
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3eda9057aa92a5176fcfa5ec3117aefc6203b171	Jolla and Intex showed a new smartphone with Sailfish OS
6800dad31d775031014a13bd1770cbbbe70a99e3	Xiaomi Mi 4S an updated version of the previous flagship
0f07067702ff18934cd7d2b429d976b7f4c167fd	Samsung told about the gaming "chips" of the new Galaxy S7
ee2f056903db63ef2fb95e6c77ebe4c365d3b4ca	The new Sony Xperia X line will replace the flagship Z series
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dce7423d467fadc51ee5eae58d5f4c74f05be87d	NickMeller2, November 11, 2014-22: 30
298547b1332868edbde5f6ab66bb5d967349d533	The history of Valve, part 1
c0a0ad26a634840c67a210fefdda76577b03a111	Hi!
cc512b19c92b72b92f681be13a2ec2a67287e545	Today we will talk about an outstanding wonderful company in the gaming and PC industry — Valve.
78ad22cf5441a4b5370b450dbf28c0814f2fca2d	What is the Steam service worth, its own SteamOS operating system based on Linux and a series of Half Life games!
97959d6c4ff7377def7b9807fe3305c305d645d7	But about everything in order, friends.
c78a936969c6f812b7b13639d9863e59b95e198a	And in 1996, he and his friend Michael co founded Valve.
fa4b1590b03b1e8f2a1afaab19561352d73c8dd5	As Newell later said in an interview, they thought about the name of the company for a long time, tried to visualize it and eventually came to the conclusion that the valve is the best fit After the company was founded, they immediately started developing games.
599c5707cb04d504f1abccce38a07b67a9554548	Subsequently, Half Life games were developed on this engine .
f0b023f0a2de0e47857e1b9e99d2abc2d7ea1d36	Development of the game Half Life Half life was an innovative game in the genre of fps (first person shooter).
bfc99913d41a4289d2f7824263bfff6d30e128c9	It was famous for the advanced artificial intelligence of the enemy, as well as the presence of in game scenes (there are no so called QTE scenes in the game and all actions took place right during the game).
395b310679451e902c214c47a4a24fb3149a2a4c	The game was also famous for its plot.
c806036daa1e451c9d8489d677d9a5fdea7db960	For that time, the plot was generally something brilliant and in half of the games it was simply absent.
e82c2dc0261ad03414d628ed867a4422d9f2989c	Professional screenwriter and science fiction writer Doug Lombardi was invited to write it.
0761a23e38aba5520ef66060f7fd61cab0039f00	Doug Lombardi.
8380f7eddef30066538800a5eba57c494d0b082a	The main screenwriter of Valve, the game was presented at the E3 exhibition in 1997, and the game literally blew up the audience.
dda9e8eb05a906d45455f2524fa12654327f87e9	In theory, the game was supposed to be presented in 1997, but it was presented a year later — on October 31, 1998 — not so long ago it celebrated its 15th anniversary.
920619a6665ecebd67c65bf57225a810b5bb6d44	Screenshots of the alpha Hallf Life.
6d990e7a9c1f8de602329419c42c6519323f6fd1	Donot be surprised: at that time, the graphics were awesome.
f62e06f4a6b0bdb1b0593e1eba5e7b779426d9b1	The year before last, this alpha was merged and the fact that it can be run on Q4A is interesting
f8ee35de14d076f92c78a5a76a27bf0c9ae4ef35	(true, the textures will not be ice at all :(
c394c15d48c29c8803bdc198659f8b3c3129af0c	Cover of the game Half Life You have to play as a 27 year old physicist Gordon Freeman from the Black Mesa laboratory and participate in an experiment that can change this world.
27812128fa9e21824162d8548e773fc5f1b2c888	Next, I will not say anything to avoid spoilers and I want to advise you to play this game yourself — you will get a lot of fun, despite the age of the game.
e751b0c4e63cb3d5c7120790d915b9a70708bb65	I personally passed it twice at a high level of difficulty .
ae4fc606f6aaca2873b00683d8ecdf8effcd297d	Screenshots of the release version of Half Life Later, Gearbox released 3 story modifications for this game: half life blue shift, half life Opposing Forse and, exclusive for ps2, Decay .
8a64afbc438eb57c6078960d5b8a8636e61f3c00	The game Half Life has gathered a large army of fans, and there are still conversations about this game.
281049b0faed6c9ce2d1594b182a4f7e34372a24	Often, it takes the first places in the ratings of TOP games.
074a5856a5bfa74f45804f53f05d77496de78fba	There are many ports of this game, for example, on the Quake, Source engines (the official port from Valve), Doom (this port works even on Symbian) and development is underway on the Unity engine to port it to mobile devices.
e15445bf42c4e26a54184eaefaff243880f62405	At the moment, the most ambitious project is Half Life Pocket, which is being developed by Alexey Ivanchukov.
aa47d9ee3818a3062a0f19b60ae8db049b72b6fc	Great steps have already been taken in this matter: * has been written.bsp loader that allows you to load textures and maps from the original Half Life (instead of recompiling them for Unity).
72401f61339cd1776641c2928e9c24e713510e3c	Port on the Doom engine
dbb59551d04dfd0c4f7986573e470bd657771f64	A port based on the Quake engine.
403b2956f8520de1266cf209a1251b28c4db0460	Screenshot from Quake4android
69ccec9c9feefc817bce657abc27132ba2ddbcb3	Port to Unity (HL Pocket ) Of course, Gabe Newell collected a lot of profit with Half Life.
c38107dc2d0b63530ce4cae1070ed490e65df36e	+10 12 liked it
23d45da9c7773a38b9b3f0b73d2970f9550608b0	2 I didnot like it + –
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d155911cf157b3cf24d8e92886b794b3162ab563	18 comments
cf4eeb201e29f3ee9e0074c7a4964d4753e975df	grisha2055, November 12, 2014-23: 40 (...)
0d47680aa20bd6735b4158f2c66b450bf0374d5b	0 +
c3a0dcd534a65074e332782b78bd2bd25de51869	"...bought a license for the Quake engine", fix it.
6e4a79bfcc7cc2eb0b17ce763d4f43285321b463	grisha2055, November 12, 2014-23: 42 (...)
50a8fe16a15aaf47864c619d2eb98c3af525b620	"... this alpha was leaked", also fix it.
3e82839a18ceeafd74b5370e4e4763ec4c708ad2	Yes, there are a lot of double spaces!
ae125e32602e58dce9a2fd85435dc6cac4202deb	Oh, that's it.
529488784d68df7b6eed800f9d5c2baea7843d04	NickMeller2, November 12, 2014-23: 47 (...)
4c0d93ba0bcddb0be36e6f62adece5e378cda87f	Are double spaces fatal?
f94972be1249c06ce5edc0d8a693be73fd29f974	Senpai11, November 14, 2014-00: 22 (...)
a001d4869120833aa62d57bcd12064de92730a6a	Yes)
7adc3b5920770777cb95b84d958dda93ddd97457	Senpai11, November 14, 2014-11: 00 (...)
eed0aac058520a1b9f8220c22e9fd5689565547b	+1 +
a5f4bdc3cb896fdd2d92ff1f7873c185e3748f8b	There are even triple spaces.
938577e56c490f442cf1c882db35d6281bca983a	NickMeller2, November 12, 2014-23: 56 (...)
4f1eb7db007e6c1bbeb296514dcaed4bab264732	I fixed everything I noticed.
bd4d6fb7164e66f01eab7053a4897cb45859ec4e	Is it okay?
bc456f965afb5d2b0cf30552f3e9a91395f570b5	grisha2055, November 13, 2014-00: 42 (...)
25f2e7e659c5a986b2baad71050068292681807b	I think so.
135387ba1d5cf7040b8660108837da534f9157c9	+.
b01d09ba0ef4b3bb19455eb2195dd1741ac78da3	TARANS_ ★★6, 13 November 2014 - 15: 49 (...)
741c54f21ced6cbd3db27f217ffc2176fb32cf1e	oh that's it
64bb68be9d648a1cac4eb16b31adb41e01e3ec1f	aqwsderf ★6, 13 November 2014-17: 35 (...)
af31dc7649b9463a903fcbf1bf364ff347644140	for Quake engines, Source
2254a721774e4ef039c0735a2737e6139d1333da	NickMeller2, November 13, 2014-17: 55 (...)
99d30c3fe76fceca04c46d4a9cdc13eda57a4fac	Fixed it.
4a88d20d1bd5577ba8118c0259431409bffab16a	My keyboard does not know the word source it was automatically corrected to sourse
231a05351d6d0e45757d2c933bc40a777a121f30	ProMax, May 3, 2015-20: 29 (...)
274cb90744fec0ffa2cbede572027ed8d98cf2ef	By the way, the new Source used Havok as the 2nd engine.
872fbed9b0592611dc9bc248f3b922b57e23db24	If anyone does not know, now Valve has made a new Source 2 engine and the game Half Life 2 Episode 3 (Half Life 3).And Valve is also planning to make a 4 episode, but this will be the end of all Half Life games.
bcfe544ade221b9613e8d2092044f3044188bbca	Nk Name, November 13, 2014-17: 38 (...)
4374fd7c7cdd642ed1cc9fd73a565264f159d4ba	Black Mesa and participate in the fun - - - fix it
87bf3d2dbec9a0a227a60574216b64bfb9de940e	NickMeller2, November 13, 2014-17: 54 (...)
4bb4904b45ce703eedc99142bb990e95b71dcb07	I donot understand google…
a073f2e5a1de4607665d20f3b628a2f7fc0639cb	Rost, November 17, 2014-13: 09 (...)
009808d707f3d569c5e4468134d43051e2fcc299	What about the second part?
e92cead77ca808450f70e9c17e578eabd32a12ea	NickMeller2, November 17, 2014-15: 39 (...)
506c30af2259469a148e38ed9683faaf3a5d28f8	I wanted to write on the 16th, for the 10th anniversary, but it didnot work out because of passing exams:
28ed3a797da3c48c309a4ef792147f3c56cfec40	(
b1e1661c2cad00924df1fdcaeae26e8f0e465fe8	NickMeller2, November 17, 2014-15: 40 (...)
c9b143d1aa36473f8ce7d622207e4b64c1f9a533	*half life 2 anniversary
129332fe787dfd5fbfbce2e66046bcb03875d113	_UltraBear 6, November 17, 2014-13: 12 (...)
06b9f9ef9942a809e2797607ecb5c25270f007aa	If you need to answer someone specifically, it is better to click on "Reply" under his comment
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be25a09239d9134decc6396a1aebe7833ee2357c	The history of Valve
7311f33ce4a5cc0231cd0b82f50bdf6228f5f48f	Most recently, Valve Corporation turned nineteen years old.
cc4159ab948a433df937ff0abe4504466d6b7ba7	Over the years, the company has given the world a considerable number of hits that have made it one of the leaders of the computer games industry.
9044b4e25e7127e41c0d1924fb8890e77199ccef	Following the chronology of events, we will recall all the key stages of the formation and development of Valve, as well as tell you what management model the director of this corporation adheres to.
6e5a76cdfd09757f49a49cfefa74484136fccb68	About the significant stages of the formation of Valve
b17a5010848db8bf6797f15eaf3297cfc02fd04b	Michael Abrash will join Valve only in 2011.
11bc4177b515602879fe444dace1fbbd02193a0c	All the formal papers were signed on the day of Gabe's wedding.
c1e477cd121425d60a5ee5487e71433a270d2677	The natives of Microsoft planned to start with a science fiction first person shooter, so to speed up the development process of the game, they purchased a license for the Quake game engine.
b64883e5441a36faed3c0f0e589cce85a009a21c	As the members of the team who worked on Half Life admitted, they did not expect such success.
f2ac9b2ff03b6e3cd1f46416dea9fc8ced291712	The popularity of the game was due to the advanced intelligence of opponents, as well as the presence of in game scenes.
55c17122b1bfecc1e676710427fe101143dfb905	However, it is important to note that already in 1999 a free SDK was developed that allows you to create game modifications.
905f19d17fa541402a5557c7b5be4d26f7e94349	In the same year, the game Counter Strike 1.0 was released.
8336f53c407939e6d50b53bda662c31c0240947f	It has received a variety of awards from the "title" of the game with the best scenario to the "title" of the best PC game of all time.
22897db367cd727ba3d4eface88e9fd57d95443e	The appearance of the first versions of Steam
553a2bab5e779d2a32f0673665130d739b7eda9f	It is worth, perhaps, to tell you more about Steam, since its appearance played an important role in the development of Valve.
bbec9bc4689efd77b079c756b634d05f3f8db9cb	The release of this service took place in 2003, and initially it was intended to automate and simplify the process of updating games.
eac3e975a394c9b18f8de06b9308e31a97098c9e	Later, a system of protection against dishonest players called Valve Anti Cheat (VAC) was built into Steam.
1cf23ad6652689cb906afb2e41be2d3917c1fd4e	Then they started selling third party games through this service.
69d0cfa189f0b81e995da3c805c6f3163d6d5fb9	In a relatively short time, Valve has made Steam one of the most popular platforms for distributing games.
799b59c8b1578dbf65d89a9cefbc062f1e6c2fca	In fact, Valve has become a monopoly on the digital distribution of games, because it managed to do the same thing that iTunes did at the time.
e56696c438c432ecc5a7a29928e50f93310d32f5	The only difference is that Apple has changed the principle of selling and buying music, and Valve video games.
26815bc812e7df7cab5a6996729d42e58ecd3c2b	You can read more about the history of the Steam service in a separate article on this topic.
d0c48099e077eddfb7ee3b3945c53595f0fe14ab	In 2007, Valve secured the title of one of the best computer game development companies.
932250f93cb90dbdfa8df6f21b4394e120aa93a9	This is mainly due to two events: the release of The Orange Box and the successful implementation of the Steam Community.
1b084ad19cf372ca32c49dad501dbf8096223f7e	The Orange Box is a collection of games including Half Life 2, Half Life 2: Episode One, Half Life 2: Episode Two, Portal and Team Fortress 2.
6915ed15dc03163d6dfd207bf5335f4fdd6d3fb3	The last three games were new and highly anticipated.
c0218d162ae6d4293869c8b2225660b0c27f2a1c	In turn, Steam Community was a major update of the Steam service in order to improve the social component of the community of gamers.
d24ed9e675343c536451f763e2dcf91efa86c8c9	For example, players could now join communities or invite one of their friends to play together.
48b002a2bf317867a215059676baba483547e76b	According to statistics, at that time the Steam service was actively used by 15 million people.
eade83a838d26453f6f5e96db8466d58e879672b	In 2008, the game Left 4 Dead was released.
e72e4829867896d16e7594e9da6447d7a3c48f08	It was developed by the Turtle Rock studio, which in 2008 became part of the Valve company.
83c3bbd5d20e0f3e1df027b81001c0f642312ce6	Although a year later, Turtle Rock announced that it was no longer part of Valve and would continue to develop independently.
6776ef9303362faf24c4995e452fac348d8761cf	Anyway, the game Left 4 Dead received a lot of positive reviews, and the emphasis on the collective interaction of gamers made it one of the best among cooperative shooters.
adc5c994b52305684f3fa7996950b8175af57784	Already the following year, a sequel was released, which also received a lot of positive reviews from gaming publications.
ca86ce65ec7b3b21b1c84e9605541bd021dc540c	In 2010, Portal 2 was released.
2171ec969427d31535aa1c62c57608252fa3e94b	This first person puzzle was met by critics no less cordially than all previous Valve projects.
1d47d5550daa8759d9d49959ed0603838baa4e7b	Moreover, for this game, Gabe Newell received an award at the GDC conference for innovation in the game industry.
662d44e437e4929150ede800c10c38992a24fdc2	There, at the conference, he said that he considers Portal 2 the best game in the entire history of his company.
ca77b3f9cf4b18049d96aacac1d5ac9529a1570a	For the next three years, Valve actively worked on additions to this game, such as, for example, Portal 2: Sixense MotionPack DLC and Portal 2: Peer Review DLC.
ec3df6b3210c764c5f3422ce5e1942a247ed59c4	Portal 2 ads on buses in Seattle
ac2e20d2085759346027edac39785e0ef6ce062e	In 2009, Valve invites the developer of the DotA map for the Warcraft III game.
48e0ba07e09334d5308ea406d091d43074da4f5d	In 2010, the company's office moved to a more prestigious and expensive area.
e506dd65309ac9290daa1f01efdf0b4ee1d7cc4c	In the same year, Valve announces Portal 2.
7fdf6a549d35a5992a67ea478c36f2f6cdef90f8	Finally, in 2011, the company announced the release of the Dota 2 game and announced the acceptance of applications for participation in the beta test.
ca2fe8677b21c5f42c8017a2a21f684080784c0f	In order to popularize this game, The International tournament was held, at which, as everyone knows, the Natus Vincere team took first place.
01873151d4bc2c79e4151bca886063e830f009a7	An equally important event for the esports industry occurred in 2012, when the game Counter Strike: Global Offensive was released.
622f201a22e367abcfee0c805124873c73bf459a	Like Dota 2, it has become one of the key esports disciplines.
6305afe45e68f2ece179a704f60f12cf5e564585	The GameSpot portal called the new Counter Strike the same classic shooter, just seriously updated.
a8f1dbb47bcef1dd7daa5bc8299a4e993d5a43ed	By the way, Valve did not forget about its software.
8ac5f9632d2278a47eb8347c873f16ca669064b5	In the same year, the Steam client for mobile operating systems was released, which allowed gamers to keep in touch with each other and study the contents of the store away from home.
d34befd080bfb1cccae3393651a5d1727ac1f643	In 2013, Valve released its own operating system called SteamOS, which is still being worked on.
fc5da64457c495e1126545ce005d5ad458842d7b	This operating system is being developed with the aim of introducing it into the Steam Machines game console, which will allow players to run PC games through a TV.
b7d8e4d5c3f33abb380ca27e3ec52af2a5492e18	This is what we will talk about now.
119700bd1bdca5dcc412d972c7d4f8249c491840	Gabe Newell's Company Management Model
e8e5b968bea720fb6bc3638d45c588280fcc1d7a	Perhaps, Valve owes its achievements to a kind of management model, which, despite everything, turned out to be very effective.
a2a57d78b6b8623d74dcb4d3a2cb1e43374b524f	To begin with, Gabe Newell is not interested in having a higher education among potential employees of his company.
5a7f1bdfb048f799671162b59649d6e1021f57e4	In an interview, he said: "You can get an MBA — and this does not mean that a person will be useful in your company.
825fcc75613838a5b3314b0c30eb687e9cadb0d0	Final grades donot say anything about a person.
a81d23c530491d29095934b2e116fe3a9d857562	Yes, many successful people have studied well, but it is not necessary that this is so."
3c352e31eb4aa2aeb676ebb38008805423e3dba8	Recall that Gabe Newell himself did not receive a higher education, because he was expelled from the university.
49b0d381d38710f1bc31a18c48c8f7682f241c40	All this explains why Valve is so easy to hire simple enthusiasts who have shown their skills in practice, and not highly qualified specialists with good grades in the diploma.
d59d5ebad3e9894a7dac18cba2df060c8d839289	The director of Valve may simply like someone's approach to work or problem solving, and this person may receive an invitation to work.
855ec653991b91576cfd1fe6141d41b3fef3d771	For example, something similar happened to the Greek economist Yanis Varoufakis.
a141e5c60fbc6fa9a5148f0508dc2c743153a5d6	He wrote a blog about the economic situation in his country, which impressed Gabe Newell so much that he decided to invite a talented economist from Athens to work in his company.
3487a461d9c004634db9a8fa813f29c4733228ab	It is worth saying that Gabe Newell strongly rejects the traditional hierarchical model of company management, where there are bosses, managers and subordinates.
d6743ac9cdd62b86743b1aef723be76408a63f7f	He himself always follows this rule, setting an example to others.
789effd11c0cdfcb46cc67616f9b3c1e8f7204a0	For example, in the booklet that is issued to new Valve employees, it is written: "Of all the people in the company who are not your bosses, Gabe is not them to the greatest extent."
6d401305ca474197354e761d59d45e19a686304c	Moreover, Valve rarely hires people to solve specific tasks.
77b596d7e733b2c017755bfb0d4957ff737e4486	Employees are free to do what they see fit.
01976adde3414b89f88d73acc8e2b3d359b3afc0	For example, the already mentioned Michael Abrash describes his first days in the company as follows: "I expected that I would immediately be given some kind of job.
7bc353bb319b8fb0ebd781707531590c123d8af2	Instead, I received several suggestions from colleagues who thought that I might need to take a closer look at such and such an area...".
64a71bedab329044d8876d92fd250c6185843c88	With these words, Michael emphasizes that Valve employees do not have any fixed roles or responsibilities.
5bf7d6b89715eae8c1cef87a2f5db5086746ee36	Gabe calls the positions assigned to employees, and, accordingly, the duties, "a hard drive", which has a bad effect on the results of work.
b660cb9685916fb8ed1c75acb56c912501434abc	Therefore, no one gives out decrees at Valve.
04b571226c6e9cc549d03c7478a56de92bd6edf2	Even the CEO.
80b299f1c6b59fe1bd7e5aa3979baa2612c99231	Gabe Newell is sure that there is no need for formal management and career growth
ded1d7df49d359b1e972cbf19a062991af6e57b4	In an interview, Gabe Newell said: "We do not closely monitor how much time our employees spend on sick leave or on vacation."
340522ccb8b82c0df8ad267262ae88e0544ba4af	That is, anyone who works at Valve can stay on vacation and not go to work for several days, if they consider it appropriate.
1d0f51c15fce33da1b8acdac2b15b4b905d8dad8	And since there are no bosses at Valve, then you will not have to explain yourself to anyone.
bc6c8ec8f02488ed157a3a833de55653da1bae07	"If we trust the decisions they make in development," says Gabe, " then we also trust their time management skills."
ed352b40cd0643470973e598409384edcc31352a	Finally, it is worth adding that all the furniture in the Valve office is equipped with wheels.
90c1b09f19a09bfdd86e66fdcfe99da70a66a3c0	This was done with the intention that it would be as easy as possible for employees to join a group by joining, for example, several tables together.
1ba47d49c2e43d416fea5812f3ea676a0b680c81	Of course, Gabe Newell's management model may seem unconventional or even bizarre.
25de0b097206c61a777bec897cef88b0fe6bed91	However, we can see that it works perfectly.
ab6c7f5199a6f0c06e0f6d5d69f958ef553d05ad	Eric Tstli 25 August 2015, 13: 42 9795 6
fe2ef495a1152561572949784c16bf23abb28057	46
32ecdd32111a2fa43c2ec9f207f7593484c8dc7e	The history of esports fighting games The history of virtual reality The history of Steam
18d68a8c6fa60a43b76ebd8aea474d5c56af9e3d	Average 5 (10 / 10)
5537f4b28265c3e91a664fb83a67f2c08ec4b6ea	Total voted 3
3429b57bc3996ffe2d806733e5b10828f21b76fe	Comments (6)
ade481e11040b94e492b89618ab0a21d5ebd6c1c	The New Best
b3f0c7f6bb763af1be91d9e74eabfeb199dc1f1f	19
9ef6a80f91889a8309a63b73c054c0ff21b9b00a	#1
d905c4be1879544773121ed8e2e1980645e94db6	ya ryadom
ccb5c3198ca7c338a83d091b70655258927198bb	25 August 2015, 19: 21
6da64c56596bfe784f810bd6d37ca05e135a069b	this is really interesting, and 10 times more interesting than an article about lawyers in esports or what's in that boring article?)
702fb5d6ac373e5b4e2ed7adb2ac83acff57d1f6	#2
fdc353825a54c4b8fec4f5ea8f86ad1535479134	mr.Bes
4d1e022997a7a1e41e1f5e1d919042daee09e1e6	25 August 2015, 20: 15
19a862f277ec786d43df4c1a0a2e93977086a6c5	The management model pleased me, I read about it earlier, it was very interesting!
831895038cd3287134053ddaa79a96949b736c57	#3
fb7c72f11ada428acc5b6eb45da4e7ba543b500c	ZAECCCCCCCCC
69d2c1abfd248ed38c97aece01cf02fe15ba95bc	25 August 2015, 21: 53
3bb560184cb7e5b6efc12a5e897cc018e9384e93	Very interesting, thank you!)
efefd5a36ce1b9c8c7a28b776a1b77ea2947b0f1	#4
df7c88600e191b7f87cb0c4a4db96fd7fe23107f	zeywar
0437db03209177935691f308192fb5ee310764db	25 August 2015, 22: 30
03fe3fbb8fd11f944a0d5ba9f2d3fd6cae632d69	Very exciting!
b4f1566eb8a4297f17233dc0e06a3ba5c1ad5cbd	Thanks!!!!!
8772a62a97ff8dcdfb1f2d30c306c754efb820d7	#5
0539524881c77d9d6d3462d9f039c3aad6c97ab1	Nessenwow
b1f3e8da1bc4f37117131fbe564b6fb1f997a52b	26 August 2015, 02: 55
80e28a51cbc26fa4bd34938c5e593b36146f5e0c	54
a1dadd3e6b06f827050b836922bb27d3f9cdd7b1	#6
9efc3b20455ff3c7a59ae5a0a70c0dbae93b67e5	Ge5`er
a76631c4fad3f920ed9aec6730cbd922e90d7460	27 August 2015, 18: 57
e1d5c30de4bbc4a631a5f902c96c71f44d8ca27c	A successful and interesting article, thank you to the author!
02390ba1d43ccd71a2d4c15e92be300aeb759c11	Only authorized users can leave comments.
d90dd1f51c846e831ccd42b2d04a1760e1516cd9	Natus Vincere (lat. – born to win) is a multi gaming esports club that occupies a leading position on the world stage.
acca739f8d8c0d82c304a7fcc0cb815314b2762b	During the five years of the club's existence, its teams have repeatedly won and defended the world champions titles in various disciplines, and also set several world records that are still in force today.
1e658ce0a7a89a253ac6940dc3589d40d54031ad	Natus Vincere players have attended more than a hundred tournaments and, in some cases, without getting on the podium, won 47 of them, becoming a real role model for fans of computer sports.
5721bbef40b22bbdb2e6a062b096d9b48735c2ff	Instagram
0bb9c6d1ddbd8998168317756918cf92b5255236	T.QQ
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2f9a13ad80d00a45d9c4f18562dcfe59fb80385c	Na`Vi Official
95fe45f8e441332204bee3d317b640cb05bfcc44	Na`Vi LoL
558865a16feb9f751b8bcebf46a954afbeba0b24	YouTube
98cffba1fe62639cd62f63ea361f4f6155abb74a	Na`Vi Dota 2
68ff6f9da701d4d799c19d20d402ca1420c88792	Na`Vi CS:GO
ccb4147c51bf27b1a82fb490372d26913f17adb0	Na`Vi HS
1572581e6ac4591c992447f82d6c3e268c12e547	Na`Vi WOT
96ee9c8ba74a10dbe2f22de2e5743794d4a52064	Na`Vi HotS
ef5c8feb38c1c9989d59b9c3672cd95b5565e0c8	DailyMotion
82d75490d7c9b792960c44d8dd4ed53c44ed9100	Project · Team · Achievements · Partners · Publicity · Media · Contacts
a174b64d30e5758e19e4659844db4477c9aac92f	Natus Vincere 2009-2016 ©
f46d3e89923b2a6c386a26d48108a9140c707dff	<div><img src="https://mc.yandex.ru/watch/24687074" style="position:absolute; left:-9999px;" alt="" /></div>
ebb99733b387a4d18b7b76ddac7724bbe4a4cd65	<a href="http://reformal.ru"><img src="https://media.reformal.ru/reformal.png" /></a><a href="http://navi alpha.reformal.ru" >Reviews and suggestions for navi alpha</a>
39c497fafe0899bf0c60c3d5d09353d8f4492987	<img src="https://d5nxst8fruw4z.cloudfront.net/atrk.gif?account=y+p1f1aoim00gk" style="display:none" height="1" width="1" alt="" />
3fc1e40c8cec2a22d67a4cdb087adc384460e452	<div><img src="https://mc.yandex.ru/watch/30573337" style="position:absolute; left:-9999px;" alt="" /></div>
c2db1eb45c189fbd977466cb3148347f7d06b788	<img src="https://www.tns counter.ru/V13a****navigaming com/ru/UTF 8/tmsec=navigaming total/" width="1" height="1" alt="" />
5f2e54e84928c480c07f196cf874e233c19b4d1d	Kanobu
506ead90328f9c714144a11d0e7ca3bb8fd84254	Screams
ac1a42f5ac9a45b411a075f430e4ea8f3c6f1418	Platforms
620d624ed0b9d6f76ddd8c053c52d9c30d5df13d	PC PlayStation 4 Xbox One PlayStation 3 Xbox 360
19365eea33e990fafdc6f27c2d4723742924babb	All platforms
96817ade02e758261256fdfcf062e850b699b8a6	Genres
572f602da7f7aeedd3cfc93047f64f62b6f43333	Action Shooters Role Playing Strategies Adventures
09ac5f615d7d3706d3846d62fd52f0974f8d1d2a	All genres
791d722a88bf846034fc97622fccf28914fbd0e8	Games of the Month / Expected
029a486534458e29dc14b09d927b0dc3d9eca824	Popular games
adab5090ac6a1b7b5420faac7be86c41721ba27c	Calendar
eb0921a2d33b1e12290fecd311e984644d0d4ee6	News Articles Reviews Pub Screams
714eaf5d1f7a3d77767ad56feb05aca46fa7b731	Trailers RSS Video Archive Bookmarklet Kanobu
e53d489d925e3b1b3b5dd12d6c004bbf9c67cfd3	To find
c787c1ff9eb362fba3759b15c88f3f92d94b6a86	<img src="http://www.tns counter.ru/V13a****onlinemedia ru/ru/UTF 8/tmsec=kanobu total/" width="1" height="1" alt="">
9cee4cfcee6a2845650cc320cd5e18c7a4f8f08d	9 18 1022
6b4946e00d30de81d760e19a5aeb39b57388cfbc	Pub
10582bd3031d354b9dd350f55a9e658bd6342930	First Encounter Action Recon
22fccabb308b7b53af90a7153a4073d43c371504	4 min.
c675ae6225033c9076e40e416a27a95fb20a9155	August 27, 2011
d4dc9292902a4a225ae702e31ca00c4004586a29	twitter vkontakte facebook
c661a4a93ed2bf4039c0f91721ed0ddb239d955a	The history of Valve.
30eddbf7552ebb65d0fefccdc2b8379e1cbd07b1	Foundation and Half Life After a long time working at Microsoft, Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington founded Valve Software in 1996.
00e8caeb0391196e174b00d7009a870d11c29153	After the release of Half Life, Valve did not release anything for a long time, and additions to their best selling game were created in Gearbox Software.
d3ada33ca142f2a25a7c6f112295433807d74544	So in the wake of the success of the game, several add ons were released: Half Life: Opposing Force( OpFor), Half Life: Blue Shift (BS) and an exclusive add — on for the PS2 version Half Life: Decay.
2c1b87ad7a61cab479b5537367ce09ffe9f9bd98	Stating that it would take another nine years to create a full fledged third part of Half Life, the developer divided the sequel into three parts (Episode One, Two and Three), committing to release them within two to three years from the release of HL2.
38787fd9911421763e9960300117adf2b9a90c99	Valve has developed its own system integrated with Steam.
711205ef4ba604891831770310ffd95bf26d410c	The new game from Valve was called Left 4 Dead, and combined survival horror with a first person multiplayer mode.
a5236737f20e0480d1214eedfda5e3fc8db631e0	For the first time, information about Left 4 Dead appeared in the Christmas issue of PC Gamer UK magazine for 2006 in the form of a six page article.
08ff94991b533b13bd94a965beb02e29cade7e57	On November 6, the demo version of Left 4 Dead became available to those who made a pre order through the Steam digital distribution system.
2c38bfafd7e2882e84cd3aa06ed54d26124f1cb7	Thanks for your attention!
451d36a3df7d58201023edd08594e79f3c1d9d90	Interesting posts
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cecc47281dc066e0e85bb6099ead7620760879c4	_K o S_
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77cee8c1dd02ba7b912480e398185f01877ceb2f	9 6
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4f062ac9a9d062dbb3fb2cbc043d704b0a3e9d34	Is it easy to be a copywriter?
330f75435b63785e851b59727ad4e52f639ec5ea	4 59
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e68cd12e22263908e3f3d923da44b8607071a8a3	Be careful, the "Doors" are opening!
b08d6e8c13a7e80b90c067ba68753f7bbe1d9927	13 7
7de531fba78a3616f98f5838c8641515a1ddca31	jdavydko
ff793c6ac33d3aebd36b5c9cf6523a45309107b3	R&D Talk Podcast #11 — Antarctica, AI, salaries of scientists
0bd9a9e31c44194ba4ac5b060b9d6066189a53a6	10 1
aab1cd802fd459b5c7118cf77870b15ca35f90f9	I like
8cfb429b7f84762922921dfaa1211ccb23a578dd	Rated by 9 people
d6524f6aacf889f4fe933a51098f27261f494590	Collapse All
ca5a72a059af3a192f181bca35f1111f564c267d	As you asked, more text!
61cb6c58f6bf36ac2c00aa30d33c1cc355884003	Reply 0
a5d98a0731a9b3d9f797434c264420da3ddc0c58	leet
485afe0434df7188f87fa7e0e8705fd6c16ea9e2	G.A.B.E.N
8eeada3bd726f8a27e81d7e9163a93789b5f8933	→ leet
be65b9e347375f6ab4dbf58f66fa0a0b73735783	What?
cbb2302bc2857669fe565426cd0bfecf30723958	→ First Encounter Action Recon
c30bc01be5d83b52f5bd1fc9a34eac7453f40517	Gaben will eat you
102e089c172deef88ae2bc61174478a837b7d8f0	Johnny Knoxville
ef4f0570e6646c6d75fd16f8a0cc1240dd9cf5ef	Why is the name "Gabe Newell" and only 2 lines are said about him here?
1b663367fe5a3d5f23ddf580c6fb0c70b8e78c8a	→ Johnny Knoxville
95823d23794267768dd376d2ea96e89c4ab1087e	Well, I decided not to collipast with Wikipedia,and just tell the story of valv.
1c05757a59fa8ac61781751226db15304dd16b0a	Then write that the blog is about Valv and not about Gabe.
525f13b8f7773937384f9c87a1767d4bdef2016a	I spent too much time hoping to learn more about him.
d5fb9a13ccb59cd2c66563725d14176f2d2bc93c	Terminator UA
c43272fd3b169a15d6963478d53919c0956c9ae2	and de continuation ?
1450ae3981628f7bf355ef6ce17f767c552e8d47	Portal 2, DOTA2 ?
e7312aef895e73fa4f2ffd43fce6946c30a24f2a	→ Terminator UA
a85913d2652498b264406133a04bae13f0ef97b1	Dota 2 is not out yet!
140c501ebdf5fd4aa6b425e1dc2230fcea0048f8	And here I list only the most important games of Valv.
6a575e2d9c835f735f302017dea1855ff8aebfb4	Homer 200
7908b8d49b08f7dfdc312208d18b49bfe65c93e8	Plus.
92ba7a1f728b3f5c210099d83986e0cb54b1f8e2	Will there be a sequel?
8f56d18dcc430f93cc81d86c299cd5146384f291	→ Homer 200
aa96c82c87b02fc142212f8b3e1e11ad2c3dfefc	I will probably write about another company.
208db03fa66fcbd5c9e16955746a7cd46eb97d06	Toko at least do not copy everything from the wiki, ok?
4905dfedbe50be4d5348be70bd1d4cce855fdb1b	Is this copied from the wiki?
ed0d7ca0e10dbfc0d1e8af631bd7bf9cdb07b844	http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve
2365f0b0e51519f03cf6bf6d78432d8733914632	I didnot go to Wikipedia on a regular basis.
c84819a253f4b740a10e6d23df297a8ea66d6871	August 28, 2011
fc6c66625a3f9c915a86e07dfc0424385e8baa5d	And word for word and took the brain?
e1773c3870bd686fbb513eda3000ed5050c08f96	Just for the future: Do not stupidly copy and dilute with pictures, take at least 3 sources and convert the submitted material.
e90f4559a18730e1786c3b317925e6f6e91577fa	The next interesting post
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dd7c1a3d9d5627da9aea5415e3d07202bfb5925e	256
99384cf1ec69fc211adbbd271a50f5f6977014f3	All the screams
753a22b2eb617204efee4644795034b8ace1ee14	Notifications
f83a383c0fa81f295d057f8f5ed0ba4610947817	500
986d2de2ea6df1a0d235545dd8de4dfa8c2d9ae3	Valve
a122611a33116f14f244b22cf0b634be81833bb4	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on February 15, 2016; checks require 2 edits.
3f90e365a4ca8fcd73288e926c537c6e78348cad	Coordinates: 47°36 '51" s. w.
f872689b74bb80dd5dd4bf8a4d5ea4f01252095e	122°11'38" s. d.
84bfdad2e60167647ccc6486644ce7a38f346c03	/ 47.614028° s. w.
ab2a7e895896bc83c4a92f53574c5e7ee19a5312	122.194015° s. d.
ff737fd213e61bdf9cfce15ab006316277efb3b6	/ 47.614028; -122.194015 (G) (O)
b49bece0e76dabb2099e9f26140d9c6cdbe6ee4d	Show a geographical map
80643e6c28c74a9002eeb85df63a3c5cf772c3d9	Valve Corporation
4385e9f89ac2f991470d46a69656834a9c98ee14	Type private company
322f70a681342f77f0044ec97cc8ef7ff9fac3c6	Foundation 1996
53b23e44b7bea802244ed7f9f92cdd3d0dd80ed4	Founders Gabe Newell Mike Harrington
d6147f9aab24c3951f03541e270d4b5bda613800	Location USA USA: Bellevue, Washington, Seattle
02bb3350ea75c041141b3850cd2c615d504b2297	Key figures Gabe Newell (Co founder and Managing Director)
ebdb9a21a41ddbac529b004bfb52d5c8d2412e77	Industry computer games industry
73839046f482845cf414f436b0ca0682d7c4e67c	Products are a series of Half Life games.
eae5beb890344dab800f1ec08bdb653bac05beed	A series of Portal games.
8d30b50f996e02231ebf42e1d6a8dcde306eedea	A series of Counter Strike games.
ef19e107695c0e13e9987175e21f8bcda91c61ac	A series of Team Fortress games.
51d048c82e542fbde5965ace37b4cd76467a72f5	A series of games Left 4 Dead.
62171a3ab8b153270c8235ac97daa4d839f53228	The Dota 2 game.
b4ece756b992f3f3b3078bfee0b660110349bb10	GoldSrc, Source and Source 2 game engines[1].
82964695dd66513f85d6d7bd2d74b59718d273fa	SOFTWARE: Steam, VAC, SteamOS, SteamVR JSC: Steam Machines, Steam Controller.
8502a0772c770451889d249cea9626f984df107f	(see the full list of products)
82dc7e073e37a58bbb10184e393bd2c360df795a	Turnover : 2.5 billion US dollars (2012) [2]
32d672f96b5706c2a23f658de98b480acddd8af7	Operating profit: US $ 1 billion (2012) [2]
07420e4235f4f45c44cca40e858c905b2e890dd2	Assets : US $ 2.5 billion (2012) [2]
8d90be7e3560ac2265f1ffc18eda4acb862d22b2	Number of employees 400[3]
b096caa48fff48b3687d767690acb19773a3a4fe	Subsidiaries of Valve S. a. r. l., Luxembourg
da80986419671e6d77c44ebd628d1b43aa04e177	Website valvesoftware.com
4c91306a52b15c9fd988711621d564950f471185	It is headquartered in Bellevue, Washington, USA[5].
90df99c60ff64091aa5c9053561842800af2d464	1 History 1.1 Foundation and Half Life 1.2 Creating your own Engine and Ending Half Life 1.3 Release of the latest single player games 1.4 Multiplayer Games and Steam development 1.5 Capturing the living room 1.6 Developing a virtual reality helmet
0c65dc56fd939972f3063ef5e7b222ddd9ef5869	2 Company Products 2.1 Games
bce1bfa2a6c77e3f8294813cfefb1e3cfcf509b0	3 Corporate culture of the company 3.1 Ideology 3.2 Anarchic structure 3.3 Problems of the approach
419987485912154a572944b5f3e14ed7e37e89f1	4 Audience and capitalization 5 Notes 6 References 7 References
81834b596bb0d5ef0e4d6b7d2b5a2233af5c9cc2	Foundation and Half Life[edit / edit wiki text]
3f9abb337790cc6a4daa94863848f16d75c0a836	To simplify it, a license for the Quake game engine was purchased, after which a one and a half year development of the Half Life (HL) game began[4].
97053e798089e398419d1b01e404ba701213e6cb	The game became a science fiction three dimensional first person shooter[4].
9a8e20396104a04d6a9390e8fb8f8e72c2193700	Gabe and Mike wanted to create something similar to DOOM, the same dark creation[4][6]. The game has received more than fifty publishing awards, including the title "The Best Game of All Time" [6][8]. The game was first demonstrated at E3 in 1997, and became a real hit of the exhibition.
9333c1a839bc1ddfeedce2e4e71671399549ca14	Min Lee, together with the developer hiding under the nickname "Cliffea", use it to create a modification of HL Counter Strike (CS) [6], a multiplayer shooter based on the idea of opposing a terrorist group and a special police unit.
4f63e4a189106182927b9d917216c9d7efd0aa39	Creating Your Own Engine and ending Half Life[edit / edit wiki text]
897da4acd06f2f40de4162bd641ea903fe390dfc	The success of the game inspired the company and it immediately [8] began to create a game no less large scale than its predecessor[6].
45bab04c44d5565d65aec3616062b3aac9b812c1	After 5 years of development, Half Life 2 was presented at E3 2003[6][8]. The game was made on a new game engine the Source Engine[8], because the graphic part, at that time, was out of competition[6].
28c84929014824eabd28b4e571010527916cc926	The game took the first place on the site metacritic.com in the list of the Best games of all time[9][10]. The new engine became an excellent help for modders and promised the company eternal youth at this expense[8].
ceb04a3b3bb2da6641856dc14a5d4cb4cd9c2bd6	According to the founder — Gabe Newel—, the company decided that it was not worth keeping the fans waiting for another six years, because the model of creating episodes was taken, which allowed producing no less high quality games in just a year and a half[13].
56ffc75bc5cd212fa2693075d703987a29c99a28	Release of the latest single games[edit / edit wiki text]
b34b3238c553b5c512855b08b63535d31120dead	There was also its own social network Steam Community -, also based on Steam, for this purpose, personal profiles were implemented, the ability to add friends and an in service chat was finalized[source not specified 422 days].
a1420c0433735632575a6f67a668022a90d6db02	Multiplayer Games and Steam Development[edit / edit wiki text]
58854cd3aba87138dabd8c039ccda9e205befc73	On July 19, 2010, the third person network shooter Alien Swarm was released.
43f5fa9d05296676bff63ef0218f689480cf7522	Capturing the living room[edit / edit wiki text]
f64f3d6f03ab2eeb5308e22acd42c27166e6ab03	See also: SteamOS, Steam Machines and Steam Controller
d7750068257f09966f7a0e81cfd08f477d2211ea	On September 23, the company published the SteamOS operating system based on Debian[18][19]. This was the first of three stages to "capture" the living rooms[to clarify] Valve.
7c1c32b339f2f966957598bb1db150904afd3f48	The operating system will be delivered in a Steam Machines mini computer, however, this free OS will also be released separately for independent installations[19], which will allow third party companies to create their own devices for SteamOS[19].
6b289b2befee30b15a10a6652772e647499318b4	This operating system has the ability to broadcast to a TV from a stationary PC, access to the Steam Cloud (access to all purchased games from any device using a single account)[19]. The operating system is capable, in addition to games, of playing audio and video files[20].
92f17589c874d8ed2340c96767b1be7846d2b851	One of the stages of capturing the living room was the release of a video set top box and a controller for it[22].
c8b69e9640a8936f8f0469307b2efffb78a2ca50	Development of a virtual reality helmet[edit / edit wiki text]
d80cd85f9243e54979b0174d8f443a91668c65f9	The start of the sale is November 2015[the source is not specified 161 days].
f7e957c59c38d53a3df093d16619e28c89125125	Company products[edit / edit wiki text]
d61739570be520a93b882ada18b74615345673f4	Main article: List of Valve products
eb5d318b0cf8d39da7c92d366b79f747e02bcaa5	Games[edit / edit wiki text]
d19540bb3ed600b1e69d12021ef31a8d049bb839	At the end of the twentieth century, Valve released 7 games: in 1998, the demo version of "Half Life: Day One", followed by a full — fledged game — "Half Life"; in 1999, the demo version of" Half Life: Uplink"," Half Life: Opposing Force "and the original" Team Fortress Classic"; in 2000, thanks to the possibility of modifying the engine, the mod" Counter Strike "and the novelty - "Ricochet".
77fd935d7e3b7d1b56a8d8801fa38587bb49ce58	At the beginning of the noughties, additions to past successful releases were released: in 2001, "Half Life: Blue Shift", "Half Life: Decay" and "Deathmatch Classic"; in 2003, the original game "Day of Defeat"and the version for slot machines "Counter Strike Neo".
b0323dfa911401745140ac49e2acd5ff029c4cb1	The year 2004 marked the beginning of a new era in the Valve camp — with the release of the new Source engine, such games as "Half Life 2" and its multiplayer network modification — "Half Life 2: Deathmatch"were released.
8ab81fd75e45f7a7e50db27607ccd1784300007d	The "Counter Strike" line has been updated: a new product called " Counter Strike: Condition Zero "and, separately, cut scenes from it — "Counter Strike: Condition Zero Deleted Scenes".
41d334be4eaaef99e38b47a5abd04d27fe134a94	Also released on the new engine are "Counter Strike: Source" and "Half Life: Source".
088f4a1c059d1663289ef30f571ce98ddb917425	In the mid noughties, old games were re released on a new engine and the continuation of the HL story: in 2005, "Day of Defeat: Source", "Half Life 2: Lost Coast" and "Half Life Deathmach: Source"; in 2006, "Half Life 2: Survivor"and" Half Life 2: Episode One".
2f5eb0797369ced765c8e43afc8b744b060a1650	In 2007, the so called "Orange Box" was released, a collection that also included three new games: "Half Life 2: Episode Two", "Team Fortress 2"and " Portal".
cd3a6d56fd48bc523a8cec255d88bdd0e0de44e8	At the end of the noughties, in addition to new games, sequels and add ons were released, and games were created specifically for the Asian market: in 2008, "Portal: Still Alive", "Counter Strike Online", "Left 4 Dead"; in 2009, "Left 4 Dead 2" and "Left 4 Dead: Survival Pack DLC "with" Left 4 Dead: Crash Course DLC".
d8508298a46e21a97e566f29663d773d2f6b18c1	In 2010, he became rich in additions to L4D of two generations: "Left 4 Dead: The Sacrifice DLC", "Left 4 Dead 2: The Passing DLC" and "Left 4 Dead 2: The Sacrifice DLC"; however, there is also a novelty - "Alien Swarm".
739190363dcdfdbe96c14b1eca538903c7c59190	In the early 2010s, the company releases even more games: in 2011, the continuation of "Portal 2" and additions to it "Portal 2: Peer Review DLC", and "Portal 2: Sixense MotionPack DLC"; in 2012, the additions "Left 4 Dead 2: Cold Stream DLC", "Portal 2: Perpetual Testing Initiative DLC", as well as a new game — "Counter Strike: Global Offensive"; in 2013, the novelty "Dota 2" and "Counter Strike Online 2".
b6f6e9191c74bc18803419f4b23adf54d43b1746	In 2014, Valve did not release any separate game product, with the exception of the Left 4 Dead 2 — Uncensored supplement, released to the Australian public.
1df4422d32ef3b190a678b8787bae4095a0b5e42	Corporate culture of the company[edit / edit wiki text]
93072d2abdb5425560934a009a8f643997c98ffc	Ideology[edit / edit wiki text]
1da034741660d551312d9f374fb4e9327aedb4e2	According to Gabe, hierarchy is inappropriate and useless in the technology industry, there is no need for formal management and career growth[23].
fe5c009bf0d35ae3135e86dfe6560c81969b8ebf	In an interview with The New York Times, Greek Coomer (one of the first employees) doubted that Newell was the CEO, but noted that technically, he most likely is[23].
7a5266ff40d2de590b4a2edc1b2e5a21ea171913	In the manual for Valve beginners, it is written that Gabe Newell, among others, is not the boss to the greatest extent[23].
7e3e3af2f62f45c8c4974aae793db4ca8083b697	Anarchic structure[edit / edit wiki text]
ed8b4591a8dc673dba50350f8f6c24db8c5dfac5	The anarchic structure of the company can make even the technical head of the company — Gabe dream as much as he wants, but not to promote the project, due to the lack of willing employees to deal with it[23].
2f90e9e1160ce985e138e4c78ec41a344f1de801	Employees independently form working groups, luring each other from project to project[23].
7c31f89d0cdf428510d4ab4893bc9cdaccc71569	Among themselves, the group only decides who will become the current leader, who will keep in mind all the information about the project and coordinate it[23].
d80d82e1d40fd4c00e3ec63c6ee39d8e5fdc8c9a	Valve encourages frequent changes in the composition of groups so that they are not absorbed by the bureaucracy, and they remain on the user's side[23].
efad8a75d48a4ebb0b3f6e61b685e972b20ef6f8	This approach is manifested, in particular, in the fact that the tables of all employees are equipped with wheels — this simplifies constant movement[23].
a466e72ec89756c30110f77b24fd3bf66ca61e05	Problems of the approach[edit / edit wiki text]
0d1225c948c90644cba84a8dc95ad6613b8be52f	Michael Abrash noted that in the first weeks, colleagues assumed that he should look at some area, after which he began to think differently: to think that he would do something valuable for the company, which no one is doing yet[23].
35798af3d7a0c5c3894158f3a780c676bc7e98a3	After that, he began to create virtual reality glasses[23].
90b2dfc18ea59c11f9e6aa9036095eca9a86ed3e	This freedom makes it extremely difficult to find new employees[23].
f6d1a8d6f0c3c35105f1ab452bbda3ba353bc4e4	In fact, the entire company is aimed at finding new recruits, potential employees are regularly called for interviews[23].
4855b8ac36eaf5a03106bcb43a550799fc280c14	The company is attracted by people with rich experience, "better than others in this business"[23].
226526914eef08e8f723b974de5f973ad913756c	For example, the company employed a Greek economist, Yanis Varoufakis, who was hired because Gabe liked his blog about the European financial crisis; a former puppet theater artist; a creator of special effects for the films "The Lord of the Rings" and "King Kong"[23].
a2186d246e9af5fe22aef7e1c967eea16a95fe56	The company values people who are able to simplify or quickly solve a problem, as well as clearly explain exactly how they did it[23].
c1350efed5571ee40d1f5fa4cab74a06cae9fbaa	Such a system can exist only if the company is completely independent[23].
8de7800740894cac24636123c0a676b2800341ca	Independence from publishers is provided by the Steam service, which makes Valve itself a publisher.
8d688844456f2c4c3fad40e0eab47fc24779273e	The company was founded without investors, and at the end of 2014, all assets were held by the company's employees[23].
eb043074d861a82737b90aac1629ec91cf3a65ce	According to Newell, if things go badly, the company will be dissolved, not sold[23].
00eecdca8a7c6b260151bcd6a95af521318e0cd0	The lack of hierarchy creates problems for employees outside the corporation: they have to invent positions for themselves in order to be taken seriously[23].
bb3f238ffdddfcfb7dc75eb3ef4b6cfd00ba9701	Audience and capitalization[edit / edit wiki text]
6c1d7308af105da84a5e07ab09ba3c38a53e0179	According to Forbes magazine, at the time of 2011, the Steam store's audience was 30 million people[9].
483909d9fa7a6da7667830f928ef12c0dc163054	As of 2011, the service accounts for 50-70 % of the four billion (in US dollars) online game distribution market[9].
67df68729ed35393a28ab98c8bbd36623e3e224e	Valve's financial performance is unknown, but according to the founder — Gabe the company is "extremely profitable" [9].
4fccfbdcd769a618f0877240e4e1351b1cf03c3d	In October 2011, the press service of the corporation announced a record profit for Valve, which exceeded the profit of the previous year by 200% [9].
f87468479357eeb21fca37ebdff4ccb0aeecacb8	According to Forbes, Valve is estimated by various sources in the range from 2 to 4 billion US dollars[9].
8cc7180fcc051b97fb75dc7f0e0d2d1a5b8b9532	In 2012, Michael Pachter, in an article in the New York Times, estimated the corporation at $ 2.5 billion [24].
659be0c423df57058f0eeb847e105eaa7bc17286	Mikhail Khomich claimed on the pages of Kommersant that the company's net profit for 2013 amounted to about 1 billion US dollars[4].
2c5734ee0a0a92cc1f71f4d5c657b695229d0f20	↑ Langley, Hugh.
98bd30d040d5746dbb6c30da9a9e5d5f26ee29e9	Valve just announced its plans for Steam Machines... and Source 2, Tech Radar (March 3, 2015).
fdfab6893a145818e9e32621044cc7479879128f	Checked on March 3, 2015.
256f54871c689b64ec3bacab8ac939a2f5106002	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 Wingfield, Nick.
dc70022be25b17e573ed0c738b573c03731ddca2	Game Maker Without a Rule Book / / The New York Times.
c3486f335e44caafa953040716aa3294ebdf9b0f	— 2012.
c01a388763a1defac9ef08b44857aa6128890314	↑ Why Valve?
3ff2035addb5bd57a4371d920e2ce2809cea5275	Or, what do we need corporations for and how does Valve’s management structure fit into today’s corporate world?
15895400547bd84b6e73d6eb815901ddf4fd0e34	| Valve.
d6466b6a75e158d409cafe1e6f2035f08ecec3ce	Verified on April 29, 2014.
81c8d58d8befd6fb93db0ac7f3af0ceab473c02a	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The history of Valve, or Success from the first game.
1ece3aa91b1b15a8f3101e5d4edef0c5d92165b9	— 2014.
083225828821c8fff90e9bd1d608f55cec80b7c3	↑ contact.
9ee56631090e1043b792005871e80bb510ddb869	— "Postal address: PO BOX 1688 Bellevue, WA 98009" Checked on June 18, 2014.
3cf319016d064ebd50b684e393e46bce43919c43	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The history of Valve.
660a9fac603adc75c62f3b0fe01b2f31c1975b08	↑ Our people.
e1308ba7d41c4b257121b3fcfcda19e2b5e6cdc9	— "creating the Half Life storyline" Checked on December 28, 2014.
d9d6a75f09e43a93284e90a23b60f26f22a1ed6b	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gambling ↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chan, Oliver Half a Lifetime for the game // Forbes.
adcb6308ca57faa931968327610ff644ae40d929	↑ Best PC Video Games of All Time - Metacritic.
fd7d4e6589d6dea34702bbf41d9adc639f04fc33	Verified on December 27, 2014.
2720bfc107a68c44698445d0ed9be8495994ec75	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Gambling Addiction: Theft ↑ Half Life 2.
c88ac2046aedd41eda61311de5332de46c5bb990	The best game of the year.
61420decbde41768b5899b564c1c3cfac8e7f196	Collector's edition.
565eec864dfd9e6ea4f50f9d32067637df2f2825	Verified on December 28, 2014.
d2ec6c735ca90393734c393ff532b4ac6d50c6ab	↑ The first of a trilogy of Half Life episodes will debut in the first position.
f8005d5ff270efc2eb49dac8525e75cb689ad4b1	Перейти Go to: 1 2 Oleg Stavitsky, Georgy Kurgan, Igor Varnavsky The Orange Box (Half Life 2: Episode Two, Portal and Team Fortress 2) / / Igromania: magazine.
9c7b15d148b8ccf2d58e5eb6acfb072edd8cc29e	— 2007.
eb523dced3d3887056a32a9768593de01f3d8381	Interview // Interview with Gabe Newell to the Game Informer website.
baef3a4d35b18bdaa793d88d7543316488fcc87c	Verified on December 29, 2014.
f8c937e84fbcd0169b7757e3dbbb969c6a6bbb9a	↑ Half Life 2: The Orange Box.
f285a727eea07dc7d1d10c20c6a7505e023de60b	↑ Let the Achievement Hunt Continue.
355a38815cff7330f8be67e6facd81dd0c7776bb	Перейти Go to: 1 2 Valve has provided Debian developers with the opportunity to download games from Steam for free.
fed6d8a1f1c40db452e22e6f274be870d4114716	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 Valve has announced the SteamOS operating system based on Linux.
5c2dd21b524055a2b47664ffc471b4699a503560	Val Valve has announced its own operating system.
d6b4cd0397ee5913efbfc05541ea7a1578116818	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 The Steam client has got a music player.
a5a46b1cccf8f097b775d1b098f85b6dde6f2f1f	Verified on December 26, 2014.
53e8cacfc0314e5e26656d988b84a329dcefc710	Val Valve introduced a controller without sticks.
a3a52530066a8735bc37e7189a01cfbc424ca04d	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Management of the future.
cdf67b07631ef39f3f318917bec9eb21d2fe7fe1	How the most innovative company in the world works.
142b7f9e0fe7b652e94d88dd63cdf32e8e05e61e	↑ Game Maker Without a Rule Book.
795c052f1a5cd5ccab48c7fa289bf79decac2a6c	The official website of Valve Corporation The Steam universe will expand in 2014.
a9acdc867d884ff62d39b798c119955bf065deff	Verified on December 25, 2014.
209cef65c936ba606c2a667cace67b2c84bcd6fe	Bosses and managers are no longer needed: anarchy as a technology.
7d556547ef4e073a4eccd9744a6aea1a5f7617dd	Alexander Tarakanov The history of the creation of Half Life // LKI: magazine.
0931661a754cf12f5e884ae610164163a37ac255	— 2006.
2774b7549b999f8f56ddce39d1b2bd66126ea3f7	— № 3 (52).
c52d1eba3c4e8e2461b8f3460d76a3fa03d71b7b	Valve Corporation, David SJ Hodgson.
6d57e133ac40f4770b93a7882959666ea314490c	Half Life 2: Raising the Bar.
cbbd5a889315930da40c1f12258a55e24682a367	— Prima Games, 2004.
43a04a22fbcba1fc7b2b1924ae5864180e572f81	— ISBN 0-7615-4364-3.
8081e79df74a3a5af3fde44028035e8c8f01ece4	Yuri Ilyin.
db7b09868e4a90e9a62fe5d7c4f46aa1520b9342	Game engines: Valve GoldSrc and Source.
1e0da62840f354817e39a9ff63284e460dc588fe	— Mir3D.
0f31959eb51da868f23b880c811388513a26b9c9	— 2010.
b1228a06fac72423751de2f15c662434cc63943c	The Source Engine from Valve Software.
bd08c701b52d8aa2c26836522fc5c799582431da	The flame engine of Half Life 2.
33713dcc2abdb01de5e94cc67da6c9303683d7db	Half Life 2: The Theft of the Century.
23ad56cf7964895fdb62b3b82ea943e33dbf5d66	Half Life Inside: the official Russian fansite of the game.
bd05739cb54fa4023afb12af87ed0dfa00998ea9	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Va lve&oldid=76703575»
4b508ca05a408879a262a5773686ad0f5b7460a5	Categories: Companies alphabetically Companies founded in 1996 Computer game manufacturers USA Valve Computer game publishers
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146e4dbbc60af915be34625d54f4d94940f87033	Last modified on this page: 07: 31, February 24, 2016.
5d23aa9f13f46a837717f45ec0c4d9be15073c85	Farrukh Bulsara, whom we know as the iconic vocalist of the band "Queen" Freddie Mercury, was born in Tanzania in 1946.
4719823ac447e6ddb242ab1f8ba73974d6de0ad4	Farrukh's parents, Bomi and Jer, were Parsis (followers of the teachings of Zoroaster).
db99a73579fba63d4f7d307646fe3eb6ca6b8e38	6 years after the appearance of a son, a daughter of Kashmir was born in the Bulsar family.
02794f37c05b4461db49f8f3718f40c6531613ef	At that time, the family moved to India and stayed in Bombay.
f44028e00fad2b799f25e6dc0e3e326a8970746f	6-year-old Farrukh was sent to school.
55c1ca16650461ecf9a898fd8ce839abbebd3326	The educational institution was located quite far from Bombay, in the city of Panchgani.
01e05da72aa644ce41a14b5ba036257102ef798e	The boy's grandfather and aunt lived there, with whom he stayed.
6463683a55679410f3ceacc6cbc2c54103612e4d	At school, English-speaking classmates began calling Farrukh "Freddie".
563400f9dd68102f45d5b7114e9da23c1fb098ac	All sports at the School of St. They were typically British.
26cb9b9adfce97870dc946a4a73368cef47860af	Freddie did not like cricket and long-distance running — he preferred hockey, sprint and boxing.
bfae8b4dd14efa75506450978200aa2bdbd2af58	At the age of ten, he became the school's champion in table tennis, at the age of twelve he received a cup for winning the youth all-around, as well as a diploma "for success in all sciences and arts".
9cc5ee6c5b87419d9c2d40d6b0f6e71f6035741c	Freddie studied well, showed an interest in music and painting, constantly made drawings for friends and relatives.
3d7e8e75b3ddb6977f3ee7f2915202034bac1307	He also sang in the school choir and participated in the productions of plays.
b3d187a0f0d12bc1630fbae1862edb7d02786c0f	And of course, from an early age, Freddie was crazy about music.
6f2bd769c2a3338b218517a629391d32e7ea7959	He listened to records on an old home record player, putting them in a pile and scrolling continuously.
3fb9215c19af20a57f30988034648d5e8e6f364e	Listening to music, Freddie liked to sing along.
b8e1204185ca5f1b56d48962a081bdf8c656ffd8	The music was mostly Indian, although sometimes there was a Western one-he sang everything and strongly preferred such an occupation to school lessons.
c23b37fca9348d2089091928987a20976dcace6b	The musical abilities of Freddie drew the attention of the director of the St. Petersburg School of Music. Peter.
c6011268650b321054b6125522e1fc6c8666ef28	He wrote a letter to his parents, where he offered to give him the opportunity to seriously study music for a small additional fee.
696306f7851932e00671ea321352bebc56cc715b	They agreed, and Freddie began to learn to play the piano.
ee7727de5bae03d7a5e5dec37ce40212ba1e8e4a	Freddie started learning to play a musical instrument and enjoyed it.
bee5bdcb5e485ce4e7ef2669261d52e857b68d97	The result of his work can be called the fourth degree, both in practice and in theory.
6872d12c85e6bf5762c6233d049060c4c50774f2	The boy did not sing alone, he had like-minded people.
2b0020056cea0213ce21ca157d216eecba64027f	So in 1958, a small company of guys created a musical group that performed rock.
38044e4d2c8cf42b99c96d9e7b1f35e1f171052d	In 1958, five friends from the school of St. Peter-Freddie Bulsara, Derrick Branch, Bruce Murray, Farang Irani and Victory Rana-created their first rock band, which was called The Hectics ("Restless"), where he was not yet a vocalist, but a pianist.
edd90135b14359cf7e429ee5b74499813691bfa9	They played at school parties, anniversaries and dances - nothing more is known about this group.
0433b68806e0cfa24109874a7a96777eeea6c736	In 1962, Freddie graduated from St. Peter's High School. Peter and returned to Zanzibar, where he spent his free time with friends in the bazaars, parks and beaches.
ecfc28bb69c61f9f006d3bd87e99c4a220678962	Zanzibar was a British colony, most of the population of which were Africans and Arabs.
fc19a7b35d79da25004d49f8907a0d9c9791ab55	When riots broke out in the country in 1964, many Britons and Indians were forced to leave, although no one drove them out of there.
ca4bbdbe9e5fc2003ac174cc5c0855f609ec6a5b	Bulsar's family was also among those who left Zanzibar - they went to England.
848cc1727fddb5d72e02e2bda9123645e6c5e2ce	At first they lived with relatives in Feltham (Middlesex County), then they had the opportunity to buy their own small house in the same area.
431f87a42d7c5da412a999bafaaa8996fe6a6ea3	17-year-old Freddie chose an art college for himself, but for this he had to get an appropriate score in painting, and in September 1964 he entered the nearest Aylesworth Polytechnic School.
5dfbfe3a7af148a64779950043c29d773b386393	During the holidays, he tried to earn a little extra work-sometimes in the supply department of Heathrow Airport, then at the Feltham trading company, where he had to lift and stack heavy baskets and crates.
667f0fb0d697c3f24f5254d22dfcf1a70a17ff46	The workers, looking at his hands, which were completely unsuitable for this kind of work, asked what he was doing here.
2c83a8bbe523b68c1a62f6a474ade1e158379648	He replied that he was a musician and that he just needed something to do, and his charm was so great that his comrades quickly took over the lion's share of his work.
5d60678e5521edb1200afd4c6a98d513626f24ee	The aesthetic side of school life impressed him clearly more than the academic one, but he easily earned the necessary score in painting and in the spring of 1966 he became a graduate of the Aylesworth School.
6d645647479b131bc80be5ae66ebcaac958827e4	Thanks to this score, as well as his natural gift, he was readily accepted into the Ealing Art College, and in September 1966 began taking a course in graphic illustration.
e8e914a80ec6f28c21a9b9c516303b10dd66e358	He was an ardent fan of Jimi Hendrix, constantly drew his hero - then the drawing was placed in a frame and used to decorate the walls of the apartment that his friend Chris Smith rented in Kensington and where Freddie had moved by that time from his parents ' house in Feltham.
774372c482ab0c27ae971b0e3ac751b7132f42ca	Kensington was then simply flooded with people of art - they visited the famous Biba boutique and Kensington Market in droves.
3897102274fb89041003bee53ecdda5abe444443	Freddie became friends with a student from his college, Tim Staffell.
a4ba0011807ad7947af24654feb91e915b877054	As their friendship grew stronger, Tim began to invite Freddie to rehearsals of his band "Smile" (Smile - Smile), where he played bass guitar and sang.
6f0868df926072c38eda393e1e60d9d0a305012e	In addition to Tim, the band included guitarist Brian May and drummer Roger Taylor.
d99794111a8375b5eef4fd22754a747d4ad58b82	The sound of the band made an indelible impression on Freddie, especially Brian's playing.
3ac02890f40f11ffcbe55babc4d2e10ec01b4a2d	Inspired by "Smile", he embarked on musical experiments for the first time after leaving India.
6b971d7193a4cc9e9012aca05cc4019aba2af63b	At first, his partners were Tim and Nigel Foster - another art college student, then Chris Smith.
6b1ab2a0726a3899953edc95afdf8e85f96baf59	When Chris first heard Freddie's voice, he was fascinated.
93ee57b29e17f58874904aaae3e819816bdd7360	And his manner of playing the piano - outwardly spectacular, with Mozart's lightness-combined with a strong touch was distinguished by a unique originality, and this also did not leave Chris indifferent.
d7b968504ce2e1ee85b8977ad3ef6099da5c47b3	They tried to write songs together.
0827d8de48cc7faa6efd62514e483089a8bb2c52	As Chris recalls, it is unlikely that they finished anything at all, but he notes that these classes with Freddie taught him a lot.
38a2d54b65f5ae71b9990813e100b51995b823f8	"I immediately noticed that Freddie had an innate sense of melody," Chris recalls, " and this attracted me most of all."
13880dbdbcbd152e050ceb74a054404f483f43f0	Even then, Freddie was experimenting, combining several melodies together in different keys, trying to achieve the greatest effect.
324c9630da6ff4152ea8fed364cd8b34ce6f8bd9	Take this into account when you listen to Bohemian Rhapsody.
2de73a2c1b66fdbd1a91974660e72f2a939a9a19	Freddie graduated from Ealing in June 1969 with a degree in graphics and design - and a couple of advertising orders for a local newspaper.
7d8a494a9b2234cdc088f73d6b93f06a97188158	He moved into an apartment with Roger Taylor, and that same summer they opened their kiosk in Kensington Market.
1d0de8cc6260952eda8fde8cdd6d42458b55bc96	First, they sold the works of Freddie and his college friends, and then all sorts of clothes - new and used, what they could get.
6bb917d1e09e7a00eb04929c4e0586f24b073085	In the same summer, he was introduced to the Liverpool trio "Ibex" - the guys came to try their luck in London.
b710fe19858cb5643bb872536fcc84bdc7dd18e3	They were guitarist Mike Bersin, bassist John "Tupp" Taylor, and drummer Mick "Miffer" Smith.
0f871603c0a156610d4df10a61a049d36f2dfb46	With them were their main and tour manager Ken Testi (Ken Testi) and another member Geoff Higgins (Geoff Higgins), who sometimes had to play the role of bassist when "Tapp" - an ardent fan of Jethro Tull-expressed a desire to play the flute.
9fa5e88b6aec6e949970bb9f3cb704c88855460e	Freddie's meeting with Ibex took place on August 13, 1969, and after 10 days he studied their entire repertoire, added several songs and was ready to go with them to Bolton (Lancashire) to give his first concert.
e8a6af423d9f7985adb597bfee1a01d613cac714	Performances in Bolton were held as part of the annual blues festivals, covered by the local press.
39485a295bf197f7fa2170faf9c5b6aaa394e895	The concerts of" Ibex " took place on August 23 at the Oktogon Theater and on August 25 at the Queen's Park.
be8b1afab6ffd52b6feb200646cae8668f329bdd	We got a picture of Freddie from the second concert, printed in the Bolton Evening News.
9199aa3029171167428597ae507f47f8dbe4eab5	Even one audio recording of "Ibex" has been preserved, but it was made at another concert - at the Liverpool club "Sink" (The Sink).
d348927d88b16cb1f116a156cd3be47dc9283717	According to Jeff Higgins, who made this record, its quality leaves much to be desired, but it can be used to judge the musical sympathies of Freddie and his comrades at that time - these are "Cream", Jimi Hendrix, Freddie's favorites Led Zeppelin - "Ibex" successfully performed their cover versions.
7b0e28132e8afe8ab9b580e41888ad98edaf2ed6	Somewhere in late September and October 1969, "Ibex" was renamed "Wreckage" (Wreckage - "wreckage") with the light hand of Freddie.
db779fe91caa7754fb226381b15f9f31aad8d434	At first, this did not cause much enthusiasm among the band members.
7994d7f7cd7191a0fe05f948b8c154061f372256	Mike Berzin recalls that Freddie called him with such an offer and said that the other two agreed.
715cffcb3c377eeade5bf4e634b4e297cb771eda	Later it turned out that the same procedure was done with them.
af0c998bfac3d9de36036ff2528283981fa4ddf7	Around the same time, "Miffer" Smith left the band, and Richard Thompson, the former drummer of "1984", in which Brian May played, took his place.
6188ef1c8e7476cd048481af95ee989097fa52e2	With the new name, they gave a few more concerts, but soon the band broke up - in particular, due to the fact that Mike had to return to Liverpool and continue his studies, as he promised his parents.
bb9c30c6812aef4f33865f64a79099a1e649c1c8	Freddie started looking for a new band and found an ad in Melody Maker: the band" Sour Milk Sea "("sea of sour milk") needed a vocalist.
a9528c989b4b920568f005876a9ed2f1d2332cb4	A story has been preserved about the pomposity with which Freddie appeared before them.
3609f0ff841835de9222617dd0d88729ceff0b0a	Although several other very worthy candidates came that day, as soon as Freddie started singing, it became clear that they were taking him.
26f5b3d86e0eb994d21f5bdae8ee4a204cac006a	Freddie's voice was distinguished by its extraordinary beauty and wide range.
f04ff9feaeffbc69878c974d74436b3262c686be	But it's not just about the voice.
e0ed4ecc56a2e4c60bdb9c9fdffea85f2028ee6e	His very behavior, the ability to present himself made an indelible impression.
0ba64eca813c1a3cdd0f429125b7ec6f3c979228	Those who have seen Queen's performances at least in the recording will understand what it is about.
d3ad0dbc9e238ec343e16801b7cf76595790c156	As Ken Testi recalls, everything that Freddie did later at Queen, he did at the very first performance at Ibex - this is not something that has been developed over the years, it is a rare natural gift that is in unique harmony with his voice, with external data, and with his fine artistic taste and musicality in the broadest sense.
fa74019b06b46195c63e54c0c6926fed326b77ae	And the fact that he himself was aware of this made him absolutely irresistible!
09a243a0acf479f6993095a0db896829e6fd9cea	So he got the job.
ddcc0cb660a732a442bc9cc695bb9407c49acff9	The other members of the band were Chris Chesney (vocals and guitar), bassist Paul Milne, Jeremy "Rubber" Gallop (rhythm guitar) and Rob Tyrell (drums).
55e84d172d98c7e1a1f71b25e1a47bab0d5d3cf0	They had a few rehearsals, and then a couple of performances in Chris ' hometown of Oxford.
836533a54ff71df346428cbdeed1c5300b5e4ff9	Freddie and Chris, who was about 17 years old at the time, became very friendly, and Chris moved to an apartment on Ferry Road, where Freddie lived with the members of "Smile".
7f1a7d3e566366732f4c0e465d236631bc1c114e	The other members of Sour Milk Sea were not very impressed that Freddie and Chris spent so much time together - they were much more concerned about the future of the band.
fdd5027ba4eaae67155812ac3b186ea7bfbf6137	And two months later, Jeremy, who owned almost all the equipment, took it away, and this meant the breakup of the group.
3ff9de61e1dddd829753b02e734315b0a4229652	In April 1970, Tim Staffell decided to leave "Smile", and Freddie took the place of the vocalist.
f3f9082f279037bb9ab1cfd581c4dcdaced8e809	He changed the name of the band to Queen, and his last name to Mercury.
fd880768fbb6062754f7fcae98d9d972b957e854	The further biography of Freddie Mercury largely coincides with the biography of the band Queen.
f466a945c2d9f903a0b276a3ba6c42d7549f050a	In 1970, Freddie met Mary Austin.
95208f7cd843a9db550dd76702b164b5d179a541	They lived together for seven years, but remained friends for life.
ba44447921cbf2dcd54ceb5899dda172fb248aa4	In 1971, John Deacon joined the band - now Queen were in full composition.
d1df2183e4c637c4760fbf4b500975e456cc2ec3	Freddie came up with a coat of arms for the group based on the Zodiac signs of its members: two fairies for him (Virgo), two lions for Roger and John (Lion) and a crab for Brian (Cancer).
56edb515d78b66a6b802f36c884496d51e4c67a6	It was Freddie who became the author of the first Queen song that hit the British charts - (Seven Seas Of Rhye).
893a3d3638df6ad2def8f77119f9c1f2e20e947b	He also owns the first big hit (Killer Queen) and also the most famous song of the group (Bohemian Rhapsody), which stayed at the top of the British chart for 9 weeks.
9470f8e37b81ad403c57bc3f3b4abc0097168507	At concerts, Freddie was always in the foreground.
bb538a095071fa347648a0a9a9cf17f7218f4fd9	In 1975, Queen toured Japan, where they were accompanied everywhere by a screaming crowd of enthusiastic fans.
1038e5fc0e6ea9080b94e595b5c662072edd024a	For the first time, they were given such an unusual and unexpected reception.
a41a0d0bf800bfafe66266aa05aeaa61a0fa5865	Freddie just fell in love with this country and began collecting Japanese paintings and antiques.
cd8fbf2d2ad1f75a5566992f7f1d5fe138c808b6	On October 7, 1979, Freddie's old dream came true - he performed with the Royal Ballet.
3ba6f2bafb756463ff4bf472b3946fad7ac7555e	He chose Bohemian Rhapsody and Crazy Little Thing Called Love.
55da18bf850bc583cc27705244bb62f1eab36511	The melody was performed by the orchestra, and Freddie sang live.
780d377a6f71a2cec5bb4f6c9df5b91d93041b16	The performance began with Bohemian Rhapsody and was a huge success with ballet lovers, who gave him a standing ovation after both numbers.
095a8051cbfd2b89767b5be71dc69a1a8fb37f6c	In 1980, Freddie changed his image - he had a short haircut and grew a mustache.
b8db58e8ca9cc2cc887a0449742fb938879d1fe4	After that, many fans started sending him "gifts" - nail polish and razor blades.
7a534e5c58490c08f887d790bfdb0c1d5bb1d56f	At the end of 1982, Queen unanimously decided that they needed to take a break and take a break from each other.
df0ff1d474f1c3184bb31d4070189cf60ef68381	They announced that there would be no tour in 1983.
0697e12787a3b277ce5553b6dccc711e9509394b	Freddie had been considering the possibility of releasing a solo album for a long time - now he had time for this.
87b9a84e7f5a181188d10ce7ac0650d1b29532e5	At the beginning of 1983, he began recording at the Munich studio Musicland.
e88970db6491269cd25fd42e041b91ae0e29ccac	During this period, he was introduced to the composer Giorgio Moroder.
ec3cc33457b357a73083f26c42cade6aa323638f	Moroder took part in the revival of Fritz Lang's silent science fiction film "Metropolis", filmed back in 1926, which it was decided to sound with modern music.
19521aec30b26cb3e686846b330f392a500e030d	He asked Freddie to take part in co-writing a song for the film, and Freddie agreed.
7093bfdf293d4604a02b9251d612464b32e97037	He has never co-written with anyone other than Queen and has not performed cover versions with the exception of Larry Lurex.
6da778ca7d8d4b1e00327899d2d8f92dc98a8cc4	The result of this collaboration was the song Love Kills.
d5191a1fd7a9ef7c8cb77c0f81efce2f6ef83da6	Somewhere at the end of May 1983, Freddie watched a production of Verdi's opera "Masquerade Ball".
39dec9c57f06f6024058cd173d37a2eac8862759	It was then that he first saw the Spanish opera diva Montserrat Caballe.
a0edf122ba37e7a24446c171f4c2f08dcd3c11f3	The strength and beauty of her voice made an indelible impression on him.
5728f851fb13532c4b92a79b03006b144bc5a122	On September 10, 1984, Freddie's first solo single was released - the song Love Kills, written together with Giorgio Moroder, for the film Metropolis.
589810bc06a72071409266eb83661ad604b0f75f	And the first single from his future solo album was I Was Born To Love You, released on April 9, 1985.
43286a8ce2d6dee4d2b2007af35902e2bfbcedea	Three weeks later, the album itself appeared, called Mr. Bad Guy.
a44baa8a02ac422aef33704d9804a30f21d6f2a3	It was released on CBS Records.
e30559969afd951a079bfcfb416561ddb57cc538	July 13, 1985 was a special day for Queen and Freddie.
f06324ccc708e19b4b258c85fc3fe8e71bd93d13	On this day, the Live Aid concert took place - a grandiose show at Wembley Stadium, where 72 thousand spectators were present.
bd16074ad537a7c3a997a7a47b69164e2411f85c	The concert was broadcast by television all over the world, i.e. it was watched by more than a billion people!
6f54595b994cf69ddcb19c40ae11888296b7b49c	With their performance, Queen secured a place in history, and all observers, journalists, fans and critics were unanimous that the band became the highlight of the program.
0070b73b29d49a626a96d9f0c514a4013bf06ace	At the beginning of 1987, Queen had a certain lull, which Freddie took advantage of to record another solo number in the Townhouse Studio.
992b0d8d3dc3cfd6ff0c6d2b913b6d35a410e5ef	It was a cover version of an old song by the Platters The Great Pretender. The single was released on February 23.
6332e7ed50ce8319adca866d71cda3dd63f0c1ff	In March 1987, Freddie flew to Barcelona to meet with Montserrat Caballe.
461c333fa9aaa2fe60d3d226e2c5ccbe030417a3	He gave her a cassette on which two of his songs were recorded (according to other sources - 4).
7eb0a57c6a7a14d03fd29620ffb47365ec036662	The Spanish opera diva appreciated them and even performed one of them - to Freddie's great surprise-at a concert in London's Covent Garden.
5aaedb352c03bd1193fa80013b1b87f8bccd5dd0	And in early April, these two artists of such different genres began working on a joint album.
96b409cd7a3180a3ef7c0ce9e9f0154e42d96f22	At the end of May, a grand festival was held in the famous Ku Club on the island of Ibiza.
4cdde39faa7157461d92b184e624df3bb40de9f5	Freddie was the guest of honor at it and together with Montserrat Caballe performed at the closing of the festival.
48c49539e183292e9f5fb0051477d945090a69b6	They performed the song Barcelona, which Freddie dedicated to his hometown of Montserrat.
9af030746f20ff12030e403941a1097c5397fd71	On October 8, 1988, Freddie and Montserrat performed at another grand festival - La Nit, this time in Barcelona itself.
c783358f2c41c1a2b3fa95a784c404450b6a2162	They performed 3 songs: How Can I Go On, The Golden Boy and Barcelona, and the piano part was performed by Mike Moran, the co-author of the songs.
1aa73238f0908528c6e0f09cbde8387360792736	The long-awaited album Barcelona was finally released on October 10.
e4ba93db7b54cb7645732df800f8740f0be718bb	The performance on October 8 was the last appearance of Freddie in front of the public.
dec5eb5512be72c093ac9cef900a9ef1f8a597a6	By that time, he was already seriously ill with AIDS, but he did not want people to know about it.
c0cccc0406636d2c6f1531932e6fb43eb6af25ef	He announced his illness only the day before his death.
5891af74f39166eeb1c3528dad5b7bf7afd58066	Despite everything, he continued to write songs and make recordings and even starred in video clips.
9fcfcf85cfd9268dd115dd219a8e0bb879409b36	Already quite ill, he shot a wonderful video for the song I'm Going Slightly Mad.
923874cbb5315b4b92135b40b6501e90b6315299	I think this is a real masterpiece.
e9a4daf44e4762f10672127ed8d3681eccefbdb2	On November 24, 1991, Freddie died at his home in London from bronchial pneumonia, which developed against the background of AIDS.
e187b967f68c808f1bd41c9df4ef2a8ae94dfee4	On April 20, 1992, a grand concert in his memory was held at Wembley Stadium, which was attended by many rock stars.
bede1310762a9abb713fdec973a4e0f1d407b25b	But the best monument for Freddie was the release of the album Made In Heaven, completed by the three remaining members of the group.
f278965d0d420e8c971fdf50e889071af97b7554	The album was released on November 6, 1995.
440ae9847685e5e0ac3e408ec9336affc9ebbc51	It contains the latest songs recorded by Freddie.
2b71ccb5d7b9d3942952a699d6420c86cdbf5ed5	Thank you, Freddie. We will always remember you. We love you.
514b617e38dd2b578c4f1db705f31e78b9138ca5	Who's Who: the real names of the stars A veteran who fought with the Americans for 30 years after the end of the war died Stars and their strange and obsessive phobias
4f7006f23146bc02a0918132a3e85f634a156096	Today is Thursday, February 25
dc1dda6f1ce22b8d46b8bb4d2d1bc3664464c9c1	Freddie Mercury
6dc0a35d5940f88c1f0be1509ae3290411497834	Birthday: 05.09.1946
5d74f2656b8751969596273af96e7b4c0807b0cd	Age: 45 years
691462dc146cce524d9bce448576b2d2319ca035	Place of birth: Stone Town, Tanzania Date of death: 24.11.1991 Place of death: London, United Kingdom
c7fe00f95ad25032cda19a858bf6acb67d7f4411	Citizenship: Great Britain
7714d993dfa3074e764be2138300c55539ccfd8d	Original name: Farrokh Bulsara Original name: Farrokh Bulsara
0331a7b56e175ddb84309ea660c7c65f5a1acb10	Similar: Freddie, Mercury, Farrokh, Freddie, Mercury, Balsara
b4f095629414075fa604840d05a754711170f633	The Queen band said in an official statement: "We have lost the greatest and most beloved member of our family.
e172c8524a34a435eb62018b55aaed38d22ae4f6	We feel endless grief and sadness from the realization that death overtook him at the zenith of his creative rise, but we are proud of the courage with which he lived and died.
2ecd9c9b66b7f6ac33f1eef956088eabee671839	We were lucky enough to share the magical years with him.
654b16bc85ea850abcd73b7dde843535ccb8cbda	Freddie Mercury was born on September 5, 1946 in Zanzibar, and his name was then Farrukh Bulsara.
bf4437e3f2669d05f63508e5ce81684c29ce03ad	He became Freddie with the light hand of his friends, and he took the pseudonym Mercury himself much later, in 1970 , either in honor of the quirky god Mercury, or in honor of the planet of the same name ruling all the Virgins
854d26424258b8b49f2e947b325fdf0fade939a9	. In any case, it was not a random choice.
ea2bb9928a68092f9643a6df008a0e007881e75d	Mercury went to his fame thanks to incredible energy, determination, calculating every step and only occasionally relying on intuition.
1d0751b7fd1fd1af4df8f9eb7412d00195d65b3e	His parents, Bomi and Jer, were Parsis.
f7699781eecc05c8908f908eb44a27e86ceeb92f	Bomi's father worked as an accountant for the British government.
54810321037c27e069e15a8505713cda9a2bee21	In 1952, p
3e22212856fa9e534fe47ab8010b0fea95a5e8b3	Freddie Kashmir's sister was born.
562c4e4959edbeb2877f8f9d025a970651ae0137	And in 1954, when Freddie was only 8 years old, he was sent to India and assigned to St. Peter's School in Panchgani - 500 miles from Bombay.
746bf2bead79aa65b574ba53ffa1d0ca1fd1a7ed	St. Peter's School Petra was typically English, and all the sports that were practiced in it were typically English.
15b365f805c1c17f75a95fe33c9641d9fcdde969	Freddie terpet
352ff828704d8807005d23ce55924d7853d6100f	he could not play cricket and long distance running, but he loved hockey, sprint and boxing, and at the age of 10 he became the school champion in table tennis.
7f81ba89184ced09a498fca9c97aaf667798f4dc	But his talents were not limited to sports.
60f377db6b12eed0cdd6fe7a72939f40ee61c828	At the age of 12, he won the cup in a kind of junior all around.
9784f6fb40d2693f62046c15653c352eea0c692a	He was very fond of painting and constantly made drawings for
44cdc38440de85b55f3fd51a13236a973113f1f4	I have friends and relatives.
00f090c86d7b7a5926d459ad0997e24cb1db7a85	The music was mostly Indian, although sometimes there was a Western one he sang everything and strongly preferred such an occupation to school lessons.
aaa7fd063d1b2e7f36933dfab3b4ccc1082e02af	The musical abilities of Freddie drew the attention of the director of the St. Petersburg School of Music.
360abbad0c91ec049b453db1dfc77ccf2475a430	Peter.
9eb9af6cd3f4233319c5a86ae370b94bdb69d59d	He also began singing in the school choir and regularly took part in school theater productions.
e7e5672890e13a72b2dfd6efac423f333f2d33b9	He liked piano lessons - he could definitely apply his talent here.
d7007b930d9c3edebfcaac39f39216c7eeef1816	As a result, Freddie received a 4th degree in theory and practice.
5361eb202877adb61654c6f59fd3b36525025d0e	In 1958, five
f06d57b4191d5e4bcb9afc691c8db7afb4f7d48d	friends from St. Peter's School.
0dc4088c56d96185d1fd088436e7422aef0b6122	Peter Freddie Bulsara, Derrick Branch, Bruce Murray, Farang Irani and Victory Rana created their first rock band, which was called The Hectics ("Restless"), where he was not yet a vocalist, but a pianist.
4f3ac5614119c7ecfe25110b18627516ca0f97f5	They played at school parties, anniversaries and dances - nothing more about this group is known
6edcb7f7c190b746920b21b98a3869b9d8c0124d	is known.
27fad0efd812770457d7a7a783fc603ea653c35f	In 1962, Freddie graduated from St. Peter's High School.
b994686fcc6f858f4f195b176503d35d072c5c8f	Peter and returned to Zanzibar, where he spent his free time with friends in the bazaars, parks and beaches.
7580ee19d1b84868f04bb033c3aa69c8aa00e19e	When riots broke out in the country in 1964,
d9cf142d2468417951332a06763315654bfd39aa	many British and Hindus were forced to leave, although no one drove them out of there.
0f7d4886186fddbbc951dbcb0b220fe277eff907	At first they lived with relatives in Feltham (Middlesex County), then they had the opportunity to buy their own small house
4a4a480c6c41dd54fdd72a0ca2aeb320861c32d7	m in the same area.
cd088135f7c43fd43fde2ee73886a5ccfa59c521	17 year old Freddie chose an art college for himself, but for this he had to get an appropriate score in painting, and in September 1964 he entered the nearest Aylesworth Polytechnic School.
03a890777e89f976a7579529e7f1fef98ccc6388	During the holidays, he tried to earn a little extra money in the supply department
fb1628e44dbae2ab46775e30455ee327d51e3933	at Heathrow Airport, then at the Feltham trading company, where he had to lift and stack heavy baskets and crates.
5567503e42fe063624549a74012c7c4acc4eb55b	He replied that he was a musician and that he just needed to do something
98072b54783bee567b755050a899638fad42c42f	his charm was so great that his comrades quickly took over the lion's share of his work.
8aa47842328db148576e6b0671cdae4c89fde6ff	Thanks to this
ef2dd0ecdf25585c55d6dd12e00f01603d0f3f8a	due to Mu Ball, as well as his natural gift, he was readily accepted into the Ealing Art College, and in September 1966 he began taking a course in graphic illustration.
991a5749a20a9058cf050426f84f34a6ea24ec5b	As their friendship grew stronger, Tim began to invite
aa9169e19f70d895e0bed9ac1231b1c203edf90b	I saw Freddie at the rehearsal of his band "Smile" (Smile - Smile), where he played bass guitar and sang.
f439c6033adea369ab24c756bea6d69e41f4f6a1	Inspired by the "Smile", he for the first time after leaving
6bc42ce0c092833427a3662cc4115dd719db8d46	from India, he embarked on musical experiments.
c0db65c8d548c2327ba867c3d9eeb4b709af22ca	And his manner of playing the piano - outwardly spectacular, with Mozart's ease - in soch
8d4e783d06e1d344206c184062d8cc0fe40d94f6	tanya with a strong touch was distinguished by a unique originality, and this also did not leave Chris indifferent.
2e44f736ddaf4e49f2f4a62a9d993d73a3c092a7	"I immediately noticed that Freddie has
61adffe5f515f846fb674268377c09553d25cab2	there was an innate sense of melody, "Chris recalls," and that attracted me the most.
79ff9d875a00a9b1531f44c8042c11212bcc5911	" Even then, Freddie was experimenting, combining several melodies together in different keys, trying to achieve the greatest effect.
2897b0f236fe134e323794924587a0e9ac5f73a1	Fra
461918bf784a9373b4cb210633839d31d3675b68	ddi graduated from Ealing in June 1969 with a degree in graphics and design - and a couple of advertising orders for a local newspaper.
068255c759f6f369e84589dfa84411e2422831b2	First, they sold the works of Freddie and his college friends, and then they sold various
286ac78e01e17b72d50297436db3da65769abe9b	all kinds of clothes - new and used, what I could get.
cc22ad2a5c18a0a66c8699c2c5da2185a4b4f6fd	They were guitarist Mike Bersin, bassist John "Tupp" Taylor, and drummer Mick "Miffer" Smith
95dc55e7c79c8e36643e172aef929c2c360e84e8	(M
197ca44906886657357039fe035ad7f41b2f0b36	ick 'Miffer' Smith - "squabbler").
754b1f5474fa8b84a89bcbeb527c89bad01bffc1	With them were their main and tour manager Ken Testi (Ken Testi) and another member Geoff Higgins (Geoff Higgins), who sometimes had to play the role of bassist when "Tapp" - an ardent fan of Jethro Tull expressed a desire to play the flute.
94debdcccff615726f5c1674acb11aa22cbf9144	Meeting Fr
72c45dfb53b6f77ffefde813dc4b76e3292cfd51	eddy with "Ibex" took place on August 13, 1969, and after 10 days he studied their entire repertoire, added a few songs and was ready to go with them to Bolton (Lancashire) to give his first concert.
b94c1979d820ab9c88ceaca623b882b15a44eedc	Performances in Bolton were held as part of the annual blues festivals, covered by the local press
2b066d4dc43c46f96713393f91885849420600e0	a spring.
726466c74d352bbe8d7c06751b4d5a568e751fe7	Russ has been preserved
501f33fef88451d0ee5de47a7e6ea8565e8ef87a	kaz about the pomposity with which Freddie appeared before them.
783a7ca7d374982489578de44a67e7d149e8af8c	His very behavior, umeni
09efe85e04bc122f716f12efd710e1c948a834a8	e to present yourself made an indelible impression.
efdd1c2f9574c054d89a151d684878dc476b62c1	As Ken Testi recalls, everything that Freddie did later at Queen, he did at the very first performance at Ibex - this is not something that has been developed over the years, it is a rare experience
e233b54277703f9071a9fde51097ed7545e4d280	a natural gift that is in unique harmony with his voice, and with his external data, and with his subtle artistic taste and musicality in the broadest sense.
89b6bd0c76783408995fd642b963d470d39541f7	Other members of the band were Chris Chesney (Chris Chesney) - vocals
d7ff9d0c6da7aac9e9825b7bdb8156e88206c1c3	and guitar, bassist Paul Milne, Jeremy" Rubber " Gallop (Jeremy 'Rubber' Gallop) - rhythm guitar and Rob Tyrell (Rob Tyrell) - drums.
f936b7f1d94db7566c537ffd05a1b0b2d8bcbcaf	Freddie and Chris, who was about 17 years old at the time, became very close friends, and Chris Pere
73abf5d98311dc68dcbb57e55ac63a4be356cf2a	I was on my way to the apartment on Ferry Road where Freddie lived with the members of Smile.
f8d34b733524550a845e7596cbf430b2bf08e57e	And two months later, Jeremy, who owned almost all the equipment,
c54552f1cf71e65ea2fa57f03a84684a4f87e936	he took her away, and this meant the breakup of the group.
2682625c84674ec053c8df85a134777bec22fa60	Freddie came up with a coat of arms for the group based on the Zodiac signs of its members: two fairies for him (Virgo), two lions for Roger
675915f8801fa5320e9a9475776ad6d0df8d662d	and Jonah (Lion) and a crab for Brian (Cancer).
badf4c0a75688bedfc4ca15902281c51737b1533	He also owns the first big hit (Killer Queen) and also the most famous song of the group (Bohemian Rhapsody), which stayed at the top of the British hit for 9 weeks
a7aecd34823282fe6d8de9fa44af503cfe40030b	- the parade.
9986a258a1f4a7cb3a9c65e0a45f430c8612aaf3	Freddie just fell in love with this country and started collecting Japanese
5e5b975fb59d695992c2d78a371263f38f5671f8	russian paintings and antiques.
8fd2e391373a669980e42982aef030ea080094bf	The performance began with Bohemian Rhapsody and was a huge success with amateurs
f243a538d99e6bebfa29e6e38124ace744e24f1f	she liked the ballet, which gave him a standing ovation after both numbers.
2227bf21176e4b11fddcb0fda3434bd427bae72e	At the end of 1982, Queen unanimously decided that they needed to
f9b04a57c5d068cefaf75632d4d6f658c58e7729	take a break and take a break from each other.
adfb8a524b1f602c2729eb97087efa52b0d8eb32	During this period, he was introduced to ko
472c8b6d4d7a0796f8790a73ccb7a29919e87b64	mpositor Giorgio Moroder.
f19294393dbe13eb1f7e0738919187093586646e	He asked Freddie to take part in co writing a song for the film, and Freddie agreed
db88802e89624fb9cf20cb2088b862360cf5426e	I. He has never co written with anyone other than Queen and has not performed cover versions with the exception of Larry Lurex.
234b70e16cdb22311e8324563ad51016039d653a	On September 10, 1984, Freddie's first solo single was released - the song Love Kill, written jointly with Giorgio Moroder
5e5ceceb3f645fca02f910da0f327082cc6e51a8	s for the movie "Metropolis".
7d82f452a5878b33393a688aed813ba8231753e2	Three weeks later, he appeared and the album itself, called Mr. Bad Guy.
51f3ca7c3a9129455945869a667aca475723b73f	In this d
b21f35f8fe12f0ab07205086b2bc44b1f92e43a9	today, the Live Aid concert took place - a grandiose show at Wembley Stadium, where 72 thousand spectators were present.
b1e906e5d9785654222e162a85e4e9ad5c151152	With their performance, Queen secured a place in history, and all the columnists, journalists, fans and critics
f79a58193c223cb12ef291e9fb9e7a62253b887f	and they were unanimous that the group became the highlight of the program.
40fc94a72612fc31827c743d982ee5c85e7f2fde	It was a cover version of an old song by the Platters The Great Pretender.
e202d108dcd692f5bbd9caa806ca950b32acafcb	The single was released on February 23.
226d76ca61baff8c8f3ca6856e2bb7a58387a8a0	The Spanish opera diva appreciated them and even performed one of them - to Freddie's great surprise - at a concert in London
962c08325a8e4236a853175e2265c00b8d72c273	Covent Garden.
e9472274da91298da099e78a8b215ed03ed48ae5	They are Spanish
15063bf45e8fd8442ce8cf6d131b8bf7de8354d6	they remembered the song Barcelona, which Freddie dedicated to his hometown of Montserrat.
b55b362635daea3b988b127b9ce85ab96ace7130	They performed 3 songs: How Can I Go On, The Golden Boy and Barcelona, and performed the piano part
9aa0ef8c28cffb4dfb30522f94acbe0eb58a9389	il Mike Moran, co author of the songs.
645c4d91bca19aedbd1a79972787f56208b6e216	The long awaited album Barcelona was finally released on October 10.
3695eef2c0f7de17051d2a678b646d12d0a5cca6	He announced his illness only the day before his death
ad0985d3a0be085e45c5b439ff625507119d0662	and, leaving all his fortune to his sister, the only close person, and also to his beloved cats.
2395681e7b235550fa15d074c726b37b10666f67	November 24, 1991 Freddie
f77071dc93d07d1dfacdd203ed3f12eaf44ef265	he died at his home in London from bronchial pneumonia, which developed against the background of AIDS.
acdd879d5c66664a3fc29e8d24922aad499e3e0b	We experience endless grief and sadness from the realization that death overtook him at the zenith of his creative work
c1bc6578dd4bb130ac26dc268b1aaa71cf40936e	However, we are proud of the courage with which he lived and died.
f05252bcbe8d6378e4189ca11e752372b3326823	We will do our best to pay tribute to his life and his inimitable style."
684da6a1ae51aed52e247d61f324e37b4048775c	On April 20, 1992, a grand concert in his memory was held at Wembley Stadium, in which the
33ba0c3606b9bbbc5d58a2f07b22efb694b1e554	many rock stars took part.
d108a7ee10ff6b3ed7cbbc1d6028bd09840189e5	Thank you, Freddie.
5947057ac0269e0daf70eb5cf5dbd9dfe83ea558	We will always remember you.
ed042304c3d8d3b493a43f0d0156d297e858e29d	We love you
7b0257ce75add65485cb879a8ababbebc2270b68	Quotes
13cc0021c2c44163b9f607006f2e17c6fd4420c8	* Would you like to interview me?
3e1c60c5d067381e443137d22cc0a2eb65f59569	Oh, donot do anything stupid!
2083f30ea53a7fe7511a68ab1f3a31912c80f835	* We were never allowed to enter Russia.
41c9007c261eb0d5453fe7a927b417fa207114d3	They think that we will corrupt their youth...
f25062f41395fe7dee204f89e3f86d4ad3b59505	* Now I know that money can buy anything in Brazil.
503eeb139c22ebc1e980d251520c935f174def53	Even Brazil itself, or the entire continent.
41dc4ed37175fbe81f179af99a8e73edf585c873	With my money, I
87dc1a3741ced844710bc2107842f1510b2bc97d	he could easily become president there.
7ab312c0e2fe426495ac9dbd643ffa429d9d7e1a	* I have no desire to live until the age of 70: this is probably a very boring occupation.
93c46d5699641af6dd009272d758793331c0b1cf	* People who get to know me think that I'm going to kill them now.
841ab49737fcf5efd1061a60f615dd96fed74597	But in fact, I am very shy.
c03887ff189f87e6e09537418f7aee99ec271212	* How boring it is to just exist, to have only one
3a168ffc1cb3e2ae7284f9fe8a08de2670d22581	the side of character that is reflected in everything you do.
4b4fb28f9ee390d504f3e7ea84a22b77b65f5029	I am a person of opposites and I change every day like a chameleon, and each of my new days is different from the previous one, and I am looking forward to it.
218b77a1e11f96675d55548b4b6b0ab36b9aed08	I donot want to be the same.
df0af103f66ac228f2a50542a76c637c21fc3762	* You canot buy happiness.
a8ca329ee29ffc4761ef3a2907993eeab80ce7ac	But money can help e
a7711e706f985d424d286f58a52c9cd21d972378	go to find!
8faf1de7f9e617cc31e6647a429fbc9cec39ca64	* I donot want to go to heaven after my death - hell is much better.
4e985df2a2a711844278c86c672999e91e1946ef	Just think about the most interesting people you will be able to meet there, and you will also want to get there.
bb46d65e9e8bd0bc52ddfb7ce0174d032bf0057f	* In fact, my kind of loneliness is the hardest to survive.
02aa7fed9ed5a31f7e1cf0da58f6a50742c30445	Loneliness does not mean that you are locked up.
202ae711f9082d041606e09f2ce9e53e648168c2	An Indian man with a leg weighing as much as an elephant Visited:338 Andrey Martynov: A Truly national hero Visited:273 The Amazon Princess of the DC Universe Visited:193
9a8ffb281d0119d391d3b9a66706f5efbc3d37f8	Freddie's alive... obliqa 2006-05-04 13:05:56
22cd7b0d1da1d74dd809cb271c8f6833f1f6d6f6	such people do not die at all. some very smart person said that people and things live as long as at least one person on earth remembers and loves him. and Freddie remembers the whole world: he suddenly entered the world of classical rock music, just as suddenly he left... and the memory remained such that it would be enough for several more famous people. and how much has been written about him, dedicated to him; how many times he was doused with mud and his bright name was restored; how many people still bring flowers to his grave; how many performers try to repeat his style of performance, not even because people will definitely like this style, but because of sincere love for this amazing man...
d90b5e4d9977f15435b443440cd298591ae6004d	In general, Freddie is alive, or rather, he did not even die!
0584b4d48f5faf00dcb12d9ecc8937346d32ad81	P.S. sorry for the confusion of the narrative, but this is from the heart!
15fd4f8ba4bd1f96e44f1b9bf962d4fca6f5c010	he lives in my heart lady Godiva 2006-10-22 20:44:52
7ea0234cd0d036f28b485530f1bec1868d8cd67c	Freddie Mercury is a great man of genius!
3cbd35f1c4cf719f185f8a718cf2c5423b522a4f	He will always live in my heart!I will not describe all his virtues here, but I just want to say that he and his work have a permanent place in my heart.
28d051b050a8fad5f6098b2857f32b209c59a786	It seems to me that he made this world a little brighter))and he is doing it now, despite all the PR dirt pouring out on him from the lips and from the pen of his "friends"..
b0730e2fd180ecbbdb9b105fb69c0ee6e52d8acb	freddie forever shlon 2006-11-10 09:31:44
730d78e90c0f28ab11da3c0ba798ed7f8fba1b7d	I donot know why, but I can listen to all his songs endlessly, although I donot know the translation, but they are close to me internally.
7071db4e494805955b917e5851db1c4ac0e4fab8	Freddy SAMs 2007-03-26 09:23:20
f9fa36d802b4dfba19ec85b6043d6c0a3143ee9b	THE BEST OF THE BEST !!!!!!!!! We will never forget you Freddie !
10e2295512137a7ca36f26ea922a1a828370d749	Mercury Hussar 2007-10-04 10:02:01
94ae27d108264bd7e8fc172bd3919b4bcb6ab075	He was a good man
cdad6ba24f756f8991721eb57afd4fd7c6d09a40	About Freddy Lainess 2008-01-12 10:45:09
a3c501e2b9cd0bd27801da6dde16ec7d6a583e4b	He really was a great man who left a huge mark on the history of all mankind.
ce1a3774e402515d54ebc471e76924a175bb7530	For me, he was like a family, and his death was a blow below the belt.
8ad4505b3c6f060dde2de65fcf00a059f7bae1dd	Freddie Mercury Valeria 2008-02-08 18:37:36
d211760b4a7949ddc27f203a242de0d8d91322c8	Freddie Mercury is a great talent!
0041f8b70fb7e234e1ca7768032d45d975ffa08f	His songs will always remain in my memory!
b8568bbb32983198b926520ce62ac6cabac24b9b	man Andrey 2008-03-05 16:22: 01
8530d4609d85896744572571f5b07de418ba5688	I LOVE YOU FREDDIE, YOU'RE THE BEST, I'M SORRY THAT YOU LEFT US((((((((((((((I LOVE YOU!!!!!!!
6c8bea29d00bfb85c4386437ed94627825c59aab	about queen fan 2009-04-02 19:29:59
757f514402620f46d181f4e8e3ed5e64390dabef	A great man, a wonderful musician, it's a pity that such talented people die so early.
82b949fe11965e032b3c366ca3bea14314041c82	Indeed, Freddie, as you said - you are a legend!
3315741d7bb96785c84a760100749f5c102eda9e	about imperishable sweeting 2009-11-25 22:20:17
52d85def502d3a036194eae941770a22ec6a907c	Stop this nightmare the constant lies about the life of Freddie Mercury.
4d9d86404dedcdd502470510c055e7730dbdc27e	The worst thing is that his so called friends allowed all this.
492bbe927bcecf255218bd2eca242d6ce5c768a1	They owe everything to him - fame, fortune, creativity.
5a3318286fb21cc940a876d188192be922eb1f80	No gratitude.
b268236be4c53a847eba011dc1be5efdcf155057	In memory of the fall on the stage - do not lie.
8d3b4adea9fddd730f66f0f82a652a66d40de04b	MEMORY mer 2010-02-01 14:37:50
116f038d4f77ee63bdf530b6c79dff8ce5331515	Freddy, we love, remember and will never forget you!
3c4c9eb45905059a64aee406df9910ac6cab0f63	May you rest in peace.....
51c73476db0d6283c8efbbf519564acb0c00aa76	Montserrat Caballe, Spanish singer (soprano) Serega, Belarusian rapper Zemfira, pop star Mozart, midfielder of the Moscow football club Spartak.
448f51af561e7909ee58fdbe14c01e98188cfb8b	Their, rock band They, rock band
4411512231febf8d8701a745666084a78269e8b5	Phrases: death, happiness, quotes, music, biography, music, about mane, patience, moran, petra, talent, mozart, bigfildi, zodiac signs, time d, m and v, kensington, brazil, I, old, charm, yu, africa, people, g in and, lagoda, maybe, loneliness, my, happiness, oh, in, dishes, good, tennis
7b090f8b5ddc15c75ccedfb26489d8d2ace67e83	About the celebrity: Singer and musician, vocalist of the legendary rock band Queen
89b0528af850eba1b947462639250c40b9309946	Freddie Mercury: Provocateur, clown and gentleman
9fd84b96fe3cca130120694bb1ca0f3c2976c8fc	Freddie Mercury did not die of AIDS, but of cancer
cd51f12812e6b2c4572babc6b24a0337aa0fc973	Mercury bequeathed me his millions (Daily Mail Weekend)
7ee008ab21a42584cf66039c47b6328f7442962c	Freddie Mercury is congratulated on his anniversary
0e3d373380cbc856e027c25d74839d0d7a54790b	Show without continuation
eda800ab477732fbe5414e40a831314c7d26a41a	I DON'T CARE HOW I WILL REMAIN IN THE MEMORY
a1e7313be7950f70b13d2a3b6924394a34afd00d	Discussion of the album "A Day At The Races'(Capitol Radio, London, 11-20-1976)
40d3787e96b8e2d4bfe267345a5d10bdbcfdd079	Photos [117]
d192a60734186b860e6b155e81aa124d4ca1e545	Aphorisms of Freddie Mercury
96830ad7440828877275a9dbc0404a9d24e54d79	Freddie Mercury quotes
f14d34715fc9b520a675e7527da18e37c8d610dd	Lyrics [63]
d246dd439f43504a1d83d8e5ac80c7b15bd7f1e4	Video [21]
670558c0da77d68653009f6003c0a08a2abb0adf	Forum [100]
1556aa3d30dda87228f6d705a1af11ce1202b8c0	News [21]
b2ddc08733434f64682674af64099bc61ed95e68	Works in cinema [67]
a83811aa28c547fc2cc986566d61663df1dd718f	Promotion in India
9dcf7b2d37044548c881a1c68a9b2aba0ee640bb	[ Igor Kudryashkin ]
43a03b50d7bf75bac30dcce371902f4e208ef6db	I wonder if UMMC has a supply route to India and / or other Southeast Asian countries.
13d2b453be15c1e74c07ca96a17f08a02e33afe7	There are....
4a3629249b50dacc69e27edf3a37c300ba896b20	this is my own uncle
1a3da05014326d5f50ef7330b082aa7508a4ca83	[ Grigory Dmitryuk ]
dbe34d72b1efb585187b53c1d3c121fb1a93e676	An excellent biography.
5600d7521d81084dceee062ea6e1c3aafdd8aee0	Thanks!....
18c0b0dc45d64561752c9ef4025a475c6b43a0e0	A relative?!
740d820b94b0b93bd5b6b423ceaed824536c92a9	[ Katharina Witt ]
596fd64cae1ec8b87d8fcce74b3c3f71a86c633f	Dudushka told me that this woman, the granddaughter of my grandfather's half brother, everything is difficult, but she is for me ....
e302e6323b44077d6ff60bb2b77e69a3c8bf5f4c	to you
9c6efb17d39a45f25edea326746e1f628e11c688	[ Scott Duncan ]
b090693483abd5b9d78c2d362453960fca44686c	Without knowing yours??? it's hard for me to talk to you.
afa3449c8360e7a10c2171813a8c702d9aaac8ee	You allow a lot of your friends to be rude here.
5f48885ea18b47db36bb06fb7f0a7dad1ebbb2f7	The magazine "CARAVAN OF STORIES", June 1999 (638)
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14d3cb0907687a3930b34692c087cf137a0ed199	Friday, February 26, 03: 04
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ddbb7c52a17943ec53e74bf714f6c2257a2cda0e	Main topics: The war in Syria The ruble exchange rate Western media
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f95180de0b514c89403bd8adf8881b3275a3ea4e	(biography, photos, videos) Farrukh Bulsara
6d6481232ad57b27f5dc95743cf40002af06fc2d	Name: Freddie Mercury (Farrukh Bulsara )
a6cd8f39e70190f2c6aa91d658621b890abdcbbe	Date of birth: September 5, 1946
7460ad8de2bce7a66f130b3c3fbf5ac09aba56c2	Age:45 years
c5e80bc4ed5aa5e8c47e800bc414992a8091aa75	Date of death: November 24, 1991
06f32d7d7e4826df20f64e2305e6f8149b1b6ad1	Place of birth: Zanzibar, Tanzania
b7021881959bbfaa8f6ecd69ffc55e2bbd8612e3	Height: 177
648cb3977501a15b8b7ff8280eddf240ee44fcff	Activity: British singer of Parsi origin, leader of the rock band Queen
62f926c01d0984e35ed3e0d489f1384781a54b3a	Marital status: Never married
664add438097fbd4307f814de8e62a10f8905588	Wikipedia
709720790576c76443fb855803dff171cb36e0b4	Freddie Mercury: a biography
ae5e9cdcaf4bf640a7135f8d3789c337285ee402	6 year old Farrukh was sent to school.
abce6411f530cd679e237bd11ce0c1b817c7a9b1	At school, English speaking classmates began calling Farrukh "Freddie".
cb0968c3ef437c2693f47c63045a57ab78928e46	Freddie was a diligent student.
54b786ae5f4a9d14725ece201a76e1b187adfacb	He quickly became interested in sports, choosing hockey, tennis and boxing for himself.
f6bfbfe8bce6e84aa43c056753eb4b89bd6a8b22	And the boy became interested in music and painting.
71af99a8d144e6d0fd82e48cdb9cf734b6f0f8d6	He drew well, distributing drawings to all friends and relatives.
16ee70b9fdd65fc7b5ac43a7fc27da46575c6356	But most of all, Farrukh loved to sing.
02e0392d44a0b57d5c217f2ab6e7493478e537ee	Classes in the school choir took up a lot of his time.
6eec0c035136a44bea61baa8cc590079a13d528d	The school director drew attention to the excellent vocal of the student.
ba3cf41e94b1ed516517f18c8eaac0b49b435b12	He offered the boy's parents to develop his abilities in piano playing courses, promising to take care of a small price.
0fdc044967382962d2f839964d3d7692a2067508	Thus, Freddie Mercury began to attend music courses.
82d907dc3aae1c14f773c91464f9702b308164fe	Upon graduation, he was marked as the best student.
2299c02b930abf71e80187b8816e18c237d15126	At the age of 12, Freddie and his friends organized a rock band, calling it "The Psychos" (The Hectics).
90698fe323b75ef11882869a7ced27f24908fa43	The children played and sang at school discos and wherever they were accepted.
c47ec876afa74b696b33f0c5b6f77ff499203a2d	In 1962, the future leader of "Queen", who turned 16, graduated from school in India and returned to Zanzibar, where his parents moved again.
7c4a6d1133c858f0be4895d3425b33bba356e642	After 2 years, the power on the island changed: Zanzibar declared its independence from England.
3a181a8c5095c84c03c9bb27f4c1c2c0fb20fa6f	Riots began.
4ad1ef0b2a62328d05e41c9e5e569e30360453b8	Bulsar's family moved to London.
626190b4f0bf5bfc8ce1652e32738cdd83192df9	In 1965, the guy became a student at the prestigious Ealing College, where he studied painting and design, and also continues to study music and ballet dancing.
7863054b79c89a40b21133981908a82a576a1a75	Mercury calls Jimi Hendrix and Rudolf Nureyev his idols.
9fe65cd4f30bc845a8640308e73c7f462e9dd410	While studying at Ealing, Freddie left his parents ' house and rented an apartment in the Kensington district, where the London bohemians settled.
0551db659d64d39764c64e0acee582b6716db071	Bulsara rented housing together with his friend and musician Chris Smith.
938508769cb8a09759c7c0e8fa2feccbf3f13669	During this time, Freddie also met a college colleague Tim Staffel.
2603e6582755716c0ca1ad0a8fe52ccda0dabe90	Tim was the leader of the musical group "Smile".
f0778030c7208b8d67e46ad4175d31ae2849906e	Soon Freddie began to attend the band's rehearsals, where he met all the musicians.
0ed6c38c43ab5b1ff74786ca4b216e08b5218bec	He became particularly close to the drummer Roger Taylor, to whom he soon moved.
8da46094a436f204d6263796477dd820df95a290	After graduating from college in 1969, 23 year old Freddie came out with a diploma in graphic design.
6e00a0c30f6b1bb540890dab5354051f1c790433	He drew a lot.
073632a1aaa188785ebff6b0ecf2aa0773379066	Together with Taylor, they opened a small shop where, among other goods, Bulsar's works were sold.
0e175bfd6867b8f82412ac324ecb7ca17ad18770	In the same year, Freddie meets the musicians of the group "Ibex" from Liverpool.
031a06a8dbd8be413e1488a412b791fb9e70d009	After a few days, he knew the entire repertoire of "Ibex" and even added some of his songs.
80c7ecd4f4ba7cf8b0a3c3d582cc15715d99c44d	After the breakup of Ibex, Freddie, who could not imagine his future life without music, found a new band with the help of a newspaper ad.
3bc8470f73633da10c8c1928811fe09c16943d5d	It was called "Sour Milk Sea" ("Sour Milk Sea").
7e6a463a4d5f3676f53e22dadbc57dffa6d92ef3	The newcomer was accepted as soon as they saw and heard what he was capable of.
4c9faef9d7e0675d535f4b6b258f0c5003ac2b95	Freddie moved perfectly, and his voice in 4 octaves did not leave anyone indifferent.
db97bf830af1745a6dac6371e88b2280a95b863b	After one of the musicians left him, the band broke up.
cac4631cdd24e18d61caf246895a4aa11ea728e8	But in its place, a new one was born, which was called "Queen".
1f2b97c908fe97384d08cc8355f349741fe408f1	It consisted of musicians from two previous groups.
145628541dd3bae4ac814289849ad9458d779d4d	In 1971, the composition of "Queen" after many changes becomes permanent.
6538dfae361e67de5b3efc1462e30cce824e659d	Freddie drew the coat of arms of the band with the letter Q in the center and the zodiac signs of the musicians around.
cf54640b755e11abed95f640b1846ab4d5650d61	In 1972, when the band was recording their debut album, Freddie changed the name of Bulsara, taking the creative pseudonym Mercury.
aed1e36c731882e100d9180fe2c2c0786016f43f	Soon, a song written by Freddie Mercury called "Seven Seas of Rhye" hits the UK charts.
0a70f46e525323e542c063f2bebfdd06f9ff6de8	And a year later, in 1874, the first hit "Queen" appeared - the song "Killer Queen".
cfc4cac0897d89aa33d6aceb028e08352ae708d3	Immediately after it came the most successful song of the group "Bohemian Rhapsody".
289eea4d44582b387b83191df5ab87c391d9624b	It stayed at the top of the charts for 9 weeks.
75515fbbe652bfc502e98f0894d06d9a5cc4aacf	The first video clip was shot for it.
8f930e1c1d2008f78a9384752be70fb5bfc1cd39	Later, "Bohemian Rhapsody"was named the best song of the millennium by The Official Charts Company.
e99a2814f061dc0f03a9d662fcdcdabdb8f6a731	The second hit "We Are The Champions" becomes the unofficial anthem of the champions of sports competitions and Olympiads.
aad0351ce7ccc93c55213509da503a8ce1c7cf6a	In 1975, the band toured Japan.
641d455b69ae04802a0219b6377d86b70c5415ff	This was not the first foreign tour of "Queen", by that time the musicians had already performed in the United States.
10097f81cc323e882568e864e5c61ff97290fa30	But such a resounding success happened for the first time.
a5242ad70d4d1a5b054f9267874e780fbbc95b54	The musicians felt like stars.
677cc64473b2a914dc21b29597cb7fee379a96da	It was then that Freddie Mercury fell in love with the land of the rising sun and began collecting objects of Japanese art.
898c62958c3acb15d220f4f53f10b5dadc87c0ac	In October 1979, the dream of a musician from Zanzibar comes true: with his hits "Bohemian Rhapsody" and "Crazy Little Thing Called Love", Mercury performed together with the Royal Ballet.
d483923ba8443a9653ebcdf96fc08b73dd89bb9d	The following year, Freddie radically changed his image: he cut his hair short for the first time.
c8be1a734069a8da51a6fba35676cca60bedb701	In 1982, the band announced a break in the touring schedule for a year.
08ce84cc9c7e6617e117bcc91e61dd461467cc3f	Mercury took advantage of the respite and recorded his first solo album in Munich.
405d3cae64afb18ab075f6eaeb596d9feefc3b10	In May of the following year, the musician met Montserrat Caballe.
08964770d2c67f85370956c5d74557d9ee3e1eef	July 13, 1985 can be considered the peak of the musical career of Mercury and "Queen".
ebb5f83b76b451d1b6cce5ced57f093a31289c2c	The band participated in a grand show at Wembley Stadium, where Elton John, Paul McCartney, David Bowie, Sting and many other stars sang in addition to them.
bca20be272da509f604edcee874c8e6829880486	But it was Mercury's performance that was unanimously recognized as the main performance and the highlight of the program.
d2ee7ba9a53570133d52040a7abada40e959a737	The 75 thousandth crowd during the performance of "Queen" experienced a real euphoria.
ee1432e84063c3aee7f52ba7fac0131e1201e9b9	It was after this concert that Freddie became a rock legend.
c5b3ddd733ccf5237bb389434ac63a40289d413b	A year later, the band made its last tour under the name "Magic Tour".
32ae309cd3c1c3fc57ba53d43f1219551ebfed26	Within its framework, the last concerts were held together with Freddie Mercury.
3ec6f2048e64a2e66f67b8d57a9e62b27de4ed12	This time, 120 thousand fans gathered at Wembley Stadium.
f4fd2877e772f121eb300ab956bcbaca24e639b6	Later, the concert was published under the title "Queen at Wembley".
8164adbef27c91be6b4bb7a643791fea0c5d97c7	The tour ended in Knebworth.
02075f68922d18f545af282fc4723a51a619900e	Mercury did not perform with the band again.
cd5fec8fbfd494ca2d8d1a687acddfcc9b3b2aea	In the spring of 1987, Freddie and Montserrat Caballe began working on a joint album, which was called "Barcelona" and was released in October 1988.
d535b6942507121d4082260a662d584df43d02cd	At the same time, a joint concert of the singer and the opera diva took place in Barcelona.
51871fea000bad9e978fed6229d518324ba0060b	This was the last performance of the legend.
dfc92cdacfcf5e25a680321ef11227c3839dba24	Illness and death Rumors about Freddie Mercury's illness appeared back in 1986.
6165adb5752847fb5b434490cfe58928cc33c27f	Information that the singer passed an HIV test was leaked to the press.
df72a9328becea3c070211cea9160311fa666770	In 1989, the disturbing rumors, which Mercury himself denied to the last, were confirmed: Freddie lost a lot of weight.
cfcdf6d451dfe681eb3744005cab5c24425c1f2a	His haggard appearance was the most convincing proof of a terrible illness.
212e23d37efeb82a85728961a4a041a8b445bc6a	During this period, Mercury worked hard with the last of his strength, realizing that there was a lot to do.
6194fa5df6037201d16000a029cd4158cecbdbdf	He recorded songs for the following two albums: "The Miracle "(1989) and" Innuendo " (1991).
86098e5aac8735dc14af616b0632517c2b865a15	The clips for the latter are black and white.
a9ffe396e115a32e92325d2ad3e0bdb34cb3bfc6	This was the only way to disguise Freddie's changed appearance.
ff9984c73f2e1baba0730ba442e774876954a3e6	On November 23, 1991, Mercury made an official statement that he had AIDS.
083e49936db07fc1bf5b27340c6aab535b768257	The next day, November 24, Freddie was gone.
60628a10e03f336dd2098634e30f77ab9e5cf673	He was buried according to the Zoroastrian rite, retreating only in one thing: the body was cremated.
c014283b8c617df643081b026df94f7667dca3d4	Only relatives were present at the funeral.
dde22fdb7d356b83f7b38e91785eb96f3fe2087a	Only Mary Austin's family and friend knew where Mercury's ashes were buried.
283a8c69a6bc300e358791efee5354ed199414af	In 2013, fans found a burial place: this is Kensal Green Cemetery in west London.
9d3dee5f86a74363dd659e6cec5ba61857f70bb0	Personal life Freddie Mercury met the closest person in his life, Mary Austin, in 1969.
daf6e00a68fb901e7c85e5056e277f75a4509fd6	After several years of living together, they broke up: Freddie admitted that he was bisexual.
aa6a4a13d776496514c461df8a94c78fd2e67ac8	But the friendship and close relationship between the couple remained until Mercury's death.
a4846e9b24f38f7d64b1b713e0c6dcff40017762	Austin was Freddie's personal secretary.
966798b6bdea9173220ea3651fa6829b5735de5b	He dedicated the song "Love of My Life"to her.
e4da5507899023a7d3df64cf70af479365312793	It was Mary Austin who left the musician his mansion and most of his fortune.
eca11da827ad0e687e3e6f494dede56e351b0e58	He was the godfather of her eldest son Richard.
a06827ebcb16e0d0def832f40a807bac60c361ac	Later, Mercury had a brief affair with actress Barbara Valentine.
1c01279e12d11ff30369fa53ceb55adf003749c5	After Freddie's death, conversations about his orientation did not stop.
7e0bf59c884db46ac2a366a2875a08962b26ea02	There were interviews with his friends, in which they confirmed that the musician was gay.
71adba72bc81ca7883f2886fccc3fe796b632ee4	This was stated by Brian May and Roger Taylor, who knew Mercury closely.
77ff4ee6b087178410fbc4e345337f977ab436d6	George Michael told about the singer's bisexuality, and Freddie's personal assistant Peter Freestone published a memoir in which he mentioned several men with whom the musician allegedly had a close relationship.
74d034652237f323fc3b1f47c74900210c763fd3	Jim Hutton told about his 6 year relationship with the legend in the book "Mercury and me".
c22503fe47ac10e881d78b7ed6c43582d01c8548	Discography Seven Seas of Rhye Love Kills Made in Heaven Living on My Own Love of My Life Bohemian Rhapsody We Are The Champions Barcelona How Can I Go On
6758cf9f849ede9f97706c3a48296ba9e8b9b337	17 photos: Freddie Mercury →
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53c228dfe9e240b6b4036fe813974796018575f1	This article is about the musician.
504182dbc1b6b177807f1fc4d0d01f7975c36499	For the city in Nevada, see Mercury (Nevada).
6539b105955137370eaf6aef55029fa8e2b48345	Freddie Mercury during a concert in New Haven (Connecticut).
5bcfe94c51b64a45d019345c841251a8376ac18e	November 1978 Basic Information Birth name Farrukh Bulsara
5e70f34904dcc6656894b99d9862b31ef4860e6d	Date of birth September 5, 1946(1946-09-05)
fb7e8cf135db658a1f272fc8c3b03fa31af45157	Place of birth Stone City, Zanzibar, Zanzibar
b8c33b43c4fa00f5dee3eef4e3fe1bad888a95b1	Date of death: November 24, 1991 (1991-11-24) (45 years old)
200e33d3b0e6ec763c988c4b86cce789c3b0a143	Place of death Kensington, London, England, United Kingdom
fc0663abc4a6eb77875c77be72a778b1d3b246d9	Years of activity 1969-1991
51cddc958200230ff9eb5930a25676fca3498bf4	Country United Kingdom United Kingdom
4d0254bc42a56f03c55d7e9cdd73bca9397aff65	Professions singer, musician, composer, producer, poet, artist
01d737181af3cc590baae1649e8a47f15d4e704b	Singing voice tenor
601913fd7499d1b07db14de0faa25df998195f6d	Instruments vocals, keyboards, acoustic guitar
3386c3f1a3ace8799a4c9d6c80f3cca020af1a6d	Genres rock and roll, hard rock
7981e82ecb5a2db19de16c98c92bfbff08001f31	(as part of IBEX/Wreckage)
bb2c038983e7a92a3524e3bcc6a826519ae1e1d6	pop rock
02a9cbadfc8bced1f6348b5636c351ca2f23cad0	(as Larry Lurex)
87ef405498e7d3a27d150f9be787acbec2485ade	hard rock, art rock, glam rock, pop rock
a0c170e2bae9d3cc09d3126e67d07109dd270d13	(as part of Queen)
eba47e5d4a9692f31bb8fee168c1cb22527b91da	pop rock (earlier)
4a8106232ab67ae9c4d5d35115b16ea118c70622	pop, disco
d220c5ed0d82c984184ba8781754bb78a453aeea	(solo creativity)
e71803c9e3e70c9b18934948519cd30489e07a5c	opera, neoclassical music
3ca662d69de8c52c18ad2fafd48ac891746474de	(with Montserrat Caballe)
137d9f743a031740f2559376deffb6560ee4684f	Aliases of Larry Lurex, Freddie Mercury
cb7f9e2e7f264dfb2d1e677eef75858e94c2f002	The Hectics, Sour Milk Sea, IBEX/Wreckage, Smile/Queen bands
25c967bbe010cd83b44a015c98cf7619905bf72b	Collaboration of Montserrat Caballe
cb1ea31582b79810affd0c6f083afab3b3ff0a80	Labels Columbia, Polydor, EMI, Parlophone, Hollywood Records
b3fd866a46ad834a6916ddb0cb7dfab8040042af	freddiemercury.com Audio, photo, video on Wikimedia Commons
41a7eea5eb7ef7fc4439047df6220aa1881a38e6	Freddie Mercury, real name Farrukh Bulsara (guj. ફારોખ બલ્સારા);
dd19d91c34123e899dc4798840c66633bdde530d	September 5, 1946, Stone City, Zanzibar November 24, 1991, London, United Kingdom) was a British singer of Parsi origin, songwriter — vocalist of the rock band Queen.
16195e0ffdd5354e845257110d0a2d5b6ea158c9	He was the author of such hits of the group as "Seven Seas of Rhye", "Killer Queen", "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Somebody to Love", "We Are the Champions", "Crazy Little Thing Called Love", etc.
7bc87f0d8d7c95739d40fc72a8984a4266b2790d	The musician was also engaged in solo work.
e5a67cda62870a06f69686f51b78a6adb13353f2	Freddie died on November 24, 1991 from bronchial pneumonia, which developed against the background of AIDS[1].
15eb9acf5eb31ef1bf8878b52afe73404de06ed3	In 2002, Freddie Mercury was ranked 58th in the poll "100 greatest Britons", organized by the BBC [2].
67957c4ae106335e64457e49415a228dd4853bd9	In 2005, Blender magazine conducted a survey, according to which Freddie took the second place among vocalists (the first among men)[3]. In 2008, Rolling Stone magazine ranked him on the 18th place in the list of "100 greatest vocalists of all time according to Rolling Stone magazine"[4].
6c55e893f99548aa241d9e8a5a2849314fa6c011	Allmusic described him as "one of the greatest rock singers and the owner of one of the greatest voices in the history of music"[5].
a696239f960e64a33ce204e6c7f923bd19b002e8	1 Biography 1.1 Childhood and youth (1946-1964) 1.2 On the Eve of fame (1964-1970) 1.3 Queen (1970-1991) 1.3.1 1970-1982 1.3.2 Solo career and peak of fame with Queen (1983-1988) 1.3.3 Illness and death (1986-1991)
74ef707058478577a3be4cdf847a856b0b5f0a1a	1.4 Posthumous glory
360daa79fd556690e3e50b54021be82fc6efa79f	2 Personal life 3 Facts 4 Videography 4.1 VHS editions 4.2 DVD editions
c50f4365c3befbc170012acd540e9d93dd869082	5 Discography 5.1 Singles
83cc24e70aaa58041406d5847328680c3f589136	6 Notes 7 Bibliography 8 Literature 9 References
10c7b955cd147857cace6b957dad67cd3f2583f4	Childhood and youth (1946-1964)
f2c0ce869afdbe8b97447b96c16d1402bee24f28	Freddie Mercury was born on September 5, 1946 in the Stone City — the oldest district of the city of Zanzibar on the island of the same name in the family of Parsis Bomi (1908-25.12.2003) and Jer (born 29.09.1922) Bulsara[6].
c4ca732c1db403871b2c6b51af46441d34588403	At birth, the boy was named Farrukh, which means "beautiful", "happy".
7e1569066df3db2d97c14061ceea21e44685ef8e	His father worked as a cashier at the Supreme Court of England and Wales.
bc3c8156fed8288eacedb3a7bcc15b18ca04408d	In 1952, Farrukh had a sister Kashmira.
06a97d75253a57074791b2246e1ffffacc7bf06b	In 1954, Farrukh's parents enrolled him in St. Nicholas ' School.
527333b95816f53fac8d76e5675c48b74e3cd150	Petra is located in Panchgani, 500 kilometers from Bombay[7].
a51def907cdc4138f12a013f8208d8854e04513f	At that time, a significant formative influence from a musical point of view was exerted on him by the Bollywood singer Lata Mangeshkar[8].
050b5908db72967eef9fdc61e89137af2e85c3ea	In Panchgani, the boy began to live with his grandfather and aunt[9].
3f601d6f8b8267388e30760ed840296c8c0504fb	The name Farrukh was inconvenient for pronunciation by classmates (mostly English speaking), so friends began to call him Freddie.
9b5ff7c93ad803bf407415b14f5420a7cfa80577	Freddie did not like cricket and long distance running — he preferred hockey, sprint and boxing.
425015ef698806e31be32a9bc211d575a5ff5581	At the age of ten, he became the school's champion in table tennis, at the age of twelve he received a cup for winning the youth all around, as well as a diploma "for success in all sciences and arts".
43dcc8f357d0a397058ececb3012fbabb586f7a3	From an early age, he was fond of music.
61a68207cbd169352efc907b765374f3d5ada014	Singing occupied almost all of his free time, sometimes to the detriment of his studies.
66eff55b190ed58992a3f8f9a529f9ea521610b6	He wrote a letter to the boy's parents, in which he offered to organize piano courses for Freddie for a small fee[10].
0d3a149d4cfa0b74fa60af3aed3b40b66c1ea20d	The parents agreed, and Freddie began to study with passion.
44a33480a756d7c04949e79b838abdbd4414c0e5	Upon completion of his studies, he received a fourth degree in theory and practice (English Piano Grade IV).
91bfa5ebec7d2f1284b69f160cfa25db586d181a	In 1958, five friends from the school of St. Peter Freddie Bulsara, Derrick Branch, Bruce Murray, Farang Irani and Victor Rana created their first rock band, which they called The Hectics (Rus. Psychos)[11]. The band played at school parties, dances and anniversaries.
da9488b040277da2c2cbdcf8b65e5db4c0beb7d1	In 1962, the sixteen year old Freddie graduated from St. Peter's School.
690d748bdaec78c2b31a070e4d496fb6d7135f99	Peter went to Panchgani and returned to Zanzibar.
2a2f28ae5a935277d7d6a24ad51adb7abf2cd91f	In early 1964, the British government handed over power over Zanzibar to the Arab Sultan, and a week after that, Zanzibar was declared an independent state.
5a9247345835c5a9bb7ec7355019fe2eb319a498	Due to the political unrest in the country, the Bulsara family, taking only two suitcases with clothes, flew to the UK.
270f268c9cb4bd61309be42c4db42d53c2e29372	On the threshold of fame (1964-1970)
76bac4ac24047714c3260096a36991d08f580622	This mark was set on November 25, 2011.
876d98f75403478d0ee618bd9ce041af8d714988	Arriving in England, the Bulsara family first stayed with relatives who lived in Feltham, Middlesex, then they bought their own house.
85f609bcdaf871dfc72809fa8d09540df9a5d7d8	Freddie, who was eighteen years old at that time, entered the Islesworth Polytechnic School, where he studied mainly painting, as he wanted to go to art college.
17680235f8a56af2cd3a7d42ed3c9e19301e23ec	The family had money problems, so during the holidays Freddie had to work part time.
e7361a38aac61d1483e163de63212478e9e76a0d	Initially, he worked in the supply department of Heathrow Airport in London, then as a loader at the Feltham commercial warehouse[12].
ffc92029512cab45b029f5f6017753e95a961250	In May 1966, after graduating from Aylesworth with a high score in painting, Freddie was interviewed at Ealing Art College in London, where he began studying at the Department of graphic illustration in the autumn of the same year.
44a53e5b0841657b1c5d09fcbbeb89f8346f09d0	Soon after, Freddie left his parents ' house and settled in a rented apartment in Kensington with his friend Chris Smith.
5feb53e4c4fad18b67a3014e5ecab866d7e292ae	Kensington in those years was the heart of London's bohemia and art. Freddie drew a lot, a special place in his drawings was occupied by his idol guitarist Jimi Hendrix.
ffef1c815ccf7afc8b44768e973035eba450c4ad	In Ealing, Freddie met and became friends with Tim Staffel, the vocalist, bass guitarist and leader of the band Smile.
51cd08d39bdd3ea5ead2f222a468a3c1b67971b4	After a while, Tim began to invite Freddie to the band's rehearsals.
4957efa6b07eb8559ad30007cc34ea059b5c2ad9	Freddie appreciated the potential of Smile, especially the playing of guitarist Brian May and drummer Roger Taylor.
265e998316d1564e56a1829f9110a70de30ad449	Freddie also met other young aspiring musicians, such as Tim and Nigel Foster.
1de7c01fd09609812e46f3812dbb0df605e3d99d	Chris Smith, his flatmate, was also fond of music.
a790d9ebe718ff96c6f70c45384a6490bf019b39	Freddie and Chris played together, trying to mix different styles, but they did not go on stage.
6904d750201c3201ded1a956572274c61ee2b559	In the summer of 1969, twenty three year old Freddie graduated from Ealing with a diploma in graphic design.
5f5b9c64cc1134a4d1c4254652c0685e85fc9d55	On August 13, Freddie met the Liverpool band Ibex.
8b390f477ce304ced363f0525336f56ac4d74ec4	The band consisted of guitarist Mike Berzin, bass guitarist John Taylor, nicknamed Tapp, drummer Mick Smith, nicknamed Miffer (from the English miff — "to get angry", "spoil the mood") and another bass guitarist Jeff Higgins, who replaced Tapp when he played the flute.
ecfa33c1ef5c35fb81d87cc395965acc31eca21a	Their manager, Ken Testi, was with them.
b79720edb6a7e2a2135a8296d6af4bc07dd87e61	Ten days after the meeting, Freddie already knew the entire repertoire of the band, added some of his songs and went with them to their first concert together, in Bolton, Lancashire.
5f2d62f84601d200ed1e5a9ad3840c6ae60f33c9	Their concerts were held as part of the annual blues festival, so the events were covered by the press.
c63846fc56affe3ceb9fcba1d57b8bde7187786b	The Ibex concerts were held on August 23 at the Oktogon Theater and on August 25 at the Royal Park.
4e5617a1ac74e4724d23e4e0d5a3d31e15e38913	Ibex performed cover versions of songs by Cream, Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin Freddie's favorites.
1ea0e8d3f9ac5bedd17ffd0b3cc2cea5a2544430	In September and October 1969, at the suggestion of Freddie, the group was renamed Wreckage ("Wreckage").
a5228ebdabc2c88c9f29860ce8186fd58535f815	After a short time, Miffer left the band, and Richard Thompson, the former drummer of the band 1984, in which Brian May played before Smile, took his place.
e9dac3445f46ba0eb5f18b11719a27c7ea8975ee	After renaming Wreckage, they played several concerts, but soon, largely due to the fact that Mike Berzin returned to Liverpool to study, the band broke up.
d40f650fd319fa72fba5fa35f98b4c4d4d927ae5	Freddie decided to find a new band.
d91518e1308c490aafd5f6ca90fb48130e461524	Among the ads in Melody Maker, he found a vacancy for a vocalist in the band Sour Milk Sea ("Sour Milk Sea").
8807eadac420da4cdd1c28a14623be2889efcbbb	Freddie came to the audition and was accepted on the same day, as the other participants liked his voice and the way he moved.
73f9a8a3d08787b718ef34ca8ae8e8250f04b206	The band consisted of vocalist guitarist Chris Chesney, bassist Paul Milne, rhythm guitarist Jeremy "Rubber" Gallop and drummer Rob Tyrell.
cb884cf93ea218dc792ba2e2428981253a2dfbd6	After several rehearsals, the band played a couple of concerts in Oxford, Chris ' hometown.
9d550c950fd8b85ed35895d917c1ed5344a39be2	Freddie and Chris became friends, and soon Chris moved into the apartment where Freddie and the musicians from Smile lived.
f3dfa6e172b1cc6337ea3cab484cada02ec5f91b	The other members of Sour Milk Sea did not like their friendship, they argued this antipathy with concern for the future of the group.
5bd2edb99f72e7db7e3b42542b2a24ce300ba2ba	As a result, two months later, Jeremy took almost all the equipment (since it belonged to him), and the existence of Sour Milk Sea ended there.
b860f9e69ed520b04e897118689a99d0e76d3d3c	Queen (1970—1991)
431b341be9777b3cda8b01ba1d46bdcdfd8366d1	1970—1982
6d42dd6e23704c5ce770fa0eccc24fea0f0e41cf	In April 1970, Tim Staffel decided to leave Smile, and Freddie took the place of the vocalist in their group.
98f450e3bd631eb7fc28781c8cf7477b17618d1d	On his initiative, the band was renamed Queen.
ef631286fcab89adafd99cac4cd7a1b3e856422b	Until February 1971, the band did not have a permanent bassist — in less than a year, Queen was replaced by three people.
74531d0c2039b450f81c9c6a197f179aa76b57fa	Finally, at one of the music parties, they met John Deacon, whose abilities best suited the group professionally.
c6aba443e02c722514cd01a79c72270626c03728	After that, Queen formed in the final composition.
8a9e4139065d0f059b38d68e5a4af605980ac495	After the group's composition became permanent, Freddie decided to draw its coat of arms.
e371ab7985e56343fa18c15cc699f5fa0c0c5dd7	According to one version, the coat of arms of Great Britain was taken as a basis, with the Latin letter Q, around which the zodiac signs of Queen members are "interwoven": two Lions — John Deacon and Roger Taylor, a crab climbing out of the fire — the sign of Cancer — Brian May. Two fairies with wings are good helpers for the heroes from the British epic (also Freddie's zodiac sign is Virgo).
a7faeef5983e08dafef40a2260e55fde442a83e4	In 1972, during the recording of Queen's debut album in the Trident studio, Freddie decided to change his surname Bulsara to the creative pseudonym "Mercury" (English Mercury — "Mercury" and "Mercury").
7f57da9254da466cad5fa7521dafae49c9ddbf78	He used this name in his song "My Fairy King" (Rus. My fairy tale king), in which there are lines: "Mother Mercury, look what they've done to me, I canot run I canot hide" (Rus. Mother Mercury (variant: mercury), look what they've done to me, I canot run, I canot hide)[13]. In parallel with the work on the first album — Queen Freddie took part in the project of Trident Studios under the pseudonym Larry Lurex, performing cover versions of the songs "I Can Hear Music" and "Going Back" (at the initiative of Freddie Mercury, Brian May and Roger Taylor were involved in this project).
95d593a0eda2280e991e6a39b0be9f9e4364fb2b	Freddie became the author of the first Queen song to hit the UK charts — "Seven Seas of Rhye" (1973).
9379a260e083f9be9282b7cada7ba9ecb9fa2fae	He also composed the first hit of the group — "Killer Queen" (1974), as well as the most successful Queen song — "Bohemian Rhapsody".
c3c77d7faf6777db705cb8b3554c7f40c9fc189b	The song was predicted to fail because of its too long duration by the standards of that time for a single and for playing on commercial radio stations (5:55) and mixing several styles and genres of music.
bc9f20afce15c2b3eb3c144a7f999b1da056749c	But Queen released the song as a single, shot a video clip for it, which became a revolution in music videos, some even call it "the first video clip"[14], although clips for songs were filmed before[15].
88414f48d1e60ac9613f23dcdb8db044f435c993	The song stayed at the top of the UK chart for nine weeks.
3d990ac90fb8fc6c06b5ab31984359f3f24f16fb	In 1975, Queen toured Japan.
dda0ba72790db6063dbb6f30d7d695fd595c37b3	The musicians were extremely surprised by the warm reception of the Japanese fans of the band.
50dd4553e00a99898a89b47857bbe221d670b28a	Brian May recalled:
7a9aa0b8a2e89e18b10dc143e7371857108099d5	We have had some success in England and the USA, but we have never seen such fanaticism and adoration before.
8a0ec173391791bc2c5def25defd600c84eeda37	Suddenly, in Japan, we began to feel like real stars, such as The Beatles and Bay City Rollers, people greeted us with shouts of delight, which was news to us.[16]
75d435d62ee82a2fa7d572dc02ff49214dc41068	Freddie fell in love with Japan and became a fanatical collector of Japanese art[17].
b67d9edcda73fddaa9063bfa46bc475d13c7fd52	On October 7, 1979, Freddie's old dream came true — he performed with the Royal Ballet.
df8b778336eb8ac901b2e973d869be23011af768	For his performance, he chose the songs " Bohemian Rhapsody "and"Crazy Little Thing Called Love".
a63f57e3582c5b48173b9787601387a937c41a68	In 1980, Freddie changed his image — he cut his hair short and grew a mustache.
ffd1345b4e2531156583bb03a8a9ad17319b94c5	Solo career and peak of fame with Queen (1983-1988)
e1767ecbc1b8e60ec3c89fc8a5fd7220c5a56a2c	At the end of 1982, the Queen group announced that there would be no tours next year, the group was going on vacation.
3a4d6f8c9dfa4c3eb53a5fc5a434b2ab4d3d1e56	Freddie Mercury has been considering the idea of releasing a solo album for a long time and now there is an opportunity for this.
546d67eda84e4deb8ac723dd05254f09d0ad3578	In early 1983, he began recording at Musicland Studios in Munich.
da06dde0e0a4ff588e1ffc377d1982a02b7f693d	During this time, he met the composer Giorgio Moroder, who participated in the project of restoring Fritz Lang's silent science fiction film "Metropolis", filmed in 1926.
b719477bce161544e8f0fdceba8a24fde1fdf64d	Moroder was brought in as a composer to create the design of the film with music in a modern style.
cf02c3ffcfe714efcbcf3cfa09b4c6e76f264282	He invited Mercury to take part in this project.
c293dcd80ac35d8649045fe55bf65c906a498b42	The result of the joint work of Mercury and Moroder was the song "Love Kills", released on September 10, 1984.
6c1c5f29ee0b2fca19a728f68fa51c096885a853	At the end of May 1983, Freddie Mercury visited Verdi's opera "Masquerade Ball".
3a2ca4da7629127c2785f8962f9f86cf6d7b868d	Here he first saw and heard the outstanding Spanish opera singer Montserrat Caballe.
43233a269a35cde69df6002197afa49134059970	The extraordinary beauty and strength of her voice made a huge impression on him.
f54792a67d7b1555393b69cabf32f2dfd7ef4bce	The first single of the future Mercury's solo album Mr. Bad Guy was the song "I Was Born to Love You", released on April 9, 1985.
79bd86dd3a2b8e5e0c4517424ed82fa3a5bbb72d	The album was released three weeks later, by CBS Records.
0f940efa151a49d5dd24150cfd18da7f8e0d05c8	Subsequently, two songs from this album, "Made in Heaven" and "I Was Born to Love You", were included in the album" Made in Heaven", released by Queen in 1995.
96e7dd1e62b6311ae427f5ce08c76295f2d9089e	On this day, the Live Aid concert took place — a grandiose show at Wembley Stadium, where 75 thousand spectators and many famous artists such as Elton John, Paul McCartney, David Bowie, Sting, U2 and many others were present (in parallel with the show at Wembley, there was a concert in Philadelphia).
d3ea9d4f433b515e0593a53e22e19028f72bd4e5	The concert was broadcast by television around the world.
d15b70b8d95295e380c16bd0e859c8c5f12195f8	With their performance, Queen secured a place in history, and observers, journalists, fans and critics stated that the band became the highlight of the program[source not specified 1420 days].
819aa6cd39b78ccd80aae045bc85b74fbfb289f6	Brian May (Queen guitarist):
1eb33fdf17fdcf65f2415022d1bcac6a96b311ec	I remember how the adrenaline level jumped sharply when I went on stage and heard the roar of the crowd.
433d8577f6391db9fdc74a68867077a2905a24d9	But we set to work vigorously.
139e1e5b9b4f9de55fcd16ffe44065cc7e77c310	Looking back, I think that all of us were a little worried then.
4caf7cf49dbdfe006e98111a0bb4788941f95517	When we finished, it seemed to me that the performance turned out to be somewhat incoherent.
19de45a73e7d18a4205135881a50fa2ab58f542e	But it carried a lot of positive energy.
328dc9cb0bbf28b4fb4a787b41e1b3c8935711ec	Of course, Freddie was our secret weapon.
e2aaa7d0437fdf51d59623f38eb866587c9294fb	He easily addressed everyone in the stadium.
d4bbce82245b4110a08b5f56fe51a6a5d5f2e4db	I think it was his day!".[source not specified 773 days]
5e9868eac1c88a831e290f2c2e1e5736c99e2084	A year later, on July 12, 1986, Queen again played a concert at Wembley as part of the Magic Tour in support of the album A Kind of Magic.
a455ab823e4c0d1bf7dc6607215b349bc13ab06a	This concert was attended by more than 120,000 people, and it was later published as Queen at Wembley.
1bbce795d2b4b6989358406a3543d33f73093ad0	The final show of the tour in Knebworth on August 9 was the last performance of Queen with Mercury.
1337276d78f344b0723d6c36d15f6100717b77a5	On February 23, 1987, Freddie Mercury released the single "The Great Pretender" (a cover version of the song by The Platters, recorded at the Townhouse Studio).
cf433d2e38605c8065a9c8d5ef7cb6aed3355256	He also recorded two songs for the 1986 musical Time — the eponymous "Time" and "In My Defense".
aa6634a072ede3ba85de835ca691ee62449f86e3	In March 1987, Freddie Mercury met Montserrat Caballe in Barcelona and gave her a cassette with several of his new songs.
035232741b923455d4dd3e837bb7193e557d9551	These songs made a strong impression on Caballe, and she even performed one of them, to the surprise of Freddie Mercury, at a concert in London, at Covent Garden.
9c3b9000cb729cde04c8f41c7fad67d24b0d3128	In early April 1987, Mercury and Caballe began working on a joint album.
0c82088dacb05facbd43c488ce3d43177757a029	At the end of May, a music festival was held in the famous "Ku Club" on the island of Ibiza, where Mercury and Caballe were guests of honor.
832e98eaff373dda9de48571df1bc8a7021625f6	They performed the song "Barcelona" at the festival, which Freddie Mercury dedicated to Caballe's hometown.
175b5dee70a3f7809df384b5dd3d9827dc376973	On October 8, 1988, the second joint performance of Mercury and Caballe took place at the La Nit festival in Barcelona — they performed three songs: "Golden Boy", "How Can I Go On" and "Barcelona".
41425cb40514441acc86db2dd456d435be14f712	The co author of these songs, Mike Moran, performed the piano parts for these songs.
5f4dc922b632ee040a6f6ca2f2970447a9230e8f	This performance was the last appearance of Freddie Mercury in front of the public.
5c20affeaf73a8cb039c12b51f55deceb3996473	By this time, the musician was already seriously ill with AIDS.
424b8702be68d65cfe85b98bd0d361d08d644ad2	The album Barcelona was released on October 10, 1988.
b4a1ec70eea41479c9bfd160db7755c83cbfbfc1	The title song of the album, "Barcelona" became one of the two anthems of the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona (the second was the song "Amigos Para Siempre" by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Don Black performed by Sarah Brightman and Jose Carreras).
b25253de069179bb48629c51dd868720ead432da	See also the full list of Mercury singles.
9892f28261ffd97a41238dd0d22306fb48f36c1f	Illness and Death (1986-1991)
4d36a2d0e6bad842d97b97c424d08f332cf84d73	In 1986, rumors began to appear that Freddie Mercury had AIDS.
a838cbe8a41f8365f30565b2690f4baaad2872a8	Initially, information was leaked to the press that he had passed an HIV test.
bd1d8c943b2153f05bea2d66ec5bd0e99870562c	Since 1989, serious changes in Mercury's appearance began to manifest themselves — he lost a lot of weight.
68fa7399b8a6e4cef5aef2697a4356f762e14dda	However, until the last days of his life, the musician denied all rumors about his health.
bf0bda80d22503547b943a01007ed97038d5b394	Only close people knew about his terrible diagnosis.
898f38593769ec4b920eaf8c73b0bd8a73d5a6ea	In 1989, the band Queen gave the first joint radio interview in several years, where she announced that she wanted to depart from the usual "album tour" scheme, and therefore would not go on tour this time.
9232cde1f5f2ffe1a88ec0ae9e25810e4afd6c7f	The real reason was that the physical condition of the band's vocalist did not allow for concerts.
a84b0759901a96a66253f8a19ccc191017263e24	Mercury, knowing that there was little time left, tried to record as many songs as possible.
6238d67e60c6fc683a01d9806fb6e1623bf14027	In the last years of his life, in addition to his solo album Barcelona, the musician managed to record songs for three more albums of the group.
3e9ca4ae36928ad8f3727c563f396a2db76f77d7	During his lifetime, two albums were released — The Miracle, which was released in 1989 and Innuendo, released in 1991.
d81f0f238e44b8f10d798031d065306780bf6785	Also, several video clips were shot for the songs of these albums.
f879aba888ca714779555371ce319fb0162ecb97	For the last lifetime album, the clips were shot in black and white to disguise the physical condition of the vocalist of the group.
f29161bbd0ec87d2f9ae934af3e6a7367c018de2	After the death of Freddie Mercury, the remaining members of the group, using recordings of his voice, were able to release the last Queen album Made in Heaven in 1995.
cd1a87a65165d49797f1c8bc110486beed394fe0	File:Light Mercury.jpg The final frame from the last clip of Freddie Mercury These are the Days of Our Lives
8d676100b1c8712a445ee9aaabcac840b2c561d2	On November 23, 1991, Freddie made an official statement that he was ill with HIV infection:
f4be23001596023d69c3ec1457f89d0abd7898d4	"Given the rumors that have been circulating in the press for the last two weeks, I want to confirm that my blood test showed the presence of HIV.
96bac9ef4a9f8cbc901392fc21d144ef83f3d5db	I have AIDS.
e58f1503001627d6c92eb4c22728973a41b8eb5b	I considered it necessary to keep this information secret in order to keep the peace of my family and friends.
2fc8471ac1760fea2de5930c7fd55ec416995435	However, it's time to tell the truth to my friends and fans around the world.
b2946f687a3c1a9928e37d729f3b8bfffcd0b506	I hope that everyone will join the fight against this terrible disease"[18]
d9cb562e67b1920e7a3d33a0448b11547708e798	He also ordered the transfer of all rights to the song "Bohemian Rhapsody" to the Terence Higgins Foundation, created to combat HIV and AIDS.
90eb67f89bc3dbf61a9ec1203b0e2911f5cd238b	The next day, November 24, at about seven o'clock in the evening, Freddie Mercury died at his home in London from bronchopneumonia, which developed against the background of HIV infection and AIDS.
e48ec5627723a830593debdce5eda41c2243b325	After it became known about his death, thousands of people came to the fence of his Garden Lodge house to put bouquets of flowers, postcards, letters and photos on the paths.
21713f33750bbfdae0aefc5620267beeda382a47	The funeral of Freddie Mercury was held closed — only relatives and friends were present.
9a99179ecef0adce13d967c84111fe2cf480f0dd	Despite the fact that the musician, as an adult, no longer followed the Zoroastrian beliefs[19], his parents, who profess Zoroastrianism, held a funeral ceremony in accordance with their beliefs, with the exception of cremation of the body, which according to the customs of Zoroastrianism is not welcome.
f693de4ab5e386f5cc309dea0e584b32195cc3e2	Peter Freestone, Freddie Mercury's personal assistant, described the ceremony as follows:
cb750b3803930edb8ef887db8f5e2a9b8df29983	Freddie's coffin was moved to the chapel to the sound of Aretha Franklin's song "You've Got a Friend".
aaea275ae720b5f7b41b49659110c9e21253fb44	The Zoroastrian rite that followed was a continuation of the ceremony that began at half past eight in the morning.
dc1417dd36a60d619bc4d63ea45720d75130e07c	Two Parsa priests, dressed in white robes, conducted her to the memorial chapel of the John Nods and Sons funeral home in Ladbroke Grove.
e44e75c551733f52a8fcb2d9625964a22cf392f7	< ... > At the end of the service, Freddie's body left the world, accompanied by the voice of Montserrat Caballe, who performed the aria "D'amor Sull' Ali Rosee "from Verdi's opera "The Troubadour".
ed016c6b1f415ccf6efa3fdfebaafb8e5249069a	Freddie never aspired to be like everyone else — such an adieu was just in his spirit, and Freddie would have approved of it[19].
c3c5ebe310621170f1cc141efbf21c0c4f31fca0	Freddie Mercury's body was cremated.
fa46c593498eeac0f3471355079fdda1d68d35af	Only his family and Mary Austin knew where the musician's ashes rested — this was his wish[20].
a5972b7b3c16ce2bf71c4d461dfd7d542886f131	In early 2013, The Daily Mirror reported that the resting place of the artist's ashes was discovered by fans — this is the Kensal Green Cemetery in West London[21].
10e403fb619e3e625caff2f05fb0a342f6c0f569	In his will, Freddie Mercury left most of his fortune, including the mansion and the income from the sales of his records, to Mary Austin, as well as to his parents and sister.
a78617607b896f8d392524ad88cda7206d2ef6d5	In addition, 500 thousand pounds were bequeathed to his chef Joe Fanelli, personal assistant Peter Freestone, Jim Hutton, and his personal chauffeur Terry Giddings — 100 thousand [20].
b7867061fe3a575f887a019fe0215ec1f41300a6	Jim Hutton returned to Ireland in 1995, where he died on January 1, 2010 from lung cancer.
d5dc0ac906880acf1642f3fc907eb1b0495c3e19	Posthumous fame
f50aeaa9291f26d75346d4c18040f07950604867	Freddie Mercury was and still is one of the most popular performers around the world.
6d23b4389edbcf87f87b688530a7ee6e2503481a	His incredible stage images and eccentric behavior on stage are known even to people who are far from music.
56cd9b9d1ac2cba32f7acd6279af15f57d19b3a1	On April 20, 1992, the remaining members of the Queen band, Brian May, Roger Taylor and John Deacon, along with many world pop and rock stars, gave a concert in memory of Freddie at Wembley Stadium, the proceeds of which, amounting to 19,400,000 pounds, were sent to AIDS funds.
6b83e2c60bbcc6508f6b2dcd8f2aded684966e87	On November 6, 1995, the album Made in Heaven was released with recordings made at the spring sessions at the Dreamland Studio in Montreux in 1991.
2831bc6fac5337f54c59a2a809639b9636b2b9d7	On November 25, 1996, 5 years after the death of Freddie Mercury, a monument was unveiled to him in Montreux (Switzerland), where the musician worked and rested for many years.
cf8892255278ade71df5e4102346355e4835cc9c	Initially, the Queen musicians planned to erect a monument in London, and for four years they searched there for a place for it, but they were refused.
f6db257946b0618b88a94c6dcf0994f886ea90d1	The only place proposed for the monument in London by the government was the backyard of the art college where Freddie studied.
468e87f8afd8213af3c10bb459f7ffb7e20adb98	Friends considered it an insult to the memory of the great musician.
482496566af5931122cdbabd12f7993f8b01438f	On June 18, 2003, another monument with a height of about 8 meters was unveiled in London near the Dominion Theatre, where We Will Rock You shows are regularly staged[22].
55395a871f51321c6dce3e50513b805c28110b62	The name Freddie Mercury has become a kind of brand in music, synonymous with 80's rock.
f51c8f01ab88560cfd44378352c0c52d45bf98eb	Many modern singers take the image, performing style and image of Freddie as a model, but no one has yet managed to achieve the same success that Freddie Mercury and Queen were able to achieve in 20 years of working together.
e9bec166fa435f0bab8d2093235b17e6f845cadf	Sculptor Irena Sedletska.
39ca2dc6a49254673c01a9cdca5f85f7d9c97b8f	Freddie Monument in Montreux
7560b9b183962381d2ee157a51be080d5ad8e33f	The song "Bohemian Rhapsody", which was written by Freddie, was recognized as the "Best Song of the Millennium" by The Official Charts Company[23].
d2f930bac702aed0ea2a814753209518511f404d	The second such famous song of Freddie was and remains "We Are T he Champions", which was in the rotation of almost all US radio stations, not to mention the fact that this composition became the unofficial anthem of the winners of major sports competitions.
e1fc585bbf46439b0662095cc85e2cdf5885ecee	At the end of 1969, Freddie Mercury, thanks to Brian May, met Mary Austin in West Kensington, with whom he lived for about seven years[24].
7dff7aba23715bfb6314ba52e44760ef28243b91	But then they broke up.
d18d0390e5cf1ca3d847245f0af481d8bb9a3928	One day everything changed when Freddie admitted that he had to tell her something very important; something that would change their relationship forever.
80c67108843a5c206ca48fb2adc6473da7b0beac	Mary explains: "I was a little naive, and it took me a while to realize the truth.
abab524f91672240000bdc621ae80883b8a62924	In the end, he was glad that he told me that he was bisexual."
bfc3c88617c3a86c1117063bec6ae1296aa445df	Mary decided it was time to leave, but he convinced her not to go far away.[24]
a3603588f36297a30c3c2f530cc5a6faebd4c851	They remained close friends, Mercury made her his personal secretary[24] and often admitted that Mary was his only true friend.
e1b4fb30ef1c53f916f3d1563c021289b2a07c4c	In an interview in 1985, Mercury said: "All my lovers ask me why they canot replace Mary for me.
b143b2b94d1a08af966534bc15f69db0f184dfdd	But this is simply impossible.
82ae5feaa0040f9518858e7472a63dab2dfcaf26	She is my only friend, and I donot need anyone else.
c84cd94c65e5bc0ad4ba56ac4901d2f0c649c7b4	She was actually my wife.
b96e4132b0884316b7069c65ac3571ef5e5ad742	We believe in each other, and that's enough for me"[25][26]. The singer dedicated several songs to Mary, of which the most significant is the song "Love of My Life".
5437d8bf43c7efa1e01ca488daaa9666ec3ae9db	Mercury was the godfather of Mary's eldest son, Richard, and left her his mansion after his death[24].
343c3447a3afc26557d988095265f2b6d744e3fb	Freddie Mercury had a short relationship with the famous Austrian actress Barbara Valentin, whom he met in 1983.
7c5ae29f7023066000900f99be971fc5bf146a0f	Mercury spoke about their relationship: "Barbara and I formed an alliance that was stronger than with any of my hobbies over the past six years.
4804d140112da28cae9470d24d6a68de1b3ac617	I could really tell her everything and be myself with her, which happens to me very rarely"[26].
be77919350701c23f7d99774ee7b5248381f0a3b	The musician also mentioned her among others in the dedication of his solo album " Mr. Bad Guy": "Thank you for the big tits and bad behavior"[27].
d9961db73ba52fe7629f09eef4a9cd1f63701f44	The image of Freddie Mercury from the very beginning of his popularity caused a lot of questions about his sexual orientation, but Mercury always avoided talking about his personal life, joked or answered vaguely.
2a7be059339c45bb5552a7f5fec6ea81c1fddfde	In a 1984 interview with the Canadian magazine Melody Maker, he stated:
21c8e2075f2ba8fde238f7cb4ec7f81c2611e838	Journalist: Freddie, I understand that you were upset by the story in The Sun about your "confession" that you are homosexual?
645641e7e83cbf0bfba2c7ecb665d976a607c9a9	Freddie: My words were completely misquoted.
05c7afe5f70bb74296c749ff3f8b2ce0a2d1b297	But from the very beginning, the press always wrote absolutely everything they wanted about Queen, and they always got away with it.
e636d9bdf6d41ebb968e8d7daafd6ce0923f5968	The woman who wrote this article wanted to hear some shocking sensation from me, but she didnot get anything.
f3d77b960f3d8e3016c0131a38eec8082ca3fa41	I said, " What do you want to hear?
706a8ceb89b85ac77ac9ae11c0d1029cf7741e3c	That I sell cocaine?
450afedd28e1c7659b208bbab11ccb4dcc0f36f9	" - but for God's sake, if I wanted to make a loud confession about my sex life, would I turn to The Sun, to other newspapers to do it?
211d6ce0050a5b541c7f1f4d44cf0a948f3ee481	I'll never fucking do that.
09e9d3e028b08d21d31bca201902828fe8d9666e	I'm too sensible.
1e6242b11ebf0cc5b20d83adc9d052e9ac3aec1b	Journalist: But now is a good time to be gay.
fa52066c615f04c87cd6998e04a2be304556d5e8	This is beneficial for business.
adb0eb721573fc11f585ffe0c1bf8b9a8028733f	Freddie: Really?
2cbc023570b5f62a5ff16030dd7f63e3ad5441c1	But there's no reason for me to be gay now, because I've been in this business for twelve years.
e505f470276ddc397e82557ccbbe8212e75e6ebc	It's good to be gay or someone else scandalous when you're a beginner.
ca4c472a8ef941b181528f6b0284c4b1d0deb65a	But even if I tried to say that, people would start yawning: "Oh my God, here's Freddie Mercury saying that he's gay, because it's fashionable to be gay now."
4046f53b4c312ba2991249329f7334f0cc1e203e	— http://www.queenarchives.com/index.php?title=Group_-_XX XX 1984_-_Melody Maker
e90c0018df8eb35828d8468e574bb79c46340cb3	[28]
b616f3ac44ede953aff933bec9041864f554feb2	In an interview, when asked whether the song "I Want to Break Free" is dedicated to sex minorities (in the video, the group appeared in the form of female characters of a popular soap opera in the UK), Freddie replied:
f6504e02e04f32181f9fe347dbd63ed62fff81ca	The funny thing is that everyone thinks that it was m
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e9914f9ce48c63e3c0b544179303890384e57381	Home Freddie Mercury Society: biography, personal life, cause of death
ab40ab2514a270741c38cabd043a26965c1e6754	Freddie Mercury: biography, personal life, cause of death
d24194c286bfdb18925c341669b570ca88e6691f	Author: Alexander Grabovoy Date:
b781373b135a2d556ccc9bcbf2d608599c319037	15.08.2015
51b651fe0af7a18c1b756fdf4487fd75f7fa4316	Views: 192 Rating:
5f4df2b01e1f1d281ae7d9484918f18bf6d67345	The name of Freddie Mercury is not real, the singer's name is Farrukh Bulsara.
81c73e758b82dd6c9e0e474092a5ac690a8394b7	He is also remembered by his fans as a songwriter, and, of course, as the vocalist of the cult rock band Queen.
2b86a11cf39dc95ff22d663853998f5c8e7a77eb	One of the achievements of this man can be called the fact that in 2002 he was awarded the 58th place in the list of the hundred greatest Britons.
b2b82e60849149b41fbc0ceced39647f38c9503d	In general, during his life he received many awards and prizes.
2c61094f24a243892898ff92663f2df4c0ab0c93	What was Freddie Mercury like?
bd7fe83777993ff9a28756296a7f7109b58df5f8	The biography and personal life of the singer do not leave his fans indifferent.
12642111f5fe19cc7be6c5554a9673efc7289765	Childhood and youth What was Freddie Mercury like?
e59fcbb0f59d151a51341a47b383432b9b4fb9a9	The biography says that he was born on September 5, 1946 in Kamenny Gorod.
1bce6bd72b55be5a887087957d09d35edff24efd	The singer died on November 24, 1991.
5e3f95098a6ea28a458d9083e41f234ae9a02d2a	But everything is in order.
6cb602daf501a1b5b6e88b33d1a8cfdadda601d7	Where are the roots of Freddie Mercury?
8428da53447c19bc310419bfd127cc194146c11f	His nationality is Parsi.
7d7cef6c14879ffa03118e77656a9dc1523e8ee3	The parents ' names were Jer and Bomi Bulsara.
677cc4dab712be588da63a92ab5ea65d1783aca0	The newborn child was named Farrukh, which means "happiness"in translation.
67159a84728cc2d1821706db4d20555205bf4a89	When the boy was six years old, his sister Kashmira was born.
dee9846f501d45fbcc047854b36853ee98bd28a3	The head of the family worked as a cashier at the supreme court.
82a4825d220d25b6f4733321fc668e844040cf29	In 1954, his parents sent their son to St. Peter's School, located at a distance of half a kilometer from Bombay.
095c04b0c0a33fc23f5ff89e63a07e82ac625831	What kind of student was Freddie Mercury?
e82d5580a1a1f746468975623dfd1aee048159a3	His biography tells that during his studies, the boy began to get interested in music, thanks to the singer Lata Mangeshkar.
1c8edd2643f48adba2d94592feff02dca1c12643	In Panchgan, the guy lived with his uncle and aunt.
7c416c664a061607aee71dbc609c49fa45504d23	His real name was difficult to pronounce by his peers, and then they began to call him Freddie.
f59c36e391c539cc849d2f2f298d9df856c7836b	Since then, this name has become attached to him.
5e7170288b8fa7da2de19a0f14dbfb46a598200f	After a short thought, the singer took this pseudonym for himself.
65dd5aad1e1db5d4c89952e071ea1ff0e1fa6fe6	All the disciplines that were held at the school were exclusively British.
9144e529b9c148a675f29c0529e3c308bd2e3fae	Most of all, the guy was fond of such sports as sprint, boxing and hockey.
9088fc0a75cc989a98bd6caee4684314c8cefc42	But he did not like such activities as running and cricket.
1f6a435b83fdd06faa03bf2a80c2ec427accf5cc	In sports, this person excelled while on the school bench.
dfc7502a1fe4d8b33b49064a19eb67b97cb41e92	At the age of ten, he was recognized as the champion among schoolchildren in tennis, two years later he received the cup for the all around.
181784c05a9bdbbc06ffb877951511f9991c27ee	When he was 12 years old, the director of the educational institution presented Freddie with a diploma for achievements in art and exact sciences.
cb7295732e3cbd6e5a05b03d5b45e15f2d83b0e1	Despite his busy schedule, he managed to keep up with his studies.
6ec833822a11e218e0153bd5c31110169083bcea	This is what the future singer did during his school years: he performed with the choir; drew; composed scripts and participated in performances; studied successfully.
27a563f23f71cfe41ffc1a0ce02bd56cb30616e2	But most of all he was fond of music.
3f0c89204baf32ea94137a4c00c24e780db75939	It was to this occupation that the boy devoted his childhood.
dd1ad0daea4d1fa21381a863e8f8f3b6ca538509	I also recall such cases when this hobby was at the expense of studying.
07ddb0fae72c0be289b8f4e8b756d76f51fda0a3	The fact that the guy has a talent was the first to draw the attention of the school director.
b069d8bbd38fadf8c4de09a34f33e1a35dc3953c	Then he wrote an appeal to his parents with a proposal that they give their son to study the piano for a nominal fee.
a47b1b3912c8edd5a72df71bfcc3ddb6378b5677	The parents were not against it, they were also happy about the success of their child.
911e9d68eec520cc3f1620abaff959ae4c112622	The boy did not sing alone, he had like minded people.
bab200390aef3c414a5630beef83840dd1d4eb0d	It consisted of five people, and its name in translation meant "psychos".
b00cc1f9b6e04a284c5d61f9b8303108b2eafe1c	It is worth noting that this is an ideal name for such a team, which was quite justified.
e92a6f9cc913fffbafa274a3ac3af817d97e27cf	But this name did not confuse the school administration, and the guys performed at various events.
2a66711c9f6062809eb3ad6dbe2d56532e77b52b	In 1962, the singer graduated from an educational institution.
9490a46359dc9dd0a478cffe278ce75d2f6a6bb5	Then he was sixteen years old.
39467a11c67b75b06d5c7c7bee06255cf2d2dff4	In the same year, he returned to his native Zanzibar.
f4f4c78bdad2b6dde9d24b5e3e1415412381a004	But in 1964, the country in which the family lived underwent serious political changes.
5a7f509c4923830a4af877533b49f5bac5f49072	The Arab sultan became the ruler of Zanzibar.
af22f98e5cfbd2bb3b0f5734e8e780630c367da7	And then the family packed up in a few days and moved to the UK.
64aafa62c63986df9510c53d461ed6e942154b30	When the family found themselves in England, at first they had to live with relatives in Feltham, and after a while they bought their own house.
0b0aeb80f74461f4087d76c346366701e0e29571	Freddie at this time became an adult and he wanted to study further, so he entered the Icefort school, where he studied painting.
0df09754a7b3374cbef57e305093f5e21527a214	And he really liked this activity.
d174cd69a7c63d051472de2a8a9c8a2b334422e6	The family was in financial need during these years, and therefore Freddie, as the eldest son, had to go to work part time.
2ddf17989e7d3918f85f741a615af426da330872	At first he worked at the London airport, then became a loader.
9e1dfe9e66913ef6c40fc27153fb534710b3fc85	Then his colleagues were very surprised that such a young and talented guy works in such a field.
698606897302aa5c85ed7ada7ec03a8fcc5a67a9	But Freddie justified himself and said that he only does this in his free time, and his profession is a musician.
4ff237a3b2fe7bc0bf418b42f9e2fd48b9aaa9b7	Due to his charm, he was treated with condescension, and some employees performed Freddie's duties.
721029e32a13460e0bfd2a647c447d073a636f4c	What was Freddie Mercury like on the way to his popularity?
ddc09670e9aeb182db5d6a969274e0de696f97c8	The biography tells us that after graduating from high school, in 1966, the guy decided to go to study at an art college located in London.
0c1513bb2baa604f76d6d92058593330c01789b1	Already in the fall, Freddie entered this institution.
2eaaa108fcaac08e435d40209f10da8178a0bbd5	After that, he decided to live separately from his parents, and then together with a friend they rented an apartment in Kensington.
bfb66c3c4bbf8fbabf18a96071186b357d2368ef	His neighbor was also passionate about music, and therefore they often arranged rehearsals, but they were in no hurry to appear on stage yet.
fdb2f316f246c63d22f4e563e26277210a446113	This city was considered the center of art at that time.
ff2b3d5b6e190527fd5eae4f6cc30aec451f389f	The singer devoted a lot of time to drawing, and most of his creations were addressed to his favorite guitarist Jimi Hendrix.
18834071a4b12ed5f956021f96db6fc10d086f91	There the guy also found a new friend – Tim Staffel, the leader of the band "Smile", as well as an excellent vocalist and guitarist.
d17dea01eab788a54ca00d73ea0c3b9bcea2a53f	After some time, Freddie began to be invited to the rehearsals of this band.
27acd97025f001a30fe27377e33d324000cfcacb	There he met and began to communicate with other members of the team and was amazed by what he saw.
f7aed54c4bd306abbb5a7e7a713b85f248e1a2da	In 1969, the guy finished his studies and moved to live with Taylor Roger, with whom they opened a shop together, where Freddie's paintings and other exclusive things were sold.
b1017dde30a6272e999438f793c15fc6d7fe55ab	In the same year, the singer met the Ibex group.
30ffbbe7a3ac5b96225fcf141686e44221306da3	He was so interested in her work that in a couple of weeks he already knew everything about her repertoire.
7f32d4b1ba58f399a3d3ca2eee84bda7370c7286	And then Freddie added some of his own songs to the existing ones.
33a8584c714cc9b933c786e24889d275f10eedcb	And at the end of August, he already performed with the band on the common stage.
b7768c3af10e7f7aec5090efc78ca8391896b239	He proposed to rename the team, his proposal was appreciated and a new name was invented – Wreckage.
4fe07af826ad43e1202eb52849af797f59c8fc53	But in this composition, the group did not last long: one by one, the participants left it, and soon it broke up.
49972b7c90a7a8d74b807cefcc55562a52f75d7d	And then the guy decided not to stop there.
4cd0a6955d122f67f4cca947635543f1f509eeaa	He started looking for a new job for himself.
4e09f9b8b02af4cb7aaefe2ae83c39e47ee34634	He looked through the ads every day and decided to become the lead singer of the band Sour Milk Sea.
d1460670395e191c5097335d8547e49554899c54	When Freddie came across this ad, he came to an interview on the same day and was appointed a vocalist.
1e518376958d9f0612b5c4c04bf96b288a482bff	The band members received him well, as his voice was inspiring, and the way he could move amazed everyone.
bd8dce8043bf33dfb19e27e1159dc3b2a1027d93	Several rehearsals were held, and then the band began to give their concerts.
feedff6930aaf631f4e9ec3169284798a323fce7	Most of all, Freddie became friends with Chris, and soon he moved into his apartment.
2dc60ca1068d91c4b84cc0eaae4b27979b19b9bc	But the rest of the band members did not like their relationship, as they thought that it would harm the reputation of the band.
3665142f96b9cf46bbb612ca71b88b53c4b56c24	After a few months, the team still broke up, but it wasnot Freddie's fault.
0514f696e1a174c01fc66734f591facbc9f13f4b	Simply, the person who was the owner of all the equipment took it away, and the group could not continue to carry out its activities.
1f7ef4f6d8c8d3ce0b6fac263a57c4d21f65afcc	1970-1982 In April 1970, Freddie became the lead singer of the group "Smile", as its former vocalist decided to leave the team.
576a234e3b0609262a0e751cee9986bf07ad987a	At the same time, a new name was invented – Queen.
bc8c3bed80f0de38880bc3b0ca4893b77e316ce8	For the group, Freddie began to draw a symbol, the basis for which was the coat of arms of Great Britain.
2f0eb151c90fea154cc4a6e68ce5f03e989a8db6	In 1972, during the recording of another masterpiece, Freddie had the idea to change his last name.
a47441a224d87c6eea60eebd8c07415db3bca9d0	And from that time on, he became Freddie Mercury.
267fb531538733cd589ff19a0478345914a030d9	Already in 1975, the band began touring in various countries, including Japan.
4f353da24407975ea76d62e3946aa757580cf5b5	Most of all, the performance was remembered by the guys in it, as they were warmly received, which the band members themselves did not expect.
6db8f9825a19cb129dc3ea686911b546569bfbb4	Freddie really fell in love with this country and he devoted all his works concerning painting to it.
170f1300175e526a66210e75c9e9562446a5631a	In 1980, Freddie decided to change his image: he grew a mustache and cut his hair short, which only added to his attractiveness.
29c68188c70721a3faa4fd35cfed64da1920dee3	1983-1988 At the end of 1982, the band members decided that they wanted to rest in the upcoming season and not give concerts anymore.
bf0e97ec25832606ef9a5ea5c71826206e6c6122	But Freddie himself was not ready for this.
5de42cee3c188a679ae838267d50dbf7c04553fd	His plans did not include such a long inactivity.
1b407b1a14fafca024a631962a34161ed8dde4bc	But he was not upset, because he had more time for himself, and decided to do a solo album, the dreams of which he lived for a long period of time.
be63592a1c2f18c9b019e81f50334bf6387578dc	In 1983, Freddie began working on a solo record and spent a lot of time in the studio.
dd8f63a6ec0ec88cb6df272152629c2c9a341dca	Then he met the most popular composer Giorgio Moreder, who suggested that Freddie record joint music for the film.
835c789d1a4564e62be94ef0d7e292892c65fcd9	In September 1984, the song Love Kills was released.
6b0d1c6dbeedd15b28d18898ae4b9890646aacc5	Freddie Mercury released his first album at the end of April 1985.
1a89c5a43402cf2ad2da68b884166b00ae9f42f4	Montserrat Caballe played a big role in Freddie's life, the first meeting with which took place in 1983 and made a strong impression on him.
366e7711e48e86c2caf2f6ef1b149a741220003d	The second time they met four years later, then Freddie presented the singer with a cassette with his music.
21f255a010e79c1062dddd105eed05ebe5157f2b	Caballe was impressed by Freddie's creation, and in the same year they were already working on a joint album.
8ec3a4b846ddc5dfd51e7ee9e37466c00523536c	The date of the singer's last appearance on the stage was October 1988, it was one of the music festivals.
e82f181132b6579af335664017e76fa804ea7278	At that time, he already knew that he had AIDS.
ab6400b1aed5ed99256558c4d0a0209a4c9a7840	This year the album of the great singer was released.
8f92a6aff98d12981069a3eaba20677b2569ebd0	Personal life Attractive, charming Freddie Mercury… The personal life of the singer interested many of his fans.
65a330cf93527d77da01ea2af920a1526c0af2e9	At the end of 1969, Freddie meets Mary Austin,with whom they were together for seven long years.
cb5c5fadb644a9ef22ab7e2f69340ee1705d5d1d	But they could not get along, and therefore had to part.
c5b5f4cb0044db1b90836f92ea5a6462d09685b5	But even after that, they remained good friends, and the girl became Freddie's personal secretary.
bcabd0315bfd4f8fc9dc52236fdc9b3aed76fc75	As Mary says, they broke up because of Freddie's confession that he is bisexual.
0dd1f354f4836557788fb270735466b0b8a8e39a	He considered the girl his good friend.
7ba130f2f1581db783d12ec7b697a9809e9bbaca	After this breakup, Freddie had many girlfriends, but he was just fond of them, none of them could replace Mary for him.
17580de546fcb4f62146cb28e9c220735cd240cf	Many of Freddie's songs were dedicated to this girl, in addition, he bequeathed his mansion to her.
3f82de01b5f21e084bb772eafcfff7c04e5d7f6d	Barbara Valentine is an actress from Australia, with whom Freddie also had a fleeting affair.
147ac8f3fe77aff47668a46f0beee63baaaf57c5	They met in 1983.
cb46ee85d421e003a9555c122f4a8eebda1820a8	The musician himself admitted in an interview that this girl helped him create a strong union, and he could not achieve such a relationship in the last years of his single life.
76b4f718b7b3a9ca1de5d8520943b7b6a5fcd244	Freddie Mercury's children Freddie Mercury had no children.
f7bbde834350244714bab3d9919b2e053a74a07e	According to many of his fans, it was only because of his unconventional orientation.
d670ffb56db85415580d9214707a51ffacf9fe19	But if you recall some interviews, Freddie dreamed of children and family life.
4ad6307df2b3f528989135535b1e6d585d54d756	He did not like to talk about personal topics.
1d316e98031d7b42e7136c00e62d94583c8c0687	The image of the singer caused a lot of controversy about his orientation.
640fabeb3d3721be950b78df3f97217aefd1de38	It is worth noting that in all interviews, he either kept silent, or joked, or spoke vaguely when it came to questions about his likes and preferences.
28d9533f725603e8111234535e33e7c505e5bcdc	Are these rumors about Freddie Mercury true?
4a0dfb00874cfb9dddd182a5d2e8b36b92a86bfe	The biography, the cause of death everything indicates that he was, as it were, "not like" everyone else.
f4cf018fddc505fb5f095a869ccd38318ec4b1da	Even after Freddie died, the press did not stop talking about his orientation.
cab94958afce2cdf77913aff3385718779f549c1	Many claimed that he was gay, and this information was obtained after communicating with people who personally knew Freddie.
3f31ac3be05beb34dbfca2480b3d6a1725213f0e	As his friends said, the musician was a homosexual and did not hide it at all.
47d993c4dd45f1df6da6758229f7d39d302579fc	In 1992, a concert was held in memory of the singer, but even there his orientation was affected.
25a6b1fd041de0c24763ea2af8edfb2355756faf	The book of Freddie's personal assistant described the celebrity's meetings with men.
20a50b69c8668aa7d60ff1aed7afc3244ee7709e	Freddie Mercury before his death In 1986, rumors began to spread that Freddie was terminally ill.
18838b972feac67a1093187360f75762c309af04	At first, they began to write in the newspapers that it was noticed that the singer was donating blood for HIV infection.
ab68507803946c92ab475fb0b1cc790099332b39	It would seem that this is a simple analysis, but then the press made this information up and down.
93d3053f6ccb20c71c8a8a44268d32d2dca5babf	Since 1989, fans in the appearance of Freddie began to notice strong changes.
005d69a79ad9ac0591c90665e46fcbcc09bf94ff	Fans said that he began to lose weight before his eyes, then his diagnosis was confirmed.
6ee1dfa773b56dfe9d9c89d500fba771e9d1d00f	But until his death, Freddie denied the disease, and only people close to him knew the truth.
2f823c8c6491373278fea58bd80d795f54c89c1b	In 1989, the band Queen gave an interview on one of the radio stations.
f72045c88667b3fe3cd8c7a8e797d1a325a56150	The participants were asked when their next tour is planned.
40828b753748341f75604d2e191bf2f8c7a3752b	But the band replied that they did not know the exact date, since their lead singer has serious health problems, and Freddie again became the subject of discussion.
c3fc6f89fe05dc3d5d973ffc45da03be9fbdee50	But the musician himself knew that his backwardness would not last long, and therefore he wanted to record as many musical compositions as possible.
3e6d405f320a88a71d387f76a4612797aa666ef8	In total, two solo records were released in his life, but he wrote songs that were released in albums by other artists.
db35a23536b51f146bf892592c0b8b6b38cebf9d	Music videos were shot for some of his songs, which caused delight among the audience.
39f87dc218723303d0b67a067165f73061e29bc7	The last videos were shot in black and white so that the audience would not notice the condition of their idol.
5f42e3a0e1fdd4789db7da7b9f1f676ffe652870	After the musician died, they released another album of his.
3a50d8200b876aa5b5c08d512e27dd25ce984745	This was in 199 5 year.
1bf3938c7ba3f10db619e19215a6e15b6128472a	On November 23, 1991, the singer announced that he was infected with HIV.
e0d00a1f8f6a3ef7a6dd46a3ed2912dccc9c5fbb	He understood that there was no point in hiding it, because sooner or later everyone would find out about it.
a85affdb917f7ff2246dc72573b5fbc32791011f	Freddie gave his rights to the songs to the foundation, which was created to protect seriously ill people.
7c7a198d60222ab4225ec8fc15870a9641046c37	How Freddie died Freddie Mercury, whose biography was rich, but, unfortunately, short, enriched the world musical heritage.
28e08562c89b478786b95682f7142260dc07119c	On November 24, 1991, Freddie died.
fd95da6b67893dce494ad7c0016b3a2f5451d5a9	It happened about seven o'clock in the evening.
3a33a50d83332fd77f9081893cc418fc52a89509	The death occurred in his London home.
d5b5656b902d55124144ab51b6c1cca4d96c8b03	According to the conclusions of doctors, the death occurred from bronchopneumonia, which was provoked by AIDS.
cde7b3f36f76ac5972b6735f4ca1e85c779b890b	When the fans found out about the departure of the man of legend, many fans gathered at the gate of his house, who came to say goodbye to the idol.
e600d700faa0c2ee438f318c192e539b94dd958c	After all, he was young, he was only 45 years old.
14f20f072284303c52dae163d0cf0743e47a026c	There were flowers, postcards, photos and letters on the paths of his house.
c42a98d86d91dd458f4e6962f853a5fe2655a560	The funeral of the singer Freddie Mercury's funeral was closed.
fbd94d270937b1cfc9d1458f9ee8b18740fc3076	The fans were not allowed in.
9f222396aae8e9d15bbe69451897bf5548f92e7c	Only close people were present.
b31d91d510f2e3be49cb435194422916ab22439f	How was Freddie Mercury buried?
653621dfbe8becab8f07a9704a1c4c021b0ae114	His nationality is Parsi, and this people adheres to Zoroastrian beliefs.
df230f797af2de97cf50e0d0fd0ec3b366f3e49b	When the musician grew up, he did not observe them.
b1b410c2cd67cbf3688a60ad94922bb9c96ff5e6	But his parents buried him according to the ancient customs.
a0b927312ee91d418ef4cab94d70f470437888c1	The only thing that is known at the moment, the burial ceremony was held to music.
e2c0174660226acb4aa52422f7d40f0b9d8488d2	Freddie's body was cremated, and only his family knew where the musician's ashes were.
d3e9d734713653dcc8d0520597e8f5b074c5d430	This was his wish, which his relatives could not dispute.
5953d1412f123cd357e8ac245fac38ce3a6276ca	But a couple of years ago, information appeared in the press that his fans had discovered a burial place – a cemetery located in London.
f91fa6df8c12c474a5f1fc8341ae41684f6010d5	Freddie managed to make a will, according to which, most of his funds should belong to Mary Austin, his sister and parents.
0c756dc74f524e44e706143908af843fe3445c83	He also bequeathed his money to the following people: a cook; a driver; a personal assistant;
a31f9aafac0c559ff1b050b533e5d13f6b0df151	To Jim Hutton, his close friend.
7146b52386503e1b0d9e5440325a2c1aaa8f84d3	Posthumous fame But despite the fact that Freddie died more than twenty years ago, he was, is and will be one of the most popular performers in history.
31d53c89c54df00d893ef50a4ac0aa952dc9b2b2	Freddie Mercury's voice is still a legend.
fb84adf759879e77194d693c505c6552af6ed2af	His songs are listened to to this day, and many people embody his image, as they remember the star of those years.
e5067193fbfbf40218cc110fd6837da7042c7961	Even people far from music gasped when they learned about the death of such a great man.
d2afb26b58d19e4e70fdc1f573890b26caa09726	After his death, the members of the group in which he was a soloist recently held a memorial concert.
fea0aadbf1a827fc6f8888a49f57bf5f6afbb985	The proceeds collected from the performance were sent to the AIDS foundation.
0ac19f0e59e5ce5c18174c9a42fcc13eb0ffd80c	Freddie Mercury's life has not been in vain.
75ced551d973c7c3a12c757e939f191645a43a3f	In Switzerland, in 1996, a monument was erected to this man.
0f6e21f868687d17bc44fe6cb854ac4f3227603b	And for good reason, because the musician and singer has been in this country for a long time and worked there.
49dfa4a2c1ffd055be8b6562a80a6062e04d1fd2	Initially, they wanted to install this monument in London.
bd45b03d552a880955b38e9d2f6f779062c5c134	For about four years, there was a search for a place for its construction, which did not end with success.
938e2b5533060bc005e03f3cbe77c6cf82bce63a	But there is still a modest monument in London, located in the backyard of the college where Freddie studied.
6b17604ea39f468dec7cd5ed9321e3972b36dbee	However, his friends found it offensive.
dd2804ec70c5188706b3f0914c0059c0bb273faf	The development of music of the eighties is associated with the name of Freddie.
3d3ec1b52e45ad506e2e40fcea081d051e7de035	Today, many singers try on the image of the legend of the past days.
d2317c29218512f87ba68b1e1db9b7fa19b1bd3b	But no one has managed to prove himself as Freddie did.
640d64dee205ccd882c936c825e131f5cafb205f	The music that was written and performed by Mercury deserves all sorts of awards, prizes and audience admiration.
bbfd31ca1290646f0753d79d0a9ef006f9bdd6ab	Facts of life As his friends say, Freddie was very fond of pets, especially cats.
a7da8d7fe21c5e0fefb85eb62cf7535230227fdd	Therefore, there were several pets in his house, each of which he took care of.
ebd9e7aad8c5679856e8089f4d9e057801c00887	Freddie even dedicated a song to one of his cats.
95f720d218ba76af030652f97e7c033c1abb0b35	Mercury tried to work together with Michael Jackson.
2d285e26beb8024e7fc4e8b5c49b10d4d4fcdaaa	The musicians recorded four compositions together, which simply shocked the audience.
c1e233d56450afcb97ba29fef13c95c9b1694396	Freddie's business card can be considered the fact that he worked with a microphone that was not attached to the stand.
571bb5d95971124ed1250763692c6374543a1348	Freddie Mercury is a legend who passed away so early due to a fatal illness.
6c73fa29b5093376e3655d40f0f292c4656afd68	He fought to the last, but was powerless before such a difficult diagnosis.
ca3e42bf4ea0554b0e83c655da692eb8676b5ff5	He made grandiose plans for life, but it is a pity that they were not destined to come true.
a7a646d057d650eba9d07739eb5c8b0ca1c49190	The legendary Freddie Mercury, whose biography, personal life does not leave millions of fans indifferent, was, without a doubt, great.
181b86e396890cc96c32285804e9fd670e01706e	After his death, a huge number of documentaries were filmed, which were played on various TV channels in honor of the memory of Freddie.
5ce34ddaaba5172e3a0305313e70f6cc146a3b32	In 2012, he even became a character in one of the games.
8fde85c7b109bb4aff120e94832e2014e3d5e5d2	The story of Freddie Mercury will last for many more years.
1b6d0e1b62bfb9be88e2d848010537906039b102	He will always remain alive for his fans.
892a1b8e62c8688447abbf5d1fd8cb2a2f62f473	Also read
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0878d8b766a23f75eac842c1c0692fabe0cfdf6c	18 The death penalty in the United States.
08a3d776c401c4df7778ceec5adbfa37a2dfd19d	10 The patron saint of merchants is the god Mercury
fd72c925fc056d69d624685297f75524c8afe391	3 How did manna from heaven appear
d8f08307ebb84df67954681fbe8f2099774b6f44	About the project Privacy Policy User Agreement Reverse svaz
6ec9a3cac1e28cd5f947cf18cb11442d5cd6560b	© 2016 «SYL.ru»
fb571de3f830e25839593a6675cac5b8ab6f31a8	Freddie Mercury's real name is Farukh Bulsara (emphasis on the penultimate syllable).
0cd5b08c971cc335a1a11c6a2bcae81f79d1a30f	He was born on September 5, 1946 on the small island of Zanzibar.
305a8670742a13520a0f00eb274c7a11145eb164	His parents, Bomi and Jer, were Parsi (Persians).
c205834e8b8bcaf5dbea25832ca02a646dbcaf24	In 1952, Freddie Kashmir's sister was born.
f7340e65f96e4e2904e2fa8459a4104ed780674e	There, his friends began to call him Freddie - this name has taken root in the family.
01464529a504fe600ead32c5aa310724f23448d7	Freddie hated cricket and long distance running, but he loved hockey, sprint and boxing, and at the age of 10 he became the school champion in table tennis.
50515750a47ba913def5cd075c271f6e64eb0c4f	He was very fond of painting and constantly made drawings for friends and relatives.
76638ba3d413d6a0962349f9403ea912d1b6bfed	In 1958, five friends from the school of St. Peter Freddie Bulsara, Derrick Branch, Bruce Murray, Farang Irani and Victory Rana created their first rock band, which was called The Hectics ("Restless"), where he was not yet a vocalist, but a pianist.
b1108b2ac6926b4e9c9d3940c8b6647d1a63aa3a	During the holidays, he tried to earn a little extra work sometimes in the supply department of Heathrow Airport, then at the Feltham trading company, where he had to lift and stack heavy baskets and crates.
a1b8e8a6f6752aeaa33351a4f3f87bb2d041288e	And his manner of playing the piano - outwardly spectacular, with Mozart's lightness combined with a strong touch was distinguished by a unique originality, and this also did not leave Chris indifferent.
c9c8c5de597e432a781ebc122fd65aa0e1d4ac57	He asked Freddie to take part in co writing a song for the film, and Freddie agreed.
fc4ffa6a31fc88e5387e7468cfccc377b8d059c1	He has never co written with anyone other than Queen and has not performed cover versions with the exception of Larry Lurex.
f51a07049fd34f3a44141de83a75af243cf4a4aa	The Spanish opera diva appreciated them and even performed one of them - to Freddie's great surprise at a concert in London's Covent Garden.
d9ac8b7afb588b53c3df2a8976cd1ad7154b04d4	They performed 3 songs: How Can I Go On, The Golden Boy and Barcelona, and the piano part was performed by Mike Moran, the co author of the songs.
2b6fab43bf3d1a51ff98e3373087b3d9a0b60529	We love you.
b37b828c394264a8e7ef7df960c21c99c65c17b6	Jacky Gunn & Jim Jenkins.
068cfabf621d789c88c752d20525a4c8def9c64d	As It Began.
56bb81d6c8b353f10748a6d0e2912875f78474b5	Record Collector #199
92d1d00a5a93c4862950d007c934e27040abdf42	[Freddie Mercury home page]
aae97ebaf2ee3d09584e51e9f7250f1a335d2788	[Discography] [Photos] [Concerts]
896fcd5c76743134c6258be25a4327161043c1cc	[Video] [Archive] [Books]
c81550a7f3935035183cb2101bfa586a1bb7b86a	[Miscellaneous] [Real Video] [References]
df9c8f318c824d2c924bf392706f817495ee339f	[Site Map]
4cfb2c2483eddf10b29cf8d578e8ca59e66d7980	[Queen] [Ballet for Life] [Cat Page]
5401ab01d252e4e544e8c53746c7a608010660cd	[Slightly Mad Page] ["Under the shade of a spreading cranberry"]
0d8821d86b7b4f830dca85e2deb187437dc4c7ee	e mail: Olga Guba
45face7cd0680c832fdb47b19da2399f395fc377	The webmaster is not responsible for the content of the advertised sites below.
7231c5c910be167f67b2becb5f6a2dcd24dce133	Music Banner Club
6c5c82ce09551d519296bb793e87a702475fee29	Nowadays, almost every house has a computer and they are connected to the Internet.
9228ed4423942fc21508003e661ab9cf2365ac5c	What does the World Wide Web mean, what is the history of the creation of the Internet, what decisions were pursued by its authors, how did the development take place and how did it eventually become the way we know it now?
e236afaf665910d445e19ed8de85848b427cf421	The World Wide Web is a distributed system that provides access to interconnected documents located on various computers connected to the Internet.
8946e0dae46961bd9d31fc7c63a2a0da1c8ccc91	The word web (English web "web") and the abbreviation WWW are also used to refer to the World Wide Web.
44bf636203b495dfcbd9feff7f6fe2ec74033437	The World Wide Web is formed by hundreds of millions of web servers.
7b5dad1f0a2783c489017843724225ac0afcb1a8	Most of the resources of the World Wide Web are based on hypertext technology.
ec698be21d8edef4418efe20db4ee8cd9faf394d	Hypertext documents placed on the World Wide Web are called web pages.
6c5f731b3bd56d4d9f5b4b43a1419a981cffb889	Several web pages united by a common theme, design, as well as linked links and usually located on the same web server are called a website.
9f020dd55dda7375357ec9675ddf5d4b1c50ef62	To download and view web pages, special programs are used — browsers (English browser).
93e1b9e9ff1bc06a634f3674e2f2c337614a7511	The World Wide Web has caused a real revolution in information technologies and an explosion in the development of the Internet.
5686f6516f97d122c94a6998a6bddd04f9cfd90f	In everyday speech, when talking about the Internet, they often mean the World Wide Web.
b6ca87dcef9991817f2b2ccbd61a22d619a6c6fc	A web, or "web", is a set of interconnected pages with certain information.
4b2d406f6444a85179e1112a57d6d4e2defce2d2	Each such page can contain text, images, video, audio, and other various objects.
6e354ad2fcba3f9d3d8c8f70b716b54489372428	But in addition, there are so-called hyperlinks on web pages.
bdce2dd145bea8928c1f7d7108a672e8d9a95c1f	Each such link points to another page that is located on some other computer on the Internet.
6e59c3827e95447aeb5688f39ee3edf823741b95	Various information resources that are interconnected by means of telecommunications and are based on a hypertext representation of data form the World Wide Web (World Wide Web, or WWW for short).
f56cd2c4537e6fe19d0fa20ed6f95812d140b413	Hyperlinks link pages that are located on different computers located in different parts of the globe.
bb19cbd64b9c4892085336b8155d903991f65a1f	A huge number of computers that are connected to one network is the Internet, and the "world Wide web" is a huge number of web pages hosted on computers on the network.
ba7266b383126c30bfbe229e91626fa08d5c1907	Each web page on the Internet has an address — URL (English Uniform Resource Locator-a unique address, name).
10c5613cfc92e6c63f1df757d146cc4e9942519c	It is at the address that you can find any page.
2227e8f0db9d695d7b77d2c2eb1bc5c364ff0857	On March 12, 1989, Tim Berners Lee presented to the CERN leadership a project for a unified system for organizing, storing and sharing information, which was supposed to solve the problem of sharing knowledge and experience between the Center's employees.
2fa5c51fbaa4526f6c43e92f944094947e9b6d5f	Berners Lee proposed to solve the problem of access to information on different computers of employees by using browser programs that provide access to the server computer where hypertext information is stored.
7a2dac56eb8f2075bcc5506a7b057d58a7bb4da2	After the successful implementation of the project, Berners Lee was able to convince the rest of the world to use unified Internet communication standards, using the standards of hypertext transfer protocols (HTTP) and the universal markup language (HTML).
8d255d917f542e4f7cb672ef90cc4695e5f90999	It should be noted that Tim Berners Lee was not the first creator of the Internet.
1513237dc96cca64e50b2c343a6afeb9e37ce605	The first system of protocols that ensure data transfer between networked computers was developed by employees of the US Defense Advanced Research Development Agency (DARPA) Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn in the late 60s – early 70s of the last century.
5f396d2543ac4a266870416179ebefc0a44c58f8	Berners Lee only suggested using the capabilities of computer networks to create a new system for organizing information and accessing it.
59f7641134e4a8a8a849f808f332a5ad9bdc93a3	Back in the 60s of the XX century, the US Department of Defense set the task of developing a reliable system for transmitting information in case of war.
7567867bbab4abc2fb89aaedfc7e93e49bd9c07c	The US Agency for Advanced Research Projects (ARPA) has proposed to develop a computer network for this.
498ff9c74e2822315804814279c44be9974f54eb	The project brought together four scientific institutions — the University of Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute and the Universities of Santa Barbara and Utah.
d5b515656067e7de51fe90d8d8489ad0b72fac90	All the work was funded by the US Department of Defense.
01241b023d8ece38d829a6a58d8517d4e4901ffe	The first data transmission over a computer network took place in 1969.
aa1310f95dd2b086d1a1680ae3d8275d76a82286	A professor at the University of Los Angeles and his students tried to log into the Stanford computer and pass the word "login".
08ca41c6f6496982463cc2c983589d9a4ed71c44	Only the first two letters L and O were successfully transmitted.
bfca77b94e3e6b8b6956e5283f193412415284fd	When they printed the letter G, the communication system failed, but the revolution in the field of the Internet took place.
a5da81e76f75d25ae16735bb1aad0b9477c20005	By 1971, a network with 23 users was created in the United States.
8c0386befcf42e86cc0c2ce86b90b55e2f9a2051	The first program for sending e-mail over the network was developed.
9d26c87235a7f492b7c37561ca7def70e2030cdb	And in 1973, University College London and Public Services in Norway joined the network, and the network became international.
b2fe9451463f52fc98e69aec8174e35b06e2a971	In 1977, the number of Internet users reached 100, in 1984 — 1000, in 1986 there were already more than 5000, in 1989-more than 100,000.
e67fb0b9bbec05d33c33b991087e81e3e43302ad	In 1991, the World Wide Web (WWW) project was implemented at CERN.
fcbcd11059a31e0aef8d16ef99fe8cbd95c1f598	In 1997, there were already 19.5 million Internet users.
5ffd1fe88636bd292b01098ab78a4467b5a197b8	The inventors of the world Wide Web are Sir Timothy John Berners Lee (born June 8, 1955) and, to a lesser extent, Robert Cayo.
71e900831c1766d513e3c5a791923d946d9c30a0	Tim Berners Lee is the author of HTTP, URI/URL and HTML technologies.
3a49308fb2df938af2fa5324c680032138b8a647	In 1980, he worked at the European Council for Nuclear Research (French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, CERN) as a software consultant.
0e97a9cb3c0c750cd20baaaa86bded30f5626f40	It was there, in Geneva (Switzerland), that he wrote the "Enquire" program for his own needs, which laid the conceptual basis for the World Wide Web.
6efd670ac9b87659ef01c47a780780a2ab5e601b	In 1989, while working at CERN on the organization's internal network, Tim Berners Lee proposed a global hypertext project, now known as the World Wide Web.
936ded396dbd317540650bf7c32c1a044cd2b889	As part of the project, Berners Lee wrote the world's first web server and the world's first hypertext web browser, called "WorldWideWeb".
d0faed65709b03ef865901787b506d3570fbb1d0	Berners Lee created the world's first website at http://info.cern.ch/, the site is now stored in the archive.
5286069974aa7ad9424cb3ab7938b5b69a925580	This site described what the World Wide Web is, how to install a web server, how to use a browser.
3969ed63548cf2e9efb6a7ca97cfce60992e1cbd	This site was also the first Internet directory in the world, because later Tim Berners Lee posted and maintained a list of links to other sites there.
dc7a519da1efc58760cfba2a1277b709b6ee4fb5	And yet the theoretical foundations of the web were laid much earlier.
ab2d7d20563ef0ae7446dffcf0f9424238d97f09	Back in 1945, Vanniver Bush developed the concept of "Memex" - auxiliary means of"expanding human memory".
ef6bd6aa56da37f7f691b2d6d58293040b97fbe2	Memex is a device in which a person stores all his books and records (and, ideally, all his knowledge that can be formally described) and which provides the necessary information with sufficient speed and flexibility.
cb0bcf30ad4349ea295896ccdbd17ed93316373b	Bush also predicted a comprehensive indexing of texts and multimedia resources with the ability to quickly search for the necessary information.
233107cc17f13ce04ca7eb5de7e79a4432c5c2bb	The next significant step on the way to the World Wide Web was the creation of hypertext (the term was introduced by Ted Nelson in 1965).
21efb7194f519165854663863fe4a93d9cc19b21	Since 1994, the World Wide Web Consortium, founded and still headed by Tim Berners Lee, has taken over the main work on the development of the World Wide Web.
746eff67f5363c690e986139765885869b33323e	The W3C develops uniform principles and standards for the Internet (called" Recommendations", English W3C Recommendations), which are then implemented by software and hardware manufacturers.
be3c6df5730ce6ce98cba48287dab77915336be0	Thus, compatibility between software products and hardware of various companies is achieved, which makes the Worldwide Network more perfect, universal and convenient.
586fd8e0a417e3a7aa3dacba423e65b0ba7611ca	All Recommendations of the World Wide Web Consortium are open, that is, they are not protected by patents and can be implemented by anyone without any financial contributions to the consortium.
0181de28373c2c84badb8336ee1a57d3ed301789	By 1995, the growth rate of the Internet showed that the regulation of connectivity and financing issues could not be in the hands of the NSF alone.
13570f474b8bc2c2f205e2c0043d353e4e484d9c	In 1995, the payment for connecting numerous private networks to the national highway was transferred to regional networks.
fade39a3a0f522969cb6db123f5c092b4470d8b4	Today it is a powerful worldwide communication network based on distributed switching elements - hubs and communication channels.
5238bcf6ea146588430195b17d6aaabfb4afb2db	Since 1983, the Internet has been growing exponentially, and hardly a single detail has been preserved since that time – the Internet still operates on the basis of a set of TCP/IP protocols.
74bb4631383be69d670e5805f3a906ec516b04f9	If the term "Internet" was originally used to describe a network built on the basis of the Internet Protocol IP, now this word has acquired a global meaning and is only sometimes used as the name of a set of integrated networks.
7ffda55907d4b64c886f70f35c39672edf8d64bb	Strictly speaking, the Internet is any set of physically separate networks that are connected to each other by a single IP protocol, which allows us to talk about them as one logical network.
4a9e8d4ef771d5e768c4745e1c4b365e8b678b0c	The rapid growth of the Internet caused an increased interest in TCP/IP protocols, as a result, specialists and companies appeared who found a number of other applications for it.
fc5b4ef28071b146ce8a450039e85fa382c4c9c8	This protocol began to be used for building local area networks (LAN - Local Area Network) even when their connection to the Internet was not provided.
5e4a68ea4a340fe7f4b4225cca9a4e7328313935	In addition, TCP/IP has been used to create corporate networks that have adopted Internet technologies, including the WWW – World Wide Web) - the World Wide Web, in order to establish an effective exchange of internal corporate information.
5228981af36bceb568fbd780c553e1b011003fe6	These corporate networks are called "Intranet" and can either connect or not to the Internet.
f880dfec8909263902704acfa0b038aa70502bc1	Currently, the World Wide Web is formed by millions of Internet Web servers located around the world.
f64f0c8ef0beef886e10609d07290ea75a00ccbb	A web server is a program that runs on a computer connected to the network and uses the HTTP protocol for data transmission.
a192b238dbccad6424c7104d6cfedd2084f9c918	In its simplest form, such a program receives an HTTP request for a certain resource over the network, finds the corresponding file on the local hard disk and sends it over the network to the requesting computer.
399328e86a13698e50c1a7a12c0c24c4912958c3	More complex Web servers are able to dynamically allocate resources in response to an HTTP request.
f0f5ea956e7560e531487f2a1441f8d3aea520f8	To identify resources (often files or parts of them) the World Wide Web uses uniform resource identifiers URI (English Uniform Resource Identifier).
708db549773ed92049103585183c5f3c3ec472ed	Uniform URL Resource locators are used to determine the location of resources in the network.
6c2fa32969c2fe3c4074f1f154f31b8b441c472a	Such URL locators combine URI identification technology and the domain Name System DNS (English Domain Name System) – the domain name (or directly the IP address in a numeric record) is part of the URL to designate a computer (more precisely, one of its network interfaces) that executes the code of the desired Web server [29].
c5e0b33e34da186e7d4fc670c58afdd9a2d44eb9	To view the information received from the Web server, a special program is used on the client computer –a Web browser.
49b39566391ccc3f3798a075a91ca66c32d484e5	The main function of a Web browser is to display hypertext.
de16cd0e7566de3f85d059015382b9b6d5079350	The World Wide Web is inextricably linked with the concepts of hypertext and hyperlinks.
44b5f4bff3077148b8003b58a8e5fc1916c077c8	Most of the information on the Web is hypertext.
200e8f2ffb44734c4ac5ccdbab741640f9cc5119	To facilitate the creation, storage and display of hypertext on the World Wide Web, the HTML language (English HyperText Markup Language), the hypertext markup language, is traditionally used.
4b2a71cba6a86032464f916f963500b49fad2b8a	The work on hypertext markup is called layout, markup masters are called webmasters.
6c0bec333a5dde1b0b72076edf752887cea22700	After HTML markup, the resulting hypertext is placed in a file, such an HTML file is the most common resource of the World Wide Web.
6e043a448356fbc29060e0a5b7bb77f6f1af6e83	After the HTML file becomes available to the web server, it is called a "web page".
0a29e784791ee8441534f9d4512baf84c9228961	A set of web pages forms a website.
1c0e589ad4d87dc71b9a268fbfe4ec5809a42d77	Hyperlinks are added to the hypertext of web pages.
db6583858c4256014ca7cf2eeaec86e01fff78e8	Hyperlinks help users of the World Wide Web to easily navigate between resources (files), regardless of whether the resources are located on a local computer or on a remote server.
7947ffff57d36babba100d8b85f56ad9ca278ad5	Hyperlinks of the "web" are based on URL technology.
185fa1784625c327d8ef7d0ed291a6915a295c83	In general, we can conclude that the World Wide Web stands on "three pillars": HTTP, HTML and URL.
ea33d46b015ec821384ca67cbccd2d08afb6a909	Although recently HTML has begun to lose its position somewhat and give way to more modern markup technologies: XHTML and XML.
4ef54f677025bb88affd78957ce4076135b547da	XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is positioned as a foundation for other markup languages.
de79205eb1f4810aa38ec49680910d1675fdeced	To improve the visual perception of the web, CSS technology has become widely used, which allows you to set uniform design styles for many web pages.
010b05b8f8d60ec6e45f7a88523de640264bdad0	Another innovation that is worth paying attention to is the URN resource designation system (English Uniform Resource Name).
af70ba98bc2fbc441a4a21463c4bda54066e14f6	A popular concept of the development of the World Wide Web is the creation of a semantic web.
7ec8f38799d5ecdbeb15a8c32c51195a35804717	The semantic web is an add-on to the existing World Wide Web, which is designed to make the information posted on the network more understandable for computers.
c9a0811957e30390989064dfc468f3a35250420b	A semantic web is a concept of a network in which every resource in a human language would be provided with a description that is understandable to a computer.
e6d4caab36934a5a5979a73768234bb2c60a0aa4	The semantic web provides access to clearly structured information for any application, regardless of the platform and regardless of programming languages.
7d752515dd71d3445c847e9e2ef49534adc57611	Programs will be able to find the necessary resources themselves, process information, classify data, identify logical connections, draw conclusions and even make decisions based on these conclusions.
b4544d56d88b1c9e688aa6110631f0bb08240454	With wide distribution and competent implementation, the semantic web can cause a revolution on the Internet.
88bb9beef29cb8ca2a1b5caac8ffd5de0447f9d8	To create a computer-understandable description of a resource in the semantic web, the RDF format (English Resource Description Framework) is used, which is based on XML syntax and uses URI identifiers to designate resources.
a606a90ba517da5e3cc013f39650ee8fcf9e33c5	Novelties in this area are RDFS (English RDF Schema) and SPARQL (English Protocol And RDF Query Language) (pronounced "sparkle"), a new query language for quick access to RDF data.
3db3da721ffe541964cb083d1a0ab0b90fb1b74b	Currently, there are two trends in the development of the World Wide Web: the semantic web and the social web.
901d3ba83835261ca879410ca5efaeca582d3879	The semantic web involves improving the connectivity and relevance of information on the World Wide Web through the introduction of new metadata formats.
8c6b3cc8a738b8fe07e2006a68902dbb0e61e50e	The social web relies on the work of organizing the information available in the Web, performed by the users of the Web themselves.
ee550054bb472c31f33fef1b9718e60059d330a3	In the second direction, the developments that are part of the semantic web are actively used as tools (RSS and other web feed formats, OPML, XHTML microformats).
e36ea9f66093968d92ca241dab4e87cccfcd7197	The information provided can be accessed "passively" and "actively".
c0a39f71c66210a932a42393e51f29a8eee76064	It should be noted that this division is very conditional.
e086201083820ea0cfd28ea786ce9da4c36f7443	So, for example, a blog or a guest book can be considered as a special case of a forum, which, in turn, is a special case of a content management system.
d917dc5afc52d4109172f1b9df550256b1bc287a	Usually, the difference is manifested in the purpose, approach and positioning of a particular product.
bb06f03c6472b8ba5181fa023bc115c633856cb3	Some of the information from the sites can also be accessed through speech.
476a32f58fe018c5985db0a6c9f901cb9646c64e	In India, testing of a system that makes the text content of pages accessible even to people who cannot read and write has already begun[3].
854862e6f88f8e73c3522859cd10e305279c4dd9	"World wide web" is sometimes ironically called " Wild wild web "("wild, wild web") — by analogy with the title of the film of the same name "Wild wild west" (Wild, Wild West, 1999, USA)[4].
a1e7a500bb2deca5f2e30d0606de5faba1a7f1bc	For cybercriminals, the World Wide Web has become a key way to distribute malicious software.
c91f486aa44c4427902ddeb2f7f87edb065447d3	In addition, the concept of network crime includes identity theft, fraud, espionage and illegal collection of information about certain subjects or objects[5].
a2aa42fd3ef5f47bbbb5c4d68dc0edb2ae04cd54	Web vulnerabilities, according to some reports, currently outnumber any traditional manifestations of computer security problems; according to Google estimates, about one in ten pages on the World Wide Web may contain malicious code[6][7][8].
541cd53914436d126e50e3049e14ba313aaac1bf	According to 2008 estimates, up to 70 % of all websites in the world were vulnerable to XSS attacks against their users[14].
e75c5c85814aa7170b01bd56e6f0872d0b9063a9	The proposed solutions to the relevant problems vary significantly to the point of complete contradiction to each other.
797107a33d10b187b9def94ea9c3b37c3909df0b	Every time a user computer requests a web page from the server, the server determines and, as a rule, logs the IP address from which the request was received.
fd014c6a404939c51453dee79f94c097546e724b	Similarly, most Internet browsers record information about the pages visited, which can then be viewed in the browser log, and also cache the downloaded content for possible reuse.
a713ddb87500a69120446f77cb8dd6d7df4c3b11	If an encrypted HTTPS connection is not used when interacting with the server, requests and responses to them are transmitted over the Internet in clear text and can be read, recorded and viewed on intermediate network nodes.
9eb4956d281b7baad615669f432f8cca495454cb	When a web page requests, and the user provides a certain amount of personal information, such as, for example, first and last name or real or email address, the data stream can be deanonymized and associated with a specific person.
3489a0ac2a3d1f748394a7fb5e881d202cbe63d9	If a website uses cookies, supports user authentication or other technologies for tracking visitor activity, then a relationship may also be established between previous and subsequent visits.
0a3fd5e28986aa241df708c70c8243bdcac07ed9	Thus, an organization working on the World Wide Web has the opportunity to create and replenish the profile of a specific client using its site (or sites).
053043f15080b12fd5b0a8d12969f8d9fc7ab42c	Such a profile may include, for example, information about preferred recreation and entertainment, consumer interests, occupation, and other demographic indicators.
f682e37b59fc2268799b6df4b350c2c93d904dae	Such profiles are of significant interest to marketers, employees of advertising agencies and other specialists of this kind.
bc145decb69bcf5626e88bb57bdcba58423ea8a9	Depending on the terms of service of specific services and local laws, such profiles may be sold or transferred to third parties without the user's knowledge.
dd76e563b2054f8e6ea944d6f3a1306921f70fb4	The disclosure of information is also facilitated by social networks that offer participants to independently state a certain amount of personal data about themselves.
501812b7501aacc3a1518f5e5f817d747df41f1c	Modern social networks provide their participants with a fairly wide range of profile privacy settings, but these settings can be unnecessarily complex-especially for inexperienced users[18].
709cdb857d0cc81f3d6bc3e441ab5e07a991d29d	Today, the Network has the feasibility of connecting via electric cables, cable television, satellite communications, fiber-optic connections, radio communications, and cellular communications.
2a2afb50a82c124c4198428e18925b9c7614d3d4	Today, the Internet has firmly entered into all branches of human activity.
8167583ff720f6825347c3983fd524199c3df469	According to early studies in 1998 and 1999, most existing websites were not indexed correctly by search engines, and the web network itself turned out to be larger than expected[20][21].
329fcea598f17e9c0e11613951240c949f5dad79	As of 2001, more than 550 million web documents have already been created, most of which, however, were located within the invisible network[22].
b0101be0653869b5a5cf62daf30b60a479855260	According to data for 2002, more than 2 billion web pages were created[23], 56.4 % of all Internet content was in English, followed by German
87a20c6db8ad236c799456a0c82193eea5212bdf	(7.7 %), French
f152a7e1f41a3fcb35ac6afe7985236d0446f162	(5.6 %) and Japanese
e1da6af2c763dd4bc123d4ad5681a30068aeaff3	(4.9 %).
32a517a19691cfd92e959b63bd53f3282e6acb5e	According to research conducted at the end of January 2005, more than 11.5 billion web pages were identified in 75 different languages, which were indexed in the open network[24].
3e26154e1784a71dcc447ce8a8815ecd94cb27bc	And as of March 2009, the number of pages has increased to 25.21 billion [25].
85d3d427fb0b20be48efa290e8ad8912d78342d9	On July 25, 2008, Google software engineers Jesse Alpert and Nissan Hayai announced that the Google Search engine had detected more than a billion unique URL links[26].
71576595a1375a9077013ae0bf3355c59b7c714c	On January 22, 2010, an open access to the World Wide Web took place from the International Space Station.
1608c15bce8b4f3250a7da177a3598dfdac76c36	As of 2011, the number of Web users on Earth reached almost 2.1 billion.
f5715e7f16c30f8cc29267503c41ddd059eb4608	In 2011, a monument to the World Wide Web was planned to be erected in St. Petersburg.
4c7fe9000d3d75e0f9848b1d2918df8bcb4f3518	The composition was supposed to be a street bench in the form of the abbreviation WWW with free access to the Network[27].
c26f0184778c0eee15f0041f8215b3d6e70e8ec8	Home ● Site Map
f5535ea519962d13fc3e5b4871c476daf61ccc23	10.6.2.4. History of the World Wide Web
50bc7c843bac986ccddce497214f23e864d90013	<<Back | Contents | Next>>
952b34a8d18b94656f4869a02b2bac722fb8b1d2	This site appeared on the Internet on August 6, 1991.
1a73a70f773a0a0233d1e709accab773ee611ce3	Fig. 75.
2df2466b5e1d43417b1c7b479ccfef8db5dc7fe4	The logo of the World Wide Web Consortium
bd6373c307dc21b96d318fafeef104931958a179	The W3C is an organization that develops and implements technological standards for the Internet and the World Wide Web.
768730ae9ec3c589df9256d0ff15079a72247853	New books
19a897c927e9a2830b53cbfb799725b54de5e3af	Piggy bank Work programs MS Office projects Presentations Open lessons Exam tickets
e3454e188d0299183b4c634338b86188434aea59	Elective courses Free soft Instructions for TB
8d3592c626d25b1d864c83f73dff29ca7f579273	Preparation for computer science Olympiads
75f55b8b5802b03d8bd7414ee64279a2ac5c39c2	Methods of preparation
a1a28dc8482cfd5070e73ceeedbba2b0efd3a6d8	"Golden" algorithms
48528ffcb0078ea6843191be1327c55cd490d467	Simple tasks for beginners
d31d07298e43d966351ca9126c25a436cc9a4aa0	Olympiad problems with solutions
cabd1fa7f3c1f053fbcd9bb7aa1b09f8482d5abb	Programming environment Learning to program in C++
c9ec2b26e4ca705131b5ae4402ec2b9bc6c2f526	Handbook of the Pascal language Training Preparation for the Unified State Exam Website creation FrontPage lessons
0d42efd05ead180093aaea8b177e8c3b42ef7650	Word 2003 Lessons Creating games in Delphi Typing blindly
adca18a34f6b40bbbe46ff76eab79592c898a528	Our interviews Honor Book Advanced training courses Electronic Library Bookshelf Articles Useful Links Feedback
a5a10e6826f1963786b91549bcdef1d1a3e718f5	Olympiad
93e49e84e5642754a0834c48048f2ed71678cdaa	Photo contest
944b88d06011c7c4cc9ad9252c1846cdd1e62b21	VIP
ef5f8d481b5bf10d7faad4615c68d9cbf2ac5167	Personal section of the Professor
d1e7c0c2901021ab42402d9bb0499b944f671d91	Makarova N. V.
1dfad54db0ab17442660029fffb00600a06fd247	Smykovskaya T. K.
29c1d6495014aa894afa6aa14a8b0477f261a68f	When copying the material, a backlink is required
f4ae296be23ce5fe70941e86f4d8e628c1bf854a	Computer Science at school
a86f3441d095b01f4f6e0af9a3e803ae24aa323d	2005-2015
5903d3326a4f0a531a8a0383784baabca247292f	The World Wide Web
3b0427d439ec7202dedad6b88596e88e8ce58c50	This article is about the hypertext Internet.
7d3cf4c252c89737f7292b4ca821580e7e940146	For more information about the browser, see WorldWideWeb.
bc796d2097d861f1c09724929f7740fcca1e1320	However, it is important to understand that these are not the same thing.
f354b4dbf57579a42cd436ceb941312dab6a5660	1 Structure and principles of the World Wide Web 2 Technologies of the World Wide Web 3 History of the World Wide Web 4 Prospects for the development of the World Wide Web 5 Ways to actively display information on the World Wide Web 6 Security 6.1 Privacy
46904f56e9dfd7f4906bdd2c13e49d83bd7e1b7a	7 Distribution 8 Monument 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Literature 12 References
75e7c72d1ebd51141085e7193471fdf558a12f6a	The structure and principles of the World Wide Web[edit / edit wiki text]
311fdfa3bf22f2c0271fe24b1ed9088f64e884ec	The World Wide Web around Wikipedia
9c54151dd2ebb0dc3ee947b3efc27cf9b38c3363	The World Wide Web is formed by millions of Internet web servers located around the world.
ab11e36d2503bde47ec21cebd5cb26725b58839e	A web server is a computer program that runs on a computer connected to a network and uses the HTTP protocol to transfer data.
2cf3e83f94461a2bfe5aac75221f3191356d3311	In its simplest form, such a program receives an HTTP request for a specific resource over the network, finds the corresponding file on the local hard disk and sends it over the network to the requesting computer.
96b34b1295942bfe401e6ce84e4c25e6397beb44	More complex web servers are able to dynamically generate documents using templates and scripts in response to an HTTP request.
1260d0e6ede66a3620bc3d069dc40ab5e568e773	To view the information received from the web server, a special program is used on the client computer — a web browser.
685bc62ffb361c784e34e936c5bdf65cc95b937a	The main function of a web browser is to display hypertext.
cf7c4c1e30c6a167901be2c8ebe75843e783c678	To create, store and display hypertext on the World Wide Web, the HTML language is traditionally used (English HyperText Markup Language "hypertext markup language").
673ac137f1cbff562c598e755581d36b99048ebc	The work on creating (marking up) hypertext documents is called layout, it is done by a webmaster or a separate markup specialist a layout designer.
b91c39196b88b5ca6c862aa15928771e07a77ba7	After HTML markup, the resulting document is saved to a file, and such HTML files are the main type of World Wide Web resources.
dd86487b493e47ae335791304b9700021263727e	The hypertext of web pages contains hyperlinks.
43d8e683287ac8267cfefa4870fa7f7d6c35f4bf	Uniform URL Resource locators are used to determine the location of resources on the World Wide Web.
73a559e172b8e2cd4ca8ce8b7828ab43b2893afa	For example, the full URL of the main page of the Russian section of Wikipedia looks like this: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Заглавная page.
bab08c2648a13ea16d6704d2fafaef2dc3d09cac	Such URL locators combine URI identification technology (English Uniform Resource Identifier "uniform resource identifier") and the domain name system DNS (English Domain Name System).
667eb589d8bb96f562502729849b6b52156de3ef	The domain name (in this case ru.wikipedia.org) as part of the URL indicates a computer (more precisely, one of its network interfaces) that executes the code of the desired web server.
4c0f14075a0e57e83eff1858769f7d7081d9301f	The URL of the current page can usually be seen in the browser's address bar, although many modern browsers prefer to show only the domain name of the current site by default.
30fb7692080bf2ca28d94ed2bcc52e383c54d835	Technologies of the World Wide Web[edit / edit wiki text]
dbc7d02c8cd2cb9437337afe42b67cb9e6bb3123	The semantic web is an add on to the existing World Wide Web, which is designed to make the information posted on the network more understandable for computers.
5be18942826881ea54274b74892ca446af628910	To create a resource description that is understandable to a computer, the semantic web uses the RDF format (English Resource Description Framework), which is based on XML syntax and uses URI identifiers to designate resources.
7319390acd4425bef5633a4282cc717147ae25b5	The history of the World Wide Web[edit / edit wiki text]
9702782dc9d94763c01aab3841d0d9d13092cfab	Main article: The History of the World Wide Web
1c29ca62125342bd6f63255b02dd30cbee7fcfb2	This is what the very first web server developed by Tim Berners Lee looks like
8d362a3bde162be2f399c24f42eb065793a741d5	The inventors of the World Wide Web are Tim Berners Lee and, to a lesser extent, Robert Cayo.
a29ed02bb413c3f048f4c6f79f0a81bccb3447a3	In 1980, he worked at the European Council for Nuclear Research (French conseil européen pour la recherche nucléaire, CERN) as a software consultant.
a922f255c401a0b8e16433ac38f9abfe2cb436a9	It was there, in Geneva (Switzerland), that for his own needs he wrote the program "Enquire" (English: Enquire, can be loosely translated as "Inquirer"), which used random associations for data storage and laid the conceptual basis for the World Wide Web.
47de79c345fd3c317d9abcab536335784b1ea420	Development of information technologies
5de5a64bc4375f9493ddb8cee181f4fde7b3da39	In 1989, while working at CERN on the organization's internal network, Tim Berners Lee proposed a global hypertext project, now known as the"World Wide Web".
f9d07385af7001bfa9f7afbb20f07871cececc4d	The project involved the publication of hypertext documents linked by hyperlinks, which would facilitate the search and consolidation of information for CERN scientists.
b6e43b85ccfae32f0f006a7938ac41b32b0ded4b	To implement the project, Tim Berners Lee (together with his assistants) invented URI identifiers, the HTTP protocol and the HTML language.
ce1af8b9e6a351333e0cd6bb0640fec925c5bfd0	These are technologies without which it is impossible to imagine the modern Internet.
d000d332b83eb946a88adca5ef5469a11277d17a	Between 1991 and 1993, Berners Lee improved the technical specifications of these standards and published them.
47c5415735fd4512dbe7e708451fa25842d27ec6	But, nevertheless, the official year of birth of the World Wide Web should be considered 1989.
074cf6a7653c69384f5e67b430bdc482b460ebc2	As part of the project, Berners Lee wrote the world's first web server, called "httpd", and the world's first hypertext web browser, called "WorldWideWeb".
2aea5c3723f1679915ec08aa00720060783573f6	This browser was also a WYSIWYG editor (sok. what you see is what you get), its development was started in October 1990, and completed in December of the same year.
50fd0271195b1735afe80b100d870c59329017e2	The program worked in the NeXTSTEP environment and began to be distributed over the Internet in the summer of 1991.
3c05c50a82588d5eded5bc9bb38ba758e0cf86a0	Mike Sendall buys a computer "NeXT cube" at this time in order to understand what the features of its architecture are, and then gives it to Tim [Berners Lee].
88924210c9b4fe2376aaa3e386d7d454c1c3d68e	Thanks to the perfection of the "NeXT cube" software system, Tim wrote a prototype illustrating the main provisions of the project in a few months.
3e63da3dc20bf90b099cdb0efafdc4c21b14ae9b	This was an impressive result: the prototype offered users, among other things, such advanced features as WYSIWYG browsing/authoring!… During one of the sessions of joint discussions of the project in the CERN cafeteria, Tim and I tried to find a "catching" name for the system being created.
5ce94d76300abcfca286608e0bfc17afcdacffd8	The only thing I insisted on was that the name was not once again extracted from the same Greek mythology.
abd8815f5d7ec8b794271678cb66057a6f2af01e	Tim suggested the "world wide web".
964fc0ccb38901cd86cd482d8c0658d3ce72aa08	I liked everything about this name very much right away, only it is difficult to pronounce in French.
4c7728cb4c364dab4ee26b59bf8765cd42114649	— Robert Cailliau, November 2, 1995[1]
08012eaac95184d06ef722b163c83e01451bc419	The world's first website was hosted by Berners Lee on August 6 1991 on the first web server available at http://info.cern.ch/, (here is an archived copy).
7da121677d4cbcf38378ec14fd6a0055e130f53b	The resource defined the concept of the "World Wide Web", contained instructions for installing a web server, using a browser, etc.
c281c0e7a9f3a1cbfc5ac82a3a050ba54c25015b	The first photo on the World Wide Web — the group Les Horribles Cernettes
4022e5332826dacb02426728a9247813302c9b97	The first photo that appeared on the World Wide Web showed a parody filk group Les Horribles Cernettes[2].
de2aa22c407ce0b318636607c20972929c1989bc	Tim Bernes Lee asked the band leader for scanned photos after the "CERN hardronic festival" music festival.
306b9db9ce3efb133e4f633967af4ffd8247b7d7	And yet the theoretical foundations of the web were laid much earlier than Berners Lee.
a53b9a12c9a389f86ec83571a5626247076c6662	Back in 1945, Vanaver Busch developed the concept of Memex auxiliary mechanical means of "expanding human memory".
e7e8dc241de1e0ac6f7e5f3f2fe1d775cab6ead7	It is an extension and complement of human memory.
8777a65d13c929b04c55db3f0540df4d14d2936b	Since 1994, the main work on the development of the World Wide Web has been taken over by the World Wide Web Consortium (English: world wide web consortium, three letters "W" and "C", W3C), founded and still headed by Tim Berners Lee.
2057befd1c550c1977e9bd7750fe17f7655e87ed	This consortium is an organization that develops and implements technological standards for the Internet and the World Wide Web.
88632cde4d4d10907417a54132bc75b9b3952ea8	The W3C Mission: "Completely p to unlock the potential of the World Wide Web by creating protocols and principles that guarantee the long term development of the Network."
25c65d2e8f25a29621df9bc7bb33c0fa823ef0c3	The other two most important tasks of the consortium are to ensure the complete "internationalization of the Network" and make the Network accessible to people with disabilities.
80190a56694baf6fc3fb422d39e410fc903f450d	The W3C develops uniform principles and standards for the Internet (called" recommendations", English W3C recommendations), which are then implemented by software and hardware manufacturers.
0c519f362d1fffc5ba41e2b7562dab8f1d60d335	All recommendations of the World Wide Web consortium are open, that is, they are not protected by patents and can be implemented by anyone without any financial contributions to the consortium.
4d80416fe5a383731e2d300f928a17bcf838c5ab	Prospects for the development of the World Wide Web[edit / edit wiki text]
b62c4e518a5bf5d8f0f5061532091c3b526bccde	Currently, there are two directions in the development of the World Wide Web: the semantic web and the social web.
3b8f34a617e7e775c7fcc909aa2aa2880ab5678d	The social web relies on users who organize the information available on the network.
5e227da56386319dea5bf4c8176b5d555c5237a8	In the second direction, the developments that are part of the semantic web are actively used as tools (RSS and other formats of web feeds, OPML, XHTML microformats).
5f928e82b11435b3bf0e1e70680696964ca568a1	Partially semanticized sections of the Wikipedia category tree help users to move consciously in the information space, however, very soft requirements for subcategories do not give reason to hope for the expansion of such sections.
8c4c7e4a617da7d1e48dccc48c175187a8ad4ddf	In this regard, attempts to compile atlases of Knowledge may be of interest.
117d1ef21a4eef7066ec5a8d8f34628dcc90cf20	There is also a popular concept of Web 2.0, which generalizes several directions of the development of the World Wide Web at once.
15584daa209f010923baee58aaf654c104d97e2d	Ways to actively display information on the World Wide Web[edit / edit wiki text]
b72dd4c7f490a9875c3ef50356cc486d1be4b713	The information provided can be accessed "passively" and "actively". .
6156068f0da0cbf76b68e69c2fbc3d58081481ed	The methods of active display of information on the World Wide Web include:
f10b4b194e2c36a1e8fba9308b1ccf49afc364c7	guest books( eng. guestbook); forums( eng. forum); chats (eng. chat); blogs( eng. blog); wiki projects; social networks (eng. social networking service); content management systems (eng. content management system, eng. CMS).
1705819dab4897718e73e1731561fcc30fee1ebe	Security[edit / edit wiki text]
14f8317cbd4ea79076e469da191642df0d330e5b	According to Sophos, a British manufacturer of antivirus solutions, the majority of cyber attacks in the web space are committed by legitimate resources located primarily in the United States, China and Russia[9].
9a231d7a6434e49fdf6b42c0d520588f3b112669	The most common type of such attacks, according to information from the same company, is SQL injection — malicious input of direct queries to the database into text fields on the resource pages, which, with an insufficient level of security, can lead to the disclosure of the contents of the database[10].
be4023602323d6478d709ec44d04121b55f84e7c	Another common threat that uses the capabilities of HTML and unique resource identifiers for World Wide Web sites is cross site scripting (XSS), which became possible with the introduction of JavaScript technology and gained momentum due to the development of Web 2.0 and Ajax new web design standards encouraged the use of interactive scripts[11][12][13].
d96e55ce13887d1dcc0a18a516cf441110eb1c6c	Large vendors of security solutions like McAfee develop products for evaluating information systems for their compliance with certain requirements, other market players (for example, Finjan) recommend conducting an active study of the program code and in general all the content in real time, regardless of the data source[15][5]. There are also opinions according to which enterprises should perceive security as a good opportunity for business development, and not as a source of costs; for this, hundreds of companies providing information protection today should be replaced by a small group of organizations that would implement the infrastructure policy of permanent and widespread digital rights management[16][17].
b2cd8125550814799d69551520785a811407f1ac	Privacy[edit / edit wiki text]
e6aba19eabd432da724f304aa5dd2877023db236	Careless handling of the capabilities of such resources may lead to the public access of information that the user would prefer to hide; among other things, such information may become the subject of attention of hooligans or, moreover, cybercriminals.
27da21413e5d566a154be2790180aec28226c73f	Modern social networks provide their participants with a fairly wide range of profile privacy settings, but these settings can be unnecessarily complex especially for inexperienced users[18].
9b9c135350949f2cbda4cd1508c83a75d718cd88	Distribution[edit / edit wiki text]
628da44b5d93c4e4b0d88a4a87910fd8dfb6bcce	This section needs to be reworked.
4860aa9ddbe7aa74bf557dadf155ba83afac8f6c	Please improve the article in accordance with the rules of writing articles.
5fe96e4d4cf87d836322c5dc566c4fd17bd89663	In the period from 2005 to 2010, the number of web users doubled and reached the mark of two billion[19].
7f3537cebde5a7299ba3d5f5512d10a2fde574e2	According to early studies in 1998 and 1999, most existing websites were not indexed correctly by search engines, and the web network itself turned out to be larger than expected[20][21]. As of 2001, more than 550 million web documents have already been created, most of which, however, were located within the invisible network[22].
1dd4bb3aa56006ce752b60e08946fc5e1897a666	(4.9 %). According to research conducted at the end of January 2005, more than 11.5 billion web pages were identified in 75 different languages, which were indexed in the open network[24].
e937aff80f7f882786f30a43dd32cd92e14f60e0	Semantic Web Global Computing Network World Digital Library
8f5116647b079f518e31f45219396250a21675b0	Статья The article "The Web as the" next step "(NeXTSTEP) of the personal computer revolution".
30c5a377fdc82a29bdab8a73e83544f85b947bc8	↑ LHC: The first band on the web IBM IBM developed the voice Internet ↑ Howard M., Leblanc D. Protected code \ Trans. from English -2nd ed., ispr.
0ddf0ce6d4e24bdee3582ad5d2bea7321819d1ab	- M.: Publishing and trading house "Russian edition", 2005, p.
2bbe2cc5c62bbbba3c0610aaf4f827dfef99232e	3 (UDC 004.45, BBK 32Y973Y26-018.2, X68, ISBN 5-7502-0238-0) ↑ 1 2 Ben Itzhak, Yuval.
dd34d6ed86b575f9b1951154fea8b085743d340c	Infosecurity 2008 – New defense strategy in battle against e crime, ComputerWeekly, Reed Business Information (April 18, 2008).
473dffd0e3402eda44d40af75a1b57f213ca9dba	Verified April 20, 2008.
83917f13e791f686f4448bbd7823622ccfa5dee0	Christ Christey, Steve and Martin, Robert A. Vulnerability Type Distributions in CVE (version 1.1).
4c961c218456b67c5a4dbed246b0ab7d12aa86d4	MITRE Corporation (May 22, 2007).
51d0b9d795501407632fe37b40004f6d17a4bee6	Verified June 7, 2008.
fac0329667d56a04bfb6f332f362964d3d9a9662	Archived from the original source on April 15, 2013.
cd8952973c9ab03938c5bac8243b018ca71866f8	↑ (April 2008) "Symantec Internet Security Threat Report: Trends for July–December 2007 (Executive Summary)" (PDF) (Symantec Corp.)
6dd793e1dc6159542e4e0e40590a617c97dcb064	XIII: 1-2.
458419dfb3141fcdf53d759391bc14277b1b880c	Checked on 11 May 2008.
ffadd23832f0ac45f9a4c2e6b9a4d3ebb19b2236	↑ Google searches web's dark side, BBC News (11 May 2007).
cdc54eec18426c0056274bce09d30b8b55282a30	Accessed 26 April 2008.
8fa96a2c81fe9742415d12f2e5bcd6ca8fab0b98	↑ Security Threat Report (PDF).
0a60c02fe9a18074e7ced47d4bd042a11a6f4c07	Sophos (Q1 2008). Verified on April 24, 2008.
29793e10a1fdfe2185c4327bc71536ad59a577d4	↑ Security threat report (PDF).
173b44e732c761a087a10d5da9f46537c6a1da35	Sophos (July 2008). Checked on August 24, 2008.
71659b75821c204b832391103c10480a69596e0e	↑ Fogie, Seth, Jeremiah Grossman, Robert Hansen, and Anton Rager.
d8eef6cd7add8942839450df7e9c6fe44b97aec0	Cross Site Scripting Attacks: XSS Exploits and Defense.
5006b50bb725e0bacc000d762ed8ae845d09e8b5	— Syngress, Elsevier Science & Technology, 2007.
fd3f6ef3744b173484a46c717306691e90efe01e	— P. 68–69, 127.
f7808496f9be330e47c304b7e7d3d99f0e257105	— ISBN 1-59749-154-3.
a8dc2de58213cdb084b3c4e4d315f67c13f93439	↑ O'Reilly, Tim.
b001f5dced12ddc219d51dd1e5859dc7e2ebc4dd	What Is Web 2.0 4-5.
3305c1dea9bb348c8ae8c36d7aa1ffb00cb14cc8	O'Reilly Media (30 September 2005).
b292a45e53c76475fde78e553c86f5b429fb049a	Accessed 4 June 2008.
b290a9f9409c2b92a950e5a251f2880d988aa895	↑ Ritchie, Paul (March 2007).
4252f7cb4be2ae9fde8322494201c0ca6ef0c8ce	«The security risks of AJAX/web 2.0 applications» (PDF).
dd86e7860ebd4431c58657dc77b6d2457f145d84	Infosecurity (Elsevier). Checked on 6 June 2008.
01a60cff8aec66bd1ae21571110a67f3c681bbf8	↑ Berinato, Scott.
7f5c047cc2c5fa8fd4ab73972f5f2ef0f41a3a3e	Software Vulnerability Disclosure: The Chilling Effect, CSO, CXO Media (1 January 2007), p.
22a80af4cca1384d90581a5a7c3a9cf3d8e0ee26	7. Archived from the original source on April 18, 2008.
8666e2cf1c05a8f9acce569c6e9170780a1a5029	Verified on June 7, 2008.
f31652894907002ab1aff8abc07d5da8ff29f02e	↑ Prince, Brian.
24d642a5e0d56b6bbf19efa31a26918a2c907e55	McAfee Governance, Risk and Compliance Business Unit, eWEEK, Ziff Davis Enterprise Holdings (April 9, 2008).
66498814b3c0f2eeadca5ce9db3c1df9f752202e	Verified on April 25, 2008.
42768d14c8b168be494cc59bccf3b24a121824c1	Pre Preston, Rob.
256e550f4225c0475fdd586d14614e98b5435b04	Down To Business: It's Past Time To Elevate The Infosec Conversation, InformationWeek, United Business Media (12 April 2008).
cf94d08b58c9003760bff5c19e12291126620f30	Accessed 25 April 2008.
c5fe5f71513b6c969ae4bb8702c12dea5537a37d	↑ Claburn, Thomas.
b266fe96ae565d9b637792f1270bdc087b874303	RSA's Coviello Predicts Security Consolidation, InformationWeek, United Business Media (6 February 2007).
045ff78d5c4bb504fb890273c0b00d81667a1778	↑ boyd, danah;
4e1f4d86d6cb147e786ea94f1e519f24d6adac6a	Hargittai, Eszter (July 2010).
5cd10b1db6de0bd8c4b81ea905a18ccf8cc55300	«Facebook privacy settings: Who cares?».
f8251b931589fc9d31d3da7dd9834a2bd7486873	First Monday (University of Illinois at Chicago) 15 (8).
2324cd3f26d139a69132958cab5eb08962c1960f	↑ Lynn, Jonathan.
158928ca0d15d89f2d28a80b67d4581bc1c56882	Internet users to exceed 2 billion ..., Reuters (19 October 2010).
a4a12acd2d42be9171b8decc567a8db671998ca5	Retrieved February 9, 2011.
b1a17337746176f7f375ff1134896db30831084d	↑ S. Lawrence, C. L. Giles, "Searching the World Wide Web," Science, 280(5360), 98-100, 1998.
52135d8657cca0e9e1eed6a0a3970e7b6ddef7bb	↑ S. Lawrence, C. L. Giles, "Accessibility of Information on the Web," Nature, 400, 107-109, 1999.
56691c690772631dfce570557cea04273a176445	↑ The 'Deep' Web: Surfacing Hidden Value.
ffe30747d32165503eda503be0b5794e12c770c5	Brightplanet.com. Checked on July 27, 2009.
3ab05470382826e5ec47e70cfd93c2913411455c	Archived from the original source on April 4, 2008.
7dfdc1931cb204d52b679e560dd464e8492f3e6e	↑ Distribution of languages on the Internet.
5e5c83d6dd2e3508afb3fb78427ec15dc7e53922	Netz tipp.de. Checked on July 27, 2009.
4998e191de77fda98124774c32fbbc1ce0763121	Archived from the original source on May 24, 2013.
e075e41c49253bb83e9459dfe94dfe5e241d8f7d	↑ Alessio Signorini.
c466654ad3a56211d07a3043e8810af464de3590	Indexable Web Size.
cc7508355bef744d93f4488805beca46423b0451	Cs.uiowa.edu. Checked on July 27, 2009.
055bdeb544db2e2c4b67b15624cb8596edbae867	↑ The size of the World Wide Web.
1a362f5309cd6f03aab88d159c61b9808ac691ea	Worldwidewebsize.com. Checked on July 27, 2009.
ce838b9b618dd32423dacef5726ba01b8c6bba9a	↑ Alpert, Jesse;
f5c61fe0fde8796571ed4e0ab79f41d2d83ec3e9	Hajaj, Nissan.
b19935ae4dc5a25430813d600adcb19ad9eba812	We knew the web was big....
692c3e4d1840d380ffb55dd48b3d88dfe94f6150	The Official Google Blog (July 25, 2008).
8fa8c40733555fa296a6b82f3fcbb068f0348080	↑ A monument to the Internet will be installed in St. Petersburg
1c94b69660fd78e9f92b5f65771940fcfd85fae2	Fielding, R.; Gettys, J.; Mogul, J.; Fristik, G.; Mazinter, L.; Leach, P.; Berners Lee, T. (June 1999).
4fed72e6a70f3ddc36e46a5d12e4a70d60cb4167	"Hypertext Transfer Protocol — http://1.1" (Information Sciences Institute).
cc2e37859d3fcc748996536e373a56147de27194	Berners Lee, Tim;
392cb0d2b12777b899ee8068fb3db63231475cba	Bray, Tim;
8a84ee4625b724618f97565ce2d86c3b34c074eb	Connolly, Dan;
0aaffef2c9cedde235bab6d5686336e804b42287	Cotton, Paul;
7cbbee66028d56369ea6bbdc953fe6a921247e42	Fielding, Roy;
e6d526b1eeb10aaf58b8ebb7d32e0a7d62ab4c12	Jackle, Mario;
b6821a874e93b612f7a7c074c32f2c7809114a79	Lilly, Chris;
a6b439f996ffa71ddd1ec48f8e917253a60bd520	Mendelssohn, Noah;
c34599b9fe0c2bbd88619315e1adcfe74e9a46a3	Orkard, David;
d474329644994c8c6439bd2e3b8b92b23e1d7f2b	Walsh, Norman;
1e51767e9e8efe9928cdb52d2b6632d85892e055	Williams, Stewart (December 15, 2004).
d3c17db9f91ac5d5c33c4cf67f2c9e0678037655	«Architecture of the World Wide Web, Volume One» (W3C).
9f1f109b2e194983ed8901dfd851a051bc1dd8f3	Polo, Luciano.
e323e4a8d124961735282a705b5869d96d588ffc	World Wide Web Technology Architecture: A Conceptual Analysis.
211cbcd1bdb9d0642b62a6184bc597acdb01e06e	New Devices (2003).
4583dea01fdc8c495a2d6a72c5dc53c572ead2a4	Checked July 31, 2005.
1f491a9f67285697a181c70c9dc13dc644df886e	The official website of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)) Tim Berners Lee, Mark Fischetti.
9a6acf8c517636cfd5e4427db2e7e823fb807b68	Weaving the Web: the Origins and Future of the World Wide Web = Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web.
9da6f21ebc7d9dbf1a02134c22f9f17eaa430a7a	- New York: HarperCollins Publishers (English)Russian..
c14e915dec6260d47c50dbeb7dd0e555d34d97c0	- 256 p.
28023b16a464572ff0b3e29203b82fd277e1b47a	— ISBN 0-06-251587 X, ISBN 978-0-06-251587-2.
8d06357f6f7134c4e896c4e9fa2d2a2e826a93a5	Tim Berners Lee's Historic Proposal for CERN The World's First Website (archive) Evolution of the Web (interactive presentation) The BBC Standards and Guidelines for Mobile Accessibility
423f7c45cd9208c9af259a8c0fd6fe4d1938221b	Other organizations involved in the development of the World Wide Web and the Internet in general
9c59d13817311efab6743b49cdd976ba05db0829	The Internet Engineering Task Force, IETF Internet Society, ISOC International Organization for Standardization, ISO Web Standards Group, WSG The Web Standards Project Unicode Organization The Semantic Web Community Portal
10511200917103cf34f8fbac400a4d56015fca2b	Web and Websites Globally
fc76add9c5d83f544909e90914800c709a562cbd	World Wide Web
c09c68770d985af72e1633280921093600e8591d	(Web 1.0 • Web 2.0 • Web 3.0 • * Semantic Web • Neuronet
e93141d83b8039749e1ed013e1831599e1264246	Locally
5641e23abad75279cda610d5422e08098d1db8e8	Website * Portal • Page • Service • Ring
b187dc14bb822b1c843c3a92b6a0f45be527573b	Types of sites
a7b3cf84fed4548a37f86031aac49aa79e85c4aa	and services
b7bf9e8598589acfcdfa0fb465d7c6a05757d78e	Virtual Atlas • Banner Network • Library • Blog (platform) • Video hosting • Wiki • Business card website • Question and answer • Bookmarks • Dating Services • Browser Game • Resource Catalog • Online Store • Microblog • News site • Search engine • Porn Site • Web Mail • Social Network • Tumblelog • BitTorrent Tracker • File sharing * Forum (Service • Image board) • Photo Hosting • Chat
3a166e440106e5cbd1ffe089dec13fb08f345113	Creating and
4cf5bc59bee9e1c44c6254b5f84e7f066bd8e5fe	service
3a29a370ae8710e84cda485cce55860246822f37	Master • Development • Design • Layout • Programming • Usability • Interaction experience • Website promotion • Search Engine Optimization (SEO) • Hosting • System Administrator • Moderator • Account • Authorization
611ad00cb4e7199ee2ee0d4d120106e6ce758398	Types of layouts,
189f41d2ae9c7a15275f09ae23845ae807f96499	pages, sites
9c250e1185c3476597c65595c7cfb5098a683130	Static • Dynamic • Fixed • Rubber • Dynamically Elastic • Adaptive
41fc0860886a6b0485dd7b2d88f44499177731d4	Technical
87085083f9f0df9fe51077520e9ff953ae4e2c65	Web server (comparison) * Browser (comparison) * DNS • CMF • CMS • HTTP (responses • headers) • SPDY • QUIC • CGI • HTML • XHTML • CSS • PHP • JavaScript • DHTML • Cookie • DOM • XML • AJAX • JSON • Flash • RSS • Atom • Microformat • favicon. ico • robots.txt * Sitemaps • Site map • .htaccess
8692b06921d9ff83bb19ee40a68a715592ce213a	Internet marketing • Online Advertising • Banner • Contextual Advertising • Teaser • Cybersquatting
4f7d34c78a73159229795493fbc462346e9b25d2	Society and culture
8e992453590891a8bc9732e0f44b0914c55b4f35	Blogosphere • Online community (district) * Network literature
25fc70af705d89560ef081e2b5fac95075ce992d	Semantic Web Fundamentals of the World Wide Web · Internet · Hypertext · Databases · Semantic Networks · Ontologies · Descriptive Logic Subsections Linked data · Data Web · Hyperdata · Dereferenceable URIs · Rule bases · Data Spaces Applications Semantic wiki · Semantic publication · Semantic search · Semantic calculations · Semantic advertising · Semantic reasoner · Semantic matching · Semantic mapper · Semantic broker · Semantic analytics · Semantic service oriented architecture Related Topics Folksonomy · Library 2.0 · Web 2.0 · Links · Information Architecture · Knowledge Management · Collective Intelligence · Thematic Maps · Mindmapping · Metadata · Geotagging · Web science Standards Syntax : RDF (RDF/XML · Notation 3 · Turtle · N Triples · JSON LD) · SPARQL · URI · HTTP · XML
eb9621fc9d356aa9547660cc1d69cb3434d47fc6	Schemas, ontologies : RDFS · OWL · Rule Interchange Format · Semantic Web Rule Language · Common Logic · Schema.org
81219544f81106ec4a3254ddda23cf41e03ddc68	Semantic annotation : RDFa · eRDF · GRDDL · Microformats · Microdata
b31a6c96494d8d44220ae80e3e0994e7a6a9d0be	Dictionaries : DOAP · FOAF · SIOC · Dublin Core · SKOS · UMBEL
f02c3147789dfdac3ad4d56e483f2fa3f6ae54c0	History: Plain Old Semantic HTML DAML+OIL
85cd64862d728f2b78e48b33af3535812c77657d	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World Wide Web&oldid=74720985"
7a9924abeb87a2d0d8033ec120f14691ba0a44b9	Categories: Semantic web World Wide Web Internet
21167a9ac9bd516128df0cef05f9cbb7f05072f0	Hidden category: Wikipedia:Articles for processing
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56a74a5d54177867675c2af98791faa11e2a7487	The World Wide Web: the history of the creation of the Internet Mar 10
73236c84c46cde54d2fa17e069f9746cd6d7a802	Author: Nurlan Kemelbekov
6dc73ab685c7702bfd4705e9c9907155c26b6dfd	Anyone on Earth knows what the concept of the Internet means.
01e2c45ecdfc6aa2c2336e7b45aee500c0540488	The idea was born back in 1957, when the US Department of Defense realized the importance of creating a reliable information transmission system in war conditions.
3bb76244a7724dc15b661a98ee02858f3e42b053	To accomplish this task, DARPA - the Office of Advanced Development of the US Department of Defense — took up the creation of a computer network.
181c043a08cb83ce6c191af65d387db1c264a5d1	The computer network, hereinafter referred to as ARPANET, was created only after twelve years.
122c1d060c16991dfa62f40a6558898a344950cb	Four scientific organizations participated in the creation: the University of California, the University of Utah, the University of Santa Barbara and the Stanford Research Institute.
4551c3a525057eee38ba348e83232935963ce5ca	The birth of the Internet can be considered October 29, 1969, on that day, the first data exchange took place between two ARPANET nodes, whose intention was to share resources and support communication.
36f76747775bff4a3aee14bf31e4ad3c19bdf618	The first email client, which has gained great popularity, was created in 1971.
626b3cde1cb96e221127ff8759b0082274e97b0d	The year 1983 was a transitional year for the Internet, it was then that two radical events occurred:
d855cbf9a1027a68014fc3270d5808127cf6ced3	a) the NCP standard, on which the ARPANET network was based, changed the standard to TCP/IP, which is still the most widely used; b) ARPANET changed its name to "Internet".
63636d2684e72a9e59a1ca3c5803598989b2a080	In 1984, ARPANET shared its path with the National Science Foundation, which organized an independent NSFNet network – the network composition included smaller networks with high bandwidth.
8784a22e8b6fa70eb1073db676ec1e2e19a325b9	A year later, a brisk rival was taking more and more from ARPANET.
b4b73773ba38b227ae8e996bf37460e3f6bef570	In just a year, o included about 10 thousand computing devices in its composition and selected the name "Internet".
4648d55c4e2418cc791f1a48722c076e1bb245c1	The fundamental task for NSFNet was to provide access to the resources of the foundation, to various educational institutions in America – to enable any technical or scientific employee to connect to an integral network.
ae18e81434c8389d2f59572c7869b36d93cb1fff	For this purpose, emphasis was placed on the development of a Network with high speed channels, which would have the feasibility of joining other types of networks to itself.
97ffd2782dea7e39912d4c931e374972571a9c3c	During the development process, the scientific foundation received a "reference Network" that could provide a stable Internet connection to a large number of users.
d52befb231cf57a5a89c69aa6720e9fc0bbd0256	This network topology led to the fact that by 1985 there was a sharp increase in the number of connected computers to the NSFNet network.
6ff9d4f8edbcbf9e8d9fe70f525e4d1cf02eb1c1	The idea of what we usually call the "World Wide Web" (WWW) appeared in 1989, when Tim Berners Lee suggested using it.
7b8b86e52d43cb50fbc26ebf1556fe7a4766292d	He also created the URI character strings, the HTML hypertext markup language, and the HTTP Data Transfer Protocol.
5ccfd98acbaafb8a976dbf47be57994a50183fcd	In 1990, the ARPANET network could no longer compete with its opponent in the face of NSFNet, and so its history ended.
e289e875822dd13b2078b523bc8304bd7783d4ae	This year, for the first time, there was a connection to the Internet via "dial up", i.e. via the public telephone network.
2e9e50388f0552d52e14ddb3273d622ddb59ef77	The Web became publicly available in 1991, and in 1993 the first program for viewing pages on the Internet appeared.
debe1944c3ab617681848649d9849f0376ba7842	In 1995, providers began to determine the traffic paths, and the role of the experimental network was again transferred to the National Science Foundation.
71ceb3829315b522f9ec3bd0d81f15b2647de7ef	By 1997, the World Wide Web, which almost absorbed the name "Internet", had about ten million computers in its number.
f7e7546ce1ff982db1e3511e4772f13da6afa27e	The popularity of the World Wide Web was becoming more and more.
9bcd39a34e02f82d7c4fe864810af76935afe04e	Today, the Network has the feasibility of connecting via electric cables, cable television, satellite communications, fiber optic connections, radio communications, and cellular communications.
be9b4c1a894aeeebb1c9a493d11407ad4a59b480	The World Wide Web has brought us not only information and money, but also a new type of disease Internet addiction.
86472f1089d70121b81e355d60e7d46b50bf0719	I recommend reading an article on this topic on the page Internet addiction: the effects of drug addiction and give your assessment in the comments.
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2d0afee9d2e31e1b11092e23f370ed02244b0faf	< < Previous Table of Contents Next >>
8cb3a829a1d0a8225dd71ac5210441b81937d0d3	6.6. History of the Internet and the World Wide Web
ba5d25773512a4641e981a14378598ef94265325	The Internet is a communication system and at the same time an information system an environment for people to communicate.
6e101eac27b3c550b392a923842e8ef8de2dcf59	Currently, there are many definitions of this concept.
6cba906469cc8ea02f1e2b23a55dd10579976a97	In our opinion, one of the definitions of the Internet that most fully characterizes the information interaction of the world's population is: "The Internet is a complex transport and information system of mushroom shaped (dipole) structures, the cap of each of which (actually dipoles) represents the brain of a person sitting at a computer, together with the computer itself, which is like an artificial extension of the brain, and the legs, for example, a telephone network connecting computers, or the ether through which radio waves are transmitted."
2164d34a7933b65c62b10a72e68b98661f54899b	The emergence of the Internet has given impetus to the development of new information technologies that lead not only to a change in the consciousness of people, but also of the world as a whole.
93d123d6f7f6ee0d2048e1095823996fbb1c545e	However, the World Wide Web was not the first discovery of this kind.
a38dc76f8d76e6611fb3e3147ca067e26b9c5591	Today, the Internet is developing in the same way as its predecessors the telegraph, telephone and radio.
e9cf47139b90aa7bd6179dfd1b589c41bb4401f0	However, unlike them, it combined their advantages – it became not only useful for communication between people, but also a publicly accessible means for obtaining and exchanging information.
d54adb17b5080aef0fca3d3e30e6c2540ad5f286	It should be added that the possibilities of not only stationary, but also mobile television have already been fully used on the Internet.
d0d8a7b732eef5f1f3609f18c2c5ad88153b083e	The history of the Internet begins around the 60 years of the XX century.
3256d48e2076e57c39f889f76d883cc6c3028720	The first documentary description of the social interaction that will become possible thanks to the network was a series of notes written by J. Licklider.
70d964197805c375545ec5e9101126de65553a8d	In these notes, the concept of the "Galactic Network" was discussed.
554623e1460124dd86616af4a761d419e97a7beb	The author foresaw the creation of a global network of interconnected computers, through which everyone can quickly access data and programs located on any computer.
0950115e830598618d481bb0c2e9957744b02fd9	In spirit, this concept is very close to the current state of the Internet.
1a621f524a718c657af46640e88a82dffc089839	In July 1961, Leonard Kleinrock published the first article on the theory of packet switching.
551ebc4896cb584dd9890e5a2e317c0361562048	In the article, he presented the advantages of his theory over the existing principle of data transmission – channel switching.
c0515bc8a21b4e21006cfc8e6fefaf2096870641	What is the difference between these concepts?
787e21d178e14d4496318dfdc83c2a8d39ccf31b	When switching packets, there is no physical connection between the two terminal devices (computers).
adafe966296e832ebd9f3566a888881770d838d1	In this case, the data required for transmission is divided into parts.
2af379de72bcf8cb781c55e65ea8ced141eb5da8	Each part is accompanied by a header containing full information about the delivery of the package to its destination.
5d48d632a314b3b013583e6de6fc45c40235b9ba	When switching channels for the time of information transmission, two computers are physically connected "each to each".
26fa3e63a3a015afeaacf3eb34eea2d466abebff	During the connection period, the entire amount of information is transmitted.
407e35c1d18016d3010bfab743087dd1444e161d	This connection is maintained until the end of the information transfer, i.e., just as it was when transmitting information over analog systems that provide connection switching.
2f9c47bd914c198323dfd8b7667c82839c8034f4	At the same time, the utilization rate of the information channel is minimal.
05f0b073cfeceeca6a6fd665b9631217ae12abdf	To test the concept of packet circuit switching, Lawrence Roberts and Thomas Merrill in 1965 connected a TX 2 computer in Massachusetts to a Q 32 computer in California using low speed telephone dial up lines.
e88c57b5e6466c2f8dbcbf7f5b2c5a45d585f2e8	Thus, the first (albeit small) non local computer network in history was created.
e0ed04c022bf3cc5c1f5f6d6ad9d8cdbe1b0ad77	The result of the experiment was the understanding that time separated computers can successfully work together by executing programs and fetching data on a remote machine.
e08dd26d7aef1b6cbef904efbfd3537bf5e72a2e	It also became clear that a telephone system with switching channels (connections) is absolutely unsuitable for building a computer network.
834fd6c7a09057e7ae3aee41270e2848b12f3d6c	In 1969, the American agency ARPA (Agency for Advanced Research Projects) began research on the creation of an experimental network "with packet switching".
8b24ab029d13a516d5bbb93e12fa3c8121148957	This network was created and received the name ARPANET, i.e. the network of the Agency for advanced research projects.
c80109e0ff97cc37b2d96761145ff5ef49775f37	A sketch of the ARANET network consisting of four nodes – the embryo of the Internet is shown in Fig. 6.1 [21].
ad1e67f726078b2e4e1f297c7076c455f1a40a59	Figure 6.1
69123c223b618a3a5b34037426c36355b4d5e2d1	At this early stage, research was conducted on both network infrastructure and network applications.
95a48b4910ccc4152a0e2b04c3a32e0d65a44b81	At the same time, work was underway to create a functionally complete protocol for intercomputer interaction and other network software.
c10cc718cd99aa09e05cfd84f2ecf13921d40692	In December 1970, the Network Working Group (NWG) under the leadership of S. Crocker completed work on the first version of the protocol, called the Network Control Protocol (NCP).
7683670cbbdf28c3443145af8eb6706fad8ef772	After the implementation of NCP on ARPANET nodes was completed in 1971 – 1972, network users were finally able to start developing applications.
0bed55cf8926d315b94d03a08f42d92eed2527ba	In 1972, the first application appeared – e mail.
b320e42bea72e16e14105dfffddd7ee1cc7bc5c2	In March 1972, Ray Tomlinson wrote basic programs for sending and reading electronic messages.
f6008ea9d907c95659751fe18a9feb0d0abba786	In July of the same year, Roberts added to these programs the ability to issue a list of messages, selectively read, save to a file, forward and prepare a response.
409b3d5a2c4d9195a2e0ca49ae51f95495e214cc	Since then, email has become the largest network application.
280087db4a9eb5b764b4ccbf597bae2357e049dd	For its time, e mail has become what the World Wide Web is today – an exceptionally powerful catalyst for the growth of the exchange of all types of interpersonal data flows.
20effb5c6f9c471553cd9cb5996b9d87847daec7	In 1974, the Internet Network Working Group (INWG) introduced a universal protocol for data transmission and networking – TCP/IP.
a284cad83fcd83450fbadefbbbf63161c37b64ec	This protocol is used in the modern Internet.
49ad0affece532e8e90537c5bd81c8244547d227	However, the transition of ARPANET from the NCP protocol to TCP/IP took place only on January 1, 1983.
0a17f4377551486e17c30346fd893e4cc3e0b97a	It was a "Day X" - style transition, requiring simultaneous changes on all computers.
bcd220b6e020e45f35e8c4304269bd6af252cb0d	The transition was carefully planned by all interested parties over the previous few years and went surprisingly smoothly (however, it led to the spread of the "I survived the transition to TCP/IP" icon).
af99a409e6552f95d44f1493aa75bdc2aecfc529	In 1983, the transfer of ARPANET from NCP to TCP/IP made it possible to divide this network into MILNET, the actual network for military needs, and ARPANET, used for research purposes.
b42d3fe6e279ae05892bfea3e01c32504dc5898b	In the same year, another important event took place.
b2782bf024322b084c27b99bdc419c264e26da48	Paul Mockapetris has developed a domain Name System (DNS).
26c82edcff9c1d933875e31f7fe7d4a4d7e6f82d	This system allowed us to create a scalable distributed mechanism for displaying hierarchical computer names (for example, www.acm.org) in Internet addresses.
0e413039179661ce43ebf62a920b9f551faf04c8	In the same year, 1983, a Domain Name Server (DNS) was created at the University of Wisconsin.
81b2bb95d233b996a524cfdd70296cd836a5f946	This server (DNS) automatically and secretly from the user provides the translation of the dictionary equivalent of the site to the IP address.
24deab596215674de7c9a500b99c50ee15166de0	With the general spread of the Network outside the United States, national first level domains ru, uk, ua, etc. appeared.
3c95006bbf4ff71dfb278d9b2e6d758c1eaa7c66	In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) took part in the creation of its own NSFNet network, which was soon connected to the Internet.
3599a8b16d4dda66b8b729e477f31e25bb4617c9	Initially, the NSF consisted of 5 supercomputer centers, however, less than in APRANET, and the data transfer rate in communication channels did not exceed 56 kbit / s.
1548172f451f1cf53795b6157ff31b0b00a6fabc	At the same time, the creation of NSFNet was a significant contribution to the development of the Internet, as it allowed us to take a new look at how the Internet can be used.
0a5aae0c1ae43d6380670f7b28ad7506c18264a9	The Foundation set a task for every scientist and engineer in the United States to be "connected" to a single network, and therefore began to create a network with faster channels that would unite numerous regional and local networks.
713b495aafb798e7c335a785bf89323b4e57a815	Based on the ARPANET technology, the NSFNET network (the National Science Foundation NETwork) was created in 1986, in the creation of which NASA and the Ministry of Energy were directly involved.
942a9087847eabcd91b1763f0e90ac39f627720e	Six large research centers equipped with the latest supercomputers, located in different regions of the United States, were connected.
b7fddf2790b89a09450780c8c0f8140190bd489c	The main purpose of this network was to provide US research centers with access to supercomputers, based on a reference interregional network.
6b4a80b0e94088ad3f0bd10a3f601525da31faed	The network operated at a base speed of 56 Kbit/s.
7b878485544e75c73da65be109e32312ecaac431	When creating the network, it became obvious that it is not even worth trying to connect all universities and research organizations directly to the centers, since it is not only very expensive to lay such a large amount of cable, but it is almost impossible.
262a7ee81f56ab79f07b957cb7eea9c621aad3c6	Therefore, we decided to create networks on a regional basis.
72be0d16a2a9db80571fe5fb29da96ff1b89fb0a	In each part of the country, interested institutions were connected with their nearest neighbors.
6afd6e8417f7ad6975e0b51b83076a106ff08293	The resulting chains were connected to the supercomputer centers through one of their nodes, so the supercomputer centers were connected together.
6477f432071a642c30faa19e339799100f35e82a	With this design, any computer could communicate with any other, transmitting messages through neighbors [29].
71a37c4f6f185d458135a5f81ea5eb34580b7c5c	One of the problems that existed at that time was that early networks (including ARPANET) were built purposefully in the interests of a narrow circle of interested organizations.
b1656c487dbb282bd341d7dbfbb8eff767cb9124	They were supposed to be used by a closed community of specialists; as a rule, the work of networks was limited to this.
055cfce0d22b0c6b6f15a1613549a720c533864e	There was no special need for network compatibility, respectively, there was no compatibility itself.
5880f5fa89676be329ef7ab9c3508bbd3cc4f2ac	At the same time, alternative technologies began to appear in the commercial sector, such as XNS from Xerox, DECnet, as well as SNA from IBM.
5c04dcdef0ee1e01c7df501195da927a6fbe1218	Therefore, under the auspices of DARPA NSFNET, together with specialists from the subordinate thematic groups on Internet Technology and Architecture (Internet Engineering and Architecture Task Forces) and members of the NSF Network Technical Advisory Group, "Requirements for Internet Gateways"were developed.
5f0d3b4191b1b530ffbdca4099904afbecf6f177	These requirements are formally gar the compatibility of the parts of the Internet managed by DARPA and NSF was checked.
12c463c9ea0c2798202ef2b42f21610918407699	In addition to choosing TCP/IP as the basis of NSFNet, US federal agencies have adopted and implemented a number of additional principles and rules that have formed the modern look of the Internet.
5417a5ebd6fd92572015be7dfb68b59a03bd67f7	What is very important, NSFNET pursued a policy of "universal and equal access to the Internet".
75b9fe8dea7307aa27252d91c497e3606f68bb90	In fact, in order for an American university to receive funds from the NSF for an Internet connection, it, as it was written in the NSFNet program, "must ensure that this connection is available to all trained users on campus" [29].
75047b4b981ef1ae62b546c69df4a0dadf9e9f18	NSFNET initially worked quite successfully.
5557ac871cf3730fbe1eb45a628c6a6625c276ef	But the time came when she stopped coping with the increased needs.
d300013d59001b8bed575b51c0b4e264052f7f89	The network created for the use of supercomputers allowed connected organizations to use a lot of information data that was not related to supercomputers.
53078e983ed4ac658b6915d980a3af689b478d4f	Netizens in research centers, universities, schools, etc.realized that they now have access to a lot of information and that they have direct access to their colleagues.
638121518eeabfe53252a39e1f704a40808cb72f	The flow of messages on the Network grew faster and faster, until, eventually, it overloaded the computers that control the network and the telephone lines connecting them.
35ff40a9989f0f0dbe6c637c642f5bb75f66c445	In 1987, NSF handed over to Merit Network Inc. a contract under which Merit, with the participation of IBM and MCI, was to provide management of the NSFNET reference network, make the transition to higher speed T 1 channels and continue its development.
39be9c2cade152a1ae40a4dd3f5af65f09389d74	The growing support network already combined more than 10 nodes.
fff7526748ec9a66ba55612b9d067c26dc56c457	In 1990, the concepts of ARPANET, NFSNET, MILNET, etc. they finally left the scene, giving way to the concept of the Internet.
725dd3d4f9bca225cf48245a33f616be841c0a31	The scope of the NSFNET network, combined with the quality of the protocols, led to the fact that by 1990, when ARPANET was finally dismantled, the TCP/IP family had displaced or significantly displaced most other protocols of global computer networks around the world, and IP was confidently becoming the dominant data transportation service in the global information infrastructure.
17caeb8e4c3dd29cb92a33ad182f87f07d32e0db	In 1990, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (European Organization for Nuclear Research) organized the largest Internet site in Europe and provided access to the Internet of the Old World.
44a6ced3ab1e6aef46f770600accb539674b9382	To assist in the promotion and promotion of the concept of distributed computing via the Internet CERN (Switzerland, Geneva) Tim Berners Lee has developed a hypertext document technology the World Wide Web (WWW), which allows users to have access to any information located on the Internet on computers around the world.
9e1ca7d7e5b02f68af345f52389730e280d3e48a	The WWW technology is based on: the definition of URL specifications (Universal Resource Locator, universal resource pointer), HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol, hypertext Transfer Protocol) and the HTML language itself (HyperText Markup Language, hypertext markup language).
00292498523bfb01089a88eb9c742d939c019567	The text can be marked up in HTML using any text editor.
871b9a17233f63e029453fec44ad2a55890dba3b	A page marked up in HTML is often called a Web page.
855d73a2a4e3ae8ee1745e315fa64d74cdd140e1	To view a Web page, a client application is used – a Web browser.
56c2505f82c908e53eba323864bfbf16f096f3ee	In 1994, the W3C Consortium was formed, which brought together scientists from various universities and companies (including Netscape and Microsoft).
9223b8da552893d24979a4e6aaf307202b11d63d	Since that time, the committee has been dealing with all the standards in the Internet world.
526515b6d6be13caea4b22a85408dae26dd83411	The first step of the organization was the development of the HTML 2.0 specification.
2fe78870590269a6d7dfb043952a56e393a08885	In this version, it became possible to transfer information from the user's computer to the server using forms.
220aead584e64a69227dece2c76702f15d478d33	The next step was the HTML 3 project, work on which began in 1995.For the first time, the CSS system (Cascading Style Sheets, hierarchical style sheets) was introduced.
2995f10a4424682b21a7ec14ce4baf8793c1f8c6	CSS allows you to format the text without violating the logical and structural markup.
193228b884ab91a257ec0326a846257faec5b62d	The HTML 3 standard was never approved, instead HTML 3.2 was created and adopted in January 1997.
16684fb6fbbb853883e3db4e29d41a307eae877c	Already in December 1997, the W3C adopted the HTML 4.0 standard, which is divided into logical and visual tags.
4130db0cdbd62185297f702f68044f49900838a2	The Internet has grown far beyond what it was seen and designed, it has outgrown the agencies and organizations that created it, they could no longer play a dominant role in its growth.
c524de145e16b73aa335c79885547297f81ee15d	The inventor of the World Wide Web is Tim Berners Lee, who is the author of HTTP, URI/URL and HTML technologies [69].
3b74875e5f33067392591b67a0d09c37071b84be	In 1980, for his own needs, he wrote the program "Enquirer" ("Interrogator"), which used random associations to store data and laid the conceptual basis for the World Wide Web.
32b44e4961a63ccd1573b4cd7da6753fcf40cc7f	In 1989, Tim Berners Lee proposed a global hypertext project, now known as the World Wide Web.
39aca499f6a6b89133db7d7292aa09412be180eb	The project involved the publication of hypertext documents linked by hyperlinks, which would facilitate the search and consolidation of information for scientists.
a9e21ed9e8aab001fec13bd1753ecc4ce4c8ac7a	To implement the project, he invented URI identifiers, the HTTP protocol and the HTML language.
6585075b20ad333c18a96476dc7f6f2d2323155f	He wrote the world's first web server "httpd" and the world's first hypertext web browser, called "WorldWideWeb".
fe5050240cfd1095d91ed4df8f12eaae7c9fa669	This browser was also a WYSIWYG editor (sok. What You See Is What You Get), its development was started in October 1990, and completed in December of the same year.
687830cc9b9c4b4f6dddb7ff2cc5317cfec0b4b5	The program worked in the "NeXTSTEP" environment and began to spread over the Internet in the summer of 1991.
fb2c41c8a219efb7a6057c2443b09e7f25e13cea	Berners Lee created the world's first web site at http://info.cern.ch/, the site is now stored in the archive.
296683f710faae6eeb4873ccf277f86c35471aec	This site appeared online on the Internet on August 6, 1991.
0603142a2c8c71356909f0a3afe9ed621525f2e0	This site described what the World Wide Web is, how to install a Web server, how to use a browser, etc.
07795856c56582690ec022cba92b1538fc5fea42	Since 1994, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), founded by Tim Berners Lee, has taken over the main work on the development of the World Wide Web.
9dc56989247077f65c1b4f279c2774f914290bee	This Consortium is an organization that develops and implements technological standards for the Internet and the World Wide Web.
4bae4b42feaee084c6890c08750bb96b10ed14cf	The W3C's mission is "To fully unlock the potential of the World Wide Web by creating protocols and principles that guarantee the long term development of the Network."
93709249f8a883fdb1c6e438b443a1497f4c22d5	The other two most important tasks of the Consortium are to ensure the complete "internationalization of the Network" and make the Network accessible to people with disabilities.
688f6b7de1c7b211f5d6bc4c667c8a51b4408dff	To create a computer understandable description of a resource in the semantic web, the RDF format (English Resource Description Framework) is used, which is based on XML syntax and uses URI identifiers to designate resources.
0a90ac83e3d82c4f1727db36b95e0fc0e4b46a29	Internet telephony has become one of the most modern and economical types of communication.
973d8e07bf84227c3d2df5423810f77b07b84dd9	Her birthday can be considered February 15, 1995, when VocalTec released its first soft phone a program that serves for voice exchange over the IP network.
3a299ff4f1c2683827d4070e703165b2c6ceab1a	Then Microsoft released the first version of NetMeeting in October 1996.
8f51ba14e4b67f01876bf0259814ce9868418c6d	And already in 1997, it became quite common to connect two ordinary telephone subscribers via the Internet, located in completely different places on the planet.
99f0e6f63598d0e744d3559f29c3afe34e91a9b8	Why is regular long distance and international telephone communication so expensive?
4ddfd72bce2cf9c86dc976771ca6d4d7727a0a18	This is explained by the fact that during a conversation, the subscriber occupies an entire communication channel, not only when talking or listening to the interlocutor, but also when he is silent or distracted from the conversation.
38a02f460a562e75273a24fa2b6a87975ce716f4	This is what happens when voice is transmitted over the phone in the usual analog way.
e196746ae45681b514410c3918ad3917c5f666df	With the digital method, information can be transmitted not continuously, but in separate "packets".
e86c25ca34f60ce8f75b6ed73474edf1b76c889d	Then it is possible to send information from many subscribers simultaneously via one communication channel.
87c2242f30b0331a2fb5cb3e6043518a27513eb6	This principle of packet transmission of information is similar to the transportation of many letters with different addresses in one mail car.
beae09e47e7eeb85e13056a9fa43fd5df63dd588	After all, they donot" drive " one mail car to transport each letter separately!
d4927aec2d9e89e40b7d5a41fef21db47b96afe2	Such a temporary "batch compaction" allows you to use existing communication channels much more efficiently, "compress" them.
3bb954cf4f7c607a5d5827e28a56916a8235539c	At one end of the communication channel, the information is divided into packets, each of which, like a letter, is provided with its own individual address.
b77ccfdbffd6390842c657fda1c3466fb4b8549f	The packets of many subscribers are transmitted "interspersed"over the communication channel.
7e9cd00715d28aefb5a8919ba2ffb1afafe4d8bd	At the other end of the communication channel, packets with the same address are combined again and sent to their destination.
bb66eb5a5e9aea0b40db040eebfb0fa41592b5a8	Such a batch principle is widely used on the Internet [29].
d6c21eeac20de872805d19d3e865d06c0c35771a	Having a personal computer, a sound card, a microphone and headphones (or sound speakers) compatible with it, the subscriber can use Internet telephony to call any subscriber who has a regular landline phone.
8a1670bb9d213780093515f57ce23639e5e0f959	During this conversation, he will also pay only for using the Internet.
b441c935a0e7153ec0bcd115b78fbec8a6580fa1	Before using Internet telephony, the subscriber the owner of a personal computer must install a special program on it.
e0c27e74744e072d516bfe48297318ca04401097	It is not necessary to have a personal computer to use Internet telephony services.
63c4c6fec88446f752e7df09bad4266093de8b9b	To do this, it is enough to have a regular phone with a tone dial.
bfaf4496e79d30d49fe4801cd6d2707d067e1b5e	In this case, each dialed digit goes into the line not in the form of a different number of electrical pulses, as when the disk rotates, but in the form of alternating currents of different frequencies.
bbeedfb40f06b9fa2a2ec74530734700d78b07e0	This tone mode is available in most modern telephones.
8ba43d18fcba52ae3dd354989ac0c55c1bfc0da1	To use Internet telephony using a telephone device, you need to buy a credit card, and call a powerful central computer server at the number indicated on the card.
e2c86ef2b006c69bb1ce0e5268eb7802e309bb20	Then the server's automatic voice machine (optionally in Russian or English) informs the commands: dial the serial number and key of the card using the buttons of the telephone, dial the country code and the number of your future interlocutor.
10ad61aeafa588e9a214f88fd94aa99ae55777d6	Next, the server turns the analog signal into a digital one, sends it to another city, to a server located there, which again converts the digital signal into an analog one and sends it to the desired subscriber.
c80da0d689fabee388b0a1b8dda84d0cf914198b	The interlocutors talk as if on a regular phone, although sometimes there is a small (for a fraction of a second) delay in answering.
d35481fb59013711ed35e88bd6cfa233aceab78b	Recall that to save communication channels, voice information is transmitted in" packets " of digital data: your voice information is divided into segments, packets called Internet Protocols (IP).
2c75d75db4cbd4a0ada33dcdb5d40828a5205ec5	In 2003, the Skype program was created (www.skype.com), completely free and does not require almost any knowledge from the user either to install it or to use it.
ed240b8d525c5d7d85a0d14ed94323d8ddd2f6d1	It allows you to talk in video mode with interlocutors who are at their computers in different parts of the world.
168624023fb4b46c988b8c45f38eb89daf4d9f17	In order for the interlocutors to see each other, the computer of each of them must be equipped with a web camera.
cc056143a550c7225e445e5c8c75bcab26ccec0c	This is such a long way in the development of communication tools that humanity has done: from signal fires and drums to a cellular mobile phone, which allows two people to contact almost instantly, located anywhere on our planet.
bcedbde1cce10bd6cf24968f7267a72d1eaee5e9	At the same time, despite the different distances, subscribers have a feeling of personal communication.
83c0cb14e5d722c831f261f127a24dfaa8d1aa16	© Scientific Library
25c054cba15f06a3be8afb5cec5779489f02bcb8	Copying information from the page is allowed only with a link to this site
768974380d2d205d280a9f2c9d379e512bc49e33	FEDERAL SAINT PETERSBURG Adygea Arkhangelsk Barnaul Belarus Bryansk Vladivostok Vladimir Volgograd Vologda Dagestan Irkutsk Kazan Kaliningrad Kamchatka Kirov Krasnodar Krasnoyarsk Crimea Kuzbass Nizhny Novgorod Novosibirsk Omsk Orenburg Penza Perm Pskov Rostov on Don Ryazan Samara Saratov Smolensk Stavropol Tula Udmurtia Ukraine Ulyanovsk Ural Khabarovsk Cheboksary Chelyabinsk Chernozem Chita Yugra Yaroslavl
5c8bba5e13185c17baddbf26fb9f3b9623eb1054	Question and Answer
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0fcded37943bb44f3da85f9d980a4484dc8fbd66	IS militants in Islamabad attacked the office of the TV channel
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4cd66dfabbd964f8c6c4414b07cdb45dae692e19	91
22a43c9741adbe05bce51f95d9b8a3e90000a0f7	The ROC denied rumors about the desire to buy out the bank
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3375f929c2b34a294ee20e60eacfbca9fdf66d2c	18074
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484920eb9c43e7f5927acf5b577d009dee99c631	The Contact Group on Ukraine has concluded its meeting in Minsk
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ab2c2c8acbce25d2ed868eca250b1a2035d67a1e	The head of the DPR welcomed Gryzlov's participation in the negotiations in Minsk
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6c7e7815889e5363b0bdf70e325d1f160b5cf556	The EU does not accept it.
2bb3cf76e76f9084ae1a0c097e9b4fdb4ef359ec	Norway collects bicycles for sending refugees to Russia
2b348a807fba80c79943ffd86758097907a6af79	1073
0bb06c00a29f6dc900764899f9bdd9a8e20bc6c6	Putin called on the Cabinet of Ministers to be ready for any economic situations
ce32f9bcb41ee872a33b4e0fa860a67772fba6aa	1767
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3e2e911853c643151f47bee846f597d1241033cd	Russia's low public debt will help overcome the crisis - Kudrin
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752647b4ba2a5dd79b4a48f14d9bbe5243e1ee9e	Ukraine intends to create a new "Silk Road" to Asia bypassing Russia
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6a968486fb9207cf5dfcf9ca948a3d8825d7802e	Valeria Lanskaya will become the new host of the show " The Voice.
330ec92dccc5ab2d481707792c6ca6dde037835d	Children"
5fd057a6ff9dc7a124fa5c814765a498e5aa024a	2342
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a078c357b3ee42f549bf773e486b386313522253	Trick #217.
5e522e7f098794cefa143a678af5139d4499a0af	So that the dumplings do not fall apart (method 2)
655d1b5df6620635f138a71639de6a15a3708cc5	3815
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1900ee27bc195a4e74a7a1ceae1f7d60e3c71037	Blueberry pie and caramel pear.
8ebda734149ef54a4aa93294d16b7251ca4a7939	We are preparing for the meeting of the old New Year
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db1c784524e1b54011a95823026161f7c8517fe0	Reference
ba0601ceb7d922e9f2a59c103d7eda30b3037563	Question rating
ec05956bfa0a2b3e90fcaf463c51743167614f02	+ -
d17cb11d07f23ea99b5e80208ddf9e935cfa0dfa	What is the World Wide Web and who invented it?
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16f38e8a048a46ec46abe0186b5a531dfbadb09d	0 7826
0ef224467bf5721755249e88bc7336034c2bd292	Elena Slobodyan Category: Dossier
6df7a99459bd511bca24254d4dc4d81c80e16f12	Editorial response
75e134b6bdec97d15bf6573f5c0e917f764f3768	On March 12, 1989, the English physicist and engineer Tim Berners Lee presented to the leadership of the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN) a project for a unified system for organizing, storing and sharing information.
5ab79d2f545ab696a096d21ce147b283c4d19394	The scientist called the web browser the World Wide Web.
49547e60951e8025a9b015683009915646ab18dd	According to the creator's plan, the "web" should serve as an environment in which everyone can share knowledge with others.
e5d50d70ce84e386a8228e9d9107f5de79381584	Related article
00a32757ece0d8363dbadfcb43c94d7aa8b3beed	How to secure your computer on the Internet.
9f8e8fb0eef6f757447b807a00333fbb325184b2	​
686d36801178e6def7479cd03f6c8a4ad3ebd11e	What is the World Wide Web?
a19c8d862f7be1dacfdca1021d09d18d581d60c2	But in addition, there are so called hyperlinks on web pages.
b1dca5aaa79d7762ccc3971f62bb51b5cfb59399	Each web page on the Internet has an address — URL (English Uniform Resource Locator a unique address, name).
da9cf7aca650980b98ccd5591dcd5d0c55d8adab	They called it ARPANET (English: Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
9452b8d7cec0caca0e7d768d03b1f06a4f2bc4db	The first program for sending e mail over the network was developed.
e7a1b51283ca0720574c0a4490bb7eafb85d2b47	In 1977, the number of Internet users reached 100, in 1984 — 1000, in 1986 there were already more than 5000, in 1989 more than 100,000.
6c2ee8617f1757956a73a07a5931a1334e1a55b8	*Some sources indicate the date of the appearance of the World Wide Web a day later — March 13, 1989.
19bfcf1b84c9c9091fcdcc0a9d41e1c861a9215f	scientific developments
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16514d3d2e36fec75fb2731527ee9a9eee07bfd8	Kiev will sue Russia over the "Crimean Railway"
62a9bc106a9dee220b10a576ae37e15fa5218c8d	The famous chess player Ivan Bukavshin died at the age of 21
0d00047d766b68813de46e6496fc391704b1c298	"Every hare will be punished."
054497738c25ab45aadde6fbc888ee74285ba79b	The execution of a Russian pilot was shown in Kiev
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4f9abef70d99df92a9e66d2f30f8e9da496422f4	The head of Naftogaz did not believe in gas supplies from Russia to Genichesk
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a5dff4b4aa3b96db08d51cd92a98c9939bf3e163	© 2015 CJSC "Arguments and Facts" General Director Ruslan Novikov.
75bd30cbe9a1109b849b02f2007c8228bc6619ea	Man and nature are inseparable from each other and are closely interrelated.
f38ea3734bc0cf48e8bb4104e93cc70811079ec9	For a person, as well as for society as a whole, nature is the environment of life and the only source of resources necessary for existence.
cfb14beb5e1eafe349b0f48c490f7a3fb5a4f21a	Nature and natural resources are the basis on which human society lives and develops, the primary source of satisfying the material and spiritual needs of people.
c78edb90bbeb3fc1a0a81df4f6a0ad1864192f6a	Man is a part of nature and as a living being, his elementary vital activity has a tangible impact on the natural environment.
c75eaf716957d553d27e22318c91bade597c4403	Man began to change natural complexes already at the primitive stage of the development of civilization, during the period of hunting and gathering, when he began to use fire.
b4009e827f668800ae212b5883f9c72d7734f822	But these classes are unlikely to be harmful to the environment.
7985722f4ac1cf193754cb3154d7cd869a9c583f	The domestication of wild animals and the development of agriculture have expanded the territory of manifestation of the consequences of human activity.
a9daeb553d8c32a102e7accab15133921383a80f	With the development of industry and the replacement of muscle power with fuel energy, the intensity of anthropogenic influence continued to increase.
8c1a4b0c3bbdb2229680715e00312f8cfa0efc03	From the very beginning of his development, man felt himself the master of everything that surrounds him.
ebe63f5e5e71e11b63bf535a1068fc896c122c18	But, as the proverb says: "Do not cut the branch on which you are sitting."
f4d676d7809fd8ab65d3d155fbd80eccf93d6e7d	One wrong decision and it may take tens or even hundreds of years to correct the fatal mistake.
a74589acb4e3614525e0f5b19afb34202f54cf85	The natural balance is very fragile.
9ea70e9170b2a8a05cebbe9fb8cd7a602eee104c	If you do not seriously think about your activities, then this very activity will certainly begin to stifle humanity itself.
ceae72d5e0bcd8fb2547fc6004bacf6aedbcf3e8	Man, developing production, remakes nature, adapts it to his needs, and the higher the level of development of production, the more perfect the technique and technology, the greater the degree of use of the forces of nature and environmental pollution.
7046862a7a0941f5a3f7df9efe216b623cf5dc26	Even in ancient Rome and Athens, the Romans noted the pollution of the waters of the Tiber, and the Athenians-the pollution of the waters of the Athenian port of Piraeus, which received ships from the entire then Ecumene, i.e. the territory of the globe inhabited by man.
7d0c405382a5fa572bb7951d02627c42559a9405	Roman settlers in the provinces of Africa complained about the impoverishment of land due to soil erosion.
3ec9d276fb2d4a1bd8a0ba2b7cc00def0cf92c1f	For many centuries, artificial, i.e. anthropogenic, sources of environmental pollution have not had a noticeable impact on environmental processes.
ebcbf8c2efe49c7bab80d5df99a7942046935ea4	The most developed in those days were the production of metals, glass, soap, pottery, paints, bread, wine, etc.
86cd178204d158d94803db3016094feb6a335950	Compounds such as oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen, metal vapors, especially mercury, were released into the atmosphere, waste from dyeing and food production went into reservoirs.
5aeb4a401958f5e9abf687b8b7ede4f011b81a6b	In the Middle Ages, the process of accelerated development of chemistry began due to the need to obtain relatively large quantities of various acids, saltpeter, gunpowder, etc.
85e99bedee330ca9fed19334c168187a304ea738	The transition from feudal fragmentation to the formation of unified states with centralized power contributed to the further progress of the metalworking industry and chemical technology. However, in terms of volume, industrial emissions were still inferior to emissions from furnace heating and sewage.
b1baa2f93b5dd2dab3e8fa0a8921e2771ff5bce9	The first law on environmental protection is considered to be the edict of the English King Edward IV (1273), prohibiting the use of coal for heating London's homes.
7f1cc54f797b621eb81af514761af28936548295	According to the customs of that time, the death penalty was imposed for violating the edict.
fcbdb452c29ff43234fc63e68f3edc30a33c80af	With the invention of the steam engine, industry is gradually becoming an increasingly significant source of pollution due to a sharp increase in fuel consumption.
af56092581687bdd44a0c5cda25a716a2a909da0	The development of metallurgy and related industries leads to increased atmospheric pollution, the formation of wastewater and solid waste.
7e0a828e82bb518908eb1ce718d24b72b448dbfc	Due to the development of railways, transport is becoming an increasingly solid source of atmospheric pollution.
8031df4ad1d364c77585dc662fe421b2ddb5e633	With the advent of internal combustion engines and large thermal power plants, as well as with the further development of the chemical industry, the nature of environmental pollution is changing qualitatively and quantitatively.
28ed66ea0dd0a52c42c6176dd60178b2fa4f8bb2	A number of pollutants enter the air from furnaces, furnaces, exhaust pipes of cars.
872f426a5a977880b0443ef11b2c2b5d0cfc8763	One of the most terrible oxygen eaters is a car.
eee653185c2c9dce530e871fd26fd84336be06a5	In just one trip, it can absorb enough oxygen to last one person for a whole day.
420f1178ebaca54d75c305a98da1d36becdb0713	As a result of burning various fuels, about 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere annually, so its content in the atmosphere is gradually increasing.
7c1151b8b41740bda0d9e980497be53dfd23c3cc	Over the past 100 years, it has increased by more than 10%.
f1b97d423f98308482979c28d49c3addc87d671f	Carbon dioxide prevents thermal radiation into outer space, creating a so-called "greenhouse effect"there.
145db56a5c7c7205212d75933b9d092d5b526ad7	Because of it, the average temperature of the atmosphere increases by several degrees per year, which can cause the melting of glaciers in the polar regions, an increase in the level of the world ocean, changes in its salinity, temperature and other adverse consequences.
da99d968410093a82ce3b6c0aa0f073a054a952c	The transformative influence of man on nature is inevitable.
421c493ce41628d7c12dd3727ceee427f462f0e9	The changes introduced by its economic activity into nature are intensified with the development of productive forces and an increase in the mass of substances involved in economic turnover.
bed57b1d97b78d40ea06353d27e26d3ccc731a5e	The global processes of formation and movement of living matter in the biosphere are connected and accompanied by a cycle of matter and energy.
fd111e1fed4260c22b2ccd135fc6828c783d5d9c	In contrast to purely geological processes, biogeochemical cycles involving living matter have significantly higher intensity, speed and quantity of the substance involved in the turnover.
519f7a546a304952fdb4aa9fcd44d9ee1b0636c9	The real shifts in biosphere processes began in the XX century as a result of the next industrial revolution.
7edd7e68a03071e3edeb551f51fa932a8849cb83	The rapid development of energy, mechanical engineering, chemistry, and transport has led to the fact that human activity has become comparable in scale with natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere.
c02f7598c5a7ec772c6572c478336574d0f228d8	The intensity of human consumption of energy and material resources is growing in proportion to the population and even outstrips its growth.
f225acc6021acfcbc685fb3ef82ef8a221a6da04	V. I. Vernadsky wrote: "A person becomes a geological force capable of changing the face of the Earth."
7b020d7f1c702279e4676cba7d4bc9c5de654de8	This warning was prophetically justified.
b689c706b2fcf837bb8b8e07bd83ce569adac88f	The consequences of anthropogenic (human-made) activities are manifested in the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the biosphere with industrial waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth's surface, climate change.
037aa44a9e6cc8fca714e18349e49f85543159c7	Anthropogenic impacts lead to disruption of almost all natural biogeochemical cycles.
762995d611ccbbfeff49b16da168de4e30a20c6e	In accordance with the population density, the degree of human impact on the environment also changes.
51b008a36cf2a4d5f8a981837b59cb20a062583c	The appearance of new components in the natural environment caused by human activity or some grandiose natural phenomena (for example, volcanic activity) is characterized by the term pollution.
7996e471d4d94db29d480aa6423db616193f7bec	In general, pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the environment that disrupt the functioning of ecological systems or their individual elements and reduce the quality of the environment from the point of view of human habitation or economic activity.
0d7944df64870da91aa9b60a7e926b46c32eee06	This term describes all bodies, substances, phenomena, processes that appear in the environment at a given place, but not at the time and not in the amount that is natural for nature, and can bring its systems out of equilibrium.
a4ba97afec5563d6178b2c8efe439407609ef2ca	The ecological effect of polluting agents can manifest itself in different ways: it can affect either individual organisms (manifest at the organizational level), or populations, biocenoses, ecosystems and even the biosphere as a whole.
ec8a3e0a0b0a0975d8c36e6840ea3721c9ab0d75	At the organizational level, there may be a violation of certain physiological functions of organisms, a change in their behavior, a decrease in the rate of growth and development, a decrease in resistance to the effects of other unfavorable environmental factors.
7e12c4903f29fa240b3735ba97bf58ff32821c4d	At the population level, pollution can cause changes in their abundance and biomass, fertility, mortality, changes in structure, annual migration cycles, and a number of other functional properties.
78f5bef914b9a23702d8a1729ddf7f92cbea9396	At the biocenotic level, pollution affects the structure and functions of communities.
01efef8dc46b745379b2d2c260d91b8e55cb572f	The same pollutants affect different components of communities in different ways.
c97b941b8ac38e2e744d6b19e8b3a75a9ef0d6aa	Accordingly, the quantitative relations in the biocenosis change, up to the complete disappearance of some forms and the appearance of others.
b5e79a837f4643a578a79fa5d399c3e6e7cdd73b	The spatial structure of communities is changing, the chains of decomposition (detritus) begin to prevail over pasture, dying-over production.
5f7ebd765086972918fa1663936f991b20c32442	Ultimately, there is a degradation of ecosystems, their deterioration as elements of the human environment, a decrease in the positive role in the formation of the biosphere, and economic depreciation.
991462a29fe4b53eec7ef2662ba07152a518fc3a	There are natural and anthropogenic pollution.
d5ff8a70aa999e3a8aab4d4fe5fe29a96124c28c	Natural pollution occurs as a result of natural causes - volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, catastrophic floods and fires.
b81d63e25948b33391900109d97bd188f83d3325	Anthropogenic pollution is the result of human activity.
6f61682b2b0952817f3e9f210fe15e58a3433935	Anthropogenic changes in the environment are very diverse.
8c7c4360bf94309f668e028c05ce6cf71e0ede71	By directly affecting only one of the components of the environment, a person can indirectly change the rest.
d27a16275f1a49eeb04babe073c47473a301db71	Both in the first and in the second case, there is a violation of the circulation of substances in the natural complex, and from this point of view, the results of the impact on the environment can be attributed to several groups.
6e9c0275def57b51a73b9deae96056ce2247094a	The first group includes effects that lead only to a change in the concentration of chemical elements and their compounds without changing the shape of the substance itself.
34c5d5f2fdb7e426e2733e4ae8ecd14cbe43185a	The second group – impacts lead not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in the forms of finding elements (within individual anthropogenic landscapes).
4ef4327eaa239675d6bdd5314ef9db0c259cc2fe	Such transformations are often observed during the development of deposits, when many elements of ores, including toxic heavy metals, pass from the mineral form into aqueous solutions.
a9545dbb67862f5c3e5c9f65fcf1a4d4406adb5a	At the same time, their total content within the complex does not change, but they become more accessible to plant and animal organisms.
23efea8804b13af22ad48ac2c893e5b15ba6a432	Another example is the changes associated with the transition of elements from a biogenic form to an abiogenic one.
2f7dae3494b67bc709be7f6c22ce8c49b946fb70	The third group is the formation of technogenic compounds and elements that have no analogues in nature or are not characteristic of this area.
2cdbf6c4bec9ded0631c4420adfdea678460db51	There are more and more such changes every year.
0910029eeceec21d891202f937f84b196e60488c	These are the appearance of freon in the atmosphere, plastics in soils and waters, weapons-grade plutonium, caesium in the seas, the widespread accumulation of poorly decomposing pesticides, etc.
054a71efa50322f0474dc8c72b68ecb66f7715ce	In total, about 70,000 different synthetic chemicals are used daily in the world.
fef93ee3465979d1cd73588a6e4d2e854626d5da	It should be noted that little is known about the environmental impact of most of them, but at least half of them are harmful or potentially harmful to human health.
0a49cbd6c5ec2a111119561aea310ef90224e053	The fourth group is the mechanical movement of significant masses of elements without a significant transformation of the forms of their location.
94e6d2f644eecb7c1020e829efcbef174b763509	An example is the movement of rock masses during the development of deposits both open and underground.
73643b66ac40ecc63ba1dff36e8932198c0753c1	Traces of quarries, underground voids and terricons (hills with steep slopes formed by spent waste rocks moved from mines) will exist on Earth for many thousands of years.
323f698f4e2eb6fe684936367f3ab27022573d97	Let's consider the consequences of the three main types of human economic activity, although, of course, they do not exhaust the entire complex of anthropogenic influence on the habitat.
f57eac684436b238f48ef8393b86c522695be114	Industry – the largest branch of material production-plays a central role in the economy of modern society and is the main driving force of its growth.
165bc382fdfda807277e6f424f6f0bff72dfb015	Over the past century, world industrial production has increased more than 50 (!) times, and 4/5 of this growth has occurred since 1950, i.e. the period of active introduction of scientific and technological progress into production
667d38aa9a5301af2ba6bf4d34dd21587902c295	Naturally, such a rapid growth of industry, which ensures our well-being, primarily affected the environment, the load on which has increased many times.
525cea5645261dcbb832364c1b37ace3d1cf3319	Industry and its products affect the environment at all stages of the industrial cycle: from the exploration and production of raw materials, its processing into finished products, waste generation and ending with the use of finished products by the consumer, and then its liquidation due to further unsuitability.
bc1201c485f89394b72ed353bd3d3957f32af935	The load on landscapes and their components in the leading industries is carried out as follows.
5fb857ef9f2de347e1e26e604e13670632d2484a	Energy is the basis for the development of all branches of industry, agriculture, transport, and public utilities.
aedeb28d94bd67d7ed277a9e5875477129975dce	This is an industry with very high rates of development and huge production scales.
fd8f47ff4c6f910f939e3099d544223681870c1d	Accordingly, the share of participation of energy enterprises in the load on the natural environment is very significant.
bee6c1a43c27ec03ca041633fcff633ab08bc814	The annual energy consumption in the world is more than 10 billion tons of conventional fuel, and this figure is continuously increasing .2
2a8abe6fe64622bfa1eaad267495077fe0b3ef0c	For energy production, either fuel is used – oil, gas, coal, wood, peat, shale, nuclear materials, or other primary energy sources – water, wind, solar energy, etc.
0ea30163b3696c9eaaf3ffde8682a89742da8289	Almost all fuel resources are non-renewable – and this is the first stage of the impact on the nature of the energy industry – the irrevocable removal of masses of matter.
3a56d9046cfcd8507b942e91fd8154ab47842eb2	Each of the sources, when used, is characterized by specific parameters of pollution of natural complexes.
72c2cbe1ceebdd5219e48360bf9b48a019c44392	Coal is the most common fossil fuel on our planet.
4d8a64cb9369883c667ec80f7800629b0e6e7c4d	When burning it, carbon dioxide, fly ash, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, fluoride compounds, as well as gaseous products of incomplete combustion of fuel enter the atmosphere.
fcef089a49e7ed3de6937d3cc0e5e9c60f9d886e	When burning liquid fuel, in addition to carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and sulfur anhydrides, nitrogen oxides, vanadium, sodium compounds, gaseous and solid products of incomplete combustion enter the air.
33199765eeaee4a7a919b557b5310f76298c3e17	Natural gas is the most harmless of the fossil fuels.
67dcf7e7654c49b77fcf6c60060c706912418647	When it is burned, the only significant atmospheric pollutant other than CO2 is nitrogen oxides.
9da13639ad60dba56db0dbab2366559154adc4ba	Wood is most used in developing countries (70% of the population of these countries burns an average of about 700 kg per person per year).
db58da160f7663f28bc38e7ca7089655dd6a1e20	Wood burning is harmless – carbon dioxide and water vapor enter the air, but the structure of biocenoses is disturbed – the destruction of forest cover causes changes in all components of the landscape.
f0e120a225c6d6f112574e7f6bfc74b6a1c91518	The use of nuclear fuel is one of the most controversial issues in the modern world.
5db0345c90a9ceeb6c4b0f8642021f35e1a54e34	Of course, nuclear power plants pollute the atmospheric air to a much lesser extent than thermal power plants (using coal, oil, gas), but the amount of water used at nuclear power plants is twice as much as consumption at thermal power plants – 2.5–3 km3 per year at nuclear power plants with a capacity of 1 million kW, and thermal discharge at nuclear power plants per unit of energy produced is significantly more than at thermal power plants under similar conditions.
aa60e21816a49fde64214d266f6f7b6bd0337fde	But the problems of radioactive waste and the safety of operation of nuclear power plants cause especially heated disputes.
2a14b096ccec06f9757ceb40b2bfaf4da178b648	The enormous consequences for the natural environment and humans of possible accidents at nuclear reactors do not allow us to treat nuclear energy as optimistically as it was in the initial period of using the "peaceful atom".
f32d16968a388228de0bb663d3ae5e8fee821010	If we consider the impact of the utilization of fossil fuels on other components of natural complexes, then we should highlight the impact on natural waters.
6420de3effa2a74b3e71dd93ab663741eb693998	For the needs of cooling generators, a huge water intake is produced at power plants: 200 to 400 liters of water are needed to generate 1 kW of electricity; a modern thermal power plant with a capacity of 1 million kW requires 1.2–1.6 km3 of water during the year.
87f91f4dddc2d0c798a136a6eb7241b16a7e44d9	The return of waste water heated in cooling systems causes thermal pollution of water, as a result of which, in particular, the solubility of oxygen in water decreases and at the same time the vital activity of aquatic organisms is activated, which begin to consume more oxygen.
06e95810cf6bc03971e1c88dafb9c64732854444	The next aspect of the negative impact on the landscape during the extraction of fuels is the alienation of large areas where vegetation is destroyed, the soil structure and water regime change.
ebdad95ad1002259f166f4789a9db03e5c803af3	This applies primarily to open methods of fuel extraction (in the world, about 85% of minerals and building materials are extracted by open method).
472cca7525f7d2a0f69bcb51b0ee9f985722ca08	Among other primary sources of energy – wind, river water, the sun, tides, underground heat – a special place is occupied by water.
7c0be035f3d0f42f7cfe0cbd831f4a2e8c0ea223	Geothermal power plants, solar panels, wind turbines, tidal power plants have the advantage of a minor impact on the environment, but their distribution in the modern world is still quite limited.
4b33fbb75215f2a696ae0f7d723000a88a5a9f51	River waters used by hydroelectric power plants (HPPs) that convert the energy of the water flow into electrical energy have practically no polluting effect on the environment (with the exception of thermal pollution).
6eca228a1b13747f17575796f19f205347317125	Hydraulic structures, primarily dams, violate the regimes of rivers and reservoirs, prevent the migration of fish, affect the groundwater level.
7691e41eae77365ab4d0aba0ab98d75c392e85aa	Reservoirs created to equalize river flow and uninterrupted supply of hydroelectric power plants with water also have a detrimental effect on the environment.
8ae2559370a53a433b10294b814a9f81e86ef824	The total area of only large reservoirs in the world is 180 thousand km2 (the same amount of land is flooded), and the volume of water in them is about 5 thousand km3.
001b6c8bdd1e4196729865d8402bd47b29322117	The impact of metallurgy begins with the extraction of ferrous and non – ferrous metal ores, a number of which, such as copper and lead, have been used since ancient times, while others – titanium, beryllium, zirconium, germanium-have been actively used only in recent decades (for the needs of radio engineering, electronics, nuclear technology).
03faf9aba7e56395cd7ed1840bd159f007507893	But since the middle of the XX century, due to the scientific and technical revolution, the extraction of both new and traditional metals has sharply increased, and therefore the number of natural disturbances associated with the movement of significant masses of rocks has increased.
05b39cf36c70069db68d4ae29b3bf609b3a6bad8	In addition to the main raw materials – metal ores – metallurgy actively consumes water.
4a9193da4a5a728e0c5b984b4cfc5d2a6b3a4739	But the most dangerous side of the impact of metallurgy on the environment is the technogenic dispersion of metals.
f03001b300b48311a60efb6f8b690cc5e8bd1860	With all the difference in the properties of metals, all of them are impurities in relation to the landscape.
27dbd16b73b59ec85fa5995a5359ff8219c78f31	Their concentration can increase tens and hundreds of times without external changes in the environment (water remains water, and soil remains soil, but the mercury content in them increases tenfold).
47c577b665717ed04e6892b4bb2276e2ff0749fb	The main danger of dispersed metals is their ability to gradually accumulate in the organisms of plants and animals, which disrupts the food chain.
639a684eacc89b3d2c6115572121ce2a4708f846	Metals enter the environment at almost all stages of metallurgical production.
25e69595123f6ce8c502761381f08aaa2d1e1a78	Part of it is lost during transportation, processing, sorting of ores.
80d1865a615807fb02c44e9563f58c0f82f99464	So, in one decade at this stage, about 600 thousand tons of copper, 500 thousand tons of zinc, 300 thousand tons of lead, 50 thousand tons of molybdenum were scattered around the world.
2fbc37c148b986e5ab2c6bd3bc98f88f1483e301	Further emission occurs directly at the production stage (and not only metals, but also other harmful substances are emitted).
6bd5c3c55a29128170d12e1fb3e963a32a8e0767	The air around the metallurgical enterprises is smoky, there is an increased dust content in it.
6fb081421aeea3addba220991ef15dbd7701db2c	Nickel production is characterized by emissions of arsenic and large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2); aluminum production is accompanied by emissions of fluorine, etc.
6ecdaecbb64cd54598d4a64b4198c603f51d3b32	Environmental pollution is also carried out by waste water from metallurgical plants.
203a5cef77c0b2416ee451f7637b7c9965444a6b	The most dangerous pollutants include lead, cadmium and mercury, followed by copper, tin, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, cobalt, nickel, antimony, arsenic and selenium.
d2ca374ed9cc23ff1019fbe994c470188812e18b	In the changing landscape around metallurgical enterprises, two zones can be distinguished.
28dc798659795deb8bfc9d7e0357cec290749119	The first, with a radius of 3-5 km, directly adjacent to the enterprise, is characterized by almost complete destruction of the original natural complex.
d5800605184a02866e32ab44da728e35202c184f	There is often no vegetation here, the soil cover is largely disturbed, the animals and microorganisms that inhabited the complex have disappeared.
1e816d49eb4d3c294a96cac860ec37381215f452	The second zone is more extensive, up to 20 km, looks less oppressed – there is rarely a disappearance of the biocenosis, but its individual parts are disturbed and an increased content of pollutants is observed in all components of the complex.
d0342fc66ae5f29bfc509e687cd1dbc1bbbbd745	The chemical industry is one of the most dynamic industries in most countries; new production facilities are often created in it, new technologies are introduced.
79bb5e20b3246e1eb183368a18d0e25c09ce4ee5	But it is also associated with the emergence of many modern problems of environmental pollution caused by both its products and technological processes of production.
72f15c831dd185af75545438bf337b041d45be21	The composition of air emissions from chemical enterprises is also extremely diverse.
f8c4d5acd011ff1cb0e9b170f7547315581d1cde	Petrochemical industries pollute the atmosphere with hydrogen sulfide and hydrocarbons; the production of synthetic rubber – with styrene, divinyl, toluene, acetone; the production of alkalis – with hydrogen chloride, etc.
77518eed17f206c7689b95a833d62ebb75de912a	Substances such as carbon and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, inorganic dust, fluorinated substances and many others are also emitted in large quantities.
9f101b5d66ba02488a9370cb27f36ec4019ee0be	One of the most problematic aspects of the impact of chemical production is the spread of previously non-existent compounds in nature.
04b7db65af8df561fa6b0e508e0e7745650d0627	Among them, synthetic surfactants – SPAV (sometimes they are called detergents) are considered particularly harmful.
8418595d1c83e3b59bd2b52220fc411388cd6702	They get into the environment during the production and use of various detergents in everyday life.
51e8940726cae72913f0ca90c32d50800a81334f	Entering industrial and domestic wastewater into reservoirs, SPAV is poorly delayed by treatment facilities, contributes to the appearance of abundant foam in the water, gives it toxic properties and smell, causes the death and degeneration of aquatic organisms and, very significantly, increases the toxic effect of other pollutants.
1b3343067498e8cec405d479d18105f7f264e032	These are the main negative impacts on the natural systems of the world's leading industries.
d9e644d7279ca93ed1a3b51678d6850ad069d3c4	Naturally, the influence of industry is not limited to the above: there is mechanical engineering, which uses the products of metallurgy and chemical industry and contributes to the dispersion of many substances in the environment; there are such water-intensive industries as pulp and paper and food, which also provide a large share of organic pollutants, etc.
b6a467f125d974ab14a9bf106661bf5eb558fc27	As a result, there is a sharp deterioration in the state of ecological systems, often even the death of unique natural complexes, the reduction and disappearance of populations of individual plant and animal species, the danger of irreversible changes in the structures of geographical spheres that can lead to unpredictable negative consequences for humans and society as a whole.
2c3e8f71aa846149a4e14a8726d024ffef337977	Humanity has come to the point where the contours of a fairly close eco-logical drama clearly appear.
eb70f9609bbf4667a17123df82364e388db6f35f	The main page of "The First of September" • The main page of the journal "Biology" • Content #14/2000
e9732b19567d2ab424b3341400a9d22ca5ba3729	ECOLOGY
8a7c3b64e58f44cfdc6e0fd6ec7afdae137ec266	YU.
4449cfd94e8cdf57b26b0b1141a21c10257dcf09	F. FLORINSKAYA
e6f49300c206bb9c4e8584e859a5621ea458bd75	Human impact on the environment
232744ffd79696cdb17197f66903c65f94b3e2b8	The more we take from the world, the less we leave in it, and eventually we will be forced to pay our debts at the very moment that may be very unsuitable for ensuring the continuation of our life.
101165dc2f4b9b80a819565ead6157d8307aec66	Norbert Wiener
33db7f002df36e402e86fef3bc755641917161bc	In the XX century, due to the particularly rapid growth of the population and its needs, it reached an unprecedented level and spread to the whole world.
9f2ef74e78299b34c66ea97b13415fbbe4c80f95	When considering the human impact on the environment, we must always remember the most important ecological postulates formulated in Tyler Miller's wonderful book "Life in the Environment".
bd36790d9697988266f4ac69d38860176d40961d	1. Whatever we do in nature, everything causes certain consequences in it, often unpredictable.
3c54c51fdd961a58dcc700a209049f9eecb251e1	2. Everything in nature is interconnected, and we all live in it together.
14b1a031e3d8e4c948602764f47a07ae7f44f472	3. Earth's life support systems can withstand significant pressure and rough interventions, but there is a limit to everything.
0f40d76558a4b369c677d1d5dea98603fec6b211	4. Nature is not only more complex than we think about it, it is much more complex than we can imagine.
d31d697f13610e134d7d3170b1743acc41ab9c1c	All man made complexes (landscapes) can be divided into two groups, depending on the purpose of their occurrence:
b486a04f13983f0651b3a16ba93e5a453abbb5f2	- direct – created by purposeful human activity: cultivated fields, garden and park complexes, reservoirs, etc., they are often called cultural;
3b3131aa7681f34633813c85e2a537244702f57d	- concomitant – not foreseen and usually undesirable, which were activated or brought to life by human activity: swamps on the banks of reservoirs, ravines in the fields, quarry dump landscapes, etc.
0f67d71ef9ef6a124aab0cad67178fc9fdd2f320	Each anthropogenic landscape has its own history of development, sometimes very complex and, most importantly, extremely dynamic.
c3637cc6815c50dde3f0eb5b1d36fddfcf95b1f1	In a few years or decades, anthropogenic landscapes can undergo such profound changes that natural landscapes will not experience in many thousands of years.
c52371afbfb0e85ff415703efd9233b456d3c013	The reason for this is the continuous human intervention in the structure of these landscapes, and this intervention necessarily affects the person himself.
f463d1896c9e818be64828837bc1740ee348529e	Here is just one example.
bba32020094e9fb62386ccf1618e25d43894ba79	In 1955, when nine out of every ten residents of North Borneo fell ill with malaria, on the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO), the toxic chemical dieldrin was sprayed on the island to control malaria – carrying mosquitoes.
951824e59a85164ed7073f418951f232ea050dc8	The disease was practically banished, but the unforeseen consequences of such a struggle turned out to be terrible: not only mosquitoes died from dieldrin, but also other insects, in particular flies and cockroaches; then lizards who lived in houses and ate dead insects died; after that, cats who ate dead lizards began to die; without cats, rats began to multiply rapidly – and people were threatened with a plague epidemic.
fa2b398263af9de3327fbf92cdcef93359cba2cd	We got out of this situation by parachuting healthy cats.
9621a17d98f50fc0f5535c9894ae01cada03acf8	But... it turned out that dieldrin did not affect the caterpillars, but destroyed those insects that fed on them, and then numerous caterpillars began to eat not only the leaves of trees, but also the leaves that served as a roof for roofs, as a result, roofs began to collapse.
ac2c379ce86b41f08a6387648569a2b7fcac1fa9	For example, as a result of emissions from road transport, the concentration of lead and zinc increases in the air, soil, water and plants, many times exceeding their usual content.
b29f26dd5257e62191e8cf11abb1a72d5ffd818d	In this case, the quantitative assessment of the impact is expressed in the mass of pollutants.
d993d6f9efa6042128aa5793f34c1ef43e5dc8fd	So, a person when cutting down forests, cutting down a hectare of pine forest, and then burning it, converts about 100 kg of potassium, 300 kg of nitrogen and calcium, 30 kg of aluminum, magnesium, sodium, etc. from a biogenic form to a mineral one.
1e2885c8088fa3ebcf55c16e7fb8d98479ec4ccb	These are the appearance of freon in the atmosphere, plastics in soils and waters, weapons grade plutonium, caesium in the seas, the widespread accumulation of poorly decomposing pesticides, etc.
54b1f00c29c58b02ae28d3df816ebc7d52521f5b	About 1,500 new ones are added to them every year.
3b15b34d34f115cea198934eb4d97260c36b7d45	The same group includes the movement of significant soil masses during dust storms of anthropogenic origin (one dust storm is able to transfer about 25 km3 of soil).
6a176bced377fa534e7249eb0b1fb057e06a0622	Analyzing the results of human activity, it is necessary to take into account the state of the natural complex itself, its resistance to impacts.
59f249b352b2cea9afa5aed2562a635f709935b3	The concept of sustainability is one of the most complex and controversial concepts in geography.
91b488ef9d5f4af795c12e650ea5a5245cd0bb90	Any natural complex is characterized by certain parameters, properties (one of them, for example, is the amount of biomass).
10a5478a30f342841f6795d29b1699f340e1a9d4	Each parameter has a threshold value – the amount at which changes in the qualitative state of the components occur.
dfd29cd534faae13aa6ff60769369525b8b0c415	These thresholds are practically not studied, and often, predicting future changes in natural complexes under the influence of a particular activity, it is impossible to specify the specific scale and exact time frame of these changes.
65213ff2e206c21476f6f981c59192c15822bfe5	What are the real scales of modern anthropogenic influence?
fa16b202a7fd619720548c5184119798b70a5eb8	Here are some numbers.
d523e32c67e66975dd052a60f913250598a7387c	Annually, over 100 billion tons of minerals are extracted from the bowels of the Earth; 800 million tons of various metals are smelted; more than 60 million tons of synthetic materials are produced that are not known in nature; more than 500 million tons of mineral fertilizers and about 3 million tons of various pesticides are introduced into the soils of agricultural lands, 1/3 of which comes from surface runoff into reservoirs or is delayed in the atmosphere (when dispersed from aircraft).
f0645e38a7f519eb37cb1b31ccf854155cadbf31	For their needs, people use more than 13% of river runoff and discharge more than 500 billion m3 of industrial and municipal wastewater into reservoirs annually.
52987a0cc46534c03d8b4ad8aca2df946ca31c00	The enumeration can be continued, but the above is enough to realize the global nature of human influence on the environment, and therefore the global nature of the problems arising in this regard.
210e40bc227d8fc5ac1ba6f8b4ad6974b038cd3b	Industry – the largest branch of material production plays a central role in the economy of modern society and is the main driving force of its growth.
9b90a662bf9703bdc78c4dc2030fc0ce809b1971	Over the past century, world industrial production has increased more than 50 (!) times, and 4/5 of this growth has occurred since 1950, i.e. the period of active introduction of scientific and technological progress into production Naturally, such a rapid growth of industry, which ensures our well being, primarily affected the environment, the load on which has increased many times.
3a3cb0a6e28289637d13b6bf1393cc3fc8124073	At the same time, land is alienated for the construction of industrial facilities and entrances to them; constant use of water (in all industries)1; release of substances from the processing of raw materials into water and air; removal of substances from the soil, rocks, biosphere, etc.
d39deff52470592af82d1ab2801e39d956a1fcab	The annual energy consumption in the world is more than 10 billion tons of conventional fuel, and this figure is continuously increasing .2 For energy production, either fuel is used – oil, gas, coal, wood, peat, shale, nuclear materials, or other primary energy sources – water, wind, solar energy, etc. Almost all fuel resources are non renewable – and this is the first stage of the impact on the nature of the energy industry – the irrevocable removal of masses of matter.
c34544ddab57dfd742c9cd69161710577793700f	Sometimes fly ash contains extremely harmful impurities, such as arsenic, free silicon dioxide, free calcium oxide.
2bb98f1c8a043f415656bf8f61a25fb520b0199e	Oil.
2e9738699acaa630d85a7b402632cb9c4319bcac	Liquid fuel produces less harmful substances than solid fuel, but the use of oil in the energy sector is decreasing (due to the exhaustion of natural reserves and its exclusive use in transport, in the chemical industry).
916faf98ef347cfe1a11bc51d756d5057b1d7532	As a rule, water intake for cooling systems of power plants is 50-60% of the total industrial water withdrawal.
426a6632e6767f190fc5e11c51d5f91a8444d49c	Their negative impact on the environment is different.
04a43191a59dff25829216f8ab49c34c87b03b43	In addition to land flooding, the creation of reservoirs greatly changes the flow regime of rivers, affects local climatic conditions, which, in turn, affects the vegetation cover along the banks of the reservoir.
e8e844b1817ffb2879638e577fddcd14e4517305	Metallurgy.
cadbad5df467920ce89e5d8f6fb6056b81881144	The impact of metallurgy begins with the extraction of ferrous and non – ferrous metal ores, a number of which, such as copper and lead, have been used since ancient times, while others – titanium, beryllium, zirconium, germanium have been actively used only in recent decades (for the needs of radio engineering, electronics, nuclear technology).
4995a840ec9558e9c25092b4159b4af165a736d8	Approximate figures of water consumption for the needs of, for example, ferrous metallurgy are as follows: about 100 m3 of water is spent on the production of 1 ton of cast iron; 300 m3 is spent on the production of 1 ton of steel;
261d227ad70de0db4ccdbc18813fba91ea8f3bfa	30 m3 of water is spent on the production of 1 ton of rolled products.
1f079f1bd69da1817f6ac7c90c7444e5f8c05ba3	Nickel production is characterized by emissions of arsenic and large amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO2); aluminum production is accompanied by emissions of fluorine, etc. Environmental pollution is also carried out by waste water from metallurgical plants.
f47c019c57960aa8a6971c9428596d9d6922e02b	This industry, like metallurgy and energy, is among the extremely water intensive.
000744622e7ad7f1700329afe357e2e9499c8946	Water is involved in the production of most of the most important chemical products – alkalis, alcohols, nitric acid, hydrogen, etc.
2dba891c69d7311d15bc1b66e8e478e8498fe48c	The production of 1 ton of synthetic rubber requires up to 2800 m3 of water, 1 ton of rubber 4000 m3, 1 ton of synthetic fiber 5000 m3.
23f85a4839c60b2fbc836048a78cbca2ac2e0eef	After use, the water partially returns to the reservoirs in the form of highly polluted wastewater, which leads to a weakening or suppression of the vital activity of aquatic organisms, which makes it difficult for the processes of self purification of reservoirs.
133aabaf21856cd185e2d3984cb03b50146f320d	Petrochemical industries pollute the atmosphere with hydrogen sulfide and hydrocarbons; the production of synthetic rubber – with styrene, divinyl, toluene, acetone; the production of alkalis – with hydrogen chloride, etc. Substances such as carbon and nitrogen oxides, ammonia, inorganic dust, fluorinated substances and many others are also emitted in large quantities.
0f3d702e5fd6197d6f9f6436552830915b94a6ff	One of the most problematic aspects of the impact of chemical production is the spread of previously non existent compounds in nature.
08cf1124bec45d938b93f10597440d2c04fad52a	Naturally, the influence of industry is not limited to the above: there is mechanical engineering, which uses the products of metallurgy and chemical industry and contributes to the dispersion of many substances in the environment; there are such water intensive industries as pulp and paper and food, which also provide a large share of organic pollutants, etc. Based on the analysis of the environmental impact of the three main industries, it is possible to determine the nature and ways of industrial pollution for any industry, for which it is necessary to know the specifics of production.
a58f38a9df54979bfea3a1a17245c8d2e4026c5d	To be continued
c807473b769145642470afb1773bae76dbf5d155	Photo by M. Kabanov
c26aee17d0af3bfe68bc86527b8a9716c167af9c	1 The total industrial water withdrawal is about 800 km3 per year, with the value of irretrievable losses of 30-40 km3.
78c1a3a54f66cb6825e22e8d555c066601e64924	2 The main consumers of energy are developed countries.
b27d7c474c7d8ac4591edae80a3b026a75eac06b	For example, in 1989, 249 million Americans used more energy for air conditioning alone than 1.1 billion Chinese for all needs.
4c43617abe086779660effcd34fb51a96fe4e05f	RF
11ce84318c5be6ae5739142798fd1181a72ce7aa	Today, before the rally, a round table was held, where the main guests were members of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation Sergey Simak and Olga Razbash, as well as the chairman of the ...
7fc5ebeea231624d9fe000fad2158abab9591db8	More than a thousand people came out in Voronezh to rally against the development of nickel deposits
febf29be82db9b231cf742b02d490eb79d367a90	About a thousand people took part in a rally against the development of copper and nickel deposits in the Novokhopersky district of the Voronezh Region, held on June 18 in Voronezh on Sovetskaya Ploshchad...
56e1f458c156bf171247ed44e6b4e107237486e5	The first interview of opponents of nickel mining on an international radio station
1d704a93dab5c3fd294167a2a39a8fed24bde3a1	Inga Dombrovskaya / Nikita Sarnikov On Monday, June 18, another "anti nickel" rally will be held in Voronezh.
e34f529e81936af5e19f5cd6856adb1a1c4897fb	Since the end of May, a wave of thousands of PR actions has swept through the Voronezh Region ...
ebeed8f0d0d9274729e0ea18676f1396e13c1d25	TV presenter Nikolai Drozdov: "The threat to the Khopersk Reserve should be trumpeted in all pipes!"
a6f0115a85875fca1336cd38316738f9312c83b0	The host of the program "In the world of Animals" was very upset when in Voronezh he was told about future nickel developments near the Khopersky Nature Reserve
3b92179e12cf9bf2fa681110433529d81c8b29d8	Today, June 16, in Vo...
f545fdc48ed9b9b6da86d5306b9f82ffb6a0ea41	In Uryupinsk, State Duma deputies were attracted to the problem of nickel mining
87316859db2968b499b2e210c18cd1519694acc8	In Uryupinsk, State Duma deputies were attracted to the problem of nickel mining on 15/06/2012 at 15: 53, 5 comments
fce03cf3bd20e6e339b5b245b052aa833699e4ed	As we have already soo ...
2c38ebd66e2e1436fa7e2aa54ade92f935e0f241	Khopersk Cossacks demand a ban on the development of nickel deposits
ebdd5606072123e1b2a38e839ae4ec1402be207c	13/06/2012 at 18: 27, 2 comments
3eecc4901112662f46198a431241e92cabaa815f	The Cossacks of the Khoperskaya stanitsa turned to our editorial office.
1418bf879dc7914b42b50fa6e2ba594c189a84c2	They are concerned about the planned extraction of nick...
a9ea0f2acfed98e4cb720c0bb9e7dd02694706d7	Voronezh Nickel raises more and more questions
86ebe9a236db0f35fd00cf8074995aa89200fb7f	14/06/2012 at 17: 09, 7 comments
9521e126af428753d6a605d8d855f41f3b00506c	Representatives of UMMC Grigory Rudoy and Vladimir Beloglazov answered the questions of the participants of the meeting
56edea56192bf43b2d6f1089c4974f0ac391adc8	Today in zda...
2e4e59ee2abdfb6e06ec123da6f9025d5f0e6581	OP will meet with the defenders of Khopr
2cba728316a6f823b568d9f726e420bc23c28853	Press Service of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation
5e3be0509d1532dfb58ad507aeed42ac51986458	Representatives of the Public Chamber will meet with activists of environmental organizations and residents of the Voronezh Region protesting against the development of copper nickel deposits in the Kho River basin ...
d6aacb26dd94cced89943d972e0a70b6b74c723c	United Russia DEPUTY Netesov quarreled with opponents of nickel mining
703090b0231fac57d4ba6064a68ff18206060871	The conflict ended the working visit of the deputy of the Voronezh Regional Duma Vladimir Netesov to Borisoglebsk.
cd3cf365c60010a6b7c198f4c8e9d2ab58eb45ce	According to our information, he was not afraid to meet with public activists, ...
1691f5a29cbf51a65cbf4a3f4a1cd56d8cd6b80d	The Borisoglebsk Public Chamber demands to introduce a moratorium on geological exploration and production of nickel
ef861f5dae37d29d409dbcaf5c467afe4ffb94bf	The Public Chamber of the Borisoglebsky City District declared an unequivocal "no" to the development of nickel in the Novokhopersky district of the Voronezh Region...
32b58bda6fd300c2f2bbf435c677ac1cf6f6e513	At a meeting on June 6, the members of the chamber unanimously approved ...
b99314c69a4c443f3f5b7ab109b836d083b0bfc5	There was a protest in Borisoglebsk
1d45015e925312ef3ca8691dcb8d329f4d5a6820	There is a rally against the development of nickel deposits in the Voronezh region
d9844ce9d92a6308e121b2f8a76e1c48f162035c	In Voronezh, protest actions are much less large scale than in Borisoglebsk Photo: ...
3e1834d52934ae8e26b62a798abeda2161484758	The oligarchs seem to be targeting not only Voronezh nickel…
fa03aaa2f9aeff62154ee492e7601649cf7a24dd	According to experts, the Voronezh Region is now becoming the territory of close attention of a number of Russian and international oligarchs.
878821ed216ef7605fa0f0ae746455b253f3bc3c	Once not so noticeable area in the last ...
20025d94ba1e04298134fe00236808d052000a0b	The State Duma intends to figure out who organizes "anti nickel" rallies
3868180bb30d9d74916adefe93f2605be3bf2fe8	Ilya Kostunov, a deputy of the lower house from the Voronezh Region, expressed the opinion on the live broadcast of the Russian News Service that residents of the Voronezh and Volgograd regions go to ...
3c99c177d7bc16c097613494d408f1da154224c0	UMMC did not answer the urgent questions about nickel production in the Voronezh region
062d21bc1bd94e46f1e0b1ecb94f4c1f58bb2855	Normal 0 21 false false false FR X NONE X NONE ...
9c847c27ceb0a0591147754fc5ef905ca44f2c41	Pandora on Hopra
8a458431fca75cacef0a459ff571e0d0c2e69b3b	Mass rallies were held in several small cities of the Voronezh and Volgograd regions.
1b14a6018587dd3822d7e081b5fe2b9135814c56	The protest actions turned out to be unusually large for such small cities as Borisoglebsk, Uryupinsk and No...
f13de2d2d4ef8c5175f1b9edd81bf1722942035a	"Rossiyskaya Gazeta" / / The Voronezh region weighs the consequences of nickel mining
089caf0de2ae6fd0fc1d1507045fd2f9fff2040a	Recently, the winner of the competition for the right to develop nickel deposits in the Novokhopersk district of the Voronezh Region, near the protected area, was announced.
f755ce0f227d31f603ae063533ad25925a88a4d6	Development of mineral resources in ...
1e50a202873eaed19c97019c30e5a51cbb3ba097	volgograd residents united at rallies
d39df60aea69e2b7e5a3aab864da2681d6f9c2ce	Yesterday, a meeting of the council of the environmental movement "In Defense of Hopra"was held in Voronezh.
f618e6b2a418fbe9db9d0002fc7d75a50c66c2fc	During it, the demands of environmentalists, representatives of the Public Chamber of the Russian Federation, ...
aa7ddb879e02dfae8db3f8f91ae43e74f73187f4	Read more were voiced...
a856134955e3c4c2db2afa57d18f7aa1901f9a72	The nickel project for the Voronezh region worries environmentalists
4bfc79005ef0e353124463ef078f18a226178443	VORONEZH, May 28.
4e0b67841031544529a9adfdbdbc00c16506119a	/ Correspondent.
a24a7535919e10edd05248d09d2c56755c715be1	ITAR TASS Yuri Khots/.
cdd9e86ca3ab0d608d0c3868130b601a4203cd4a	The Government of the Voronezh region will sign a cooperation agreement with the company " Mednogorsk copper sulfur ...
1b161e428c578aa142db875a61f1aa63794d835f	THE HOPPER REBELLED(article from the portal "Russian Reporter")
366dfa7e8e51d3a59aac52224b40718b2ce6141f	May 29, 2012 text size: aaa
31ec7fcb71a3f37a0a4403f5a1b5967b19890a46	Alexey lives in Moscow, but we met him at a rally against nickel mining in Voronezh.
902454863cbf4248659c2026d6b60a68cc87dc73	He is from and ...
0e23eafdfb3f66335dfcf249735406e585bef575	United Russia against nickel mining in the Voronezh Region
d6cd36fd48bde0fbcd0570b0c6ca357043b23f95	May 27 in the city of Uryupinsk (Volgograd region) a rally of thousands of people took place against the development of a nickel deposit in the neighboring Novokhopersky district of the Voronezh Region.
6ac5c08889ee390084d8bf53bf7b70361deeb580	According to ... read more...
1b9e44fa1e78007fef0802f0d775463ab688f37c	On May 27, thousands of rallies were held in Uryupinsk and Novokhopersk
b40ed8d1494c00112de1362a1222cb3b040b2b58	Resolution of the rally in Uryupinsk 1.
097cc9b60a83deea9b65d1f2400d17ddd014431d	Note the inadmissibility of violating the rights of Russian citizens to a favorable environment, enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Law ...
6baaa9afb56ebce86c743bed2c7eeae09aea7c63	Opponents of nickel mining staged pickets on the Voronezh - Saratov highway
80859a720bc2766c5622d00a7ab6310d3d275745	On May 24 and 25, activists took to the highway with posters against nickel mining and called on citizens to subscribe to the appeal.
5c2f894ca35461806f84ae5231650b18fe7463fc	In two days near ...
aeacc4edbce781699b4ed990a051483e22c1f66f	The right to develop one of the nickel deposits near Novokhopersk was won by UMMC
3f5ee55cf56a413e87fb8058bda056e3731e7761	On Tuesday, May 22, the company that will develop nickel in the Elansky deposit in the Novokhopersky district of the Voronezh Region became known.
a0859f6fd0514b4da49b4b9bc82371bc7b8158e6	The competition commission of Rosnedra in...
2aaa2c49843f4be67bdf53055b5691b3120eea8f	Norilsk Nickel announced its disagreement with the result of the competition
a1278dff12af013293b427dcbca542304fab7295	MMC Norilsk Nickel does not agree with the results of the tender for the development of the Elansky deposit in the Voronezh Region, the results of which were announced on May 22.
adeda4c6462b582f03f7933dc2b8967794c01fc6	About ...
005f80d87b5a81cbf86d82053de925592da4534d	NORILSK NICKEL LOST THE COMPETITION FOR THE VORONEZH DEPOSITS
8d40076ac906b3c493dedfa0fcb0b541e56aaf01	UMMC won the competition for the development of the Elansky field in the Voronezh region
830b17e45c7c6cdfa22246bbe418a38a15868801	17:58 | 22/ 05/ 2012
0327c4cfce70b08e5c51f2f2662359a195b29aff	MOSCOW, May 22 - RIA Novosti.
a60189f55aa4b183539b83a8ac2683d5ab6857dd	The competition commission of Rosnedra on Tuesday recognized JSC " Urals...
0dd98374cf838e5b094a0da000637eb2461e2a79	Pickets at the Ministry of Natural Resources against an illegal nickel mining competition in the Voronezh Region
f378ab3c816d2d0a90751df568a41db849fecf8d	On May 22, a series of single pickets took place in Moscow near the Rosnedra building against the planned development of copper and nickel deposits in the Voronezh Region.
fb36b1813a0dc1bb6995f43d26179664699a5d6b	Today there is a meeting of the commission ...
c549acc81d576f82d5d60521b3b95d5f8a1f8a98	Voronezh Nickel the battle of pro Kremlin oligarchs
6d744b0976cedafbb8c0a7e96921c1def424aa83	No matter which oligarchic clan won the fight for the Voronezh nickel deposits, the well being of the region's population will not significantly improve from this.
a28aa91e7f162ec0693484ec098c6ce0bd8cc78c	Politgazeta.the Russian Federation continues ...
8fa6e3b299e585ff9c431ea2302368234a8aa778	Public appeal of the ECA Movement on the development of a nickel deposit in the Voronezh region
f018681d4aff4285e0c5ff514d88a9ff520df6fa	To the head of the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use, A. P. Popov, the head of the Department for Subsoil Use in the Central Federal District, S. V. Zhabin, the head of the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources, V. V. Kirillov, the Minister of Economic Development ...
881d3160cb3a72157241c5467d907d93be903760	The conducted environmental assessment of nickel mining is, in fact, a linden tree
7bc07f772f812b3176198e7c44596c9a7ddd5d9b	About a month has passed since several journalists and environmentalists sent petitions to the Voronezh authorities and Governor Gordeev personally with a request to publish the results of the ...
54eb42e5fbfcddf49628c1652c8475424b9eadc3	A rally against the development of nickel deposits gathered 700 people in the Voronezh Region
9822ba3bc46e9c5679ad3d98494cc837c2d67435	In the Voronezh region, a rally against the development of nickel deposits gathered 700 people About 700 people took part in a rally against the development of nickel deposits in the Voronezh region ...
e4138e9d480177448b4dc56e65b60edbadd547a5	In Voronezh, the Social revolutionaries proposed to establish a moratorium on nickel mining
b9a32dbb290c6cdf9c5265c0276f81e0c537d738	FAIR RUSSIA in the Voronezh Region proposed to establish a moratorium on nickel mining in the Novokhopersk district.
13fb4dc37285eb97a94081e54d2ecfd4b640dd93	As reported in the press service of the regional department, we are talking about a ban ...
a5f008a9b665022fb30ad4f2f1144624052d429c	The project cannot be saved
8bfd99caaaa0bd77fcba1946b2d36920448c52ff	Where will they put a comma in the question about Voronezh nickel?
79c4dd304e09774e158cd16e9a04dd4476735acf	Elena Vostrikova 13.05.2012
c9b1ee8b634352d6de590827b0a1b8202234f747	The results of the competition for the development of nickel deposits in the Voronezh region are getting closer.
b38d1154a728e34175d6a671d10fccea99e8d7bc	Local residents ... read more...
39a4c44600edf597d81ee9c6115f15d5a39714e7	The competition for the development of Novokhopersk deposits was postponed to May 22
7f748234f71005ff57056a680105d3bce7259d6f	As it became known 36on.ru Voronezh, the competition for the right to develop the Elkinsky and Elansky copper nickel deposits of the Novokhopersky district of the Voronezh Region was postponed to 22 ma...
efc3a052bb820710fc8067cb90e11dfeebc42938	PostDateIcon15.
969f65bdbd082bdc4dd17b32f50f64b6f3399b67	05. 2012 14: 54 | Postauthoricon Author: Natalia Pushkarskaya | Print E mail Immediately in nesk
8f5702d47938ba3c403bc07030fe5362848dd689	Protests against nickel mining took place in several regions of Russia at once, more than one and a half thousand residents of the Voronezh Region, Volgograd, Uryupinsk, Novoanninsk and Rostov on Don gathered in Borisoglebsk for...
810de58b427f7fa5e89459d10b355757b16884a6	Whose bowels will you be?
a802d878b016557dd2356149741bf8e9ff82adc8	I am not strong in the modern bureaucratic algorithm.
fa5946f5df67cf64bc6f98f7cc6498576a6e9c5d	But in general, I present the preliminary stages associated with the possible development of Voronezh nickel.
79ce2b5ff295c66597402720adc5e6c5b63c64ee	Once our local chi...
2388a128b7d565920fcdcbdb84afcc67df6a7606	Voice of the streets: Voronezh residents about the development of nickel deposits in the region
82115b8b4b930efc08451a6216b0c99ecbdf725b	By Lidia Nikolskaya May 14, 19: 01
b60f64c4c4865ea353e1a225d75e0436abe5a130	Nickel mining in Voronezh became the main deal of the year in the Central Asian region in the central Chernozem region.
79dd5f7f052545f3987b4a36a3556db804fa366c	While Putin and Norilsk Nickel are discussing the details, and ...
3fb656244d3196fece64e59f146a811c41a7f0fa	A rally against nickel mining in Borisoglebsk gathered 1,500 people
fa0f2c638d033a4ac2a9ee19a91a9bc4fa0d363e	14/05/2012 at 15: 34, 1 comments
acbaafa116d2637dc778e2b74c8fb1912c2775da	... Read more...
a76b2e1ca11b26f6f28c3f4f113bf604a98f9ff8	Rally in Borisoglebsk on May 13
0168715efe6d2b4ec49a20224d12a6daad8d2326	On May 13, 2012, in the city of Borisoglebsk, Voronezh Region, a rally was held on Theater Square, authorized by the administration of the Borisoglebsk city district, " Against nickel mining in ...
25b27dec00ac4d7efd7544e37012162c1f6fd93f	In France, they protested against nickel mining in the Voronezh region
dd38bc0a4b4522437f294a76fdf24c4c1e8d73c2	13/05/2012 at 11: 55, 0 comments
7fb99f314cf0da88dc503e94f6c2d69f7159f9da	On May 12, in Paris, at the Sorbonne Square, acti ...
1188c91f2cf49b8908b32ccfd8364ac0892f37ca	Nickel did not pass the competition
7d74b371e493b74843cf2b6b2ba8a6b009c83427	The Elansk and Elkinskoye fields will be sold according to the scheme favorable to Norilsk Nickel"
ac21086670a0b22a4e7ac992d796ed5a9f86fcd8	The competition for the last large deposits of nickel in Europe — the Elansk and Elkinskoye deposits near Voro...
b68dbcce753385584cce5278b0a5e41c62e42549	In Novokhopersk, the Voronezh governor Gordeev was compared to God
77ca06a3f6bdb1c1781b81e201b00da47a2a9da5	On May 4, the Governor of the Voronezh Region Alexey Gordeev paid a working visit to Novokhopersk.
a381fe7b31cb4edbf474cda7bb2dba126ff8a1fa	The central media reported that the head of the region made a promise in August 2012 ...
c7f7cb487aaa31c62b44751aa695fbc4a87885dc	Voronezh supported the "March of Millions" with speeches against nickel mining in the region
7947bb262ea3e14f96ce34e765ae21e94dbded62	A rally "Do you need such stability?"was held in Voronezh in support of the" March of Millions " planned in Moscow tomorrow, May 6.
cda3f6f09e3d15a7dc3242299ce5efa43a77f27a	Most of the speeches were devoted to an urgent problem ...
a4b385d6265ee99f2e269444fed4dc8af43b94cd	Three more people were detained near Voronezh.
789e9611fba8006c32bcb10cad6f975b56baee3f	Traffic policemen mentioned about the special operation of the "siloviki"
d6e0e2a06cd80bcfcfadc9ea9e36a67f3746fadf	At night, near Voronezh, "traffic policemen" stopped two buses, in which Alexander Boldyrev, Konstantin Rubakhin and Roman Khabarov were traveling.
a731657548e5761a1c3c6748b1956fe3e2e1d56a	According to Rubakhin, first passed ...
9f8e7b6ff6324e22c155a521bee86c80496e403f	We didnot rock the boat.
16527338ca4e3f4cff3baf6253dae6763ac973d3	We were just floating on the Wind
59674b863d7d36c1a922c0f3f7d12a2124ded0d8	Correspondent of the Political Newspaper.the Russian Federation has fused for the May holidays.
dd9db07084710dba7210dea201bbf071d87c71fa	- Our kayaking trip is not just a way to spend the May holidays well.
6b8399acc7decccaa0768efbc27480be4bbd5769	It's no secret that literally at 15...
2ec49b551fbdf5c80b01f28b2800360326299590	Alexey Navalny found a bunch of violations in the tender documents for Vornickel
e1ea4f97a7b727ba60f40bf43e7421ee2259eaa0	"POLITGAZETA"
b934f1697c3f62c14fb8022162eada6667c164ec	And local environmentalists are guessing: who is the mysterious Grachev, whose two weeks of work cost half a million?
31465c6f97ddc46f7bbcc6656e78f0181d44d0a1	And local environmentalists are guessing: who is the mysterious Grachev, dv ...
27e6ec2f0e07e18591a61da26b632867bd7a0f30	The situation around the Voronezh nickel is heating up
eeba536de5770a37bdf73c1cd5dbb524aaeaac04	Even scientists are not yet privy to the details of the development of nickel deposits in the Novokhopersk district.
9f49a190196e0776645564ca644aef46d11b8d6c	Meanwhile, activists are holding rallies against nickel mining in Vo...
88be17afb69e901daa823e802c6b3808134cdbd7	kayaking rafting of activists and journalists “Let's Save the Reserved Hopper”has started
1eddd532501d578624b9f716f308c06839c7f2fd	Today, a kayaking rafting of activists and journalists “Let's Save the Reserved Hopper " has started in the Voronezh Region - in defense against the development of a nickel deposit.
478c69a0436e889c4642c286997cab332537d833	Route: from Bo...
eab1fa24c182126c7a88f617db872b5a83ddae19	The Battle for Nickel – everything is just beginning READ TO EVERYONE!
c3e4676b03c5d87d54def86cd7e39649dcf51247	IT'S TRUE!ALL IN ONE ARTICLE!
d8d244f6953130b124f7c6c3759b6921b49f612b	a detailed report by the author of the political newspaper.russia Today is the best review article.
3e16d50cffc402f3337a06d24fc85ab5b83e4800	The author of the report: Vadim Biryuchenko, lawyer, lawyer. ...
4766a78be2e19eccf132bac220e5eb23aa0bc53a	Ecotropa campaign
2e9d96cf5ffcf5c0e8947465a97a237c8ad54272	The movement " In Defense of Khopr "holds an action"Ecotropa" from April 29 to May 1.
03f3d6654d1129284fa9273411b21ae2da0134c6	Along one of the purest and most picturesque rivers in Europe – the Khopra.
ed16b6d197470b84badf3ded70eb6a2ff34bffe9	From ...
08919ebce5c6fb791dab3291c99a79a981527433	The opponents of nickel mining in the Voronezh Region are financed by the Norwegians ...
0908f9247aca3fe589882a5afaa4f1f30caef67a	Today, at a round table held by the Communist Party faction, an official of the regional government, Alexander Plaksenko, accused the defenders of the Khopersky Reserve that their activities are funded by the Norv...
8234bc60bfd99087facf40ba93bdcdddeca1c3a7	Voronezh deputies refused to hold a referendum on the development of nickel
d6ea78abd093348c39428938115ac868e63a6090	Voronezh deputies rejected the referendum on the development of nickel on 26/04/2012 at 11: 44, 5 comments
af1976e6a21ef286bfec78864598acc0371785cb	On April 26, at a meeting of the Voronezh Regional Duma, the issue of a referendum was considered ...
693011c1f6d978ac5be88068fa13d0dfe63d6f2c	Top 10 news of the Voronezh region for the week, - NICKEL NICKEL NICKEL...........
d7c2aabd9da188c4c948ee9d3b3c418b0347a96a	Borisoglebsk continues to protest against nickel mining in the Voronezh region Last Sunday, two ...
aa32abdd5174a64e3ba1f6423694e4099d8c4925	The chief doctor of the Novokhopersky district hospital prohibits subordinates from signing up against nickel mining
1a52365be088f511b09726c164219308361d7cb5	The chief doctor of the Novokhopersky district hospital prohibits subordinates from signing up against nickel mining on 26/04/2012 at 16: 00,
03bfba87ee2798d1e4056a63b077fa7261a3c5ce	Vladimir Spesivtsev, the chief doctor of the Novokhopersky district hospital, prohibits under threat of dismissal ...
78b132d3eb53a354f2b900f6223dbd1fc20a3ec0	READ TO EVERYONE!!!
17919dfb83149bf84baae0c41ba38a8eed83e068	" About tops and roots " article by Davydov V. V.
46f951edfbbcba80197b3f9a4af173aea108114d	Sorry, guys, for the delay.
02be1808f36cf69a798b7828a94433d13d9a5164	Happy Easter days to you!
03bc06eb44171e1f1d64763815d38cc8f67840d1	1. For some reason, the Internet has almost stopped working normally (only rare breakthroughs).
a7fb478359d18644e7c4efcbd814b2fdf35c86e4	And I, after a month's absence, have solid ...
30af88d03cdc75ddb72da8b4db72a08cd99d99ca	Rosprirodnadzor filed another lawsuit against Norilsk Nickel, demanding 1 billion rubles
1c97b42eea82d2a42e80db7c3b6015ca59aeeb9b	Rosprirodnadzor filed another lawsuit against Norilsk Nickel, demands 1 billion rubles Rosprirodnazor filed a lawsuit against MMC Norilsk Nickel with a demand to pay almost 1 billion rubles for ...
823cc8d52bae6cfc037686417fa1770929c1b571	On April 20, the first meeting of the Public Council was held in the Voronezh Regional Duma
a4cc3d6a42a602fa9dc73547af4b9411494f1b7b	On April 20, the first meeting of the Public Council was held in the Voronezh Regional Duma, dedicated to the problem of the possible start of work on the study and development of non ferrous ores...
fe9d2388e6eb1bdeeddf14e5d0031fb2992abecd	Even scientists are not yet privy to the details of the development of Voronezh nickel
1e922c6bfe2a664b9ee7e7d0abd8fdc66f92f606	Even scientists are not yet privy to the details of the development of the Voronezh nickel, it became known at the first meeting of the public council for monitoring the development of nickel deposits
e90cbc8c54e55a4835cb542fb051b359e4b1c1cf	Statements of the opposition, ...
1e1a46fbb4601a8430f614eafcae43d7f1760b26	Civil intervention in the public Council for nickel mining in Voronezh
e9044559ce76df314b122f0d4dc8dbfb7db84130	Civil intervention in the public Council for nickel mining in Voronezh On April 20, a meeting of the public Council for monitoring the integrated development of nickel deposits was held in the Voronezh Regional Duma. ...
cdabbb71c0945a510280db5a5ac3c589c6ea4807	A little bit about the fight against rot in Russia
4bf3b92ef5321c2f5b7cce4eb2532fb229163de1	Communicating with the winners of the Goldman Prize, I realized some very unpleasant things.
874bfb6f5257a061acbcdeb591c669e9328a32fd	We are talking about the degree of decomposition of public institutions in modern Russia.
4cda65cbdd48ddcb0e73b260d650c4645ca89819	Judge ... read more...
c7d75a0965ecad49f62c31019bdc91f2962c4e34	Officials ranked opponents of nickel mining in the Voronezh Region almost as "Orangists"
584ccd55163fa9215d3bb3cf3dcf06a500398e34	Officials ranked opponents of nickel mining in the Voronezh Region almost as " Orangists"
c2e86a2e468eff06891afb1803b26d3212ffaa4a	Officials when communicating with citizens on the topic of the safety of nickel mining in the Voronezh ...
44e9a70c4313893a20edca755157ed8c7b376fb3	An action in defense of the Novokhopersky Nature Reserve was held today in Borisoglebsk, Voronezh Region
94c2850e4457f6fc65518e8c78612d06f6e241f2	An action in defense of the Novokhopersky Nature Reserve was held today in Borisoglebsk, Voronezh Region.
f6445a6dc12c77c2172249bc58987040a73abfa4	Recall that there, in the immediate vicinity of the reserve of the All Russian scale and ...
e61660830facfb1ed1055a0fcdf76c4a7d7efd32	About how we are fighting for the Hopper,an article by Konstantin Rubakhin
e40476e584f990cceebc3a4febc756972cf9306e	About how we are fighting for the Hopper Konstantin Rubakhin photographer, writer, I will start with how yesterday April 15 — we were with three participants of various civil ...
2fbf7397dfecad744a1ebd0cd2f5749aac7348bc	A meeting with State Duma Deputy Ilya Ponomarev was disrupted in Voronezh
9913cd5a63c4c37972752ef707fbc0200ca94bdc	On April 15, a meeting was scheduled in Voronezh with State Duma Deputy Ilya Ponomarev, who intended to tell about the opening ...
4ea4c728a9a4647c3933d2101cdf1837ce6cc002	On April 15, a meeting with Deputy Ilya Ponamarev will be held in Voronezh
3f1730d32fef14bc784d0784e56b0bfeb65fc6b6	On April 15, a meeting with Deputy Ilya Ponomarev will be held in Voronezh with the support of the Open Action portal.
325a6fb0cd554175ee4331c88ad0ab87cd3b2aeb	Civil society activists will be able to take part in the discussion of the situation around the possible ...
641a8745a63a4407e765651a8dac087630c095ad	Voronezh is facing a choice of the future.
6bbfc9853b3c61887882f69c335c3e0874d6c290	Raw needle or innovation?
155c9f5319b52992879931f41c75de513ce12906	by psv vrn on April 14, 16: 16
eee272146fd4bfd25160ffa0bbc566e90de9cf1f	Our Voronezh Region is a region with its own peculiarities, problems and resources. ...
e7836d14302972ddb29d1364e264afe12e93a847	In Voronezh, Evgenia Chirikova promised to help organize actions against nickel mining in the region In
55be3cc53ae5e206a0f29bbfbf6c1525a0c44249	In Voronezh, Evgenia Chirikova promised to help organize actions against nickel mining in the region Author: Nina ...
82295b7e5d98129488ef9e30a4d23a991c8b85ba	Unknown entrepreneurs are trying to buy up agricultural land in the Novokhopersk district of the Voronezh Region
dc782368d5099c5709471696c538275a4d0860ba	picket in Borisoglebsk
b13afa531fa1132e36da738764c076b2b8be2c41	Norilsk Nickel vs hopper muskrats
fead91f42f13556a5bead2cf7a6142cd512bebe6	About the" benefits " of nickel for the body
cffe2f0ca51d8f6c3e196093e1e8634af6314c86	On May 15, 2012, the winner of the competition for the development of a nickel deposit in the Novokhopersk district of the Voronezh Region will be announced about the benefits of nickel for the body. ...
d46fee729d913cced51e876c331a008a5250b9a6	The development of Voronezh nickel attracted the attention of the "ecological landing" from the capital
36d9c975087125ea5df70b4373e81f8cbec5c89d	ECODESANT
3c615427c86c6f92d06bc1bd22cf3c7876ca5081	ECODESANT On April 3, an ecodesant in the Voronezh Region inspected the sites of the planned development of copper and nickel deposits in the Novokhopersky district, visited the Khopersky Reserve, met with civil activists from Borisoglebsk, ...
d36146b7ac949f325666d8f8ca92fc475d8ddf53	"Nickel mining will destroy the Khopersky Reserve"
dc2ceffb946c30aa06ab798e12acdd2cb113f71e	"Nickel mining will destroy the Khopersky Reserve" On April 3, an ecodesant is scheduled to land in the Chernozem region.
9c4b4eb223af2c82230cda7d6ba603e846f90ced	Representatives of civil and environmental organizations, experts engaged in ...
43c2b1072b697b8cc56064457a14f5cc1d09d046	Read more are invited to the meeting in Voronezh ...
752d6db50efd29284bf796a2d70f4881fca1c153	"ECODESANT ON KHOPRA"
9ec49c6fee23b470074dff10cef4e5fbe239987b	"ECODESANT ON KHOPRA "Activists of environmental and civil movements will come to Voronezh to support the Khopersky Reserve, share their experience and help stop nickel mining, which threatens the ecosystem of the entire ...
40968acff34dda025df69ee6d4d1083b00d879fa	UMMC calls Taimyr The company claims another nickel deposit
67e471461725303d29e0697b126600096d7181c9	Nickel mining will destroy the house of the Russian muskrat
d86200446419fb246ac54de30e92030adeeb2a3f	ecoreporter.ru Nickel mining will destroy the house of the Russian muskrat on May 15, 2012, the results of the competition for the development of the Elansky and Elkinskoye fields will be summed up ...
7ae792276c94340ed81551d0c468fd3c5ad5b16f	UMMC on the "warpath"?
b3e44bca1cbab1daba626e913128971ceb6555a3	OPEN ACTION
07ef34187262502f8778b7c1aec6f9f4103d2e51	Is nickel mining in the Voronezh Region more dangerous than the authorities claim?
74cb11dfb875c0f7f4d9a577e9851440dc4318bd	Environmentalists are afraid that the development of deposits in the Novokhopersk district without large investments in treatment facilities will turn into a natural disaster 02: 10, today Health 14 1435 17 ...
af093d02fb5ac469fcac145d5d428c09ac807026	Environmentalists: nickel mining in the Chernozem region threatens disaster
97e3b497973fb5d2f867420507dfff5f29c08f09	Monday, March 5, 2012
9ef86da472166fedff1e26ca62fa69ef6a8bd272	18: 05 / / Yulia Kalinina, Taras Podrez Environmentalists: nickel mining in the Chernozem region threatens with disaster 0 Updates Get the HTML code of the news Put it on Twitter Add ...
ab3731b5449fb5f66fe04ee4ff3f9971221f20ee	Picket in London
0abad61f4c2bb1b291d6609e72f5df89dd16ca7b	On February 25, 2012, a picket was held in front of the Embassy of the Russian Federation in London in support of the international environmental movement "Ecology 21", which is engaged in protecting a unique ecosystem ...
a5e015cd7a74484545189d766a9ac1e0472984ec	In the depth of the hopper ores
94f83e98a4ae337b2da873b956dfb94bd88a6151	Very soon, the bulletin "Subsoil Use in Russia" will publish a regulation on holding a tender for the development of the Elansky and Elkinskoye nickel deposits in the Novokhopersk district of the Voronezh Region.
7df3885e10082cbcc1c30397ab0b8c239678aa19	Like ... read more...
eeb69f164b288e333b5232c1eaa6a2f1bf8590cb	FAS intends to monitor the competition for nickel deposits near Voronezh
8316c5e51a6350630311c1f9cd7d69f880b8801c	VORONEZH, January 19 RIA Novosti, Alexey Andreev.
f886244bba6ab09f2805347d89e8418f900b90a1	The Voronezh Federal Antimonopoly Service will take control of the competition for the right to develop the Elansky and Elkinsky nickel deposits in the region, Thu... Read more...
95dcc1eb0357d24cdf28740a0a93127dbbc85c07	Environmental disaster in the Murmansk region: Sulfur rain burns holes in umbrellas
82d5825dea5c21029d2c98ac1e6c8017cfcf6788	Residents of the village of Nickel in the Murmansk region confirm to Bellone Murmansk that there are grounds for concern.
c0deb2f513b13af9cd4e8e5dadfeccf9e5c0f5f1	Norwegian Institute for Air Research go...
b996cd5395f3c1abc54240fcaa8c52593b6ca929	The court recognized the claims of Rosprirodnadzor to Norilsk Nickel as legitimate
d5885727b4edb0092b012dcdc6d9b571daf42ba9	The Arbitration Court of the Krasnoyarsk Territory has recognized the claims of Rosprirodnadzor against the company "Norilsk Nickel" as legitimate , said Oleg Mitvol, deputy head of Rosprirodnadzor.
b9ce396c3dc1f80c6533798da899dcc2cf8de5ea	According to him, Rosprirodnadzor assesses the environmental potential...
67578b536d00680d86e6595d798187cfa68bbce6	Voronezh mineral resources will be put up for auction
9c69dd8f2613ab3e386dfae0ce7259845ddfb69f	Business Information Agency (ABIREG.RU) informs that Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an order according to which tenders for the right to use the Elansky and Elkinsky sections of the nickel deposit in the...
123de1463baeb4d826df3efdec1b1c22f3ee9237	"ECOLOGY 21 "
1b3afba1bd94135c334910339580ab65242671f3	Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin approved the holding in the first quarter of 2012 of a competition for the development of a nickel deposit in the Voronezh Region – the only one of the untouched largest deposits ...
a3fc328e70fa025e507991672f7a74a4b1c1c2ef	"ECOLOGY 21"
362d616e37042990b96f8d9c4a3019b86c1b9e06	Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin approved the holding of a tender for the development of nickel deposits in the Voronezh Region in the first quarter of 2012 – the only ones from...
83c81106b0fc53830389a7401ace0759075d19c3	http://myjoomla15.ru | http://wordpress69.ru | audittfans.ru | myfiatstilo.ru | rav4fans.ru
b3131bd605ef03e1d8bc0c2a8d276bb69c19aae1	Human influence on nature
05c30f0f986581da0432fdf14f5883a17638862b	With the appearance and development of mankind, the process of evolution has significantly changed.
d9a42cb7a74d8a1ccb1bdb18f6aac6d12a9c68c3	In the early stages of civilization, deforestation and burning of forests for agriculture, grazing, fishing and hunting for wild animals, wars devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, the extermination of individual animal species.
6f35cb92e4b649ba3c6f2bbed5fe3ce460306a36	With the development of civilization, especially after the industrial revolution of the late Middle Ages, humanity mastered more and more power, more and more ability to involve and use huge masses of matter to meet its growing needs.
f5e3803dc0119037ed391d4b625caf58bbc06fb3	The consequences of anthropogenic (human made) activities are manifested in the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the biosphere with industrial waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth's surface, climate change.
31d2e1c87a445e219ee20b8bfd041982269c2107	At the current level of development of productive forces, the activity of human society affects the biosphere as a whole.
5917483e17379cb768d1331e618dc92a9abc51fc	The purpose of this work is to study the main factors of the influence of human activity on the state of the natural environment.
2df288306680f9b9060451bebca0d49a83ef5444	In the process of working on the abstract, the main problems solved by humanity in the course of its impact on the biosphere will be outlined.
ce9b261ed6dcbe39078a9955adefabb8d1bb9366	During the preparation of the work, textbooks on ecology, as well as materials of scientific conferences, manuals for students were used.
e6752e9956a16ed305afd5ca6c94128478ad7380	1. General characteristics of environmental pollution as a result of human activity The appearance of new components in the natural environment caused by human activity or some grandiose natural phenomena (for example, volcanic activity) is characterized by the term pollution.
df2fac309d4254ddbbef711e8a00d50c4c40f59e	The spatial structure of communities is changing, the chains of decomposition (detritus) begin to prevail over pasture, dying over production.
38556639ba92a2438271e9d5d4b11ed4e8c5921d	Anthropogenic pollution is the result of human activity. the destruction of the seas and oceans reaches such a scale that in some cases the caught fish and shellfish are unsuitable for food.
897424947043ff6c78f8af03efb0566d2b9353f9	Soil contamination .
4b3dfced9f2be6f43a0ecd3920d099f6837c3ade	Soil is an important component of the biosphere.
e8350f2ebbf91701cb2ff9c68bd7908a138d68c6	Soil is the top layer of land formed under the influence of plants, animals, microorganisms and climate from the parent rocks on which it is located.
25bf31fd362e66d65b622b6f80f1436157b916bb	It is an important and complex component of the biosphere, closely related to its other parts.
433d52ce0166cc117ef708eaef9d19531978e5a7	The following main components interact in a complex way in the soil:
03314aa75cbfbb18ae5a9f14e494ffeeb89fceba	- mineral particles (sand, clay), water, air;
d3061e0ac886d2234abbecdd85c71100ad34764b	- detritus - dead organic matter, the remains of the vital activity of plants and animals;
9a85951dc8ad07cb000df22da80423e17dca97db	- a lot of living organisms that decompose detritus to humus.
1489d0073ce7b28302cd26d3c1b852c316b133cf	There are several stages in the development and formation of the soil.
79d13277d9176f64a74f15df727905683475e1f7	Young soils are usually the result of weathering of the parent rocks or the transfer of sediment deposits (for example, alluvium).
c7a4964a368ecd47fd6a58e7bc7f6fd8acda8b12	Microorganisms, pioneer plants - lichens, mosses, grasses, small animals settle on these substrates.
e92a83b8dbe17892f82b413a536153b9ba36c1f6	Gradually, other species of plants and animals are introduced, the composition of the biocenosis becomes more complicated, a whole series of relationships arise between the mineral substrate and living organisms.
b44bc997c2fef8e786fa0dd1e4d9cad1c5ecd134	As a result, a mature soil is formed, the properties of which depend on the original parent rock and climate.[1, c. 166]
2894d7ad95e0bbda98cdc82bffd80f2404df368b	The process of soil development ends when the balance is reached, the correspondence of the soil with the vegetation cover and climate.
22b058bdf63f7cbb269cd16ba0f84c35788c90de	The soil is like a living organism, within which various complex processes take place.
a1c95c35a08621c4755b68d29f6cb1dc220531ae	In order to maintain the soil in good condition, it is necessary to know the nature of the metabolic processes of all its components.
681056ccddcdf2acce27f7874e27ce900013df23	The surface layers of the soil usually contain many residues of plant and animal organisms, the decomposition of which leads to the formation of humus.
425d9c1382507926c3443a282ad47f364c40bc96	The amount of humus determines the fertility of the soil.
f9d9cb9b0288af22a00ed3a537e96d451f3eea0c	Plants absorb the necessary minerals from the soil, but after the death of plant organisms, the removed elements return to the soil.
80745f8c64c79adb2d3f7d77c7b1a9d9396184cf	Soil organisms gradually process all organic residues.
db329dc574e8eeecc441c502727280b63ee01d0d	Thus, in natural conditions, there is a constant cycle of substances in the soil.
a7510b4e18af8440c1a7327b4b862176f5879c32	Under normal natural conditions, all processes occurring in the soil are in equilibrium.
8d8db47b6270976d6cc17941858bf9a899f53def	But often a person is guilty of disturbing the equilibrium state of the soil.
e66233fc54020b2450bc70d727ed107807f1e0eb	As a result of the development of human economic activity, pollution occurs, changes in the composition of the soil and even its destruction.
d3e37798a4b562126839555880e20f900bf707e1	Currently, there is less than one hectare of arable land for every inhabitant of our planet.
019c4bf18521b24c7947b12697e3d589080d2079	And these insignificant areas continue to shrink due to inept human economic activity.
872703b00d1b80bda44a4c546bef375cadcb8250	Huge areas of fertile land are lost during mining operations, during the construction of enterprises and cities.
52110b3f3d8161239a7200e95302a2a0d8a2a44b	The destruction of forests and natural grass cover, repeated plowing of the land without observing the rules of agricultural technology leads to soil erosion - destruction and washing away of the fertile layer by water and wind.
ae0c6a61b156364d9ed29e3394edec152c34f579	Erosion has now become a worldwide evil.
e31cec22ba91ee8f40f292eec711ca95c2877c45	It is estimated that over the last century alone, as a result of water and wind erosion, 2 billion hectares of fertile land for active agricultural use have been lost on the planet.
40988060b56120a8a37ddd43a85a9210de8eee21	One of the consequences of increased human production activity is the intensive pollution of the soil cover, the main pollutants of the soil are metals and their compounds, radioactive elements, as well as fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture.
db47bfbf437443ae970a612757887f1ca45e7c98	The most dangerous soil pollutants include mercury and its compounds.
2da1df638464054ea2b1d801857e6b8921bac30c	Mercury enters the environment with toxic chemicals, with industrial waste containing metallic mercury and its various compounds.
d1236476de85029818c5ab7d6b01f735cddb9b83	Lead contamination of soils is even more widespread and dangerous.
49814fedcc790c822d82e15cc68475f67cf633f6	It is known that when one ton of lead is smelted, up to 25 kg of it is released into the environment with waste.
3cd4067df9db0169755ecf84c5fd95d175f62fe3	Lead compounds are used as additives to gasoline, so motor transport is a serious source of lead pollution.
31b7934fd0ea09cce2e30f173c6727ad4b1b3a4d	There is especially a lot of lead in the soils along major highways.
3ea99f7b5b65bc6f9c00a670b36804aa53b80a14	Near large centers of ferrous and non ferrous metallurgy, soils are contaminated with iron, copper, zinc, manganese, nickel, aluminum and other metals.
77ebf9385d9aab0ed135f3f2b3c69bfb9e38f453	In many places, their concentration is ten times higher than the MPC.
7f3ed21f0f5feff2275fafe7c8ab765136543ab0	Radioactive elements can get into the soil and accumulate in it as a result of precipitation from atomic explosions or during the disposal of liquid and solid waste from industrial enterprises, nuclear power plants or research institutions related to the study and use of atomic energy.
693e9700ee37067bbc5cce4a89263657c23463c9	Radioactive substances from the soil get into plants, then into animal and human organisms, accumulate in them.
f514a058fc514810d3120c686548375e0cb39b33	Modern agriculture, which widely uses fertilizers and various chemicals to control pests, weeds and plant diseases, has a significant impact on the chemical composition of soils.
ee36747483e00b448c6998f136d64c32a15bcf8b	Currently, the amount of substances involved in the cycle in the process of agricultural activity is approximately the same as in the process of industrial production.
3b118464dd17a7d370f3eaf2fe816dd3671fc14f	At the same time, the production and use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture increases every year.
7b97e8a21fc82825fd5ae5f697eaad0323d650d6	Inept and uncontrolled use of them leads to a violation of the circulation of substances in the biosphere.
4188d839f980e2c11881fdd0d383561c961f29bd	Persistent organic compounds used as pesticides are particularly dangerous.
b4966809a265c4667c8f6041d38d82b0aa65903f	They accumulate in the soil, in water, bottom sediments of reservoirs.
cb8bb5952c23e0e0dc17a0e3ee2c4a618f862c41	But the most important thing is that they are included in the ecological food chains, pass from soil and water to plants, then to animals, and eventually enter the human body with food.
719b8f135582c18908c2f61992777f60b89230b5	Human influence on the plant and animal world.
4675f58aedd601b5b37fa25c8a64c5de1aa58850	The human impact on wildlife consists of direct influence and indirect changes in the natural environment.
9fd5bb5abec2aa71c24c9c2fb0fe5722fd463e47	One of the forms of direct impact on plants and animals is logging.
2ec996d263625e0a04d636181814460d07ad1d76	Having suddenly found themselves in an open habitat, the plants of the lower tiers of the forest experience the adverse effect of direct solar radiation.
0949cd6fa637318d5370dd905eb6a15c115bef60	In heat loving plants of herbaceous and shrubby tiers, chlorophyll is destroyed, growth is inhibited, some species disappear.
0085a59fa29dd73ebf13c53eb4510ceba00d84fb	Light loving plants that are resistant to high temperature and lack of moisture settle in the places of deforestation.
b5199d80426649114810f423b6ffc076ff748514	The animal world is also changing: species associated with the stand are disappearing or migrating to other places.
a96e6bedf6ec9473447b40cb0de752129213e0c7	Mass visits of vacationers and tourists to the forests have a tangible impact on the state of the vegetation cover.
60192f2244861f2a81cfdec7380d72d93ae92d7b	In these cases, the harmful effect is trampling, compaction of the soil and its contamination.
742c191f4ee67b608aedd19c610020e45c029782	Woody plants are drying up.
7060e42d436498c77abc5541922c54d3194d6097	The direct influence of man on the animal world consists in the extermination of species that represent food or other material benefits for him.
86e639a7531647907fa8d604819939e12de6ce12	It is believed that since 1600, more than 160 species and subspecies of birds and at least 100 species of mammals have been exterminated by man.
a2f3e3bcfdcd103139c798f8d6b2144e2de0cf41	In the long list of extinct species there is a tour a wild bull that lived on the territory of Europe.
1e0f1165abc02f74ab1e1776dd767c4b77e33a54	In the XVIII century, the sea cow described by the Russian naturalist G. V. Steller was exterminated - an aquatic mammal belonging to the category of lilac.
bdce0ba1188c7697a65295a7768989e07ac6d9b4	A little more than 100 years ago, the wild horse tarpan, which lived in the south of Russia, disappeared.
4ab487e86194cc2767bf81550c8941495f5b9c6e	Many animal species are on the verge of extinction or have been preserved only in nature reserves.
01d2914cbed2eb610fd9caaddac8c603f3e2e34b	Such is the fate of the bison, who inhabited the prairies of North America by tens of millions, and the bison, formerly widespread in the forests of Europe.
13134d3d9c93649c3ccee1f7e94159ab1db36497	The spotted deer has been almost completely exterminated in the Far East.
de8008dc289fd7b2fe070b8767b25ca62ef8108c	The increased fishing of cetaceans has brought several species of whales to the brink of destruction: gray, greenlandic, blue.
d8d76ca3adf188e6b30bd919ecf0183b225ca9ca	The number of animals is also influenced by human economic activities that are not related to fishing.
9fd48603ae9372a49d36a4ec65d2359a284ba904	The number of the Ussuri tiger has sharply decreased as a result of the development of territories within its range and the reduction of the food supply.
1193734a2c287f62533c6177425564a3e522b4d7	In the Pacific Ocean, several tens of thousands of dolphins die every year: during the fishing period, they get into nets and cannot get out of them.[4, c.153]
8e42972589f5040f51bd56447cb2925acd1ea49c	The disappearance of a relatively small number of animal and plant species may not seem very significant.
469822c27345453c864b3eb3cff952794d33edfe	However, the main value of the species living today is not in their sole meaning.
c8b4ec8f3aada9017f3bb508d7fe82fa18cfd3cf	Each species occupies a certain place in the biocenosis, in the food chain, and no one can replace it.
2cde57ea32f24bc1dc5abb6a40a4208ca0c399c5	The disappearance of a particular species leads to a decrease in the stability of biocenoses.
a781fccf816626f9f60081b50f42b34d1f9aa98e	Radioactive contamination of the biosphere.
fdddd21bda5a154df3dc46439cf1e7f41667fe1e	There are natural sources of radioactivity everywhere in the biosphere, and man, like all living organisms, has always been exposed to natural radiation.
141e9c67e151ba98c90978657c9939229edf7264	External irradiation occurs due to radiation of cosmic origin and radioactive nuclides in the environment.
260546e5b1491be3da32bee3c8bf12a0d303f68f	Internal radiation is created by radioactive elements that enter the human body with air, water and food.
f552588f2c51fdd8c7a799244df9a0657db2f0d6	To quantify the effect of radiation on a person, units are used - the biological equivalent of an X ray (rem) or sievert (Sv): 1 Sv = 100 rem.
c744e797e84dec3da3beae0aae7cc363f5d1d3f4	Since radioactive radiation can cause serious changes in the body, everyone should know the permissible doses of it.
9717dd79147822e0bfc1407487ddfda9314c1948	As a result of internal and external radiation, a person receives an average dose of 0.1 rem during the year and, consequently, about 7 rem over his entire life.
fb0b53d63b64d93af0fff9dbeb9582715738a419	In these doses, radiation does not harm a person.
464058d7f190a9a334d307d0942ae9260740e444	However, there are some areas where the annual dose is higher than the average.
5cc84acf4d6663cd6168c3e2dff9bb93469f2a74	For example, people living in high altitude areas can receive a dose of several times due to cosmic radiation once a big one.
8311e09d664354604f957c3def806ad78cd554d6	Large doses of radiation can be in areas where the content of natural radioactive sources is high.
03cad4ce1b97681aab111ce997ec41f11da8a38a	For example, in Brazil (200 km from Sao Paulo) there is an elevation where the annual dose is 25 rem.
843c0fafb09c511f741ce0fbd176de8a38029904	This area is uninhabited.
69b6ea6cc36a6ca479a856f5c578edbe43644579	The greatest danger is the radioactive contamination of the biosphere as a result of human activity.
d26fd8316be408979799a217f70dfce51630e5f9	Currently, radioactive elements are widely used in various fields.
ccc9457f236a027522876d5dcbdb81c3a7408250	Negligent attitude to the storage and transportation of these elements leads to serious radioactive contamination.
85ef8b7e1ef3cf1a5d555eb83ab949073521081a	Radioactive contamination of the biosphere is associated, for example, with the testing of atomic weapons.
fd99ca95f4b39208148bed1288910b2dfd3c1061	The problem of radioactive contamination arose in 1945 after the explosion of atomic bombs dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
cf18e75ec11c31f695f6d381cf43cdd1121720f5	Tests of nuclear weapons produced in the atmosphere have caused global radioactive contamination.
976b943d1d88ba82fc55cb3de7543f9faaa76b04	Radioactive contamination has a significant difference from others.
77e0f00ced463d45313870710b95a4298bf6fd29	Radioactive nuclides are the nuclei of unstable chemical elements that emit charged particles and short wave electromagnetic radiation.
81f5a780364d157e05099dc917f28c272ef1e6b1	It is these particles and radiation that get into the human body, destroy cells, as a result of which various diseases can occur, including radiation.
bc8885b83dce7df0783403ad56ecf00f2406f92d	When an atomic bomb explodes, very strong ionizing radiation occurs, radioactive particles are scattered over long distances, infecting the soil, water bodies, living organisms.
d806a0aac130c42a9660be05c42f0b555839e98f	Many radioactive isotopes have a long half life, remaining dangerous throughout their entire existence.
118f66940239e1fb9b3904ae290490257578212c	All these isotopes are included in the cycle of substances, enter living organisms and have a disastrous effect on cells.
ac43cbfc7257667496c16a246e1a924343b69d4b	Strontium is very dangerous, due to its proximity to calcium.
c37c3813c893e65fc8d3234dab2cabcf99f5cca5	Accumulating in the bones of the skeleton, it serves as a constant source of radiation to the body.
7cfc6bd2f4c86cfc4e73cc2e8269f557c396c7a9	During a nuclear explosion, a huge amount of fine dust is formed, which stays in the atmosphere for a long time and absorbs a significant part of solar radiation.
8572ffbf89e6723b019e412551ecab52e64494c3	In the second half of the 20th century, nuclear power plants, icebreakers, submarines with nuclear installations began to be put into operation.
5825e9418edd29dd62726cf06ede1b313c0327b0	During the normal operation of nuclear energy and industrial facilities, environmental pollution with radioactive nuclides accounts for an infinitesimal fraction of the natural background.
5ae855727a718a5e6858c92ecd51d42d93b1137f	The situation is different when accidents occur at nuclear facilities.
d96f3489b4325605a42cae8ef2b6295020d1b392	Thus, during the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, only about 5% of nuclear fuel was released into the environment.
5d7534d7f1708352354d9d20fa00ce4c7e6b5338	But this led to the exposure of many people, large areas were so polluted that they became dangerous to health.
ec1a8cbaa97195b8bd929a98e43352d658d40b55	This required the relocation of thousands of residents from the infected areas.
7dd1e5ca814f7db240be621e4cfce760c227fe05	The increase in radiation as a result of the fallout of radioactive fallout was noted hundreds and thousands of kilometers from the accident site.
16059ba954eebeb95e9017565fa58b6c01f911eb	[6, c.
60df29b4bb29d9053e2149c72d4de14716233089	98]
5d35cb0b855c00a4ea6f961c185cc8035ce29464	Currently, the problem of storing and storing radioactive waste from the military industry and nuclear power plants is becoming more acute.
4d9d33d8620696035611dc0b004cda91ea817962	Every year they pose an increasing danger to the environment.
6a6d7842074ab47992b78d9f12bd2d4bf074d6f8	Thus, the use of nuclear energy by software posed new serious problems for humanity.
d51de75b07774cd6ea0371efcb2ec0b5d70c3ce3	Thus , the only way out of the situation is rational use of natural resources.
0adc02181b75116467637421d527e6bb076b8a6f	3. Ways to solve environmental problems that have arisen as a result of anthropogenic impact
f83282c46dfdbffa396174106169f59cff2320e0	The general task of rational management of natural resources is to find the best or optimal ways to exploit natural and artificial (for example, in agriculture) ecosystems.
36f88a8a6906a617e4aa523d3fbc246a925904a7	Exploitation is understood as harvesting and the impact of certain types of economic activities on the conditions of the existence of biogeocenoses.
b7de4a0b8101fc7960c90c50e0ce9afbd80f0451	The solution of the problem of creating an optimal natural resource management system is significantly complicated by the presence of not one, but many optimization criteria.
e9ba3d257de6dfca98c49a78eb81ef5b8dbc598b	These include: obtaining the maximum yield, reducing production costs, preserving natural landscapes, maintaining the species diversity of communities, ensuring the cleanliness of the environment, preserving the normal functioning of ecosystems and their complexes.
f0697c3ebaef91529f5792392f8e2d61a646b208	Environmental protection and the tasks of restoring natural resources should include:
2c040e9615fd7dae403c2049678684d17b579e7a	- a rational pest control strategy, knowledge and compliance with agrotechnical techniques, dosage of mineral fertilizers, good knowledge of ecological agrocenoses and processes occurring in them, as well as on their borders with natural systems;
4b046dce2c5570365e96f57d5cbefda4671b76e7	- improving the technology and extraction of natural resources;
1745220e64855597fcf56f740e2b15a383a8524b	- the most complete and comprehensive extraction of all useful components from the deposit;
3083ade2100808e9118f5205ed9815540adcfca7	- land reclamation after the use of deposits;
57ec0db21dc270cc9d67a1e2985ac80122af916e	- economical and waste free use of raw materials in production;
844fa2737553a02f48083e6b1921594604af165d	- deep cleaning and technologies for the use of industrial waste;
42de67520edab2917d7f0316bf6e28ab4bf4f680	- secondary use of materials after the products go out of use;
3526e3dc03e6803e3c9ff778ffd452b4adaa3954	- the use of technologies that allow the extraction of dispersed minerals;
b5d1ef881d48f9cbd05efd89fcfa9978cf73e472	- the use of natural and fossil substitutes for scarce mineral compounds;
dfc0c7f730405ba0c2cef4f12be9d5948a4b87cb	- closed production cycles (development and application);
00b2accf3e78822edefb0e06be05a035b91f0664	- application of energy saving technologies;
22dd5d21c8f702a3d73a30975678dec87be8ba09	- development and use of new environmentally friendly energy sources.
d533de9db2ff06e320b155ce05e546a218442a48	- local and global logical monitoring, i.e. measurement and control of the state of the most important characteristics of the state of the environment, the concentration of harmful substances in the atmosphere, water, soil;
a2a8690dd689150dafcde0c29a4763e718fb3360	- restoration and preservation of forests from fires, pests, diseases;
465862f62c8f371e7d74bbd6bae56a332ad66a22	- expansion and increase of the number of nature reserves, zones of reference ecosystems, unique natural complexes;
65d63edefac2f6a98e605cd5787837cad5b1cda4	- protection and breeding of rare species of plants and animals;
5542873af3507917b8efe8fb2777c576a0ab7b08	- broad education and environmental education of the population;
a034b84d9c6215c5044bbb01199906f24914b395	- international cooperation in the field of environmental protection.
430fc619c4f16fc46a82e0acb52b23dfa0012910	Such active work in all areas of human activity to form an attitude to nature, the development of rational nature management, nature saving technologies of the future will be able to solve the environmental problems of today and move to harmonious cooperation with Nature.
ba4656922a1924e642bd56e492bd5961d37df375	Nowadays, the consumer attitude to nature, the withdrawal of its resources without taking measures to restore them, is a thing of the past.
e7ea7f929b682d739f0052a2dcba83069b0bd05c	The problem of rational use of natural resources, the protection of nature from the harmful consequences of human economic activity is becoming of national importance.
fa9bbd18e7f79e16dd83064b1ac10f363463a8fe	Nature protection and rational use of natural resources is a complex problem, and its solution depends both on the consistent implementation of state measures aimed at preserving ecosystems, and on the expansion of scientific knowledge, which is cost effective and profitable for society to finance for its own well being.
082879016949b7b90a62d3e6bd10862e6226e397	For harmful substances in the atmosphere, the maximum permissible concentrations are legally established, which do not cause tangible consequences for a person.
97f5e34ec13ee77e75cd82584a012c15fb5f2bf8	In order to prevent air pollution, measures have been developed to ensure proper fuel combustion, the transition to gasified central heating, and the installation of treatment facilities at industrial enterprises.
7e4b4d77f3e5e5c1e77c151e1118e2312e30278e	In addition to protecting the air from pollution, sewage treatment plants allow you to save raw materials and return many valuable products to production.
437f34ec493105b415a5d543088f923093a126cc	For example, the capture of sulfur from the released gases makes it possible to increase the output of sulfuric acid, the capture of cement saves products equal to the productivity of several plants.
9e930602f5ee7465ec6e396b660b64ef41526b5b	In aluminum plants, the installation of filters on pipes prevents the release of fluorine into the atmosphere.
405a3380a7ed1ca46d315663712e03b73a21b634	In addition to the construction of treatment facilities, the search is underway for a technology in which the formation of waste would be minimized.
816b0849de6b59e02f0d593cb5baa1307ec786ab	The same goal is served by improving the design of cars, switching to other types of fuel (liquefied gas, ethyl alcohol), when burning which produces less harmful substances.
b14594ff4590bc580e03e48959d7c8084b4f271c	A car with an electric motor is being developed for movement within the city.
84757f11ca4bf15815120e0d6691fed03d2043c3	The correct layout of the city and green spaces is of great importance.
e0095ce5dcefadf9829e47d145d0e737267e50da	Trees purify the air from liquid and solid particles suspended in it( aerosols), absorb harmful gases.
7e999af9eda801230aba864323c387ce2a03c1f6	For example, sulfur dioxide is well absorbed by poplar, linden, maple, horse chestnut, phenols - lilac, mulberry, elderberry.
9708511af6ee21c6a1b733f7fdb418e064d7357d	Domestic and industrial wastewater is subjected to mechanical, physical and biological treatment.
619d66ba349c3f75d863d7a4527b2b4ebd414d07	Biological purification consists in the destruction of dissolved organic substances by microorganisms.
9d4d290d2de8bd9e296bf9886e7beb391face68c	Water is passed through special tanks containing only the so called active sludge, which includes microorganisms that oxidize phenols, fatty acids, alcohols, hydrocarbons, etc.
4c2df552c28362138a89d3f0b409c125d9efe23d	Wastewater treatment does not solve all problems.
355d6d6c869010e6918b1cbe228d9a6ab3d67db3	Therefore, more and more enterprises are switching to a new technology - a closed cycle, in which purified water is re entered into production.
77253e371eeea4f8e7663930f2105f954a546a2d	New technological processes make it possible to reduce the amount of water required for industrial purposes tenfold.
54d3fde17145beba075f7a02f8ab652d5f044366	The protection of the subsurface consists primarily in preventing unproductive expenditures of organic resources in their integrated use.
9ccfd8879894967412709653dba348a2d3f43a4f	For example, a lot of coal is lost in underground fires, combustible gas is burned in flares in oil fields.
2d664b43a3800eab392c4b66b44c4e4db798164a	The development of a technology for complex extraction of metals from ores makes it possible to obtain additional valuable elements such as titanium, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum, etc.
4455d5ec4a7678513d2b4c7aad58ad5210840dc1	To increase the productivity of agriculture, proper agricultural technology and the implementation of special measures for soil protection are of great importance.
a0e6c4a1c6b162a30d5247b3e0e5ff44acccf624	For example, the fight against ravines is successfully conducted it is carried out by planting plants - trees, shrubs, grasses.
d50e56a11b29b6e9fb5f326628adcd8e1e5acc2e	Plants protect the soil from flushing and reduce the speed of water flow.
3f1525807a04d043e579d643eebbe0a46bcf2c41	The cultivation of ravines allows them to be used for economic purposes.
28865eec6588e2c36278a358360793036a8f6279	The variety of plantings and crops along the ravine contributes to the formation of persistent biocenoses.
6866487abd2534253e31e16b75f2cdf91d100d73	Birds settle in the thickets, which is of no small importance for pest control.
3819ddab0657e1b6c5db2729cbccaf8d8d8bdf46	Protective forest plantations in the steppes prevent water and wind erosion of fields.
0a2d1ad3a45d39843ba933dbd6aaab314f1db1eb	The development of biological methods of pest control makes it possible to reduce the use of pesticides in agriculture.
71030c587a541a6170ae84209ad09886bc600458	Currently, 2,000 plant species, 236 species of mammals, and 287 species of birds need protection.
5c73be7ffcad98da529a59a81dff6e51d794f7aa	The International Union for Conservation of Nature has established a special Red Book, which provides information about endangered species and gives recommendations for their conservation.
90caa06c51611a2a1f6cdc5b02c18f7004de641b	Many endangered animal species have now regained their numbers.
6993b7511ffacc40383c216ab7b77ff16c729cbd	This applies to elk, saiga, egret, gaga.
6680a1dc46cebc2171b72b329b01fdd2b3ee869a	The organization of nature reserves and nature reserves contributes to the preservation of the animal and plant world.
bad2803054feb700eebe7083c0872ad363c99714	In addition to the protection of rare and endangered species, nature reserves serve as a base for the domestication of wild animals with valuable economic properties.
7370a2ec802ac79730869cfc29152b601d94f28e	Nature reserves are also centers for the settlement of animals that have disappeared in this area, they help to enrich the local fauna.
4ee40922df7710e51547594ddfca3ddab2eaed77	Careful attitude to nature, based on deep knowledge of plant and animal biology, not only preserves it, but also gives a significant economic effect.
e39262defe80a83fac1b793497417432c8b1a879	Conclusion
a35531aee67dde944159dd59c7f94f2a783c21be	Due to the increase in the scale of anthropogenic impact (human economic activity), especially in the last century, the balance in the biosphere is disturbed, which can lead to irreversible processes and raise the question of the possibility of life on the planet.
51bbaddc6f50519775604f22a2ae55b4931c4c5e	This is due to the development of industry, energy, transport, agriculture and other human activities without taking into account the capabilities of the Earth's biosphere.
7ab3abf29426c981511155f8282f410bc7602dc5	Even now, humanity is facing serious environmental problems that require an immediate solution.
cf84ab4cc7ac62fb51ac2d4792a2a342a12ebc77	The consequences of human intervention in all spheres of nature can no longer be ignored.
06ffccf8b4d5d54a4f541281fc17954df11f097a	Without a decisive turn, the future of humanity is unpredictable.
e64a450d3caf9cff594cf702bca0ff5e7665b53c	"Nature is not a temple, but a workshop, and a person is a worker in it..."
c05253d54fcd9ce493b71598f90b7a128eccc68f	The great Russian writer I. Turgenev, who has an amazing gift to see and feel nature, put a special meaning into this phrase.
e88099849d843f9549421f7181c8abcd5b658397	He was looking to the future.
a7911a3d659381fa00d9eaf13fa34f2bd6f062dd	One can only admire the perspicacity of the great writer.
53e5f2460edb693376ce828d888fa196e170e816	Yes, nature is a workshop where all the benefits necessary for human existence are created.
d1dfaa9bcd668a40972a509a32b80d8dfe4ed5a7	It requires careful attitude to its riches, which, as we know, are by no means unlimited.
ee1762fa036e63f1472e2c025e11b3b2e699f30d	We strive to come to harmony of our relations with nature on the basis of the known laws in nature, but why is it that "discord" with it so often happens in nature management?
8088b33cdc99f48eb4cd414124d82c81494a7654	When we oppose ourselves to nature, enjoying the illusion of "freedom" from it, we inevitably come into conflict with nature.
59d44f7cc7e7e5768b19957bd3c5d4eeaa900286	It is believed that as a result of the economic activity of people over the past 50 years, our planet has changed to a greater extent than in the 800 thousand years that separate us from the beginning of mankind's mastery of fire.
e93166f4812caf16d5744ae1d6f5b9774a4dc21d	What first of all characterizes the problem in natural resource management at the beginning of the XXI century?
4e76f84f42710c39a33436847d1c1c569d2023c8	First, the intensification of industrial intervention in the environment.
0eee2f1643d17d689f1f4e03d91da6dac1b9cd16	This is expressed in the extreme "squeezing" of resources, like "squeezing the sweat" out of a worker.
a57a8b844e06340e8f7200288c3e037116fd1cd6	Secondly, the multilateral littering of the environment, all geospheres, including near Earth space, with non recyclable technological waste.
efbed5ad5dd07dd61a8d76426421a2747b028146	Humanity has come to the point where the contours of a fairly close eco logical drama clearly appear.
934f962c8db1b5bb7352144c9ed80b6b9181f21e	The time of spontaneous, reckless use of natural resources has already passed.
db890af2c2a38b79f94069246a913fffaed47ac4	Nature management should be carried out only on a scientific basis, taking into account all those complex processes that occur in the environment both without and with human participation.
2585be13c7c26355e7bc01a988b8bf7a25431d1b	It cannot be otherwise, because the impact of man and his activities on nature is becoming stronger and stronger.
6286b290fe115160221161f665087b350012af76	Environmental protection and rational use of natural resources are among the most relevant environmental areas.
9f291aba5d66805a85f8676254989a85788320fa	In solving these problems, the role of training environmental personnel, environmental education and education of the country's population is important.
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e76fa8ed8ca8b0364db9221bd2306baeb28139d4	"Human impact on the environment"
f6f4da8d93e88a08220e03b7810451d3ba540a34	Project
d383fb54f410ce578616865a8784de89babcfb1b	The work of Maria Rachek is 13 years old
62480654db90a2d48c6b763e4d0c23e14e444932	INTRODUCTION:
bda4519a111c1c1dee5c090a01c98d0cd392bf3b	Relevance:
f03c6e73e1fcb1a71d73f1bde9dd1a102e94ac9e	The influence of man on nature has always interested me.
99b94ca0a6e442b5c86aa910a641343beec29cae	Intelligent man appeared on Earth after all other living beings.
f6bf47784a691f531a103112adaa61c903dbf57b	How did the human relationship with the environment develop?
b4e49a7064f890a0a537e1966f29a9dceb612e99	Did we have to think about this question?
32479f95748a0fab0c01594411c7b9c74c4f5154	Probably not.
2ab276b219eca47552feba6e6c47df526f9f5c67	But after all, with the advent of man, it is he himself who begins to influence the fate of nature and many living beings of the Earth.
4005c08304d9f5d08e0933354a2916d21368270c	And this influence can be not only positive.
75b527b80509cf5acaf2e58ac3c052c3dc95d08f	Man began to invade the life of nature, not always thinking about the consequences.
f658736f0005b88ba4c551a6be690ab40434a050	Therefore, I decided to learn more about the anthropogenic influence of man on nature and introduce it to school students, because each of us who considers himself a part of the world humanity is obliged to know what impact human activity has on the world around us and feel a share of responsibility for certain actions.
ea4cd3246cb0ef5012e1701324df68be1cb961c6	Objectives of the work:
e2d0443e25a3ddeec0bcf26092776ee9c963c46f	To learn the methods and causes of human impact on nature, to understand how to protect and preserve nature.
cc1bba8d408bc38b90d493bb6429dd88b0a4def6	As part of achieving this goal, I have set the following tasks:
d8a1276c89adba988ac122fbe6a3e0bceab388ef	To trace the impact of human economic activity on the natural environment and show the real threat of human impact on nature .
001541f9ddec3b2b9261dde3816df63f300e9657	Find out the main sources of environmental pollution.
d34e47fce1df2620393d6e20caee7973317121fc	To give vivid examples of human influence on the surrounding nature Recommendations for the elimination of sources of pollution and the consequences of the influence of human activity.
1f4d08fbcb3a5a636680854cce67ea0bb8d27544	To identify the mistakes of humanity in order to solve them in the future.
8d8728b302a999e25633a9090cc4ed98cdac8e98	Research methods:
520353e7ec395bf95c474e57d6f8f655034733d3	The study of literature on the influence of man on nature.
daa83a8aa285aa7e3682315e325bb0a80d9156d7	My research on the influence of man on nature will consist of water pollution, the atmosphere and the soil, the influence of man on living organisms.
6b2f09c87239659324c1c02bb3a6f2570e40e4ca	Atmospheric pollution
2c6b1c55d16e7f943c3aa74251e5a44a9fd5eb0f	The atmosphere is the outer shell of the biosphere.
5603184d7471ae5e25670d4d9e8be9ace692aaca	Its role in the natural processes of the biosphere is enormous: it determines the overall thermal regime of the surface of our planet, protects it from the harmful effects of cosmic and ultraviolet radiation.
0584887ac03740cfad10be7e074379614630c1f9	The circulation of the atmosphere affects the local climatic conditions, and through them - the regime of rivers, soil and vegetation cover.
c688747ca78c54eb1d68dd48741764f579be88b1	In order to live, a person needs to cook food, have a warm home, so he is forced to burn fuel.
5cd98f519aec1e0e4beef5ad19e12c3b7c87afe2	At first, ordinary bonfires burned, but with the development of technologies and production, "scientific and technical bonfires" appeared – the furnaces of steam locomotives, steamships, metallurgical plants, power plants.
960f023768225dab697f9b707051bd39d2c83b81	And add to this millions of internal combustion engines, jet engines, nuclear reactors.
7bb44311b9a8c35e86f470252d99186aa30256df	In addition, in order for the" fire "to burn, it needs to be constantly"fed".
991a924b245d00ad0dcaf9e46d4e4e05a0d96597	And such a fire" eats " just atmospheric oxygen.
3f1d86dd24be231e99f9e7c1e23ef360c4eed2cb	The main cause of atmospheric pollution is the burning of natural fuel.
457c7deb01107bafb29b916d27b6c8209e020a82	Carbon dioxide prevents thermal radiation into outer space, creating a so called "greenhouse effect"there.
89d5f5de059e3b4921207f3841b2bae737cde3d9	In the course of their activities, a person pollutes the environment.
9a7c7226b9414b4029b790062a5013f84d87292f	Over cities and industrial areas, the concentration of gases released into the atmosphere by various industrial enterprises increases in the atmosphere.
fc23e3e9588827d32f11b9144f7b138208d01fd1	Polluted air is harmful not only to human health, but also to the health of living organisms on land, water and soil.
8bbebf96397fbaba11796de031d23b08056100d7	In addition, harmful gases, combining with atmospheric moisture and falling out in the form of acid rain, worsen the quality of the soil and reduce the yield.
6ae6c77dbae4395e7ea7e83ec9ee12463259685c	The destruction of the ozone layer, which has been observed in recent years, is particularly dangerous.
53a25aae447ca51b1bfab8a2ba7bf599f5a0e6ad	Most scientists associate this with human activity.
2f66f67e659441c46dbac78333bb8a4844ff4464	Thus, changes in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere significantly affect the Earth's climate.
84bc2795c7200ab6875084ba2d4c87a13108bf81	In order to burn fuel, you need to get it.
4666f9f9b5d770bad2b757cdf063d12292ea5cdc	To do this, forests are being cut down – the "lungs of our planet"
759fcbc673360e3d86f3c0a2379d65bd7d36928b	Before a person interfered with the atmosphere.
0aa4d6d8011806470a3e62c3f66ac3fc9417e581	After a person interfered with the atmosphere.
ff0b4a41a3fbbb80873e64cc7643958591d811c8	Water pollution
7e97c66900da678e785cb289c92a3eeb284909ef	Water is the basis of life processes in the biosphere.
13e878fb07dfbbefd4d385285a0415962c5060d9	Water is the most common inorganic compound on the planet.
79b3257a40d7eda366513d7ce9e13c97817d1bbd	Water is the basis of all life processes.
3f29d686b95d98d849d25eb31a8a40ca0e0faca0	With the advent of life on Earth, the water cycle has become relatively complex, since more complex processes related to the vital activity of living organisms, especially humans, have been added to the simple phenomenon of evaporation.
3c8c8786c7af4bb507554f93de062befe0b75526	The use of water resources is rapidly increasing.
dc296cce496d8da5b7e7deb98ad77bb62878afdb	This is due to the growth of the population and the improvement of sanitary and hygienic conditions of human life, the development of industry and irrigated agriculture.
6db334274e81afc4cd20be47fe2ee09ad4dc77e3	The daily water consumption for household needs in rural areas is 50 liters per 1 person, in cities - 150 liters.
01e5b0ef0c391333ba1e7621d61ae30ef95aca0f	A huge amount of water is used in industry.
827fcb586fec2d5a9e8c9299f0d84dd878e14a14	Industry absorbs 85% of all water consumed in cities, leaving about 15% for household purposes.
2424ccf9aa8bf0360e20f32a32d9e68a9d1e7133	Even more water is needed for irrigation.
f62540f0dcb9a716515cef057306b54dbf284b6d	In our country, more than 150 km3 is spent annually on irrigation.
2de6bd8d165187594324e5e7e2d88dc86ed23929	If such consumption rates are maintained and taking into account the population growth and production volumes, by 2100 humanity can exhaust all fresh water reserves.
3d3ab91cf2367f24a2b7fbff85749410b40bcf69	In addition to the high level of water consumption, its growing pollution is caused by the discharge of industrial waste into rivers, especially chemical production and communication wastewater.
d75b7d63f453d032ef465036c2077cb61f1efff9	This leads to the necrosis of reservoirs.
e85f116a514770d83b93a22046cb17c9ac4b1263	Harmful substances entering the water are oil, petroleum products, toxic synthetic substances, metals.
ebead567d277b7fc01040cfb4e2ac4a17f54917e	Mineral fertilizers washed out of the soil by rains - nitrates and phosphates, which in high concentrations can dramatically change the type and composition of reservoirs, as well as various pesticides used in agriculture to control insect pests, also enter rivers and lakes.
71cf00e0fab34a78592ca1228fe4fdcdd78734a0	One of the types of pollution is thermal pollution.
db2a8bf7c163e751352eb53a5df811ac5bcd60af	Power plants and industrial enterprises often dump heated water into a reservoir, which reduces the amount of oxygen, increases the toxicity of impurities, and disrupts the biological balance.
f0bb91f2f72223c4e8d65068fb46337fbeaf2c3f	In warm water, oxygen is poorly dissolved, and its deficiency sometimes leads many organisms to death.
ec0bc174381d4c706d326438586d6f111dc5d250	The waters of the seas and oceans are significantly polluted.
2689461b922f7d2cf951cf694314d00628fe5e82	With river runoff, as well as from sea transport, pathogenic waste, oil products, heavy metals, poisons enter the seas.
3deef3b51138019db68afdfd0d3df1e8495cd530	Pollution of the seas and oceans reaches such a scale that in some cases the caught fish and shellfish are unsuitable for food.
e8df32137b4379612892277ceed0efa2b322aa1f	Anthropogenic transformations of the continents ' waters have already reached global proportions, disrupting the natural regime of even the largest lakes and rivers of the globe.
440d0cd7581354e499966aa7ce8feae7b314d728	According to the International Labor Organization, 70% of the world's population uses poor quality water.
0f815761184843e76d98abb9bb840a3d3589f6cb	This problem is particularly acute in developing countries.
e0218424317d764d1925daa6bc294e1601504e7e	Approximately 90% of all rural residents constantly use polluted water for drinking and bathing.
d3387d1b87c0ea853ab8a5ccea13c6b843208835	According to the World Health Organization, 80% of diseases in the world are caused by insufficient quality and unsanitary condition of water.
3ae283cb71274e32e1c9c712c2f4df8da696bf4d	Because of this, diseases such as cholera, typhus, and malaria arise.
0779f19a40a55832e43a0d7883cb5a191e057107	About 500 million people suffer from diseases associated with the unsanitary state of water on the globe.
9846dff1601a60ceb9bac6414a33aa1854006ef6	What happened before the human intervention.
8c2230c3457c5427987570b56d5e876b51fdb856	And what happened after that.
092a7d791f7f1068a282fc2156af9d222b082978	Soil contamination
00600680aaf65f2721de9d00f628a1050068246e	Soil is an important component of the biosphere, one of the great wonders of the Earth.
a0fec69bab231d92081a2f9e9244abbaaf3c9cd1	But often a person is guilty of violating the state of the soil.
56af19df63696878421401e7c38f340918de8325	Mining has the greatest impact on the earth's surface and subsurface, especially with an open method of mining.
de1636bee7f08cba4f744078cf52b2131fd8bcab	With this method, significant areas of land are seized, the environment is polluted with various heavy metals.
42b1a61287d3c9c1d91dadf9ac43d77f232a9e7b	Anthropogenic changes in the Earth's surface are also associated with the construction of large hydraulic structures.
f3c5dbcc140594c56ceb792c10f347d3a7e4f470	One of the ways of intensive contamination of the soil cover are metals and their compounds, radioactive elements, as well as fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture.
35cd9039f206ca1bdc970e242f8fc9ce2acac379	The most dangerous soil pollutants include mercury and lead.
24b0c7c35eb1442fcfac0e63fea0b01296e1a1b7	Radioactive substances from the soil get into plants, then into animal and human organisms, accumulate in them and lead to various diseases and even death.
dec2dc6b15725f3fa3f89a61ffee5bfeaa4bc7ef	Before human intervention in the soil.
f168414c5e30776c8a7449b8c51c9b06dd2dbc13	And after it.
ccd0a76e80d4a7dd26b3f16c9a6e6bda645fd504	Human influence on living organisms
12cf570426d758468b2728942ba374ca31cdb4c1	The human impact on wildlife consists of a direct impact on changes in the natural environment.
a2a6abb10372058027a7e032cf921df437dfa59b	One of the forms of direct impact on plants and animals is deforestation.
47929c180e3c3bb3b6ad9fc8bfdbe5e844f9df5e	Having suddenly found themselves in an open habitat, the plants of the lower tiers of the forest experience the unfavorable influence of solar radiation.
2c34f4c4e23a6891c97dbd42560ac18fdbabc81d	The felled trees are used as fuel.
860d6ae40d28ce60c212bcfdda685895f596ca91	However, in recent years, the animal world has been negatively affected by the excessive use of mineral fertilizers in agriculture, pollution of the world's oceans and other anthropogenic factors.
6f54fd4b93e5ee9b8b85fbe0f240b9dae438b904	Therefore, with an increasing anthropogenic load, many animal species need further protection and reproduction.
e4e4408536066b92795edc1800460a605c15cfb3	How can we protect nature from human activity?
65653c1cb9113dcfcb65aae66e2f140f71b20676	Protection of the atmosphere
1051228a505fd010fddea71b9b31032818e61db5	The main ways to reduce and completely eliminate atmospheric pollution are as follows: the development and implementation of cleaning filters, the use of environmentally friendly energy sources, waste free production technology, the fight against car exhaust gases, landscaping, as well as legal protection.
039c4a880d3daabd86f61c67e80f5986ce5c8a5b	Cleaning filters are the main it is a means of combating industrial pollution of the atmosphere.
63fb02761e96eb26e7cf33f7a8833add1c4e7c13	Cleaning of emissions into the atmosphere is carried out by passing them through various filters (mechanical, electric, magnetic, sound, etc.), water and chemically active liquids.
300899c260660d338666a9ca030dd8dbe11b2d3d	All of them are designed to capture dust, vapors and gases.
6ef4fc2b61d90dbb6b3a29c341c38050c46605ee	Cleaning of industrial waste not only protects the atmosphere from pollution, but also gives additional raw materials and profits to enterprises up to 300 thousand dollars a year.
56ba46bd4bfb50da1505fedfc49db681c9ebeaa8	It is impossible to solve the problem of protecting the atmosphere only with the help of treatment facilities.
d7d8bed6cbe45f2467a656501dcac7a6ed46a73b	It is necessary to apply a set of measures, and first of all, the introduction of waste free technologies.
2b95611a93ae042d7215fabcf8009b3fbda2416d	One of the ways to protect the atmosphere from pollution is the transition to the use of new environmentally friendly energy sources.
7550befae80e0e796cd15fd39050e02fe9d9765f	For example, the construction of stations that use the energy of tides and tides, the use of wind engines.
56cd7d914805af15a2f8f02d0a1a2b4f6bd86b34	Waste free technology is effective if it is built by analogy with the processes occurring in the biosphere: the waste of one link in the ecosystem is used by other links.
d5928d3d5922306d95942311cad78a6d9bd1dde2	Cyclic waste free production, comparable to cyclic processes in the biosphere — is the future of industry, an ideal way to preserve the purity of the environment.
d06ca28f8393bcd4396d9c7d2293149214069e5b	As particular solutions for protecting air from car exhaust gases, you can specify the installation of filters, the organization of traffic, which will reduce and eliminate the frequent change of engine operating modes (road interchanges, widening of the roadway, construction of crossings, etc.).
3ed5d78a1bf27de5b55f2284aeb5678ac72e9d2d	The problem can be solved cardinally when replacing internal combustion engines with electric ones.
5357efabbbd4ad271583c09f0a1c6c7cbba3c8ec	To reduce toxic substances in the exhaust gases of cars, it is proposed to replace gasoline with other types of fuel, for example, a mixture of various alcohols.
85e0bc18548d612a6034bdf2d798a6c913ae4497	Gas cylinder cars are promising.
2dcc499d97fe646fd0c4d389302c0a1fb075ef71	Greening of cities and industrial centers: green spaces free the air from harmful substances and enrich it with oxygen due to photosynthesis.
4724c4fbd61589f6a922a6ae849990dc7ea7054d	Up to 72% of suspended dust particles settle on the leaves of trees and shrubs.
455dfc97b5bea1ffdc54deb20d8ecbce61420313	Therefore, in parks, squares and gardens, there is ten times less dust in the air than in open streets and squares.
743edc0cf5f0059828b6ab3474aff149da1e5010	Many species of trees and shrubs secrete phytoncides that kill bacteria.
ea3c3ade361b1586ac85dbdc1d6587a8e66703e9	The adoption of laws on the protection of atmospheric air is called the legal protection of the atmosphere.
c8ca7b82196e93973b78b50221b826741aa8049c	Violators are punishable by a fine.
1bf4cbfd6a8c88fb382bdb7efada770a3a759b7d	To maintain the cleanliness of the air, the layout of the city is of great importance.
0e5d1a6c9809206d546def66f1df633ca707f116	Factories and factories, transport highways should be a zone consisting of green spaces.
ccc32f7955aa5a249f609fb97336bc5219d2995a	It is necessary to take into account the wind rose, the terrain and the presence of reservoirs, to place residential quarters on the leeward side and on elevated areas.
86740a1efcd3d539a6ec5682fa2af1f5fc917c2c	It is better to place industrial zones away from residential areas or outside the city.
c7eedeff6cd808eb414c35b170e74a296418f686	Water protection
f7a10f65d07a31bcbb624a7519d38d32af9a5ae9	The main protection of reservoirs from pollution is treatment facilities.
482f0e5195e46dcfc1543e268a9dcc272c16df8a	They are intended for the removal of industrial and household effluents from the reservoir.
5769f5c48c699e9ae02fe3bb77f988ea535b7e26	Improvement of water quality and restoration of its purity occurs under the influence of dilution (mixing of the polluted jet with the entire mass of water) and mineralization of organic substances with the death of foreign bacteria introduced into the river – actually self purification.
36960a8729d18d5cc1d05db8dd7b6bf0e4e25190	At pumping stations, grilles are installed in front of two tier installations.
2e1e87b36339b97d9b20657cc98ea04961a72937	It is believed that the garbage trapped on the grates should not get to the treatment facilities, since it practically does not lend itself to biological oxidation and only overloads the facilities.
c38c53ad9e90e4eff87a95bc72129b919419085a	Filter wells are used for wastewater treatment from small objects.
02a093e4f1f98b1429763985409eada4be34a6a6	Soil protection
2d3475450e17a79e4cb7aef8813d1d3fef34b172	Ecological methods of plant protection are used to prevent soil contamination with harmful substances.
b5cc5c992dddcbfe05fef18e371c289c2cde4384	They increase the natural ability of soils to self purification, do not use particularly dangerous and resistant drugs, etc.
5aa5e1b5db5a685531cbbbcd4d56a5604f4de26f	For example, the breeding and release of predatory insects — ladybugs, ground beetles, ants, etc. is widely used.
f690b6025af899c08a6123727df0695453d06c29	The withdrawal of arable land for capital construction and other purposes can occur only in exceptional cases.
8c0a1382b9cd6f0aa515ff8e3fb59387282455d2	In order to preserve the productivity of land, it is necessary to expand the use of land that is conditionally unsuitable for agriculture for construction, to lay communications underground, to increase the number of floors for building cities and settlements, etc.
4bbb0b178028252868fd9d3389b180151dd31d0e	When carrying out construction and other works related to the mechanical violation of the soil cover, it is provided for the removal, preservation and application of a fertile soil layer on the disturbed lands.
2c498b49a1cc1187fd07c41740cb3dee3cc54c0b	The fertile layer is exported and stored in special temporary dumps burts.
8adde66ef0d7c8ebdfad7c55640aba9d93106e4e	The application of a fertile soil layer to disturbed lands is carried out no later than one year from the date of completion of preparatory work on the formation of the relief.
d93c8445fd07d802613ff159260ca8bbbd086053	Protection of living organisms
36bb4acdf52f4be060d72d6cc3c62f6215aa9146	Nature reserves, nature reserves and national parks are created to protect living organisms from human activity.
79eca7bf1da63791dd61075b968cc992be3667eb	Here the animals are safe, for animals whose species number is very small, conditions are created for increasing the population.
afbd59d71e853ebc69ebeea9180ee6a855934232	Nature reserves, nature reserves and national parks fight against animal cruelty in general, and conducts separate campaigns against specific types of cruel and inhumane treatment.
1fea1a1276d7ad1fb5138b67fbef31b47b6b338b	Here, animals, like people, acquire their rights, similar to human rights.
0c3c78b88a6eafd2d7081114e4f433754bae479a	For example, animals have the right not to be hungry and thirsty, that animals cannot be considered as private property and used for food, clothing, entertainment and scientific experiments, and some rights, for example, the right to life and protection from suffering, must be legally assigned to animals.
7305180a89aaba3f1d847197b1c1a78e30550827	Supporters of these animal rights often offer a complete rejection of the use of animal meat and fish products in food and prefer to use synthetic or made from plant materials clothing.
da1754ae9fb84f49bfd5cc633851d2798ce32b0f	In conclusion, from the material presented, it can be concluded that human activity can lead to enormous destruction in the natural ecosystem, which will entail large costs for restoration in the future.
d9f2b2a8dc3c569ca9f234cada6bc94864d3fc05	It turns out that a person spoils his own future: he pollutes the atmosphere, water and soil, cuts down forests and exterminates animals and birds.
3b43c61e8d03c323689b250b98993cc2f75778fb	However, a person tries to find a reasonable impact on the environment, which will allow achieving balance in nature and harmony, and this is what progressive humanity is striving for.
6b7facf2e5d75c3e2158eee6ff47f5da37aac86f	A person builds sewage treatment plants for the atmosphere and water, is engaged in landscaping, builds nature reserves and national parks.
f7b4b761da1d047e16c65c9741a6562b702085ad	With my work, I wanted to encourage you to protect and protect the former beauty of the surrounding nature.
9fe9cbe2e74b1512242f3722b180a0642ee07d85	List of used literature:
e2f52e1a99cbe683e2f72964659312c03bef8b7b	"Textbook on social studies 7th grade".
0659f148d7ad8bc5f83a56460022fc9b7d53a222	Edited by L. N. Bogolyubov, Yu.
0874fa7e9b8c14465fca39c808cf7fdf51fdaeca	Florinskaya.
3eb6ae13c164c168175885d3a5c22e0bc5388711	"Global Environmental Problems", 1999.
b93f59d1d8c9e3fa1f4485fb7924a2db72e022d9	Goleusov P. V., Lisetsky F. N. "Soil reproduction in anthropogenic disturbed forest steppe landscapes". 2009.
4a092461adde79c41f018e2ce3bc3a33bf5f69a4	N. Aghajanyan.
9fa507b444323525ad3ca40a47f2208f6a97996c	"Man and the biosphere". the year is 1987.
f7758d55faca6aced3d49ef00b7184ed6a6e41df	A. Bannikov.
c570aabaa472b47a949f00cb29c52e0f06ce7a45	"The world of animals and its protection".1978. V. Dezhkin.
a5b71dca3380a867432fbe7efc72829d85269568	"Conversations about ecology". the year is 1975.
ff11d904a989c6c93c1c6a8214c33d878605d79f	MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
700c28aeb651e6562d8c6d43dac2464b0ae46c26	ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE
cabfb316ae3374a0a9f7fc1f4be4c51fcc1824bc	Man and the environment Anthropogenic impact on nature. classification of anthropogenic impacts Basic laws of the "man - nature" system Prospects of the relationship between civilization and the biosphere
0d71a273baf5927ad652f630407834e58acdc9ac	MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
ac08c0cfec9de005a5ee64b298a2c2f27f6fba82	Until the mid 70s of our century, ecology was considered as the science of the relationship between living organisms and the environment, i.e. it had a purely biological character.
4383aa2772b5e3b1bbe96d469a6639f68339c726	In recent decades, the situation has changed due to the aggravation of environmental problems on the planet.
3d280db97992e5ffb231a81503dae4984fb17785	Modern ecology, or megaecology, now puts the relationship of a person with the environment at the forefront.
814d0c71173ebbb42ab9d605f79c105e9ddc76fe	The concept of "environment" includes everything that surrounds us, which directly or indirectly affects our life and activities.
2c8abb6d0d42143a1505f9466bd161df5f99ca63	The composition of the environment in the broadest sense of the word includes our entire planet and outer space.
a8d7ebd108309ed371551a3c70ed5d078e177e14	In a narrower view, the environment is usually taken to mean the biosphere.
0e1d1b244abcba27e5d96183f2b74da6fefde426	A person is closely connected with the environment by origin, material and spiritual needs.
7ae030230b3aa2db5e3085cdffc98494551314bb	The scale and forms of these relations have steadily grown from the local use of individual natural resources to the almost complete involvement of the planet's resource potential in the life support of a modern industrialized society.
5c3c741d660b8965c78d6b2e42d49e3500453d05	With the emergence of human civilization, a new factor has appeared that affects the state of the biosphere.
cb53d1bd60f126601e53ea11bc08647d354bcefe	It has reached tremendous strength in the current century, especially in recent decades.
027bd57e864877d6d29195ee5ea6d470ee0befc5	According to the scale of their impact on nature, 6 billion of our contemporaries are equal to about 60 billion people of the Stone Age, and the amount of energy released by man may soon become comparable to the energy received by the Earth from the Sun.
1dab32a6cfe3f6788dd6e8b0a43a254b046f7415	Even in ancient Rome and Athens, the Romans noted the pollution of the waters of the Tiber, and the Athenians the pollution of the waters of the Athenian port of Piraeus, which received ships from the entire then Ecumene, i.e. the territory of the globe inhabited by man.
4f976b22a4514c2571aa4b81301eab7f1744f4b7	The most developed in those days were the production of metals, glass, soap, pottery, paints, bread, wine, etc. Compounds such as oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen, metal vapors, especially mercury, were released into the atmosphere, waste from dyeing and food production went into reservoirs.
19dcc0a0d472eacd26736916c4bd1e05a169e117	The transition from feudal fragmentation to the formation of unified states with centralized power contributed to the further progress of the metalworking industry and chemical technology.
0d04fc775aefcd59543c7d5e179ed78d12fec660	However, in terms of volume, industrial emissions were still inferior to emissions from furnace heating and sewage.
75930f32c162c25031d584143cafc77833d78ae9	Significant amounts of nitrogen oxides, lead and mercury compounds, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, benzpyrene, etc.are released into the atmosphere; a large number of various chemical toxicants enter water bodies.
2eddd89b4fe83f19c2eda14dc4f076bc7708e771	The level of industrial waste is changing qualitatively.
d775f8227b63260c934ffe856985b1e9ec86c0b7	In the XX century, in connection with the scientific and technical revolution, the problem of the relationship between society and nature takes on a critical character.
427aed25e6a5adbe0b1e0111128011a262979a89	This is due to the deterioration of the quality of the natural environment surrounding a person as a result of industrialization and urbanization, the depletion of traditional energy and raw materials, the gradual increase in the demographic burden on nature, the violation of natural ecological balances, the destruction of certain species of animals and plants, the negative genetic consequences of pollution of nature by waste from human production activities, including the danger of genetic degeneration of the person himself.
8586062efb02ebed6a0096919abf6c2a8d4feade	If people do not take measures to prevent environmental degradation, the existing environmental crisis can turn into an environmental catastrophe.
1b5730bc54b3251a7e6e4550b40c835f1419e5f8	The scientific and technological revolution, which caused the intensification of production processes, led to a sharp increase in the use of various natural resources.
42cf4b9991ebc138a26279352c34458c2a6a4dbf	The intensity of the use of natural resources and the closely related state of the environment are objectively influenced by two groups of factors:
7f598f1e0102994fa2bc0201832090922f2400cb	1) the scientific and technological revolution and its manifestation in the production activity of human society;
7d5ef3875d6104ff7bbdb0a43386ecb8f95cd875	2) demographic factors (population growth, urbanization).
ebbc8a3c82f2f6d867b539a30cd91ce4d5df5ac6	These factors determine the level of development of productive forces, which, in turn, determines the degree of impact of human society on natural resources and environmental pollution (Fig. 1).
0c1f1884b0451f465923207a09d0e384a1ca34a9	Changes in the environment caused by the consumption of natural resources and pollution affect a person and his health through biological links and a complex system of feedbacks, including social economy and socio ecological conditions.
8441f6f8558fc5ec22f55fbe991ead584014ef9a	ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURE.
b4541ed6f6862f76d48525d93cac2fe4c4bc5254	CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
1517420dec171a38071a81af80ae9e47736f9085	In the course of his life and activity, a person affects the environment in one way or another.
c2c064bf870b2776356b1083a1033dca4290faaa	The human impact on various elements of the environment and factors generated by man and his economic activity is called anthropogenic (from Greek. anthropos - man).
e995f4f7723d31c608869b2dc4de4bda448eb7e9	The anthropogenic impact on the environment is destructive.
92f1524835fe0d9a620fc2f4c7b3bae38348ca65	Anthropogenic factors lead to the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the natural environment and the formation of artificial landscapes.
12fff234f8f468a05b04831b5eef204f0ff582ef	Human activity leads to the homogenization of biosphere systems.
e20d1ac6e6c62ebd525433cdbb994f4dbeede7a3	People are increasingly "erasing" elementary ecosystems, turning them into monotonous agricultural systems, rather monotonous cultural landscapes in terms of biogeochemical characteristics.
81b1f67ad65556bfa8e405a785687f1f377754a1	The degree of closure of biogeochemical cycles is reduced at the same time.
7de570fed4d1d224c8ce0058330c6be7ef8272a6	In addition, the mass extermination of animal and plant species by humans changes the natural processes (primarily the ecological balance) in the biosphere.
2a2558586ac3aefa101c009645c023cc5506d9b3	Anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere "replaced" biogenic evolution, destroying the natural systems of nature.
2cdda03ed748e82c6b7d907201779cc04bbf0bba	Evolution is forced to go extensively, under the influence of external factors, at a pace dictated by the transformation of nature by man, and not by the course of natural events.
0b7d3864903892f02b47bf3fb258523bc3313053	The totality of anthropogenic impacts on the ecosphere and the human habitat can be considered according to several criteria:
e612636774b439378d8e0276de2cc368f00b3d3e	1. The general nature of the processes of anthropogenic impact, predetermined by the forms of human activity: a) changing landscapes and the integrity of natural complexes; b) withdrawal of natural resources; c) environmental pollution.
f24bbed24ae46f5f9380d0d3fb0db1e442f85243	2. Material and energy nature of impacts: mechanical, physical (thermal, electromagnetic, radiation, radioactive, acoustic), physico chemical, chemical, biological factors and agents and their various combinations.
69923069e76dc08861ff3e3fd3418b05a01f5c8a	3. Categories of objects of impact: natural landscape complexes, the earth's surface, soil, subsoil, vegetation, wildlife, water bodies, atmosphere, microenvironment and microclimate of habitat, people and other recipients.
2c65d987d3787cb4850e3ff93de3ce172a4e3801	4. Quantitative characteristics of the impact: their spatial scale (local, regional, global), uniqueness and multiplicity, the strength of the impact and the degree of their danger (intensity of factors and effects; characteristics of the "dose - effect" type, threshold; tolerance according to regulatory environmental and sanitary criteria; the degree of risk, etc.).
8aa7bcd55ffe88ca2caa0dde9f2991b8f9e1334d	5. Time parameters and differences of impacts according to the nature of the upcoming changes: short term and long term, persistent and unstable, direct and indirect, having pronounced or hidden trace effects, causing chain reactions, reversible and irreversible, etc.
d893741a5d7ba99954d5517f3c44c754ef195641	The latter classification categories are also associated with the division of all anthropogenic changes into intentional and unintentional.
fce59a4154cfd802d5c1623e4ea0bd8409cdc22c	Deliberate transformations are the development of land for crops or perennial plantings, the construction of reservoirs, canals and irrigation systems, the construction of cities, industrial enterprises and communication routes, the digging of cuts, pits, mines and drilling wells for mining, the drainage of swamps, etc.
ae607b2bc91cefa1d5ebb4ca0ef4d2c12a0511f5	Unintended changes are environmental pollution, changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere, climate changes, acid rain, acceleration of metal corrosion and destruction of cultural monuments, the formation of photochemical fogs( smog), ozone layer disturbances, the development of erosion processes, the onset of the desert, environmental disasters as a result of major accidents, impoverishment of the species composition of biocenoses, the development of environmental pathology in the population, etc.
946de69172fbf83da72cdf8b851b03f11984db3f	Unintended environmental changes come to the fore not only because many of them are very significant and important, but also because they are less controlled and are fraught with unforeseen effects.
bcb02eaab3b49928ddb2b711ad2983a1a184b86f	In addition, some of them, for example, man made CO emissions or thermal pollution, are fundamentally inevitable, and the elimination of others requires enormous costs.
41475904bed7989472b131dd57df37796e943118	The most important forms of anthropogenic impact on nature include: overexploitation and depletion of natural resources and man made environmental pollution.
97ea1c6ff4cec99e33c649a42d907aec683d284c	In the second half of the XX century, the increased rates of use of mineral resources caused a sharp increase in the scale of mineral extraction and expanded the geography of mineral extraction.
ee9d413ee3b4312da64038b4a5f95129dff7d108	In 1913, 5 tons of mineral raw materials were extracted per inhabitant of the Earth, in 1940 - 7.4, in 1960 - 14.3, in the late 70s - 25 tons.
37cea679cee89b4e600f011017c1987612eb133e	If the current rates of use of mineral raw materials are maintained, this value will increase by 1.8 times by 2000.
96a6c4654a16ec91ea75cf02752bd0bcbfa36dc3	In 1998, compared to 1950, the world's expenditure on timber increased by more than 2 times, paper - by 6, water - by 3, grain - by almost 3, and the use of coal as fuel increased by 4 times.
d798f2c5b93341e8c150316fc6c61e08b6875f5c	Steel production has also increased 4 times.
231996166124926b1b02b2cacdc5442037ab4c55	Over the past 50 years, the world has lost almost half of its forest area.
70b1488472ae9596647d8a890e728b90141ce9dd	Excessive fishing has led to the fact that fish populations are on the verge of disaster.
b4fe79420aecc4537d9932accf8b904cb4e97f57	The continued reduction of biodiversity on the planet leads to further destabilization of the balance in the biosphere.
e266bb1dc33e8c89f518e06547eff99ce8ae794e	Soil erosion has become a serious problem in many countries of the world.
3335f5fa6fa03309c21a789475de1f24cde4fbaa	In the United States, Europe, China, India, the Middle East and Africa, water supplies are declining.
61c14030655bc97a263a28f755b60ffdf9c376f2	Lack of water also means a shortage of food.
74d41d795755c8a00cfb063a251cadfcd903e300	70% of the world's water resources are used for growing crops.
73bd0520bc541c37b7cbaf0ebfd060c24687c29b	The use of natural resources will increase dramatically over the next 50 years.
6adecf9733b18d2335f9134c92950c8d574efeae	It is expected that the population of our planet will increase by 60% by this time.
85d3caa84be54109a31c40af1de56d432e952f8c	Technogenic pollution of various natural environments has a sharply negative impact on living organisms, human living conditions and his health.
06ee154311173392a3d49aaa0377207d6c57295a	Anthropogenic environmental pollution has become global in recent decades, which has led to a sharp deterioration of the state of natural ecosystems and significantly reduced the available operational resources on Earth.
e7235c87054ae945b64c6422406ac8ea361cfff1	In addition, various types of man made pollution are the cause of many environmental problems of our time (destruction of the ozone shield, climate change, the problem of waste, reduction of biodiversity).
abfe19255d0a8a093fce1374073b1b26c7200830	The human impact on the environment in the modern era has become a factor of geological or even cosmic scale, surpassing all natural forces that have ever influenced the evolution of life, the evolution of the Earth's biosphere.
5803e9e8a3f8ceeb619135d054ea3b3dee312d70	Practical human activity at the present stage of the development of the biosphere leads to the violation of various physical laws related to the ecological balance in nature, in particular the Le Chatelier - Brown principle.
de8f867a13fa4b26c6836545f3278c37886ae38c	Since the mechanism of implementation of the Le Chatelier - Brown principle in the biosphere is based on the functioning of living systems, this functioning, as postulated by V. I. Vernadsky, serves as the main regulator of all earth processes.
6feab06ac321dae9a66aff9be7865902ef224f3f	Currently, the operation of the Le Chatelier - Brown principle within the biosphere is violated.
045ea32d174f6339de78fd79803ff7d64be46121	(It is believed that this principle is not observed in the disturbed biota of the land and continues to be observed in the undisturbed biota of the ocean.)
5e17bc1a4f934ff7cc2b725261acb67d66020227	Today, there is a deviation of the carbon cycle from the equilibrium pre industrial state.
22d000a36c956ca43226745d37e4ffa2fa5dfdfc	If at the end of the last century there was still an increase in biological productivity and biomass in response to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, this phenomenon has not been detected since the beginning of this century.
c5458170a950b05957c2752fd5986418be199970	On the contrary, biota throws out carbon dioxide, and therefore its biomass is automatically reduced.
26bab2b95d9a48fc68b9b4431858583a0087d6fb	(In the biota of the land, there is a reduction in the mass of organic carbon at a rate of 1.1 GtS/year.
60af4bc3ac1239ed7e9b386c6e33c09b75f38d85	The biota of the ocean absorbs organic carbon at a rate of 2.3 GtS/year.)
70fec503e18f98c543de559c935d3cbf6da268d6	THE BASIC LAWS OF THE "MAN - NATURE" SYSTEM"
d272ad8c5f09a58c78a829371a9d323c3490bcf2	The modern nature of the relationship in the system "man nature", or" man - biosphere", can be called antagonistic.
60dc72f9b8097d83fe84efad781065602e686626	Man in the process of cognition and development of nature has come into conflict with it.
5bb92c67bded810b4e61075aec96463ad79485e2	A number of laws and regulations objectively characterize the modern relationship between man and nature.
437060e89191c017f22361e6f7376c58ebb91928	The law of feedback of the interaction "man - biosphere" by P. Dansero (1957), or the boomerang law (B. Commoner's fourth law, 1974): the anthropogenic load on the biosphere has acquired such a scale that the very existence of humanity is at risk.
461747563aa116ff9b879e5d76f88c9d3e4b93d5	The law of irreversibility of the interaction "man biosphere" by P. Dansero (1957): renewable natural resources become non renewable in the event of a profound change in the environment, significant overexploitation, reaching total destruction or extreme depletion, and therefore exceeding the possibilities of their restoration.
302f00701e848c4b595c0e8b7ce75313a15de3ad	This corresponds to the modern phase of the development of the system of relations "man nature".
606bd2f92b4a5a5a9540454c07515b46908d46e6	Modern civilization and culture do not provide stable conditions for the existence of life on Earth, nor of man as a part of it.
a7402b8b1d9bc58f92c6a441f0afb325360e78a1	The rule of the measure of transformation of natural systems: during the operation of natural systems, it is impossible to exceed certain limits that allow these systems to preserve the properties of self support (self regulation).
bd432616e20123ad5bf1f8a410fac6069f989395	The American ecologist B. Commoner proposed a number of laws reflecting the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature (1974):
b9f114c39adb9fd711cafe33f25aae0d3e7a9037	1. "Everything is connected to everything".
fefda2db8c24cc72aecf9f48de3c397781fb6a08	The biosphere is a single system of living organisms that has the ability to self regulate and maintain balance.
9b141b94205366c370ce97fb9f11bb95eb6db5b9	These same properties, under the influence of external overloads, can lead to a dramatic denouement.
6aa1b580e2c195ea614ababeed2b54f32ac5f781	The level of anthropogenic impact on the biosphere leads to an overload of its self regulating mechanisms.
74db60cc9dbbedcfc00605cede47053b1343e459	2. " Everything has to go somewhere."
9732bf57d3570face745f99fbd4c1570901d14b4	There is no such thing as "garbage" in nature.
6118dfb3dadac5cd6ad4f62c5d4a9e3dd2014cac	In natural systems, any "waste" generates new life, is included in the biosphere cycles.
aad19aa46f42b75e493c6616258db55dc6cda54d	Waste from anthropogenic activities - new substances and compounds are dispersed in nature, burden vital processes, forming ecological "dead ends".
a8eb4a08e67c44461cc8f54606487082f69ec324	3. " Nature knows best."
38c6adac761ef0bd54b03bc996b047af8513c7ba	It is not necessary to strive to "improve nature".
1c59a62e910e8278ad75aa49f6fa2f431b7b0e88	Remember: all the power of man is in the knowledge of the laws of nature and the ability to change them.
16c6271c4b0df4583382d58078333a7e8e3d90df	The best way is a reasonable human activity in relation to nature.
e1803f92c5f214ccdae1103498760a3a598476fc	4. "Nothing is given for free" (the law of the boomerang).
2e7ba4e22750c8c2b37b85b83405140365e34712	In nature, nothing can be won or lost.
bbf11b3754bbd214d020df09dad9a54a042fe78a	Everything that has been extracted by human labor must be returned.
af56e43335915e189f66050fb63820d167a6d6f5	The payment cannot be avoided, it can only be postponed.
edbeaac3ef3848cee69fafa7d6da124ff012adcb	PROSPECTS FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CIVILIZATION AND THE BIOSPHERE
065e8c5e3eef129e85d07d670d5fbd45ac17a258	V. I. Vernadsky believed that humanity will be able to ensure its future only if it takes responsibility for the development of the biosphere as a whole.
4560bbe929c66a825d18c31322954fb196c942d3	And for the development of society and the nature of which it is a part.
738a3875eec0116b92ef04482edb81b2a25a55b1	Throughout history, the evolution of living matter and the entire biosphere has followed the general laws of development - according to the principle of "natural self organization".
a4a159c1c8bf57f2f0727416f1d4f48a9900c2e9	At present, the evolution of the biosphere is losing its "naturalness" and the mind begins to control it.
d15ddd719d59dff6c1b34fc7952086aa0a59285a	This new state of the biosphere has been called the "noosphere".
319b7377fc100f0255033f85516437ffcc46d74a	V. I. Vernadsky for the first time formulated the law on the inevitability of the transition of the biosphere to the highest stage - the noosphere, or the sphere of reason (from the Greek. noos mind), i.e. a reasonably and harmoniously organized life.
e939c9dfd67e4bcc874eb92bd1c60210e2a1899c	French scientists E. Le Roy (the author of the term, 1927) and P. Teilhard de Chardin played an important role in the development of the doctrine of the noosphere.
32624c85b53e49a52aeeba82276146b28b424129	According to Vernadsky, the way to the noosphere is in the purposeful development of not only nature, but also society.
bd825fdd180927d0f470696547e4eb910d472df5	The noosphere is not just a sphere of reason, but mainly the sphere of reasonable human activity in relation to nature, i.e. to one's own environment.
2175f164bda669f4e56964816ede8aeaaf3d405e	V. I. Vernadsky understood what the growing contradiction between society and nature means for a person.
111fbb3c832148e691e5a0c30f54339375f4ffe8	However, both V. I. Vernadsky and P. Teilhard de Chardin, who lived until the middle of the XX century, were too optimistic about the future.
6d2e3a8a95da7df268001dd31e06775abfbcc482	The last decades show that humanity is still far from the noosphere in its ideal understanding.
396ffda36f323c4e2ea991d9b8626c413ded292c	Practically, from the point of view of the nature of modern relationships in the "man - nature" system, a person acts as a "reasonably unintelligent parasite" (according to N. F. Reimers): according to the threats of global consequences and the results of local environmental disasters, as well as the general course of the process of habitat destruction, he is unreasonable, but according to the declared desire to preserve this environment, he is reasonable.
dd9288454abd16ecee6043850de7b8a3ab2890c4	What can replace the current type of interaction between civilization and the biosphere, if a person is able to reverse the inertia of spontaneous, uncontrolled growth of the economy, population, destruction of nature?
3a4afedf61f48e632352197e28fab8d3d9b37772	There are two main points of view on this issue:
10eefd92ca0805594a79fbbcff344766c9773f01	1) technicist.
b13ed0cb0808f7a6da9fda02cb36f451c14d6e8a	Its supporters rely on scientific and technological progress as the key to solving the global environmental problem.
34c2c4a41ede4743b5cfa81b82ba3e6e37d1f25e	What would you expect from the technique in this case?
117aa70fedcca4881be6dfef2678773c05579a77	Obviously, only one thing: partial or complete replacement of biota in the regulation of the environment.
0da4db6c2dbd7c1babf976a19ac7954c8e050fdb	(According to V. G. Gorshkov, the information flow processed by the biota when it performs the function of regulating the environment is 15 orders of magnitude higher than the anticipated technical capabilities of civilization.
adc8d705b2887002395ef67ecbd86145841092a1	He also convincingly showed that even if humanity coped with all the scientific and technical problems and constructed an appropriate system (in fact, the technosphere in the variant in which it replaces the biosphere), this system would require 99% of the labor and energy costs of civilization.);
d8ff235ee6e0057f7d92bd9e9eb83ec6a11e5074	2) natural.
1196816a08441b69016d0eba6b1cc48500c0e779	Proponents of this point of view proceed from the impossibility and inexpediency of transferring the regulatory functions of biota to technical systems and see the only way to solve the global environmental problem: reducing the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere to a level at which it will return to an undisturbed state and will be able to remain stable in it, since the regulatory abilities of the biota will be sufficient to maintain it (this limit level is called the economic capacity of the biosphere).
64e33b55897100e1b8dc7a7e5c6819c8a4412440	Such a transition to sustainable development requires radical changes in human civilization, in all spheres of human life.
b3ebe4126d7f8da744174f0ca413fed69b9f9c67	Modernity dictates the need for a harmonious joint development of man and nature.
3b8b3e3410c39f0081b26289dd16c07820bdbadc	The co evolution of man and the biosphere is a necessary condition for the development of mankind, its transition to the era of the noosphere.
115f0aeebaf371c5b2a1a7eb1995cb57c82042cc	Each of us, each of those who consider themselves a part of world humanity, is obliged to know what impact human activity has on the world around us and feel a share of responsibility for certain actions.
28eb2f9da9660efcf1a373faa9764bc3554b7ecf	It is a person who is the cause of his own fears about nature, as a house that gives food, heat and other conditions for his normal life.
6de663f273622a3cdccecfd7243e5f676d0482dc	Human activity is a very aggressive and actively destructive (transforming) force on our planet.
ae220e89d0daf793a545c7f0c73505d985ea3c24	This suffocation has already begun to some extent and if it is not stopped, it will immediately begin to develop at an incredibly fast speed.
87b2295e336a43c386b67bf0925763ebca4d2228	However, the first steps towards nature are already being taken, they begin to respect nature, take care of it and maintain elementary order in it.
b6b212dd90c98e64e88a1ee66f417fd876b33add	Although more and more new pollutants are coming in, a huge number are being eliminated, but this is not enough.
83f29673b780cd74b1a8dde96546f91ad4ec9c11	Pollution should not be eliminated, but prevented.
b2468e4f14619ce8f86236c7c21d4c20b4ea8f16	We need a worldwide association, a long, coordinated and purposeful activity of the driving and producing forces of the planet.
13e2a2d584ad0689aa91f3b607f89d96dad4dc64	But, initially, in order to fight against the influence of man on the surrounding nature, it is necessary to find out the influence of human activity on certain sections of nature.
c91bd584d948a3a04df4f610abe4e173032898bf	This knowledge allows humanity to study the problem more deeply, to find out what causes caused the violation of the natural balance and the deterioration of the ecological state.
3d58e9882ea107b55bec80ac5175ceaddc590048	Also, a deep study of the sections of nature allows us to develop optimal plans for correcting the situation on the globe in a shorter time.
005f04a5055ce3e824cb39b12753a186bd66178b	The solution of the problem of the surrounding nature – if we take into account the costs of research, the creation of new technologies, the re equipment of production and the restoration, at least partially, of destroyed natural systems grows into almost the largest, large scale and expensive program.
0cabce54968037724a189b4346cbb44ec0484c3d	Goal:
1718a9b53f369a9391a63f340e39bce80fb87e59	1. To study the human impact on the surrounding nature.
810a83be51d66610ba5640e50af9e8e12f45411e	To study the consequences of human impact on the surrounding nature.
9a2d7d1391ca95459f0e6ad18bbf2f5eba30ca2b	To identify the mistakes of humanity in order to take them into account in later life.
7f0bc90f4685bd407d6e330e0cc14f90ab444bfe	Tasks:
d89cd53d298ee30039307d455861c3a0547bfccc	To show the real threat of human impact on the surrounding nature.
e9b1bcaec1b795071a94e108544dd8789b9912ca	To give vivid examples of human influence on the surrounding nature.
83bd36e7c6b37d4b24dde29075dba692ba8f445e	Human impact on nature
a1cffbcbcce72718c975bc8ab30e3409ef39f198	Impact – the direct impact of human economic activity on the environment.
8877f0c2d42b79b2ebc21183bdc46d7cd8faddbd	All types of influence can be combined into 4 types: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect (indirect).
f77eeb5db77a469f02d576b00f01ef210133750d	Deliberate influence occurs in the process of material production in order to meet certain needs of society.
e1bce10b85686264e1fd857e578d0e0a7f741d26	These include: mining, construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation channels, hydroelectric power plants), deforestation to expand agricultural areas and to obtain wood, etc.
83ef64961d361486ff184b5b37b42ec2ae33b8e4	Unintended impacts occur side by side with the first type of impact, in particular, open pit mining leads to a decrease in the groundwater level, to pollution of the air basin, to the formation of man made landforms (quarries, landfills, tailings).
e2085c999ea16593f486d4353ff940310a40866d	The construction of hydroelectric power plants is associated with the formation of artificial reservoirs that affect the environment: they cause an increase in the groundwater level, change the hydrological regime of rivers, etc. When receiving energy from traditional sources (coal, oil, gas), the atmosphere, surface watercourses, underground waters, etc. are polluted.
c77449bf4adacc1cc640698a3015b101ee980771	Both intentional and unintentional impacts can be direct and indirect.
c4564f62a866d7b13f6e07b5679af6e3766f681d	Direct impacts occur in the case of a direct impact of human economic activity on the environment, in particular, irrigation (irrigation) directly affects the soil and changes all the processes associated with it.
7b2728dc8531e30aaeec599a0e01d50d4479fc8e	Indirect effects occur indirectly through chains of interrelated influences.
8bee99c8d4ad52894a414ecf1e9d9fae50841511	Thus, intentional indirect effects are the use of fertilizers and the direct impact on crop yields, and unintentional ones are the effect of aerosols on the amount of solar radiation (especially in cities) , etc.
d32e4c629a78829ce335d407f58aedeac1e30cea	The impact of mining production on the environment is manifested in various ways in direct and indirect effects on natural landscapes.
54a5aba75dcccd19f9adb8caf35edd84d230cffc	The greatest violations of the earth's surface occur with the open method of mineral development, which accounts for more than 75% of the volume of mining production in our country.
bbf4ecd593a4981e876e2dc7948b7733a597fb39	Currently, the total area of land disturbed during the extraction of minerals (coal, iron and manganese ores, non metallic raw materials, peat, etc.), as well as occupied by mining waste, has exceeded 2 million hectares, of which 65% falls on the European part of the country.
b7c7f33cb75057428aa6ff8f19ff6a77915627b9	Only in Kuzbass, more than 30 thousand hectares of land are currently occupied by coal pits, in the area of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) – no more than 25 thousand hectares of fertile land.
f26657fbca4e17bfef63f14a25e7fc8906004db0	It is estimated that during the extraction of 1 million tons of iron ore, up to 640 hectares of land is disturbed, manganese up to 600 hectares, coal up to 100 hectares.
c775b5ade466ce6cd77b81943c14e64bc514849e	Mining production contributes to the destruction of vegetation cover, the emergence of man made landforms (quarries, dumps, tailings dumps, etc.), deformation of areas of the Earth's crust (especially with the underground method of mining).
d2ebce8f76957ede9a8b3b7d9aa5e69d0e9193c6	Indirect impacts are manifested in changes in the groundwater regime, in the pollution of the air basin, surface watercourses and groundwater, and also contribute to flooding and waterlogging, which ultimately leads to an increase in the incidence of local population.
f6093ddc1e0fcff758b4dfa4723e360d7f15f7d9	Among the air pollutants, first of all, dustiness and gas contamination are distinguished.
aed988c14826e8b194e083f842f84d9c5d55dbe5	It is estimated that about 200 thousand tons of dust annually comes from underground mine workings and mines; coal production in the amount of 2 billion tons per year from about 4,000 mines in various countries of the world is accompanied by the release of 27 billion m3 of methane and 17 billion m3 of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
d2461d8af4a4547739be94364d3c24105ffa6342	In our country, when developing coal deposits by underground method, significant amounts of methane and CO2 entering the air basin are also recorded: annually in the Donbass (364 mines) and in the Kuzbass (78 mines), 3870 and 680 million m3 of methane and 1200 and 970 million m3 of carbon dioxide are emitted, respectively.
c798d216cb4be59a3e169ec874c597a709351a36	Mining has a negative impact on surface watercourses and groundwater, which are heavily polluted with mechanical impurities and mineral salts.
d13e08d7d69388ed1d9fceeedf17f4f7c4d75ca2	Every year, about 2.5 billion m3 of polluted mine water is pumped from coal mines to the surface.
511938cbae742da16fa04ac404a93eb4e0675e89	In open pit mining, first of all, the reserves of high quality fresh water are depleted.
4d553a846c848eacb486161f575fb11a7d683935	At the quarries of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, infiltration from tailings dumps prevents a decrease in the level of the upper water carrier of the horizon by 50 m, which leads to a rise in the groundwater level and waterlogging of the adjacent territory.
58785fd1c495031cedcc8262c49ccd56e50dc7af	Mining also has a negative impact on the bowels of the Earth, since industrial waste, radioactive waste (in the USA – 246 underground landfills), etc. are buried in them.
b6c947a5594234aa857ffdec6fbbf3edc02355d8	In Sweden, Norway, England, Finland, oil and gas storage facilities, drinking water, underground refrigerators, etc. are arranged in mine workings.
7328631a451752cf02034ee065cdb3ed7d946cb5	Impact on the hydrosphere man began to have a significant impact on the hydrosphere and the water balance of the planet.
b68a16c284d63416102788914974e8e2cddfbfa6	This was facilitated by the construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation channels and water transfer systems), an increase in the area of irrigated land, irrigation of arid areas, urbanization, pollution of fresh water by industrial and municipal effluents.
9b7b0f7c3b05824758737cf3709428d5ce52a609	Currently, there are about 30 thousand reservoirs in the world and they are being built, the volume of water of which has exceeded 6000 km3.
d8ed4970e1f0a7707d525958c8d30b15a04eef43	But 95% of this volume is accounted for by large reservoirs.
993798d0f33ed410c4cb65e0d6449bc93ab6348d	There are 2,442 large reservoirs in the world, with the largest number of them in North America – 887 and Asia 647. 237 large reservoirs were built on the territory of the former USSR.
e7dd7477978f8d67f6330cbb12c44ed714bb3e89	In general, so far the area of reservoirs in the world is only 0.3% of land, but at the same time they increase river flow by 27%.
be01afb40100ee57eded4c691a3e392e40c9004f	However, large reservoirs have a negative impact on the environment: they change the groundwater regime, their water areas occupy large areas of fertile land, lead to secondary salinization of soils.
cb09507229059ff237b0618fbe2749503a470c5d	In Russia, large reservoirs (90% of the 237 in the former USSR), with a mirror area of 15 million hectares, occupy about 1% of its territory, but of this value, 60-70% are flooded lands.
a7534ea5f75fd5c682b60f838fc0685de12dac11	Hydraulic structures lead to the degradation of river ecosystems.
95beecd3d7c7a20f07dd4b9e4cc3fb54f7ef4faa	In recent years, schemes have been drawn up in our country to improve the natural and technical condition and improve some large reservoirs and canals.
2669663cb41fe4ff463e786576827b5a5e41a2ec	This will reduce the degree of their adverse impact on the environment.
f82557334b6f21dd64181aa20d31f8d2238f866a	Impact on the animal world animals together with plants play an exceptional role in the migration of chemical elements, which underlies the relationships existing in nature; they are also important for human existence as a source of food and various resources.
9bb9e1b052c2d91f665fa6e8b217c209dd24cb4e	However, human economic activity has greatly influenced the animal world of the planet.
2d14fb62fd9abd51066838adf6fd4ab3ece87881	According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, 94 species of birds and 63 species of mammals have become extinct on Earth since 1600.
ac171fc5982f8563aa1d7dc668da980c94e4cbe5	Such animals as tarpan, tur, marsupial wolf, European ibis, etc. have disappeared.
76ee2e949a33e4c2a7547630114e1559299af8a1	The fauna of the ocean islands was particularly affected.
c74fbe10ea55eb131bc542d389c5a42cc754fa54	As a result of anthropogenic impact, the number of endangered and rare animal species (bison, vicuna, condor, etc.) has increased on the continents.
65ea5ca61fcc4cb9756e21c26407dce97b34f088	In Asia, the number of animals such as rhinoceros, tiger, cheetah, etc. has decreased dangerously.
0ef8af1b4122ad782b673a2d2ce575ba755c0eaf	In Russia, by the beginning of this century, certain species of animals (bison, river beaver, sable, muskrat, kulan) had become rare, so reserves were organized for their protection and reproduction.
6c56f5cc73cc72779f1920a934d78fb1b712a28d	This made it possible to restore the bison population, increase the number of Amur tigers and polar bears.
5cfe2cfcac917a7600febd82d7065ecdb905a5f2	However, in recent years, the animal world has been negatively affected by the excessive use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, pollution of the world Ocean, etc. anthropogenic factors.
c14ed3c57268b523654bc35a2f2bb92f779302e1	So, in Sweden, the use of pesticides has led to the death of primarily predatory birds (peregrine falcon, kestrel, white tailed eagle, owl, eared owl), larks, rooks, pheasants, partridges, etc. are dying.
e3239e2f162d7e2ad0341aef4fcc037bf5f51ac4	A similar picture is observed in many Western European countries.
f24ca18d7dcd15701f586bb23ffd16561981332c	Impact on the Earth's crust – a person began to interfere in the life of the Earth's crust, being a powerful relief forming factor.
e6896d1184cc8285000317ba7e8fca73ebfc73f6	Man made landforms have appeared on the earth's surface: shafts, recesses, mounds, quarries, ditches, embankments, landfills, etc. There have been cases of crustal deflection under large cities and reservoirs, the latter in mountainous areas led to an increase in natural seismicity.
452431ec2c2ea4040244a58f82cbda4f83aa5b5b	Examples of such artificial earthquakes, which were caused by filling the basins of large reservoirs with water, are available in California, the USA, on the Hindustan Peninsula.
f8d31505017089a1ea4f57aa643398ea51bb027d	This type of earthquake is well studied in Tajikistan on the example of the Nuker reservoir.
16c961495e08d6de51fb292ff2e0fc45c6ec23c1	Sometimes earthquakes can be caused by pumping or injecting waste water with harmful impurities deep underground, as well as intensive oil and gas production at large fields (USA, California, Mexico).
a03193715c11211cafac6976f3612cb35d607b32	As already noted above, with this method, significant areas of land are seized, the environment is polluted with various toxicants (especially heavy metals).
bc4b083651e038bd23c76106f7c40f5562bfc3f2	Local deflections of the Earth's crust in coal mining areas are known in the Silesian region of Poland, in the UK, in the USA, Japan, etc.
481ce53bf89667e23033e44e6ea9ec0e38377307	A person geochemically changes the composition of the Earth's crust, extracting a huge amount of lead, chromium, manganese, copper, cadmium, molybdenum, etc.
3ea9ffefb0b46a3bf9e9a559dea9e062b42e466d	By 1988, more than 360 dams (150-300 m high) were built all over the world, 37 of them in our country.
3833a34caab9584be4fd5146c815f5c2c606a305	The total impact of the weight of the dams, as well as the leaching processes, lead to a significant precipitation of their bases with the formation of cracks (cracks up to 20 m long were noted at the base of the Sayano Shushenskaya HPP dam).
85ed8e37b63fe3ea738448f150a3469c4c92cd6b	Most of the Perm Region annually settles by 7 mm, as the bowl of the Kama reservoir presses with great force on the Earth's crust.
95321ab2eb9c2e039bf1ad107c5b6a509c12c727	The maximum values and rates of subsidence of the Earth's surface caused by the filling of reservoirs are significantly less than during oil and gas production, large pumping of underground water.
e3a8f825372f3e6bebfb34c74b753647f1d0d747	For comparison, we note that the Japanese cities of Tokyo and Osaka have dropped by 4 m in recent years due to pumping of groundwater and compaction of loose rocks (with an annual precipitation rate of up to 50 cm).
239682472d6c53025e44dbafee90615698d1bd0a	Thus, only detailed studies of the interrelationships of natural and anthropogenic relief forming processes will help to eliminate the undesirable consequences of the impact of human economic activity on the Earth's surface.
01e7207bb2032784d5d44a767b6030763b528769	Climate impacts – in some regions of the globe in recent years, these impacts have become critical and dangerous for the biosphere and for the existence of man himself.
8f8a3c50e744e74501c47ae2bda44c2d2d54818b	Annually, as a result of human economic activity around the world, the intake of pollutants into the atmosphere amounted to: sulfur dioxide 190 million tons, nitrogen oxides 65 million tons, carbon oxides 25.5 million tons, etc. Annually, more than 700 million tons of dusty and gaseous compounds are also emitted during fuel combustion.
65e2b42de87b47168bdd4c626a9b66ffd586dad4	All this leads to an increase in the concentration of anthropogenic pollutants in the atmospheric air: carbon monoxide and dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone, freons, etc. They have a significant impact on the global climate, causing negative consequences: "greenhouse effect", depletion of the "ozone layer", acid rain, photochemical smog, etc.
cacdb8eec5b6e722c4d1eff3671e469e4da3c1da	The increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has led to global climate warming: the average air temperature has increased by 0.5-0.60 C (compared to the pre industrial period), and by the beginning of 2000 this increase will be 1.20 C and by 2025 it may reach 2.2-2.50 C. Such climate change can have both negative and positive environmental consequences for the Earth's biosphere.
96ce46f240e8f1924c71141d7ca5967d3bc90266	The first ones include: an increase in the level of the World ocean (the current rate of water rise is about 25 cm per 100 years) and its negative consequences; violations of the stability of the "permafrost" (increased thawing of soils, activation of thermokarstvo) , etc.
d3519d68e9fcf80d487b8ee9f4e9b6dd2b327dda	The positive factors include: an increase in the intensity of photosynthesis, which can have a favorable effect on the yield of many agricultural crops, and in some regions – on forest management.
0208ffe5a8d9fb915b0fe76010b5187038a8ff82	In addition, such climate changes can have an impact on the river flow of large rivers, and therefore on the water management in the regions.
2480b4c01397fb9b076f1461f7ff84f927e1fdc4	A paleogeographic approach (taking into account past climates) to this problem will help to predict changes not only in climates, but also in other components of the biosphere in the future.
288f2c57461cf64d6c9b34027a525076decc8145	The effects on the marine ecosystem, which is reflected in the annual arrival of the offshore waters of the vast amount of pollutants (oil and petroleum products, synthetic surfactants, sulphates, chlorides, heavy metals, radionuclides, etc.).
dab6ad143838201e76395a7b28989532a4884c34	All of this is ultimately the degradation of marine ecosystems: eutrophication, reduction of species diversity, the replacement of entire classes of benthic fauna on the stain resistant, mutagenicity of sediments, etc.
3753de0c17d1eda4f29d7f7bec6885733e73edf3	The results of the ecological monitor of the Russian seas made it possible to rank the latter according to the degree of ecosystem degradation (in descending order of the scale of changes): the Azov – Black – Caspian – Baltic – Japanese – Barents – Okhotsk – White – Laptev – Kara – East Siberian – Bering – Chukchi Seas.
ff135c7c8eba13d6ca82201bc60af7f3f1a1d5bb	It is obvious that the most pronounced negative consequences of anthropogenic impact on marine ecosystems are manifested in the southern seas of Russia.
b5fa93daa35b7689f24209d39d14731489ec120c	In order to solve the environmental problems of the seas, extensive studies are already being conducted within the framework of the special Program for integrated environmental Monitoring of the ocean in order to predict the state of the natural environment in the basins of the south seas.
df7e303b482970b2a324359264bf41548198f7be	In conclusion, from the material presented, it can be concluded that unidirectional human activity can lead to enormous destruction in the natural ecosystem, which will entail large costs for restoration in the future.
9e28c6ab6727fbb9c62a010b42d3d2aa667c243b	With my work, I wanted to encourage you to protect and protect the former beauty of the surrounding nature as much as possible.
13619dcadb3680fc0ee9531b07c281a1130b4045	Perhaps, any publication about new technologies has at least once written about the billionaire Elon Musk.
20b923680d15ed901a7e71ac0bcfc8203c16667f	As a child, he decided to change the world and now he is confidently going to it.
d260322ed89c237e4f117d49a81a0dc21731b9c6	Musk became the co-founder of PayPal and the founder of Zip2, now he is completely immersed in the projects of SpaceX, Tesla Motors and Hyperloop.
e647325a0a50cfbfc961cc3fca78881e4b3588dc	Elon Reeve Musk was born on June 28, 1971 in Pretoria, South Africa.
424b03622db26b960cc0adffbfef68f715e93e2a	His mother, Maya Musk, was a famous Canadian nutritionist, and his father, Eroll Musk, owned his own engineering business.
1af4b58ec9c66eb4426eec2726bd3001d5e1f15e	It was following the example of his father that Elon became an inventor, but this is not the only reason.
9b5f31d2e6c9969d595e07a7b71fefc31fca4bce	In an interview with the journalist Ashley Vance, who wrote his biography, he said that as a child he read a lot of comics about superheroes and wanted to change the world in the same way as his favorite characters did.
af437a4399ef3537b8f6d61ce5435bd2d242ad8f	Musk got his first computer when he was 10 years old.
13cb5f200c7cda40d38ccbde0ed1cf0a8510dd82	The boy is fond of programming, and at the age of 12 he sells his first Blastar game for $ 500.
260412d57c0295b79bdf7e9af8fa6fe74ff5ce23	Now this game can be played in the browser: it was restored thanks to the page with the code published in the biography "Elon Musk. Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future."
d9b0c8a449589437832916de59c945268ada7774	Ilon's childhood can hardly be called happy.
45e6ecc92630b39be203b7e7adb08af911df42e4	At school, he was disliked and regularly beaten.
020f4fa43f2e18b164e7638f5d1846f7aa795980	Therefore, it is not surprising that at the age of 17, Elon Musk leaves South Africa and moves to Canada, where he receives citizenship and enters Queens University in Ontario.
eaca52a6ba9835af7d17862d03eadf9e50c4d9a6	Without completing his studies, he moves again two years later.
547c020faa5c2b17c0a44115d56231a2a6bf67f5	He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia with a bachelor's degree in economics and physics.
e419ad3ce4f97d5c8236db54130c769f7db71072	Later in California, Musk received a doctorate degree.
e7af48e8275871a4ebcb33128087275d9c7e2a1e	In 1995, together with his brother Kimbal, he created the company Zip2, which produces software for news publications.
b1781d9412c34f94b6f81ef7555563494b190924	In 1999, the company was bought by Compaq, and Musk received his first big money – $22 million, 7% of the sale amount ($307 million).
8f792e38263e98354ca468a0ccc113417fa46a90	Elon Musk does not consider this a significant enough success and continues to invent.
81fed88512303cb658743ed6e128fd187fe2f06b	Having sold Zip2, Musk is already completely absorbed in a new idea – to create an electronic transfer system that will compete with the usual "paper" payments, reducing the transfer time from several weeks to a couple of minutes.
ff930b05bc65355a05c0574d595f258a287d30d3	The developing company absorbed Confinity, one of whose projects was PayPal.
1a9c82fc3412a192be74eba3f661e36807cf112c	Musk considered this system promising and started developing it.
26adfeab6c6b3ad2ff71b4bd0b30246c5ff89eca	X.com it was renamed PayPal.
87d4ea474b0e482373e33d802f8b03c6713a80de	But not everything was smooth: few people in the X.com I supported his idea to rename the company to PayPal, and by the decision of the board of directors, Musk was removed from office.
567644ce16fe673b9fd59fc310175855e639a8ee	Nevertheless, Musk's expectations were met: already in 2001, PayPal became the main payment system on the eBay trading platform.
6f0e1fb88887e03383338edcecf268d12e9886c8	In 2002, eBay bought PayPal for $1.5 billion, which brought Musk $165 million thanks to the shares he retained.
7216f0237d0acbc3cbc56d32445a4c0119842df6	This money allowed the entrepreneur to move on: even at that time, he understood that his passion was space, and the idea of his whole life was the colonization of Mars.
f17f51d91ef892bfd72688a37ad0266eb274b831	Having received enough money to launch a new project, Musk does not hesitate: the next project should be related to space exploration.
8feda4a65e49436917f77fd94de783966f5e0b41	So in 2002, SpaceX was born.
9d6d26fcd9b17b9680fb6df9746e006193ba86d2	The company creates launch vehicles for transporting cargo and astronauts.
4ee6d1a5ce18913176ac511e047d75986dfc3128	The goal of the Mask is to repeatedly reduce the cost of space transportation.
f0725570d7d7b5a25c2d3b30620de4dcc085cea3	After three failed launches of the first Falcon 1 rocket, SpaceX was hanging by a thread; if the fourth launch was unsuccessful, the company could go bankrupt.
1b29d88f7f2878110d15b6c0a72a0c585a7ff36f	But history was favorable, the rocket safely put the cargo into orbit.
10c7f607673baa8c286d06fdfa7efc266336d748	This was followed by a contract with NASA for $1.6 billion, which Musk signed in 2008.
097c6f3d7cc39f0281d999475b9457124ec1eb4e	According to the contract, since 2011, after the launch of the Space Shuttle, Falcon 9 and the Dragon spacecraft will make 12 launches to the ISS.
bd6910f4033011a8555101e51dd6c91e9d71ca46	SpaceX will carry out cargo transportation exclusively, while the Russian Soyuz spacecraft will deliver astronauts to the station.
087268b8cb664583117cb6a5324e107185b52772	Musk was able to achieve success in such a complex business thanks to his versatile education: he understands not only technology, but also business, so he was able to occupy his niche in the field of space exploration.
5365496b96086a1d1277bb014160362fe7781cd0	Musk admits that the books of Isaac Asimov and the cycle of science fiction novels "The Foundation"had a great influence on his views on space.
d078a0e65beec5265e5a56e1e8d67abe5082ee4b	The entrepreneur is sure that the only way for the continuation of the existence of mankind is the development of other planets.
d7345494e4d5bd35d2d7ee2731f8a06a34e79ee3	He says that if dinosaurs were threatened only by natural asteroids, then people are threatened by technologies created by themselves.
2ba2419e2592ba5457eeb20d9d7cc2a57095d059	"Sooner or later, our life will have to go beyond this blue-green ball-or we will die out."
a17cd707c5a82726e4e0293a6e41aae965836545	No matter how important PayPal and SpaceX are, Musk gained worldwide fame after he joined Tesla Motors, which is engaged in the creation of electric vehicles.
8c2afc8f3dc08c2f478d32245babc852e2ebd4d6	Musk joined Tesla when the company turned one year old.
60024c5727bb61f181c3105b39456fd65614453e	Financial investments (about $7.5 million) and Musk's genuine interest in electric vehicles have borne fruit: Tesla Motors is becoming an increasingly resounding name in the automotive market.
526585222b19595bce7131f199c7f6efee1d3575	Musk takes part not only in the development of the car, but also holds the chair of the chairman of the board of directors of Tesla Motors.
9c3f21f91beb44fb208da03816ae0c676b1f264a	Tesla electric cars are able to compete with many gasoline counterparts.
5936e910ef03e7311a3fdf33fbf13bac2b3d28d1	In fact, these are electric sports cars: they are distinguished by high speed, maximum maneuverability and the highest safety standards.
21fe437e467f40ad32b4e606c9d1d1177868de80	But Musk does not stop there and intends to continue improving his inventions.
a17c604ac6c38907aacc7b670478872bf713096f	The company's first car, the Tesla Roadster, was released in 2006.
d3fee7b1da78465453969079a701b2b912fa8151	It was a sports model, it was sold until 2012.
c96cd23fc98d70302c147b37adf66d4534e82e6c	During this time, 2500 cars were produced.
022c7f54de5321e90bd92feaf65ee999c6978a2b	The concept of the second car, the Model S, appeared in 2009, and sales began in 2012.
d62dba959f3779e8b49d5fa5648f095067367886	The Model S has become the most recognizable and popular model of Tesla Motors.
ed48db9a0197b8fcef086d93e4cc973df53f9d51	In the first month alone, 4,700 cars were sold, the electric car received the title of "Car of the Year"according to Motor Trend 2013.
cd2f1936d6c9da672a710948e8857b65ea89b9d4	The Tesla Model X, an improved version of the Model S, will go on sale in the second half of this year, and the Model 3 will be announced in March 2016.
4b7eb55fa23a4f09b701d86fe26fac735ac105be	The approximate price is around $35 thousand, the duration of one trip will be 320 km.
857422b7d3136e8c45dbbeb6d7c0932117d23a94	Tesla does not just create cars, but also develops the infrastructure for their use.
250efb7a5046d3b078398799f35aa52509c1c238	The company is building a factory for the production of batteries.
81fbb4d8257254a7199254fb6d7757e9df584577	Also, throughout the United States, the company opens branded " superchargers – - stations for fueling cars with electricity.
f97f65779e4ee450f3e63e780d06cf5f424c4698	You can charge the car for free (filling the battery up to 80% takes 40 minutes), but you can replace the battery with a fully charged one in just 1.5 minutes – although it will cost $60-80.
de6664f0f5eac50718ab6d5b59daf346c8234cb3	In Europe, "superchargers" will appear in 2016.
d2da4f302c625a3e08efd46e7ee880994b8117db	On August 12, 2013, Musk revealed his new project-Hyperloop.
4b807b8758c49fa5a3463d53455aea742243c37f	This is a project of a vacuum train that will be able to transport people and cargo 2 times faster than an airplane.
39e1878d10061e5f2804d1a8de11ba78f04e6fd7	At the same time, the project should pay off in 20 years.
5caa2de362c7127af4ec58135fe828421ac2bcb4	According to Musk, the Hyperloop is a cross between a Concorde, a railgun and an air hockey table.
82e330fac5891f8b73f3d59c08f4d7904f1ce99e	The "Hyperpet" is a pipeline installed at a height of 20 meters above the ground, along which capsules with passengers will move.
d82253fa2d45d7779f2260bc6c95de59ea2e43a5	The speed of such a capsule, 25-30 meters long, depends on the landscape and varies from 480 to 1220 km / h.
9f2b9ff96946e07750b8544e7c43ea660048904c	Transport will be safe and environmentally friendly, since it is planned to use solar energy.
bdd72c2c649ba1055a535d292d0c06e6ce853075	The capsules will move like a subway, with minimal intervals, so as not to create crowds at the stations.
b3f3a3975d59c22caf45ed405d60ee5719402bd1	At first, Musk was not going to participate in the project, groups of enthusiasts began to gather around this idea, ready to implement the project.
a87cbe8cf45273ee2b815821acbb584b501303c5	However, later Elon Musk changed his mind and announced the construction of a trial road with a length of 8 kilometers.
7106d5441a06dd4cb9082069252abc7f190f50bf	This will not allow the capsules to reach the declared speed of 1300 km/h, since such a road is not enough for full acceleration and braking, but it will demonstrate the realism of the project.
6ad1e693a921749fd65b778ba45bd2263add0c74	The "Hyperpet" will be located in the city of the future Quay Valley (California).
c7dde5a6b7ddcdf75b5156969ba4f90f159afbd3	It will immediately begin to transport real passengers, so the construction will pay off very quickly.
66503b7cc4372662c458b065eedc8e92af9701be	The developers of Quay Valley note that the "Hyperpet" is an ideal form of transport for the city of the future, aimed at environmental friendliness and liberation from car addiction.
e4268ce03aabbad7db8cb2ce9f6586a2f69409e5	Last year, Musk seriously worried about the education of his children.
900683ebde61d02bde264852194a50d5d5e6cfcc	"Schools are not doing what they should be doing," Musk says.
e8bafd90f0d232ff70e2d6e5730edbe3e89a1d81	Roughly speaking, now, explaining the operation of the engine, the teacher will tell students everything about wrenches and screwdrivers.
79ab4ba8377d2d7c6153412167d750c506de1e1e	Instead, you need to give the students an engine and ask them to disassemble it.
359e8cda6c54fd674378b9817a81c7b38617628c	To do this, of course, you will need a screwdriver.
b49fa5079ea696e3e17eeaccd2e43fdb158516be	And this is a very important point: the need for tools becomes obvious, and all attention is focused on the task."
7afbb83c4a799e528ddcf23b99373fd78588672c	Based on these principles, Musk decided to open his own school.
c5b70a39439b4d8ace85b4027497ac74ef47a0d7	He called it Ad Astra – "To the stars".
e00381f70ac2be16ef8d12cc7666d2f9fc70ad37	Now there are 14 children studying there, including the children of the inventor.
c1030af5782050c6cc749d8e0db012726cc33d17	A distinctive feature of the school is the absence of classes.
2c65be900d42e8d90582386e76300852bf9fc029	Simply put, children of different ages can attend the same lessons.
b5cfd3e477a2e4bdcc73e16ff709bc51f5873351	At the same time, much attention is paid to the child's inclinations and their development.
6259a70df3a41acec1322081e05f0798ece41ba5	This school is closed: it has neither a website nor a page in social networks, and children whose parents work at SpaceX study there.
cce86e4c6e4006d810e01578e167fcfd3ce5b25c	Musk notes with a smile that children like to study: he remembers the school where he himself studied with dislike and does not want the same fate to befall his children.
f066838d14b992ef24d1b0e67efe28e706c5e79c	Elon Musk is rightly called one of the most outstanding people of our time.
ed16b5a97b6892bb4d3b58cc365bc242025aaebb	He has done a lot to make our world a better place, and there are undoubtedly many more great inventions ahead of him.
9013958e8ac270a58e59f8b31c032dddb4630722	Elon Musk was born on June 28, 1971 in the Republic of South Africa, in the administrative capital – Pretoria.
a071dfde2714b6cb238626cf420ec985afba03e3	Elon Musk is known around the world not only because of his participation in the founding of Tesla Motors.
6d0aa03fced8ed80733668965a9e129e1ee038e1	Earlier, this person founded a company whose services are used by almost the whole world.
b1d5e7241dbec0ccdd648a40c12441f9700db5ce	This company is the world's largest operator of electronic payments – Paypal.
cf07923d3a758790b7096a0a34100242a8492435	Tesla Motors is not the only technology company of Elon Musk.
ddb1ee454e7e43d898daad700a38fe5faa982d40	Another major company is SpaceX, founded in 2002.
be2518d5ddeab6e5e568797908fa60344cee5221	Elon Musk's ideas and ambitions win the hearts of many people.
6016bd3edeea082cc45b47ff637ff19c8b38e6a6	He is often compared to Steve Jobs, but the goals of these figures are very different, and Elon is far from a master of public speaking.
825685f5a11c8f7187a2304c46d13db3af58b179	The company was founded in order to promote human space exploration.
cf061090932ff7e86ee6884050942af88f5beb44	Biographies of prominent people, as a rule, contain episodes in which the hero says to himself: "Yes, I will do it", which later leads him to a stunning success.
6cc01bad63bd897197f7a43eb15e325df1030a23	There were at least two such episodes in the biography of Elon Musk.
8ceec65721e724ad425068dba7bbb0d1863de97e	Musk made his first decision at the age of 17.
12410b91707ceeaa4132aefe80f5180e2faec4f8	After finishing school in Pretoria, he decided to leave home and emigrate from South Africa to the United States without the support of his parents.
7d3132b28465b6bcf4903944bcf66140485613c8	But Elon didn't get to the United States right away.
254ceb1a630d0c5b7596620a00769231e77fc6c5	In 1989, he moved to Canada, to live with his mother's relatives.
aeadeaceafaf8b521224096bddae8282c032fee3	Having received citizenship, Elon Musk goes to Montreal, where at first, he agrees to any job and for almost a year teeters on the verge of poverty.
fe2294526a7818beb01fbc5f728872d913f9cc68	Soon he enters Queen's University in Ontario, where he meets the future mother of his five sons (twins and triplets) Justine.
5691c82e0da69c1c16e77dc783d8212f45233797	When his grandfather emigrated from Canada to South Africa in 1948, he disassembled his plane one by one and transported it to his new homeland, and then reassembled it and traveled around the world: from Norway to Australia.
e5520732e02eacf94092b26fe65f48d9beb08773	When in 1999 he was kicked out of his own company with a scandal, the future Martian spent $ 22 million of the "golden parachute" on a McLaren racing car and a Czech combat training aircraft L39.
5ca015e7b73334aaef733047e749e310c100e874	He invested the remaining money in his startup X.com, the future Paypal.
fcd8e28c80249679c88a088386a110a9757e6905	Musk left Paypal in 2002 with $ 150 million in his pocket (and a traditional scanadal).
7e8cf1129b067923f8dc4374515d90885e4a9fe1	Realizing that he had had enough of ordinary companies, he decided to invest money in children's dreams.
f6b7a0853e9f77a584d5b86cf385fce54e548509	First, he decided to build a greenhouse on Mars, sending it... on Soviet ballistic missiles.
c3260a0a1c550e0cea2a2818798683f4c8566ff0	For this purpose, in February 2002, he visited Moscow, but the negotiations did not take place.
ea559403b0a154a9cb761a321d6467038f80fde4	Then Musk read a stack of books about rocket science and realized that he could build a rocket himself.
3e91a575ada758ced4178dc416b8ee5253c7dd76	Ten years later, the reusable Dragon spacecraft docked to the ISS.
2af40c2fc82fd15c6d6dcf9561911332d39c2b57	Musk hates the word "impossible" and loves the phrase"it can be done cheaper".
275d3c5bce8f9a5bc942af61c9d6c6a1a2e0c637	Once an employee of SpaceX complained to the founder of the company that no one undertakes to make a complex rocket part for less than 120 thousand dollars.
886799779534c86b25d34c1be077cf577c71dd54	Elon Musk is an incredible workaholic who devotes 400 hours a month to work.
f870aca8329a3085a6daeb815fe568144a84cecf	Several times a month, he flies to California to deal with the projects of his subsidiaries, Tesla Motors and Solar City, and recently Musk has been building a Hyperloop super-fast train in the desert.
039a1c2951f1bce6fd90b34337e0cd3f8ab34389	Elon Musk is a unique person.
bbed4490476d78f4e2906d40e8325f53a554d89d	Maybe he won't go to Mars and launch a high-speed train.
41a138776d77e03cd93e693517fba942ce99fa18	However, his incredible biography and fame are a good sign.
1048973ab292079ea7cb7adcc89036dc23291c1a	This is a sign that we live in a world where entrepreneurs and innovators are more popular than movie stars and football players.
a17cb3e44a609f606472418cbd679d2e9c15f780	In January 2015, he donated $ 10 million for research on the control of artificial intelligence[13].
d021d48534b8a289b948145ad894d4d500df6a88	In 2008, Esquire magazine included Musk in the list of the 75 most influential people of the XXI century[14].
578686bfe2f23aadb681e5aac2ae73b1d87d83c4	In June 2011, he was awarded the Heinlein Prize for achievements in the commercialization of space in the amount of 500 thousand US dollars[15].
e23ba6cb3aa8858515bfcfea487c00401d561be6	In February of the same year, Forbes magazine included Musk in the list of the 20 most influential CEOs under the age of forty[16].
eda1f773e4a29880c0a9562b45f5ecd3f0f28255	In November 2013, Fortune Magazine named him Businessman of the year, and The Wall Street Journal named Musk CEO of the Year[17].
14ebf7d75abd793c45c9621942a15b98f456f0ca	His first wife, Justin Musk, studied with him at the same university in Canada.
f5d5b35729c08b04fb16bcacc8b3cb1904f16eca	They got married in 2000, and the family had five sons.
dc671e5af3ebca3e013f91fe88c8ef2296bdc748	In September 2008, Elon and Justin announced a rift, and soon it became known that Musk was dating British actress Talulah Riley[18].
ddb96fff2f3444c325d750bd2f6bfc8e1e775418	In 2010, Elon married Talulah Riley, the wedding ceremony was held on September 25 at the cathedral of Dornoch in Scotland[19].
47742f23f37a6407e951a232a531e6a6e9b874be	In January 2012, the couple filed for divorce[20].
bb6f538fdde70cce2df39c4e109e9ee31e721a7f	In July 2013, the relationship was resumed, but on December 31, 2014, Musk again filed for divorce, paying his wife about $ 16 million this time, compared to $ 4.2 million for the first time.
84b85c124c60a641ccfa3131f352765f7701dc0b	According to Jon Favreau, the director of the film "Iron Man" (2008), Elon Musk served as the prototype of Tony Stark, played by Robert Downey Jr.[21][22][23].
668e952cb81ab4405d77c93ae88b9984b3d1e282	In 2010, Musk appeared in the movie "Iron Man 2" as himself (according to the plot, Elon is a friend of Tony Stark).
b66aca6e255880682aa476b380ba3caf5ac7426a	In 2013, he also played himself in an episode of the movie "Machete Kills".
619eee9718a999c23b41116a76ea3bbdd16f5c24	Musk is visible among the audience who came to the presentation of artificial intelligence in the science fiction film "Superiority" (2014, at the 00:07:39 mark), but his name is not in the credits[24].
6227e5798f8b6cd4a60bb88f4a7761220b6e25bd	Elon Musk voiced a cameo in the 12th episode of the 26th season of the animated series "The Simpsons", released on January 25, 2015.
5048c2471703498ef01327475f09e53d2a1e3344	In the 9th episode of the 9th season of the TV series "The Big Bang Theory" plays himself.
9246a7771fecd400a855b8ae58c8e693227c7317	In October 2013, Musk bought the Wet Nellie submarine from the 1977 James Bond film "The Spy Who Loved Me"at an auction for 997 thousand dollars[28].
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5b8d10a0c620d7efea44fd8189491d132fdf9397	Interesting facts about the biography of Elon Musk, the creator of Tesla and SpaceX
dabfdc1af0df6f205af3124418518ceaba009566	Hello, friends!
fcf9cd0a8eb33ee71ab88281f63052ae18575221	With you Smart Reading, a collection of useful books in a brief summary.
d248e270d2e118e85a55d68b6df9b929e9bfc379	Today we come to you with good news: a biography of Elon Musk, the most famous innovator and entrepreneur of recent years, has appeared in our library.
7ab2ee8d209ca51fb7523a5994cda426c99d327d	Musk launches private spaceships, builds Tesla electric cars and dreams of meeting the dawn on Mars.
5eb6cd70dca98b972f52889d3d12b548c87736c5	Elon Musk is a third generation adventurer.
0c03fe020c89d3896e64660ad38af6a73d463c57	Musk's grandfather died at the age of 77 at the controls of an airplane.
d4e994cbda468d21deb366052f82a390efd706ee	At the age of less than eighteen, his grandson returned back to Canada without a cent in his pocket, and worked as a cleaner at a sawmill for $ 18 an hour.
17b9e23a72150be28494f6bd7562312375db8178	Seven years later, Musk became a millionaire.
1e11c1ae28db839e961384737415b79edd28405f	It was assembled in the workshops of the company SpaceX, owned by Musk, and put into orbit by Falcon rockets, which are also created at SpaceX.
e0839b02f1d82c7607fa3aa0e73cff977bfb04b5	The grandiose success of the Mask seems to be a series of accidents, but in fact it turns out to be the fruit of the greatest work and... economy.
007280434d6fd40071ef938ee7224e80bfc48ed6	"It's easier than a garage lift," Musk replied.
6bfa2063ffe139d9a6400f15afb4d6694f037d28	— "You have 5 thousand dollars, go and figure out how to make it."
eea0121b2ed2062e0cc8824ebef998d91817b456	Several times a month, he flies to California to deal with the projects of his subsidiaries, Tesla Motors and Solar City, and recently Musk has been building a Hyperloop super fast train in the desert.
a43f596adf1bf193707084e7165e5db5870b648a	At the same time, he brings up five sons and complains to employees: "Too many have stopped working on Saturdays."
1e3f932a6c9a921dca49db80180fd2b0b87e43eb	Maybe he wonot go to Mars and launch a high speed train.
887816632dea15739683a36e7c0dd6fade9f689c	Journalist Ashley Vance wrote an excellent biography of Musk, talking with his former and current employees and wives.
a3d271d95e57b1e6c8d85f684e7b1670dca2eb0c	We at Smart Reading have reworked the book into an article, and we offer it to you.
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3e346ecacb67662eaf24dcc97110e3fb09ae3488	See you on Mars!
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f42fa17164e965d601b07c9338d64e3410a5850f	Bing organized the largest Turing test in history
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5b640a1606ee982093bda6ec6c491c1816052e0e	Hello, robot!
a180093f6680f7ba2856d93f213b5a0a26cdf7a0	Hybridization: inventors crossed a suitcase and a scooter
3f64c6e68efe1fdd553ecf1878a30d6d32f582d1	Heavy duty battery
9ba0e3420d053def7a3a177e8ae484b75fc51f3a	02-07-2015
a17496930e9b0e5a839372a2865b748a11f52d39	Biography of Elon Musk
b7b27ac81803e95085b160376628f1cf72e1398a	Musk became the co founder of PayPal and the founder of Zip2, now he is completely immersed in the projects of SpaceX, Tesla Motors and Hyperloop.
14740a4809d0a97601bc0e25f1f2d45927acc143	Now this game can be played in the browser: it was restored thanks to the page with the code published in the biography "Elon Musk.
cd903aca128a2bced1c64dda41a618aa00524e8b	Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future."
95c30d67ed8868c1c2db1b4f158c375eea296468	"Sooner or later, our life will have to go beyond this blue green ball or we will die out."
7c2e9ec67ba327923dcd5407f09cf9a3b406368e	On August 12, 2013, Musk revealed his new project Hyperloop.
0988d73567a0b80e93a6cac43ea3acafe9794e52	– During the training, it is important to tell students about the problem and how to solve it, and not just about the tools.
9d92703e73c19079f99b8309653bc66716019cc2	5 projects of Elon Musk that will change the world
52416bb9ab69f550513a82853d2cf3e5f713912c	There are quite a lot of billionaires on the planet, but only a few of them change our usual life.
abeb90332f7a8f290795a9284468c4b255b1c695	The most striking of them is Elon Musk, a person who invests...
c1e96376c6914b0547a1757786a256c52a0d5e28	In 2016, tests of the first transport hyperplane will start
c1122715ba5e9ca14ba90eba2b84553f97bb9b05	Hyperloop Technologies is a startup of the first Uber investor Shervin Pishevar, which brought together well known tech specialists and executives...
51a2e5b5d1b5a46e0c28a2bc2e22fb9f78feeab3	Elon Musk proposed the idea of how to change the climate of Mars
2c558b0449d80394be5e4a776cecbc86131aca5f	The owner and head of the companies Tesla Motors and SpaceX suggested that it is possible to make Mars habitable for humans as quickly as possible with..
44cc4e1dfb3053c721fc46f070ba2f7970f5ed63	Cisco: 6 Mobile trends that will change the world by 2020
2ca70e4bfff614b5bb47cd9cd14af30a8e157b48	An American startup has started selling memristors
44417391170e035fe9289f226082b4ef048ea834	The destruction of aged cells affects the life expectancy
cadc973553d2325ea8033d1cb46a19207ef890d3	What is the Zika virus?
47e29443bd36824cdfa3c043a1a55335b37eea2b	In Japan, they invented a "suit" that allows you to sit standing up
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8f37843a010d5147c003943af1fcfe063d9f1e57	ruTesla electric cars, Tesla
7e2074e602bd00c215d021c20b2157e2c717a61d	Electric car news, Tesla news
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5423c661eb1e606ff784fb32dec9b9a861e63524	Elon Musk
0fcd7170dff51c814769108e91dbd515713032bd	Biography of Elon Musk, information about him
a237ab37340093dd1e87d213356cded31ae99e4b	The article is dedicated to the founder of the company, about whom we, at RuTesla, most often write.
9de8f3ad268b79e453c18da7b552edab68908fb8	The name of this company is Tesla Motors, and the name of its founder is Elon Musk.
bb118dd682db67ac333fde3a22a3bba741951421	Many automotive publications that write about Tesla electric vehicles incorrectly translate Musk.
11fde977d6d25908113f4a5bafefe6e4a4272cc4	Have you noticed that we are in RuTesla.com we always write "Elon", whereas most people read and write as "Elon".
a222e8ad512f1af767a6b2111b3c1c6fec98bfa6	But let's omit these details, even if they are quite significant.
53a79d809721a086f39e07c0115786e5f6285b2d	Let's move on to the description of the life of this outstanding person.
7556f4bd5338ce65d5b3012459459ae2d6650fea	But his ideas are much more useful to society.
fd61c5deed9b7b37d6de722a75b6418e6cffc9f4	Let's quote for example the words of Garrett Reisman about SpaceX:
c4557b5e3a6bc7c3e8b6d521e8c45ec80cd5832c	This is the main reason for our existence.
639ac3219be8e7c59197a7ebe582a310548402d7	The childhood of Elon Musk
8d93968629b2b69869d89c3b48c7eaee54f11152	As we have already written, the future founder of Tesla Motors grew up in one of the capitals of the Republic of South Africa.
caf4fe575fe84f8e31849b3848f7a3140c316aa3	Wikipedia reports that Musk at the age of 10 already studied programming himself, and at the age of 12 he earned $ 500 by selling his game Blastar.
d5094fca6a609862784464daf49a3f4281f58bdd	When he turned 17, he moved to Canada, and at the age of 19 he moved to study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he studied business and physics.
4f051bb63b66efca1ea1d7ba8e848b99211c8833	It's an unusual combination, isnot it?
3d2cc70f10ae23e2ddd953b3e4dfb8bee8858711	At the age of 24, together with his brother Kimbal Musk, he created the company Zip2.
8973e9fcd6c9bd5e452fc0c3d74fbb5ece479160	After 4 years, the company was sold.
cf47d02390e5655fc56be8437fa8e706c447cd76	Before taxes, Elon Musk received $ 22 million for his 7% of shares.
bfdec653c4e63d51bf29e9c41dd1f9d286ef6581	The era of electronic payments
388e2ae232f62c3ebc374cd4ff45ccec683aaf98	In the same year, Musk became one of the founders X.com – a company that was engaged in electronic payments.
b7b52562ec6f4a5156ef73f39de5a87387a9e083	In March 2000, X.com acquired the company Confinity, which created a money transfer system called PayPal.
a3417af7dcc9478a8251b19ad8cd092dbd34f3bc	PayPal was only a month old at the time of purchase.
54679ebcdefc2fe891ce461fb973703a9f3c7fb7	Believing in the success of PayPal, Elon Musk began a transformation X.com in PayPal.
696a3ba3dc7b6f8812c69dfaeefac1172a8d90e9	In 2002, PayPal was sold to the online auction site Ebay.
dfb1fed8928b1ca4af5b9c1c8a84b399ad59e871	The future founder of Tesla Motors received $ 165 million from the sale.
6f64ff7a148c436c610e444706f84fc842b1306f	SpaceX Company
795e20368209913239ddc84a35c8e668335ddb79	For the funds received from the sale of PayPal, Elon Musk founded the company SpaceX, which still exists and wins tenders from NASA.
c35e88a97ab4353b9944a503684e2e81f6870627	The company's field of activity is the creation of launch vehicles for the transportation of both cargo and astronauts.
af1be3e8a36b1d1fcbee960c6c6e8b2798ca2691	Since the last shuttle launch was carried out in 2011, there are prospects that SpaceX will become the main transport for the transportation of astronauts.
84f07747a46d1b985ecfba08fe8ce7cd1f04942f	There is also the option of using Russian "Soyuz" s, but with a political crisis, probably, "Soyuz" is not the solution.
f8d018f03c99d9236b737cd02436b72c578cdbe5	The innovation, if you can write it that way, of SpaceX rockets is that they are reusable.
fbc0ad9114ef872db52513890a94f4fef87e1374	Now the rockets are used only once, after which the next rocket is needed to re launch.
3d5a9bf3559e5b0d648a38ee0181a6a68279582a	The approach used in SpaceX significantly reduces the cost of space launches, which makes the company also a contender for cheap commercial launches of people into space.
bb554a19655c01b420f05eb6ee58512f0c4cbef8	Right there, Richard Branson and his Virgin Galaxy compete with Elon Musk.
33a4ac37ef90579a823e9e99b37d5d7588535189	SpaceX is behind the idea of the need to settle other planets and the development of humanity in the field of space exploration and exploration.
fc357bdb4e168f9cd43997a63ce0852fa13607d0	Undoubtedly, a noble and more than adequate idea.
0b885be9c898e37765705eb9eeb060b187724857	Do not miss important information about SpaceX – ruTesla.com publishes SpaceX news in a special section.
770f2c47746cede4d269cafc0169d0b7b097675d	The company Tesla Motors
8320a1aefc4678903dfce1c450899f0d8eea3ceb	Finally, we have reached the one of the companies of Elon Musk, about which we are on ruTesla.com we write most often.
31f6b89304cf30f80db45225a731aa478447f381	Tesla Motors was founded a year after the creation of SpaceX, in 2003.
4daae713205a1f260755c1e3ab5393f5ca773a76	The field of activity of this company is the creation of environmentally friendly electric vehicles.
1c79ba57f5730a0f160887fa884964958eeebfd5	It is quite a sound idea, given that oil reserves are still running out, and the air in populated areas is becoming increasingly dirty.
c6c916057127b4c1fdaab5fe3ed8f6fd027b99ac	The first car available for sale was introduced by Tesla Motors in 2008.
d7f8aedb5ce9ca5b1a3d989daff71bd2c2fa9a25	We know this electric car called the Tesla Roadster.
931270e8bb26bf6e51e92ea1e03f8b0d9ae2efba	And although the car was not as enthusiastically received by the world as we would like, in an hour we can recall the scandal on Top Gear, Elon Musk and his company worked hard on more advanced electric cars and in 2011 the Tesla Model S was presented to the world.
716e81db9f1aa2b061fd2c92e7aa498e9abf61ea	And she's something.
049c1ff9446bf4c17c94381c02cb4e75244948b3	You can read more about the electric car here Tesla Model S.
d857a58c03c35c8255694c2014235d8ab891e1cf	At the end of 2014, Tesla Motors will present the Tesla Model X – a new interesting electric crossover car.
3bde8677ea85c3fb3511cbf93b45acf5749092a6	It is also expected to create a budget electric car in 2015.
9e0810fb44d1083fb4b1e43ceb312cd57d03712f	For more information about the company's activities and its achievements, see the article Chronology of events of Tesla Motors.
61111fe2c53fd140197e481fd400c5a939551278	Read also the Tesla Motors news on our website.
a59ba46d517e9e56b32132ce729257b3a0d51dd0	Elon Musk Awards
cbc2956b399c5e2a92491c5378a5a89b03f092e4	2008 Esquire awarded included the founder of Tesla Motors in the top 75 most influential people of the XXI century. 2011 – according to Forbes, included in the list of the TOP 20 most influential CEOs under 40. 2011 – awarded the Heinlein Award 23.06.2011 – 3 awards at the Stevie Awards 28.10.2011 — Elon Musk is named "Technological Innovator of the Year" by the Wall Street Journal 2013 – Fortune named Musk entrepreneur of the Year 2013 — The Wall Street Journal named him CEO of the Year 10.02.2014 — Elon Musk receives the Edison Achievement Award 11.03.2014 — Elon Musk receives the Encore Award
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79cee659c1bf5116aa8776d975731bcaf65a0a50	Fast Charging Network for BMW, VW, and Nissan Renault
fae1b65ffbcb7a7d1a1b1f6f8fb9bc41cb456f11	How big is the Tesla gigafactory?
31a2b5de08ea0fad1438c3ce5e322af121e3e2a5	(charts)
4d9b3efcf09d1fc55ad52633a738b18218db2e54	New map of Tesla Supercharger stations in Asia
24432021aec093a2e97f4273af6cd001981f3237	The electric car with the best price per mileage ratio (hint: Tesla Model S)
cfb4fbb946df6d1e79b7e21c7d9a4d4d400753a5	Formula E will conduct a test drive of road electric cars
9702fb279b09c8642a15e86608c8311c13973f1d	Recent comments Retrop to the recording of the Tesla Model S engine Nike to the recording of the Tesla Model S Sergey to the recording of the Tesla Model S Sed to the recording of the Nissan e NV200 costs only $ 6,500 in Rotterdam tesla to the recording of " Nossie — - a fan advertisement for the Tesla Model S
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d3ff7710f83e57e9aa4b9b4651bbf6c9ed159fa5	Electric Car News
c7700811b91f01ea57c848663fa62fb48b98e049	Tags BMW BMW i3 BYD Chevrolet Volt Dragon Falcon 9 Falcon 9R Formula E Google Mercedes Model S Nissan Nissan LEAF Renault Zoe Solar City SpaceX tesla tesla Model E tesla Model S tesla Model X tesla Motors tesla roadster Top gear China ISS elon musk engine power travel batteries safety video gigafactory race review advertising supercharger tuning fan advertising price joke ecology electric car electric cars electric cars
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b98abc62b07cd99b5c58b14ae37677079005d243	Musk, Elon
3f61b5096e75da76199d685044c5fe7a0bb3ab9a	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on June 15, 2015; checks require 66 edits.
6ea37cdfc42cb540797e1041bbd2cba062afb1d2	Elon Musk Elon Musk
85024cb31b6acaf2c59a399306af5ae6bab22aab	Birth name: Elon Reeve Musk
fb6aa839eb531c3f54c713046e599e5c2e8ef67c	Occupation: entrepreneur, inventor, engineer, investor
56d47655411a91ca611f744cb127e53d65c7defb	Date of birth: June 28, 1971 (1971-06-28) (44 years old)
95069b1bcc804c4081140f9091bf51d49cd0ded8	Place of birth: Pretoria, South Africa
4c073eea493ad3c366b6ba47252758f9c8a495c1	Citizenship: SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICA
171ade18f6d0570f85a2db0d8b9ea940d392cc74	USA USA
86260ae4cb8987581af23fa9c35b5c64e884b38c	Canada Canada
2f2c4fd3549ad2e072fc96625dedfad0d4abc531	Spouse: Justine Musk (2000-2008)
798813841855121c83ba67053a11fe5112ad2260	Talula Riley (2010-2014)
22a9f8929784fe129f10804c27e5968f9a3027ec	Website: twitter.com/elonmusk
1c33b5d66930703ebef4fd85b9c8b2ea9b6c115c	Miscellaneous: co founder of PayPal, SpaceX, Tesla Motors
77dd1a7d894fd1da5eaf1be05fc081baee09cb07	Elon Musk on Wikimedia Commons
7369a254b18736f5e279b299137ae328d35b014e	Elon Reeve Musk[* 1] (English: Elon Reeve Musk /iiːlɒn ˈmsksk/; b. June 28, 1971 in Pretoria, South Africa)
3177c6bc2cad649cf606a8061472262603393c7a	- Canadian American engineer, entrepreneur, inventor and investor; billionaire.
fb02f7df16d873bca68f2b0329e87aeb8ffb0501	Founder of SpaceX and X.com (the latter was merged with Confinity, renamed PayPal and sold in 2002 for $ 1.5 billion, and in 2015 was valued at $44 billion).
a1d34fe07d49d8144eee03cd6c3a958cd1f7b147	Founder, owner, CEO and chief engineer of SpaceX; Chief Product Architect, CEO[1] and head of the Board of Directors of Tesla Motors.
a4df6300c4253cae52c766a9379e129b8c545502	He is a member of the board of directors of SolarCity, a company founded by his cousins.
6295c91d288215064d59f95572c31a702bea5946	In the rating of Forbes magazine in 2015, his fortune is estimated at $12 billion[2].
23189ff70bbccf35dc48e45d852fa9bde8d8dcdf	1 Early years 2 Career 2.1 X.com and PayPal 2.2 SpaceX 2.3 Tesla Motors
172672043c7612d6f2d55c8e7eebde6ad6abd61b	3 Philanthropy 4 Awards 5 Personal Life 6 Cinema 7 Property 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Literature
336b69676074d41a5c536e728932836e5cf56b9f	Musk was born and raised in Pretoria (South Africa).
2f5927999e82e9bceeb7350d8bba04e62ab01086	His mother was a famous nutritionist, his father had his own engineering business.
5fe0c5a286d5a8e7d95944b14d3e3aabbe21a580	His parents divorced and the boy was left with his father, who was distinguished by a bad character[* 2].
81aa4f2ac1aa9034cf49b22aa4b8bbffcf45c225	At school, Ilon was severely treated by his peers; after one of the beatings, he had to repair a broken nose[3].
1bb0cd252e52d691020551a3db8c67bedcf68cb8	At the age of ten, Elon received his first Commodore VIC 20 computer as a gift and learned to program on it.
13f2a908f8d9c33e7db3cc782288730ca62d267d	At the age of twelve, he sold his first program for $ 500 — a video game in the style of Space Invaders called Blast Star, in which the player fired at the ranks of aliens with a laser cannon[4].
9b8ff7119ff6580944a564992bdc0de34c65366e	Musk invested in shares of a pharmaceutical company, which he followed through newspapers.
4cfc1a593bfd2c9623cd4e08a91476ceabb6fb98	Despite the protests of his parents, he leaves for Canada with the proceeds from the sale of several thousand dollars from the sale of shares[4].
e165b1050d63e7d52ac57bda23a84f567cb45774	Before going to university, he lived with relatives in Kingston, Ontario.
bb97b89bc7faad8ea58e0089dec1b23eb3e7e216	Eventually, he moved to Stanford, but did not finish the course[3].
a587eb51153a87b8e5bbce6365abe2018fe556e8	Career[edit / edit wiki text]
074519c55b6cf367a20bde16e8b7f50eb9bcecd7	In 1995, Musk and his brother founded the company Zip2, which specialized in software for news companies.
a11720b93ce583eb93195b98966ea34a6e8720e5	In 1999, Zip2 was acquired by Compaq for $ 308 million[5].
64b09fa2082c384b3f2d4de97de970b0f0a6d396	Musk received 7 % of the sale amount ($22 million) [6].
d665d59ae5a6625a000427083fbfba29da26df0b	X.com and PayPal[edit / edit wiki text]
8573c460c4453a31443c1f0abb5a1875396e08b9	Main Article: PayPal
072773ee341840e9375c15980ddd856276318fca	In March 1999, Musk became one of the founders of X.com.
f3c27e57885b7596e377427de612bb116b0f51fe	In 2000 X.com it merged with Confinity, one of the branches of which was called PayPal.
08b76596b37ff2633ec15cdb3e715c429de0dade	Both systems (X.com and PayPal) were engaged in providing personal electronic money transfers via e mail, and the purpose of the transaction was to merge both payment systems, but in fact this did not happen.
93aaf1217ea6f95d05e6bc8e614fe82269f0d090	Musk strongly advocated for the brand X.com instead of PayPal, which caused internal corporate disagreements, which eventually ended with the resignation of Musk by the decision of the Board of Directors.
3cc2f9a4a490b1745a2a93ccbb45a80ec0e54649	However, Ilon's strategic decision to merge the two companies, along with the active promotion of an electronic payment system at Online auctions (primarily eBay), led in 2001 to the rapid growth of the business, which was finally renamed PayPal.
c830b4893d5c0c894b8b1d0c8d91628b0538003f	Such impressive results allowed the company to place shares on the stock exchange in February 2002 (and at the same time become the first of the dotcom companies to go on the stock exchange after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001).
598fe43888743e113d0a19ea42a880eda439940f	In October 2002, PayPal was bought by eBay for $ 1.5 billion.
8b5cbd90961e60540546fc2754d4934bf5370424	At the time of the sale, Musk owned 11.7% of the company's shares[7], which allowed him to gain $ 165 million[8].
ed8f455e33cfe3a155ae2f02c362cc8b64916f4d	SpaceX[edit / edit wiki text]
a39bb6381259dd0e6c76d3b4390f7fba6d5a5540	Musk in 2013 in Dublin
8f5dfb087b9ab053281ef01c6684df8ec0a9cb8a	Main article: SpaceX
74eda02aced63504f87581e4f3a5ca25c332f149	In June 2002, Musk founded his third company, SpaceX.
7d77ba929bf8a464262dd89501f1f4796ff75640	It is a private developer of a series of launch vehicles and a commercial operator of space systems.
0cde1af3154e1ecc2b473f31bf92ac37ffe2519d	Musk is currently its CEO and chief engineer.
e19547772f9896a554fe0170285759e6ef445fee	To date, the company has developed two types of potentially reusable launch vehicles: the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9, as well as the reusable Dragon spacecraft.[source not specified 330 days]
9f403cf08da729929e51ad8b5036b6172463752d	In December 2008, NASA signed a US $ 1.6 billion contract with the company for 12 launches of the Falcon 9 carrier and the Dragon spacecraft to the ISS, as a replacement for the Space Shuttle ships after the termination of their launch program in 2011.
d7a38dc52d2e3dab3cf257c3c36100d8f1f831d8	The first stage provides for the delivery of cargo, while the delivery of astronauts will be carried out by Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
7e107c59de970624de8b0280bb1d74faf466ccb8	However, the Falcon 9 / Dragon system was originally conceived as a means of delivering astronauts to the station, and, taking into account the recommendations of the Augustin Commission, according to which the delivery of people should be carried out by commercial operators, it is assumed that SpaceX (and similar companies) can become the main space transport channel in the near future.[source not specified 330 days]
9a38596951040893fa342bbc76c024c018b7f047	According to Elon himself, he was greatly influenced by the cycle of science fiction novels "The Foundation" and Isaac Asimov's views on the exploration of outer space as the development (and preservation) of human existence.
86c4e723aa66b611177b076abc29dd17963528b7	Musk claims that the coverage of life on several planets can serve as a protection against the threat of human extinction.
2d94ea747863ed8f05a327303a0c7aaba5963d23	"An asteroid or a supervolcano can destroy us, and in addition, we are exposed to risks that dinosaurs never dreamed of: an artificially created virus, the accidental appearance of a microscopic black hole as a result of a physical experiment, catastrophic global warming, or some other destructive technology unknown to date can end our existence.
4723656033ed198e2b9466551106f5191ad405e6	It took millions of years for humanity to develop, but over the past sixty years, atomic weapons have created the potential for self destruction.
f4a7572b176551706ff7a955abf5c81aa11019a1	Sooner or later, our life will have to go beyond this blue green ball — or we will die out"[9][10].
65488e4419f632feabc9a71e36ca4e97cf90ac9a	Elon Musk has set a goal — to reduce the cost of space flights by 10 times.
fdc7fd12650817ab94891096362544c76a1dab68	To do this, he founded SpaceX, investing in it $ 100 million earned from the sale of his previous companies[3].
e5568c50288f765cb172b242ac31ce7128408512	He proposes to colonize Mars by detonating thermonuclear charges at the poles of the planet, thereby causing carbon dioxide evaporation, which, in turn, should cause a greenhouse effect, due to which the average temperature on the red planet should significantly increase[11].
676d45f871a4c0fec0c5fc7384699f562595e3d1	In January 2016, at an investment forum in Hong Kong, Musk announced that his company hopes to fly to Mars in 2020-2025, in about 9 years[12].
8747a3965983c2d364a7f4c7d698084495b20b3a	Tesla Motors[edit / edit wiki text]
73353fdcc70a1ce4600fc85d8f849706ab3b97fe	Main article: Tesla Motors
471cc70c9cf3cfd702c34bc7c048492b23d1c9dd	Philanthropy[edit / edit wiki text]
5c526064ab2769187b268404cad1d20901ed8eb8	Personal life[edit / edit wiki text]
740f59f6ff8ae0769be35fe2d03f01a847af40b8	In July 2013, the relationship was resumed, but on December 31, 2014, Musk again filed for divorce, paying his wife about $ 16 million this time, compared to $ 4.2 million for the first time. the source is not specified 330 days]
bbe85e622dd89931d4ce955d870949a4e0fbe654	Movies[edit / edit wiki text]
e98c6c0bd1cc25e34c67d509c16cdfbd43a10b27	Property[edit / edit wiki text]
aa675aed5f60bc75aa08e37a59e6ce14511c49f7	Musk owned a Czechoslovak made Aero L 39 Albatros aircraft[25].
bca4457744e5deb9ef19d010e643bd191ed291e6	Now he owns a Dassault Falcon 900 jet plane from the movie "They Smoke Here" [26].
acc1c0015c561856799b457fc0c5bb829a24ec51	After selling Zip2 in 1999, Musk bought a McLaren F1 supercar, [4] but crashed it the following year, when Peter Thiel, the co founder of PayPal, was driving with him[27].
31f01659e6225ad98393f9d3db9aa98f85035b5e	The PayPal Mafia
8fdac47d4c7b221ad85d53e9c11163768ecb87a8	↑ There is also a transliteration of the name Elon.
120e454ab5e43446b15df9b764587ef807af6aee	I. Musk himself is also known for his sharpness in relations with people, especially subordinates
da427c61fc417eaed0880e50fb3844052b83d84c	↑ Fehrenbacher, Katie Tesla Founder Eberhard Files Lawsuit Against Tesla's Elon Musk. gigaom.com (June 11, 2009).
6d23695029bc234f8fa6b12e7dd4236f5b6b3d4d	Verified on April 18, 2014.
474330732a29bd0a30a34aadfe1928a10fb523aa	↑ Elon Musk on Forbes Lists (English) ↑ 1 2 3 " Elon Musk:Fortune favors the brave", The Economist, Jul 4th 2015 ↑ 1 2 3 Anton Osipov.
df0a46137f4553e71aec1a613eebef16e6318730	The person is Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla Motors and SpaceX. Vedomosti (May 15, 2013).
3ed75f70e2241533213a89528549b7b74a857dc5	Checked on February 5, 2015.
b0718762193e387f6f3cc812ff5ad0160c7a9687	Comp Compaq buys Zip2 — CNET News ↑ Chafkin, 2007 ↑ Annual Report for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2001. sec.gov. Verified on March 17, 2015.
22a095be306cf792b46ac25650b0fcc4ca40f4c9	↑ SEC 10 K (PDF). eBay (December 31, 2002).
9bb4a6a5d0bd6f97b65c80a88b402752571b29cb	↑ Reach for the Star: To be or not to be a person in Space 21.02.2015 ↑ Person: so who is this Tony Stark?
75b5659e38c0cd09481eb5fd338920aad459949f	December 11, 2014 Ил Elon Musk proposed to start colonizing Mars with thermonuclear bombing ↑ Elon Musk was going to send a man to Mars in nine years ↑ " Scientists: artificial intelligence can be dangerous ", BBC, July 8, 2015 ↑ Elon Musk - Esquire.
d80f6b07e4ec4451b2a5029920a7a416ec1c96e9	Esquire (October 1, 2008). Archived from the original source on June 8, 2012.
995b71f06dd8afc51ea52a223acdd251612b1554	↑ Heinlein Prize Honors Elon Musk of SpaceX. Archived from the original source on June 8, 2012.
af06670a0dd78a5c41777b76aad0558ea2d59c2a	↑ America's 20 Most Powerful CEOs 40 And Under.
9c7318bbaa75f8d6b45700407a6687cb19438009	Forbes.
7f832314c7f192c86ecfdfc6b54412370157f573	Archived from the original source on June 8, 2012.
afcf851e9540ff3d9ecc2423a13ec57caef2cec1	↑ Jonathan Welsh.
c97b0dde7a41a47fd846e120a48ca567d27de3cc	Tesla's Elon Musk is Fortune Businessman of the Year (eng.).
1c3398d8a651963f3436af1d4db18fb35f8d57c1	The Wall Street Journal (21 November 2013).
d69944b50aa25cbd6529a7db7c3c6550666f64b7	Checked on January 13, 2014.
1af0f34f501d95a5cf220c3b42dee07116844e7c	Archived from the original source on January 13, 2014.
eb2304a951d48f0039885fbc99f5972de25185b0	↑ Musk J. "I was a starter wife": inside America's messiest divorce. marieclaire.com (10 September 2010).
c0614d3e3d969d6ba380583b6bc6d8421de893f9	Verified on March 17, 2015.
c4693d56019c5e931154992fc3592639197bdb53	↑ St Trinians star Talulah Riley marries internet millionaire in fairytale Highland wedding.
316302e0f5511d8f5235a5be5137fb8672b21014	Verified on May 15, 2013.
c59c77c7a83cba2c9e835cd81ffb77d6e3f9f0a8	Archived from the original source on May 21, 2013.
ddbcb21ac71712ddf463df5c13f9003442992300	↑ Millionaire PayPal founder Elon Musk divorces actress wife Talulah Riley… and announces split via Twitter.
e86b1c1d9e21c085d08c422660464da5b36dd8ba	↑ Elon Musk - The 2010 TIME 100 - TIME.
25ba3d7619222ab3e11ef7eba832ffef1548ac8c	Time (April 29, 2010). Archived from the original source on June 8, 2012.
6caadb8b0fec7ddbdc65a4e86b265baf4ab8a3cc	↑ Elon Musk's Guide to the Galaxy.
4aa29ba7e0080d0bb9f05a309d2acbc6272e8b6f	Inc. (October 1, 2010).
d7a2f43373a8cf241709aa623d741b21b6cf8483	Ch Chang, 2010 ↑ Elon Musk (English). imdb.com. Verified on March 17, 2015.
2e09b9d2943b5762859dd2c2251a51e4df06533c	↑ Leslie Wayne.
2ca7d3691c59d3fdf8ac360799928cf0421c3ab7	[ttp://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/business/yourmoney/05rocket.html A Bold Plan to Go Where Men Have Gone Before].
9ccbfb5b1aac1a59a632b56e5c420da66618fbb9	The New York Times (February 5, 2006).
84689abc4cce720466f1b152900ec5ca06f173b5	Verified on February 5, 2015.
3e32bd5732abf961eb797393164810f1555ad7b0	↑ Tesla CEO Took Private Jet to Washington D.C. = Alexander Haislip.
55904a7690b6f9c7b8dee121f78fe62c3d2485e8	PE Hub Network (February 10, 2010).
80112962a46ccd57bff25f88b889dd780bdd24c8	↑ Danielle Muoio.
6417f9fc239156ac2ba8c0f4d0bd67c283fa9e71	7 cars Elon Musk has owned — and we're not talking about Teslas.
64de6b1e6211f84587ff6b6135f0f248cdb15a5e	Tech Insider (January 15, 2016).
50bcec41a3cc3ed808ef72458d886177b1f8adef	↑ Tesla founder Elon Musk buys James Bond's Lotus Esprit submarine car author = Stuart Dredge.
ce69f4430cc7beac385b9a483d3f5683f65621cb	The Guardian (October 18, 2013).
664feb9fff15c4d01fe4d96b9fc8e3d3063c47be	Accessed February 5, 2015.
4904c9d969f202c09da502dc0459646e9aeef4b2	Musk, Elon in Wikicitatnik?
636ae3e68a421bd9bc0a533832615182bf25693d	Musk, Elon on Wikimedia Commons?
13bc5f5c6d64e0b26dece02e840848a849db7ff8	Kropotova T. Musk is going to Mars: will the legendary investor change the course of history?.
6ccaa2b8470da12057e6bc40e88c81413399a2c9	E xecutive.ru (August 27, 2014).
11581266d6dc872823ddb32b212c433ffb6ed720	Verified on August 28, 2014.
14bcb7c421434a5316ea79be1704d39fe48415ea	Chumachenko A.
88bf97cb832bf78f4368b8eae0dc0b2e298c798a	The future is safe, or who is Elon Musk. stalker.od.ua (May 17, 2014).
80da02bcd4ada348aef46cafd9a5235cfe8a451f	Verified on May 12, 2015.
60f28e741ee4b5197427e5c22b7982a1bc9040d8	Anderson K. Elon Musk's Mission to Mars (eng.). wired.com (October 21, 2012).
98ec5951656f88b1649ff1859843338f8315872e	- Interview.
adb32ae5858e4a4373104e88808ddd2d4956e212	Verified on May 16, 2015 — - Anderson K. (translated from English I. Hel): Elon Musk and his mission to Mars. hi news.ru (November 30, 2012).
e438d68f1d712ddddb0b638cd50999663dbd2458	Verified on May 16, 2015.
3b1ec2cb24b14529a9d63595a9fa3e3049dbbe60	Chafkin M. Entrepreneur of the Year, 2007: Elon Musk (English). inc.com (1 December 2007).
563eb3a0eae7de56050259f8b2d7bbf27d9c9a1b	Accessed 12 May 2015.
f9a5ea6d5dda410f9770900f56b79545bb8b11ff	Chang K. Adding Rocket Man to His Résumé.
ba8dc9e09ce4781457d4e0629b7e6dcafe8570c1	The New York Times, page D1. nytimes.com (16 February 2010).
342bbc5699a3f6ecc6c6c102500030409ba0f859	- correction: 19 February, 2010.
e26f3bc76ed9393de9199e881f774666f97ad99e	- Chang K. (translated from English by N. Nikitin): Rocket scientist Elon Musk: waiting for the launch of private cosmonautics. sci lib.com (February 20, 2010).
65eb383d67fa2e07602a884a8828861c873408eb	— (Amateur translation, almost complete). Verified on May 16, 2015.
a689a9118448e5ddbcd6cdae2f1b9f3d65f91817	Billionaire Elon Musk proposed to drop thermonuclear bombs on Mars
4b642e87caf29b9409dbc481e87c660e986aebd6	Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future.
a8c3dbeb0ac0f9dc5d7fcad3406d233918c76a0f	By Ashlee Vance.
5f3b051b9c69fc9aa10024d3b48e071bf470536b	Ecco Press; 400 pages;
206d1fa7100c021ac85cdbcc9dc6de2d1eca3ce7	$28.99. Virgin Books;
7bb56edf93ead74c8b9ddeabb3efe5caf3d07f1b	£20.
e2cd9214db643b0cdc5c919b78d7eaf9730c8bc4	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Маск,_Ilon&oldid=76277413"
b653148b2bdaa5a660994de1d2f822adf3d7f1a8	Categories: Persons alphabetically Born on June 28 Born in 1971 Born in Pretoria Billionaires of the USA Internet entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs of the USA Entrepreneurs of Canada Entrepreneurs of South Africa Inventors of the USA Inventors of Canada Inventors of South Africa Programmers of the USA Engineers of the USA Engineers of Canada Patrons of the USA Employees of Tesla Motors Employees of PayPal
1cdf04450f02c3f69e2d7ca1313a4401988ed70a	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:No sources since March 2015 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days
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5878a2e4af2b374e1ba9aa3e25aabbc22027e8c7	Aug 16
ace61c4ce26e8505d92ecfb383d86b8c0ba0345e	The success story of Elon Musk
e771d962de1b47f6548f426e815b0874eec34d76	The computer industry has given a start to the life of dozens of charismatic personalities who managed to create something revolutionary and earn an incredible amount of money on it.
6e4872861b6e972e4e6fcd50e9436a115e21ab7a	If there was a rating of such people, the first number would belong to Bill Gates, the second to Steve Jobs.
3ee265807ac9ffdd9ef0240868d530d20c715930	But the third place, despite the large number of applicants, is most deserved by the little known billionaire entrepreneur Elon Musk in our latitudes.
55fee0375aae179fbe56e05643f4e078e016c229	Because he has invested the money earned on computer technologies in projects that can change our world more than Microsoft and iPhones combined have changed it.
501424d466efc55e7530463fcc43c68f97cab027	Forbes estimates Musk's fortune at $2.4 billion.
e6eb1cee8a131c2f480653a3d0dfbdeb868614af	Musk is not only a businessman, but also an engineer: he is personally involved in the design of electric cars and spacecraft.
a2533af4fbae6e229f7ef84a76b9c24710574c69	In his spare time, he drives expensive cars, marries sexy British actresses and becomes the prototype for the hero of Robert Downey Jr. in "Iron Man".
24d71ba9e6e1eb89caa4f3f23f41b1ef7de6418a	In all respects, Musk is more like a comic book character than a real person.
af8fc5765ad63dfc8b16c141c172992f64f967f0	Nevertheless, one of the most successful serial businessmen in the world is hiding behind the media image of a superhero.
a0199eaabc376a101620dcc2f3106c93b0aa0d35	Musk became the second entrepreneur in the history of Silicon Valley, who managed to found three companies worth more than $1 billion -PayPal, SpaceX and Tesla (the first was Jim Clark).
90ea8ff4903e8425d915bf5a6a83d159ab76c112	Moreover, in an era when "the best minds of mankind are figuring out how to get people to click on ads," Musk devoted himself to space and alternative energy.
9ca2c669bf4fe1d20507115616f4115a50dfc1fc	He plays by some other rules and does it extremely successfully.
fdadcd0c3f4a8b15b201ec835e6eb440358fed92	How does he do it?
58518dbd217d9b41ab4b7a486fffd98dd095851b	A Success Story, A Biography Of Elon Musk
a2d2f10e62c8473ef223ffbf309d2bd39463f343	Elon Musk was born on June 28, 1971 in South Africa.
55276a1a7aba9b2fc8e27ddca5e483dbafbf753c	His family was mixed.
8ea11e27ec630cd89407595a71691ce68a2b3b77	My father, a South African, was an engineer.
5201056a0d6aed147bebf0dd86bc92a2e2947d86	And my mother, a Canadian, is a nutritionist.
7657991ff45cd434f4e346013da0931f6f3a522f	Musk spent his childhood in South Africa.
1e62deeaf2b91917552731fcd64140dd55b57b20	At the age of 10, he had his first computer.
bdc6088e88f1234fa219561c0e672c6e5ff28ff5	Elon immediately showed interest in programming, which he studied independently.
050b0535d40aff226fec7bc8f923b21afcd7fc18	At the age of 12, he earned $500 by selling the game Blastar (a shooter in the spirit of Space Invaders), which he himself programmed.
b3e20afae06247c5995223db9455e4b628c407e4	But Elon didnot get to the United States right away.
71955c075f50ebde5418a8371929a2725f4a5875	There he studied for two years, after which his dream came true – in 1992, Musk went to the United States.
087cf479a97d81976cb00c8af8d3bce6345d5391	He moved to America after receiving a scholarship to study at the University of Pennsylvania.
469e5867545b526f3737b576a086bb6e7c2d78a9	The following year, he received a bachelor's degree in business, but decided to stay at the university for another year to obtain a bachelor's degree in physics.
06bde89ea143267c5dd968189e7b94a3d7e3c59a	When Elon Musk began his teenage depression, he began to actively absorb philosophical and religious literature.
7417fa29cb1609223a1dcea37b9c4c06d2a93486	But the most valuable lessons, according to him, he eventually learned from the book by Douglas Adams "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy".
727411b5d07f18bca4deda71bb00af815ce53a98	"She taught me that the most difficult thing is to come up with the right questions.
7e97c3654cc092e23e1b05ade04f8709bac7de01	Once you've done it, everything else is very simple, " Musk tells Businessweek magazine.
f7e54aa1c119a6e92598b348b6edd492ff00ff6f	He was led to these reflections by an episode in which a giant supercomputer, after several million years of reflection, answers the "main question of Life, the Universe and Everything Else" with the meaningless number 42.
fc9a2fc86b8a5a9bd7d74ef366b1154306041ddd	"I came to the conclusion that we should strive to expand the limits of human consciousness in order to learn how to ask the right questions," says Musk.
875376a55dabd202f84a00c9ff6664da6fc353bd	He came up with his own question a long time ago: "When I was in college, I constantly thought about what would most affect the fate of humanity in the future?"
158aea841f20291bf1b46753dc1f64bdc6831f4f	Musk decided that it would be the Internet, the transition to renewable energy sources and the relocation of people to other planets.
5417cd3575e479e990421275724e182c9ab346dc	He decided to try to contribute to each of these areas.
1eeabfaafbbbb38ebf1fc1820b337b68f7f906b5	But first he needed the money.
c5c663bcb7d172844b5b9dbc717766b906fc28c4	Zip2 and PayPal
9360d53661252ecc3be2574008a65c5ccc3cdc91	Elon Musk made the second, most important and fateful decision in his life in the summer of 1995.
324b08d20a8969afe2fe6406e451df7c14db6aa9	He had just completed his studies at the University of Pennsylvania and entered the graduate school at Stanford University to continue his studies in applied physics and materials science.
5289a11c8646e693ba809354e8f3f20749b95a28	However, just two days later, he gave up science and instead of developing capacitors, together with his brother Kimbal, while in the capital of Silicon Valley, Palo Alto, he created his first computer company, Zip2.
c73d427d10caa84cd27e50f0df6e3c7b8bc7a4fe	"I worked from morning to night.
3b0d8e076fd804419ced281732e17cacb0a61b0b	He lived in the same warehouse where he rented an office, and went to the locker rooms of the local stadium to take a shower.
081e432bab124c7df5ef44b9fe2decca2da59805	But I saved on renting an apartment, and in the first two most difficult years I kept the company afloat."
26178db927cf43a156c774089c5073dcc716f4ff	At that time, the Internet was going through a period of rapid development, but no one had yet managed to earn serious money here.
f9dbd990880236d64f01b506fb3b1220d87c1200	Musk's company was one of the first to do this: it created a platform through which newspapers (including such authoritative ones as the New York Times) could offer their customers additional commercial services.
c624532de528002fbee8eb21d487d1a8905c54c4	Four years later, in 1999, the largest search engine in those years, AltaVista, bought Zip2 for $307 million in cash and $34 million in securities.
cc16af766fd5967d53485357e8c1c35edcc3e10c	This transaction set a record for the sale of the company "for cash".
23b909521cd8ceaafa158ecb64276bd2ce8c9db5	Part of the proceeds ($20 million) Musk immediately spent on luxury purchases — a McLaren F1 sports car and a private plane.
5580ea4f952d53fa3ca042af991b3c8e031789fd	Musk is beginning to master the growing popularity of electronic payments, and his new business at the turn of the century is a startup X.com.
df504e7ee513a1a0c063df3e9b16bdc1ae2cc658	In March 2000 X.com on a parity basis, it merges with the competitor Confinity company of Peter Thiel and Max Levchin, whose office is located on the same street in Palo Alto.
5da647902c316313540714d7f9c7f5bb47a6d8e1	This is how one of the leading payment systems of our time, PayPal, is born.
1e4b0a521bc0a610387a161b4301902efce8d13d	Now there is a huge choice for paying online, and then it was an alternative to paying with a bank card.
e4cb6d468e857389af4219f06afff8ddc0c6ab33	At first, there are disagreements between the teams of the two startups on strategy and management, but this does not affect the dynamics of the company's development in any way.
d98593fd60e0dface71a71525b59ee28399daf3e	Musk participates in the development of a new business model, conducts a successful viral marketing campaign, the audience of the service is growing rapidly, and in 2002 everything ends with the logical purchase of the system by the eBay Internet auction for $1.5 billion.
cfa17f275199a4b21f2a2cce71ff63c65bf8ff36	So Elon Musk had enough funds (the founder X.com he received $180 million for his share.) for his other hobbies cosmonautics and alternative energy sources.
2249ec599eea8d5d369f05187df0863f15f01c3e	We can say that with this he said goodbye to the Internet!
6ad14401bbe488a8e68176400256c9472026a9cb	"I donot want to be a grandfather who doesnot know how to check his email.
010904265e32462eb18e2dc528eac491b176bb22	But I am unlikely to make a new Internet business in the future.
eed4711b4eeb48745cc0f09b1dad3ec43123fecb	It seems to me that I should direct my efforts to creating things that can positively affect the future of humanity."
beb5c33f3dd5499bfa015404888e13b0ce9d8cf7	Tesla Motors
6abe48fb0b887911fdaaff6aa240c3fcf13ea7b9	Tesla Motors was invented in 2003 by entrepreneur engineers Martin Eberhard and Mark Tappening.
c3a1e7e53efd24114c60cb12e2e3bfcdc03f2b2d	From the very beginning, the company positioned itself as the first mass produced manufacturer of electric vehicles, its founders dreamed of freeing consumers from being tied to the commodity market — a mission quite in the spirit of Musk.
3971e48cbcc1cc6f1032982a017f404a3c1085a0	A businessman who got rich on the sale of PayPal appeared in the project in February 2004, leading a round of investments in a startup with a personal contribution of $70 million.
cc25226746469fb0575fe1234c1389f2cca6514e	He became the chairman of the board of directors and at first did not take on the operational management of the company.
5f226ef3ff972eebd8a8dc48797a9ad8482c88fe	Musk participated in the design of the debut model of the Roadster sports car, created on the basis of the British Lotus: he lobbied for the use of composite materials in the body structure, developed a battery module and even design details like front headlights.
a147a5edd22a6ffcf2fe7bf56949a7985ace2a2c	By 2006, the project received good press, Musk became the winner of the prestigious Global Green Environmental Award (the award was presented to him personally by Mikhail Gorbachev), and the "Google fathers" Larry Page and Sergey Brin entered the Tesla investor pool.
70a0426e5dcd048cd632b3381f8c12e2d5840d93	The total amount of funds attracted to the project exceeded $100 million.
da48762edb254971357976d834371f638d64a4b9	However, in 2007, when the launch of the Roadster conveyor production was planned, a black streak began in Musk's life.
db4612c2934838a0425aafb44e2eb53b91145110	The management's miscalculations led to the fact that the selling price of the electric car was almost twice as high as originally included in the project — $92,000.
208fde32a6bf6e0279fec0a1847a973180eeaaf9	In addition, the company's CEO Martin Eberhard made a strategic miscalculation: his concept of a transmission for the Tesla Roadster turned out to be ineffective, and the release of the car had to be postponed for more than a year.
36e0c9397289fd3e3a875b2dce82839a361873ee	In a crisis situation, Elon Musk showed the necessary managerial qualities at that time: the ability to ruthlessly throw overboard everyone who, for some reason, interferes with the project.
2734d6035582a27a6546d21d52fede2027e6f770	Musk fired Eberhard and several other "founding fathers" without the slightest sentiment, and after some time after this sweep, he himself became at the helm of the company.
0abbc3642a23743417e88933b87c88b6944acf51	Eberhard sued him, but the case was settled out of court, and so effectively that almost no details of the conflict were leaked to the public.
a3f4f33fe531b6b1969f640d2f3a632f120d4b42	On the threshold of the crisis, Elon Musk continued to energetically "cut the crutches": cut employees, demand lower prices from suppliers, close offices, etc.
69f692062b9fd839d361b55383857284ace9de93	As a result, the Roadster was released in 2008 with a slight — less than $20,000 increase in the price in the receipt.
5279db7c6ec3f028b8f0a9ec30dab07877d44d47	At the most difficult moment (in parallel, the businessman began a loud divorce process with his wife Justine, who did not skimp on criticism of the father of his five sons in media interviews and a personal blog — for lack of attention and domestic tyranny), Musk invested in Tesla the last savings of $20 million (he raised funds on the takeover by Dell for $120 million of the software developer Everdream, of which Musk was a shareholder), sold his beloved McLaren F1 for the sake of saving the project and still saved the automaker from bankruptcy.
e79dcd6f2abc57a57a3ee5a5ab46dd86c1a84390	He even gave customers personal guarantees of a refund in case of failure of the initiative.
8d98f7e373ae3886267b5b13b5f961540363cfaf	Soon things began to improve, which was especially impressive against the background of the stagnating traditional automotive industry.
737127f324e38f6aeced721caa18e249dd4e24b8	The German Daimler concern invested $50 million in Tesla, the US Department of Energy authorized the inclusion of the project in the pool of innovative transport companies — recipients of a preferential interest loan.
96ce35e0de7519252986d238a8cc8255f3fa1c09	Tesla received almost half a billion dollars from the state.
e4404518c507bf3715bd1bf4f6db16038e5d7c2a	Subsequently, skeptics criticized the authorities for the decision to support Musk's company, whose products are still focused exclusively on wealthy buyers.
bd3d6ff30420c1de322224061434ac63ff915e8c	The word "electric car" often evokes associations with something slow and clumsy, but in the case of Tesla Motors this is not so.
0e098b36de2d1e9a9736970c0337f07b92952059	Its cars are fast and similar in appearance to luxury sports cars.
6517dddb55a97348ed3d9f4971f0dbce3ef2a52c	However, there are plans to create simpler models.
514c9891b7aae20c321fe0f4d7949ba7428ea131	Tesla Motors specialists cooperate with Daimler and Toyota companies.
583943c9879d3ed80d4a621fac97b779693e3575	The so called "hybrids", the cars of these companies, equipped with both an electric motor and an internal combustion engine, use the technologies of Elon Musk's company.
747a067de9327e4c693765c63cd7a31c7828ce9f	In 2007, General Motors vice chairman Bob Lutz called Tesla the main reason for the car giant's decision to start developing the Chevy Volt electric car: "If some startup from Silicon Valley was able to solve this equation, then no one else dares to tell me that it is unsolvable."
c89e44167171ca8ca9fafa3129f8f9d1bea4360a	"Tesla Motors is named after Nikola Tesla, because we use some of his inventions.
00f5df2003a444c6206fe66587082e0190dfb798	This guy is definitely worthy of greater recognition by society.
a1348b82a182ca9ca901c9c220fbd180ee5324c8	However, to be honest, I always liked Thomas Edison more, because unlike Tesla, he was able to bring his inventions to the mass market and make them accessible to all mankind.
2485948d7ab72777105b1eee81d28a2c540bf549	Tesla failed in this."
d7b435865ff98d5068996377c09d23a014241dde	In 2010, Tesla held the first automotive IPO in the United States since 1956, when Ford entered the stock exchange.
af009c0cf1c5e1748d985df71f2dbc812fcfc743	The company, despite a decade of unprofitable work, is listed on the NASDAQ at the top of the range of $17 per share and attracts more than $225 million.
1a39dae0a40733206d3e7cf35ea589b365e59b6a	There really was no better time for an IPO.
a2835b3972c2801d65b320ba17a632ddea8f7839	The oil slick that BP is responsible for covering an impressive part of the Gulf of Mexico continues to grow, and it seems more than logical to raise the issue of switching to new types of fuel at this time.
9caa99aaf0ae64869dd4d21daf20875318cc848e	Today, one Tesla paper costs $147, and the capitalization the automaker is approaching $18 billion.
1d3bbf2a13b2eb75e78ae1c3fc0391ccab12b741	The main driver of Tesla's financial success was the Model S luxury sedan with a battery charge of 426 km, a bright design and unique speed characteristics (acceleration to 96 km/h in 3.9 seconds).
2ac10bd1c23d38e5467db51f5993467ced88eb06	The model was launched into mass production last summer at a price of $69,900 and was awarded a score of 99 out of 100 points in the Consumer Reports rating.
49ae6c6916d3b12c39f8766d3374995f4c081a81	At the presentation of the Model S, Musk categorically stated that in twenty years more than half of the cars produced will be fully electric: "I am sure that it will be so.
f96bc36fad3c917e2abae8501bfdbb6a06f76e45	I'm ready to bet money on it."
f41b5c4ee09c5cf5ae7b8d95ad235ea0b735dd56	There are enough people willing to make such a bet.
943f97b0d0f30c43008753795ab44dd13093fbbe	Even according to the most optimistic calculations of analysts, Musk's forecast can not come true in any way.
beead25d93d73df1ab86957e5cd45179655409e5	But the founder and CEO of Tesla is hardly confused by this: by embellishing reality, he changes it.
9e4b177991fe65c9c72a4ad0e7086d5dce4236b6	The fact is that, according to Musk, the world has become too dependent on oil.
c41056cbee919509ddbeb09ea8698ccffea3c762	This dependence has led to climate change and permanent geopolitical tensions.
bc51cc80daa7509a807fac113d20f7424baf29fe	The rejection of internal combustion engines in favor of electricity can change the situation.
99ea465c0e8faf422e55ba2e4bdebc80946229be	Therefore, for him, Tesla Motors is not just a business.
94f83d31b84ccf60ffcc66368548a95fa9193ea1	Musk continued to fuel interest in the project by arranging a media meeting with The New York Times columnist John Broder because of the critical test drive of the Model S. I must say that all these advertising tricks have borne fruit.
962b92a0cceb129fe94af7fd36555a0fc8e4f678	So, in the first half of 2013, the electric car was sold in the amount of 10,500 copies, and the supply still does not keep up with the demand.
9e3b5800934b04b5dcb462e00d205ca13ec43c80	The release of the Model X crossover and the rapid development of the Supercharger charging station network are on the way.
aa8dffb9e7f1afbb9ae30460208b465da8826080	Tesla plans to cover the transport arteries with high traffic throughout the United States with" sockets", and in 2014 it will begin its foreign expansion.
bf79a237c3ccb207b39f483d1e8ca37e92a34bf0	SolarCity
d8455ef73e2ba6a0b447e496be89b7a4f3e3fa28	According to formal criteria, the SolarCity technology provider is not exactly a project of Musk.
0ca777b3750fb10ea80aac3f102a6b06ca3ce4ac	In 2003, he invested $10 million in this startup, the proceeds from the sale of PayPal.
5e98618de99bd7ffdefb7a5033e8f438d1d82f3b	The founders of the project are the businessman's cousins Lyndon and Peter Riva.
34331446fe77d40937ca24784c85b557f55d9916	SolarCity installs modular private solar power plants with a capacity of several kilowatts — an ideal solution for households and small organizations.
a1c614060207cfbbbadc6892c1972e132e5d349e	At the same time, the company does not sell the product, but gives it to customers for a long term lease with a horizon of 20 years.
57b4e86572d35f84642e00eb59e289ac71dae8df	The buyer does not pay for the station itself, but only for the energy that it generates.
ad01b8e572b76214515cef38eb99007434e9ddee	The transactions are financed by third party creditors (for example, Google), who receive tax benefits for supporting the "green" economy.
40006af1e3ba1601317252524b57f28122a9b319	In May and June 2008, photovoltaic installations were created to provide electricity to eBay's servers and office, as well as for British Motors.
451760c850fd207c87e4771e5883c9a3d4eb8565	Also in 2008, the company began to produce software that contributes to a more rational use of electricity in residential buildings, thanks to this, end consumers began to pay less for electricity, and the load on the networks decreased.
98cb461c7fe9a4520d799c2c93997eee9c0daeab	The concept of SolarCity is economical, eco friendly and absolutely coincides with the principles of Musk.
eb4396801432631e70ac7b5e2254effa8a8eb1f1	The company, in particular, builds batteries for charging stations for Tesla electric cars.
c3337fbf7c6756e08856d164db806b20cc4a15ce	The project already consists of several dozen service centers in the United States and is in great demand among energy consumers: people sign up for home solar stations in a few months.
e94d35cc68e3108f79098c7b655ec1b1f5ad675e	However, the leadership in the industry does not save SolarCity from criticism: the solar power industry will never turn into an effective business model, and there is too much competition in the segment to keep an acceptable price ceiling, skeptics argue.
5b064c2a749d3779b473ab8d7d70e3a817c87df7	However, since the IPO in December 2012, the value of SolarCity shares has jumped from $8 to $38, and at the May peak it reached $52.
e90c0f5eb763076c4ed3924b98e3db5b545e9efd	Musk remains the main shareholder of the company, whose capitalization is approaching $3 billion.
4e165e32a9a960143af14cba52d422a2e8c8fdeb	It is his confidence in the prospects of the project that analysts call the main factor in the phenomenal market success of the company, which is still operating at a loss ($23.9 million). in the second quarter of 2013).
2260ecb2831e7c67363edfb4da8116da718d4d7d	If the founder of SpaceX and Tesla is betting on technology, then it has a really good chance to shoot, — such a phenomenon on Wall Street has already been dubbed the "Mask effect".
f4e821747c88de40d842583121b01efd46f58df3	SpaceX
c4d20049a5f2bb8c79f6d78bb0da34f86e3520d0	Elon Musk thought about creating a rocket company at the turn of the century.
7e6bacba78b5c8790522dea3c9b3272b6ca8b8d5	He was seized with an ambitious idea to create a platform for multiple human trips to other planets.
c8be696d1c9b8de7620ef0edb93b2bce49403cbe	The nearest point should be Mars, the inventor decided.
121c23bc4b77011a4e09377adea516251aa541c9	"I was fascinated by the prospect of colonizing Mars and became the founder of the Mars Oasis project.
47b1c398ccad3ff47524630a89638457ce3203f7	The goal is to create automated greenhouses on this planet, which in the future could become an incubator for a self sustaining ecosystem.
edb15f0992f788604e7366ca409e76853c88b2dd	And everything was fine, if not for the huge price of delivering greenhouses to Mars.
edcfbc20d1555a6bafd6f0080f5ed7d67b23ebc4	I even tried to buy missiles in Russia and held talks with Russian officials, but my friends explained that this deal smacks of such a crime that in the eyes of the special services I risk turning into a second bin Laden.
21c11380d6facf8ae2b337dd6fe0942a8bf7c701	And I thought, wait, why donot I create my own rocket?"
4d1d7f748a7a81640d4eb8fcce785deb788e4cf9	As soon as circumstances allowed (eBay bought PayPal), the businessman founded the Space Exploration Technologies Company, or simply SpaceX, in 2002.
7a25e14d0f5b5469b6e8ad7bc093b3a62457a7c7	He has invested more than $100 million in the project.
ec112a116e64a119c107a154db490ff3c455ab22	The entrepreneur considered the cost of offers on the market — from $15 million for a rocket in Russia to $65 million in the United States — to be significantly overestimated.
9f2ba20f8c117a71285e5f8c756316d0f1891ac3	According to his calculations, it turned out that all the parts needed for the construction of a space carrier cost only 2% of the launch price in the States.
28eb22e91344a40a1fc91982815f3329afd2fd52	This angered Musk.
09cbd1c936bc3860dd5d7fd6f2de1faad33fcd26	He saw the root of the problem in the bureaucratization of the space industry, the low competitiveness of large corporations and their lobbying efforts to prevent new players from entering the market.
ea4bc28afcfb81958125c7301fc9a3c71895ea59	Musk was sure that the costs of creating and launching rockets could be reduced tenfold.
e1a970caada8623d37a189441426a7bfc4958551	But first he needed to reformulate the purpose of space flights.
790aa1012a04787bdb7d707814f80e79b1d6abe2	The main mission of SpaceX, says Musk, is not the delivery of astronauts and cargo into orbit, but the colonization of other planets.
2624f5b1b782b3c26113e0431451e83889c5b6d1	If you want to move a part of humanity from Earth to some satellite of Jupiter, you, damn it, have to figure out a way to do it economically.
3b2b5841e93d88e42e5206eb5eb7168595e03c89	SpaceX begins to design the Falcon 1 rocket.
94ccdfd97ab3d80eb02bc521f21365539eaddb96	The development takes four years and hundreds of millions of dollars of private investment (one of the first Musk's project was supported by his former business partner Peter Thiel, and Musk retained two thirds of SpaceX's shares).
3b0d0701fcf06d04b7ef24a7f8f79362c020a758	As a result, the rocket and three types of liquid engines Merlin, Kestrel and Draco were created "from scratch" without any state intervention.
c44d3c72d7e5ebb7317454b9595da82d50416a11	In 2006, NASA paid attention to SpaceX.
0698614a22ca04bd0f0911a56a5cd5d0505eee15	The agency first signed several contracts with the company for test launches of the Falcon 1.
b5cc3e7d6a859276ccff7e5a1fa59f697986cf04	"My goal is to create not just a rocket, but a reliable rocket and at an affordable price.
f3a4dddf441c13241040a4adbea5c27fde37b8c7	I have been warned many times: if you reduce costs, then reliability also decreases.
2cd47ec10a5e6a96624d445dc12a3b0b7d546cbf	In my opinion, this is fundamentally wrong.
55aa3cb2910cdbe83b06772aff9d815699bd73a5	Here is a sports "Ferrari" - this is a very expensive car, but most likely the" Ferrari " will break down on the first dirt road.
a6317f6ef3e9028be57c1d2dc20c68ffc6c3873f	And, on the contrary, the cheapest Honda can work reliably for several years, and you will be sure that it will not fall off the wheel in the first ditch.
a775d4f0f33c737b9644a5f0984216f15b4867bb	The same is true with rockets.
acf9c3b15101f0e2c0974a7fa11cc8b5f612f98c	The main thing is not to rush."
930e8c83a5f7d0acbdd5e083a253a28e3e10145f	The first three launches in 2006-2008 turned out to be failures (the third one ended with an incident at all — the ashes of the performer of the role of Scotty in the cult Sci Fi series Star Trek by James Duan were "buried" in the ocean depths instead of space).
26a9889cb75d7bb98351665813180b48b423f0eb	On the fourth attempt, the rocket launches successfully — it costs $7 million.
e7a024fabad61c82227803437e1d6befbd6a73de	On the fifth — it sends a Malaysian satellite into orbit.
ff75547a1ba0cddb8c273b51b56e646d99db2a57	Impressed, NASA signs a contract with SpaceX for 12 missions to send cargo to the ISS for $1.6 billion.
9d7a447dd4a111d919fe76b4008d25f4afe3272e	"We use technologies that are simply impossible to imagine in the arsenal of state institutions.
4721f3e6e440fbd732370b822784fddf6fd096b3	For example, our company needed a theodolite, which is used to align the rocket, and instead of buying a new one, I suggested searching on eBay.
37e6435a0d716acb001d7d2b6ccbe2787c19fc0b	We found a wonderful working theodolite, saving about 25 thousand dollars."
6a814c587b620ec6b0a7fad2edd4ca74cd385bf0	The company is updating its flagship product, and the upgraded Falcon 9 first simply puts a SpaceX — Dragon development truck into orbit, and on May 22, 2012, the first in the history of private space sends a ship to the ISS.
47bbde4a72dc3d451de4484b135aabff94c25a36	In October, Dragon successfully delivered half a ton of payload to the station, and in the future it should accommodate crews of seven astronauts.
7619fcf881498331a6de41eacef5cc3684d3dccc	The total package of orders from state and commercial structures for 50 SpaceX rocket launches today is about $4 billion, according to a conservative estimate, the company's value is about $ 2.5 billion.
f0b9130bd5e0264c21bac230c234993f5dfa1418	But Musk is in no hurry with the IPO.
20866674b096feb60946e08c85d8a6049a499dda	For him, all the achievements of SpaceX are just preparation for the realization of the main dream — an expedition to Mars.
57d7ad5d6b4e6e73d71499dcda172f49e8aa8bd2	Until the end of his life, the billionaire wants to become a pioneer colonizer of the Red Planet.
bcd085fe93c4dbcfcd0174e6d9f8753d90e010fa	To do this, the Mars Colonial Transporter (MCP) project is being developed within SpaceX. Musk's engineers are working on innovative rocket engines and spacecraft to deliver people from Earth to Mars (a Grasshoper rocket can be created on the basis of the Falcon, which can land vertically, and the second generation Dragon is technically already able to get to Mars, says Musk).
8831c34b140339eea4f4af27c58a24d95deb75b1	According to the 42 year old businessman, in 10-20 years, fiction can become a reality.
856386d2cd05abb90c977cdc2ecfc8d5b6b7fdae	"I would like to die on Mars.
16012a8b541c53004bb246b8b55aa0f4ecdcc110	Just not crashing on the surface of the planet, " the billionaire jokes.
8b22c991b6e62e51627857ffe2679e6d7b4a073f	Using the example of Elon Musk, you can trace the path of a person who realized childhood dreams, because many people wanted to fly into space as a child, and soon it will be possible to implement it, because business came to kosmon avtik, and many people will benefit from this, because space tourism will soon become a reality, including thanks to Elon Musk.
fc1139713c21beb9776f8599f90d31128a5d62a7	"SpaceX wants to be a company that can contribute to the relocation of people to other planets, because, I think, this is the most ambitious goal that life can face.
f776a2ad533e6cb187be0dca23818c427fb3a2cf	And although we should never forget about more mundane things, it is very useful to have such a kind of Holy Grail, the search for which becomes a long term goal and the main source of inspiration."
7a0d1173d1f7662ff952f0e945d546def5ca2f0f	Musk is a demanding perfectionist and a pedant in the technical field.
0feb9959a1da06f8b0498ecad4b42eee31690660	His education in physics helps to see objective truths and separate them from emotional assessments and speculative forecasts.
558c7b49ee8d38ceaf74a87ed1331b5ba3a216ec	He just thinks big.
63ebc03fbc8aba9576e3cce3ff27df1593d3da78	For example, he is thinking about a means of public transport called "hyper loop".
cb82283f4277e822b6f8b4ab9bab44d504fa2153	This electric supersonic vehicle should take people from Los Angeles to San Francisco (350 miles) in 30 minutes.
1915a91369e36153cf957b2bcabd194f1285e221	Hyperloop
3ee54fb8de2268f20b493ca6dd675938c86a468c	Musk first shared his plans for creating a "Loop" with journalists in September 2012.
239751680c0a52b7d643ca1e500916858d52f992	Then he did not give the technical specifications of the project, limiting himself to the vague term "the fifth mode of transport" (after the railway, aviation, motor transport and shipping).
eb739421fad220f16cbcf9fd0551f5747d1528e9	"It will be something that will never get into disasters, will be at least twice as fast as an airplane, will be powered by solar energy and will go on the road not according to schedule, but exactly at the moment when you need it," the businessman said in an interview with Bloomberg.
7d2444a403967479fe2232bd5b38335f6b3a0e66	With his developments, Musk intended to go directly to the Governor of California, Jerry Brown, and US President Barack Obama.
712b3aacccddeb9a6c318ddab4af30b79fa184b5	Hyperloop, in his opinion, should become an alternative to the plans of the authorities to lay a high speed railway line between San Francisco and Los Angeles at a cost of $70 billion.
fe068ec2dd47dbaf09b1d4136348158baa825198	(and taking into account the costs, the amount can grow to $100 billion, the businessman is sure).
b184422149dcacd877cd9a629e28f61e53f2fade	"They offer California the slowest express train with the highest construction cost per mile of track.
1085c08a12bbed4582dd61847b302abceaa24b8c	These are incorrect records, " the entrepreneur was indignant.
fea4d9125bff63d89cad6b4fcd2a3a611bdc62cf	On August 12, 2013, the Loop got a 57 page presentation of the concept.
408f563ac2c4a1f27dca7d3270d2731a6d179626	As it turned out, we are talking about a closed aboveground highway in the form of a steel pipe (more precisely, two parallel pipes connected at the end points of the route), inside which a sealed aluminum capsule on an aerodynamic cushion moves almost at the speed of sound under low pressure (to reduce air resistance).
34e5a1d6c932a0952ba4130bb28ee2f6733bec9b	The electromagnetic pulse "accelerates" the structure.
12464fde1c37e3f1511cf6940384a0a672c0ff53	The capsule itself passes air through the cavity in the nose and throws it out through the "nozzles" on the gutters of the lower panel, forming an air layer — a similar technology is used in trains on a magnetic cushion.
4289ddbc390b638261081c586bdd2b2595196aae	The "big pipe" will consist of 100 meter segments that will be raised on pylons to a height of 20 meters (supports must be built at a distance of 45-90 meters from each other).
41e6c19e80034b71693566f7eb79a4a8aabe5388	The project's electricity needs will be able to meet 100% of the solar panels located along the entire route.
a84d39dedb640c81a554a83e9f1d31e8dec51e79	Synergy with Musk's other projects came in handy: the engines and electronic "stuffing" of the capsule can be inherited from Tesla Motors, SolarCity engineers understand solar energy best of all, and SpaceX will share with the" Loop " alloys for the production of transport tested in space.
7f3a9288f1c50a407d8144a50962ab9ddb55540c	Up to 28 people can be accommodated inside the transport shuttle (if the project budget is increased from $6 billion). up to $10 billion, the Hyperloop design will allow you to transport three cars in one capsule).
786138ff0fcd0b89899c8528970a31e34998a171	The Loop will cover the distance between San Francisco and Los Angeles in 600 km in 35 minutes
e27d105fec36c2bceb8d31ef1ab89d530e769fe8	Shakyamuni Buddha (SKT. गौतमबुद्धः सिद्धार्थ शाक्यमुनि, vietn. Thích ca Mâu ni; 563 BC-483 BC[1]; literally " The Awakened sage from the Sakya family[2]") - a spiritual teacher, the legendary founder of Buddhism.
d63eb02463be0b3426fa729a89ba2a0ea0f6f7a9	Having received at birth the name Siddhattha Gotama (pali) / Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit) (a descendant of Gotama, successful in achieving goals), he later became known as the Buddha (literally "Awakened") and a Completely perfect Buddha (Sammāsambuddha).
4d61c08492a716fce5050ced00c2127c6a652e4f	He is also called: Tathagata (so come/gone), Bhagavan (Blessed), Sugata (Going for good), Gina (Winner), Lokajyeshtha (Revered by the world).
cdebb636cc54d6099e41e0de332c47e41c896285	He did not claim to be a god or a prophet.
c79ada623d89a1f6fd63b800af0b98bfefdc7b90	He was a human being who became Enlightened by experiencing life in the deepest possible way.
853b94cf42200e031805f5c6298189417d421379	Siddhartha was born into a royal family in a small country on the border of India and Nepal.
5e9ebab9c90566881055acb87739cdb9b999a3b9	According to traditional biographies, he received a privileged upbringing, but gave up a carefree and protected existence when he realized that there are such cruel things in life as aging, illness and death.
5cef60f25178785f4ce9385b6ca0e1355eb4d923	Siddhartha Gautama is a key figure in Buddhism.
d2e88b7ab5fed2989725450acd894d54dc426469	The stories about his life, his sayings, dialogues with his disciples and monastic precepts were summarized by his followers after his death and formed the basis of the Buddhist canon — "Tripitaka".
aec4658cd706274cbc708f83a24d86bd37d7fdad	Also, the Buddha is a character of many dharmic religions, in particular-Bon (late Bon) and Hinduism.
c5f3834cbfc778b0ef98d82121f3bfb7e4c8d805	In the Middle Ages, in the late Indian Puranas (for example, in the Bhagavata Purana), he was included among the avatars of Vishnu instead of Balarama.
0782d61b44c31b018a7d5f47152aa562f71f01e9	The birthday of Shakyamuni Buddha is a national holiday of the Republic of Kalmykia[3].
76def6b3f0729beb9474931b8a5fa471ea038598	The path of the future Buddha Shakyamuni to enlightenment began hundreds and hundreds of lifetimes before his complete exit from the"wheel of alternation of lives and deaths".
d84f5af83cf982e1b155cf4662d885f5273b1769	It began with a meeting of the rich and learned brahmana Sumedhi with the Buddha Deepankara.
5cb0ef54cee88957ce76f80274da15b87edff0cb	Sumedha was struck by the serenity of the Buddha and promised himself to achieve the same state.
4617a067e96fd3cdf753df0f7c8ec5230fc97fb8	Therefore, he was called a "bodhisattva".
c8a7f081eda3cadd01169ce485d0bbca85d9bb2a	After Sumedha's death, the strength of his desire for Enlightenment caused him to be born in different bodies, both human and animal.
53e172fe656ca6acb30345344cc05798de20e284	During these lifetimes, the bodhisattva perfected wisdom and mercy and was born among the gods for the penultimate time, where he could choose a favorable place for his last birth on earth.
599d990957cc233787e2a4f547cab68ff2e0af5b	And he chose the family of the venerable Shakya king so that people would have more confidence in his future sermons[6].
e24a54a09bfdca2d768826624446f41a18c8d6dc	According to the traditional biography[7], the father of the future Buddha was Raja Shuddhodana, the head of the Shakya tribe of a small principality with the capital Kapilavatthu (Kapilavastu).
1fd7a6549b5a7f6987c3db78b8a62fbfed271eab	Gautama is his gotra, an analogue of the modern surname.
e20f7271dc2762499e4b36d4d147cdda4b5c6b23	Although the Buddhist tradition calls him "raja", but, judging by a number of different sources, the rule in the country of the Shakyas was built according to the republican type.
ebe60ab6a7a2b1b6f2f3dc8020b3affc55157b59	Therefore, most likely, he was a member of the ruling assembly of kshatriyas (sabha), consisting of representatives of the military aristocracy[8].
13cab05879168f46c5ffb1326856b4c4264cb363	Siddhartha's mother, Queen Maha Maya, the wife of Shuddhodana, was a princess from the kolya kingdom.
4e5e63a9e1ab403830178db4e52983762de28efe	On the night of Siddhartha's conception, the queen dreamed that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her [9].
fc297fa3df8acb2274d3c21429e39ab12f4f322c	According to a long tradition of shakyas, Mahamaya went to her parents ' house for childbirth.
81be3dcc6c06c77664e7b93466c43aa530b3527e	However, she gave birth on the road, in the Lumbini grove[10] (20 km from the border of modern Nepal and India, 160 km from the capital of Nepal, Kathmandu), under the Ashoka tree[11].
542818b257503dbfe2c920b91babf17f7b391726	Andrew Skilton noted that "The Buddha denied that he was just a man or a god"[12]
88237d9b0c6b04f4e1f68abdd41d0441fe9f3765	In Lumbini itself was the house of the king, in modern sources called the "palace".
a1e93f8d1237d01db5e85d8ec47fc62e5185cb9b	Siddhartha Gautama's birthday, the May full moon, is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries (Vesak), and representatives of the SAARC (Association for Regional Cooperation of South Asia) and Japan have recently built their temples in Lumbini.
c987f4d1442c9713d688a88502f13ee32512f2bc	There is a museum at the birthplace, and excavations of the foundation and fragments of the walls are available for viewing.
153fb69d1eb9fa8345df4077d3265ae1f651a0d9	Most sources[who? they claim that Mahamaya died a few days after giving birth[source not specified 263 days].
4d447611d026ad80bca8259939462bb01ab19b9b	Invited to bless the baby, the hermit seer Asita, who lived in a mountain monastery, found 32 signs of a great man on his body.
d8f999342b02e2a1c2c13ab0b7617dad8a48975d	On their basis, he declared that the baby would become either a great king (chakravartin) or a great saint (Buddha)[13].
57801f90c8c926d61496157a93ac714de3d05f91	Shuddhodana performed the naming ceremony for the child on the fifth day of his birth, naming him Siddhartha, which means "one who has achieved his goal".
304f623324ff963147203dbf17b7a3a1c476f8e1	Eight learned brahmins were invited to predict the future of the child.
6cdec579828dfec4039e7e536c2f6fe4c6c4e6a2	They also confirmed Siddhartha's dual future[13].
d381f9451effdcac3403ca1a2d800a3f5fc6611f	Immediately after his birth, seven brahmins predicted to the ruler that if the young prince stayed at home, he would become a ruler who would unite India, but if he left, he would become a Buddha and remove the veil of ignorance from the eyes of the world.
1b0976440c8c7d5ed525c380c514b4435a143c4e	The eighth brahmin declared that Gautama would undoubtedly become a Buddha, renouncing the world after seeing the four signs-an old man, a sick man, a dead man, a holy man.
ab6f6191cd29f13f5b81666a98b0bd4b173071c2	The ruler, concerned about the loss of the heir, fenced his son from pain and suffering and surrounded him with all possible luxury (Gautama had 3 palaces and 40,000 dancers at his disposal).
42781a2895fa3702b76088440e51ada2d55e6bb3	The turning point in Siddhartha's life occurred when he was 29 years old during four journeys, when he suddenly saw a decrepit old man leaning on a staff; a man suffering from an illness; a corpse; and, finally, a monk in a yellow robe with a shaved head, begging for alms.
375af3b26ffe3190fb5efb4358c003be5f41dca5	Filled with compassion for the first three, Gautama realized that life is subject to old age, illness and death.
fe4fbce532dfa39d548625b6f03123b8efe219cc	The fourth sign showed him the possibility of overcoming these states and encouraged him to leave the old world in order to find a way to get rid of suffering.
4a8d5cd4091993b5a636db812b67589d2c5bd466	In the middle of the night, the prince left his wife and newborn son and began the life of a wandering monk.
5470f65b5f52b871541fd8f16c4aea09dbc202c9	Siddhartha left his palace accompanied by his servant Channa.
19dc4abcb180df647e1518b89aed5aac8a06b515	The legend says that "the sound of his horse's hooves was muffled by the gods"[15] so that his departure would remain a secret.
c8d4bfbcb85b8b3ebb35e6dc24f2e5bf73b5eab9	After leaving the city, the prince changed into simple clothes, changing clothes with the first beggar he met, and dismissed the servant.
473086d375b975c83cd916486b50a4bee85a7dc0	This event is called the "Great Departure".
ea14ea61bcf34bba2e385bacb26f461846626a5d	Siddhartha began his ascetic life in Rajagrihu, where he begged on the street.
6c769dd9b1161a9e0d1e1ab9d4bbd94cdd89bf86	After King Bimbisara found out about his journey, he offered Siddhartha the throne.
1e2fbe1e59b6b027932e493abfffca572e2f5e3a	Siddhartha refused the offer, but promised to visit the kingdom of Magadha immediately after he achieved enlightenment.
9d40b442554e14fe2cf32777a04ee234b633f070	Siddhartha left Rajagaha and began to learn yoga meditation from two hermit brahmins.
c797a962bce6d4991175a09bf9646977e892c704	After he had mastered the teachings of Alara (Arada) Kalama, Kalama himself asked Siddhartha to join him, but Siddhartha left him after a while.
edc9ff6e0ed3cbb7988d58fdbe4706c355179f5e	Then Siddhartha became a disciple of Udaka Ramaputa (Udraki Ramaputra), but after reaching the highest level of meditative concentration, he also left the teacher[16].
2b8dd83c6033c6ccd2767bad38fda383bfdafbca	Then Siddhartha went to southeast India.
791dea0862d06219c4292106e2290143198bef42	There he, along with five companions under the leadership of Kaundinya (Kondanna), tried to achieve enlightenment through severe asceticism and mortification of the flesh.
2ca5fb2c0e8af4a4ec14f3adc8d527f78ce224a4	After 6 years, on the verge of death, he discovered that severe ascetic methods do not lead to greater understanding, but simply cloud the mind and exhaust the body.
a23307a5a0a062819fcb206e0afeeddf5af8544c	After that, Siddhartha began to reconsider his path.
df1e07f4c19b99923b92f3d72ff227672a70d689	He remembered a moment from his childhood when, during the festival of the beginning of plowing, he experienced a trance immersion.
2a4a7834cbdd1e70203a4446a24e25fbf9d9e02b	This threw him into a state of concentration that seemed to him blissful and refreshing, a state of dhyana.
c481f8cc5b4c372315a5e7a652ed9be36ea7829e	His four companions, believing that Gautama had given up further search, left him.
ec80defbfc98075754a2c82b4aa7fbe044eb203e	So he wandered on alone, until he reached a grove near Gaia.
473008e8d3bcc192cf57fdb3be2eb42fcdedbd73	Here he accepted some milk and rice from a village woman named Sujatu, who mistook him for a tree spirit, such was his haggard appearance.
77f65a4c28afb1e8018b0d8fb416cbdf5ad746cd	After that, Siddhartha sat down under a ficus tree, which is now called the Bodhi tree, and swore that he would not get up until he found the Truth.
9d1f9d8c78ef769f9c40b56015ee5b2ee5055e7d	Not wanting to let Siddhartha out of his power, the demon Mara tried to break his concentration, but Gautama remained unshaken — and Mara retreated.
d5a4cd566f2d40d25f6c588be3c8d013b84a9f50	After 49 days of meditation on the full moon of the month of vaishakha [17], on the same night when he was born, at the age of 35, Gautama achieved Awakening and a complete understanding of the nature and cause of human suffering-ignorance-as well as the steps that are necessary to eliminate this cause.
2e4fd2a1604d26faf59f07fb34b973b2e35ba8ae	This knowledge was later called the "Four Noble Truths", and the state of the Highest Awakening, which is available to any being, is called nibbana (pali) or nirvana (Sanskrit).
56dbef7e130f2f5b873a0d2ace8a3b234c633d4d	After that, Gautama was called the Buddha or "The Awakened One".
4b3febed36c3169ef4f502f4aa1eeb388b987878	The Buddha was still in a state of samadhi for several days, deciding whether to teach the Dharma to other people.
0d81c30f59ff2bd6453fc00efd0b4633e9f38e73	He was not sure that people filled with greed, hatred and deception would be able to see the true Dharma, the ideas of which were very deep, subtle and difficult to understand.
9030cbe73b0c550e1e807c0d72530ffa342b3d95	However, Brahma Sahampati stood up for people and asked the Buddha to bring the Dharma to the world, as "there will always be those who will understand the Dharma."
ca378ac7118fea7775f9cfe33321af6f53123aa6	In the end, with his great compassion for all beings on earth, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher.
aee56454b5f897d4455504e4504a686b4cc7be6a	The first disciples of the Buddha were two merchants whom he met — Tapussa and Bhallika.
ef461597b711ac86a669ed8e58ef13e680eedada	The Buddha gave them a pair of hair from his head, which, according to legend, are kept in the Shwedagon pagoda.
b126951b5aa4f51eef921f28375308383d1a8aac	After that, the Buddha went to Varanasi, intending to tell his former teachers, Kalama and Ramaputta, what he had achieved.
5856033b3dbe15ff237306a9be8518fe8f124ac3	But the gods told him that they were already dead.
7fd9e282bd7c7ec10c98ee85d505b5b3751138eb	Then the Buddha went to the Deer Grove (Sarnath), where he preached his first sermon "The first turn of the wheel of Dharma" to his former comrades in asceticism.
46f3891eedbbf45d76c346e9fdaa3e79eaf7f9e3	In this sermon, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path were described.
3a3a4ee82d107a2f9377d888ddd27ff969b62ba9	Thus, the Buddha activated the Wheel of Dharma.
73e894cd35896e3bd5ee76592cacbfe21d2501c1	His first listeners became the first members of the Buddhist sangha, which completed the formation of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha).
0d2fcf93f71fd98ef451d8884bf9cceeac5ec70b	All five soon became arhats.
1947b4bd82bb8a7a5bf51707cd82d2b8511e35af	Later, Yasa joined the sangha with his 54 companions and three Kassapa brothers with their disciples (1000 people), who then carried the Dharma to people.
e1924215dc593dfa4be0ac3877236fb5e4626b0d	For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha traveled through the Ganges River Valley in central India in the company of his disciples, teaching his Teachings to a wide variety of people, regardless of their religious and philosophical views and caste — from warriors to cleaners, murderers (Angulimala[18]) and cannibals (Alavaka).
3f3d665f8fb8551ad1ea8a862eb69c32194828cd	At the same time, he performed many supernatural acts.
e5eebf40a875e88d21ac1dd69a298e0710ed66eb	The Sangha, led by the Buddha, traveled annually for eight months.
2d26b96b922f4b6f04038f9b502dc3c60193f82c	During the other four months of the rainy season, it was quite difficult to walk, so the monks spent them in some monastery, park or forest.
52fe19d08e3f801af592bb40772f111566fc5444	People from nearby villages themselves came to them to listen to instructions.
96cf9bd74bc1e84bed8190ef360eda65d4104845	King Bimbisara, who became a supporter of Buddhism after meeting the Buddha, gave the sangha a monastery near his capital Rajagriha.
a9ebdcf4193940d159c43b71b6f97087b6c543b6	And a rich merchant Anathapindada gave a grove near the city of Shravasti.
75d2c31d86dd6d67a2bc7e4e134b203834473e43	The first Vassana was held in Varanasi when the Sangha was first formed.
48bfe52d423385087de55d45fcaa65d48922d705	After that, they went to Rajagaha (Rajagriha), the capital of Magadha, in order to pay a visit to King Bimbisara, whom the Buddha promised to visit after his Enlightenment.
ff4717335a512bb6424b8c3f1d6fedfce6d87de8	It was during this visit that Sariputta (Shariputra) and Mahamoggallana (Mahamaudgalyayana) were initiated — they were to become two of the most important disciples of the Buddha.
85b235af87903519ed0f31d805e85112aea768fc	The Buddha spent the next three vassans at the Veluvana Monastery in the Bamboo Grove, in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha.
f3b680de1de710d6c1da4a51591de3b132693b3f	This monastery was maintained at the expense of Bimbisara, although it was quite remote from the city center.
49ea1cc08930682ec748ff29f6c66205e32c69dd	After learning about Enlightenment, Shuddhodana sent a royal delegation to the Buddha to return to Kapilavasta.
6a9f86917e11c22c1cc8fba26d61053ff557a520	In total, nine delegations were sent to the Buddha, but all the delegates joined the Sangha and became arhats.
f280e3674ae45e4c20ec35a0c1173e6fc87d6347	The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi (Kalodayin), a childhood friend, was accepted by the Buddha, and he agreed to go to Kapilavasta.
f66c627fd35a64b2cfcc0149b97de34d29bd808d	Since it was still early for vassana, the Buddha set out on a two-month journey to Kapilavasta on foot, preaching the Dharma on his way.
7a53dc4742c11d0bbfdcf9bc6c04c5bcb90a80cd	In the fifth vassana, the Buddha lived in Mahavana near Vesali (Vaishali).
f70506bc30e1a9dac70a007b577966ca96d686a1	After learning about the impending death of his father, the Buddha went to Shuddhodana and preached the Dharma to him.
dcb667f9f0347850e5e83a0f39023abdb022ab1e	Shuddhodana became an arhat right before his death.
328f19d594087d44b6eaa6e7f575849fe37826df	After his father's death, his foster mother Maha Pajapati asked for permission to join the Sangha, but the Buddha refused and decided to return to Rajagaha.
1b32461ab6060c3132c61053235fb1195235523e	Maha Pajapati did not accept the refusal and led a group of noble women of the Shakya and Kolya families, who followed the Sangha.
67bcab5084df7a7232654eb152195a49376e92cc	As a result, the Buddha accepted them into the Sangha on the grounds that their ability to enlightenment was on a par with men, but gave them additional rules of Vinaya to observe.
256753aa0b702891746ab7aa988067e22e9cc81c	The Buddha has also been the target of assassination attempts by opposition religious groups, including repeated assassination attempts.
1f1824f13e951027c08a7a70d9401ed89445c15e	According to the Pali Mahaparinibbana sutta, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final stage of immortality, by freeing his earthly body.
ad59a7d50a2d1bc15458825d646353c3c2519a89	After that, the Buddha ate the last meal that he received from the blacksmith Kunda[19].
d1077171bcda8fa87eac0d608d7cff64d9a8fd76	The exact composition of the Buddha's last meal is unknown; the Theravada tradition suggests that it was pork, while the Mahayana tradition says that it was truffles or some other mushrooms.
697b2e410378ce0127d4d348ffd7df7d59ed7354	The Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra states that the Buddha did not get sick and did not grow old, he deliberately took this form in order to show those who were born in samsara the pain that offensive words cause, thereby encouraging their desire for Nirvana.
30b3c3935c300a66e2a448bb887c9ace273662f4	According to one legend, before his death, the Buddha asked the disciples to find out if they still had any doubts or questions.
a813d9da595ea173394cd5d80e6dc389620869f3	Then he entered the Parinirvana; his last words were :" All composite things are short-lived.
3bf98c7021ea8488cce47af8c6e00009447b5bb7	Strive for your own liberation with special zeal."
ce23ae9d9630621a27dab35e6f39386f0cf33bd0	Gautama Buddha was cremated in accordance with the rite for the Universal Ruler (chakravartina).
2be81b2d2c8234ce5913615c40d92be4309e1eb8	His remains (relics) were divided into eight parts and lie at the base of specially erected stupas.
4ae586e8a4693f26d086679373b89922f3ff59f4	Some of the monuments are believed to have survived to our time.
16a07c6162b0f7c571ec9e235ef8a32c84c00a9f	For example, Dalada Maligawa in Sri Lanka is the place where the Buddha's tooth is kept.
409e5dc5c3a0900d60b78c41eaeef4af5ab46777	The Buddha also instructed his disciples not to follow the leader, but to follow the teaching, the Dharma.
18af9eae65594a3a0ebb7f8dac9116b96ce0182a	However, in the First Buddhist Council, Mahakashyapa was proclaimed the head of the Sangha along with the two main disciples of the Buddha — Mahamoggallana and Sariputta, who died shortly before the Buddha.
06efebea76306160e4453eef5d8e66041916d244	"There has never been such a great religious reform that was not pure at the beginning.
bab770ae8efe1b3457e3dd888525f6d8a28e9de0	The first followers of the Buddha, as well as the disciples of Jesus, were all people of the highest morality" (Raz. Isis. vol. 2, p. 282).
9b877b5425780dfc0d06d6d86ecdb51454f15083	"I do not hesitate to say," says Bartolomeo Saint Hilaire in his turn, " that with the sole exception of Christ, there is no figure among the founders of religions that is either purer or more touching than the figure of Buddha.
9ffb15a418cb4608fb606e090615ad6f2087a657	His life is perfect. His constant heroism is equal to his conviction…
8edfa47866df85c84175a2d58445dd6812ac70c3	He himself is a perfect example of all the virtues that he preaches; his self-denial, his mercy, his unchanging complacency do not change him for a moment... and when he dies in the arms of his disciples, he dies with the serenity of a sage who has applied virtue throughout his life" (Raz. Isis. vol. 2, p. 291).
beb6805ff5ebb4a6a91cce0694da0561a6bc2090	Due to the diversity of traditions in Hinduism, there is no generally accepted point of view on the attitude of the Buddha to the Vedic tradition.
57ec5282d79793e146dddd6b1c33bc49fcdc7d7a	The influential Vaishnava poet Jayadeva (XII century) in the famous lyrical poem Gitagovinda included the Buddha among the ten main avatars of Vishnu and wrote a prayer addressed to him:
6a410dedafc5235e5c97eea387d8c1d210c744aa	Oh! You condemn the Sruti custom of sacrifice, looking with compassion in your heart at the slaughter of cattle.
03b95defe7b89faed83c669e5a912c53b0df7d46	Keshava, endowed with the body of the Buddha, conquer, lord of the world, Hari![3]
7ca60f0260f7423e5e6621ea7797dc692b7972d9	This view of the Buddha as an avatar who spread the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa) is generally accepted in a number of modern Vaishnava organizations, including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[specify]
5b5989929a714f0d1e5590884b62f9b1b55777cd	In Vishnuism, it is believed that the avatar of Vishnu in the form of a Buddha, from all parts of the body, dominates over the head.
cdad161ee82d642283d83bce9c6f38c4256d69f0	The Buddha represents the spiritual development of a person.[4]
32bec2dc112fc9aa38873ef296bf8bbf86426adf	Modern popularizers of Hinduism Vivekananda[5] and Radhakrishnan [6] consider the Buddha to be the teacher of the universal truth underlying all religions of the world.
0bd5e07ee56d6ed3e48149ec8ce5d8f330362cf0	V. I. Zhukovsky and N. P. Koptseva note: "The wise Vishnu took the guise of a 'heretic' The Buddhas are specially designed to identify vicious, unstable people in the faith, to create doubts in them about the sanctity of the Vedas and the need to perform sacred rites, and then destroy them.
ff6cc4c918a73157f2325943cd386c4f781efbb0	With the help of such an interpretation, Vishnuism managed to include an alien and initially hostile belief in its cult. " [1]
a1fca64bf45d3fe147337204eeb0b4e578064d49	The Buddha is mentioned in the most important writings of Hinduism, including almost all the Puranas.
df66c6a271f230ae8ea73ef4cf5df8a9b805da57	In some cases, these references do not refer to Gautama Buddha, but to other people, but still most often the word "Buddha" in Hindu scriptures refers to the founder of Buddhism.
c794067ce16ddb1e15061f43115888766e9d5aac	They attribute two roles to him: preaching false views in order to mislead demonic personalities and criticizing the blood sacrifices prescribed by the Vedas.
638c29e601febd01057e52996b8a63f074a054f6	Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
8b8a234a69881c39bbdc68621797cc06759d7a48	The Buddha preaching in the Deer Park.
7e5679abc1628937ea92faf3b27ebf37ad5e6ebb	The Buddha in Hinduism is considered the ninth avatar of Vishnu.[1] In the Bhagavata Purana, he, being the twenty fourth of the twenty five avatars of Vishnu, acts as the forerunner of the coming last incarnation.
961356aa052bb2ed5752a6a58f87a77f0e8fb432	Some Hindu scriptures refer to the Buddha as the last realized avatar, the ninth of the main ten avatars, which are known as Dashavatara ("ten incarnations of God").
1d2b97c3813d66af55da5c2b3b18b514009900a9	The Buddhist Dasharatha Jataka (Jataka Atthakatha 461) represents Rama as a previous incarnation of the Buddha in the form of a bodhisattva and a wise king.
ba89fa0f7ffc332e018b504480ca654daebf04be	The teaching of the Buddha rejects the authority of the Vedas, as a result, from the point of view of Orthodox Hinduism, Buddhism belongs to unorthodox (Nastika) currents.[2].
024f1ef9c361b2ba7b5d0025c549ef223bd7c43e	1 Hindu views on the Buddha 2 The Buddha in the Hindu Scriptures 3 The influence of Buddhism in Modern India 4 The image in art 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Literature 8 References
403624d5e7b02bf6cfd8b435599a49ef2621f9ad	Hindu views on the Buddha[edit / edit wiki text]
8baba965dd1361c155ffc24a88cf5adcceaaa392	Hinduism considers the Buddha (in the center at the bottom with many hands) one of the 10 avatars of Vishnu
00e1a3d634be077c06e5ac16525958a99361c79e	The influential Vaishnava poet Jayadeva (XII century) in the famous lyrical poem Gitagovinda included the Buddha among the ten main avatars of Vishnu and wrote a prayer addressed to him: Oh!
f4bc069d7b7243550d1aefc4cb0aefb40407a4e0	You condemn the Sruti custom of sacrifice, looking with compassion in your heart at the slaughter of cattle.
ace13ed4940cb63e5e942d739cbb03d4ccb40fdf	Keshava, endowed with the body of the Buddha, conquer, lord of the world, Hari![3] This view of the Buddha as an avatar who spread the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa) is generally accepted in a number of modern Vaishnava organizations, including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[specify] In Vishnuism, it is believed that the avatar of Vishnu in the form of a Buddha, from all parts of the body, dominates over the head.
5052c46fc725bb031ac520b3cb23a902ca322aae	The Buddha represents the spiritual development of a person.[4] Modern popularizers of Hinduism Vivekananda[5] and Radhakrishnan [6] consider the Buddha to be the teacher of the universal truth underlying all religions of the world.
a4417ff14797700b1ceb74f7bb10e2ffdd42e9eb	In addition, they point to the Buddha as an outstanding reformer of Hinduism:
1f9401ebf2f61be152066a1bf0c669dc80614f06	Vivekananda: As you already know, I am not a Buddhist.
412d46c40ea856b15d4469230543ceabd72ab5d9	If China, Japan, Ceylon follow the Teachings of the Great Teacher, then India worships Him as the incarnation of God on earth.
ea23b69c3433ad19a64f700a0e09386e849aba61	I am really critical of Buddhism, but I would not like you to focus only on this.
443682dad5c05cccf9aeddf1b5d0acfdf45b86d3	In general, I am far from criticizing the One whom I worship as an incarnation of God.
c0b37eb0881021f7cfbe402d6d3d47e3892fe620	But we think that the Buddha was not deeply understood by his disciples.
490c0b8576019060c543d1f2c9a6cd9e0d4fe90d	The relationship between Hinduism (by Hinduism I mean the religion of the Vedas) and what we call Buddhism today is closer than the relationship between Judaism and Christianity.
5d2cb2e21518295868ca920b707a64eb24753de6	Jesus Christ was a Jew, and Shakya Muni was a Hindu.
ebd70c59569c7424ab79c09f3a69ae9a98cb3000	The Jews rejected Jesus Christ, moreover, crucified Him, and the Hindus accepted Shakya Muni as God and worship Him as God.
e3411b49afd7b5ed6a763aeaeff6a51d96f4a9d9	But we, the Hindus, would like to show that the Teaching of the Lord Buddha, unlike modern Buddhism, is that Shakya Muni did not preach anything fundamentally new.
002f7e97b6e5440f1ca719a0edbb46d44aef0db6	Like Christ, He came to complete, but not to destroy.
c05c6cc0826903ffdfb173f268f727d22f3ef395	But if the Jews, this ancient people, did not understand Christ, then the followers of the Buddha failed to realize the main thing in His Teaching.
cd041678f324128c2213bf9dc3499696d9a80202	Just as the Jew did not understand that Jesus Christ is the completion of the Old Testament, so the Buddhist did not understand the last step taken by the Buddha in the development of Hinduism.
562afc2abd8586da614fd68c62ea4941fc8048f3	And again I repeat — Shakya Muni did not come to destroy, but to complete — this was the logical conclusion, the logical development of the Hindu religion…
0eb40f454497351c1f5b9548a4f11a06ebcfcc9b	Hinduism cannot live without Buddhism, nor can Buddhism live without Hinduism.
f36bad6646cd9bf5471bdf663bdbf8574ce4bb2d	We need to understand what this division has shown us.
1547d7e98475f053e04755026e8a83b21ded7adc	Buddhism cannot survive without the wisdom and philosophy of Brahmanism, just as a brahmin cannot survive without the Great Heart of a Buddha.
c0ca113f2f09be976e1f0a53a6fd5bb3376ea129	This division between Buddhists and Brahmins is the reason for the decline of India.
32f59da5fd1c5b11e7d949125ae96bf29bb9c6c8	That is why India is flooded with three hundred million beggars, and that is why India has been enslaved by the conquerors for the last thousand years.
3a6758fd101124284e8cf6f9fea58a7a4de39131	Let us combine the wonderful intellect of the Brahmins with the heart, noble soul and amazing philanthropic power of the Great Teacher.[7] [specify]
c368b9e3175c96a485b636170597bf446d5a4f37	Radhakrishnan: The Buddha's mission was to assimilate the idealism of the Upanishads in its best form and adapt it to meet the daily needs of humanity.
cac9796532b23dd99817d903425b48b2ee52d0b9	Historically, Buddhism meant spreading the teachings of the Upanishads among the peoples.
320157159e68b0a7869d088de145eef659f0f2c2	And what he achieved in this is still alive today.
06580a9e8d812a92fe8db80676e05f55e1ec4bfe	Such democratic upsurges are a characteristic feature of Hindu history.
23ca8a1fae8c4543100f54fdc4a9f5a6d5582b19	When the treasures of the great sages were the private property of a few, Ramanuja, the great Vishnu teacher, read mystical texts even in front of pariahs.
3050f8c5c4a05784e3e8c6911cf4f7aa2b0b75cc	Buddhism, we could say, is the return of Brahmanism to its own basic principles.
1556c00bdc59f4e76a9386a11c314f94054c6838	The Buddha was not so much a revolutionary who came to success on the crest of a wave of reaction against the teachings of the Upanishads, as a reformer who sought to transform the dominant theory of the Upanishads by bringing to the fore its forgotten truths.[8]
9006455334d436d4c47011012d708c82f909fd46	With the help of such an interpretation, Vishnuism managed to include an alien and initially hostile belief in its cult.
4c42c65d65d857095551e84171c1f43750953bef	" [1]
2271e8247b2cae10909a11c3d02b8e9c86edfec2	The Buddha in the Hindu scriptures[edit / edit wiki text]
4bd58597d8836bd8de8b9c982180c73e41d4b10b	10][specify] Partial list of Puranas mentioning the Buddha:
f01c34dbf4d20b1ddfee0de170f9792fc45e326f	Harivamsha (1.41)
03691f05f9bd5c938d0fd89d02b9ccc020299f83	Vishnu Purana (3.18) Bhagavata Purana (1.3.24, 2.7.37, 11.4.23) Garuda Purana (1.1, 2.30.37, 3.15.26)[11][clarify] Agni Purana (16) Narada Purana (2.72) Linga Purana (2.71) Padma Purana (3.252) , etc. [12]
3861556120a59b6bd1bf25a785008ecdea4baea7	The influence of Buddhism in Modern India[edit / edit wiki text]
0c4ad1871091c783d77def5605a045a555c74593	Many political and spiritual leaders in modern India, including Mahatma Gandhi, were inspired by the life and teachings of the Buddha, as well as the reforms initiated by the Buddha.[13]
e2a4b95cc999cda843390ec1404ab3ee82d1b92a	Buddhism finds support in the modern Hindutva movement, which is manifested, for example, in honoring the Dalai Lama XIV during various Hindu events, such as the Second World Hindu Conference held by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad organization in Allahabad in 1979.[14]
4928c89274fa9350facbfcfd0c3b49e0adb067e3	However, some Indian politicians fighting for the rights of Dalits use Buddhism as a tool to fight against Hindu customs.
35d1405a119c356f27ef4c599b92d467c6c9dcaf	B. R. Ambedkar, who revived Buddhism in India, refused to recognize the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu.
9deb8600ccd5e831983cd587f17dee52bbdd5c82	Among the 22 vows that he left to neo Buddhists, the 5th vow reads: "I do not believe and will not believe that Lord Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu.
eef793dadab4a5f551af903ace7e93f868a25d7b	I think this is sheer madness and false propaganda."[15]
2bf47e1e66a641aa49193716c90aa8b0b3535360	Image in art[edit / edit wiki text]
d393192b050988529cdb55ee8210de071418480d	Statues of Vishnu Buddha, as a rule, represent him sitting in the padma asana pose on a lotus, which symbolizes creation and knowledge of "the laws of the deep essence of Being".[4]
051b4a519f75b614a36cd64815d18b41c54aedd4	God in Buddhism Yoga Brahman Moksha Vishnu Buddhism in India
ca8a894f3fc94ff710b09eb08b92f7b13e24ca2f	Перейти Go to: 1 2 Zhukovsky, Koptseva, 2005, p. 164 ↑ "in Sanskrit philosophical literature, 'astika' means 'one who believes in the authority of the Vedas' or 'one who believes in life after death'.
70a226c32924713f68395be61e31df8c99e5f2d3	('nāstika' means the opposite of these).
e7a8ca72b01d5775c1a97a09263dcf40413d6772	The word is used here in the first sense.» Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta.
14da34e2e504761f6b108920a415fc3652a9ca4d	An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.
f1340b4c40977ccc945976b997c3cb2f59b4e68b	Eighth Reprint Edition.
c943676b715346e3eb29b2c42e2f0930a25b0721	(University of Calcutta: 1984). p.
4293e30d1c53f5678fb3cebf5f07307065e7e95b	5, footnote 1. ая Jayadeva.
baba8839656c797401f039f73e83226e26d84691	"Gitagovinda".
d27c709bc82e8856d6441c145b517483d87c18fb	TRANS. with SKT.
10b817dfa2e9a064ee32b4cecc77bac86e5ea8f0	A. J. Sarcina.
2c4dca2f6d289d6325578e0d401af16c8719671e	— M., 1995 ↑ go to page: 1 2 Zhukovskiy, Koptseva, 2005, p. 292 ^ a b Hinduism, in The World's Parliament of Religions, J. H. Barrows (Ed.), Vol. II. — Chicago, 1893.
99efd6112e02586fab16abb4d3df3d3ac2af08ab	— P. 978.
a35310a12a35303dbf6859b188a1a5d959747854	↑ Eastern Religions and Western Thought, New York, 1969, pp.
e5fd939fd79317c5529935db3a35dfda070362df	326-7. ив Vivekananda.
a419188da9254256e46c6d5320a2f305148247f7	Buddhism as the completion of Hinduism.
ca053b7009f7dbf829c350ebb7a80c6a34f713d9	Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
517ca36caab107a389086815e33c672eea5c1f3d	Indian philosophy.
abbb431f3f13cd06c3eb3b05f70a6caeb634de5b	Volume I.-M., 1956.
27025dcdc5d128d5cda22e6fc1a2571b4e803f56	↑ Buddha as depicted in the Purāṇas // Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume 7.
d088e6c8607b26acdc6c85f49ce5c1108f842626	— Anmol Publications PVT.
c929140635e21f5772f9c5c9431d80ef372bf64a	LTD., 1997.
477e582fbcc5459f157abf555ae589855e84259a	— P. 260–275.
08b1bbd0a9bec4c3fda2eab3af96b0fb4d80e4c3	— ISBN 9788174881687.
bfc7c9aa2195cc094e55a11cac81dbe0556bc8b6	↑ Singh, page 264.
929409c1f548eb8e1cec039baee1993b12832816	↑ Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1982.
9f2ecaf211f9468616679ce2cf3bb019f67ca96e	↑ Dhere Ramchandra Chintaman, Shri Vitthal: ek maha samanvaya, Shri Vidya Prakashan, Pune, 1984 (Marathi) ↑ Mahatma Gandhi and Buddhism ↑ McKean, Lise: Divine Enterprise.
39bb93725ab4f058486c13c7b4a475ee16990555	Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement.
0cb2c1c01c1c0c9bfa571bdc6407e2c3542c3e94	Chicago University Press, 1996.
42a1cdde8a7606b2e5bd3b71589d27d364d6e3f1	Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu (2001) ↑ Ucko Hans.
ff52168f67a33219c8c1267b46b568eeca00e9c6	The people and the people of God.
ecc5b2a5f81d9f65702d010d4152bc3ea12e1c81	— LIT Verlag Münster, 2002.
94c35641f1e45701788a1fc672949ab7421a16ab	— P. 101.
0398679fb53def3d6b8bd03cd2cfc8eb81b2e2a7	— ISBN 9783825855642.
f3eaaf755b002286394bd498625640ee90be2973	Zhukovsky V. I., Koptseva N. P.
181ccd249fde5b7d4ee9ced05138d2e40a18de79	The Art of the East.
e9a14713c8bc4125cd2acdb8b1bf0bda2c0193da	India: Study guide..
e73a23f1ef983052b6449975fba7973bed79b6bf	- Krasnoyarsk: Krasnoyar. gos. unt, 2005 — - 402 p.
15c9901b818f63ca0a387e5afba644ea35e7c92d	— ISBN 5-7638-0575-5.
182424854dc13c56caf372867fa920cf0cd4a86c	Buddha: The Refiner of Hinduism?
d8b5e4ec0364e2aeec4c9e8f72e26e0008fc7968	(hinduism.about.com) The Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu (article by A. Seshan from The Times of India) Mahatma Gandhi and Buddhism (pdf file) Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism Fostering Friendly Relations
99200d69acbedbe98e2e78bae842e0c31325b7d8	[hide] Avatars of Vishnu Dashavatars of Matsya · Kurma · Varaha · Narasimha · Vamana · Parashurama · Rama · Krishna · Balarama · Buddha · Kalki Other Avatars of Kumara · Narada · Nara Narayana · Kapila * Dattatreya · Yajna · Rishabha · Prithu · Dhanvantari · Mohini · Vyasa · Prishnigarbha · Hayagriva · Hamsa Category · Avatars on Wikimedia Commons
c6437d876298da9b6e915901f5f61aeef5e4f3af	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gautama Buddha in Hinduism&oldid=74751309"
7b25db8859a90d1b0f13eb8009a68d2734d0dc7f	Categories: hinduism vishnu buddha shakyamuni
befd153585dc4ac41f2538a8c30610332500d1bc	Hidden category: Articles that require clarification of sources
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8dca2724a7cd6e401313ac2e4c90602219bed7af	Last modified on this page: 02: 17, November 26, 2015.
ea6c6a3e368f465eb95ae4545ff5f8354327042e	There is no path in heaven... you need to find an inner path.
6f38f0827786be845cca39152137c47c81d7312a	Truly, everything passes, but the Buddhas always live in eternity.
7a266e6527d0f7a975f46686d3304bf6162658a3	Gautama Buddha, Dhammapada
0a7774eecbaa1749d8217066908c69287cc35802	Gautama Buddha was born in northern India around 563 BC on the day of the May full moon.
199fb2249cdfe0f360d35366f92c36932caf29ae	The boy was named Siddhartha Gautama.
3a9958ea77bd60bf57c21eb898ac020e0f87a667	He was the son of the rulers of the Shakya kingdom.
74e01db53091368d7b8482f56a3b7016511d5d0c	The eighth brahmin declared that Gautama would undoubtedly become a Buddha, renouncing the world after seeing the four signs an old man, a sick man, a dead man, a holy man.
a50df26ce87e40fd137155b76970cb01f0afaa2f	He joined a group of five ascetics and for six years practiced excessive asceticism, which exhausted Gautama so much that he almost died.
cf7a5eb9d74038ba3f19602ea6bbd62b79c5c1ef	Realizing the futility of asceticism, the prince left this way of life in order to find his own path to enlightenment.
3fa310144d765c7bb0cd0030457d45eb3bf69a17	The other five ascetics rejected and left him.
92b2119dd97bcf21ba193bcd8f1ac4176d3c9aee	One day, the daughter of a peasant fed Gautama rice with milk, which gave him strength.
c989e7c09f6c07cee1498ba82e8843a37a4ce9a2	After eating, he sat down under a fig tree and gave a promise not to leave this place until he reached enlightenment.
b9bda36325b61564ef00e798be415d58aa51ede0	This tree became known as the Bo tree (from the word Bodhi, or enlightenment).
b4723d8ac6bf15db71736111128ef1cc2d4d1083	During the meditation, Mara, the embodiment of evil, tempted Gautama in much the same way that Satan tempted Jesus in the desert.
05cae82b99738535a4d6ab426a9f6e22c0b57ed3	At the instigation of Mara, beautiful dancers and the goddess of seduction seduced him, followed by terrible demons who tried to frighten Gautama with burning stones, boiling mud and darkness.
3321b73eb0807cde821b2dea9408230c9f984add	Despite all this, Siddhartha remained motionless.
190392da57dff978dce029d7fa5e2256aa8dac00	Finally, Mara questioned Gautama's right to do what he was doing.
6b716fc3a6190b392571dd20caf9af090f76924e	In response, Gautama used the mudra of touching the earth, he touched the earth and it thundered: "I bear witness!"
01453f88eb102e11c2da7ecd845123d8245bea1f	- after which Mara disappeared.
351d86be85b79ca0aa379a3c62367c1f22e05c4f	Gautama spent the rest of the night in deep meditation, in a state of samadhi, and eventually achieved enlightenment.
3ef2bce71117025dc4596460469c23f5c59f3404	It happened on the May full moon in about 528 BC, when Gautama was 36 years old.
288145df75edfad3f418ce9e614863e6fc4a57e0	In the state of enlightenment, Gautama realized the Four Noble Truths that became the basis of his teaching: The Noble Truth about Suffering (life is suffering);
bd1edd6af832dbf0ede761f86ea71dfa3b8190b0	The noble Truth about the cause of suffering (suffering is caused by wrong desires that bind a person to the cycle of death and new births);
88bce28a70f4a5883d895f09ff807d8a7e7575d7	The noble Truth about the cessation of suffering (wrong desires can be overcome); and
e9b66b6ef39e5c4e812d3bccc099e69f1d5558f1	The noble Truth about the path that leads to the cessation of suffering.
792cd723eb27d97add54660d9d97325876ae3286	This path leading to final liberation is the Eightfold Path.
0f5a523e86288546e4a89f24c1e5c23a56c06d9b	After enlightenment, Gautama went to Benares and preached the first sermon before five of his former companions, in which he revealed what he had learned - the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the Middle Path.
d29eb25dfaf4646b18be050555effe99620af67c	These monks became the first members of his community.
d8e0454549e797968d37badc13dbfa8eedc7ce09	Gautama founded a sangha (community), which soon numbered more than 12,000 adherents.
613321846195debbef8eaf6f180a9f9466b95988	Houston Smith writes in The Religions of Man: "It took almost half a century for the Buddha to walk the dusty roads of India, carrying the ego destroying and life giving elixir of his message, until his hair turned gray, his legs weakened and his body became decrepit.
3620d3bc9f63a58b6a60a956bf6806ec105f3c57	He founded a monastic order, thereby challenging the dead society under the leadership of the brahmins, and received in response indignation, doubts and confusion caused by his words.
0d7e79218b67bb68fe1af2962cf7ee1b96d36f33	"He didnot have a clear daily routine.
459f3e40e5dc1f28a1c021c82d332587e30f86e2	In addition to teaching monks, maintaining discipline, and managing the affairs of the Order, he preached a lot to the people, as well as personally talked with people, gave advice to those who were in difficult situations, encouraged believers and comforted the suffering."
f8a7d3053562eec284e581b07cc957195da3df45	When Gautama was 80 years old, one of his devoted followers, the jeweler Chunda, unknowingly served him food with poisonous mushrooms.
2a4a75dbee1e376719670dbb444b53062b963630	The Buddha was struck by a severe illness.
950ca53854c38f69c84c9f5cbb4849bd6299b8e1	Worried that Chunda might feel guilty for his death, Gautama asked Ananda, his main disciple, to tell Chunda that of all the dishes he had eaten during his life, only two were a special blessing: the first was served to him before enlightenment, and the second - what Chunda served opened the gates to his liberation.
b4bc30980d8b48fc868221b3c7034e12e17ada19	Gautama made the transition on the day of the May full moon in about 483 BC..
2f931a2a2f412be8d9653d3371719c113b431bf3	A partial reflection of the key musical note of Gautama Buddha, which contains the frequencies of his Electronic Presence, is the Symphony No.
826ff735d8fc20be201788394583a4db5ef98b3b	9 by L. Beethoven.
5f564afb3198ca75142bbf31a2b6638d2b627ee9	Skip navigation News Contacts
627d2facc04a78154c4935cb8abade224f7426c7	Skip navigation Buddhayana Buddha Buy books about Buddha Buy the book "The Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddha" Buy the book "Encounters with Enlightenment: stories from the life of the Buddha"
d7e22788f25ed93571fb3aa942ab37638f767924	Buddha Siddhartha Gautama
75dec214ba697063ebce0ed97f5fd1c1138a07e7	The Eightfold Path of the Buddha Introduction The Nature of Being Perfect Vision Perfect Vision Four Sunyats
0fd9b26140500ed23faea375841adee0036a1895	Reason and Feeling in the spiritual life The negative aspect of perfect emotions The positive aspect of perfect emotions is Shraddha, or faith and devotion
889bfdb5cdec09c3ff78a6217a3710c74a9f6c2f	The ideal of human communication is the level of truthfulness, the level of friendliness, the level of usefulness, the level of harmony, harmony and unity
14bc13a42b57223902621dbc5f2fdbb34de0c364	Principles of Morality perfect Action Buddhist Criterion Five Shilas and Five Dharmas
c5b1e11d8373d1a01e19748067016a22fed4af2a	Ideal society Profession, vocation and duration
ac6859784d310037eaf046fc73ff9ffc7055fa77	The conscious evolution of man The elimination of unskilful states of mind The perfect effort and its background
05649fd72481e4a493ed8b8e5f41821d3ab763fe	Levels of consciousness perfect awareness Awareness of things Awareness of oneself Awareness of people Awareness of the highest reality
159b350833a7ca40d22740d9d63a1f11e22dcecf	The highest consciousness is the perfect Samadhi Samadhi
6fb68a128e90e20e2c4b4695723e7571554d18c8	The Noble Eightfold Path as a cumulative process
7f3047e29ff292efef5f30af245eb45ba3ac2076	Who is the Buddha?
d2db259caaeb65149a345813980252621a5a712c	Foreword by the editors of the English edition The Evolution of the Buddha A comprehensive system of thinking The process of evolution The Four Brahma Viharas
036e17680f365f7156e1ff93b899d0b3b3993b05	The Path to Enlightenment Reflection on the Life of the Buddha Four Meetings The Highest Mystery of Being
f1f754cb1e68870f1a940767c923e388d492883a	The early period of the Buddha's life Leaving home Ascetic practices
6510075e23b03ec3a262b694545b6307f6746727	The ideal of a hero in Buddhism, the Buddha is called Mahavira Alone, without a guide, the ideal of a bodhisattva
babe598fc0e917d1822cd1e7ceacb960f7b98db4	From Hero Worship to Buddha worship The Highest Evolution is the Worship of the Chain of Good Nidanas
337f019a256a0eda5461c39bac16fdce90d16f6a	The Word of the Buddha is Dharmachakra pravartana of the Level of the Enlightened Mind Buddhavachana of the Mahayana Tradition
e07195e099afd804578fc34719a53de78adce509	Karma and new birth and Death - what can you do?
74d74b900a4ab409a94671d3bd578d93e156ab67	Five Niyams How does Karma work?
5ddfbe78051b777fac8f486059b36c47dc3fdafb	Classification of the karma of Rebirth - how can I check this?
36dcb18dd677ceedd5c7d6c6726176ff363f8415	” Death " of the Buddha Memory of death Five poisons Twelve Nidana Reflection on the six elements
6a84a9eb5ad98970982bb620c7b539b9ff11ee97	So who is the Buddha?
52b1a4e06be41ab2e29a4b31ddb358c4ae973177	What caste are you from?
5450acc8b3f225bc023b97c80921ebd983d7b395	Enlightenment the crossing of a timeless moment The Buddha passed into another dimension of being
917ec2cd1e8405c240ce2f1bfcd4e62854797554	A Life Full of Kindness About the Author Foreword by Editor Karania Metta Sutta Introduction: The Meaning of Metta Rational Emotion
24826d4b9547f90f5419eb99a44909e0eb214408	Metta's Path is Adept at Learning
4d04823b28d9c4e9c7a30fe6181b5ee366d4c5e4	The Moral foundations of Metta are Contentment Modesty Prudence
8f1a1630fe3dd7334ba7eb4861c6147445ef9184	The development of Metta The practice of Metta Bhavana The performance of metta bhavana
7a5872f95bee0d1bbb496894a074e4c821a2f542	Accumulation of Metta Metta to all Beings How does your Metta Affect Others
20767a42a8675250cd83869ad8e18524edc79e8b	Conclusion: Implementation of Metta Bringing Metta into Penetration
e822e3fb0d44a7fb2b33432a744f66955f84c83d	Meetings with Enlightenment About the author: Saddhaloka Introduction: Meetings with Enlightenment Departure The Wanderer Enlightenment The first disciples The Community grows Fire Worshippers Nanda and nymphs Rahula Princes and barber Anathapindika Quarreling Monks Perfect Brotherhood Plowman Beautiful mango Grove Angulimala Youthful Challenge Little freak Proud Sick feet of Sona Bahia in a bark robe Disputant Mustard Seed Miracles Ananda Sick Monk Yaksha Alavi Sneezing Insult brahmin Royal Visit Ugga Stability of the Order The Last days List of references to Pali sources Glossary: stories from the life of the Buddha
3dd68752f9eff73364c42c53d199426445586752	Scriptures from the Pali Canon Stanzas of blessing Karania metta Sutta Stanzas from the Dhammapada The story of Megia Praises of Pingia about the way to the far shore A sermon about the fruits of homeless life A Noble aspiration
c1b29746288a9e1a8f056b6a746dd0ad0324c9c7	Buddhism Buy books about Buddhism Buy the book "Buddhism: the basics of the path" Buy the book "What is the Sangha?"
60474894cba77ac98846144eb08e5ba1658d44da	Buy the book " What is the Dharma?"
ca5e2ad376c58fe6b961565cc48cc94f2a93006d	What is Buddhism Buddhism: the basics of the path Preface Introduction approach to Buddhism Buddha Four Signs Departure from the world I am the Buddha Symbolika archetypes in the life of the Buddha Symbolika five Buddhas in male and female aspects Five types of wisdom
33d1bacad85aa4dba126dcd7e0e2415eea2962f7	Dharma The Word of the Buddha False vision, correct vision and perfect vision The wheel of life and movement in a spiral vision Six abodes Twelve links How to stop the wheel?
027e4f651c649c367db7f6d61abe423e5656d585	The spiral path
3691842248a119ff20b81bc32438a421d97747e0	Sangha - in the traditional sense, the primary importance of taking refuge is the core of a new society.
e152398c03ebe900df507db64844c7d57779159f	What do the members of the spiritual community do?
faa5d64498e50f46b4a98f5249e12d344fc695c4	Communication Friendship Inexhaustible mutual kindness
0e9ba525c7ad4a4c2afc3beecd17429de2d384ba	Introduction the path of consistent and inconsistent steps Morality the criterion of morality Five instructions The principle of nonviolence The principle of non exploitation Satisfaction Levels of communication Awareness
08ea5507a41ceb802307b19509d4f09c70c9b74f	Meditation - a system of meditation Five main methods of meditation Alienated Awareness and Shared Awareness Four Brahma Viharas Dhyana Symbolism of the five elements of the stupa The practice of visualization of the stupa
300bfdd4f90419b34ed28161a3d84479d0af3b77	Wisdom - the three characteristics of the existence of Bodhichitta As Bodhichitta Enlightenment is born, eternity and time Nirvana as the goal of Enlightenment
570bef4f5d072c0d6eca8c4c29ea8e37990475dc	What is the Dharma?
2cc3286c2c8583dd5a8afdcdae500fffadbbc1ec	About the author Sangharakshita Publisher's Preface Introduction The Nature of the Dharma The Buddha was not a Philosopher The function of the Dharma
8a31fd4bd918edad671cac0a7e2e5481c5b1e126	The Fundamental Truth Is The Decision to Teach The Shower of Dharma The Bridge Over the Abyss of the Consequence of Conditionality
edd487d9bacec4e3c63812e7070762ecb08706bd	The dynamics of Being The Twelve links of Becoming The breaking of the chain
7431c41af6e3b2dbc7e4751d8bbed409161c2a07	The Texture of Reality Suffering Impermanence Three Liberations
d61d11ac9548572e82687aaed7d0b33d7378b17f	Nirvana Psychology of Goal Setting
4af1fa36c45e33f8f80d4ca89627f264f35493ae	The Mystery of Emptiness The Emptiness of the Conditioned is the Great Emptiness
9d1da40297b5dc815e47934fbfaab25fa0efb82e	Gravitational Attraction Movement to Enlightenment: Morality Movement to Enlightenment: Meditation Movement to Enlightenment: Wisdom Breaking the Shackles
2d5de808e91e0c716dc63c159ed2acd687f54da7	The spiral path Faith Delight Bliss Knowledge and the conduct of things as they are Freedom
0fe61b01a067e92e164a893949fd115a193a177e	The Transcendental Eightfold Path The Seven Factors of Enlightenment The Seven Visuddhas
cd587d780fe5f0b91fdc7fefbb9734aa7496df97	The Model of Buddhist life and work is Faith or shraddha Wisdom or Prajna Energy or virya One direction of the mind Mindfulness Cultivation of the Five Spiritual abilities
a34b6eaf2eb0446fad8bc4790fff9cd9360572f7	The three pronged path: morality Five precepts Three refuges Levels of turning to the refuge of refuge and instruction
c5352ba069e96dcfa487efa92efc4d09eeba1c40	The Three pronged Path: meditation Preparation for Meditation Five basic Meditation Methods Reflections on the disintegration of the Nidan Chain The Practice of the Six Elements
291b68069e78d7b73931e560e386c1d60915f9bf	The Three Pronged Path: Wisdom Prajna Perfection of Wisdom
efdd4e6872aea54ac495078950b089ae842be80d	The Cosmic Significance of the Buddha Ideal The Six Perfections Morality or Shila The Energy of Following the Good Balancing the Perfections The Lotus Sutra The Cosmic Significance of the Bodhisattva Ideal
144dae1ebfb17064414db17eacf018ec9d463cf1	What is the Sangha?
a3425d219c78d2df5b9df96dd49c0f6a496d85ed	Group and spiritual community The jewel of the Sangha Traditional Sangha Personality: the essence of the Sangha The History of the spiritual community Group and spiritual community Authority A positive group and a new society The Path of dissatisfaction
8b0382f238c64469f7bdea750946b61a4f5cd78c	The true personality The evolution of the personality The integral personality Going beyond the "I" - Friedrich Nietzsche The Man of art as a true personality
88c6888b1d03742c58ace3d8ba51c5484179d851	Network of personal relationships How to be a Buddhist parent Is a Guru necessary?
ff04162ce8a02186e86db005f6316d73f7879d50	Loyalty The Meaning of Friendship Buddhism and Business Relations Lack of Exploitation Gratitude
75f46a1f53911a0f8ecd072228ebdfc1ea986eb5	Buddhist View on Modern World Problems Buddhism and Western Society
bae8e086d6d0fb52c3b083793989ca5da1c1c0e0	Notes: what is the Sangha?
cb9fa7400c1baa844d7a50e1c51679e15f60991e	Unspeakable Wisdom Publisher's Preface About the Author The Tradition of Perfection of Wisdom The Heart Sutra Commentary on the Heart Sutra
6dfe03c6543a373ba123fd2889d382647acf8c87	Diamond Sutra Introduction A surprisingly ordinary Beginning An Essential Revolution The Nature of Giving How to recognize the Buddha The Raft of Dharma Insight with a capital letter" O " The Sacred land Expanding the mind to its limits A sense of the sublime Perfection of patience A breath of the absurd Adjusted to the framework of the Buddha's reality Insight through illusions
9a652293e8b874bf5cae051b8c18ced63ec507ff	Ratnaguna Samchayagatha Introduction: The Great Mandala Is Intended for the heroic spirit The Voice of the Buddha Wisdom cannot be appropriated Leap of faith The nature of the Bodhisattva Incomprehensible personality Inverted views Facts of existence
f39aa63545340378feb1ce784d5e97e1f7e08b39	Ten Pillars of Buddhism Preface About the author Introduction The connection between Shelters and Instructions Canonical sources of Ten Instructions Ten Instructions and complete transformation Ten Instructions as principles of ethics Ten Instructions as rules of practice Ten Instructions as "Mula Pratimoksha" Ten Instructions and other ethical norms Ten Instructions and lifestyle The Principle of abstinence from killing living beings, or Love The Principle of abstinence from taking what is not given willingly, or Generosity The Principle of abstinence from harming in the sexual sphere, or Calm The Principle of abstinence from lying speeches, or Truthfulness The principle of refraining from rude speech, or Benevolent speech The Principle of refraining from empty speeches, or Meaningfulness The Principle of refraining from slander, or Conciliatory speech The Principle of refraining from greed, or Contentment The Principle of refraining from hatred, or Compassion The Principle of refraining from false views, or Wisdom
0b0342aca6921519f9021e92682b7f32a3601c48	Moral Life About the author Preface Introduction Morality as the Basis of Wisdom Happiness is beneficial for You and the World
e880dc952e2dfaebd456a4364f127a62829be846	Friendship is the fruit of kindness It is impossible to sacrifice yourself to others
e3c50b2a7855c0c3f9881736aca5fabcd8688fc5	Generosity The Practice of Giving A Guide to a Prudent Life for a Businessman
f8b730bddac7965873440595800c430cb0363183	Sexual relations Reflections on the impurity of the body Reflections on beauty
8fc4f79184a884e082b85189378836d3297cb4f7	Skillful speech The consequences of unskilful speech
3647677cd635f843368ddacaf13fcc218ef264e6	Ethics of Views Emptiness as Going Beyond Nihilism and Eternalism Mindfulness and Stupefying Oneself
7de0991883a3c36c058028ed64715ac41e318574	States of mind Many sided pride Ignoble motives Many sided attachment
c5c10052758f36085aea4d029db0a84e4cc1f1fe	Results of actions Developing a new world
065122531a6d21149b999d1f1c8183eafa4e0966	Stanzas of reflection and Inspiration Heart Sutra "The Tibetan Book of the Dead" Four Remembrances of the Precious Human Body
0ac82cf866f0022e843d43822be9aeff0e44c66a	Buddhist rituals and worship ceremonies Initiation Ceremony Threefold Puja Sevenfold Puja Refuge and Instructions of Tiratana Vandana
fe6a2876d62836741f35cb4aee12fb396b6facc0	Articles about Buddhism The Way of the Buddha in the modern world The Unity and history of Buddhism The Reactive and creative mind The Reactive mind The Creative mind The Seven Bodhyang Symbol of the Wheel of Life and the Path Four levels of practice
25d0cd9b3da923f48555cdbb19054a04b8ff5373	Breakthrough into the state of the Buddha What are we breaking through?
4bcb2accd91b535c0d3cf421aaab6a406899ad8c	Via rational Is spiritual thinking Reality, God or Brahma?
32425c67585dd1adcda0dec77686f08bf7b8b2d5	Literature on the Perfection of Wisdom
fec81ff28a76d9ebdcba13db513247384a417c4e	Art and Spiritual Life What is art? Nabokov and the word genius
daa6255cba28e753e30abe9c2cc79bd2daf7c1c9	Meditation Buy books about meditation Buy the book "Meditation: The Buddhist Path of Peace and Insight"
ab2dc224af7fdc8c8622fb7ad76b98feb71afda6	What is Meditation Meditation: the path of Peace and insight The Great transformation of the Mind as a decisive factor to Learn to live
55548d76c9d2f23dac1bae1064da53d4e389b55a	Conscious Breathing the gift of attention Stages of meditation Tips for Practice
c3d49dc43f60a33ba81a20ed6d7c0c3e0c307895	Metta Bhavana Stages of Meditation Metta Bhavana Metta Bhavana: details about the six stages of Meditation and other people
44083ba443ffb7c13a8f10de65100518b0ce209b	Constant Meditation Practice Preparation for meditation Mindfulness are you ready?
bb18cce360daf0674b651d8cf5d26082aeae6a65	Feelings and emotions
680d638944f8af4804ba8eb705d19f47ffbc9c47	How to work in Meditation Proper effort in a state of meditation Some favorable signs
b8bdd2be75055005e13ef1303d9fe656ef4da36a	Higher States of Consciousness Familiarity with the Dhyans The five factors of Dhyana Changing the factors of dhyana
20580f41dfe3c17f47bec64286a7fadf2dbca299	Samatha and Vipassana We always Expect Constancy Dhyana the world of Deities Introduction to Meditation Universal properties of Being Samatha, subject and object
59401fe018f50a107ddf0eb4da07a981f942827a	Conditions for meditation External conditions ethics as the basis of practice Solitary seclusion Internal conditions To Discover oneself
0b92e1273fc7ff2f14352e95412297f47375e93b	Meditation Pose The perfect pose for meditation Exercise
238098621197bbbb71ba9c7307f283f4a8a9b1e5	Working in meditation Learn more about working in meditation "Creative use of antidotes"
ecfa238b9b140c0696bb1b58fab53225b0ec689d	Work at the dhyana level The body - its structure and energy The Mind and subtle hindrances Further progress through the stages of dhyana
23a47c810d5d7cf393089d6357cc742d6d1e34b2	Reflection Levels of comprehension of the true essence of things Conditions for the process of cognition
4641c71d86cb3d74d259629eda0d8e93fd95c261	Types of meditation practices The quality of metta Karuna compassion Mudita joy and upekha equanimity Continuation of contemplation of brahma vihar
e82da6e6a399cdb86f9a71166b1b1a5093065ca6	Vipassana General Reflection on Death The practice of Contemplating the Six Primary Elements Contemplation of Universal Conditionality Nidana the Wheel of Being
e5ba0fb005aa05c7432eae35b667851fafea3b65	Other meditation methods Visualization of the stupa of the six primary elements Meditation on the go
e071ec44c7dae72c03c326aab35a8bf5e990970d	Methods of working with the five obstacles Malevolence Anxiety and anxiety Laziness and apathy Indecision and doubt
38e67901fff5d8bb8affff8103e87d77fc34ff84	Mantras Vajrasattva Mantra Other Mantras
731955ca5dc48fc0e223bc9c63573b2ac2601d07	Symbolism of Color and mantras Indian Tantric Buddhism Tantric Symbolism of Color Buddhist mantras and Mantric Sound Colors and Mantras in Tantric Buddhism
b118a5ff3c8b0eac4d5206275df9738c2abaf67b	Sangharakshita The Life of Sangharakshita The Teacher of Sangharakshita The Truthful Observer The Wisdom Within Words
89c0693fe11c4b47c7f3a077a126a1ab3c5e5270	The poet Sangharakshita Says The six elements A poem about meditation Secret Wings An Invisible Flower The Bodhisattva's Answer A Poem about the Buddha A mask A New Fourth Transformation Life is the king Four Gifts The Song of the Wind Horse
a427b3d131f09c54f319a725c5feb80067cbc6a3	Triratna Buy books about "Triratna" Buy a book The history of "Triratna"
999b70f841e3c0d8262d65221cab841e77f3f0aa	The story of "Triratna – - an inside look About the author: Vajragupta Preface: The question of names Counterculture Buddha's Abode in the East End You got the theory, now try to practice the Dharmic Revolution in India Ambedkar "TBMSG"
7582fb35d7ba16daa6b00ca5aacdaf9270824adf	Applying the Dharma on a robot The story of Windhorse "Working with the Breath"
657fd3eef5d4b44e276fbf0c47d05094841a0265	Difficulties with Angels Many Cultures, One Community San Francisco China
3f66a44633d055cd224ba3d3a2f11829fa81b28f	In the heart of the Sangha The transfer of leadership The meeting with the shadow The ever expanding circle The lessons learned Private stories
f35161a9deae10206f32bc729d3b869e9385e012	The epilogue of the Triratna story
156ad035583174da14b221fafeaf29c080d3947e	Triratna Buddhist Community Return to Basics Principles Structure Become a Friend History Rebirth in India Links Triratna Buddhist Centers Triratna Retreat Centers Media, Education and Interreligious Interaction Enterprises of Proper Life Support Authors ' websites Buddhist centers in Moscow Buddhist Centers in St. Petersburg Buddhism in Russia
2c690a66bde42fd6cf9dc3c8c2f1d62d840bcbd6	The course is Part 1.
9f064c73b70eee92804955a464cc566f036aeae9	Taking Refuge in the Three Jewels Studying the Dharma as a Spiritual Practice How to Become a Buddhist?
c39d26369bed2000b446c3e992da42f931030cbf	The Buddha is the goal of Buddhism The Buddha is the founder and his quest The Buddha is the mythical Buddha The Buddha with whom we can come into contact The Dharma is a Fundamental Analysis of the Numerous dimensions of the Dharma The Sangha as a means of developing the Sangha as a goal
e43565b6bdd8df48a3f80a2002c65ece9c8d2db2	Part 2.
6708f57652fe9b4ce258fb35a7d0238133a18c3a	Exploring Buddhist Practice: Five Instructions Why Do We Need Morality?
39ad57bb02e27ff3bc5a0da5c552c3f2dd284f37	Expression of interconnectedness The principle of generosity From longing to satisfaction The principle of truthfulness Awareness
977e88ef8ae8d8f28be41e7f0e34cb5d5afa9fbb	Exploring Buddhist Practice: Meditation The place of meditation on the path The system of meditation What helps and hinders us in meditation?
20e0afbc2a10e0926a218ac113cc721f366d3388	Meditative States Awareness of Breathing Metta bhavana
e946bd3d74f4e159c506b3cade852de4a200e3e3	Part 4.
382b879dd2f44b57b5a667d0b5051bf33e5b1a51	Exploring Buddhist Practice: Wisdom The Path to Wisdom Conditioning, Karma and Rebirth The Wheel of Life Spiritual Growth and Creative Conditioning Conditioned and Unconditioned How does the Unconditioned affect the Conditioned
1ffd896a3e75f542e7191de35e1cf8b749941838	Part 5.
cebe6d9a764a188a10f2db0a5f12709f64e65873	Buddhism and the Buddhist Community Triratna Overview of Buddhist Traditions Unity of Buddhism Special accents Ritual and Worship The purpose of the ritual Ritual and Worship Some Practices of worship Ritual and Worship Tiratana Vandana Ritual and Worship Seven part Puja
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a214ce345d2bd8f30e957db1bde89fc7ced2d07b	Next course: "What did the Buddha teach?
59dadd5026aa0202e1258c03ee2e9dbee55d7217	What is Dharma?"
83cb60c0c8746e3571d0ceca3079b3ca0fee22a3	Read more … Teaching Buddhism in Moscow
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655f382707a642dc5ddd8292d0a932d1cdff87e6	Meditation and Buddhism in Odessa
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04b9142bba15edef733c8b96ed03950f51cbda88	Open meeting with Saddhaloka: "What did the Buddha teach?"
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d288d16a037035f4612ff0ead1bd1c8cf5b1cad9	"The Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddha"
4427c121e530a4167a0f6e72c5dbcb51f0db9c62	"Buddhism: the basics of the path"
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86e330d0f2073daf196fc5f7145e60543afaeb97	Video how to learn to meditate
98770ab04aac036bee21058040af2f3f82f65023	What is meditation, or Buddhist meditation?
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0a1f118515fa3fa1dd42c2b33b73cf7f91833a1c	Who is Buddha Siddhartha Gautama?
f02d6289e3888bda1f253311d8b57d7d1b6a5e08	Buddhism originates from the Buddha.
a489eed529e6e4fecb4ccaf2773c17eb193057c8	The word "Buddha "is a title that means" one who has awakened "in the sense of"awakened to reality".
5521252adce0376de6ae50229ffe9d0d64f9f383	Buddha was born about two and a half thousand years ago under the name Siddhartha Gautama.
c71817d3ed5df047c52826d4f2f14eeed7e8ff76	This led him to think about the meaning of life.
c9fa6c59247b43b75df3a78b7e9ab6720a613bda	Eventually, he was prompted to leave the palace and follow the traditional Indian path of a wandering hermit, a seeker of Truth.
1da5d98001dac181c67f1410bac44a56fca0d8f7	He diligently studied meditation with many teachers, and then began to lead an ascetic lifestyle.
e2574edd035e0ee9e97d266d9d5e39df4d5e280f	These actions were based on the belief that it is possible to free the spirit by rejecting the flesh.
8eee3834c8d01354fe71d1bf6e0574a1578b3cfd	He became such a strict ascetic that he almost starved to death.
a07384534258cbcfdf0f41394bcf652b94a9e8d0	But he never managed to solve the mystery of life and death.
1117b3409b4e5702b9c2af6132cc1d1f11515e72	It seemed that the true understanding was as far away as before.
cf1778215e31cb2d17a33821813d12793f583102	Therefore, he abandoned this path and looked into his own mind, into his heart.
31ef1721ce7796fc6e4ddf28a059e3bf9608c189	He decided to trust his intuition and learn from direct experience.
d57aeb84b80c600a3720e5dcbefb6280ee778b3b	He sat down under the bodhi tree and vowed to stay in this place until he reached Enlightenment.
2ad42d155d6c6355ab6a0618d843d91793b5dc2d	Forty days later, on the full moon of May, Siddhartha achieved final Liberation.
af5887679f8dcc427013746c034883e5beff744f	Buddhists believe that he has reached a state of existence that transcends everything else in the world.
9ff00bb2d2a403ab7b7492b2b3e378716e14cf8f	While ordinary experience is conditioned by upbringing, psychology, beliefs, and peculiarities of perception, Enlightenment is Unconditional.
f30d1794f9fb413eb8e40fe6ac3de3bed4196db2	The Buddha is free from attachment, anger and ignorance.
aa6ce7fed467d35e4b8c7583292cfca463febef5	His qualities are wisdom, compassion and freedom.
a7fe74195aacaf0d812f8ef8d6ec0779d6d1a946	The enlightened mind penetrates into the essence of the deepest life processes, and therefore into the cause of human suffering – the problem that initially prompted Siddhartha to spiritual search.
28ff363cd0d8193bf1885413636f3454a6ca9360	During the remaining forty five years of his life, the Buddha traveled extensively in northern India, spreading his views.
b793dd637090440316521e11b38315be2e82023c	His teaching is known in the East as the Buddha Dharma, or "The Teaching of the Enlightened One".
befdbd73e89e9a96f728cd59c2c784c8717ed4a2	He appealed to people of all social groups.
916f8b3e466f316917d1bd168c545bc8fd358f3c	Many of his disciples have achieved Enlightenment.
33f433f0c9ef5c5f8667eda6b498b915efd67c30	They, in turn, taught other people, and thus the continuous line of transmission of the teaching continues up to the present day.
3bfab32d1eceb45d6b0b84bf3d9bf13d868b1570	The Buddha was not a god and did not claim his divine origin.
57f39db762bea45a6f33a78f0ac6fafd6badfd53	He was a man who, with the help of great efforts of his heart and mind, surpassed all his limitations.
2fd9092decd986520798f5bd2d3378aee8ad70a3	He confirmed that every being has the potential to attain the Buddha nature.
eab9253e5fbf27e7b3f5422905b3478c59e5f454	Buddhists see him as an ideal human being and a guide who can lead us all to Enlightenment.
47cad2240306fa31ce100548c2d6eb75511acb06	Buddhayana – The Way of the Buddha / ©buddhayana.ru 2009-2015 | http://buddhayana.ru / Meditation and Buddhism in Moscow | talkto@buddhayana.ru
3e60e73a2ecc6f3683d3625b4a145fc1ccb0e4e7	Home | Dictation | Faces of the Lords | Rosaries | Media | Books
b400aacc0ba641b392a9eda4a60c0bb2921fe4f6	Faces of the Lords Order postcards with the Faces of the Lords Lord Moria Lord Nicholas Gautama Buddha Lord Maitreya Lord Shiva Lady Theosophy (E. P. B.) Jesus Confucius Kuthumi Mother Mary Sanat Kumara Saint Germain
658c36af7a7d37e8ca6a16d9c6588f086a343ce4	Gautama Buddha
f07407024c54925357fbe69b7afe3bb11127a870	BUDDHA GOTAMA[1] (621-543 BC)
3c52eac6f3e135b58bc4e474c324ef14333aad0d	A great sage from India.
06958b666f0481fcba74c1e8a04f6cb7935639ef	The founder of Buddhism
4026f74552986ccd8caa9ebf563fbf927e3a9800	Place and time of birth.
eebf961dd4318de325ca86d7bc6a6fe648fe272b	Legends.
683a605cce87672df46f5e142824c9ef742d25be	Place of birth – the north of India, the Himalayan principality of Nepal with its capital Kapilavastu.
ce81e371f11e609022021734eda3d8a9b7c2232c	Time of birth: an urn was found with the ashes of the Buddha and the dates on it: 621-543 BC, according to which the Buddha lived for 78 years.
8d48891daacd9b0318009a78321f8ed1fd06d4f0	Oral traditions say that he lived for 100 years, and 78 taught.
feffb0871d06fdab1ce4cf5ccc151d8362dc8877	Gotama was born in the first days of May, on the full moon.
6968b60ac4c6d6fe7d2fbc9665e4a480faf9d4de	His parents are from the royal family of Shakya: father Shuddhodan and mother Maya.
f69e3449c4f098a19604f55fce22f8c26afdbbd6	The full name of the prince: Gotama (victorious) Shakya muni (Shakya is a generic name, muni is powerful in mercy, solitude and silence) Prince Kapilavastu Siddhartha (who fulfilled his appointment).
62d4ffb33807d0d2ab30be5cd541ef86b6899837	Buddha is not a name.
dd255e929077300e47d39145edb01fc8c1c5b524	It means the state of consciousness of one who has grasped the Truth and mastered the supreme Wisdom.
a5c195d97f7a7c271c5cb39fd5a4529bd6e2c750	"Buddha in the exact translation means illuminated" (Letters of E. Roerich, Vol. 1, p. 447).
4f3aada81dce8bf466fa6b19b916e994292f4388	The name of the Buddha, like other Great Sages, is surrounded by legends.
4fefef240d142cf5118df4dc9dc821a2acc66128	One of the legends tells that the Buddha chose Maya as his mother as the purest of women and entered her body in the form of a wonderful white elephant.
a5811caa0a4ac56922f73bc40cb501725548a9c3	The image of a white elephant in Indian legends is a symbol of the birth of the divine Avatar of Vishnu (Avatar is a Divine Incarnation).
204003e80036d7b3b4a25e9263541b362ca2c2c3	Another legend tells that the great Rishi Atisha, a hermit who lived in the Himalayas, came to greet the newborn Bodhisattva (the Son of the Heavenly Buddha).
3277cfd15f95e6d06a08cbc3be4be1ae40ef7939	According to the customs of that time, on the fifth day after the birth of the Bodhisattva, 108 brahmin sages gathered in the king's palace to give the prince a name and predict his fate.
c3c8439d500c404e67e258a13d39d831d314a84d	The most learned of them predicted that the prince would retire from the world after seeing four signs – an old man, a sick man, a dead man and a hermit that he would eventually become a Buddha.
10506a99716df8d1b52e28b4070222618c9ac4df	Prince Siddhartha was raised as the heir to the throne.
2a10b8dab7dc89f8f2a9aad8ae7b5fd835484d1f	He enjoyed all the joys that beauty, health, power, wealth give.
4341d3b132935f04e7f4f30c0b4b38bba61f48f1	When he reached the age of his husband, he married a beautiful girl.
cb9db54356ba1538d79b8cb5e5f8598a48d921e2	He was protected in every possible way from troubles and suffering.
941bf10a6b5426eef97dfcf18d5fa90a99fef0bc	Four predicted meetings introduced him to human suffering and forced him to change his fate.
9a926f954ce13ecc683c25cb6f56e9287c3bee0d	Feeling an irresistible desire to discover the cause of human suffering, he decided to leave the palace, his parents, his beloved wife, and his newborn son.
ab84e095f32ff9a498b235dd9b83ae4481226b57	The main milestones of life.
ed94ba33ac9c30c4e20974580eea74cc5d6b0590	At the age of 24 (according to other sources – at the age of 29), the prince left the palace and went to wander around the world.
01dc85183aff6d9b0f6af081507ddf2097e35130	He followed the path of the purest life, deep reflection, a colossal strain of the mind.
b181e2a59ee724a4debc632d01e3093bdd9e394e	At that time, many people in India were worried about spiritual pursuits.
3ba7bb8f47f9782478efc52c5fc6f6cf186e2699	Hundreds of people, old and young, left their homes for spiritual insights and became hermits in search of sages who would help them find true life.
4a64f63580ba1a28664993e68055899df0d10b1a	Among the hermits, the prince found experienced mentors.
cac3f46e64e10ad808ffefa3de880db71a143bcf	They introduced him to philosophical teachings, to methods of contemplation and control of his body, but he did not find the highest truth from anyone that gives deliverance from suffering.
044710b7c53d4518f32f8561355ea68c22c5f3da	For several years he lived as ascetics usually lived, wandering through the forests, going from one village to another, eating alms.
0c792edffbe5c52ae9dab6f58ba5bdcdf245f0e3	These were years of severe austerity.
9d0d30e1007cf1a55f138e3cd0aa811f12e3c08e	He subjected himself to the most difficult trials in order to achieve enlightenment and find the Highest Truth.
aa40d3fd8f2e627d8181861bac134946e4cac0e1	He did not protect himself from the scorching sun, from the rain, from insects.
d92df765cfd306b5015563fc956126386a01fd6e	He refused even a minimum of food until he lost consciousness.
f5deee6438487c3491b41530e6c35ebed4203ee2	Convinced by experience that asceticism has no value, Gotama identified it as a false path, which caused hostility from the ascetics.
0dd56bad016ade6f700da930e46e4bd7670845f8	Like other great ascetics, the Buddha, according to legend, was subjected to terrible temptations, with which the prince of demons, the evil spirit Mara, tried to destroy his efforts.
4ed3e53345d65c70451b748cc0b0309ff0436c20	Legions of evil geniuses whispered words of doubt to Siddhartha.
dc07dd50ca2c79d384421bab634e6b313c7508bc	Terrible monsters surrounded the ascetic.
b854acd05064e008216a0ad7ad84eceffe30557b	A charming crowd of Apsaras, the daughters of Mara, tried to captivate Gotama with voluptuous movements and promises.
c25212f73f491dc15fd96869627cb12de62a2336	The head of the demons himself promised the Buddha all the kingdoms of the earth and their glory if he gave up the search for wisdom.
030be5aa6e2c482d92717bd2063a5a27fce8fa59	Having won the victory over temptations, Sakya Muni achieved supreme wisdom, achieved enlightenment.
be473f96acc2c2b0a6462f340fe825829690c31c	In Bodhi Gaya, in a sacred grove on the bank of the river, in a place called Uruvella, the Supreme Insight that he had been obtaining for so long occurred.
d9cc393f33bcc7d9b5be0a9325275fb451fb515d	At the age of 29, he gained perfect Knowledge and True Wisdom, becoming a Buddha.
7de81a2d7b5c3cc17b5542d7bca89148cd3dfc3f	The thought became pure and rushed to the work that he had to do.
c6d6048eb4172c841986416a2b38c59afb20ddf7	Buddhist legends also tell about the Teacher's going outside of India – to Tibet, Khotan, to the Altai.
d67648c1d93bff575c5491204c4c8ace98ee3df3	Ancient legends tell about the great secret journey of the Buddha along the roads of Asia, about his visit to the White Mountain (Belukha) in the Altai.
75dcf155a93ae84c30d2998ae26fef29f8bff5f9	There is evidence in the hidden books that before the sermon in Benares, the Buddha comprehended the secrets of wisdom in a Himalayan Monastery.
077d7de329292b9c0b5061cb77d5696264ab640f	The Buddha delivered his first famous sermon on the fundamental principles of his teaching in a park near Benares.
ab1e028e8329425eb4cf357699003c005e500bf9	Soon a community formed around him, which grew rapidly.
7e3494ffdeec0003b7d585817310e5633e9a4433	Everyone was accepted into the community – without distinction of caste, gender and property status.
3bbf7b2934139d9e9274a042b16a669f890cfd12	The entrance and exit were free.
67713868fdf00e72538e1c5fb2ce97f6df90a1ab	The visitor only expressed his willingness to serve the teachings of the Buddha.
acb0299db8455d5c989a74fa21f582d1b189e582	If the departed returned, he was asked only one question: "Do you deny it?"
aa6fa5e7c7b7e3c45c226b3dccf1eb582e850aec	By expelling negation, the teaching did not enslave anyone.
66991b6e18ae65d3e2df32872fc8d24a5b888b74	There were few rules, and they were aimed at protecting the independence of students.
71546b8e7b1bf28dda00213e227cacb366efcbaa	The Buddha wanted life in the community to be joyful.
8ac9da292126d1bcb9736369af12a4d2866f7b7d	The training began with the purification of the heart and consciousness from prejudices and bad qualities.
405b344b37e3ce6a45b499761efa3b6b51259caa	Moral purity and renunciation of personal property were required from the students.
606c23650e45c51e3cb178ce61f7a37669902b3d	"The sense of ownership is measured not by things, but by thoughts.
badd98b9f417819e313a7b6f9db293c92400e75e	You can have things and not be the owner."
c2186148b79057c2d11a7567b8304c6f3f6e9c1a	The Buddha advised to have fewer things, so as not to devote much time to them.
4e8c93397b8b0412b8d11cfb5f555d225e84ae4e	Families also came to the community.
deaec1e897c6ffcd8c777445414b8fa49b1c19e8	The prerequisite was to have one wife and be faithful to her.
5078fda9091252e994e26168dd2776f1710484e6	The Buddha tried to avoid prohibitions.
2836faeeaf67810c06a2991e7add369c43e8b0d2	There was no ban on those who wanted to eat meat.
55e0022528745afd6c8ef3d678a177278c546fbf	There was a ban on alcohol.
ca414a99ac297a82b938f224c9a1fd62a20dd3dc	The Buddha commanded to refrain from everything negative and promote everything beautiful.
5b3563c89c0ab6dc9362f405ab0e9e5578fb4cf7	"I teach, Sinha, the performance of such actions that are righteous in deeds, in words and in thoughts;
49d013b9a1563ba8f84fbf8d7d1abc0555474605	I teach the manifestation of all those states of the soul that are righteous and do not bear evil."
f510c8c8d989f196f693f93b1b16bf8cd675140c	His goal was the growth and development of the soul of the students.
add8287fd1bd7e189e2896fb24b94531e99a8256	The Buddha sought to make friends with his disciples, to create the best conditions for them to achieve higher knowledge.
696164d869d228fd6af6c7fde9c6349c41de9b77	When the student mastered his feelings, giving up everything personal, the Teacher gave him a task and allowed him to the depths of knowledge.
dca9f70640629714e6755c51c8203b2cf58a3a2a	The Buddha sought to educate workers of the common good, creators of a new consciousness and heralds of the community, ready to carry a New Teaching.
717fd1032d15c7e815aa8d51bcd5edd267a4f1b6	He sent them into life as teachers and founders of new communities.
334fcd073e7e281fc48350183e3a023c05034051	For 45 years, the Buddha taught and built communities in the Ganges Valley, near Benares.
86620a4ef1ceb04c8df8db9494faa10c9d09953c	The legend tells about Gotama's visit to his native city, about a meeting with his father, with his wife, about the conversion of his brother and son to a new Teaching, as well as about many new conversions of kings and ordinary mortals, rich and poor.
81cbea5da3fc00b580c74728470cbcb6a39e7a3d	At the age of 80, the Buddha reached Nirvana[2], and therefore he was considered as dead to the world of the living.
11efe8ea25562a32db8f63089c89e156e7ff25b9	In fact, the Buddha lived for 100 years.
21a0a492b8fb62373f133a3dedb173b164edd3f7	He completed his teaching career in Kushinagar.
086589109fdfd6e8941c7c7bd19522db8c63a362	The remains of the Buddha were burned.
ce2f6bcec9e9e66b7bbbc130f5087f411dc04c01	The Inner Appearance of the Buddha.
7455321303719c1e25a90d06d276adefc34ef6bf	His life is perfect.
f161e191064639b00f040b217164aaa961bfe27f	His constant heroism is equal to his conviction… He himself is a perfect example of all the virtues that he preaches; his self denial, his mercy, his unchanging complacency do not change him for a moment... and when he dies in the arms of his disciples, he dies with the serenity of a sage who has applied virtue throughout his life" (Raz. Isis. vol. 2, p. 291).
359b22918bd633e221019ca717722ee8f61bb031	Teaching.
e7bce2125a6f05aacae14b39e58520705ffb0d25	The main idea of Buddhism: everything in the Cosmos strives for constant renewal.
e407fe0337bfef9eb42e4795d1fe340b481d533e	There is no unchangeable soul, it is constantly changing.
8f5a729a5ec13387892735aec9397a438484db02	Everything in the Cosmos is subject to the Law of Causality: neither people nor Gods are exceptions to this universal law.
6e6089c26e5b3d9d5a9c0d427e0cc512f8c25fa0	The being who generates the causes must be responsible for them in this or in a new birth, which he will receive in accordance with his karma: good or evil thoughts and deeds.
97ff0702bfebd51fd27f7538a66e57e7bc43ac9a	"I donot teach anything other than the Law of Karma."
7fbf3651891e131d74ca6f1775bc10ae3c75fbe4	The Buddha taught that there is no independent "I", separate from life.
34c5a5f1ab25e278dc1981fc0f111a047d3999a6	And since there is no separate "I", it cannot be said that something belongs to me.
63f449cf4553b8345d80ff66469979b9bea23a8f	Awareness of the law of unity in the Cosmos undermines the concept of property.
2baa93ccf5d03881661e37232e542f055cd02fb8	Gotama Buddha gave the world the Teaching of Life, which was designed to teach people to use the Great Truths in everyday life.
50158aaac187cb5f660a66e264d2951b69383765	He taught the ethics of life.
bbdff8644c6490b81251ae2ef34ccee3817c609e	The Buddha claimed that the source of suffering and all the ills of humanity is the clouding of consciousness, desire and lust.
183e7743504dbef8e107aab28196f423603fa59b	Ignorance is the greatest evil and crime.
fd2aee28f782d5c4f220bce013c3abd63033a024	He discovered that the way to get rid of suffering is to enlighten consciousness, to gradually improve oneself.
bf6dec8101cd7d95357c5d3679ec98182d4ef7d6	Having opened the way to this Truth, the Buddha divided it into eight correct stages: recognition based on the knowledge of the Law of Causality, thinking, speech, action, life, work, vigilance and self discipline, concentration.
0ef2d5347361dcdc204f3aac6de3a1b0b8ecc59d	The noble Path of the eight stages is the path of harmonizing the feelings and achieving the perfections of an Arhat: compassion, morality, patience, courage, concentration and wisdom.
ee7fc5c0936266c0b28ffac5bc0e9126485748a6	On the path of self knowledge, a person is trapped by 10 obstacles, or shackles: the illusion of personality, doubt, superstition, bodily passions, hatred, attachment to the Earth, the desire for pleasure and comfort, pride, complacency, ignorance.
2bf6b3ae46ca69896323137e5d486bd5e737dff4	Only by breaking all these fetters, one can gain higher knowledge and achieve liberation – Nirvana.
ffd086c3bde4ee4d804b05ef1f33562007c52f11	It is not enough just to recognize the teaching.
60b6068178f842fbc310739f7bd4d18ec56c8bcc	It needs to be followed in life.
473e11f50f1ff5e9dd1164601ca647ec387f67d4	Everything is achieved only by personal efforts, by human hands and feet.
40eda4bdf926f08a890d4d48cf00ffcf00cc6207	"Immortality can only be achieved by constant good deeds; and perfection is achieved only through compassion and mercy."
b5248fc262e392b0ce481ee6fe0ea43144f97057	To do good and learn for the sake of achieving immortality is not related to the Noble Path.
b5f57bf3f86b86d599b90f28b10fe4933f2f87ce	Nirvana is a symbol of selflessness.
e396cb8d2a5e60ce57bd100da5b50e17d36a0a04	"Without the thought of any rewards and achievements, a life must be passed, and such a life is the greatest."
ee6468d5dc9c8fe5c3f285c930c1088a31c8e16d	The basis of the Noble Path is in moral purity.
9932ce40e9fd89a86f588b6cf7b7bfb6dea9c21f	One can achieve the highest goal – Nirvana by following the path of virtue.
7f53b72fb538a4c1fc1736e141b67ddd0f84965d	The Buddha taught to know the Laws of Nature and one's own soul, not to put oneself in chains, to see the causes of suffering and be able to correct them with a beneficial action, to comprehend the Truth independently, to honor one's faith and not to blaspheme others, not to deny, to share knowledge with others.
7919afc4cfd9348604293725b3e908620d74a916	He taught fearlessness of thoughts and actions.
4603c00f7431b45a71facb5fa73cd8d64ddfbd83	"Above all, there is thought."
2dc18118932473deb042fa4c86011cce67eac818	"Everything is done by thought."
9370947fb6356fdd9b62cbaad70d12091bbd343f	It does both good and evil.
518c09c2ac875bb4750886e98b16cd485b715779	He taught to accommodate opposites.
9de820c643418f3a5d68fe2e46067adebd1d1434	The Buddha taught that the teaching should be presented in the vernacular, using comparisons, well known stories and legends.
049b8addcf4a883a43d174ddeb329908406de821	His speech convinced by the power of simplicity, intelligibility.
e436cb34caa1876116667d478b93cce0a1efc063	The Buddha's teaching does not contain any violence.
11db215d2514b56cb5e46cb5da04691ad8d8e226	"He leads others without resorting to violence."
116adcdfe159b9eaffd7e032df64f5f74590163b	"He is called noble if he does not commit violence against any living being."
23a8e9cb79bcecf94973f67d66803d7fff7ac317	The Buddha rejects personal worship.
74886aea027f85c027681b2d1fabdd5ba66a677e	"The teaching saves not because the Buddha gives it, but because it is liberation."
38ac2489229ea1d1f673512d72b6b06bfa750eb6	The basic principle of the Teaching is to seek the truth yourself.
bcad3ea20a5dd816daf886bcdbfa075713c3e960	Donot believe just because others believe.
900842b31389070711178fac32d2bb58551c003e	Explore.
41a19e859987f64a819f575294515099a1b8acd2	Therefore, questions and free discussion of what was taught were welcomed.
f42324eafba67c40742f32dd3b1d738bb42f92b1	Truth is freedom.
a614c5b651ec4bb11e5701a0c241c89834771d8f	The Buddha directed his disciples to the future, commanding his disciples to honor him less than the Teacher who will come in the future.
70f5026f504afd4ff9207301927da10dfa7f714b	History knows of no other example of such self denial.
779406ef15f012814e0e2aaac5988c354a656a88	"I am not the first Buddha to come to Earth, nor will I be the last.
9fd03925cfd76d02d473b9bc443a747655a0af33	In due time, another Buddha will arise in the world, the Innermost, the highest enlightenment, gifted with wisdom, happy, embracing the entire universe, the incomparable Leader of the peoples… He will proclaim a righteous life, perfect and pure, such as I am preaching now...
f52d1d0e3cc2924e01d9fc4985d50a97dc50baaa	His name will be "Maitreya".
a16041407de61afc0eca66ba8a8de1b7e318495b	The religious treatises of Buddhism ("Pratimoksha Sutra", etc.) contain " the following ten commandments.
6e3b799fad4ca3adf9c2b36e48c8b4533533297b	1. You must not kill any living being.
2fda3d49561b9b7fb59dcac4bf52ba5e3711c903	2. You should not steal.
7f33db712d002ed20a520b8afdeb15c4171fe415	3. You must not break your vow of chastity.
b8cdfc5198f28d70412e58884df0b4cad8aadfa8	4. You must not lie.
0c04984e8dc50b85ba790c2d61538bff258673ac	5. You should not betray the secrets of others.
79808061187cac5fe925861328c9281d27c546d8	6. You should not wish for the death of your enemies.
7c40b297685136f8a79f8fcec4363689da3ba6a2	7. You should not desire the wealth of others.
e7eadabafd09fb7643f8c104dbb5ab67068128b5	8. You should not utter offensive and abusive words.
8c40db672b65ad84f94436f9941f9db952734b59	9. You should not indulge in luxury (sleeping on soft beds or being lazy).
be873f4aea78602cca6e4277e4114d9b0dfe65e8	You must not accept gold or silver" (Raz. Isis. Vol. 2, p. 136).
904bc559fc407fdab9e00e51048b30f9dd7faf83	The mission.
0a569533842df9260c58a839cf1dcbab3da0615f	The Great Teacher synthesized the Precepts of all the Teachers of the Common Good who came before him.
97a2b2fbb0ca1464687665b829bf6cd0f9b38343	He rediscovered the Vedas to people.
a8b1d25a23a65b591c35df6a17c192cf82bb38a2	He pointed out the goal of Evolution as creative cooperation with the Cosmos and Distant Worlds.
4205a81cafcca2fdb74f55748dd06b541a2536c0	The Buddha is the first community member of the Fifth Race.
0bf5cea344bbae22d7c74c34c6be009607d00010	He was the first scientific community member.
2bbd588366b2006fc4281745bf82997e9e781ae0	He approved the idea of the World Community as a worldwide cooperation of peoples: nothing exists outside of cooperation and mutual assistance.
ab97d9ca8d56e85b6104de435af1d5a9bff107c7	He was the first to speak about the equality of people, spoke out against castes.
7e5138272bfb95a45769dbfed8959d11fc93bb6d	He was the first in the history of religions who turned sermons into action.
32adb9516d19c03b9341c5065282a2f73360bf4b	The vitality of His Teaching is confirmed by convincing facts.
a3688d7e7915032f8ce04913855e3891b674a56a	Buddhism has not disgraced itself by instilling faith with fire and sword, and has been distorted less than other religions for 27 centuries.
a1822e33cda6fe260b705c0f0d3d63359aeb8752	"Near the mysterious Uruvela [3], the Buddha approaches the simplest expression of all accumulations.
54c92dff432d579b21cb7e9aceaf3d59f51fdafe	And on the banks of the Nairnagar, he is illuminated by the determination to say words about the community, about the renunciation of personal property, about the meaning of work for the common good and about the meaning of knowledge.
686cb04f742edc8a22179caae7d8b0eca847331c	To establish a scientific approach to religion was a true feat.
ea5ce7ccb5d08013c129d8db9547781d5a7b2623	To expose the self interest of the priests and brahmins was the highest fearlessness.
77b69b9c2413165fe664e56a7e14ac08625f2f8e	It was incredibly difficult to reveal the true levers of human forces.
5e488ce6fb59421951dbba700f7735b874426118	It was extremely beautiful for the Tsar to come in the guise of a mighty beggar.
4f8a54c441dc1f907876eb15418b71701196cd34	In the awareness of the evolution of mankind, the image of the communal Buddha occupies an undeniably beautiful place" (N. Roerich. Altai Himalayas, p. 68).
65e2e41e2fdf5af2d699eb09163f1ef3d410f700	"The Great Personality of the Buddha, His Fiery Ego, clothed with the matter of Lucida [the thinnest, but still opaque luminous substance], now resides in the spheres surrounding our planet.
6f41840a98c79763402bdc7221e56955071c5116	In view of the terrible hour of Armageddon, many Fiery Inhabitants can be found in spheres not so far from the Earth, because the approach of fiery energies makes such an approach possible.
a83b8cbd355cda0abdd462017096f1b129fcfc3c	From this, you can understand how terrible the time we are experiencing is, and what Forces are taking part in saving our planet" (Letters of E. Roerich, Vol. 1, p.447).
072aa74235cc45a9df0de72d6abc688ccae2ddb4	[1] The text of the biography is published from the book "Great Moralists" by V. I. Polyan.
157cae9c7d3ec80c9137c52280b6bc1aeb3983c7	[2] " Nirvana is a state of perfection of all the elements and energies of individuality that have reached the highest intensity available in this cosmic cycle."
a106f3ff0a3bf11a8e083754363e53612a1a48c8	This is one of the many definitions of the concept of Nirvana, taken from the book"Fundamentals of Buddhism".
18fd9e1dac779212cc0c553243c2262ee5868eaa	[3] More correctly – Uruvilva, on the bank of the Nairnagara River, near the present Bodh Gaya in northeastern India; here, according to legend, the Buddha achieved enlightenment.
ed92fac494147657b86098fe38eb83ceafedc449	Copyright © 2002 - 2015.
cc3c44d60b56229e7882d5b2381084cc3731bc8d	Tatyana Mikushina Omsk, Russia
7e40132dd24d9fa61adb9259a39505baa734a6a0	Shakyamuni Buddha
39db39bd6ab8dbbb2d3b4525733fbca0be16491e	Siddhartha Gautama
898ca1a75405c16b8218deaaa4f395a8f9a16cd6	Buddha statue in the Sarnath Museum, IV century AD Date of birth: about 563 BC or 623 BC.
1344b84acdf59b75bac94842ad0dec668a4f3110	Place of birth: Lumbini, now in Nepal
82a993750ee38fe1517ff2eda21f354c187228fb	Date of death: around 483 BC or 543 BC (80 years old)
f49f7b00b48a4367ea7d2dbe24586a92d41e334c	Place of death: Kushinagar, now in India
7c1c8136cd2754fc161011e902155bcf34c0bdf8	Country: Kapilavastu
f193f91250bac476f752b9a0e178b8ef55dcb9ce	School/Tradition: the Founder of Buddhism
9071461743e1d0c21c766ca2aac974a5e51673e7	Influences: Kassapa Buddha
b79a075b3f38a5308d6fc3179151f5a6a99de18c	Influenced by: Maitreya Buddha
8b5b850eb99b1f31dc57000f54b29e94c62552d6	Shakyamuni Buddha (SKT. गौतमबुद्धः सिद्धार्थ शाक्यमुनि, vietn. Thích ca Mâu ni; 563 BC 483 BC[1]; literally " The Awakened sage from the Sakya family[2]") - a spiritual teacher, the legendary founder of Buddhism.
8935ea3d19ecc748b2aa54697a8a9aa5ac90379e	1 Gautama as a Legendary personality 2 Biography of the Buddha 2.1 Previous Lives 2.2 Conception and Birth 2.3 Early Life and Marriage 2.4 Detachment and Ascetic Lifestyle 2.5 Awakening (Enlightenment) 2.6 Formation of the Sangha 2.7 Dissemination of the Teaching 2.8 Death/Mahaparinirvana 2.9 The Life of the Buddha in the Vajrayana Tradition
90690fed642e198f5f1b3a72a11b89de77edef4c	3 Reliability of chronological data 4 Relatives of Siddhartha Gautama 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Literature 8 References
707ddaadce15e3ffcdea946d4400db79ea4fe410	Gautama as a legendary personality[edit / edit wiki text]
3b697f29273f6898824e06da750f4c6a503dfc46	Also, the Buddha is a character of many dharmic religions, in particular Bon (late Bon) and Hinduism.
622a593e7ec0eb8f1415869c2a67668918e363ac	Biography of the Buddha[edit / edit wiki text]
e430023d796670dd1ad7ca5944f4577ecfb10816	Buddhism Culture History Philosophy People Countries Schools Concepts Texts Chronology Criticism of Buddhism Project / Portal
e70c77ec540f14eeddde6ef1b614740ebf0ca0cb	p·o·r
f5e304d7280649397378a7fab8118cb0c706b71c	Modern science does not have enough material for a scientific reconstruction of the biography of the Buddha.
4c62ede443199e605199f8f257246afa00cd37f3	Therefore, traditionally, the life of the Buddha is given on the basis of a number of Buddhist texts ("The Life of the Buddha" by Ashvaghosha, "Lalitavistara").
a7b659dace13c39b91f191b72c7d3e86533fb553	However, it should be borne in mind that the first texts relating to the Buddha appeared only four hundred years after his death.
3e995b5b2525e73f012a03e7b6dc4267676e2722	By this time, the stories about him were changed by the monks themselves, in particular, to hyperbolize the figure of the Buddha[4].
cbcf0e7db662ff4a82f12686740b688d98681f0a	In addition, the works of the ancient Indians did not cover chronological moments, focusing more on philosophical aspects.
a5c34056e2f8f0413c7803581f76d07e5da21249	This is well reflected in Buddhist texts, in which the description of Shakyamuni's thoughts prevails over the description of the time when all this happened[5].
1bacc25cba0105912e084f054bf3db63e76d6ec8	Previous lives[edit / edit wiki text]
f8cd760799a4e0e511e1aad8b73ccd6c33c9f003	Conception and birth[edit / edit wiki text]
0d3c830dea84de42abab0acb85768d4def7fe1b3	The exact birthplace of Gautam Buddha in Lumbini
4e457a065075a28ac103d72a873a4f5c08f0e470	Andrew Skilton noted that "The Buddha denied that he was just a man or a god"[12] In Lumbini itself was the house of the king, in modern sources called the "palace".
8a73793b5489986490123d0496bf44dcdd9a1fda	Queen Maha Maya miraculously gave birth to Prince Siddhartha.
44e4db04a37a7158715837fcf1ba18ef685ef990	A Sanskrit manuscript.
5cbc05fbecfb4cecc589bd9e2ec112171b22189a	Nalanda, Bihar, India.
8cb91231dbef6f1509f232155a7631f51156f7a9	The period of Palov
4875715e1acec4a730595647c3de3fa47d0e8f0c	On their basis, he declared that the baby would become either a great king (chakravartin) or a great saint (Buddha)[13]. Shuddhodana performed the naming ceremony for the child on the fifth day of his birth, naming him Siddhartha, which means "one who has achieved his goal".
6025d114858eaa2b03eec96e7008592453e6020e	Early life and marriage[edit / edit wiki text]
66a32f527b978d22db6a85019d36e315de2cc56e	Siddhartha was raised by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.
0bc9bc37f8a805a0d6e7b14199351f272d48e971	Wanting Siddhartha to become a great king, his father did everything possible to protect his son from religious teachings or knowledge about human suffering.
209834510ae400c29c9faf398b4b8b13606ef393	Three palaces were specially built for the boy[14].
22c36399d47743b696c6ccdef3dd84223e4799f6	In his development, he was ahead of all his peers in science and sports, but showed a tendency to think.
a6c5dfd109e59d6deefc7f762103a4889d89750d	As soon as his son turned 16, his father arranged a wedding with Princess Yashodhara, a cousin who also turned 16.
3a31fcad620f9d1317e84f324657df021f6ebb89	A few years later, she gave birth to his son Rahula.
4ca85a3824d35171b0a49a8dc8e6e44ba3d38acb	Siddhartha spent 29 years of his life as the Prince of Kapilavastu.
ae188927a59ffe43d50ef4421c19232699fcef27	Although the father gave his son everything that only he could need in life, Siddhartha felt that material goods were not the ultimate goal of life[14].
5815e11b29acf33115e0516084b1cd8261b0fe77	One day, when the prince was 29 years old, he, accompanied by the charioteer Channa, got out of the palace.
ab276e4193b3e0facf64a52c2168d8088dcaf660	There he saw "four sights" that changed his entire subsequent life: an old beggar, a sick man, a decomposing corpse and a hermit.
9aaa3a516a87655788abf627552482054d417a88	Gautama then realized the harsh reality of life — that illness, suffering, aging and death are inevitable and neither wealth nor nobility can protect against them, and that the path of self — knowledge is the only way to comprehend the causes of suffering.
473be1f4bdeed22084fc91dc04b3926637a12256	This prompted Gautama, at the age of 29, to leave his home, family and property and go in search of a way to get rid of suffering.
fccb870ddd8524c9ed1c6a5616a87423ed45e43f	Detachment and ascetic lifestyle[edit / edit wiki text]
fef454fe7d55b9fd851da7da807c71ac263dd758	Awakening (enlightenment)[edit / edit wiki text]
a2e42cdd0610fdc80d3b88ebb744965b05d8c370	A meditating Buddha surrounded by the demons of Mara.
e2fe798edf80a5c1934e6f4dc275978d390139b6	The period of Palov.
24665df2fd55c914ebd2bce71b8a216af8518009	After 49 days of meditation on the full moon of the month of vaishakha [17], on the same night when he was born, at the age of 35, Gautama achieved Awakening and a complete understanding of the nature and cause of human suffering ignorance as well as the steps that are necessary to eliminate this cause.
bb35eeda709d4b641063e6e6f98f28e5963e01a9	Formation of the Sangha[edit / edit wiki text]
38e17cb4c4abaad29d8101ff25850cac85b3853a	Spreading the Teaching[edit / edit wiki text]
4e102a7d5b376bb9a38b3d221f78d232e60c8ee3	Since it was still early for vassana, the Buddha set out on a two month journey to Kapilavasta on foot, preaching the Dharma on his way.
0dd034544102354ae07d5ff023791bf8bbeaa397	Death/Mahaparinirvana[edit / edit wiki text]
a685d6a99614ce496928a96c48ba811b9d761499	The Buddha's entry into Parinirvana.
ef000648e9490b5719621150c69d9a4d77a3bc09	Then he entered the Parinirvana; his last words were :" All composite things are short lived.
528b328ccb38b58044d1bcea7a602a252d9978a4	The Life of the Buddha in the Vajrayana tradition[edit / edit wiki text]
52be853b2ddce4ecdf4515cc61986e5ded821496	Petroglyph depicting Shakyamuni Buddha together with his name mantra (Sera Monastery, Tibet)
f6b3c8b75f075dca6e0eeabbcb750e90d199154e	The style of this article is not encyclopedic or violates the norms of the Russian language.
5c136b530bc25f229735bc351c45a7e671a42641	The article should be corrected according to the stylistic rules of Wikipedia.
4d24924ed0288ad6e4e1a6c07a27fa471ce9fdee	The Blue Chronicle says that during the appearance of the Buddha Kashyapa on earth, the future Shakyamuni Bodhisattva "Blessed" decided to realize himself.
43a6e4fb9b6107590fa795f2ef2ae708452b416b	He became a brahmacharin and was reborn in Devaloka Tushita.
c4aedaa0e5bb296639cb1d20d6a6e975a573f5b6	The Blessed One waited for a while and said: "I will enter the womb of Mahamaya in the land of Jambudvipa and attain Nirvana.
75aa5c4374a5fdf5e7af91fb7070d4d1755c4b85	Those of you who want to achieve Nirvana must be reborn in that country" The gods begged him to stay and said that there was no need to be reborn in that country, since there were many heretics there.
3501c047350b51a004937f4609f4a4a9da0b991c	But the Blessed One entered the womb of Mahamaya on the 15th day of the month of uttra phalguni (February March).
18583ad27a52ca12c486ab9894e2b9ecb6a68b33	He was born in the Lumbini grove at the rising of the star Tishya.
0e8b6cf11b2534bc0fb69f00cec27cf278351eaa	It happened in the year of the Tiger Tree (1027 BC).
2269aa13fb1f334f01fb6d685c9834dfd5a26a29	He became a Buddha on the full moon of the vaishakha month of the year of the Pig Fire (994 BC).
dd5f3f4a51a8d5793d1bfc95d6eb77d3cbe5c068	Then there was a lunar eclipse — Rahula swallowed the moon.
bc281ec8b784250c35ea09f5663bbeaea7a88ba2	After 7 weeks, Brahma asked the Buddha to start preaching.
401737064ed734605249855bbce2d22205d8a272	The sermon reached the hermits: Kaundinya, Ashvajit, Vashpa, Mahanaman, Bhadrika.
ec9f837cd3ff3a57dc79ce5f5a85884cc909f8a8	They have achieved arhatship.
e535940d2ad499398748c051d8c5c41ef3da89bf	In "Samskrita samskrita vinishchaya nama" it is said:
9209292cd1d1ebce7266ba5e632adab886c459c9	"Our Teacher Shakyamuni lived for 80 years. he spent 29 years in his palace.
4a682889886927e05ca2f7d959ea793a8ca83e1b	For six years he worked as an ascetic.
8489a4a2420a9e69fa76dc470ea5f9ced12c5400	Having achieved Enlightenment, he spent the first summer at the turning point of the Wheel of Law (Dharmachakravartan).
ad6c3bf884147cc74ea7b74dcb274b9d298790ee	He spent the second summer in Veluvan.
4f6b5066f2ff51b3c0129493f80766519252553f	The fourth is also in Veluvan.
40eeb32c13e8d57d72ef38f9edc4330ce1da0fc2	The fifth is in Vaishali.
1a86e846a1d6f587a18da7b5cb734f00a804efe6	The sixth is in Gol (that is, in Golangulaparivartan) in Zhugma Gyurve, near Rajagriha.
94fe9cc48652e25a1c083704ec52e7a683177194	The seventh is in the Abode of the 33 gods, on a platform made of Armonig stone.
71214d10af67a44defeb1dbba1552e3202370938	I spent the eighth summer in Shishumaragiri.
f43060b6e52768e962dd29aabcb0abe38b8ebade	The ninth is in Kaushambi.
0a93696ba075ddaf0784c875806a26d8d38feb87	The tenth is in a place called Kapijit (Teutul) in the Parileyakavana forest.
64438c5ca3bd0b8451c72871aefade0b023cb774	The eleventh is in Rajagriha (Gyalpa kab).
8fdceb15221813b48ada3adf536d9ecc9d42cecc	The twelfth is in the village of Verandzha.
3474cd4ec8ccbd0f5ab44c945027a19b42802e08	The thirteenth is in Chaityagiri (Choten ri).
d77bdbd228b8ebb7baf882a3f6142004a4249a87	The fourteenth is in the temple of Raja Jetavana.
bdb7c0c4d5d961e626e034c388387cbef0e80582	The fifteenth is at Nyag rodharam in Kapilavastu.
b9a84be15394bc6cdf7304f3722ab15b51ff555a	The sixteenth is in Atavaka.
22dcc970673476f14674cfce293beee55c9c8e1f	The seventeenth is in Rajagriha.
956879e6fe8dd3d81be5604cafc903aeb0bda6f5	The eighteenth — in the cave of Jvalini (near the Traffic police).
84328e38940417220e176af3e5859dd4ad0c49cf	The nineteenth is in Jwalini (Barve pug).
b1932b6a1eb9e768bbff54d1a152c047ab246558	The twentieth is in Rajagriha.
28f221edcb9c8b802c85093c6a3343cf09bf0269	Four summer stays were in aram Mrigamatri to the east of Shravasti.
6a785258ff99284628e678a747bcdf926a819ade	Then the twenty first summer stay — in Shravasti.
a3a857934ee89f7cfcb9a6125ef78ddfa511d30d	The Buddha went to nirvana in the Shala grove, in Kushinagar, in the land of Malla."
2082de72739db253519251330349df16cd7cb6e4	Reliability of chronological data[edit / edit wiki text]
f68b1627967467e8a8393fbd6878d854f47c279f	Early Western science accepted the biography of the Buddha presented in the Buddhist scriptures as a real story, but at present "scientists are reluctant to give unconfirmed information about historical facts related to the life of the Buddha and his Teachings"[20].
228eab607d2dc3c2256094fc87503202a4be92a9	The key reference point for dating the life of the Buddha is the beginning of the reign of the Buddhist emperor Ashoka.
bf67ae108b42dbc3656859c50570a43d904c55ed	Based on the edicts of Ashoka and the dates of the reign of the Hellenistic kings to whom he sent ambassadors, scholars date the beginning of Ashoka's reign to 268 BC .
ab45a68852ba57f3f9b829d9b68db1ad58639324	Pali sources say that the Buddha died 218 years before this event.
2bb4ceb366b46050a7ef45c440a9cdc2dbf1d82f	Since all sources agree that Gautama was eighty years old when he died (for example, Dīgha Nikāya 2.100), we get the following dates: 566-486 BC .
8da038c5f56facf410592c5b38c789e6f48c1566	This is the so called "long chronology".
a9e5fb7606c53a381abb1e3c29f1dd058270b658	An alternative "short chronology" is based on the Sanskrit sources of North Indian Buddhism preserved in East Asia.
b2e0c595b9ecabaecc3b47b21a16f60b0ca05511	According to this version of the Buddha died 100 years before the inauguration of Ashoka, which gives the following dates: 448-368 BC In some East Asian traditions, the date of death of the Buddha called or 949 878 BC, and in Tibet — 881 BC In the past, common among Western scholars date was 486 or 483 BCE, but it is now believed that the reasons for this too shaky[21].
56c154ddce1d6007673e3b5e4ed47c3eb132ce6e	Radiocarbon analysis shows that some of the settlements that the Buddha visited according to the Pali Canon were not inhabited until 500 BC (±100 years), which makes us doubt such an early date as 486 BC.
921f7b30f632396b323a5b3d8cd9ae4b7b27e030	Relatives of Siddhartha Gautama[edit / edit wiki text]
4be4171dd646bf0fbfdff273ee4037112be158bf	See also: Shakya
226a2c8f96a1b5d3d99675d4b836958b318b6be3	Siddhartha's father was Suddhodana (Sanskrit; Pali — Suddhodana).
5c6efa30f3c287277e5136a5b0c9aee613b810eb	According to Mahavast[22], he had three brothers: Dhautodana (Sanskrit; pali Dhotodana), Shuklodana and Amritodana (Sanskrit; pali — Amitodana), and a sister Amritika (Sanskrit; pali — Amita).
a4bbc8459c56cbda1cce7339f239849d318e126b	The Theravada tradition speaks of four brothers named Dhotodana, Amitodana, Sakkodana and Suklodana, and adds in addition to Amita another sister named Pamita[23].
de0fd54dee4c7cd204a7e3baf040c152ff374487	The mother of the future Buddha was [Maha-]Maya[24].
89605990be2ed97a26eb3f3fd8d56eab2c1466be	In the Mahavastu[25], the names of her sisters are called — Maha Prajapati, Mahamaya, Atimaya, Anantamaya, Chulia and Kolisova.
c55689003e465e4a2d36e97eed90abd519bac034	Siddhartha's own mother died seven days after his birth and her sister Maha Prajapati (Sanskrit; pali — Maha Pajapati), who was also married to Shuddhodana, took care of the child.
9ae5cbc816f70132385ccac4dac3d6c58d0ae4cc	The Buddha had no siblings, but he had a half brother
e48a5f56338980699f2bbf101221d1ef7f79173d	[Sundara -] Nanda, the son of Maha Prajapati and Shuddhodana.
4b510379617314acd4decd314910539dd89fc1aa	The Theravada tradition says that the Buddha also had a half sister, Sundara Nanda[26].
054c0b6d00d11337ff29fb7e31cff830d7b17b1e	The brother and sister later entered the Sangha and achieved arhatship.
f0bb23927e0bbc26412967dcb6ef6f0aa0accdb2	The following cousins of the Buddha are known: Ananda, who in the Theravada tradition was considered the son of Amitodan, and in the Mahavastu is called the son of Shuklodan and Mriga;
24aa0ce7e7c92481515de8b551659e1f788ed18b	Devadatta, the son of his maternal uncle Suppabuddha and his paternal aunt Amita.
85af6d2d937953dfdd668db0711de8062f4c84b8	The identity of Gautama's wife remains unclear.
448e4b4d7db0ac246ee3f7f9627abfd3b29c0302	In the Theravada tradition, Rahula's mother (see below) is called Bhaddakachcha, but the Mahavamsa[27] and the commentaries on the Anguttara Nikaya call her Bhaddakachchana and see her as the cousin of the Buddha and the sister of Devadatta.
6eded73a8748a02fbf2205d677631dc3baf1d4c9	Mahavastu (Mahāvastu 2.69), however, calls the Buddha's wife Yasodhara and implies that she was not Devadatta's sister, since Devadatta had wooed her.
b0d62073e995f51e0b54efbff2487f29b99a0477	Buddhavamsa [28] also uses this name, but in the Pali version — Yasodhara.
5cf8c520c7f2f855da2694a232c2a3af0570f4c0	The same name is most often found in North Indian Sanskrit texts (also in their Chinese and Tibetan translations).
22e48a8857fd8bdd8f34a003465cb51ff06d0f82	Lalitavistara says that the wife of the Buddha was Gopa, the mother of Dandapani's maternal uncle.
db8413119f812b30c77cc6bfc4c9714890d87274	Some texts[what?
8f738510ad4fac1c8c8abb5ed150828ebc817a09	It is stated that Gautama had three wives: Yasodhara, Gopika and Mrigaya.
0d4233372a654f3a03e1cbc66480f785167e95f7	Siddhartha had an only son, Rahula, who, having grown up, joined the Sangha.
10af101f6a5af45612f6c544a4d4844d0230f8a7	Over time, he achieved arhatship.
c1b3fbd917e3b6b4789d13cb05a9c426abbbf644	Buddha Category:The Buddhas of Amrapali (film, 1966)
54b9a00b8181a184b7bf440ebce75edc780ce421	↑ The dates of his life cannot be accurately determined, and various historians date his life differently: 624-544 BC;
b9a923514876c23a440600a35e411b9d6ce17e87	623-543 BC;
ead28fc5ad2f5b22ffcb04dd629d231116c3805a	563-486 BC;
8401d422406fc256cd5ce9e4a7dcf3596d644972	571-491 BC;
7f95812c01d1ab643cfdfd55af87f75f4198f23f	453-373 BC;
3024d5e5273028e85b16370e699f96c18f7794c2	448-368 BC .
ad9d349548590c18e913617c96db7d06ca70dc41	See also a special section in this article ↑ It should not be confused with the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism.
ebbde5af2d2532c31e1fcc2207de4deb694e8595	Закон The Law of the Republic of Kalmykia of October 16, 2006 N 298 III Z "On amendments to the Law of the Republic of Kalmykia "On non working holidays and Memorable Days in the Republic of Kalmykia" " Mich Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 13, 14.
7284d246a2ce5149822c8a32cb7d1e2f0d155b08	Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
b1ec50919ac8de362cbf3d2857e9135f00dbb6a9	↑ Carrithers, page 15.
5ccb6199fe0ac88a02694bc39500dd45562f05b7	Robert C. Lester (per. Koval A. N.) Buddhism / / Religious traditions of the world vol. 2 Moscow: KRON PRESS, 1996 p.
c467783edcbf388c3301807e83db36d54d716ca1	308—309 — ISBN 5-232-00313-5;
24e67bf6fe750c16db359f2e277bd0d17c68c72e	Buddhavamsa.
5f98d5eee3bca21e453d5385564599cc36942f19	Arm Armstrong, Karen (2000), "Buddha", (UK) Orion, ISBN 978-0-7538-1340-9 ↑ Ermakova T. V., Ostrovskaya E. P. Classical Buddhism St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 1999 — ISBN 5-85803-132-3.
f58e69b653447f11f75b4d1a63255b22302962a4	↑ Sacred texts.com ↑ Buddhanet.net ↑ Sarca indica Ashoka Tree Ashoka (eng.).
09f8d811ac49bccb92eb3401b1663ff4c2ae54a1	Retrieved 6 November 2010.
12361c8effd5a1ab6505332d633caa5cef6d9f4b	Archived from the original source on February 17, 2011.
a9402a901da7e99bfa8794547384d6a586e1ffee	↑ the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god
378a54133c746102af3f5805842138c857235dcd	(Skilton, Andrew (2004), A Concise History of Buddhism 2004, p.
a5d9b4cea33a71c61fa80a5024212a69642aa84c	64-65.
72f4dab53186a904827b51f6943ac6069ec588f5	↑ Go to: 1 2 Narada.
76a059456a415069a8031d4005a6f27834953dbd	A Manual of Buddhism.
838d7da5f4639b49d3b985b8988aa2403575f8ae	— Buddha Educational Foundation, 1992.
d00829adebd5e68e626812cce75d279eb30b20e1	— P. 9—12.
b78e046d3027297ce2626847c1d49aa2259e8e38	— ISBN 967-9920-58-5.
95bf40772cdf7ae7aac9ea67e27030fcc0cf6c5d	↑ Go to page: 1 2 Narada (1992), p14 ↑ Narada (1992), pp15-16 ↑ Narada (1992), pp19-20 ↑ in some traditions it is believed that this happened in the fifth lunar month, in others, in the twelfth ↑ Angulimala of Sutta // the Pali Canon (MN 86).
20ed4115c42be72e971395eb7267c3d5aa11df54	^ The Maha parinibbana Sutta (DN 16), verse 56 ↑ Lopez.
95220fdf259890162312fb796a0996945bede9b4	Buddhism in Practice.
2300553000a29981f543010864d1c1529e659b6d	— Princeton University Press, 1995.
7b1544ead9ce625f98e66bc88763a8b23d3a705f	— P. 16.
604bbb499bba4710bd927818996ef3af8d6df11b	↑ and "As is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re examination of early Buddhist historical material, ..., necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE."
0e111eb503d1f6f2fee515e007486cc863f974e5	Paul Dundas, The Jains, 2nd edition, (Routledge, 2001), p.
4cfaa4d7f42c31d8ec3b8bde8cc63d559cd4e15b	24 ^ the Mahāvastu 1,355 ↑ Suttanipāta comment 1,357, Mahāvaṃsa II.18-22 ↑ Dīgha Nikāya 2.52 ↑ Mahāvastu 1.355-7 ^ the Therīgāthā comments 83 and Aṅguttara Nikāya commentary 1.363 ↑ Mahāvaṃsa II.21-4 ↑ Buddhavaṃsa
0b4fe537bddc448a4e0c3c483bac92f3afea4b04	Androsov V. P. Shakyamuni Buddha and Indian Buddhism.
9d2b4e0a2589f79bf5e857e2e19627b9fbd8ba58	- Moscow: East lit., 2001.
e56f46203e5f095c658d1eaa5a0ee7b2fa664e21	Arya Shura.
72ef31a89eb78081dd9be94f0515094b8a504b84	Garland of Jatak, or Legends about the exploits of a Bodhisattva / translated from the Sanskrit by A. P. Barannikov and O. F. Volkova.
e38ea22b232b0f01cbdf49fa848b9699d136c2f2	- Moscow: East lit., 2000.
0531fc9bc40be1e6bcb32bef4cb710e88274eda8	Bulich S. K. Shakyamuni // Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 vols.
13ab6329197d6c49e8c25fe1c111383c5733894b	(82 volumes and 4 supplements).
9277d5bf94bd3b861be65c1b4ddf17e999863fc8	- St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
288a6403c98c1a8b8782ac200af201f7801c9a03	The Life of the Buddha / Ashvaghosha.
25eaf61c91f0445c8c51354c5e4ad080195e65be	Dramas / Kalidasa; per .
a33f0710f27be6ac538499bacbc03b6c7254ee78	K. Balmont; introduction, intro. article, essays, scientific ed. by G. Bongard Levin.
fb68fd8c8526da7eb9c780a4ef972129384de9d8	- Moscow: Art. lit., 1990 — - 573 p.
6f21648141881d5a283f51eba1e0731a9b27cd9e	The Life of the Buddha / comp.
75f9c3cc1019cbdbe9e2353c0b9dc93336df97d4	S. A. Komissarov.
8bb96455e16a3efcb02a9cf46afe87469d8e44db	- Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1994.
e859960f242f7a9716753609ed4528b770e1ab0d	Karyagin K. M. Sakia Muni (Buddha).
f986319ac917168efc1f72dd99848769f6599987	His life and fi losofskaya activity.
8997fbadd18da3970eb48b5cdf813561b164e286	Biographical sketch.
f768f40f27ef1262f3ca7c50aabe658f5fce745d	- St. Petersburg, 1897.
6a3a67def84bfbfa2f611bf30a280fbbd0f8c9da	Lysenko V. G. Buddha as a person or a person in Buddhism / / God man society in traditional cultures of the East.
7d743967eefeda8b9fab9cfdfb69c51a31c907bd	- Moscow: Nauka, 1993.
e26ee592871aad5dcc8586fd48e40f7b1e1b184d	121-133.
64a8118283012a5f805d510f91edb874a5d25fd0	Oldenburg S. F., Vladimirtsov B. Ya., Shcherbatskoy F. I., Rosenberg O. O .. The Life of the Buddha, the Indian Teacher of Life.
23548a5d191f34548045f3655cd39dbcfdfaed63	Five lectures on Buddhism.
7154ad369009871cc23364c24aa1d7f7a7801953	- Samara: Agni, 1998.
7fb176a7db9f097b5f37ebd24406227704ff339c	Buddha Sidhartha / / Religion: Encyclopedia / comp. and general ed .
d7c1acb78f84bdc9607417d47dda65961c5d288a	A. A. Gritsanov, G. V. Sinilo.
1e6d3d5bc24664b71b4f508669967d2c57748ea6	- Mn.: Book House, 2007.
9ad54a2b0570be8538d70c6a3ffe38b9dd3f7541	Portal "Buddhism" Buddha Gautama in Wikicitatnik?
94b331ebb4d710d05d8bf626becd02dadbc36c50	Gautama Buddha on Wikimedia Commons?
5b5764fd61474c73d96041d1eaba12dc8c15506e	Alexander Berzin.
4379f662fe16bb81627165d2bd1a8c31840b4658	The Life of Shakyamuni Buddha The life of Siddhartha Gautama (Shakyamuni Buddha) (unavailable link from 14-05-2013 (951 days) - history)
9c46ede874bcdf0a1f74642be95997efa817e3c2	(based on the materials of Dr. George Boeree, University of Shippensburg) The life of the Buddha, according to the Pali Canon (eng.)
132ef1a789a08579c16dfd4f8f8cbd9dfe84613d	Notable Names Database
d6994c2eea0c6ed5d9f06881d52041d6ef84bcdc	Regulatory Control BNC: a11154676 · BNE: XX840627 · BNF: 11954606k · EGAXA: 000931629 · GND: 118664417 · ISNI: 0000 0001 2133 8551, 0000 0004 3355 7817, 0000 0003 7120 8960 · LCCN: n80050504 · NDL: 00571841 · NKC: jn20000700253 · NUKAT: n97024720 · LIBRIS: 288579 · SUDOC: 027524035 · VIAF: 259214648
8ca338b227992d13983fc544e1dcbe89ce4a5366	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakyamuni Buddha&oldid=75005370"
92ffb855f7259aff7c14ae0996804cec682d3adc	Categories: Alphabetical personalities Born in Lumbini Deceased in Kushinagar Philosophers alphabetically Teachers of Buddhism Buddha Shakyamuni Personalities:Buddhism Personalities:Ancient India Deified people
ff527a1ea064ee5cdfa19014fd14c50026158340	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with manual date verification in the Wikipedia card:Articles that require specification Wikipedia:No sources since April 2015 Wikipedia:Articles with statements without sources for more than 14 days Wikipedia:Stylistically incorrect articles Articles with links to Wikicitatnik Wikipedia:Articles with non working links since May 2013
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077f5df06f873adc16cac07fae45981e956d0dc4	Edit wiki text History
ac96e23c0daeabdea1276ea3cbe17bfffedbe5ec	Wikicitatnik Wikimedia Commons Wikidata
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8a1b541298489f7ac7f9eb8c1add55a0a340e266	Last modified on this page: 13: 30, December 9, 2015.
3c7b1d4ae46dea60486176789e65626c87eefc4d	in the German city of Bremen, an unidentified flying object caused a ban on landing planes at the local airport, put the entire city police on their feet and lifted a helicopter into the air.
b234f4610e0cc4f9cac7c20bfd3ccd5ddd88d730	The world's media has been seething with reports about this incident for several weeks.
e9ce6793db8fc2623305447ca219e7f2db70666b	Moreover, the information in most of the notes is very contradictory.
0db7defcf3fc8b5e7e19d7d3d96b5a852078cc3c	Newspapers put forward various versions about the nature of the Bremen UFO, each described the events in its own way.
00d13b7870282199e904955f107fadb3806eea32	It is almost impossible to understand what really happened, which of them is right, who is wrong based only on the information contained in newspaper articles and news TV stories.
d9a0587853e7e96d5cd8ae00100651c585a838d4	Let's try to figure out at least approximately what really "caused a stir" there, using the most reliable (available) sources of information - press releases of the Bremen police and the results of a study conducted by German ufologists.
663662eaf2fecff741a15420dc6eaba8231d3a26	at 18: 09, the dispatcher of Bremen Airport saw an unidentified flying object through the window of the control tower.
2dd4d021864326ca7ab5abc1f0a1fcd2b411d5ba	The UFO was in the sky above the runway, shining with red and green lights.
e0c8a1be80aecb265c25a0bcdcbda267b38de90a	According to other sources, the object did not have any navigation lights (statement by DFS spokeswoman Kristina Kelek).
56f6a2dba4242378807b59e1927404d7680b9988	The UFO was observed visually and, according to DFS spokesman Axel Raab, was not detected by radars.
593361983c7e0835177c73935d35fa8ca1677fb9	Due to an unknown flying object, the air traffic control service decided to stop the scheduled landing of flight LH2114 at 18: 25, later it was redirected to Hanover.
b29a1744d6ec9645d32edf94d4fd1c9d511c403d	The Flight Safety Service notified the police about the violation of air traffic.
8832a1dce88d974807a4fd25c14b6e7d2b0e26f3	Patrol cars went to the city, the police interviewed witnesses, a helicopter was specially lifted into the air from Lower Saxony, but the law enforcement agencies failed to find the violator.
b2beead6a985d1f3769830d54a7103feb3f5371f	Several citizens, in all probability, could observe and describe the police helicopter used.
0b0e80572b1b40b0f47d35864c49b05bc2cd23d9	Witnesses in the western part of Bremen observed an Air France plane waiting for permission to land.
7c5dd778a23bd59de8a03afc3785e38031d282a1	According to the current assessment of investigators, the helicopter or model of the aircraft was sent by a professional amateur who controlled the model using a computer from a table or from the lawn.
2f801cdb48709fffab590f60c100667032950644	According to experts, the data on the glow of the object and the altitude of the flight are not suitable for use.
7daf76d6ede462053d9d7b5ec76170afa84db3e6	Targeted investigations against the suspects did not lead to any concrete results ... ".
1d2b1d97ee40b69820528b4c442bf3dc0401ee1e	There is indeed a lot of green space at the eastern end of the runway.
a6e645a77f31ecc2e5e83661fcb2d191ffbcc1e4	In all likelihood, it was from there that a multicopter or a similar radio-controlled model took off.
4c60916cfd3a74eaef08c0cb1f96487b6dbb9d93	However, local residents claim that bans and fines do not stop fans of aircraft modeling.
80b1023a9e8206e36b9fd352c520ad5395d10bb0	Anya Naumann, a representative of the German Air Traffic Control, in an interview with the media rejected the version about the multicopter, due to the fact that on January 6, the wind speed was, in her opinion, too high for a radio - controlled toy.
f1120c19f3775e958dbc0ac46f5ae289227d6a3c	But checking the information showed that the maximum speed that evening did not exceed 28.8 km/h (17: 00 - 21.6 km/h; 18: 00 - 28.8 km/h, 19: 00 - 25.2 km/h).
1c38bb645896b6f928f076830260a17e4862d979	The reasoning that a UFO could not be a UAV because it flew over the city for too long (the battery charge of the multicopter lasts for 15-30 minutes) is also wrong.
79c63e33ac1e55e2e4cebbb6c3a13c900d1fb3c9	At the very moment when two policemen noticed a brightly glowing object moving towards the airport over the Weser Stadium, the dispatcher looked out of the window and confirmed that he saw a bright light in the same direction, only a little further away in the area of the Bremen-Mitte Hospital (Fig .1).
4da005f58c3934d00ce5fb6206beb16d6275f079	That is, in the first case (18: 09), the dispatcher observed something like a UAV, and in the second (18: 31) - bright white landing lights of the LH356 aircraft
78a719ad910a108fa449c20e8f9db1f3c957fcdf	Location of objects on the map 06.01.2014 at 18: 31. 1-airport control tower; 2-Weser Stadium; 3-Bremen-Mitte Hospital; 4-aircraft LH356.
c10058f3f9127e1a7a69092a335a140a1fb40ccb	According to German ufologists, the YouTube video with the title "UFO over Bremen", which was replicated by the media, has nothing to do with the incident.
3cb14332ecb9bcce6e50e23de34244b17761853a	A UAV was flying over the runway of the airport for several minutes, and it is still unknown who controlled it.
a8f8731624318fcbcdc40e3b00f9db0a08b4401f	Moscow City Court. price "Komsomolka" was the first to look into the secret files on UFOs Mikhail Gerstein, chairman of the Ufological Commission of the Russian Geographical Society.
f1bf2bd85e42cca3ed36e2dd6b4ff048700ece16	Komsomolskaya Pravda, April 4, 2007 Claude Poer founded GEIPAN in 1977 and became the first head of the group.
5fbaa531c13d75745b5563ecd84274c60ba9b8bc	Jacques Patenet, the head of GEIPAN and an employee of the National Center for Space Research of France, ensured that the UFO dossiers were declassified.
b1b93d0a02337ad4f70e0933c846395767863897	France is the only country in the world where UFOs were engaged and are still engaged not just seriously, but at the state level.
d302045f9d03f5ab7d310578349b5bd4c71f87fc	At least, according to the representative of CNES and the head of GEIPAN, Jacques Patenet, such attempts were made.
5aaa61d346478e76c6d9732bc934681ed40f3d6e	At the end of March, an event occurred that ufologists around the world were waiting for: the first batch of declassified materials appeared on the website of the French National Center for Space Research (CNES).
37285d63a9960531268b61dd5434a96b71c29153	For almost 30 years, they were collected by the state service for the study of UFOs - the so-called "Group for Information and Study of Unidentified Aerospace Objects" (GEIPAN), cooperating with the military, police and special services.
5c8b4a6d6fa042160c47d89313789a119ffbc482	This is truly a world premiere, " said Jacques Patenet, a representative of CNES. - No country has decided to do this yet.
c48014d22f9428b2311baa40529472f07257c111	The main reason that prompted CNES to publish the "secret materials" were accusations of deliberately concealing information about UFOs.
27bc933fabe9d34b147377ce63e27a92449aaf63	We demonstrate that we do not hide anything, "Jacques Patenet assured," except information that affects the private life of citizens.
725a8a4af1b9559db802d07d7723ec383f496791	The GEIPAN archives contain 1,600 dossiers containing information about about 6 thousand episodes of the appearance of UFOs.
c73c93f0c228934b02fde6984abf116f2339b961	Therefore, another reason for declassification is to draw the attention of the world scientific community to the UFO problem.
e902c73cb3f4340a1a77de80a6d12ffe27b82a14	To do this, according to Patene, a special employee has been hired who processes the documents.
2ca55067dd5a579afb924b547a1625798c6db328	In the winter of 1979, Lieutenant Colonel Jean-Pierre Fartek served as a pilot of the 2nd Fighter Aviation Squadron in Dijon.
adfb7f8e272fb3f710627ba7dc256c47d397c154	A disk-shaped ship with a diameter of 20 and a thickness of 7 meters hung against the background of trees at a height of about three meters.
24bdc80a3626f5451abe95874b217904e78cb4ca	After a while (the couple, fascinated by the spectacle, did not look at the clock), the object began to sway much faster, then tilted and rushed on a low-level flight into the distance until it disappeared over the horizon.
f09cbc7fbe3b4c8087c4be7b46f88acffa75178e	The UFO hovered absolutely noiselessly, sometimes swaying as if to keep its balance.
86145b4d20121b194126398d6c7c2d889ea3d40c	Although Fartek saw UFOs from the ground, 6 percent of the observations contained in the GEIPAN dossier were made from aircraft.
9f2e3e6d91de3f136b7cb978a646abfb4511d9e4	On March 3, 1976, Claude Bosc, a cadet of the fighter aviation flight School in Tours, was performing a night training flight.
8018882c49d19bbdcb2c629ecf215fdfd93aa630	Suddenly, Claude saw that a fiery body rolled out of the horizon directly ahead.
8f256f7c190d16591c09b754960b34f566d5e7cb	Having taken off to a height of more than 7 kilometers, the UFO began to descend, heading towards his plane.
7afbdc936697e10137f21e57873a95a83ca30277	Thinking that a collision was inevitable, Claude threw the controls, but at the last moment the UFO, slightly changing the flight path, raced near the right wing.
0535d364bfd5abac4a4057377f528f20818be527	Despite the blinding light, the cadet realized that the UFO was not very large - two meters in diameter.
dada39775fc62f7b5e4a33a2482629729551e541	Then the pilot Gervais Giraud and the navigator noticed a bright light on the right side: a UFO was moving at the same height, very quickly approaching the plane.
5705026f7fd0015f1687bcaa0eb62e4e0753f513	I radioed the dispatcher of the military radar in Contrexville and asked what kind of plane was going to intercept.
c1db383636ee4449ae0c6d985dd7f9ea91b2adf7	When the UFO flew up almost at point-blank range, Gervais laid a steep turn, but this did not help: the object made an even more puzzling maneuver and went to the "Mirage" in the tail, keeping at a distance of one and a half kilometers.
3189d3b5da9138df1720556b9c061a566872895e	If it was someone else's fighter, Gervais and his partner would not have a single chance.
53c0ab91ac9402fc97edf853e28ad1aae882af80	Although nothing else could be seen in the sky, Gervais continued to feel that someone was watching him.
51f957553afa2d8e31ab8d822478c8124aecf59d	Usually radars "do not see" UFOs, but there were exceptions.
78aa87f85c35bb7e366d8725c48956f4fc6865ad	Unidentified flying object (UFO) — an observed object that resembles an aircraft, the ownership of which is not recognized by terrestrial observers.
937803eb688a00295f3782970aadcb41a384edcd	In other words, if there is a message about the observation of some strange phenomenon over the earth, the case was not identified with any known meteorological or astronomical phenomenon, and there was no evidence of falsification, then they say that we are talking about an unidentified flying object (UFO).
67dfb40ebdf8daacd239016ee273490d241f2fc6	Since some of the documented cases of observations of flying objects could not be identified, the greatest skepticism is usually caused not by reports of the observation of something unidentified, but by statements about the alien origin of objects.
e65df6db1f3c2fc045c188c2b7d8553e49ae094f	In many countries (including the United States and the USSR), cases of UFO sightings were recorded by authorized military and civilian state structures, including within the framework of classified special government programs (the Blue Book Project and the AAYA).
16789882877d98bbb1792e2ee4a91d694264ad4f	At least, the American historian Greg Eghigian, who studied how ideas about UFOs and attitudes towards them changed, came to the conclusion that UFOs were a product of the Cold War and the atmosphere of secrecy and distrust associated with it [3].
dc1384611e1abb4f3197e9c5c5df6cd2db9eb247	In different countries, there are many public initiative organizations and enthusiasts engaged in the registration and analysis of UFO phenomena, including in Russia — Kosmopoisk.
9ebf04d8d0885e667a865acb94aba28771d4af4d	From a scientific point of view, there is still no confirmed evidence that UFOs are in any way connected with alien life, and the first official contact is still the fate of fiction and the future.
b144fcb369bc5794401de3e0287592016fcf79e1	With the development of computer technologies and the Internet, the program began to conduct distributed information processing on thousands of simple user computers.
e2430de20d963303211f8ab445adff9811e7c5b3	In popular culture, UFOs most often mean an unidentified flying object, the appearance of which is associated with a visit to Earth by intelligent beings [4].
1e4b6c08a596db1cebf6c6c8e2044da4703d26e2	Many people, including officials and scientists, are skeptical about the possibility of these visits and are convinced (or, according to ufologists, pretend to be convinced) that the UFO phenomenon is an abnormal natural phenomenon.
863e034a28b0b6e0b3a494d55fd24e0ea0fda7b0	On the contrary, some former officials, military personnel and cosmonauts (including lunar astronaut Edgar Mitchell, who later became interested in parapsychology [5]), after leaving the service, become public adherents of the alien origin of UFOs.
5d78b43b5f74c98257b1957af32c9282550b017c	One of the first reports of the observation of a disk-shaped device refers to July 18, 1935: in Canada (Saskatchewan), 3 people said that they saw the device landing in the forest near Nipawin; and also observed how humanoids in silver clothes climbed up the ladder into it.
93a0a42be9e4ce5e1f5d2c162ee8987951f97626	On June 24, 1947, American businessman Kenneth Arnold noticed nine flying objects " similar to saucers "during a flight on his plane.
02fb1c25febb056c353243ce0c43d52a9ebc3a22	Despite the fact that UFOs are observed everywhere, there are areas where they are observed especially often — the so-called "windows".
1642d9cfe1146fef1e641208902395942f1993c4	Some researchers tend to consider the increased brightness of an astronomical object during a given period, for example, Mars, as the reason for the "waves" of UFO reports.
907d62ecd82833c41a8fc3a6fd0e2b905f624be7	There are opinions that "waves" of such messages arise in states experiencing certain difficulties (for example, some explain the surge in reports about "flying saucers" in the late 1940s by the Cold War).
77096dbcb16df07b72a5bfccb2a1110a7ede6e54	Also, reports have been repeatedly cited that, judging by the frequency of occurrence, UFOs show an increased interest in military bases, primarily missile ones [10].
60a30b3daea4505d0bdde5e2afab338d6cb90a51	In the articles "The Darkened sun" and "The Forerunners of the" black cloud ""(Alexey Arkhipov), which were published in the" Technique — youth " for 1983 (No. 12), such cases are selected.
20f448ce8286fe48330e2e311e578c2bc2b7041c	After about two and a half hours, the southern part of the aforementioned body separated from the limb of the Sun, but the northern edge of the body, which had the shape of a spindle about three solar fingers wide and nine in length, did not release the solar limb.
86afbc7087c3465ddecaeb888cbbd33409227f6c	This spindle retained its shape, moving along the Sun's disk from east to west at a speed that was not more than half the speed of ordinary sunspots, until it disappeared on September 7 after reaching the western limb of the luminary.
cf3a6c6d7e9576d04ca46130147327c347b084df	Watson), director of the observatory of the University of Michigan, were observing a total solar eclipse in the United States at a distance of 185 miles from each other.
1c5c1801b6f29317b74ecf7b6f136d230bc6f9e7	During the observation, they noticed two unknown red objects slightly smaller than Mercury near the Sun, astronomers assumed that they had discovered new planets in the Solar System.
33d16315efa0dbe1b51e56de835ea4aff72adaa0	The entire electronic library Table of Contents from the Encyclopedia of Miracles, Riddles and Mysteries of UFOs (unidentified flying object) - an object about which it is known that it is not a phenomenon known to modern science or an Earth vehicle, an aggregate or an external manifestation of their work.
e8f50117649d3d4559cd14f41e87aa67ad7f5a86	As far as it is now possible to summarize the available information about these objects, we can say that UFOs are "something" that can have a very diverse technogenic or field, plasmoid nature and origin.
4ea0fc0d6c9462e445e57eb2cb6ae4803342d54c	the transformation of shape, size and color, the ability to move almost unhindered and possibly unlimited penetration in outer and near-earth space, under water and possibly underground.
9d7f946c26520f88953d6f2f0349681038069e7f	Unidentified Flying Objects and ufology (the science that studies UFOs) are relatively young concepts that have existed since 1947, however, the phenomena described by them have existed for many millennia.
65b6d3bdb0401b2214fc13768223d61a839e07c2	It would be more correct to say that UFOs exist on Earth for as long as the person himself.
0afbc8ac58776c89907a5442cbae979a43889536	The very first images of UFOs, apparently, were made 10-15 thousand years ago in the caves of China, in the cave of La Passiega (Spain), But also Von de Goma in the province of Dordona (France).
85e9c965599e0a3fe9e949877d1f8202571c12ad	E. The ancient Chinese chronicles described in great detail with many technical details the arrival of people and robots (identical iron brothers) on aircraft of various designs.
4a9cf8d03a86ea10ca6cde08b496b75f1476e0a9	For example, only in the works of the Roman historian Julius Obsequens, descriptions of round flying balls and disks are found 63 times, in Titus Livy -30, in Pliny the Elder -26, in Dio Cassius -14, in the famous Cicero -9.
f4697e6b7175640c4fb0298d6de01a8b16d9e692	Finally, mass observations began in the XX century, and their most significant peaks occurred during the years of the first and Second World wars.
1e938e2a827cd90f9d4b81820abd039690b0cdc4	Spherical and star-shaped UFOs are more often observed, less often - "cigars", "triangles" and more complex shapes.
12c005785a65a702ceb7981591c9039d3aa379fa	In the USSR, the topic of ufology was opened for publication in 1989, however, being already recognized, ufology still remains in the minds of most people something resembling mysticism, devilry, anything, but not "normal" science.
daf678cc75ce5f47cf31550b08b217e434e75601	Over time, the study of UFOs and phenomena associated with them (I.E., anomalous phenomena) has given rise to many auxiliary and independent trends (paleoufology, instrumental and observational ufology, ufocosmonautics, etc.).
6840780f2be6f31ca9dc33878d3900780d45d086	In the hands of scientists, there are already several samples that represent fragments of obviously artificial structures, and such that it is still impossible to make them with the most modern technologies.
510534fb2b2fa7ebd648f01748f5a099878efae8	On the surface of the Earth, there are places where, after observing UFOs, witnesses find traces of the activity of unknown supertechnics, such as whole herds of dead cows that had their vital organs removed overnight with the help of the finest instrument.
942d9caf11ecba0e9a86a50714a8618e798dbcb6	Or thousands of cubic meters of soil silently and instantly torn out of the permafrost and disappeared without a trace overnight in the north of Russia near Korbozer in 1961 ...
5633611adff9f8a4516cd32eedecfecec8ffe960	The number of UFO videos in the world is directly proportional to the number of owners of video cameras, so it seems that unidentified objects literally filled the sky of Japan and the United States.
a8eef50acd5f17d13176a4d21c978b164fa8c81c	radio and TV programs are often reported; books and bulletins are dedicated to them, as well as lectures by ufology enthusiasts (from the English, unidentified flying object, or UFO, — " unidentified flying object ").
23e94b80870cc8c1d79fc1d72879fff77d30f5ee	basically, we are talking about random observations of unusual objects or atmospheric phenomena, about the discovery of incomprehensible structures, their remains, traces on earth, and even about meetings with aliens from outer space.
41e4651bb87029433cd2fd4998c1b362a5a537e3	people are inquisitive, sincerely passionate about the search for extraterrestrial civilizations, but, as a rule, they are not specialists in the field of meteorology or astronomy.
19e6a833593630f56de42dd4485608f66c61c181	they rely entirely on the stories of eyewitnesses or, even sadder, on the information of journalists, obtained second-hand and often greatly distorting real events.
c06b5a84aaea1a30fb047b9b7dfe75e89f5d1566	Most ufologists are sure that if it is not possible to give an explanation for the phenomenon seen right away, it means that we are dealing with a manifestation of extraterrestrial intelligence.
4d327eba650e06ea3ff66408913acf3497304cb3	ufology In the history of mankind knows many cases of "heavenly signs": in all epochs, people have noted rare and incomprehensible phenomena in the day and night sky — comets, fireballs, halos around the Sun and Moon, clouds of rare shape.
a9d7624f65f2883a6a3edd819ac677300e2c3318	The modern surge and interest in UFOs began immediately after the Second World War, in the heyday of aviation.
28ad7560cfc8589ccc4c017b5516b1c09fd57418	American Kenneth Arnold, flying on his small plane near Mount Ray-nir (Washington state), noticed nine objects in the air, the size of transport planes.
459659fb69c3851d00c2747dac369997356503a6	objects bounced, as if ricocheting off the surface of the water.
be10f73ad693d50a9491af9ef932cbd226d9c776	this is how the now popular term "flying saucer" (flying saucer), or, as they often say, "flying saucer", appeared.
ddb2f9f090fe4fe7c59aa1b47c2b51f3ece0b87c	the editorial offices of many newspapers began to receive information from eyewitnesses of various unexplained celestial phenomena.
ec182463dddec246aa88c065afc89562c11923e3	in general, the American public reacted to such reports with skepticism, since no real traces of the "saucers" could be found.
ad1203947ab687590229531982e8a99e26f1ee6c	the genie was already out of the bottle: interest in flying saucers was growing.
61756d22763d4ea294194a62e5b78055f4131c7b	journalists and ufologists use not only the frivolous phrase "flying saucer".
88223cdc5fcb17b7c592194936e16111ebc2c736	the designation of all "flying and unidentified" is the term UFO (UFO).
88f23f55ed96c544594560b1b2a8abb7cca9c638	other names, such as AAYA — an abnormal atmospheric phenomenon.
f837aaa3bfeb1d48c1f7d73c88546f7223532808	the military immediately drew attention to newspaper publications about unusual flying objects.
b5c0fdc716401d74b97c80ba20eb5e7d464f20eb	The US ordered to start studying " atmospheric phenomena that may be of interest from the point of view of national security."
8f215c2641ff68b6d19296608af1e8099d01bf9d	UFOs are secret aircraft created in the USSR.
362f9ca781c73af45b9cb024d08890aa11da884e	The United States has launched the "Blue Book" project.
3f171e8e5e1c84abe7f6cdf539b68965ae49476f	UFO reports are caused by various atmospheric and technical phenomena known to science and safe for the population of the country.
ac8735f2646c332152a99b324a1b52bd92900ef4	they hide evidence of the extraterrestrial origin of UFOs and the presence of representatives of other civilizations on Earth.
17418187c6dc433d1d9c8f2038eedb06ec0143f9	the Air Force command was forced to turn to independent experts with a request for an additional investigation.
87a3cf2e71b5a2935f852f0575751befd148afa3	Edward Condon has been studying UFO reports for two years.
7f8c04d848a51398b791fdaa2044cbd2e91e1743	In January 1969, Condon's report " Scientific Research of Unidentified Flying Objects "was published.
47d1343f334c09d6b3dadffe3e33eed293f41698	however, in conclusion, Condon noted that there is no evidence that UFOs are alien spacecraft or a source of military threat.
18d7da7b4f19977db57879782ac5e1c6c7ce3875	Following the recommendations of the Commission, December 17, 1969
43d0d85dca21474970bf0c60adadd63afaf67482	Since then, only public organizations have been doing this in the United States.
51ce8d047527841af2a3a1742522b4035aefded2	UFOs are characterized by strange and still incomprehensible reasonableness of behavior, unexplained characteristics, including instantaneous appearances and disappearances (materialization and dematerialization), instantaneous movements in space (teleportation), time travel (chronoportation and temporonautics), modes of movement in space from hovering to speeds of more than tens of thousands of kilometers per hour, abnormal effects on humans, living and inanimate objects, etc.), the transformation of shape, size and color, the ability to move almost unhindered and possibly unlimited penetration in outer and near earth space, under water and possibly underground.
ae00011497c24daa455a086e9af5cf8e5e046f3f	If the nature of a particular type of UFO becomes known for sure, then automatically this term (in any case, the term "unidentified") becomes illegal, and the object itself receives another name mirage, gallo, hoax, or AO (astrolevitating object), IR (alien ship) , etc.
7a409979b169192a301109b627218eb53280e26d	According to the written chronicles, unidentified objects were observed always and everywhere.
5496064a41e4d40dffa091707b316b662b07756e	One of these newcomers, Huang di, even became emperor for a while, taught the Chinese to dig wells, make musical instruments, be treated with acupuncture and much more, and then together with 70 tribesmen flew away on a man made "dragon", presumably, for several "limits, to the constellation Xuanyuan"...
4f953bd329bade5e993f3fecfbdc5beee2959081	Ancient chronicles are simply full of reports of unidentified objects being observed in the sky.
dce460676f5ba676918c60cf5309c620550c6d4f	They openly started talking about UFOs only after observing the Cascade Mountains on June 24, 1947, when the plane of the American Arnold Kennett was overtaken at supersonic speed by nine disk shaped objects that, when moving in a two row formation, jumped about the same way as a stone jumps on the surface of water.
9e1ccaa734873118abc8abf873f0a80a0b1350e9	Kenneth managed to take several successful photographs and, showing them to journalists, compared these objects with "frying pans", but the newspapers immediately picked up another term - "plates" or even "plates" - thus, as if emphasizing a skeptical attitude to this topic.
843165994c4f793bd317238b7bdccdb6a93aa900	By the way, among all the objects observed by UFOs, there are very few similar to plates, about 10-15 %. Spherical and star shaped UFOs are more often observed, less often - "cigars", "triangles" and more complex shapes.
6e1b9285d09f6ef7ffbdea3177d98d8ed9ae48cc	Approximately 70-80 % of all UFO sightings can be explained by the technical activities of people, mirages, astronomical and atmospheric phenomena, but even that small unexplained percentage is more than enough to say that something amazing and incomprehensible really exists!
d5a838f6b7473cc6bcc658a2b088bdcd93d126cb	So, what are the facts that confirm the existence of UFOs today?
a9d9fbf622f00afc0ab3b229d60ffe27d002ccfb	The most famous among them are a segment of a thick spherical shell with a diameter of 1.2 m, found on the Vashka River in the Arkhangelsk region; melted balls left after the explosion of a spherical UFO at an altitude of 611 km near Dalnegorsk;
d0e3b6c87916704c5a09e67d642cc79f2aad41f2	"angel hair" and much more...
767c51a3f92e1f5e3638cba03ceb17cc4f7b1438	There are thousands of photographs, film and video tapes, recordings of radars and other devices obtained by direct contact with a UFO, such as, for example, took place on July 17, 1957 with an American aircraft "RB 47", filled with special electronic equipment.
2d989968d84874d98e1d0e87a77290f769b1b194	Of the domestic amateur videos, the most famous is the film belonging to Nikolai Vladimirovich Yegorov, on which an unknown star shaped object is clearly visible above the Crimean beach (at high magnification, due to the automatic aperture device, it seems diamond shaped).
a4481ec55517479aeb24908bfbea2724f73cbc9c	The rest of the Russian owners of video cameras can only be advised to look at the sky more often...
0d368d7d82631918abe188a1e290cbea49ee7fc8	The point of view of official science: The existence of the UFO phenomenon today does not cause any doubts among most scientists, but the known laws of physics contradict the version that UFOs are interstellar ships of other civilizations.
69160881505482c05d579db996c66c8ca001974f	The point of view of ufologists: Along with the most popular version about UFO starships, only 32 hypotheses are known, including hypotheses about UFO secret warships;
527394796aeaaf2d1f9f1c80457af690374f104c	UFO extraterrestrial life form;
a969ead7383d936001fb6ff30b7192217d12b8e0	UFO flying genetic and psychophysical laboratories;
4ca622ab79517e2ed2f177820126b61dc9d5c1d7	UFOs from subspace;
e6cab58aafedadb72fe75891ff544cbff1609ed5	UFO poltergeist;
339b1ec34860a592a7430fa7d3eaa85eda9af407	UFO time machine, etc.
a148d3c994646ea75a96e68abcb6729edee901b8	For sure, we can only say that the UFO problem cannot be explained only with the help of one hypothesis.
1067042c33a9f4f822d421b62c4e248fc79762ba	Nevertheless, let's hope that Humanity will be able to understand these issues soon enough.
db40785372413b02007678ae27c5cebb027cff96	It's still uncomfortable to feel alone in a huge universe...
f69307d1ee81b667bf6b68dd404a68fe9644754c	The entire electronic library
a7234be16949c661e257f9f711792e850be4c365	Rambler's Top100 bigmir TOP100 Catalog 'Enchanted World' liveinternet.ru Рейтинг@Mail.ru HotLog
ee4e07ad563cc9cdc43b87cf95a364f1f3f52636	ABOUT THE PROJECT TOOLS COMMUNICATION ARRAY PARTNER SITES CALENDAR SITEMAP FEEDBACK RSS | Forum | LDAYA | PDA Today Thursday, February 25, 2016 Current time: 20: 49:54 MAIN DOCUMENT OF THE DAY OF THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF the media "UFO" over Bremen: a radio controlled model, a passenger plane and a police helicopter Wednesday, February 5, 2014, 13: 21 Red and green navigation lights of a quadrocopter, landing lights of a passenger plane, the searchlight of a police helicopter, the airport control tower on January 6, 2014. in the German city of Bremen, an unidentified flying object caused a ban on landing planes at the local airport, put the entire city police on their feet and lifted a helicopter into the air.
32d223fc90e2ed3e8ac261cb8703c924ef41a66f	And yet, as they say, an attempt is not torture.
b9398247fceba29da05bd76d240234c234adb8a5	Let's try to figure out at least approximately what really "caused a stir" there, using the most reliable (available) sources of information - press releases of the Bremen police and the results of a study conducted by German ufologists. at 18: 09, the dispatcher of Bremen Airport saw an unidentified flying object through the window of the control tower.
f067259a8ce05002f39d6501e296bf7b0a80db28	The police immediately began to search for UFOs.
be980baf4625e5a2195f176684072a8054cb95ee	The search ended at 20: 45.
7662f9ca419fcf4a270bbb544ee14c5f9d28f755	The joint press release of the Bremen police and the prosecutor's office says: "After analyzing more than 50 testimonies and interviews with witnesses, the Bremen Prosecutor's Office and criminal police investigators give this assessment to the case: It is still unknown who was driving an unidentified flying object, most likely it was a model aircraft or a multicopter, and the operator may be related to aircraft modeling.
23e185a211e4b1a63f2d4e2a970a83e53ca6a0ba	This is indicated by witness testimony and expert assessments.
4074742b53904e186d0c1d4ee047c02ca2549b7d	In the night sky, it is difficult to determine the size of an object and the distance to it.
867d570fec7e1e094a14c0e75c135ba24abde461	Targeted investigations against the suspects did not lead to any concrete results ...
998bcf560609985eb9ea6623077825cee1d21f4d	". There is indeed a lot of green space at the eastern end of the runway.
f8641f216fdda2e5cc22e380ebc649fc2f0e33ee	In all likelihood, it was from there that a multicopter or a similar radio controlled model took off.
b4df4285532d68f689acb99e09e29643dd803894	Launches of all types of UAVs, kites and balloons are strictly prohibited on this territory.
f7370bb2f4b99c9af1293a728c5b6f79370ab780	For professional aircraft models, multicopters, this is quite an acceptable wind speed.
4766c3d471eb2fd4410e9ac77adb4da88264bc61	The dispatcher observed a UFO over the runway for a few minutes.
5f1b8070c7fed4bc11028974f270ebf447ec91a6	After that, the object completely disappeared from view.
406f7dc558f41db81992169e227e53c25f60902c	At 18: 31, a completely different "UFO" was seen from the control tower.
a615ff235751ae0471cd89ec86bc0dd40d078318	At the very moment when two policemen noticed a brightly glowing object moving towards the airport over the Weser Stadium, the dispatcher looked out of the window and confirmed that he saw a bright light in the same direction, only a little further away in the area of the Bremen Mitte Hospital (Fig .1).
9fca11a49fe878a3e729111e33548c45c1246d13	It was there, at the specified time, at an altitude of about 300 meters, that LH356 was located.
751b7b9721fac4535c2b7a80d8c3b70bfb7352e4	There was no other glowing " UFO " there, otherwise the pilots would have noticed it.
de5402cb41c2c232f7009ec8a67cfc19b1421c13	Fig. 1. Location of objects on the map 06.01.2014 at 18: 31.
16e053020a269966a9e173719945182d2f54d15e	1 airport control tower;
cd68a3fb7f24df0ee0d80e3402a56a470f05fe5f	2 Weser Stadium;
88f8b48f95208825188dac112a618f4a7d0326c8	3 Bremen Mitte Hospital;
db146275d2c6e6cbe3a2d29ad2f1edf53956ceca	4 aircraft LH356.
13aa794b5af4349e42113693331a31e00699615b	Sources: ufo information.de and flightradar24.com At about 19:30, a helicopter arrived from Lower Saxony.
0411bb6cb62954e9c49a756ba59b9d11f8da654c	He flew over Bremen for more than an hour to no avail.
1315fdbd98e724f01063c52074963780d532d54c	Several eyewitnesses took it for a UFO, - this is stated in the press release.
f2c4e9d02cef1e1148a349a2e944215daf0334df	The rest of the observations of the citizens are explained by circling planes.
790d5a87897a6cf5820e653230088c94a1f39634	As a result, the following picture emerges.
bbbe525ffb167193ba6aed184e5cc5acdb8950b5	There were no other "UFOs" over the city, except for circling planes and a police helicopter.
9d9d038f1130e88bc159e545dd1894890b2d66cc	Chvartkovsky A. based on the materials of polizei.bremen.de and ufo information.de See also: 1.
9ed37e35e7c5d4c4e6235778f2979be9b700a4a0	Not a UFO.
fd3c94370a71ddb545fee6ddd8e038292ecb5558	Multicopters!
ab105db9896ddda6d73010918eb08f8b90c98b8a	2. Not a UFO.
f717bf8cfd9867da7c73cce8278e0856c6fbe8fe	Part 2 Become our subscriber and receive ufology news by email!
b0ee158b77dafd6a8e07fc0adc99b8d9e91fb87a	Category: Tag News: Bremen, helicopter, Germany, model, Quadcopter, sightings, unidentified flying object, UFO, the object, the lights, the witnesses, the police press release, the investigation, the plane, the media, ufologist, Cvetkovski, bright light Other publications on this subject: minutes of the meetings of UNICA "Probe" for 2015 Newsletter "news UFO" No.
ae0300367b944353d17d2220a69461a7a8e58875	26 Last Protocol HOGA General statistics of the global archive of UFO identification and AAA research Supplement No.
5ef063d7a2fca35aa2e2cdf9373907d2f957706e	7 to the global archive of UFO identification and AA study Comments Vkontakte / regulations Comments Facebook, Twitter, Google, Disqus / terms publication of Distraction "UFO" activity Report of the group for the study of anomalous phenomena in the environment...
ac2c212888802ca76903a47c46fa26dcf17a0102	UKRAINIAN UFO FILES — Part 5 ARCHIVES PUBLISHING SITE Not a UFO.
61ce4d4788f142a1d0aa155da2a8f749e0da0b77	Video editing and CGI graphics!
89a41b850c3c3b944a7261e27edb417c8d918ff2	RUSSIAN RUSSIAN UFO ARCHIVE — Part 8 No UFO flew into the Mexican volcano Popocatepetl RUSSIAN UFO ARCHIVE — Part 9 UKRAINIAN UFO ARCHIVE — Part 6 — 1 SUBSCRIBE TO the RSS FEED Enter the e — mail address: LATEST NEWS Minutes of meetings of the UNICA "Probe" for 2015 Interview with Robert Fleischer "Phantoms in the photo", — ordinary glare The cause of Yuri Gagarin's death a meeting in the air with an unknown object 500 planets in one picture Bulletin "Ufology News" No.
bf4fdc68da0dcddcc34fb7079bed886fe2e8b291	26 The last protocol of HOGAY RECOMMENDED VIDEO COMMENTS OF READERS Igor 87 Dear anonymous, please refrain from offensive expressions.
9f40ed5ba8cd899e44b6dadc340a8deef774b189	The author of the article is responsible for the accuracy of the material.
21f191445aba28f1a1c2d0d05020907e8595bfa1	We will find out how it really was only if we decommunize...
1ee701df179c2278d42b6eaf1e8bafdd532a42b6	The reason for the death of Yuri Gagarin is a meeting in the air with an unknown object | Ufology News · 1 week ago Reader In the process of reading this wonderful insanity, decorated with a lot of grammatical errors, there is a light, intoxicating cognitive dissonance.
80f3095177268c4e455cfec08ad4e7fb74442d3d	At first, we were assured of the absence of trees.
78b664864df166e9a9c3e0648424872f813f574c	*... The reason for the death of Yuri Gagarin is a meeting in the air with an unknown object | Ufology News · 1 week ago Igor 87 Why did you decide so?
7e73a0239852f3c3e6ba37a3c69054d1f9b40deb	But no one forces you to believe.
ff6c797312bf2ad894c784b2d28095f630eeae3f	Radars and "saucers": ultra high speed UFOs over New Jersey | Ufology News · 2 weeks ago TAGS, TAGS, LABELS CNES EIBC GEIPAN NASA AAYA AYA Academy of Sciences Beletsky Air Force Great Britain Gerstein Kalytyuk Space Agency ISS Mars UFO Ufology News Petrov Roscosmos Russia USSR USA UNICA "Probe" Ukraine Ufology France Chvartkovsky Shpakovsky anomalous phenomena astronomy bulletin video launch meeting conference cosmonautics observations object eyewitnesses landing landing Declassification Declassification Sputnik film © Ufology News, 2011-2016.
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eee729483d617acb0d9ece66272f1df9e5bccf04	A large selection of TV tuners.
1544b58b6ec1d11e9bb40152a4d4fb0e23eae55e	Hurry up to buy in the Player.
6a4a066c30ecf9bf67fbdba3c7458b38ba254bde	Ru!
1541bee8506f65f5303c44c6811692157d806abd	Window sills Werzalit Germany.
f211db30e72436b2de98a0063d5a58658f2bd42f	Measurement, cutting, delivery, installation.
c0b450aab10bbff72b4f54fe6b8411cb850174f4	Official dealer.
5131d89bcb95e0eae1824b54cce62ab3f7ef9337	The warranty is 25 years.
01509e6d8d0471a55de97dbaa52c1364c093c6c0	Criminal defense lawyer!
5e7e1420c96831c577e3aa9fb8e800881d62b0b6	Protection at the investigation and in court!
4147fc8d85b461cf998e11337b7b031ef4d57775	Appeal and cassation!
fc9362068ff1629eea45f00199700337fe835ad2	Claude Poer founded GEIPAN in 1977 and became the first leader of the group.
90ae1f66290cdb192107d8374f4383484b4561ac	For more than 30 years, they were collected by the state specialists of France for the study of"plates".
7dd1312ed70514dbc69eef57abd7c9f3a7f3ff41	And every abnormal case - from among the declassified ones was not only documented, but also investigated.
e14fe08f3550b384c5f8d3209a546d168f093ca6	The conclusions of the officials are amazing: almost a third of the cases cannot be explained.
1d40e733dca6e496af28d085dee52ad2ad83a8ee	In other words, people observed something really supernatural.
ab6b84c5824126129c3044d6cb035b9df9c81e7f	For almost 30 years, they were collected by the state service for the study of UFOs - the so called "Group for Information and Study of Unidentified Aerospace Objects" (GEIPAN), cooperating with the military, police and special services.
d82a97a5658d8e6031df4963605d9fcf001753df	This is truly a world premiere, " said Jacques Patenet, a representative of CNES.
496e63b528e92be2e16ba90df5229fc6438fab37	- No country has decided to do this yet.
38be6ca45aa4d17003de3ca3bb3bca8aac1d2cc4	In the United States, for example, you can only get access to part of the UFO archives.
152362aef9b89a4c42c2a0a979b0bc9beeece7b7	And then from time to time.
db9297d2693e7a572720983a12ce35890570d3e4	On the contrary, we have provided everyone with free access to all the information that we have.
ed484d478596b1399f498901a63ff0df642a3a83	That is why the names of the witnesses are crossed out in most of the declassified documents.
96578f0b8a3ca502547ded869c5453eaa727bd10	The volume of materials is huge: about 100 thousand pages of A4 format.
4818db2a87b2ea8c6b6507470d623fba8db55036	And 28 percent of the cases from this volume are recognized as unexplained.
3305f606a53213dc260ea7ee600538b44ee2812e	So far, GEIPAN specialists have made 400 dossiers publicly available.
acc9e78782073871d901addf52e5a83c72eb181e	But they expect to provide all the information by the end of the year.
58a9c071b0e475d10475c91b5709e93a7358e606	But already now the dossiers have become a real sensation and have aroused great interest.
afc0bbb27813b902248b48bd7c08a59f77546115	In the first hours after the files appeared, the CNES servers were overloaded.
58163e1c6cc924074a80f62d69437d9e4cba6ca6	More people visited the Center's website in two days than in the whole of last year.
325a59110f35bc47531c850558874a96da858246	And it is not surprising - some cases threaten to turn our ideas about the world and the universe upside down.
afec59db95fe520f3fab630b1218b7890fc92dc0	The pilots testify
29b0efcfb0d3677fcf1f7a7848d2f9673da6b74c	March 1954 A military pilot filmed a UFO in the sky over Ruen.
8620ef52e1f90f864c8626880e9be352b6eb8914	March 1954 A military pilot filmed an object in the sky over Ruen.
5b16082156579f751be9d069b7c149ebe915915a	September 2005, a UFO was captured by a resident of Saint Tropez.
071c07b01821ea1777d91a18101b209adf153da9	In the winter of 1979, Lieutenant Colonel Jean Pierre Fartek served as a pilot of the 2nd Fighter Aviation Squadron in Dijon.
09e07706a275f51166b2270b677189bd3cfef5ba	His house was located on the very outskirts of the city: beyond there were only fields and a small grove.
d08353a41624304981b227a0a39c515a5684d299	On December 9, at 9.15 am, Fartek and his wife saw a strange object over the field.
63d1a1b76100ebc07db69db3abeabf38eb4f514e	A disk shaped ship with a diameter of 20 and a thickness of 7 meters hung against the background of trees at a height of about three meters.
e55b0562f1f919ba73dc9745f04c436057f733db	According to the pilot and his wife, it resembled " two plates folded at the edges."
21803871f4c5de514d8b2fbc490424c205ea2ddb	There were no portholes or lights visible - only a dull metal hull.
6e166a963f0f52de288d748d8952695ebb771f56	After a while (the couple, fascinated by the spectacle, did not look at the clock), the object began to sway much faster, then tilted and rushed on a low level flight into the distance until it disappeared over the horizon.
a5a1f0b8272639e4ce82b1c8ed3f6f6a034dae95	During the investigation, it turned out that many of the lieutenant colonel's neighbors had seen him.
dcf3d3ea7c31d116fec81ec73e7fd1b6bcb24c44	It was supposed to fly over Rennes, Nantes, Poitiers and land again in Tours.
0fed404044ec8496b34a03ddc88caad94d30d378	Other cadets received the same task.
9f30726e83d5ab6ac24f0a6c3e2193b7b10d45fb	At first, he thought that someone had launched a flare, but immediately dismissed this idea.
f52be2a6ab274982ed77e598a4ad160c773df0c8	A phosphorescent green plume trailed behind him.
f871703cc2256254b00efbd4b751ec87fc6c3b83	The radar did not record a UFO, but after landing it turned out that other cadets also saw the flight of the ball.
2eb5130144cda7e5d4be3df4d5231b32d345787d	On March 7, 1977, at about 21.00, the Mirage IV plane was returning to Luxeuil after evening maneuvers.
7b418efa9cded7435428cdcfe0cbc74e86ba1ceb	He was flying at an altitude of 9600 meters.
140e14934944b30b4acf51dbfe277cb4dcb6bb9d	But there was nothing on the radar screen, and the dispatcher hinted that their oxygen masks were obviously not in order, since they were seeing all sorts of glitches...
aae5524f9e85ec09817b072b669e12f4c602e2b8	When the UFO flew up almost at point blank range, Gervais laid a steep turn, but this did not help: the object made an even more puzzling maneuver and went to the "Mirage" in the tail, keeping at a distance of one and a half kilometers.
121d19027d5fe9063bfedb6fe7d75827bb14b1b4	The pilot made another maneuver, and this time the glowing "something" fell behind.
dc201e799ad2ead7c06f90972abe57e6b6bac45a	He told the navigator: "You'll see, the UFO will return now."
be4ff61d05987efc41d968742ebae0a3a8adcf15	And I was not mistaken: this or exactly the same UFO again took a position on the starboard side.
e1b0bbf5bd795f422da0547c57c3257ee33f15d1	The dossier also contains one of the most famous UFO images.
a97ad8b78f036b30553d7abfd7de4fdf9c0f7b4e	He was made a French doctor in March 1974.
c1189e1d07e6b8dda468a113dd37d812081da568	Trying to break away, the pilot put such a turn that his eyes almost popped out on his forehead: the overload during the maneuver reached 6.5 g!
a8920b5b2030f803bb4c116c5104434e9c8462f1	The UFO easily repeated the turn and again went to the tail.
90d6e615bd0a05892a0436ee3a2ff5d82bbf294e	In the end, he easily overtook the Mirage and disappeared into the night sky.
22e83acb633523ea9eccdcb0139dbbe5de2158e9	Ufologists calculated that the UFO, performing such maneuvers, had to cross the sound barrier.
1d66e4277fda99effb51d8deee4c07056d9076e1	However, no one on earth heard the rumble...
b41733b35874d5ba9a1eb2d26aacc4f5b3e57b9d	One of these cases occurred on January 28, 1994.
621eb1f78cc689db1aca40a0746f551e29d3faef	The Air France airliner A 300 was flying from Nice to London.
5e4a426e0601063c02ee804e97ce7580e43cc86f	Everything was going as usual on board, until the pilot Jean Charles Dubo noticed an object flying across the way.
8fa59488bad1c985996c78c3844e9d8e547b7863	Dubo and two other crew members remembered the time well 13.14, when the plane flew over the city of Coulomie.
171291e53f35bc9320101be1969081ee8f98c716	Suddenly, the UFO, which had the shape of a bell, changed its shape in front of the pilots and turned into a dark brown egg.
215cf6a1273047f5a0b23f38a0dea7903a0d8161	After hanging level with the plane for about a minute, he disappeared as suddenly as he appeared.
11ab7f70bcba3f29fdceb280e7006f0be9292e8a	Since 1983, pilots of French airlines have a special questionnaire that they must fill out in case of UFO sightings.
e80b3eac8b906c5014495f897edbe4332e53345d	But in this case, the crew preferred to immediately contact the Aviation Navigation Center in Reims by radio.
dc288abfd31f8f03c4264b546cd4575a6499b9b8	From there, the message was transmitted to the operational center of the air defense, which, in turn, informed the ufologists.
d2df2ed4b318b07b160467c0f7b51bfc9066af0f	During the investigation, it turned out that the military radar tracked the UFO for 50 seconds.
b9c74ee203b842c89b7399e2d058dfaa802225da	The data obtained and the crew's readings allowed us to calculate that the UFO had a diameter of 250 meters!
5cfb50cf2c5e30e3f43ece00a431cce875d20c1d	They violate the public peace
b139318cf2698dada6d76158bb07dbb04e35bdfc	Classification of UFO sightings in France
ec392ba98decd39923d10d8e9a76618b790df46a	After the Second World War, when UFOs began to appear more and more often in the sky over France, reports of mysterious phenomena in the sky were studied by the Air Force.
6499dad0b2251476ea59744f470a80ba71ba077d	Lieutenant Plantier even published the "theory of UFO flight" in the official journal of the Air Force "Forses Arienne Francaise", but it remained a curious hypothesis.
0c51a6b2824ca33743fe61f1b178c5c8be1c576e	Since 1950, a dossier on UFOs has also appeared in the "Desiem bureau" - French intelligence.
a0d0deea207a75aa34d1736b2cb56d9ffffada90	In 1954 and 1968, the question of creating an official group for the study of UFOs was raised at the highest level, but then this idea was not implemented.
d961e25c3dbfe8730ea3e5ad254665724efb1d94	Only in 1974, it was decided to organize the collection of messages about "plates" from the population - this task was assigned to the gendarmerie.
43c35bed4df70ce76ba59879236b52d3e1e2311e	"The National Gendarmerie is obliged to monitor the order on the communication routes, the safety of people and property, and the public peace," explains Captain Gaston Kervandal.
b5ee276b0fe7a300c26eb217cdb886c276502365	- When UFOs fly low over a populated area, they disturb this calm.
2c3c649857d2e478d05526ca4098a3e69be9361f	Similarly, if a UFO lands in a field or on a pasture, it can cause damage to the crop or herd...
fec7bdf21b53078259cf747f33808b1ae813ec21	Thus, the gendarmerie can not help but be interested in UFOs, getting involved in actions regarding UFOs at the request of a witness or on its own initiative.
8d00fad7e4556e2e0c6729aa4bfe26ef1b9f2778	The Directorate of the Gendarmerie gave directives to all units so that every UFO sighting that became known was the subject of a serious investigation.
25f8f7ac534f5fdeed1b5f9de2e363310100dcdf	- How is such an investigation conducted?
b13af992b33c9a85b4149b781ee202554475dcaf	Kervandal continues.
96e305001a1e4da651954c83f274510f785b1952	- As fast as possible.
df6789b5339ac23eba70acb0e216bda6785eb7dc	Gendarmes go to the place of observation, photograph it, take a plan, interview witnesses and others, require laboratory tests, take prints of traces that may remain, interview special services, whether missiles or weather balloons were launched, whether anything was detected by radars, check whether an airplane or helicopter was going to land at the time of observation...
484905e9b5708ec187b066e221bb23c4c1b7122a	Such an investigation is similar to the usual investigation, familiar to the gendarmes.
28e67a3f123aa22ae431aa5a0a4aa5b4d329a4d7	Two years later, engineer Claude Poer proposed to create a ufo group at the National Center for Space Research, assuring that it would have the full support of the army, Air Force, civil aviation, gendarmerie and meteorologists.
c545e5019cb493204c4cc264e9ca154ca598a0c2	This initiative was supported by the Institute of Defense Studies.
0c773a4606910322921e48d96e83b2e7095dd452	On May 1, 1977, the group, which at that time received the name GEIPAN (Group for the Study of Unidentified Aerospace Phenomena), officially began working under the leadership of Poer.
06d39cddd4799abfdce890430d5b3ed9b25df88d	- When we created GEIPAN, there were a lot of wide smiles, - says Claude Poer.
b8cc2bc32dae0b243e22a6f1aa9495862cdfbfb9	- Now they have become narrower.
bb49b5010bb2a654074aeb8e535a2d60f82903a3	As for me, I donot care so much about the opinions of others.
f8e9150ea97a2225ad0de66e441768d6156db534	If what the witnesses tell us is true, then this is very serious...
9f37f6ec20aa654df64d3c787216e3a2eaf2f655	A study of 678 UFO reports from 1977 to 1978 showed that 38 percent of them cannot be explained.
4f76bb3090d9c698c4d635220da04152dfb9e1be	11 UFO landings were recorded - only one received an acceptable, "earthly" explanation.
260c751a6711044b0a117cd631e8a32dcff1d449	The other ten look just supernatural.
7fb646c4e2071e9c0dbfa31745bee8ed079898b1	Scientists have come to the conclusion that people actually saw some material phenomena - most likely, aircraft, the principle of movement of which is unknown.
11098ba5dca220fef41b0de213b52a31e51b0220	Twice, eyewitnesses observed humanoids from a distance of less than 250 meters.
4ef16f77b288ad35b4cd7cb309e8cf25d2d25f30	BY THE WAY
c954c3cd0edea50d4ad0ba845962b5c10d08c914	A memo for eyewitnesses prepared by the GEIPAN group
485beb91cfdd7ac7da58009a972d4c30f852279b	What to do if you saw an unidentified aerospace phenomenon( s)?
eb9ddc1e49f7697ba9d69da2918c68eb62df24db	Think, write, report.
40795795c0d5b79dde2618cc310947e1637ef40b	First, think about whether you really observed NAYA.
5c0fa2ad5740abd11d3385f7f17560cff6cce987	If you really saw a phenomenon that you cannot explain, write down all the details as quickly and accurately as possible, including the following: the date, exact time and duration of the phenomenon; the exact geographical location, reference to the terrain, etc.; its shape, size, color, movements, etc.; any sounds emitted by it; any other information that may be useful.
9a0d3ebd7f7899d79fcbc941b1d28e2cfe79688d	If the phenomenon has left any visible traces (i.e. prints on the soil, damage to vegetation, etc.), do not go to this place.
662c2398da5b2b58cade98f6b8cadefc592e6eca	No serious analysis of the samples can be carried out if they were not taken in accordance with the established rules.
3a08d2229540023267d08faa40f8e607d3148403	In any case, inform the nearest police station, which will do all the necessary actions and prepare a report in the prescribed form for transmission to the GEIPAN group."
8f6a8a74812eab8ff91b812ba596128fedc7e6d1	And here are the aliens
eee8cc24778b82e36f721a30adb433d354756ad4	On August 29, 1967, two children from Kussak - a 13 - year old boy Francois Delpey and his 9 year old sister were grazing cows.
a75cfabaf1bbc1014db308901b3adf4c0ab4148c	Suddenly, they noticed on the other side of the road that passed next to the field, four small humanoid creatures about a meter tall, dressed in black overalls.
daf74a59a58658dd9a344c7fc85d0c93997c1dfe	Not far from them was a huge ball, half hidden by a fence.
7abb5657a2bf6624b3735b5649f84254bbcb5ef6	It glittered so that it was painful to look at.
4fdd1b7afc645375fb5cc9ea229db7071e24ae16	Ufologist Claude Pavy (photo below) interviewed children who had seen humanoids in Kussak.
c9abca990279d4261558938bda4d7bf8f4bb7d97	And the artist restored the picture (above).
4fb1110cd084c7cb175d46132a311b94e4cfd1de	The real "plate" - its picture taken by geologist Andre Fresnel in 1952, is recognized as authentic.
57464212efce755ae691f2a7d7e5f38a0a0f69f9	One of the creatures bent down every now and then, as if collecting something, and the other held in his hand an object that reflected the sun's rays (Francois compared it to a mirror).
ec2a9ee94f56d7e9e21c5fb6f0160fb70d46a057	The humanoid was shaking his hand, apparently signaling to his companions.
c37d02d133877a6ab20f61e8d8ac56fb697bdfda	The creatures saw that they were noticed, and became worried.
18ee70c1fc3194c506f509ba0ab3cb2378dd175a	One of them soared vertically into the air and dived headfirst into the ball, as if through a trapdoor at the top.
f8e2b896f7ea9164ae71c063ba6baeabb7fc28b6	Although it seemed to the children that it passed right through his body.
770aa82cd374d6b767a689059e67e902771ddf92	Two more humanoids followed him.
32af9d32adf87279444ab4019390d85f01c8a5d1	The fourth creature took off, then dived to the ground, where it picked up something, and soared up again.
fb464668eb5bc9b07fc1df30bdc610326fbd7318	At this moment, the balloon began to take off, and the fourth passenger dived inside when the UFO was already high above the ground.
4b5336b499b1891ee0a4ca8fa243d58422441d46	The ball rose in a spiral, then glowed brightly and flew away.
a396297e7178e44025e818e1218ffde1043760af	And the wind brought a strong smell of sulfur to the children.
9ad4ca233136e0d65efebcc144ae7a3a70112f13	The frightened cows, lowing, huddled around the guys.
db64a4dce5739246e44852ca82b69164210be413	They rushed home in tears.
7695c6d01306dcb08049cf24d48f8fa3c18d9061	But they did not cry out of fear, but because of some kind of impact: the children's eyes watered for several more days.
2dd3a9212de0e58d6a1a47eef2275e8484320867	The father went to the police.
3d16247f24287581a7d6f608ad6264bbcb7cb17c	The gendarmes who arrived at the scene also smelled sulfur.
aa2fdc9eacd15d4900863ba2c7823444ab245861	And where the balloon was standing, they found clear prints of supports and dried grass.
f0199eee1853ca94f2c95e10e7305477f267745c	In 1978, a second investigation was conducted.
f4f36d42733ecfeafbcdf487bfadb52ab2312233	Scientists not only interviewed grown up children, their relatives, doctors and policemen again, but also found witnesses who heard strange sounds, saw a UFO fly by.
dff5b9a473ca47ded30ee0e85ecc67710d7a8f8b	According to experts, the residents of Kyussak really met a mysterious ship.
021f3d1c6c0fc89824e4dd36c68d32c82b02c925	The "plate" turned out to be genuine
44b36780c5127f202896f72a55d6597220d1f73b	At the disposal of scientists there is a sophisticated computer technology that allows for a thorough analysis of UFO photos.
7471ef3456b3a05a5d1c39042f02b7a4be441bdf	It turned out that among the mass of images accumulated over the years of observations, there are real photos of disk shaped ships!
a657aa4672f58d760222a284151e6bfb251ce1fb	On July 18, 1952, geologist Andre Fresnel took a series of UFO images near Lake Chauvet, but then almost no one believed him.
d19478ee066932009e642f2ba35c01ef7604fdd7	- It was about 18.00 when I saw a UFO, - said Fresnel.
31325f7aacda1b94944fc01e4b2cc336f87b901a	- Without knowing its diameter, I canot say at what altitude it was flying.
68265317386ad6ab0585e75aabbbae7abc92ec04	Apparently, it was at an altitude of three to eight kilometers...
58552b65994e6e13f9af258abbd04458f1ee5b6d	I managed to shoot four frames very quickly.
c55805d4b142e0599f284a09d49e7a8ac053df73	After taking photos, I began to look at the ship through binoculars I looked for about a minute.
42cc375e3c9e1443d2e540eef242aa0d3683727f	Judging by my observations and calculations, if it was at an altitude of three kilometers, it was flying at a speed of about 300 meters per second.
4047a88ef3a8a25c88181b0db16fe2174e381557	If it was at an altitude of 8 kilometers, its speed was higher and could reach 800 m / sec.
1c562d01d93c70b212e6901567d983a0ca29d97e	I didnot hear any sound.
cf4b9c0359d7e12c943035d8171185baf6bd751f	The ship had the shape of an oval.
6a6135bca9882e86cb89a92d2555119f17a7e1d4	From the bottom, in the center, there seemed to be a lighter bulge, but I'm not sure about it...
a639b08511a4672c66305954875c3034df2c65ea	I assume that a rotor or some kind of gyroscopic system was rotating very quickly above it, which can explain the glare captured in the pictures.
749c4540a0aada22f77c94ef2d24982dc7d3557c	The expert examination conducted by scientists dismissed all suspicions.
f2dc127a066ae5fbc452d9d63e05e8fc644c374d	But many pictures that were considered authentic did not stand up to such a test.
f550bee29905df4cff551fc6785709491cf54e2d	A large number of fakes were revealed using mock ups, stunt filming and the like, and this was found even on old, "classic" UFO photos.
c11fe444e4158505a321c2303cc61f12d5afd33e	There were many simple misconceptions: people took for UFOs and filmed bright celestial bodies, natural phenomena, birds, artificial Earth satellites, balloons, rockets and much more.
d2dc11faa08e96bb6ae01449dbe0be59797a48b8	Boarding in Trans en Provence
db63ffd1f818d6361a6c7c68fb34e0d543270d5e	In 1979, the state ufologists were headed by a young scientist Alain Esterl, who increased the number of permanent members of the group to ten.
9eb802b5d854b18da93313866f7a13b2e4eea2cd	- Our specialists are studying information about unidentified phenomena from the point of view of the laws of physics, trying to deduce some regularities and, they are considering the most unexpected assumptions related to such phenomena of interest to us, as the possibility of objects "standing" in the air without releasing energy, or possible causes of interruptions in the supply of light, in the operation of car engines when UFOs appear, " he said in an interview.
3903f99543a12cc8d3bd68bfee817b33fb2993a5	- We reflect on what is possible and what is not, based on our current knowledge.
162ced2ca0d9c8c1b075a74580f46453231c87d4	It was Alain Esterl who led the study of the UFO landing on January 8, 1981 in the village of Trans en Provence in southeastern France.
ed244b43909428d1d4958e11eb25a95e776d413d	And I came to the conclusion that this case cannot be explained by anything other than the impact of some unknown radiation from an unknown aircraft.
a749e7a6785c8273f2945e90b0134d03b9c72305	The main witness was 55 year old Renato Nicolai: it was on his farm that a UFO landed.
555b0ca2ebb7268fc15830f6f14fa160f96bc0e6	The farmer's story was recorded by the gendarmes at the scene: "My attention was attracted by a slight sound, something like a faint whistle.
94c7a37f59eb4f02ceb0735fce68270b81a3d9c4	I turned around and saw an object that was about the height of a pine tree on the border of the plot.
d5eb0df47d2d055898f6fed6004217ec695008dc	It was descending without rotating...
5699fe3dd21dfb829367a9de49c8c2697e7e1ca3	UFO (his drawing, made by an eyewitness, below) left traces on the path - ufologists photographed them.
8fa40d70f2dcdf40d5248bbaaf5a3cfa2b1c961f	Such a UFO landed with a whoosh in Trans en Provence.
cb67e5d933550da8eab5bc4ef61890a4326b1db1	During landing, it began to emit another whistle, constant and monotonous, then rose up and, being at the height of the treetops, flew very quickly to the northeast.
b47c04184e825aaba813bd0b5f4e2f5326718aa1	When the device began to take off, I noticed four holes in its bottom, from which, however, there was no smoke or flame.
7c2d7c13c41d21aab43a5afc1e81c1b9df4a223d	He kicked up some dust when he got off the ground.
9885a5300874c43ac63989fac74eae05f71e121d	At that moment, I was about 30 meters away.
ecfa6cb4daedbe68f01667e60531018126010d93	Then I came up and saw a round footprint with a diameter of about two meters.
91902356045897365e014503914547d7b22590d6	In a number of places around the circumference there were some traces or prints.
c4559b6ec11d70a2cb7e8f331ee057ec9f3500e6	The device looked like two plates stacked together with the bottoms facing out.
40c6a51e6cc91a7e9bbf6c3232963b57fdcceb1a	It was about 1.5 meters tall, lead colored.
1127fc6c0c8a466b8bd592f1a02c9acfc48e0f68	Along its circumference, at the junction, there was something like a binding tape.
f11c9e555266443ff685f2f028792ca43f5d21e9	Below, when the object took off, I saw round protrusions, probably landing devices or supports.
f73817a17ca3efcc8e665cd6ef4ce028659515d8	There I also saw two circles that looked like the outlines of hatches.
96e501d333681910d13597be6c9561f748bb67b1	Two supports - or two landing devices protruded about 20 centimeters from the hull."
2237591b21cb7546e4a8a8982221a4af57534ae5	Soil and vegetation samples were transferred to the University of Toulouse, the University of Metz, the National Institute of Agronomic Research and other institutions.
6afd9a5fc28f9e3edf2c7515758ebf67b36330bb	The scientists found that the soil was subjected to strong pressure and noticeable temperature effects, and the plants were subjected to biochemical changes, and they were the greater the closer the plants were located to the center of the planting trace.
d143467201315c52233b6aa2ca82126544242af1	In the leaves of alfalfa, 30 to 50 percent of chlorophyll was destroyed.
29b170ba48c2989cd09c3634ca3d4ae6bb18e79f	Experts have suggested that here we could be talking about an unknown energy field and that the study of the traces fully confirms the eyewitness's story.
60abf05a041a7bc03e73c382e0739ec076cd62e3	- The object, in order to land, flew almost right next to a two - meter wall, and at one of the points of the trajectory the distance between the wall and the body did not exceed 20 centimeters, - one of the scientists noted.
2f3cab980efe4d467dda356394014c37ef788dc5	- In order to control an object about 2.8 meters in diameter, having a large mass and flying at high speed, it requires simply amazing flight skills.
d4436c06a0856ab4826e753826c354decca69e0c	I think that this UFO came to us from outer space...
e69b7b92e684a990d50b644fa3b2b545591dbc56	Mini UFO in Nancy
68214cfdac49c85b1c876833c5d6a80dbfd796bd	In this case, the UFO was observed in broad daylight by a prominent biologist who wished to remain anonymous.
cc951454793c263a64b602c552b75d50e8c2ee3b	On the same day, his story was recorded by gendarmes and handed over to ufologists.
15a791e51f83d655c468a8e4ef52ba4957789506	On October 21, 1982, the biologist went to the garden.
a7b7f27daf303dd115ab9662767d7272e33ddd47	At 12: 35, he noticed a UFO that flew up to the house from the southeast.
e5c57e4a40d47d057ad090df9aec3bf076c8c158	The trajectory of his flight was such that it seemed that a UFO was about to land on his head.
f1799e5f1435633dc8329b0ce00141357678aa85	But this did not happen: the oval object hovered a meter above the ground and remained in this position for quite a long time.
3183ea9d67418b8d7d5a850271ad4485e856554c	During this time, the biologist managed to clearly see the object, which was 80 centimeters thick and no more than a meter in diameter.
de3061cdcbaf298de02f97c39179146255c46a0a	The lower half of it looked like it was made of polished metal, and the upper half looked like it was made of bluish - green opaque glass.
da56b667a5dc373c849a59f2881be051af314bc4	Twenty minutes later, the UFO flew vertically upwards and disappeared from sight, "as if it was sucked into the sky."
a83cf09f6e1d13f7595fcc079b23b70beb3d5e91	At that moment, all the plants under the device stood on end, and then fell off again.
081c2037f90b72a5da38fc8fdad40deb06716a2c	The tips of the plants dried up, as if under the influence of a strong electric field.
ef5c072919018b52129a3099a6b356980696121e	EXPERT RECOGNITION
0909f5dc6b1661eaece15400b191cba1db5675b3	Jean Jacques VELASCO: The idea of extraterrestrial origin is quite obvious
bd9dc90628ffb50cd9facafe048f91cfcb6efbba	The sensational investigations of Alain Esterl caused discontent on the part of conservative scientists who headed the Space Research Center.
d8e960ba109dc49c8ed54d351cc65c727317734d	His group was "squeezed" in the most painful place - funding was cut.
ef0de4fa059e8c6e2f3e968ab5ab8fc608ca2f1d	In 1983, Esterl moved to another position at CNES, and the group was headed by his deputy Jean Jacques Velasco.
17c9c0812bf23b4b10bfa5627e6e02b903b44cad	More precisely, what was left of the group: at first Velasco had only an assistant and a secretary at his disposal, and then they also disappeared.
55e8e76a0a7d15a5033fce78f03b5bbf1932c4f1	In 1988, the group was disbanded.
8c5df89113f72f9d4e85b039a5f1a79e282d160d	Instead, they organized the SEPRA group (the Service for the Examination of Phenomena Entering the Atmosphere) under the leadership of Velasco, but with a different composition.
c165e85cf8c69ce9849f571596ecee8844dc59f7	In addition to studying UFOs, ufologists were assigned to track satellites and their parts burning up in the atmosphere.
a42dbb2c164a70bada97068dfdbe3b1567dd6bcd	All this did not deter Jean Jacques Velasco from amazing statements about "plates".
a7193710397fb7d6c8ab589bec793575e6a70245	Even in the last century, he can be said to have officially recognized that UFOs not only exist, but also, most likely, have an extraterrestrial origin.
9644ec8380a434d2420160f6d9e4e3cab58ad027	"There are objects flying in the airspace of France that escape the attempts of the civil and military authorities to control them, which use technology superior to that of Earth," he argued.
cec436e328fbd7b7c3e27613ad3b07d1b0c10a3c	"Since this mind is higher than our mind, it is able to provide itself with elusiveness...
c7c212122e44ec7f02f7b89566adbe6914fbaa17	The idea of its extraterrestrial origin is quite obvious."
74cdb8ba5d18b2b5a3227382633ca070e958aba0	Since 2000, SEPRA has again started to deal exclusively with UFOs.
242282f30381783c8f2e0acd0224f65a9dbcd1d0	In 2005, it was renamed GEIPAN (Group for the Information and Study of Unidentified Aerospace Objects), and it was headed by Jacques Patenet.
c238b482b57317dd790eb75124317a92431ca171	The group is managed by a Scientific Advisory Board headed by former CNES CEO Yves Sillard.
39d7753aa2397cb24b8ccba5e8601521fa26e7e6	It includes 15 representatives from the gendarmerie, the army, the Air Force, the Civil Aviation Administration and other departments.
053ba76b4be4df571f6a055bc2ef8af9d8878b7a	According to Jacques Patenet, the GEIPAN group receives about a hundred messages a year and investigates the most interesting of them.
49c7394224345c2e60437f18b782b6e5aa6117ec	"In 99% of cases, the witnesses are absolutely sincere," he added.
27e2d7717b8756ad3993f293824adf1adcbcb6dd	"They definitely saw something."
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369bbeb668273d4cc37fd2f8bc7b96924ac6efdf	CREATE A WEBSITE A very good website on astronomy Articles Dictionary Unidentified flying objects
8e6feb7b9719754949243079e69a7c925f141147	Newspaper reproduction In the last decades of the XX century about unidentified flying objects (UFOs) radio and TV programs are often reported; books and bulletins are dedicated to them, as well as lectures by ufology enthusiasts
7d2e4c9713255e736e22e2b2079113d8fb811cd2	(from the English, unidentified flying object, or UFO, — " unidentified flying object "). basically, we are talking about random observations of unusual objects or atmospheric phenomena, about the discovery of incomprehensible structures, their remains, traces on earth, and even about meetings with aliens from outer space.
69ede30954f134c0b2ad900e306eb56a17cdb6eb	This is a real photo of ufologists collecting such messages — people are inquisitive, sincerely passionate about the search for extraterrestrial civilizations, but, as a rule, they are not specialists in the field of meteorology or astronomy. they rely entirely on the stories of eyewitnesses or, even sadder, on the information of journalists, obtained second hand and often greatly distorting real events.
f4b456de54e2de5608236ab8d57332f7af056c8b	Most ufologists are sure that if it is not possible to give an explanation for the phenomenon seen right away, it means that we are dealing with a manifestation of extraterrestrial intelligence. ufology In the history of mankind knows many cases of "heavenly signs": in all epochs, people have noted rare and incomprehensible phenomena in the day and night sky — comets, fireballs, halos around the Sun and Moon, clouds of rare shape.
69098270ff89a36fb294c241f69c455a702b63d9	American Kenneth Arnold, flying on his small plane near Mount Ray nir (Washington state), noticed nine objects in the air, the size of transport planes.
9f1264e03a76b8c2d5a472e1b894d9e9e535a2d2	In shape, one of them looked like a crescent with a small dome in the middle, and the other eight seemed to be flat disks that glittered in the rays of the sun.
9c4e51b27983bb2d3f31ce455f2d11120e33c900	In two chains, a group of strange objects moved, as it seemed to Arnold, at a speed of about 2700 km / h.
3de21d658fb48caae57a97582447343dd206647f	Outwardly, they resembled "tailless planes", and their movement was "like a skimmer rushing through the waves", or "like a saucer thrown on the surface of the water".
a90adfbeaaec357ef1bd71efc48b633be0b09098	Arnold meant that objects bounced, as if ricocheting off the surface of the water. this is how the now popular term "flying saucer" (flying saucer), or, as they often say, "flying saucer", appeared.
5b28ac58f2271393026ebd0aaaa45488ed4c39bb	Arnold's message was published.
6a0d4d516e431f3adc90c6146b7afa1906f04379	Thereafter the editorial offices of many newspapers began to receive information from eyewitnesses of various unexplained celestial phenomena. in general, the American public reacted to such reports with skepticism, since no real traces of the "saucers" could be found. the genie was already out of the bottle: interest in flying saucers was growing. journalists and ufologists use not only the frivolous phrase "flying saucer".
cf91086afc646365ea130a20a877491aa40de517	In the mid 50s, E. J. Ruppelt proposed for the designation of all "flying and unidentified" is the term UFO (UFO). other names, such as AAYA — an abnormal atmospheric phenomenon.
23fb6b23c1dbb069f169956912c06f05f963be6f	The first steps in the study of UFOs were made by the American military.
36bfb9bf0ad4df0541cee33107bf2b0ad86552c3	Arnold's message coincided with the complications in relations between the USSR and the United States, i.e. with the beginning of the "cold war".
2626c9a68ad7bac2f2454f3334c3222c434d3941	Therefore, the American the military immediately drew attention to newspaper publications about unusual flying objects.
3922ddf5ec99d5d6aba85d4a35523900fa0a38f7	December 30, 1947 Commander of the air Force The US ordered to start studying " atmospheric phenomena that may be of interest from the point of view of national security."
d0f4194b3b378ce2fb4cf01ef7df243fa8486af9	To check reports of UFOs in 1948, the Air Force The United States has launched the "Blue Book" project.
8f8e0be6df50d64296c013af122ca2e02971805c	The conclusion of the official commission on the results of the project stated that UFO reports are caused by various atmospheric and technical phenomena known to science and safe for the population of the country.
fd2e36236daf762a51391f7c368599a90637c4ad	But many enthusiasts were not satisfied with this conclusion.
603254ff77332b8890c7cfa510a8e3a148b984e9	The newspapers even accused the BBC of they hide evidence of the extraterrestrial origin of UFOs and the presence of representatives of other civilizations on Earth.
d8aa89ec8bf396eeaa4dff82d6c2114d9a07ca05	To justify himself in the eyes of the public, the Air Force command was forced to turn to independent experts with a request for an additional investigation.
878e7173c10669f091dc3ddd9eb087913100910e	In October 1966, a contract was signed with the University of Colorado, under which a group of physicists led by Edward Condon has been studying UFO reports for two years.
e877e7af9d383e7652775bcee5c9de8ab2928c76	There were a lot of interesting things on the 1000 pages of the report, however, in conclusion, Condon noted that there is no evidence that UFOs are alien spacecraft or a source of military threat.
5140e1f769e2a4a68b0e708796ededc379b2bfb4	Following the recommendations of the Commission, December 17, 1969 The Air Force canceled the Blue Book project and stopped studying UFOs.
dc09386ba1e2311d173acf7a4f99dc65a3d4654e	Who and where is studying UFOs now?
482d0cb1cb48ddc0dee8f9fb7ae19e956aec215d	Ufology enthusiasts in many countries are united in various societies and clubs.
753311d44685773f153b37fd02b8ab19eef81967	The first of them appeared in the United States back in the early 50s: the Organization for the Study of Atmospheric Phenomena, the Universal UFO Network, etc. Today, the UFO Research Center, established in 1974 in Northfield (Illinois), is actively operating, the first head of which was a well known UFO enthusiast J.
3a0c9da56a949c4de2238209f753e1e9c3693ea0	A. Heinek.
69d1110bb3eab69850ac1cd502d801d2a9338187	The Center regularly holds conferences, publishes the bulletin "International Informant on UFOs" and the yearbook "Journal of UFO Research".
4970f137c6c289e1f312a73bcf1702c91b34a7dd	In total, there are at least 50 active public organizations for the study of UFOs in the world: they are in many European countries, in China, India, etc.
96c835e5f16e48c1cb73275edf403e5d0c15c5cd	In our camp, a surge of interest in UFOs was caused by the "Petrozavodsk phenomenon", observed in the north west of Russia on September 20, 1977.
9fc45acf8aef115b6813e91442227e0900f9c296	After that, one after another, public organizations of ufologists began to be created.
ef7407f1167400ea5afcf1001496e24ffd6ac073	In 1984, fans of ufology united in the Commission on Anomalous Phenomena (KAYA) under the Committee on Problems of Environmental Protection of the All Union Council of Scientific and Technical Societies (VSNTO).
a1a601f72e7d0936a6eded43823d8727acff7598	The KAYA was headed by Vsevolod Sergeevich Troitsky, a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, a great enthusiast of the search for extraterrestrial civilizations and the study of UFOs, a radio astronomer from Nizhny Novgorod.
28936d1940a2c1d2d845341125b02f33d2a968da	At the end of the 80s, several All Union schools and seminars were held on various interdisciplinary problems, among which was the problem of UFOs.
52568c9d2bf1ffefbe4b86a71d2013aadcf64480	Great interest in UFOs is also observed in France, where the world's only state "UFO service" operates.
c922d8d10c22717c2f0ea9ff39f330aa9c2c54e0	In 1977, a small Group was organized at the National Center for Space Research in Toulouse to study unidentified aerospace phenomena.
f09fa0b5bcab41e77f63f7f5e7b51c56c64cd9e3	Later it was transformed into the Atmospheric Phenomena Examination Service (SEPRA).
94513fa1dd5076912f85b38dd042b6d4845e22c9	Its employees collect and analyze information about UFOs coming mainly from state sources: the Air Force, civil aviation and, above all, the gendarmerie, which since 1974 has been charged with reporting all manifestations of UFOs.
00b6a5feb5f02e32e0acda42025b7f957de492c4	In 75-80% of cases reported by the gendarmerie, SEPRA experts identify the observed phenomena with known phenomena.
1840a802ca58ae5ae7d896d15543e76577fe3934	When this is not possible, they conduct an additional study, sometimes going to the place of observation.
3456afffcd81825d5c9d88c2f277d7479e0f3023	"Petrozavodsk phenomenon" Petrozavodsk phenomenon This happened in 1977 and this is how it was described in the newspaper "Izvestia": "Residents of Petrozavodsk witnessed an unusual phenomenon of nature.
74fb82bad0e094191fc58770b80f418d7324af9c	On September 20, around four o'clock in the morning, a huge "star" suddenly flashed in the dark sky, impulsively sending sheaves of light to the earth.
8a5a103f5c4e12a79fda00705fb18a4a43f009f1	This "star" was slowly moving towards Petrozavodsk and, spreading out over it in the form of a huge "jellyfish", hung, showering the city with a lot of the thinnest ray jets that gave the impression of torrential rain.
a527ea101c3c673b52c09b662b5c15ca1af6abbb	After a while, the ray glow stopped.
67cd84cf94a61ed308513ea9965b260ecedff1ff	The Medusa turned into a bright semicircle and resumed its movement towards Lake Onega, the horizon of which was shrouded in gray clouds.
78f562bebc520b92f86d61764a178da51c76db1c	In this shroud, a semicircular washout of bright red color was then formed in the middle and white on the sides.
279ab07adb8fefd4dc817def0774a42ae1e3edea	The whole phenomenon, according to eyewitnesses, lasted 10-12 minutes."
dd851d9bf69568bc50ff7cc17da519c3779c73b6	Photo of gas jets This case received a huge public response.
676730a1e2484a162b803e92346c6642e6e56ee2	Many scientific and non scientific hypotheses have been put forward.
d5d6dd4d52c4a0d3aa397a99a3d1b20bd0bb7f77	However, our and foreign experts on these issues confidently identify the " Petrozavodsk phenomenon "with the launch of the Kosmos 955 satellite, made from the Plesetsk cosmodrome in the Arkhangelsk region on September 20, 1977 at 4 o'clock Moscow time.
9213e4503875ccfa6e1349d16a9537c0550e65cb	The calculation of the visibility of the rocket flight coincides well with what was observed from Petrozavodsk and its environs.
5e0fe33a833814aa86932f1b0c7334c76d9d78d3	The pursuit of Venus In the book by D. Goldsmith and T. Owen "The Search for Life in the Universe" describes a curious incident that happened in 1967 in the town of Milledgeville (Georgia, USA).
25c1b22eef9fe724ecc47cd0be0c2c60ecb4875a	In the pre morning hours, a policeman saw a "bright red glowing object similar in shape to a football" in the east near the horizon line, and chased it along with his partner in a patrol car for 12 km.
f9d0f182872491ca90f638b2d23442e53031aece	Gradually, the object rose higher, changed its color from bright red to orange, and then to white and began to resemble a star.
8a7fda2497337fbe776b77f4cbb4ed2f75662f4c	According to the police, the object was so bright that by its light they could see the hands of their watches.
4b496acb5b7015a6282152c329ad9e6d0be5978f	The report of the Milledgeville police officers sparked interest in UFOs throughout the state, and in the following days similar reports were received from many places.
8ecaacb0c2491b16d1b6e9c03bab8b627956c40d	The police in their "hunt" for UFOs were helped by a plane, from which another, less bright object was noticed next to a bright object.
f5abad7dec12c5d4d2c6fed0a489531ddb4b4673	When the plane was chasing them in an easterly direction, both objects were moving away and moving upwards.
acd9c15779f51ba8aef1b8b8a100ee43e9732d20	As it turned out, the bright object was Venus during the morning visibility.
34779a0ec720fddebdaf7f8810df6ff652c1257e	And Jupiter "accompanied" her.
3c43f7c14d4a8dfe64c824e1d5bdd3c484fe275c	What is taken for a UFO?
7f51f577f01dff82d34ed163a631121b82e7613f	Let's list the main phenomena that cause UFO reports.
92ca2b64a60daf6cb81ccc9c97261077ff0bbe52	They can be divided into three classes: astronomical, atmospheric and man made.
f7425b26cc4c2b544863dfab90eeaf7a53829b21	The astronomical phenomena of the Moon and Venus are often the "culprits" of UFO reports.
834f3d84e31c6f1f3101ccc7ee86d1250a463a0d	Of course, on a clear night it is difficult to confuse the Moon hanging high in the sky with anything, but there are circumstances that make it difficult to identify it.
83c79a6470b3b0bf38db7aed12a1537fc12e887e	Clouds running over the moon are very often clouds that hide the stars, but usually can not completely obscure the moon.
0fad4c51377c4b8f1421517709ba153b01793dac	A particularly strong "UFO effect" occurs when clouds run across the sky, there is an illusion that the Moon is moving in the opposite direction, suddenly disappearing and appearing in gaps between dense clouds.
df4be8631404c0ddd116bf83aa2efee4373db326	In addition, it is distorted beyond recognition by translucent clouds.
c7d55d52dd61ba866f324b0a9b393123ff95e714	Venus in the evening sky When driving fast at night, a person gets the impression that this luminous object is chasing him.
638cc6eecfc02bee96a146fc74e61d7f3cc4aa9a	A particularly strong effect occurs when he sees not the moon itself, but the glare from it in the window of a car, train or plane: its shape is often bizarre, and its movement is very strange, because it reacts to the slightest changes in course.
df3aec4f3053265d08c03ac3759603d3349f80ba	The moon is quite visible during the day, but many people do not suspect this.
5b4aa537d015745f32b1bc7994b0517d63c9e2f0	Accidentally seeing the "night luminary" in the daytime, some people are lost and do not recognize the moon.
317d7f0903e51b308c3fcaadf49f9080e4ef697b	Images of a bright star Near the horizon, the moon, as we know, seems much larger than when it is high in the sky.
e88b90504d3f98e125abcc9e51d12ae142c23de5	Here, the physiological feature of vision misleads people.
51dea2e6c63df44df19ab3c85ec6d94201b4afea	As a result of all the effects described above, the Moon is very often mistaken for a UFO.
4146713eb790575e8414d0a82f0b25bea4e8d5ed	Much of what has been said about the Moon also applies to Venus, which is also often mistaken for a UFO.
a97792312dc8c7a66c21bc76da85be53bed27180	As a rule, this happens during the evening visibility of Venus.
40838843bf5d2ac78114ba87e67a982a01fbbccc	Not everyone knows that the" morning star " — Venus can be very bright in the evenings.
8b7cb633704ce2748a9f5297cd7e8f77ba03e8dd	In the middle latitudes, it is especially clearly visible in the spring, when twilight comes relatively early and Venus remains above the horizon for a long time after sunset.
81d5be1869b520b3391e95ea318219b7cfc56737	Closer to the equator, its visibility practically does not depend on the time of year.
1f3b3c5fb1fa84851466c3aa37a18bd8d45d686e	Atmospheric phenomena Cumulative clouds There are two types of physical objects that are certainly "involved" in UFO stories: these are clouds and meteors.
5111edbd747b676faf03c2acc9e8ffb2cf846d97	In mountainous areas, clouds of a very regular lenticular shape are often found.
fd45ae68c59a48fb6f644bce34aa23ac8ffe0183	Sometimes it is one cloud in a completely clear sky, but there may also be chains- "squadrons" of clouds.
475d418676852cbdf85720aad4458f28ad4ad80e	They cause surprise not only in our time: in the paintings of the old masters, saints were depicted on such clouds.
e4df27b180055db1cb2527704a2af60980c6b3cb	Now their place was taken by UFO pilots.
98c5b7d79f5510b698a8cc88140e24c801b235be	Cumulative clouds, bright meteors and fireballs have also long caused surprise and become sources of myths and legends.
e6a0b5547f44437c98f318bc775d55fd2c05bda1	The car is visible even during the day, and after it flies, you can still observe a smoky plume for a long time.
c31c43beced8e39fb955a21a6089535d7aa5a69f	It happens that the flight of a space "guest" does not end on Earth — it can fly back into space, as it was on August 10, 1972 over the state of Wyoming (USA).
5a707a797dc8f4e2a1491207005d61e82b5cb005	Some materials of "extraterrestrial origin" that are sometimes discovered also turn out to be associated with the fall of meteorites.
ccbc1dc0b74cdd0dc52297026cc9acdb04982fc2	Man made phenomena are planes and helicopters, balloons and rockets, satellites and active experiments in the atmosphere and space.
245c366210a479e6c58fcc2c0a3e538b38c70149	Launches of probes lead to the appearance of unusual objects Few people know that in many countries balloons are regularly launched, mainly to study the atmosphere.
7680c25cce75ecad3d5abf47aa50dc4e8d9886b4	Hundreds of launches a day occur all over the planet.
d7a5bac88c6713cf3c417e385fa71af540444656	For the most part, these are uncontrolled balloons, and the wind can carry them almost anywhere on Earth.
328f58ac9249a88814898f684d814dcf79561baa	So, in 1970, a record was recorded for the duration of a balloon flight: being in the air for more than four years, the device made more than 100 round the world trips at an altitude of almost 35 km.
f5402fb6b8e275bfb7908a2558641f9761dbc34f	Balloons have different diameters (from 3-4 to 100 m) and different shapes: in France, for example, they often launch easy to manufacture balloons with a shell in the form of a tetrahedron, i.e. a regular four sided pyramid.
b64273a7a57ed530b77773aa322a9243a0d44a85	Sometimes cylindrical shells or bundles of several dozen small balls are used.
d01dbc4449bfb37fa0f296dbfc09f164f8fb5fce	The appearance of such a structure in the air can cause the most unexpected reaction from unprepared viewers.
d3d3ccb222f573c3979925d5ff71199920bb6f25	The balloons look especially impressive at dusk: brightly illuminated by the sun against the darkened sky, they are visible for hundreds of kilometers.
07f8451309bcc4c58c64aa79e23964108dd664f8	Recently, lighter than air devices with a solid lens shaped shell have been designed.
02b8ddb77609e6e5c32197963d67bfdd49f723ab	In appearance, they can not be distinguished from the classic flying saucer.
6bb418cc6921c401e21e35e881a7f9f10c0fcd0b	And yet, few people observe such rare shaped devices, but rocket launches are visible at a distance of 1000 kilometers or more.
e7010d71c8778a4d98a77b182a143114f3c56dfe	Soviet satellite Echo 2 It is easy to judge the level of competence of eyewitnesses of the appearance of UFOs in the case of mass observation of such phenomena that occur in connection with space launches or experiments in the atmosphere.
460251b1ab57b12833265907cabe0df57a2fd4ec	I received dozens of messages and every time after experiments in the atmosphere on July 17, September 19 and October 18, 1967 at the Kapustin Yar missile range in the Volgograd region.
dff31407109db53764b5da0ef5b4c57de116b3ea	At the same time, the errors of different people in determining the time reached 1 hour, and in the direction — 1/4 of the circle (instead of the east, for example, north was indicated).
103f684735ed55922efd63bffb2148c2c5787319	When describing the "Petrozavodsk phenomenon", such errors led, in particular, to the impression that there were a lot of objects scattered over a large area.
fca368a1e6bc214f6b9584c1c06cfa73d7a8c7d2	If it is possible to restore an accurate picture of the incident, specialists in many cases easily solve it.
eb0602bdb2a943e1b2cf75f8244902421e0e19b4	Unsolved UFOs And yet some messages still cannot be "deciphered".
b927f12239f7fc00ef5b7728688b99c18492f71e	These "classic" cases are usually retold in most books about UFOs.
e9c89b6570dfb843de18474c0d7940ba8910f320	Here is an example from the book of J.-K. Rib and G. Monet "Extraterrestrial Life", where several cases from the Condon report are commented on: "A RB 47 jet aircraft of the American Air Force equipped with a RAP system (radio electronic suppression. - Editor 's note), with a crew of six officers, flew at night on July 17, 1957, accompanied by a UFO for an hour and a half, during this time passing 1300 km along the route from Mississippi to Oklahoma, bypassing the states of Louisiana and Texas.
6715a7361d4187fddc8bfd826ec0d724f3a5ce71	At various times, the crew members who were in the cockpit saw the object as a bright light source.
c0b1e396ceaee4bc6fb12dad28a76c19e61a3113	It was recorded by ground based radar stations and RAP on board the RB 47.
3c621c53301e05e4276b013d480803545f76921e	This case is particularly interesting because the instantaneous appearance and disappearance of an object was observed by three physically different methods: visually, radar and RAP.
d5fbd3dded471aca721c8aaf82a0077b772079af	It is also interesting that the maneuvers of the object were performed at a speed that went far beyond what the crew had ever had to meet."
fafa713ead90d49e6afa9c47131522b07cbb5c24	Another description from the same book, again with reference to the Condon report.
e5dfbd57752572566219e372250a3ada3e9fa365	It happened on the night of August 13-14, 1956 in Lakenheath (England): "At least one UFO was recorded by the control control locators of two Anglo American air defense stations.
5bf52bc0f4c699b639947ad3ad810ef542a71c4c	At the same time, it was observed visually.
3e39d6d3eb5c070a8f9c84c39904254dd21be2a3	It was a round white object that moved quickly and suddenly changed the direction of movement.
5831a743781cdfd858cd6115449b44b1a409e8c7	An attempt was made to intercept it by an Air Force fighter.
c0c5b6a8c5d5adf0ad8144c97e9b3c2f8e7dab82	The control radar brought the plane to a UFO, and the pilot reported that the target on his onboard radar was visible and he was ready to open fire.
6eaeb6b1385011e83f91215c966e206bde355343	The UFO, describing a loop, fell in behind the plane and "sat on the tail", despite all the attempts of the pilot to break away.
510c5aedf3b8067ec3567b24d000eb095f926cdf	The incident ended with the fighter returning to base due to a lack of fuel.
3bb757aae3d2127827467dda68339a35e36a4fb2	The weather was clear, with good visibility."
a67b5793b839ccb4f97f3bad8eec70ad5154ed1a	These and similar cases have not received a satisfactory explanation.
e83df9710881bdbf0f442e0123088983711b25f5	Their descriptions suffer from many shortcomings that make it difficult to identify: angular dimensions and coordinates, exact time, atmospheric conditions, etc. are not given.
3186d68c49aac186f19c72921450cdbe9f32a526	Business and flying saucers The small American city of Roswell (49 thousand inhabitants), due to a combination of circumstances, has become a kind of godsend for the entertainment industry.
efda00b52b39701c64d3c749647acbdc6cc21b40	Reports about the falls of strange apparatuses in the vicinity of the city and about the finds of the remains of humanoid creatures are very effectively used by enterprising businessmen.
42de33319eea9eff2acafc10abc801a8c2d23407	There are three museums in the city.
d7d82af3518ce419f354c0c03fc05e3d8a25802c	UFO festivals are regularly held, attracting more than 90 thousand tourists here every year.
e489d1a6dae5a0be0a7641caa06698e26111dc75	All kinds of souvenirs are sold: dolls depicting "aliens" ($30 apiece), mugs, T shirts, hats ($20-50), etc.You can buy a whisper of earth from the place where the device fell.
df115d28a82261831474f12fb5d85606bcaf7e3f	Leshevle — take a photo with a "little alien from another world" ($ 2.50) or buy a badge with the single word "I Believe" ($ 2).
b983ec97f1bf4391c164fd1f5be41bdd901c0185	The city's annual income from this activity is more than $ 5 million.
fadebf21f0411a579716f0c4cb686736de739298	Roswell has become a real gold bearing vein for the literary and film business.
07eee7fddc89b978d5277a1aae25af23e4924076	The tape of the XX Century Fox film studio "Laziness of Independence", based on the Roswell incidents, brought $ 160 million in the first two weeks of rental.
7701257d2f6defae38eaeb81c8f50db15edd9ae4	In the 70s, after the exposure of the unseemly activities of some senior federal officials, a legend was born about a government conspiracy to hide the traces of extraterrestrials visiting the Earth by any means; this legend is still being exploited, contributing to the increase of scandalous interest in "aliens".
9b1b72a9f4cc30b8a1cc7c501ac575a0b36cf8ce	Russian journalist N. Zubkov, who visited Roswell, came to the conclusion: "...the fight against an industry that brings in billions of dollars annually is hopeless."
fd0b7c0aee9b2b33da7aa2dfd98762cae69631dc	What if?
6f40a7b0b1763a9d3276040299207a2340a68204	Why are scientists skeptical about all kinds of reports about flying saucers and aliens from other worlds?
b29b4db9ea27bf61240517fa84e093c122f4ad33	There are many reasons for this.
c75b0152e1b87f32d4cf3ebbeec2d96002acf170	The main one is that mysterious lights and objects in the sky are checked in most cases (although not always!) they turn out to be associated with technical human activity or with rare atmospheric phenomena, or even just a figment of imagination.
0759280ef3449f5bc5acc7f70d04330c6a50bcb2	But I would like to know that we are not alone in the space desert, even if other civilizations prefer not to advertise their presence too much.
55126939b395b49828fa7a7876d12442a826d39f	It must be admitted that even the biggest skeptic will not be able to prove that such an option is completely excluded.
db51aff8d92c3df9bbce64b198305bd790dbdd48	According to modern ideas, life in the universe should be an exceptionally rare phenomenon, not to mention highly developed intelligent life.
eae9df41eb1d8ad9fe374f11d3a10a3082e40d3a	For the emergence of even the simplest self reproducing organism from complex molecules, specific, rarely occurring conditions and the play of many accidents are required.
e76152bcfe76d07e16f36e84e1e18041d34a130d	It only helps that Nature has a lot of time in its reserve.
189787fcfac524fd34f2811d4eae3906af24a3f1	In any case, we can expect that the centers of life are separated from each other by gigantic cosmic distances and the chances of two civilizations meeting are simply negligible — unless they are specifically looking for each other.
e9f34fd8f663376417e0509b0a5b0bf821a267dd	They should diverge not only in space, but also in time — the duration of the technological stage at which civilizations can show interest in contact, carry it out and find a common language is incomparable with the age of the universe.
20d7aefb79917615cb35c3ff891233c93da9d850	How photos with aliens are created in the XX century. aliens have firmly "settled" on Earth.
17d471546f80e5b1f0a3e98b27f561d91fe31146	Photos of flying saucers and aliens often appear on TV screens and on the front pages of newspapers.
1efb09bd164c7b5dfa4e7f04cd095eaf872758de	Many people claim that they communicate with them constantly, they visit each other.
b35f1baba09c83058cf067b375322e333fa34fa0	People willingly accept on faith what they would very much like to believe.
64fb1be8540134256b2d19c9a4a823decad58c14	Capital and careers are made on extraterrestrials.
76b5fa845153f9aba84926cfbc24be4fc188c0a3	But no completely reliable information about their existence has yet been published.
7cb0fcd3a787a7eac30f84d5edde65108c6f7b19	One of the famous sensations is a film that appeared in the summer of 1996 about a medical examination (autopsy) of the body of a humanoid creature.
c5f7d0c1076dc4c450b9bcecbc6c00720d1ceaa2	It is claimed that this creature died in the accident of a flying saucer that fell in 1947 near the American city of Rosville.
8e6eeabf7e7a678be102f7e31d3e9583e559110b	The shooting quality leaves much to be desired.
b0d73db1b3e48dfd0c6287e5b5d11d424dfb86d1	The Pentagon's reaction to this film was unexpected: the military department said that plastic mannequins were placed in the probes for research purposes.
40b91c6911be51aa4a7042e17da557844234fab1	I must say that of all the reports about alien visits, this film has recently aroused the greatest interest.
a574dd2dd4440832ce33b18879e0c189c719af66	If we have a fake in front of us (such a suspicion was expressed), then it will go down in history as one of the most grandiose deceptions.
1742362021c45f657b9fe11ffd66b8cfe38d461a	Otherwise, science should take control of the issue.
8e569f68e79641e6ad99ac5d23a084a6b334d821	What can a long awaited meeting with another mind bring to humanity?
13352daf355c0648fc393e25d1c0ab62d1025523	People canot help but think about it, regardless of whether the saucers are flying over us or not.
fc17a26fd66edf556053c03154b7af26c59d8598	Let's assume that a plate took and sat down in broad daylight in the center of the city.
e0dc063e0bcc23f4d1993abaecc656967da96cb8	What feelings will we experience at this moment?
7fc22ea807d919979e3b005e3137d1c5858c1305	Joy?
e1e78574d863b0ff48d0c340152fbdec6988e363	Hardly.
6872d796631fcc5c5b3946859993ee29aa1e659b	After all, this is one of those events that you prepare for all your life — and you still wonot be ready.
f4451b16351ee56914f8bcbf6ddf1ef0d86f7be8	Rather, concern for the further development of our civilization.
49148cf1f444ba7566ef10505537ab634ab7fba4	Let's imagine a child who grew up in a forester's house.
662b5506406f253572838318d36f1a50d476a18c	As a child, he knew only his mother and father, he had a cat — one.
4ddc4cb91489f250191f91aeb859643eb9c9b077	And so his father takes him to the city — to school.
a5b8d3bb7b97ef8857bdac04f36e218b84992fb9	He sees hundreds, thousands of people at once, children and adults.
d4b91fdf2dace701e8fa6a8494521c2daa23244a	Everyone is so different, everyone wants something, and suddenly they will offend.
d1a1f990f9cd6a5fc22389b37ce31397a8858ed5	He is interested, but scared, and there is no way back to the lonely forest life.
2bc6e6643be1118dfca54d2410380d48d228f7fb	If at some point it turns out that we are not alone in the universe, humanity will be like this baby.
682ef99f042c78ca88f766020f4f59815327a5a4	So, our whole story, which seems so non random, so meaningful, is just one of the possible options.
62cc9a91b67bdf14aced63ad5564f041d590c557	Our appearance, sung by poets and artists, is only one of many, and for someone's taste, perhaps, quite ugly.
f513ed942b768ac331be9b582be568b183bdcd23	Our Shakespeare will turn out to be a provincial poet on the scale of the universe, and Einstein will turn out to be a village smartass.
978f9848d650b736676faab3d7ff5afac0c35a40	Our worldview, despite all the fantastic novels, is better prepared for solitude than for a universe overrun with civilizations.
1abf441e785c9fd6853e6a64decdaf29e40d51ea	Even the religions that feed the moral foundations of our civilization have always proceeded from the fact that humanity is unique.
a8953dbc84c71edadb066fecae33c18a9985770c	What will our brothers in mind bring us if they have gone far ahead in their development?
63e47eb2ee76badab299248fc740b73ec9212827	Your scientific and technical achievements?
b53d0af0a589341c9a9b8864e9bfca028f03bc03	Until now, all the knowledge that we have has been our knowledge, it has been suffered, found, proven.
40eb80e51d8938bbfd65468f699b9b8b1541b1db	They contain our portrait, our torments of creativity.
c2126479b575b347badac36f91c5ffb8c8ad672c	If we are presented with everything new on a platter, the path of knowledge, the joy of discovery, we will lose for a long time.
b4c8c740f64d4034a8752932e23a09ff952b3b2a	Science will become worthless: what is the point of spending your life searching for the truth, if everything is already laid out on the shelves with your neighbors.
d407275ef56b21c52555f7443025c3be8e5e51c2	Will humanity be able to preserve its inner core then?
ad00c5e5144d49c8dd0439b62d4078d84af8d526	There is also a frightening question: how do we know that they are kind?
bbb21512dd2ee059a152f65dc39868cd1cb4b5fd	Will humanity be able to protect itself from unscrupulous expansion?
509e3d5fc71caa27290a842a302b462af9ea2139	Or "genius and villainy are two incompatible things", and a civilization capable of overcoming huge distances has already experienced "diseases of growth": wars, malice, treachery?
89da6651f46ac9088623194a16d3f40bcabf6ce7	Today, this problem is discussed only by science fiction writers and the mass media (the latter are not in the always with honest intentions).
f163e2392605076e5713db511d987005bdd256bc	Serious science does not consider it its own business.
599fe7602e915d68adf70019109f35a2dd5a4487	But such questions cannot be crossed out with the words: "This is not a field of science."
bf89e49b779eeff27f2347d1c526f81bae460c28	After all, in the end, the question is not who the aliens are, but who we are.
19cb0d8668ef892c2a03536c51920c9820cd393a	"Landing traces" of UFOs In the 80s. on television and in magazine articles, it was repeatedly mentioned about mysterious circles in the grain fields of Great Britain.
bd8dda921f88aa84cf6f7d6e5afbd4d3cfb61e34	Inside a circle with a diameter of several meters, the ears were pressed to the ground in a strict order, usually clockwise.
9868487682287d8e0b0d05e4470cb7153787b0f7	As a rule, in their reports, correspondents associated the appearance of these circles with UFOs and did not discuss other hypotheses.
484b5ea3f5f97f8074dd4c61404323aba4018c2b	Meanwhile, the mysterious circles really seemed inexplicable for a long time (from 1980 to 1991), and many specialists were interested in them.
ee4e86f3ac5804fb89f85621e4abe4be8cef1dcf	Over time, the geometry of drawings in circles became more and more complex: concentric circles and radial lines appeared in them.
403e0453e4ca62d52c3ea709b893b43753eb3831	But in the end, the hoax was revealed: it turned out that two jokers created these circles at night with a simple device made of a stick and a rope.
1149dda99ec2c795a8c5fae8af30e21c224e31df	For many years, they have been fooling the whole world, giving rise to sensational statements by an army of "skeet specialists".
d52f053f82e00aa5dc5e53b0547d8a3d350c28e8	On July 30, 1989, the newspaper "Socialist Industry" reported that traces of a UFO landing were found in the Moscow district of Orekhovo Borisovo.
0e56d7cc9be92ff54a4b288d8178e8c9997c4b6c	A strange circle of 5-6 m in diameter appeared on the side of the Kashirskoye highway; the grass inside it was withered, crushed, and the edges were singed.
513d3d7b1f54db2d4af95fa37c73e31afb39cd31	On the outside of the circle, not far from its edge, four small pits were symmetrically located.
fb94561c1e426593e30bc0a90f447e3485b5b4eb	A survey of local old women and a visit to the nearest fire station quickly clarified the situation: there was a haystack in the clearing; it caught fire, was extinguished, and the remains of it were taken away.
c8173b1256b6cd7b7b066b5f5ea8ff7c8067d9c7	Such "UFO tracks" are often found in meadows or forest clearings where grass is usually mowed and stacked in stacks.
67388240b9869077498335341c9aa7369d2e041c	When the stack is taken away, the characteristic circle of withered grass is still visible for a long time at this place.
f5116b911c101a0b6a6b081c680c063d8c0fed9a	If the stack accidentally burns down, then the surface of the earth inside the circle is scorched.
2e1b9153cc14ec70c82dde817493ec629c75369d	And three or four recesses along the perimeter are traces of poles that are used to press the hay.
53bcab368c9251948bd72263cc332422062916a6	It is characteristic that reports of such "finds" come, as a rule, from urban residents.
02e2c901e245cb9eeb12ced8709bd153eae0e331	Meetings with UFO pilots The last thing to mention is reports of meetings with aliens.
3878db6ccac86633fc67c3def0c1c3f155f52b79	Ufologists collect such information and classify them: contact of the first kind saw; of the second kind entered into a dialogue, etc.
41133590b44b713896c824f055a9c960d9df753a	In appearance, UFO pilots are also divided into types: dwarfs, giants, green, silver.
673352b1c8dc642bea59fd41d1c66c6149584212	But for an open minded person, one thing is important in these messages — can they be trusted?
c816798aca4e0d3445aa1eb66526c89d3769b881	Long stories about meetings and joint trips with aliens on flying saucers, published in large editions, are often associated with the commercial interests of their authors.
a546cc74b1f896e12e8fa39802199ab241ae1347	They are a kind of genre of fiction.
5048b2559ddd50c216aa0695fcd44e111f173e78	However, other messages are also frequent from people who are clearly not interested in selling sensational fabrications.
22f802c32fe8dea549dbcf88669c04adf7ea9b82	They are sincerely sure that they have observed unfamiliar creatures and even communicated with them.
d2ed0b70fa2a3ac8d59eb6f398dba9c022b4697b	Here we already come into contact with the little explored depths of the human psyche.
41166d1c00953193e28634703c7f870560918e9d	But this topic is more related to medicine and psychology than to astronomy.
1432571360eb36fc1509110a1cb6683188849666	It can be concluded that sometimes rare natural (and recently, technical) phenomena are not identified by most people with phenomena known to them and therefore cause special interest and are taken for UFOs.
aac56c2ac059f3b44de4b6bf05ab132f59d0d9df	In each historical period, the ideas about UFOs correspond to the level of public consciousness.
b84481c5e413980f9f46699ae899827a6a151a30	In the Middle Ages, they were considered heavenly signs, and in our time they are mistaken for alien spaceships.
f5227b8279293f88cb295a4ae95a937ac8f4260b	Unfortunately, ufology in its current form is rarely understated
11d1c4cfb373f7fb95a83b8310e04fd6d48f31e3	Unidentified flying object [edit / edit wiki text]Material from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia The request "Flying Saucer" is redirected here; see also other values.
3ab7207f4f2c4e29291045599eca427d905ae4d8	UFO, allegedly observed in New Jersey, in 1952 (proven fake).
b381c76cba9b1e52633c7d77936d4b683ba38d23	From the CIA archives, the request for "UFO" is redirected here; perhaps you were looking for an article about the 2012 film or other meanings.
bc764e61c3eea9d22f7d28b7b72e9791878c2a44	Neo?known of summer?what is the volume?ct (UFO)
0b1389ace8dbfd63d76a6d8189ea0f023a48fa88	(eng.
017784c8fbd47a1abffa09ea5eecbec74b44daa7	The most complete definition of UFOs was given by the researcher of the unknown, Joseph Allen Heinek: "the perception of an object or light visible in the sky or space or above the earth's surface; the phenomenon, ghost, trajectory, general dynamics and the nature of the glow of which does not find a logical, generally accepted explanation, is a mystery not only for eyewitnesses, but also remains unexplained even after a close study of all available evidence by specialists who are able, if possible, to identify the phenomenon from the point of view of common sense"[1].
14596c2a9b32a40405076d24c92bf1fedf8f1de3	If an explanation for the phenomenon is found, then they talk about identified flying objects (OLO).
287e4b5732d93d10296b45f2834bc5dd868271e9	Most of the flying objects still find an explanation and become OLO.
5d31ba62b5f21da56429dc13a9dff1bca025843f	Of all the reports of obscure flying objects, only 5-10% remain unidentified[2].
ec8be43de1c7a8484fa0e9ec5acea478e73ff6b6	Some objects remain unidentified only because of a lack of information about them.
8a16f6a74c2729d860e30bb7e4d21fbf48718533	Secrecy may be involved in the emergence of public interest in the phenomenon.
cda85100ed8606f76feeede1c32238cc0d51d2d3	While only a small part of scientists are supporters of the extraterrestrial origin of the observed UFOs, the official scientific community of the world has a broad program for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence SETI, which assumes the possibility of detecting the activity of extraterrestrial intelligence in the framework of research using technical means of possible manifestations of this activity in near and far space.
4425414106e569878cc0fe10e36a46c1dd4c8a48	Contents [remove] 1 History of observations 1.1 Places of observations 1.2 Features of eyewitness observations 2 Classification of UFO contacts 2.1 Contacts at long distances 2.2 Close contacts 2.3 Absurdity of UFO Descriptions 3 Types of UFOs 3.1 "Hard" objects 3.2 "Soft" objects 4 Study of UFOs 4.1 UFOs and science 4.2 State programs 4.2.1 Great Britain 4.2.2 France 4.2.3 USA 4.2.4 Declassification of data 5 Hypotheses of the origin of UFOs 6 Explanation of known cases of UFO sightings 7 UFOs and religion 7.1 A view from the point of view of the Orthodox Church 7.2 A view from non Christian positions 7.3 Attitude to UFOs in Islam 8 UFOs in culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Literature 12 References Observation history[edit | edit wiki text] Background:
63bdb5e2adaf2a26f55874e590cada27a44057f8	Vimans (ancient world); airships (1920s 30s); ghost planes (1940s), see also Belonzo Disk; ghost rockets (immediately after the war).
20b5818ef16bf78a75479e2e83afbc2bdc80cb5e	One of the first reports of the observation of a disk shaped device refers to July 18, 1935: in Canada (Saskatchewan), 3 people said that they saw the device landing in the forest near Nipawin; and also observed how humanoids in silver clothes climbed up the ladder into it.
a8ff228617e55555ba9558d773b4a9e922f7d789	The next day, burnt bald spots on the ground were discovered and photographed in that place[6].
7b2c6d22a936713cf2ba4caec7581abf260550fe	This was the first recorded case of a person meeting with a UFO[7].
a8108ea33b03c711b18673aeb4d4f187da41a855	The most famous in society have received (including in many books and films) such UFO phenomena as:
50e396f8c9d7092fdb5a3dddfdfe2e389f43ab07	The Roswell incident, 1947 The Washington Carousel, 1952 the Petrozavodsk phenomenon, 1977 the Tehran incident, 1978 the Dalnegorsk incident at altitude 611, 1986 Also, in some periods, UFO reports come more often (they go in "waves" of English flaps ) than in others.
51f39dc0dee3049bc0e674ea4a21e25f1c4e5c5b	So, in the USA, "waves" occurred in 1947, 1950, 1952, 1965, 1967 and in 1973, in Japan — in 1958, in the USSR - in 1962 and in 1977-78, etc. [8]
35a9c3a34b9d93019c12e1db4612ce59e5f02185	"Waves" of UFO sightings in the second half of the XX century[9] 1946 Scandinavia ("ghost rockets") June—July 1947 west of the USA August 1952 East of the USA October 1954 France November 1957 Midwest and Southwest of the USA and South America June August 1959 Australia, West of the Pacific Ocean May August 1962 Argentina summer 1965 spring 1966 first in the midwest of the USA, then east fall 1977 east coast of the USA autumn 1985 Mexico City, Mexico Blank section This section is not completed.
51f1e11a71ae9562cfad880eab185d58de70d2ca	Places of observation[edit / edit wiki text] On Earth Despite the fact that UFOs are observed everywhere, there are areas where they are observed especially often — the so called "windows".
c293301d24c684d39ce2558f76f6cb27cf694948	The concept of them was introduced by the French ufologist Aime Michel.
3be518aeb944c663195e7cc4507e6b8ae6ee55a7	Similar "windows" are available in the United States of America (Texas, Florida, the Northwest Pacific Coast, the Hudson Valley), in Australia (Cairns in Queensland, Kempsey in New South Wales, the Nallarbor Plain, Bass Strait), Japan (Hokkaido), France, Great Britain
ebdd8f089db9473db05f35fa0266b6a49ccce8e9	(Lothian, Bay of Loos
c676c5bf7a5fc02e81be0e50385fdc99ee4ea3bd	[ Scotland ], Dared
7023feb77961644c92f4d84206868cff02269105	[Wales ], the Pennines and Warminster
d59daca5e2f927172b4f857bda767508b239f726	[Wiltshire ]) and in Brazil, Argentina, Italy, Spain, Norway, Malaysia, Puerto Rico and the Canary Islands[9] (there are no "windows" in Africa).
13808aa0bb45ea4d199b014950a2966a0b217109	There is no consensus about "windows".
e43839faa0fc3e85006b16c00946de8bb54f7fae	Some believe that the fascination of the population with new science fiction works (for example, movies) stimulates the appearance of stories about UFO sightings.
3b1360f16e5b905395964d1c476982e7ef01b8df	A pattern is noted: in sparsely populated areas, UFOs are observed more often[9].
668e2b81f84fbff43eb294d1cb3367b8343dc67f	In space, it was sometimes mentioned about the observation of unidentified objects in space by astronomers from Earth.
e0cfd5186c75685b4de7b36a685ebd27b3abd724	The Annualregista for 1766, volume 9, contains "An account of a very strange phenomenon seen on the disk of the Sun":
a057e9dfb4fbb72e44be79c2209a4510f485cfec	On August 9, 1762, de Rostand, ... measuring the height of the Sun with a quadrant in Lausanne ... noticed that it gives a weak and pale light… Pointing a fourteen foot telescope equipped with a micrometer at the Sun, he was surprised to find that its eastern edge was covered... by a nebula that surrounded some dark body.
03f2bbfe3dd4417053999d1f7781b4526db1fb7b	Rostand conducted observations almost every day for a month, using a pinhole camera to determine the shape and size of the body… A similar phenomenon in the Sun was observed in the Bishopric of Basel… Coste, a friend of de Rostand, using an eleven foot telescope, found a similar fusiform shape of the body, like de Rostand, only not so wide, which could probably be a consequence of the increase and rotation of the body near the limit of its visibility.
8ead94e6a558956c7428c173cd68741404a86fbf	More remarkable is the fact that the position of the body in the Sun did not correspond to what was observed from Lausanne: the body, therefore, had a significant parallax… This is not a spot: its movement was much slower; the object was also not a planet or a comet: its shape proves the opposite[11].
32a37e4c76bb67bc0e54c798986364edbbc676d3	On July 29, 1878, two astronomers: Lewis Swift, director of the Warner Observatory, and James Watson (eng. Watson), director of the observatory of the University of Michigan, were observing a total solar eclipse in the United States at a distance of 185 miles from each other.
09909f59755a78e760b421063dfb2b6a3c980701	A certain Dr. Peters (Eng. C. H. F. Peters) rejected the possibility of discovering new planets, stating that Swift and Watson either observed stars or did not observe anything.
0a79e28a75d6da92d3e1e596424c80a2ca514f3f	Astronomer Jessup Morris, repeating Peters ' analysis, came to the conclusion that the objects were at a distance of 2,000 — 20,000 miles from Earth, that the larger and more distant of the objects reached a diameter of more than 1.5 miles, and the smaller one was 90% smaller than it[9].
cc0b2cfb61aa3350bdcbd8de4dcb94c993b33b26	Among the astronomical community, numerous cases of observation through telescopes of unidentified objects moving along trajectories that are inexplicable for ordinary uncontrolled celestial bodies in near Earth space, around the Moon and on its surface, which have received the common name short lived anomalous phenomena, are widely known.
cc3ac093b0fa11332780eba4245d3476bfb62d69	There were also reports of UFO sightings in outer space by astronauts or about UFO surveys made by artificial satellites.
2ff95f3094fadf01471372701e81181457b6c454	So in June 1965, astronaut James McDivitt observed an unidentified object with "long arms sticking out of it" through the porthole of the Gemini 4 spacecraft making the 20th orbit around the Earth.
f970839678000641560d81f4e9dae2364d02f420	McDivitt took a picture of it, but after developing it, he could not find this picture.
7e48cfeb7b68d284c95bffd0992935c286f98402	The conspiracy countertheory of the lunar conspiracy states that during the Apollo program expeditions, the United States discovered UFO bases and cities on the Moon and then began to hide it, hoping for a monopoly of information.
f30fb1bdc47e13fac8a05c61f3dfc4a04029fb46	In the last years of the existence of the USSR, in the era of Glasnost, as unidentified flying objects, huge balls in the Earth's atmosphere were demonstrated to the public in video recordings from the Salyut and Mir orbital stations, as well as in photography from the Soviet automatic interplanetary station Phobos 2, shadows on Mars similar to the contrail of a rocket taking off.
31422c6ee6af029b5f5df2c74f7d8b94da60c76b	After the appearance of the WikiSky Internet resource close to the SETI program, the search for UFOs and other manifestations of extraterrestrial intelligence in space became available not only to astronomers and participants of the SETI program, but also to the general masses.
c311b8f90dbec6a59fc4b1cd64b2468cc26c8f1d	At the end of 2010, there was a wide discussion in the media and the public of the world about the discovery of suspicious artifacts in WikiSky, which began to be called possible huge alien ships flying to Earth[12].
9b844b8dbffe96184c66937b854ee1f4d3a7c5be	Available for constant universal observation, these objects have a two body, cylindrical, round and rod shape.
ac7380c3d52ac74074b138bba4824fd41eb478d5	Features of eyewitness observations[edit / edit wiki text] Many reports of UFO sightings are inaccurate, they may not indicate the exact date, place, characteristics of objects.
4771b58558b38ef1cbf80b02dc9c990e17f47aab	Getting the most detailed information about the incident from an eyewitness is the task of a ufologist.
99aaa68e225e27eeed9333998f5b7047b07c97b6	Often, eyewitnesses can proceed from their personal ideas about the nature of UFOs when describing them.
6544d756bd32ecbe80449d872e05515335f23b5c	(Ufologist Jenny Randels [eng. Jenny Randles] bring the phrase, an eyewitness, who, when asked: "Maybe it's the cloud?" was answered: "Yes, I know it looked like this, but I think it was a UFO disguised as a cloud"[13]).
b7068f97a5a9032cf9fed1daf7c0a888813f2627	That is why UFO least appreciated the testimony of a single eyewitness, not supported by any testimony of other witnesses, or photos.
bb1a24898e3b7e4ba1ba302b3dd040e37ed41db5	Ufologists recommend that in the case of UFO sightings, if there is such an opportunity, first of all draw the attention of other people to the observed phenomenon and take a picture of it, remember its location.
43fbf360892c92e51c1b72799fcebd4f25e6a38e	The most reliable are the testimony of pilots and scientists.
641054b4290d4abf4ac951d34c0176d9f603488d	Some witnesses of this phenomenon claim that they had direct contact with extraterrestrial intelligence in the form of a personal meeting with the so called Nlonauts (including abduction by them) or mental communication (the so called contactees).
652793fd01e276bc3bdf4b03c21ed5eaf8b774b4	During contacts with UFOs and after them, some people present burns, they may suffer from nausea, headache.
41c75b3be6139e7dc25230f3475d30cbef93aa0c	For particularly close contacts (see "Classification of UFO contacts") according to the witnesses, depression appeared, orientation in space was disturbed, increased excitability appeared[9].
4403ff3eee227620bbb1cde49c142dd1b5bddc4d	Classification of UFO contacts[edit / edit wiki text] The following is a variant of the classification of UFO contact reports proposed by ufologist Joseph Allen Heinek.
51e48c295490ee53335eff50af6f314f9c66c3d2	Contacts over long distances[edit / edit wiki text] This is the name of observations when an eyewitness and a UFO are separated by "hundreds of kilometers and kilometers"[2].
2143cfcaadd85b4cc15531c5093216962ae9b7dc	Among them, there are [2]:
af0636c64383542f42c6cc07892474ed7ff26999	"Night lights.
9af2ca8d72dff05ee11629f49415b4898903aede	Clearly visible, clearly defined lights of unknown nature, usually red, orange or white.
b3620d338b9b520b254226067238fc8fb6147694	This group includes the lion's share of UFO sightings at long distances."
503beb77dbd540bc092144f3f561f8adfd7c1f99	"Daily disks.
28bf2fbce1630eb56eced7fe690155ed108cb82e	These are objects observed in the daytime, as a rule, oval or disc shaped, metallic in appearance.
4c95e225bd3cf0dcd5dc5f52fd2690f650e3304d	They are fixed high in the sky, close to the ground and are often seen in a state of stationary hovering.
ef24e7eab2ce7b3b2f0446d5a72308049d417f93	Daily disks can instantly gain tremendous speed."
921aec9475be45eac691a065e24a82e48d891c3a	"Radar" bursts " on the radar screen, especially coinciding with the visual tracking of UFOs, are considered very valuable evidence of the reality of the observed objects."
a7d66bb439333fb50343c788258202fc34a8a7be	Close contacts [edit | edit wiki text] Close contacts (English CE — Close Encounters) are called contacts with UFOs "no further than two hundred meters"[2].
a1bfc1643d90c482c497a6c158e793cd61388752	These include[2]:
b464fadbe4d942c6e6d98ba441d8ca47db157aca	"Contacts of the first kind (English CE 1).
933e2d2d65abca63b7bb73263bfe4b650efca3f6	UFOs are observed in the air and do not seem to interact with the environment, animals and eyewitnesses."
f11df5ae8e165ed2d8caedac741d3b7fa39d2e35	"Contacts of the second kind (English CE 2).
18e0f0b9ea5c8ccf1c78ddc54c226a6bd2c6ce18	In these cases, the interaction of UFOs with the environment is recorded in the form of interference in the operation of radio electronic devices, switching off the ignition systems of cars, the appearance of prints on the ground or traces scorched by fire."
7f59a911d31629e09c3c9667f8bc7f357a83a008	It is noted that CE 2 often occurs among major highways[9].
29901c61c992ffefa7972ed29383514e65a37ab3	"Contacts of the third kind (English CE 3).
a9e6c0890f77d65f823898db5dfd53e115a93873	In this subgroup of messages there are UFO inhabitants more or less humanoid creatures, now called humanoids, enlonauts or simply aliens… Usually they do not enter into direct contact or negotiations with eyewitnesses, but in recent years, reports have inexplicably become more frequent about the temporary detention of gawking witnesses by enlonauts for the purpose of "medical" examination.
bbea250a69288bc8f37be35bb2aa41df13f30690	" "Contacts of the fourth kind (Eng. CE 4).
9c4d4c4622154a134b45c0b5d9876ba292ddf6da	Abduction".
674ed15e5245edc5b7baf94cb743786db5a615f9	The absurdity of UFO Descriptions[edit / edit wiki text] Some elements of UFO contacts may seem absurd to eyewitnesses or researchers.
02e2026b05cb685c0ab940e1a7c1f1b03ed77623	For example, ufologist John Kiel describes a case when a woman claimed to have seen a UFO, on which it was written "UFO"[14], there is a known case when a UFO had an image similar to a stylized drawing of lightning on the background of a circle;
e451d1731889c7a1a912e85930acc2c1386a8c33	Kiel also described "wheelless cars driving through deserted places at a height of several inches above the ground, "mentioned" giant gondola shaped cars with many rows of portholes hovering over the Kaitatini Mountains in northern New Jersey."
c871aed754b8f95dcf5f3d3a04eb8333b73f678c	Even in the reports about "airships" it was told that half peeled potatoes were dropped from UFOs, or a UFO could catch on something with a "metal anchor on a rope" hanging from it, so that someone had to descend from a UFO to cut the "rope"...[15] There are also no less ridiculous reports about the landing of unidentified flying objects and the appearance of humanoid creatures (enlonauts) coming into contact with eyewitnesses, collecting plants or the soil, according to eyewitnesses, "playing" and "walking around" near UFOs.
f6c90ba71a3b452e7fdbda63c80c8b281cb93e2e	In some cases, eyewitnesses noted a certain "childishness" in the behavior of the enlonauts, there is information about their seemingly meaningless behavior.
d4017814bc54f73ae968155ba1b19c85651878da	Some reputable ufologists, like Allen Heineck or Donald Kehoe, rarely investigate such cases.
b1c2de35a747f4583c2944e4674eb148c1700a72	However, according to Coral and Jim Lorenzen, heads of the ufological organization APRO, these aspects of contacts with UFOs just as much, if not more, need a comprehensive study, since they are integral components of the phenomenon of "flying saucers" and can shed light on their nature.
0be9d83af7beb289faf52e601d19e3dacac13079	Ufologist Jacques Vallee is known for collecting, researching and describing such "absurd" phenomena.
b605bfb42798f03531e4301c2a1274582ae73edb	In the book "Passport to Magonia" (1959), Valle compares such cases of UFO contacts with folklore reports of contacts with mythical creatures.
a3e539f3c5834b1f94af91ba7c319da9eab2a86f	According to D. Kiel, the absurd manifestations of the UFO phenomenon are not accidental and are designed to undermine the credibility of eyewitness reports.
73f786d3282415e31bd484227958fd98d44c1ad9	And in the book"Parallel World" [16], Valle develops the idea that absurd cases with UFOs form a new myth, and the goal of unknown creators of "flying saucers" is to influence the subconscious mind through this myth for thousands of years and plant reflexes and a certain way of thinking on humanity.
a2c6e7c2896b99dc0e8bb9e69c1776e58fee6fb8	Vallee confirms this hypothesis by the similarity of the Enlonauts ' remarks with the psychological techniques of M. Erikson, the similarity of the abduction scheme with the rite of initiation into a secret society.
69a99cd26657deedb85b7fbf6b37cd97151ab441	Also, the absurdity in the behavior of UFOs brings it closer to other paranormal phenomena, in particular, with a poltergeist.
1b24e578d137f75a76c5293e1a22ee19d686d51a	Varieties of UFOs[edit / edit wiki text] "Solid" objects[edit / edit wiki text]" Hard "objects (Eng." hard objects") Western ufologists often call UFOs that have the appearance of solid bodies, that is, by the appearance of consisting of matter.
cc6d81cae13a00b3547992a06771474bc91a530a	Some of these objects may even look metallic.
da1f7d42dcfde69d2f2f95aaafb6e14131cf08db	According to J.
8d7e6b256f00ee429c9e87c1d55e6e99ae0b40e0	For example, it is emphasized that "hard" objects ("Trojan horses") are not a real form of UFOs, but exist solely to distract people's attention from the actions of" soft " objects.
9fc4f0d3be18afe42fe7f488ac418a45475fdc72	Below are the most frequently covered varieties of" solid " unidentified flying objects.
e3d8796b403d19b57f7bc286b633fdcdf8ed8cd0	Nevertheless, the possible forms and types of UFOs described in the press, of course, are not limited to them.
2a877ab26eb36c19e7d6a07573fb6ed2caa71fa9	Disk shaped objects.
44b38e6ccc314ae04ce5ead62b93d7272428ce31	Disk shaped objects of the mo they can have different sizes.
730232bc52dcd8c8a93f12a8863f77639801380a	The disks could have resemblances of antennas, stabilizers or portholes.
3755d5037d3d5c614acf9a4e9fd98c182dd7a487	The disks could glow brightly, they could also shine like metal.
7ca48ec013c9520ef8334c4e8e6b63318fcbba33	In some cases, disc shaped UFOs could appear to consist of "metal plates".
bd9b95c5cd45ea9a9d4161a37927752952029f53	The most common types: "Adamski plate" - a UFO, allegedly observed by J. Adamski; a flat disk with a segment of a sphere (the so called "dome") on top, located so that the entire object is radially symmetric, and the radius of the flat disk exceeds the radius of the maximum cross section of the segment having the form of a circle; a "plate" in the shape of Saturn, consisting of a ball and a flat disk so that the flat disk lies together with a large circle of this ball in the same plane (the radius of the disk is much larger than the radius of the large circle of the ball; in general, the object is radially symmetrical); a disk with a truncated cone on top or above and below, so that the radius of this cone of a larger base, being less than the radius of the disk, is in the same plane with it and is inferior to it in magnitude — a radially symmetrical (in the case of two cones, also symmetrical relative to the disk) object with a radius of a smaller base that is much higher than the height of the entire object;
3387aad1cb1d2b0467db192724834bfc036815df	"mushroom shaped" objects are "plates" thinning to the bottom with a relatively long thick cylinder or a truncated cone with a generatrix almost equal to the height in the lower part, and radial symmetry is observed.
39695b774f18b800aa7933f1d0043c89c936bd81	Triangular objects.
bc62269bbdc091ade255e2bf47a9b9bff505f492	The most famous triangular UFOs are the so called "Belgian triangles" - objects that can dramatically change the speed and direction of flight, observed in Belgium in 1989-1990 and the observation of triangular and boomerang like objects with lights over highways and over the nuclear power plant in Hudson Valley (New York state) (it was suggested that the UFO was explained by a hoax arranged by pilots from Stromfield airfield, located in the same state)
172902cc4e49da4c38111aa3de6d05916a7e0c1e	[9].
c19fa83469669dcc884e92c6d8aa930a1366bb66	The so called Phoenix Lights have also become a well documented case of observing a boomerang shaped object .
6ceba36939eccf82fd95318c70f6fdcf7be953a0	Fusiform objects UFOs in the form of two cones with a common base.
371076414c968d458386e44b0d4de764e69d4dd2	Such objects were reported to fly with the axis of symmetry perpendicular to the ground, and the presence of certain "wires" was sometimes noted at the top[9].
25b4421053c0b1156f75ac4ff54320f4493b37ca	Egg shaped objects.
580bd95bcb0b007b4a2327d364bff0c3a6b62e25	See, for example, "The case in Socorro".
a680e6ce8abb2f9da15e265a26e2e8a80e84434a	Aircraft.
2c8fc443650dcf2ced9f90b83217567287bf7521	In some cases, unidentified "flying vehicles" are reported, such as airplanes (for example, "ghost planes"), black helicopters (see "The case of Cash and Landrums"), airships ("airships"), rockets ("ghost missiles"), either without identification marks, or endowed with properties that are not characteristic of aircraft known to science.
6c7ae3c2e17280dbaff496d9a8939337fa924a07	For example, on the morning of February 25, 1942, unknown "planes" appeared over Los Angeles, at which the US Air Defense opened fire from anti aircraft installations, firing about 1,430 shells at them.
b0c5fd7713a4499e1b2f91d64ea4232cb26cb0bd	One of the objects, according to eyewitnesses, hovered motionless, despite the fact that shells exploded near it, then moved along the coast between Santa Monica and Long Beach at a speed of about 6 miles per hour.
d6aa81f3a196cfabf63c1d50cc3502f48559d05b	At the same time, three people died, not counting the victims of heart attacks[9].
49257d148cfb5f27e4030fcf3a54cacf5f5e1f97	Augers (from the English "shank", although the English name of the phenomenon is "Flying rod") are rod — shaped objects from several centimeters to several tens of meters.
dba9b2abe1955bdd9c723b98d02856595be6f91e	They move, as a rule, along the line of their axis silently and at high speeds which is why they are inaccessible to human perception, but they are easily recorded by photo and video equipment.
b27c172b80f70209de74020ec602e376712ba30c	In many cases, the augers around the rod have a formation similar to the blades like a whirlpool.
7928758841a9610972a531fd34243897b53a0310	Often, the flight of some types of flying insects, birds, rockets, optical effects, etc. are taken for augers.
4f8fae5130480df95906a97c101d11997b2599b3	Some details about the augers can be found in the article "The rods flew through the sky"[specify].
81d4a684aab9320c5fc741f6428b0846f1dfaa5e	Many examples of this type of objects are presented in the doc. the film " UFO in Russia.
26521015543007b992a2e4a882bbd4c9f918aa99	The most convincing evidence"[17].
3e46b053c6a45010bc41214b64736e1aa87dc1d3	The theory that augers are biological species unknown to science is in vogue.
4513413c662e21962f75473c81e42748f76efdde	"Soft "objects[edit | edit wiki text]" soft"objects are called UFOs that do not give the impression of consisting of matter, in particular, a mysterious glow, fog with unusual properties, lights.
fcf8b4346b166572aac198ae54437ecc34d74053	In the book "UFO: Operation Trojan Horse "(English: "UFO: operation 'Troyan horse'"), J. Kiel deduces that unidentified flying objects have an electromagnetic nature, and their phenomenon in the form of clumps of light most corresponds to their true appearance.
ba7796c6c716dd119753c8cd3d6ea34a3ef43749	Luminous silhouettes and objects are related to UFOs and their "inhabitants" with angels and ghosts materialized at spiritualistic sessions, and contacts with UFOs are related to religious visions and a mediumistic trance.
c411c39576c439e1e77e0dacd02f01ee179b8551	The study of UFOs[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: Ufology in Russia: Cosmopoisk abroad: MUFON [18] UFOs and science[edit / edit wiki text] It is known that among the UFO researchers there were also scientists, even with scientific degrees: for example, Allen Hynek and Donald Menzel were professors of astronomy (Hynek from Ohio University, Menzel from Harvard University).
f94194ff74dc6916f4e4c1331012d4ad27b36414	In the Soviet Union, the problem of UFOs was dealt with at a very serious level by a mathematician and astronomer, associate professor of MAI Felix Yuryevich Siegel, who is considered today the founder of Russian ufology.
f1f151b55664d592cb66fc8874a90ba198bae3ad	However, most scientists still do not recognize the possibility of the existence of flying objects of an unknown nature — UFOs.
25c0a6778279eaece5123fb809b9e79689ae795f	A. Heinek in the book "UFO: an attempt at a Scientific Approach" cites a case: "One summer evening in 1968, a reception was held in Victoria (British Columbia) on the occasion of an astronomical symposium.
2fe2f5c429172ca2f141f170e045d972ac52e223	More than one hundred astronomers from different countries gathered in a large restaurant.
209d6884d06cbc2a7324e62850e4b305f5e19ef5	Suddenly, a man entered the hall and announced that unidentified flying objects appeared in the sky.
40049bf59598f535223f4b71e03015115776cbd8	A light chuckle passed through the tables, but quickly subsided, and people returned to their conversations.
3eeaf2cf5e466eb986d51e22a80657fa09c0c3bb	None of the scientists went outside to see the mysterious phenomenon of nature with their own eyes!
90891847528c207ed2d185f14de9b4eddd31f92c	" [19].
bf60dc9d434426ed2fb5282175d2b52eb3c3d268	Heinek continues:
c4740f04eff123498066e69656fc5241f6d371f5	There are two types of scientists who deny UFOs.
fa0ba8268d2a32ddb0a8753dca3a88640262eb9b	The first type includes scoffers who do not even try to deal with any particular case of observing a phenomenon.
63ef398fafbf9667d0e621793a9d772c34d34b13	The second type includes scientists who are inclined to recognize the reality of UFOs after verification, but only as a purely psychological phenomenon.
9c66d5b272ff3b01f88564e6e978e67e84d1984f	The position of the second group of scientists still deserves attention, since they have materials for discussion.
d79d26a195dd026cb658d2938239fc54d40f396b	The views of the first group, on the contrary, do not stimulate discussion, because, in its opinion, if there is no phenomenon, then there is no subject of discussion itself![19] Among the possible reasons why science does not study unidentified flying objects, we can distinguish:
e567616e860d6291231f8005dbfca8683f2d8d0c	the inability to predict in advance the place of the appearance of UFOs, which makes it difficult to study it; a small amount of high quality UFO literature, coupled with an abundance of mass and occult literature on this issue, a large number of conscious hoaxes that have crept, including in conscientiously compiled literature; scientists ' misunderstanding of the difference between UFOs and UFOs; the prevalence of paranientific hypotheses trying to explain the origin of UFOs; interest in ufology from religious fanatics and people with mental disorders.
46cff105d350d930e00878f8eaf26b76e6f4dd08	Government programs [edit | edit wiki text] Great Britain [edit | edit wiki text] In the 1950s, the British government took the threat from extraterrestrials seriously[20].
e125dfef27aab919142fdda08865a609ccc7bb87	For more than half a century of UFO sightings, no evidence of the presence of an extraterrestrial civilization or a military threat to Britain from extraterrestrials has been found.
577c3d59c9f81609da9fb2127fbe12258d8fd963	In 2010, a special unit engaged in the study of materials about UFOs was disbanded[20].
357eea4c1c48ab633eff22d8de7c98a976ac1104	France [edit | edit wiki text] GEIPAN (Group for Information and Study of Unidentified Flying Objects) - at the National Center for Space Research of France (CNES).
fd1ebb97b74c88f40cb5d34de0a9fe4e32743289	The group was founded in 1977 and became the first state organization in the West to study UFOs.
78c6b0cae596f5621f415165dee7bbd26d5316a5	It receives data from the gendarmerie, police, army, Air Force, Navy and civil aviation.
5bdf7ffe95cd949d262b8269fec625ed8f129f85	Now its archives contain documents about about 1,600 cases of UFO sightings.
87bfef424f77129406d820320726b4a79d610735	According to experts in the CNES press release — in most cases we are talking about "absolutely normal natural phenomena that have been misinterpreted by observers"; at the same time, some cases remain real mysteries.
e63a2c9f4748b1557ea86938e0f5b8d167119083	France became the first country that decided to make its UFO archives freely available on the Internet (2007).[21]
a41c7609bd364239711dcf1d0706fdd15cbb6c47	USA[edit / edit wiki text] The Blue Book Project (1952-1970) Planned section. svg This section of the article has not yet been written.
96c3c022f01080def920f0ad00e90e261697422f	According to the idea of one of the Wikipedia participants, a special section should be located in this place.
232b2fa86d951fa1438f8e1dc7073e803d6bd679	You can help the project by writing this section.
079bccf56fad37e3cb2cfc2c922e020fe40eac3b	Declassification of data[edit / edit wiki text] In mid May 2008, the British government opened access to secret materials about" contacts with extraterrestrials " from 1978 to 1987[22].
c164b2013851d175a686335f8e5850b1dc53a059	The documents contain eyewitness accounts of "contacts with extraterrestrials", but there is no reliable confirmation of these testimonies.
0c3dcf4669ffcf6e66b4288fa4d9fd3a6d05cafe	In addition, the most interesting parts of these documents are almost always shaded, often whole paragraphs are under the stroke, and it is quite difficult for an unprepared person to understand what is hidden under the colored text.
3dccecb1ca9fd808e0cfb01bf71c565b0dd74112	In the future, new batches of documents were partially declassified[23], including the case of combat contact[24].
be88e009ea880e3bdd5e681666b99fae61780614	In France, the National Space Agency published, 30 years later, on its website similar materials of the GEIPAN group (Group for Information and Study of UFOs).
793047b9bff66a9a473fd13dc3e92c823bba20fc	Among them are poly tsey reports, photographs, eyewitness accounts, with the help of which scientists are trying to explain the appearance of mysterious objects in the sky[25].
d4cacc84b054bc9724bf995949015a98eae85faf	Previously closed China, which collected and processed information by military and scientific structures, for the first time in December 2008 officially published a video of a UFO taken in 1987[26].
6439e82f54a459895a3e904703be71f47431345a	Materials about UFOs were made public in 2010 by Brazil[27] and New Zealand[28].
affaa19b9bfd91b7a39447d7dbb69a31fc5ce859	In early April 2011, the FBI declassified documents on the so called Roswell incident[29][30]. According to information posted on the FBI website, in 1947, three so called flying saucers were found in New Mexico.
2bb2152abfe4da9a8ed5bd989821e98c03a0befe	They were round in shape with a raised center, about 15.25 m in diameter.
bb47eb0f5f1c4f43ecf68a1f97aec88ac62a2050	In each of them there were three bodies about 90 cm in height.
475efc8a546b976a6a3365a5e3dbe0ff59636109	According to some sources, this document is a well — known fake[31].
a51cc769221b73505dd4bec64dd55af60a666083	Although for the first time materials about UFOs appeared in the official Soviet press in 1977-1978, it was allowed to publish this kind of information widely only since the time of Glasnost.
9b76fb2f0dfd3a173026cce2dbab202914c87467	At this time and further under the post Soviet democracy, Russian officials did not give an official assessment of the numerous published facts of UFO phenomena.
40b95c0cb4c2476755707408e289efcc33d504e7	However, recently there has been more and more evidence that the military actively studied and collected information about UFOs.
cd51ecbc85ca4157c83321de32deb34d46d57dad	For example, in the 70s of the last century, a secret directive of the General Staff was sent to military units to collect evidence when UFOs appeared[32].
a5f9bf6e6cc5e09ccb73bd51ee3381f94fdff448	Hypotheses of the origin of UFOs[edit / edit wiki text] Main article: Hypotheses of the origin of UFOs There are the following hypotheses about the origin of UFOs:
ebf2e2351e49eb0605017d9426110e3126a62a1f	The extraterrestrial hypothesis of the origin of UFOs
2d148482799bfc5e3a636a642949973a2e434002	(Eng.
86f80e228f20f123fe9e0144ac9ff8b56ed7bf75	The Extraterrestrial Hypothesis (ETH) is the most common hypothesis that declares UFOs to be alien spacecraft.
d1bc1573028bf1bf9b5810fd2683cc066646e947	Most ufologists consider only this hypothesis.
97e7da7ca2d076efa6200f91c70694c4ef285db9	Hypotheses about the natural origin of UFOs (Eng. The Natural Explanation Hypothesis or Null hypothesis) is based on the fact that all unexplained cases, reports of UFOs, if they are not hoaxes, then arise as a result of observing phenomena already known, described and studied by modern science: meteors, flying birds, burning marsh gas.
3cf91c9ecb3d6e2551755512d73185025aeda319	Ufologists who adhere to this point of view are sometimes called "skeptics".
5210ac872ad698064cbd36a30badeda4c9510d39	The most famous ufologists-"skeptics" are Edward Condon, Philip Klass and Donald Menzel.
46877046ab88e012b690b85c310541506259e701	There is also an assumption by some scientists that many UFOs are ball lightning.
96ed4c280bbfe65c84f03e3b7bebb37662a9cbce	Psychosocial hypotheses of the origin of UFOs it is known that even K. G. Jung considered UFO reports as a modern myth, he noted a possible connection between the disc shaped form of a " flying saucer "and the" mandala " — an occult symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism, personifying integrity, completeness[33].
97bfc88af98f158c54c9dccffb659b894b38436d	Jung explained the great interest in UFOs in the second half of the XX century by the human desire for harmony in a turbulent time.
4720a1194e819d57b680717b92d36749fcd0f0ea	In Soviet literature, such an explanation of the UFO phenomenon enjoyed a certain popularity.
4bec0a48a27500cedf2433ac5c79a85e11a4a943	The version of the anthropogenic origin of UFOs is the assumption that UFOs are aircraft created by man, the existence of which is hidden by the groups that own them (military, government, private corporations), or the groups themselves are secret.
e5fe5baf596fe599fdea13b16255f187e8d75e70	Ultra terrestrial hypotheses of the origin of UFOs the so called Ultraterrestrial hypothesis suggest an earthly origin of UFOs (ufologist John Keel called for "considering UFOs in the terrestrial or ultra terrestrial framework, that is, think of them as their closest neighbors, from which you are separated only by a fence"[34]); some develop the idea that " flying saucers
8b4fa3911f5393c7a1bdbe7b93a176af0bf9d67b	Marilyn Monroe began her life under the name Norma Jean Mortensen.
e9f42063e136cd90b569f657170b125e35a8cdb8	The girl had a difficult childhood, which fell during the years of the great American depression.
4a90268fb0cc043800dff1f5e6e587c996f07314	When she was 7 years old, her mother was placed in a psychiatric hospital.
c8c6faf1582ac01385a4b9f5ade3a2317fc14df2	Norma Jean spent the next three years in orphanages.
602b9ba6a6d7f4c59c553829ce2ba418fda866db	Gladys had mental and financial problems, which is why a large amount of time in Norma's childhood was spent in foster homes and orphanages.
ee43bba977a1b573a4455da35c1f320d5a9b2206	Her mother's best friend Grace Goddard took the girl to her home when she was 11 years old.
e2400fcb21a53b563480fd0d3a968d261e1a721f	It was Grace who told Monroe that one day she would become a movie star.
5a67ab7f0049fe2ded43a2ea781a08e5d46b8271	Together with Grace, Norma began to go to the cinema for the first time and use cosmetics.
63fa39359af67dc13f4d885d2c9794fcfd0a6ca3	On Saturdays, Norma liked to go to the morning movie shows.
f95e9d83e8b7f3e44bc9e7c8bc3b0be8d19149ab	Norma Jean was a dreamy girl with a rich imagination
7b7260101db39611953b8cc4f87721dcdbd1de21	While studying at Van Nuys High School, Norma Jean met James Edward Dougherty and an affair began between them.
c8684a987a8ad668adb2047e929af2f67eaaed8b	Before her marriage, which took place when Norma turned 16, she lived in Grace's house.
126c5828a11efaca1d2bd36b0eb675c55ad20c57	Norma Jean's marriage to the worker Jim Dougherty, who at first seemed to be her savior, soon turned into a source of continuous disappointment for her.
6bd3109ed5fe5f7d664918ad8e766c4ff0e31473	She started working at a military factory, where a photographer found her.
f5eddef9eddeb204769b4e2d3be09ba8c0f55cef	He was looking for images for patriotic filming of women at work in military factories.
c23cf51aa47bbbb3e62d3a4e74f16ac99bd5b626	Norma's photogenicity attracted him, it was he who advised her to become a model.
3a9a8578ea8f0dd28920ee5fcc0ed8ee73a0eaf2	After this shoot, Conover offered Norma Jean to pose for $ 5 an hour, and she agreed
05a7b9e0b871b0370342680c7506170f1491de06	Soon, Norma Jean leaves her job at the factory to start a modeling career.
31d78b4027f3c47dbbcafdf9accc4ecc0927d9ba	In August 1946, she received an offer to sign a contract at the 20th Century Fox film studios, where she was taken as a statistician.
9dbe02903edf6d89289475c12d25bad1a2baf44b	In addition to the pseudonym known to everyone today, such options as Claire Norman, Jean Monroe and Marilyn Miller were considered.
153a66c2f0c2150d8aa197b1efdc3859d8184ff8	Monroe's last name is her mother's maiden name.
0985efe050a22899436eb8a2d7a35cc7a167947c	Marilyn always created an atmosphere around herself, as if electrified by sex.
1bb5e87580983a60671147a4a51d47be8216a567	Marilyn was a terribly undisciplined actress.
e597ebe17eda7e03092109e442fd85a41ebe1df7	She could be late for filming for several hours or even days, often got confused in the text of the roles, which made it necessary to shoot the same episode dozens of times.
7b6bfc607018213412f10db4067a45b983e1ff21	Sometimes it took 20-40 takes to shoot an episode.
12174a74076e972c7cabf1d4bdb508efa33871c4	Of course, no one liked working together with Marilyn, despite all her charm.
da26a6d2ebc08dd5ef8d7b5d7422c0509ff86e78	Tony Curtis, who played a saxophonist in the film "Only girls in Jazz", said that kissing Marilyn on the lips is as pleasant as Hitler.
805164068620c87e4729fdb3a52270595283be76	And Clark Gable, at the end of the filming of the film "The Misfits", darkly joked that Monroe had brought him to a heart attack.
f6b4ccb6fe8531176128584b2ea07ecf843f8f98	She was removed from her last film for the fact that she practically did not appear on the set.
88a20d7f8d349879e9a58564973eaaf7e19d7591	In March 1954, Marilyn received the "Most Popular Actress" award.
8b5862c1f6e2f3289425d2e50b786add4b2d736b	In January 1955, Marilyn announced the creation of her own corporation, Marilyn Monroe Productions, in which she was the president and owner of a controlling stake.
d16fca17564283ff50d127ab5e800dae9b54cf63	Monroe became the heroine of the cover of the first issue of Playboy magazine.
7117f0e2088ebbe212978ca88c16285ae6149730	On March 8, 1960, Marilyn Monroe was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
5f5195ce653bd79a6aa5d4c01fc1b051fd7192f3	Marilyn Monroe is a universally recognized sex symbol of the last century.
48310c129380c6599e0158ed42a45cfa90335c1b	We are still reviewing films with her participation, being amazed not even by the acting, but by the natural beauty of the heroine.
af6a3c32216b096826387720975e9c715fad3b66	But it did not bring the woman good luck.
8f8b86a9b0a2fe69949b101f739b987dd04eab70	She was adored by men, but in her personal life the actress was unhappy - her marriages were falling apart, she never had children.
9f392881f16e8956a42696fd44f965c41b17cdf5	In the photos, the actress is almost always smiling.
596495c180eb8736ee4b361541ee39c7d731e7ff	In fact, her life was not happy in any way.
0694809bb5f77deeae75431afaf56bc77f195bc9	Problems in her personal life and career plunged the actress into an almost incessant depression.
1d89fb49492852100df052a682e36d801e8dc508	She felt lonely, which her soul literally screamed about.
3f566ad6a318c11795756b3e03e01f841bd47676	Biographer Donald Spoto told about many movie stars, among them was the main sexy blonde of Hollywood.
df4a15499ff26a1c90cb565b9bb49034f328a7a7	He proved that it is not necessary to romanticize her story, because there are many interesting facts about Marilyn Monroe available.
b6e511464b6f0ff2de71924a938e77345538f3f9	The book will help us to debunk the main myths about this movie star.
9c7a2f32a32faff11914d57c3962d547ac332782	One of the myths associated with Marilyn Monroe has to do with her signature — slightly wobbly — gait.
bd655207850d358db699e130e03e9c2fd16bc344	Evil tongues said that the secret lies in the heels of a movie star, one of which is slightly shorter than the other.
a653f8a6c6a59f43ce5b9e5704726c97045e4a58	But this is not so: the actress really went like that, although it took a lot of time to train.
a85f8dc294253bce2dd15ecf758a01589b3af9b7	Her signature gait was mastered by her for the movie "Niagara".
83ba58bf7d68ba5e7e6e58f2419e1c5ed02ee04b	In addition to "Marilyn Monroe", Norma Jean had another image — Zelda Zork.
7d1ffca916a63a114438aed6dc84750423a72f89	When she wanted to wander in the crowd, remaining unrecognized, she put on a brunette wig, turned into Zelda and became completely unrecognizable.
c2ee73059e3ad4cae447dd2d40b7a52563789fd2	Most people perceived Monroe only as a very beautiful, but not too smart actress.
1f45d0172de8ea90502ac6b6a3b6924af867ba75	She was very fond of reading and collected a library of several hundred books.
db6ed858b22d003dcfc93f8c2471d20b7ce57b4d	Her personal library at the time of her death included more than 400 volumes.
e30f4452d7771cea2fbd6f431221cd24cd114d4c	The taste of the actress was quite diverse, among the authors of books in her library were: Z. Freud, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, Scott Fitzgerald, A. Camus, James Joyce and others.
3ccd5e32a8626789caa69ee4ab968292392584d6	Another hobby of the film star was morning jogging.
67d8ec21e7294e259756627dca9460e921151064	Marilyn Monroe was fatter than we think.
8c8cf4cdf59ea0d172c8778c6e2b02230cb2d3d8	This myth is based on the size of the actress.
ea6f10eb76eac7c3911f2085a42588d596b39c85	But her 16th size in those years does not correspond to today's.
dc1444de76934f5f4a5d1440fc7c5f875f36464e	She looked tiny, even in spite of a certain fullness.
c90ec3893f5096b2d42f0bc203a4817926566070	Today, Monroe would be a size 10 or 12.
0ac94443b514ae034f72e96a306770a8e12be08c	Despite her curvy shape, Marilyn ate very little and could sit on orange juice all day.
bc4c755779d1e556fa229da997de0b68c2dd0766	Monroe made herself several plastic surgeries.
d723c4dc82398273571745927ba09366c854288a	Surgeons fixed her nose, changed the shape of her chin.
43c00b9ad654f165f068c20bc7db029fa334a999	In January 1954, she married baseball player Joe DiMaggio.
d976beeb3a61c43a61a4b2054fb79758b26fc0f7	Joe DiMaggio, an American baseball star, became Marilyn's first real hero lover.
f5c1a8da01858c1e71744c70631fe6331fa78997	As it turned out later, DiMaggio was insanely jealous of Marilyn for all the men in the world and often raised his hand against her.
80607e0baf0458d781de7e604a2865410e3fcac1	On the grounds of jealousy, they divorced in October 1954.
362907c25dfef6d02b5c1fd87d6633068c38615f	However, until the end of his life, Joe loved Marilyn and only he of all her lovers came to her funeral.
e8e7e5f18a6cb0c80d8c4fc0ec181c2cd4160439	It was DiMaggio who continued to take care of Marilyn all the following years and tried to provide moral support in her career.
af546fbe496be5d869ab8bf3d5ecd22f6474e834	Back in 1950, Marilyn met the playwright Arthur Miller, but then they broke up and met again in 1955.
5aae18aeb70195d241eea7e6b624f2ee11473f56	By that time, he was divorced, and he had two children from a previous marriage.
74b1fe7dc2702edb1a7f7524a90abf93ab1c9c34	The third desperate attempt to "live like everyone else" for Marilyn Monroe was her marriage to the famous playwright Arthur Miller.
469c12f0bafe396f9d42f1f83605c9fc2da59935	This marriage turned out to be the longest of all, because it is known for certain that Monroe always dreamed of an intelligent man who could fill in her gaps in education and become her mentor.
67cd03b2046f0ea9a56e6e7d71f9fc4a06f681d2	Journalists dubbed their connection "the union of spirit and body".
8491a7706bd693f971faf56e8fe72a7589f9fe6b	And the actress herself later recalled this: "He has a stronger mind than any of the men I knew.
57494c29a043d97317f7dc15971734fd1fc459af	Marilyn always wanted to have children, with every marriage she tried to get pregnant, but she did not succeed.
c9fb7707e85dd5fe2fa0d494333e46cdb23f5774	Arthur got her pregnant, but the pregnancy turned out to be ectopic.
dc4b7a64969033b8489c9c8374221849b7781bcd	On January 20, 1961, Marilyn divorced Arthur Miller.
2320bf95c3e86861b745f07402861fbaf06ffa1f	In 1961, Marilyn met US President John F. Kennedy.
41783346908cb868f4ff189e9a8f97252157de21	They met in 1954, when John Fitzgerald Kennedy was still only a senator from Massachusetts.
9d21fe78eaa11f5be8d26d5277e7929f7b532642	Everyone who was present that evening at the country house of Peter Lawford witnessed the beginning of the most high-profile novel of the twentieth century.
0f4431d14d78f6291873714850318396c77ee3b4	Marilyn enjoyed the novel and made the most rosy plans for the future.
e6ea0184201e1d4693b3fdc6aaa5885d06c823d6	And since Kennedy was in no hurry to divorce Jacqueline, Monroe decided to break up with her lover.
aaa0ec7fd2ce9d14965426ceeb211cb1577bf795	The passion flared up with a new force when he put up his candidacy for the presidency.
2b74de49f40f78a03559b058c58b6a7500922692	One day, a phone call rang in her apartment: "Hello, baby! " a familiar male voice with a charming Boston accent sounded on the phone.
4b28639768172f5a69bf961d4ea8cd1b49707215	I'm going to become the president of America, but I can't cope without you.
7a4ebb4285ac84de169e512621b8d7aa3f0f9b61	Marilyn didn't take long to beg.
c3f383c42f8932ffdfa0edc0f5c73e63df20efdf	She could call the White House at any time and demand an immediate meeting from Kennedy, because she " terribly lacks love."
4759db3d0eaf6e1a1b65defd473da0d148755a06	The desire to become the president's wife, in the end, became almost manic.
b8253d5524f77430a896835f6b660f633d9fb8e3	Of course, Kennedy did not want to be involved in a scandal at all and considered it prudent to keep Monroe at a distance.
0733313b6a73fe0440392aeffc4c4f8bfe1d9548	He even introduced her to his brother Robert, who was a huge success with women, in the hope that the frantic mistress would turn her attention to him.
73501ddcd2963ef31177558c90b7cf68bcab08df	At the celebration of the 45th anniversary of John F. Kennedy Square Garden in New York, Marilyn was in the center of attention, performing the song "Happy Birthday"on stage.
4cfdada6ccc91542da8a62ac4a823d01122f7a63	About a month later, John F. Kennedy decided to end his relationship with Monroe.
f9c1bbee1b04ff9b04b980e53811a2bf0fc2df14	It was rumored that the first sexual contact between Bobby and Marilyn occurred in a car near Lawford's house.
b501e6b1f2bfd55fa536b3ac5e0ef4b2ed31f1b1	Marilyn again began to make plans for a possible marriage.
ab736fefb458be0a9c9e38868b6d16f3012dfbfd	She began a widely publicized affair with Yves Montand, with whom she co-starred in the film "Let's Make Love" (1960).
3d426fb3c234117dee7a37398aa7e630a4077374	He, however, stunned her by the fact that he soon broke off their love affair, because he did not want to leave his wife Simone Signora.
a98eb225fb935aaca7246af523df3317b44ec13d	Monroe tried to forget herself by having an affair with Yves Montand, then with Frank Sinatra, but no one could replace John Kennedy for her.
39b59291a8f2d5b0aa65797a44c067440faf82ea	His sexual requests and his care for her so admired Marilyn that she began to dream that they would someday, perhaps, become husband and wife.
ed4b50bafb8258313763fc4402d1d4d6d33492df	Charlie Chaplin Jr., the millionaire Henry Rosenfeld, and the rich Johnny Hyde managed to visit her lovers, but...
4a3d6ae4f0a0b1ff4fd1dfef602d84a35f35386a	One of her successful films of that time was called "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes".
0396049242cd692d3407af552e3bfb43188e61f0	But in life, she had to make sure of another bitter truth: they marry brunettes.
d5efd8ce93689aa9c457fcd034527bd1713743b3	She wholeheartedly wanted to get away from the image of a "sexy blonde" and create her own family.
9e84c079fe76435f08d4c09855ee3057becfd555	The final part of Monroe's life was a tragic and mysterious death.
7d5f9b51b95fe29e729ee487056670fb29472c91	On August 5, 1962, Marilyn Monroe was found dead in her own bedroom.
0b5427bd78cadc7f322db23ffe32d9332156cf79	She was lying in bed naked, with a telephone receiver in her hand.
5eb18d3761c8822b7c17dfda81af2cdbc721641a	Who she called before her death remained a mystery, since the recording of this conversation mysteriously disappeared from the telephone exchange.
202bf5879a35ba6955847436a52f07ee3e6e3c9d	Did she commit suicide or was she killed by the special services?
a4c32b77600551456ef51e9f9fc9b6d642c1066c	Half a century later, this remains a mystery.
1bef6e5941f4dce41293206780e18aacf83859b7	New facts of her life appear, letters and archives are revealed.
b3f9e199df8e202f419b8aaa53971a183bd29a3e	The cause of death was poisoning from the use of too many medications.
a97e2305329083024cb86e3b07cf0ebf330dfbe6	The official version of her death was suicide due to an overdose of sleeping pills.
3834111d682d7b2444ceaead5ae1441545642ce7	Among the unofficial ones — a murder and an accident due to the mistake of a psychotherapist who prescribed too strong drugs.
a034b7fdadc36d61f533a010c650157d285081c6	Later, a version appeared that Marilyn was the victim of a prepared murder.
0e6f4d5d77541de7a8e510f39669ad755d5c4f36	Several thousand of her fans saw off the actress on her last journey.
19dd683257a95a1889186519e1a99aa1950362c6	John F. Kennedy was not among them.
4b56b7494e94cd31f6985450ac48454147923003	She was buried in a wall crypt on August 8, 1962 at Westwood Cemetery.
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1a1f2bb3d5c8f09c486d9003eea17e3a601f0464	10 most interesting facts about Marilyn Monroe
24838daa7ef260a5e699b075da700dabdda9e032	August 5, 2013
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746c69b400c431ff8f7b5fb4d4d43e0241946bfe	On August 5, 1962, the blonde of all times and peoples, the sex symbol of the 20th century, Marilyn Monroe, passed away and, apparently, of her own free will.
e56e0b6d122805a61711ea1210dd4587893f50a8	She was found dead with a telephone receiver in her hand in her own bedroom by the bedside table, on which sleeping pills were scattered.
238338680d058e5ce495fb5628eb462a013c79bc	The legendary movie star did not say anything to anyone then and did not leave a note, so we will never know the secret of her death.
5b59cc39ce3d9d04571cb2f8eadbfcec57bf3c45	With her departure, the whole era of her name ended.
7af642ced17762fe114936e511623b9e6af7ef41	And only a few films remained, and a star on the Walk of Fame.
bc02acfb4d0eb11e4c003baf8e93567f0f485756	And of course, her legendary feminine image, which is copied and will still be copied by any generation of actresses and ordinary women.
402fb9ee3564d44e982d55599219e2eda860c414	She did not just become a standard, she created it out of herself.
f450d4195c38c3c0f2e1a9586aaabe5b73ffa50d	But the actress, who had dreamed of a serious role and true love all her life, apparently did not have enough fortitude to always maintain an ideal appearance.
7fb92cd00ae972504184703a8ea84093309a2fda	Her life was extraordinary, bright, exciting, and it ended abruptly, as super bright stars die.
e0676c839cad2f0fd5605638f55c2b40c1f4f0e4	In memory of the great actress and woman, we remembered the most interesting facts about her.
0c1e036ecd989abf38bb4407b3b615edf7aedc4d	1. Norma Jean Baker was born on June 1, 1926 in Los Angeles.
b009677aec27088a5b57277a1e51a49a8ad79226	Her mother, Gladys Monroe Baker, gave the girl the name of the then popular actress Norma Tolmage, and Gladys named Martin Mortenson as her father, although this paternity is doubtful, since they had already separated.
2c8dc423bc9934aeea37424707320c7ee28ab1f2	Although it didnot really matter, because the two week old baby Norma was given to a foster family, where she lived for 6 years.
d46ae03dd2f1e9ecb3ef0b7672b9a02021c1788c	2. And Marilyn's mother was in a psychiatric hospital for many years.
f1d4fa9e0ab88f4c99eb1db70b99d562124efa01	3. During the Second World War, Captain Ronald Reagan decided that the best moral incentive for soldiers would be pictures of some pretty girls from an aircraft factory, which would show how they contribute to the fight against the enemy.
9a114a7bfd8918cbd1ada9bee7f6b984610f7008	At the factory, photographer David Conover saw a 19 year old brown haired woman named Norma Jean Doherty, who was engaged in checking parachutes and painting airplanes.
f7179f4dd089f18d5a16b7e86a95271eeb94cf5a	The girl turned out to be very smiling and photogenic.
f678aa1927221f8da931f99d562bc57e2a2fcdce	After this photo shoot, Conover decided that a great model would come out of the Norm… It was these first pictures from the factory in the summer of 1945 that consider her the first steps to fame.
96c0e6bb897db9442a44cdf1f26d7c60366aa514	4. Monroe became the heroine of the cover of the first issue of Playboy magazine.
9707d3976d562a06188fe86a81995bd7979582a5	5. Some directors who worked with Marilyn later complained that it was impossible to work with her.
a69feab7bae19d987482ffe5a00c5f15b24b37b3	The actress was constantly confused and, even worse, forgot the words and was always late for filming.
301066dd64a8ec747950bd1d19970a2ff515ea1e	6. During the filming of the film "Itch of the seventh Year", the relationship between Marilyn and her second husband Joe DiMaggio broke down because of his jealousy.
46cc2090996ed1f6d61509a411c539397972b6ac	To relieve the tension, the actress called her husband to the shooting, so that he would make sure that everything was in order there.
37d74889d1c3f62d20b6799735177a7e74366e7f	But it was on that day that the legendary scene was filmed, in which the flow of air from the ventilation hatch lifts up Monroe's skirt.
a3b1f3635eeddbf84c625c98e78d6178cc2b3353	Joe became indescribably furious and soon their marriage, which lasted only nine months, broke up.
150e7045bd43210853df46faae5b9f6915e9f98e	7. Monroe made herself several plastic surgeries.
b45f4f082bad03f1265365c0991d36962ed12cc7	For three years, she had a "paraffin" breast (since silicone was not yet installed).
4814413d7e2afb03d1954d143d6d50bf93512da7	8. There is a common myth that Marilyn filed the heel on one of the shoes by half a centimeter to walk with her famous wobbly gait, as in the movie "Only girls in Jazz".
6b2657d4baa5fda3ddce3ab8ee4fc9f36637d326	But in reality, the actress did not do this, and she achieved such a gait herself, training during the filming of the film "Niagara".
06beb978de664dc5bc8b5c9afc0d84bd74ac1dcc	9. Most people perceived Monroe only as a very beautiful, but not too smart actress.
f7e95e5c855a383bd69a88e2a918ce467dcbd34b	But in fact, Marilyn spent a lot of time on self education and read quite a lot of books.
fceba43a795d35f2a13990d288adf4f2844aeb06	At the moment, there are 5 versions of the cause of her death:
13da7da43ca8e1643ca4352144e363057b6cf6b0	1. the murder committed by the special services on the orders of the Kennedy brothers in order to avoid publicity of their sexual relations;
1ca933809de8e5766e5902a22d3ccd9a9fc75bb4	2. murder committed by the mafia;
56efb1a16abd654ba8ba096046be1089c0997e76	3. drug overdose;
7580623ebb3c313d37cee4c58f15ae2866bf64ca	4. suicide;
ee04695360c1825453a3d292266c9bcee09f78c3	5. The tragic mistake of the psychoanalyst Ralph Greenson, who ordered Marilyn to take chloral hydrate shortly after taking nembutal.
272c1b302d4be6bbdd278ccc9b1eec418eba9c93	merilyn mopgointeresting facts
e20f67446a1e45b60319ae8346287208f76bb6ce	+145 -
06056a54de861697cbe7fba3cf7317cc3ff35f09	Comments (12)
4a22cb1ef58332a94642844541b8a809f4e5026b	observer1983 Reply
3c5ab1e9ba648658834ccf3c4a33bd9360705bcb	In my opinion, the erroneous notion that blondes are "stupid"came from her… And on the account that the "whore" was not true, frivolous, that's right, even more precisely windy.
eca7787f9ddc199942b9ce5f3f9eb9d16cacee84	Lesse, wherever you look, one "shocking" and something there at the expense of "image", "lifestyle", which very easily fits the concept of "whore"…
1bed401b9f04509dccae2e6ec41f0ba612917917	August 6, 2013, 04: 56
67cb1e5ec759d08879c5e1ae32660aafd071ba32	YulyaLapina Reply
5e714fc8bfeeea5192fb11a62e4604dfce998431	I think that Monroe was an ordinary whore who was lucky with her appearance and fate
9d8ac4fb3ea8c754e7966bc68478e549906feca5	August 5, 2013, 18: 17
9f3a3da8fb5f42c49d6d57c7bdfecf1cceb92829	Marina Aldridge Reply
aeb3411a44a263d707d8c2244537d475165f08a6	That's just the fate she was not very lucky.
ab4790f8900f16b5b423098fde9f63c0546b9289	August 5, 2013, 20: 40
f5b21b27ba10c774218468c36b2a9b4f5efa3ca7	TheCherryBlossomGirl Reply
797ed2269101daccaa1f5e4d811d2bc40f1dcafb	a whore because she slept with John F. Kennedy?
5912fae7987c1365a46176b3522d1248b679c10a	August 5, 2013, 19: 42
5a9ea2bdbf16313d6b971345cbe4dbb0f1a0da60	E88 Reply
75a35acea00f616c81fc64568227208f03c4f340	an incomparable actress and a woman ... wonderful
e07c05af538a67750574ee700e92a5da92ed0494	August 5, 2013, 15: 25
97ed1a1e9f900556ff4cffeef030de94e3c2845a	Answer Reply
877b4c20b27bf05ecde9aff3f1cdb80115c3ec52	Having 4 judges, a bunch of lovers, two of whom were two kennedy brothers already says that she is fucking
b8db13c581169fbe480ad1d3d86a71ff51e4e8ab	August 15, 2015, 01: 58
2e9ffc7fc207929f519242714a2660eb7624dcae	eugeniagretkhen Reply
deefbf1963fea85cb88a0b638f1045d0bde15cab	Marilyn Monroe was a deeply infantile person.
0592dc80e7f6e4334009e6dc1af135e52b9b74f2	Her healthy ego was trampled and driven into the deepest corner of the subconscious, suppressed to an extreme degree by her mother.
0ae0475317fe3f570b69ed2b056a77563a8183bc	Physical love, sex she compensated for the lack of love.
9676c38ff351193dccf95867212e076a01edd7e0	She wanted to feel needed, even for the sake of sex — at least so.
dba7e4a2e302aa1c4ae5e98e7958cd7a55f6ab07	The whole essence of her ridiculous life was precisely in infantilism — from there her "childishness", and the erroneous diagnoses put to her by psychiatrists, and the fact that psychoanalysis drove her to a dead end, and this is dependence on barbiturators (and it is in her head).
00d8a058a2905c8388ad6bd5df876085af53e4b6	Psychoanalysis makes infantile people pathetic for themselves, they feel their worthlessness and become prone to self destruction.
f47a7929af55a99a38e61a1138ec55f8b7ccda09	Monroe could get rid of infantilism if she realized herself as a woman — a real woman — mother.
0886f10a8ccc47b02cb72544120d1c7d8368b59d	She could feel it.
4776baf2a2231aac4ee0a7201fd3c7e040d67f0a	Motherhood would heal her sick soul, her sick consciousness.
1972b33167e1f5e5cf644916b2ada2f7bad77762	It would heal easily.
6d9b086a27dd57a3be6c1209ab4950309278fd3d	But life did not give her this opportunity.
af7fcfccdd5c076898beecc99f10d281383b7147	And Marilyn was weak.
22940e3a6c89db1ec9a0b2ff752f03b33774e379	October 2, 2014, 22: 57
0f2d37d3d188af194327de8e47fce779cdc4a860	BadVeryBad Reply
7eea0dbe2c5285e011c93235a93f25e84231877b	I read one of the books about Marilyn Monroe.
68e5a1b3ae357bd68e5468398ae3566643c0f3a6	I believe that she is an ordinary whore who did not hesitate to jump from one bed to another and sleep with men for money.
71102de65ca76f2da0147ac288b4c1c5c5465ba1	A whore,a mediocre hypocrite and a capricious egoist — that's who this woman is.
4e57317aa3d123dc98fa1f790b5f017dd86b2599	She acted with people in the most disgusting way, whining that she wanted to have children and a family — why then do 30 abortions?
4e6af5a0a8146c84d7ef10d98556e603739b15b2	Why behave so brazenly with her husbands and bring them to such a state that one even beat her constantly.
ac6e69353950c1a3167a70856d6fde253b828e6e	He also had to shake hands for holding back and not killing this selfish creature.
f09bbfcdb5ae80cc6a037873c20527c205ac8205	People, ow, read the memories of her and what kind of life she led.
c2ecc737f2e214d073ba135284030022fa4af238	You will have no doubts about who she really was.
607f07ceca38360b7c861bf8b624f45cfda210f2	PS Without going into the details of her life, I used to admire this girl too..a woman.
7ed856af455f799661eb3fd457646e139f9e8258	But now everything has become clear to me.
50b1457f8f0227cd7669fce01a260c9fa1643b2a	April 8, 2015, 16: 15
254c17bf66bfdc308f2384af9a049e05464b0803	FATTA Reply
ed98e17193d9bdd32a403462ed51fb7494c68bc2	I agree with you completely!
7efb8a43077ff9a77359ba8002906bf17b82d6ca	But my opinion is somewhat different from yours....
e13e5a0cdf5e58166709a22ce39cd0065fb67c2d	An ordinary whore from the bottom, started with filming in porn.
37c343b38a59143da95590adb82a5b4323ca7412	The special cynicism of those who promoted it was to make an ordinary prostitute an idol of millions.
0f2c52b28c104811ed882459d3d3e2ca536ac8d7	With her and people like her, the sex revolution in the United States began.
2afc674c111935238c65e6c080128b52c185ee1c	Look, in many of the worst films of those years, female actresses are dressed asekually.
09f099eb533c72101eec9e59b3ff9365d90d733c	There was no question of lifting skirts in public.
3796c8ae9b4b11330200024a5d42d8a90e946123	But the fucking genes were taking their toll.
3b0b6ab7da765dedd58e2f3f13572b03ab44b06d	Changes of husbands, alcoholism, drug addiction, behavior in public, explained her creative crisis.
6c94f5007458834ea3f4b44029c2d3b535b630f1	As an actress, mediocrity, here to lie down under men, yes.
6fa7c5f4f6d282b48bd082b161a2c66beee07f0a	Most likely there was an overdose or suicide.
bf34318443e7628a754e48a1d9f07747110f6be3	But so much was invested and so much money it brought (and will bring more) that they simply decided to compose a myth about a violent death.
00688b072c75356aea7f491a789aa94a5fc511c7	Thus, to transfer her to the category of martyrs.
382879afef49689aee6b78a52b43b8ba0b6dfbb2	PS Who doubts about porn, so there are videos with it on the network.
b707e24f48a563e57a71af590800542c57a8f86d	Ordinary porn of those years.
739415a3a3050ca618ea067993c27ece7d35519c	You wonot find it, I can throw it off)
ac36cd5b80d8acc8deda2f7bf64d7db9390287ad	April 23, 2015, 00: 28
ebddd289df18a78d0c3170a737335f22cd6b6520	Your name Reply
e5400689d35a197f37e2236b0d0eda1da2bf40d7	NEVER ENVY THE DEAD.SHE WAS THE BEST GINSENG OF HER TIME.EVERYTHING THAT IS SAID, IT STILL NEEDS TO BE CHECKED BEFORE SAYING NASTY THINGS.MONROE IS THE BEST AND JUST LIVE WITH THE FACT THAT SHE IS AHUENNA)))AND THEN SHAVE IT OFF.KNOWING THAT ALL THE BAD WORDS YOU SAY ABOUT YOURSELF, BUT BECAUSE IT IS NECESSARY TO PROPERLY STUDY THE FATE OF THE PERSON YOU ARE TRYING TO SHIT ON
00bd4ac90a02f18bf8d8ab6f28cd8ff31bce4ede	April 25, 2015, 03: 30
75cf88b87d1aecb35ec559f918b05c3b30bdffee	con artist Reply
21d85ba4c9f8a2cce9d1dbe989198f2379a56798	Stop being jealous!
56ff564d39494c49bb9a56671c6f78f8d0ed900a	A gorgeous actress,a subtle nature, and what have you achieved????you are whores yourself!!!Your level is a bench and guys,and even if they had, they are not the last, so we will not la la
904e640bc78832a2d289b0bf92b837a941d3f2bc	July 17, 2015, 04: 18
138ffcbdb54929754a2b60c422f92ceb3e4e1ab7	Alice Reply
b63ce5fc353f5fb97d0f055519208ea0ccd0bc9e	I absolutely agree with the previous comment.
c2d4114235950ff9db9ce1ad977ac2f09b45b621	Disrespectful young people who called Marilyn "sh", I would advise you to finish school first and achieve at least some success in your own life before writing such rubbish about a woman who has been dead for a long time.
0f1f06627e46665b30adb8268c0ae2f8e591cac6	She is remembered 50 years after her death,millions of people around the world admire her,songs are written in her honor,films are made,her life still arouses genuine interest and a reason for discussion among many.
0f851e1e04b5304fd4f8425a12eeaef43f63a277	I doubt that the future so to speak,"speakers", will be interesting to people during their lifetime as much as Marilyn Monroe was,is and will be interesting.
7e59c7dedeedf568107168e94aefa4a9445bbfdd	August 26, 2015, 23: 03
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a2755156c844b7694e28dbbf7fda50652e8c8b21	Marilyn Monroe
ca11ab4d4284b40f504994e4c2b3060fd629d0ca	This is the stable version, released on January 6, 2016.
c4a4c948461fae7386eb69d0591ef76286ef4a05	There are articles on Wikipedia about other people with the surname Monroe.
3b8d97c68e439df3086d61053b89bf4c7f5646d9	Marilyn Monroe Marilyn Monroe
90810be5db3114c0d9f4cb1570918e6e87bd879b	Studio Photo from 1952 Birth name: Norma Jean Mortenson
90731569880bd102e11c4f6ad3dd835b8af38196	Date of birth: June 1 1926(1926-06-01)[1][2][3][4]
094019631b4dbb369b07e57cd6414093ae34cb04	Place of birth: Los Angeles, California, USA[3]
634d06a39e73f6b05e710fd836d1c3e12c61a1b6	Date of death: August 5 1962(1962-08-05)[3][4] (36 years)
33949714ac9b28cd58eccb1fcd5f6b7c72060ceb	Place of death: Los Angeles, California, USA
6668f0e8ae3a427320ce442216956f758b620ad0	Profession: actress, singer, model
39c596feffc498a88b033313b96cfe43dd48aed8	Career: 1947-1962
764712b7e7af910a34a160c7877d9c8ddce3d85c	IMDb: ID 0000054
0b73ad25cdb57354ef87218ff1b1cb56b16c9c52	marilynmonroe.com Marilyn Monroe on Wikimedia Commons
dba99a92e547135b1be6c16f1021a5b14361e50b	Marilyn Monroe[5] (English Marilyn Monroe, born Norma Jeane Mortenson, English Norma Jeane Mortenson, baptised Norma Jeane Baker, English Norma Jeane Baker; June 1, 1926 (19260601), Los Angeles — August 5, 1962, there) [6] was an American film actress, singer and sex symbol.
27a1c4616ef76b6ebaf2bfdaa92393f0ad6895b5	1 Early years 2 Career in Hollywood 3 Personal life 3.1 Political views
57018ec75c8b9fd992ab3cd7dcedad5c1040eed6	4 Death 5 Miscellaneous 6 Memory 7 Filmography 8 Awards and nominations 9 Bibliography 10 Notes 11 References
c198e7ec06aab0c2e5f691e0d743a9544be4a4a2	Young years[edit / edit wiki text]
ca036157d283a9cab0697fe1ae7b62a6df553b26	Norma Jean Mortenson's birth certificate
e2285c95ac68e08c1a9fd9b2ad8c4a8d2af7e1d3	Norma Jeane Mortenson was born around 9:30 a.m. June 1, 1926 in the city hospital Los Angeles and was the third child of cinemechanica RKO Pictures, Gladys pearl Baker (nee Monroe, may 27, 1902 — March 11, 1984).
b19b637ed780a6c08abe50a37a6f057013df116d	Her maternal grandmother Della Monroe — were from Ireland, grandfather, Otis Monroe[7], arrived from Scotland, mother born in Mexico.
071c4215d7182c457ec29ee1faa38146eaa737b4	The biological father of the girl is unknown, Martin Edward Mortenson is listed on the birth certificate, and the girl herself was also recorded as Norma Jean Mortenson, but later, when the girl was baptized at six months old at the Gospel Church in Hawsron, the mother changed her daughter's last name to Baker, which was the last name of her first husband (and which she herself still wore).
42ed33ae9647a3a16e55495e76918884b986b31d	The father's last name, for unknown reasons, is written in documents with a spelling error, since in reality the last name of the Norwegian emigrant Martin Edward (1897-1981), whom Gladys married on October 11, 1924, was written as MortensEn, not MortensOn.
b044ecc6631a57b9c2676642f18037acb74a056b	This mistake led at one time to a great confusion about who exactly was the biological father of the actress.
5b01005db3e5c5087d38e5382c4738564b6155e6	Gladys separated from Mortensen on May 26, 1925 (they finally divorced on August 15, 1928)[8]. At the end of 1925, Gladys discovered that she was pregnant; by that time, she had many lovers after Mortensen — Charles Stanley Gifford, Harold Rooney, Clayton McNamara.
fb2ea60db573f2708ce2a7a5645136e87544bf78	Some biographers of Monroe suggest that Gladys used the name Mortensen to avoid publicity in society, as a single mother.
497387cc8e6259a1139a5390d760ac951a01b6ae	Monroe herself has always denied that Mortensen was her father and once stated that when she was little, Gladys showed her a photo of RKO Pictures salesman Charles Stanley Gifford and said that he was her father.
4ca40d9b8d52570dab68c397d5162a92e6357ac3	According to Monroe, Gifford had a mustache, which made him very similar to Clark Gable, and sometimes she entertained herself with thoughts that Gable could be her father.
8a3bef49b5d85a45020392b63571a5bbc8ae04e0	It is believed that Norma Jean Mortenson was named after two great actresses of that time: the brunette Norma Talmadge and the blonde Jean Harlow, however, at the time of Marilyn Monroe's birth, Jean Harlow was named Harlin Carpenter, and she became Jean Harlow only in 1928, when Norma Jean was already two years old.
90195eeb770ed50dae102e678b46ba20f708fee8	In children's photos, Norma Jean's hair is curly, reddish brown.
7392c038acb837ca0759d174556e55c7b6b16ef5	At the age of just two weeks, Gladys gave her daughter to the foster family of Dela Monroe's neighbors, Ida and Albert Bolender [9] in Hawthorne in California.
86503f85af7cd5e572aa642d8f9c8eaf71ca4ce2	One day Gladys came to the Bolenders and tried to take Norma away by force (to Ida's horror, Gladys stuffed her daughter into a military duffel bag, after which a fight broke out between the women, and Norma was crying with horror).
e009786e190dfd94fc7894954268571eaa5ec015	Norma Jean lived with the Bolenders until she was 7 years old, but in the fall of 1933, Gladys took her daughter and moved with her to her own house[10].
ec09028d9212c6b1e79f1e1149c2e4112dad1b23	But a few months later, Gladys began to have mood swings (as Monroe recalled in her book "My Story", Gladys was both "crying and laughing"), which was the reason that in December 1934, Gladys was admitted to a psychiatric clinic in Norwalk[11] and Norma Jean began to live with Gladys ' friend Grace McKee, who became her legal guardian.
35ed5611edc95e1b16300769902803f19a1ac955	When Norma was 9 years old, on August 17, 1935, Grace married Erwin Silliman Goddard and on September 13 of the same year, Norma Jean was placed in an Orphanage in Los Angeles, where her number became 3463[12].
540ea65c145814f98cba1e6e58585b3bcc3d2c4f	The orphanage wanted to adopt Norma several times, but Gladys refused to sign the relevant documents.
64cf9d517563e28e6c8d859e9e3c10e200d8da1d	In June 1937, Grace took Norma Jean back and she grew up for a while with Erwin's daughter from a previous marriage, but then, because of Erwin's sexual harassment, Grace sent Norma to her great aunt Olivia Brunings in Compton.
05f9a5e7ab2a00de218961037c84fff6edcaba5e	But Norma did not live there for long (one of Olivia's sons also tried to rape her) and in early 1938 Grace sent Norma Jean to her other aunt Anya Lowe, who lived in Van Nuys.
6e6a252a01c8deb84d3475ea7842e201d07cec23	Later, Monroe called the period of life with Lowe as one of several periods of her life when she really felt calm.
31e16bbd0858ad8c0550279451f2d2fda15d7213	But Anya had health problems and in 1942 Norma returned to Grace[13].
e753c2b56720f6272564365cee94c6a27ec7f48c	Norma Jean Dougherty and Radioplane TDD 2/OQ 3, June 26, 1945
60dc3aac7644b44a21235af8c5f8b8dd9eb19e0f	14][15].
3cb196ac3d0457ca91d14dc9fa703491ac6f853f	In January 1942, the Goddard family decided to leave for the East Coast in West Virginia, but there was no place for Norma Jean in this move, so there was an alternative for a 16 year old girl and on June 19, 1942, Norma married Jim Dougherty, after which she dropped out of school and settled with him.
09bbe5ad74e1add54b02ead25d42d9f218103adc	A year after the wedding, he joined the Merchant Navy, and Norma Jean went to work at the Radioplane Co. aircraft factory, which produced TDD / OQ UAVs.
9b0705a4c7cb5eae8ce1bdf376abd3a7fa577263	In June 1945, when Norma Jean was still working at Radioplane, an army photographer, David Conover, appeared there, on the instructions of his boss, Ronald Reagan, who took propaganda pictures of women in military factories[16].
b9907d5620911c2108401ab5dfbd053ba2a7182c	After this shoot, Conover offered Norma Jean to pose for $ 5 an hour, and she agreed Soon, Norma Jean leaves her job at the factory to start a modeling career.
3cad89fd61207ee4314210cae0285e6f56f971e3	On August 2, 1945, a nineteen year old model named Norma Jean Dougherty consulted at the Blue Book modeling agency located at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California, after which, in a team with the head of the Blue Book Modeling agency Emmeline Snively and photographer Andre de Dienes, she began to gain popularity and fame[17].
0fd3dd5ac45322b719db0b0903e6b682f1d77384	Career in Hollywood[edit / edit wiki text]
3e43ee008cdbb26ebf8c99f5754fa56608eb54b6	At the studio, she was offered the names Carol Lind, Claire Norman, Marilyn Miller, but in the end they settled on the name under which she later became famous — Marilyn Monroe.
56776fccaf8f00c122f6bda78ba694832fe31a62	Soon after her wedding to her first husband Jim Dougherty, Marilyn began to think about a career as an actress, which later destroyed this marriage.
e18b447a9b23dfdd106098c33dbfad9cf08f34a3	The couple divorced in September 1946.
a7911b42ddaa41b91b6509e1d5190080eae3c622	In October 1948, the film "Chorus Girls" was released, created at the Columbia Pictures film studio.
020a8a663c984f14850a5ec86aceb802f8a7b4a8	This was the first film in which Marilyn spoke and sang.
ee2ea125589672017d93c579ee7d03af49b3a09f	Marilyn Monroe receives a seven year contract with the studio 20th Century Fox and a role in the film"Asphalt Jungle".
416f68b3bab5b5213f555d29ee20acdec74c1721	After the wedding with DiMaggio, the 20th Century Fox film studio invited her to star in the musical "There is no Better Business than Show Business".
ae5707be57a836e5459889b10a892c5bda76b822	18].
1b13e15d520d863523de0694417704942e045948	With Jane Russell on June 26, 1953.
e7ec2ad3a049c557cd2837b46bddadf76f06fe9f	According to the facts, "she stayed at home in her darkened bedroom, existing on sleeping pills and rapidly losing weight."
6991234b6adf3c1976d952458955f2a7990e36c6	Then in February, she was placed in a psychiatric clinic in New York, from where she left on March 5, 1961.
eeae135be481ece27b2ac8a5c6f7837deaa99ae7	They were officially married on June 29, 1956, and two days after that they held a Jewish wedding ceremony (Arthur was Jewish).
d09de3888d9c8d94a4bcb85350b2df59b1854a92	This marriage was not the happiest: they lived together for four and a half years and divorced on January 20, 1961.
fa82cf44b6f1e1e07f9865aad9b429b2ba1fc2f3	Later it became known that Arthur made an entry in his diary a few weeks after the wedding, where he said: "It seems to me that she is a little child, I hate her!".
9723c1bd6f0a51b0fa6a5063efdc7eda72d5b99a	Marilyn saw this recording and was shocked, after which she and Arthur had a fight.
064c221367681c25b46c5bbe6a81027b77b02c7e	There were rumors about their affair, as well as about Marilyn's affair with his brother Robert Kennedy, whom Marilyn treated very well.
0f14069758ecc0603fb2d2ede346c5273ab08209	All these rumors have no evidence.
86ff6053cf6063440abca98f3bc9837a21480025	Political views[edit / edit wiki text]
1b8d583d1f04e0d1d1bf93c52099a68efb8087d9	According to Marilyn Monroe's friend and secretary, Patricia Newcomb, Marilyn unsuccessfully asked the reporter who took her last interview to finish the article about her with her statement: "What the world really needs is a real sense of kinship.
da032ae345878fe30ba2511ca1a4fe731d1b1863	Everyone: stars, workers, Negroes, Jews, Arabs — we are all brothers.
b70a227a32bb4f00f0dd7e18144c88d7d26c3206	Please donot make me look frivolous.
c98d425a9787c71217b996ca181e812fce0f743b	Finish the interview with what I believe in"[21].
ab3d04ff3198681dad021666ea52a1e955917bfb	Monroe was friends with the black jazz singer Ella Fitzgerald and helped her in her career.
f83f1f1f93c314893ff3d50c99150f95aa364fd6	Ella Fitzgerald later told: "I really owe Marilyn Monroe… it was because of her that I started playing in "Mocambo", a very popular nightclub of the 50s.
857f87f36955cefc3f3e8299c9738407bd69fb4a	She personally called the owner of the club and told him that she wanted me to be accepted immediately, and if he did, she would take the front table (in this club) every night.
7b7d69279175422b9e8e272a4deee735bfb89027	She told him — and it was true, because of her superstar status — that the press would go crazy.
6d26aa348aa4d7d307911b0d899e49419d76ae4c	The host said yes, and Marilyn was there, at the table, every night.
88f931a3a0f076c799bac6554a9c166583d7ef5b	The press went overboard.
8be511727c42755fbc045442ee335001bfecb7cf	After that, I never had to play in a small jazz club again.
29c0ec32721c014f73dccd7374f09b4613fdb761	She was an unusual woman, a little ahead of her time.
78ac0717859997af4addcd8f06042df2a783e345	And she didnot know about it"[22].
de13edd83698c52aa3b3ecdad595deb7e7069ca0	In Mexico in 1962, she was openly associated with Americans who were identified by the FBI as communists, such as Frederick Vanderbilt Field.
aee51d2eb40b0922b8d854392bbad579a19b585e	The daughter of Monroe's last psychiatrist, Joana Greenson, said that Monroe was " passionate about equal rights, rights for blacks, rights for the poor.
53cc4ba6acf238ac502bc9f8d168ef5fc2ec62db	She identified herself with the workers"[23].
9271866a29368d9ee5edd544185cec738f020705	See also: The Death of Marilyn Monroe
76a9b19f33a2703250a766812aa6a757f1fc0233	Marilyn Monroe was found dead, with a telephone receiver in her hand, on the night of August 4 to 5, 1962, in her own home in the Los Angeles district of Brentwood, at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive, Brentwood, California.
53df2862a9ad02664c7f68a2a62eccea133274cd	There was an empty package of sleeping pills by the bed.
be4a81b00b9ca945fcdeb4cd98f766137676db7d	Fourteen other bottles of medicines and pills were on the night table.
d606a9458a2392086ddc02bb397551955589ab05	Monroe didnot leave any suicide notes.
d8a98553509f27dd0d4c158e0a299e0cf1a2959a	The body was taken to the morgue for an autopsy, which was performed by pathologist Dr. Tsunetomi Noguchi, after which it was announced that Marilyn Monroe died of an overdose of sleeping pills.
072e294fa88e0377519c4721baab24c8e835446a	Immediately after the death of the actress, the version of an overdose was widely discussed in the American press, causing the so called "Werther effect", as a result of which hundreds of Americans followed her example[24].
bbf57ea6440a053233c3a171fbc0583793674c11	Miscellaneous[edit / edit wiki text]
445d38d507b623f7246464ff1bb7d09584fc50d1	Marilyn Monroe uttered the "winged" phrases "Not to worry, but to worry", " I love beautiful men!
694a8ab82ea13a0c113e9c9b864d7600a607c691	But there are very few of them among us… Can you tell me the name of a handsome man?
663bb20519c520e4c69662f4eafd281060dc43b6	Raj Kapoor, Clark Gable, Laurence Olivier and everything, perhaps!", " Give a girl a pair of stilettos, and she will conquer the whole world!".
8de31f2c541b2ad8e12d5266ecc4e272dfb8f016	The photo of Marilyn Monroe was on the cover of the first issue of Playboy magazine in 1953.
a6b23dbecbcb2ab3612a8671cf30940dd973ce5e	Marilyn Monroe star on the" Walk of Fame " in Hollywood
dd26a4f9c0f8421ff6a0e3fb588b1e731dda6c88	Marilyn Monroe is dedicated to the songs of Lady Gaga "Government Hooker" and "Dance in the Dark", Blue System "The Wind Cries (Who Killed Norma Jean)", Mark Ashley "Marilyn's Dream", Florent Mota "Marylin", Glen Danzig "Who Killed Marylin" and Elton John "Candle in the Wind", Jane Birkin "Norma Jean Baker", Nicki Minaj "Marilyn Monroe", Lana Del Rey "Marilyn Monroe", Pharrell Williams "Marilyn Monroe".
2a271c3c3e2538ab7fa0199ce6bcb01c30c45df7	In 2010, the video "Coco Mademoiselle" was released, the plot of which was based on the story of a romantic relationship between Marilyn and photographer Douglas Kirkland.
d6bc47667056e6eb0af0b859f8ef3eb1c2955a83	On June 19, 2011, the famous "flying dress" of Marilyn Monroe (the famous frame from the film "Itch of the Seventh Year") was sold at auction at the Profile in History auction house in Los Angeles for $ 4.6 million[25].
593d35e57d6c56429f2eb9ee798955545c8c1bee	On July 15, 2011, an 8 meter sculpture "Marilyn Forever" was opened in Chicago depicting Monroe at the moment when she was standing on a ventilation grate at the intersection of 52nd Street and Lexington Avenue in New York in the comedy "Itch of the Seventh Year", created in 1955, and the air flow lifted up her dress.
0d09fe3011d49ac7597fa8d7ae91e29bd8e7db64	The sculptor is Seward Johnson[26].
e23e09dc7591c8f88a8a9c6575b5cab592486ae0	In 2011, the film "7 Days and Nights with Marilyn" was released worldwide, in which Michelle Williams played the role of Monroe.
4f68c8eb075b070991b40192d9d01ede8b32cbe7	The film tells about the time spent by the artist with Laurence Olivier in the work on "The Prince and the Dancer".
9b61fa44e843cd5a1b908b7056ad1cad3c4100fe	Filmography[edit / edit wiki text]
f1b8dd66247db4e84fc0063040f881ca3b199a5e	Marilyn Monroe in the film "Gentlemen prefer blondes"
c69d96682d2cc7c48d8b39c43f386219165c3454	Main article: Filmography of Marilyn Monroe
6b6153ba732cfa6f695056ebcef982a082a1cd18	Year Film Original title Role 1947 Dangerous Years Dangerous Years Evie 1948 Skudda u!
71f873cbcead32e4190e6f673018323aec752c0e	Skudda hey!
2749e7889a21664848119d56c79ede4e3b45caea	Scudda Hoo!
d65b73833315aaa137b4b3989c9f2d0d09a18452	Scudda Hay!
ec894f3b9f4a9cf9506cd7269fa229dfe28aca15	Girl in a canoe (scenes on the lake)
05f132fba131f3e7b37c65d6d296a6030dad6e1c	The Girl Coming Out of the Church 1948 Chorus Girls Ladies of the Chorus Peggy Martin 1949 Happy Love Love Happy Grunion's Client 1950 Tomahawk Ticket A Ticket to Tomahawk Clara 1950 Right Cross Right Cross Dusky Ledoux 1950 Fireball The Fireball Polly 1950 Asphalt Jungle The Asphalt Jungle Angela Finlay 1950 All About Eve All About Eve Miss Caswell 1951 Love Nest Love Nest Robert 'Bobby' Stevens 1951 Is Younger Than Yourself and you Will Not Feel As Young as You Feel Harriet 1951 From the Life of Your Hometown Home Town Story Iris Martin 1951 Let's Make It Legal Let's Make It Legal Joyce Mannering 1952 A Skirmish in the Night Clash by Night Peggy 1952 We Are Not Married!
eb24cf0eb320fa35cec2dadce0d5ee146d844a96	We're Not Married Annabel Jones Norris 1952 The Chief of the Redskins and others...
d20642af084d8ab28ec151ba144af653cbf5cf86	O. Henry's Full House Prostitute ("Pharaoh and the Chorale") 1952 Monkey Work Monkey Business Miss Lois Laurel 1952 You Can enter without knocking Donot Both to Knock Nell Forbes 1953 Niagara Niagara Rose Loomis 1953 How to Marry a Millionaire How to Marry a Millionaire Paula Debevoise 1953 Gentlemen Prefer blondes Gentlemen Prefer Blondes Lorelei Lee 1954 There's No Better Business Than Show Business There's No Business Like Show Business Vicki Hoffman / Vicki Parker 1954 The River That Doesnot Flow Backwards River of No Return Kay Weston 1955 The Itch of the Seventh Year (Seven Years of Desire) The Seven Year Itch Girl 1956 Bus Stop Bus Stop Cherie 1957 The Prince and the Dancer The Prince and the Showgirl Elsie Marina 1959 Some Like It Hot (Only Girls In Jazz) Some Like It Hot Darling (Dana Kowalczyk) 1960 Let's Make Love Let's Make Love Amanda Dell 1961 The Misfits Roselyn Taber 1962 Something's Got to Happen Something's Got to Give Ellen Wagstaff Arden
a3b58da58e1f7bb1f932b841bd85acdf1dd05c5e	Awards and nominations[edit / edit wiki text]
cd5a7a08da7467095ad3d89b19edb09042459488	Awards and Nominations Award of the Year Category Film Total BAFTA 1956 Best Foreign Actress The Itch of the Seventh Year Nomination 1958 The Prince and the Dancer Nomination David di Donatello Film Award 1958 The Prince and the Dancer Golden Globe Award 1954 Best Film Female Role Award 1957 Best Actress Comedy/Musical Bus Stop Nomination 1960 Best Actress Musical Film/Comedy In Jazz Only Girls Award 1962 Best Film Female Role Award Laurel Awards 1958 Best Actress Nomination 1958 Best Comedy Actress The Prince and the Dancer Nomination 1959 Best Actress Nomination 1960 Best Comedy Actress In Jazz Only Girls Nomination 1960 Best Actress Nomination 1961 Best Actress Nomination 1962 Best Actress Nomination Photoplay Awards 1952 Award 1953 Hollywood Walk of Fame Award 1960 Award
ce9a62ab3dfd8c8e6d258b30b1224524b0792e2a	Bibliography[edit / edit wiki text]
4e25d30c6232afba4c0fe2ff7053a43e163ecb7d	According to The Guardian, about 300 books, dissertations, etc.have been written about Monroe[27] The first and only lifetime publication was in 1961 — "Marilyn Monroe" by biographer Maurice Zolotov.
44232b7b3bc906e8fb84b5f51d4d5c6e7c9aeed6	"Marilyn Monroe" by Donald Spoto "The Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe" by Randy Taraborrelli "The Symbol" by Alva Bessi
b2b6fccb870abc87fcf3d52b8089ec3a8c8bc43f	In Russian:
fab8f41379ed27ec2c4c6cbcf5aa6790d1d4dae2	Grachev A.V. Marilyn Monroe, M., 1990.
6f1ceda2ed4a77d40db65381cbe15f54a0364ff2	- 64 p., ill.
4be2b627bb69e808a5ab61963a1385157a48ac26	- 150,000 copies.
665f6a1c93b7e57fb1e69ee1405b5b26d5505aff	Gombau A. Marilyn Monroe: Blonde in Manhattan / Trans. with fr. E. Golovina.
5dd1f22762500d65e424ca84929730a452ce4655	M.: Hummingbird, ABC Atticus, 2012 — - 176 p., ill.
76cb423ce47e6a645a4b37feb3303d7961177371	- (Person). - 4000 copies, ISBN 978-5-389-02857-9 V. Golovskoy.
be55b43b2eff2ea7871e51ff0716da23068b75c4	Marilyn Monroe.
edc434389dac7759e319289d63cac6b47faf12bd	Life and Death, M.: "Zakharov", 2007, 2008 Marilyn Monroe: A Passion Told by Herself / Trans. from English.
22163ef6a3a9c7b9c43e84b02a36689381091d4b	N. Pavlishcheva.
e68a5a113a255e08304db14c9e292c9d0d972b9d	- M.: Yauza press, 2012.
b195a85fa92bb05848371826f95b475934c216d1	— (A unique autobiography of a woman of the era). - 10000 copies, ISBN 978-5-9955-0429-0 Rener S.
ae2457721731841fd8aa5d7ed18f3dd9c126e1f3	The tragedy of Marilyn Monroe / Per. with fr. L. Zavyalova.
62d8a3c0704530da82ce790a030b54f07df61d47	M.: Progress, 1970.
00cfbb9ae85dd9880e51b43778c6bba3f1ddb6a0	- 230 p., ill.
fafc64bbde0a05f2393ebc634576906f744198a1	Taraborelli R. Marilyn Monroe: The Secret life of the most famous woman in the world / Translated from English by A. Stepanova.
3cf5fd3d5590cd38206ebe774e1ca120dd4d1b3e	Moscow: Eksmo, 2012.
f71b76f73acd435284c889ab39e3a77ff31a6112	- 608 p., 3000 copies, ISBN 978-5-699-56861-1 Chebotar S.
35f7f5bb7a8fcd3d50091b82880a5c90d803af91	A., Wulf V. Ya.
86da696a87b9a3e497e559b2acb0ba53a611bd36	The unfading "star".
e035d57dc76b6945d673959c3b29f8f080325443	Moscow: Yauza, Eksmo, 2013.
c75767041ca6f899351c9b0e411fb1f08ea5834c	- 160 p.
2e3ff759e3c9a59fa49eca478890d442bc6b8543	- (Vitaly Wolf on the great women of the XX century). 5000 copies, ISBN 978-5-699-61059-4 "Femme Fatales from Cleopatra to Marilyn Monroe" (Eternal Radiance of Femininity) Vitaly Wolf, Serafima Chebotar. 2013
88f8b65a9c6b3c41e5f0b66b689f5f05a27ec739	↑ Marilyn Monroe Biography
56d17b1ecc464c5985fa565dd78934627c932ff2	↑ Birth certificate — 1926.
63d188b2cec0ba2576c0d594a85743c904657904	<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q83900"></a>
6af708e73ddb277ec4324a4e8477d7b0bd649e09	↑ 1 2 3 Record #118583549 // Gemeinsame Normdatei — 2012—2015.
a2e905f8536ef4e4b4e363c948fd10f913b73223	<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q27302"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q304037"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q256507"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q170109"></a><a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q36578"></a>
dcb4b408a31b0513ef3584085dba0637686a7628	↑ 1 2 Bibliothèque nationale de France: open data platform — 2011.
22c17e8bba1d8bccd7374c883de96d286f91ea15	<a href="https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q20666306"></a>
a8249d2c7fabe7275575681be7bf5172920b2892	↑ Marilyn Monroe: Fast Facts. cmgww.com. Verified on September 6, 2012.
132ccedb9690ba254d5aed1402648b64a9554c99	Archived from the original source on October 17, 2012.
13c765771f8db196e532e6e6ab05b2e1cbd61150	↑ Marilyn Monroe Biography.
99f5f0b03731d92df9611b474fcba08346f127bb	Biography.com. Verified on September 6, 2012.
1b6eb41b5d52543b48d8471e2687fcdde6081531	↑ Marilyn Monroe.
e21d279147d986c6c0ac7868890206bb05f6be89	Life in the world of men\Sofia Benois.
1ff07bb85049cb9361fe86a114bae13fb89fd00f	- M.: Algorithm, 2012 — - 12 ↑ AP.
9118c9c8b439b2da695602986cc943e8d90adb38	Mortensen's Death and documents, New York Times (February 13, 1981).
24d1fbbeffb15b82440da2c05047e58f23b15fe9	Accessed March 2, 2010.
94a698bd8a46092e464a04424dbe9337b3c17c1e	↑ The article "Marilyn Monroe: Ups and downs" on the website "Women's stuff".
644d66289d0edbcbbb4d583c801114fc0f195f9e	The unfaded "star" \ Vitaly Wolf, Serafima Chebotar.
8fc46b34806b4d69a0515afbf33ff385b0aa2edf	- Moscow: Yauza : Eksmo, 2013.
91615d95128e813796cceb129b2e7fcda99ef445	34 ↑ Marilyn Monroe \Anna Plantagenet; trans. from Fr. and the introduction.art. E. V. Kolodochkina.
f9a4c8f6e8a2d34be0f2cae40c2a6c84fae19719	- M.: Young Guard;
aaa783b51d2165379930678592183acbafdf72aa	Palimpsest, 2011 — - 265 (7) p.: ill.
e6732bd0467164e35b1d6e89b23da93570c070a6	— (The life of wonderful people: A small series: ser. biogr.; issue 14). - 53 ↑ 1 2 Marilyn Monroe \Anna Plantagenet; trans. from fr. and the introduction.art. E. V. Kolodochkina.
ab9c6c579f94f2b1fa9d2f6dd8186689b42990ad	— (The life of wonderful people: A small series: ser. biogr.; issue 14). - 54-56 ↑ Marilyn Monroe \Anna Plantagenet; trans. from Fr. and the introduction.art. E. V. Kolodochkina.
f709f6167275a01dfdf4629b1d502b59801948a7	— (The life of wonderful people: A small series: ser. biogr.; issue 14). - 57, 65 ↑ McLellan, Dennis.
a29e262b22b728e4a63ef234d288f7194929122b	James Dougherty, 84;
1e97225a23a2398de776fe02d227802c56adc521	Was Married to Marilyn Monroe Before She Became a Star, Los Angeles Times (August 18, 2005).
1d3e91f8594b958f8a568459d0961883309e52ec	Accessed May 13, 2011.
8257f5e3900a4f0beca708dc9e0b870976938ce2	↑ "Personal Letter from a 16 Year Old Marilyn Monroe Sells for $52,460 at Bonhams & Butterfields". artdaily.org (April 20, 2011).
08e1dc4893d0d5992534c60c6968fd191f9e5b58	Checked on May 7, 2011.
543639b5c9cf619d2c71e9dca3fcaed9a854d8dd	↑ The Radioplane Target Drone.
8f86b7d9760ba2e26aa6efe6ba6a4b926a25ee90	48 ↑ Marilyn Monroe.
993f1c68db98e658b30adda16f65631b442833af	Walk of Fame.
a0b0cdb322b920a77eaab83b169a9023f7faa76b	Verified on August 14, 2012.
8fe143462972c2ed1c103f44b547135bc85e2969	Archived from the original source on August 17, 2012.
9e93be1ea9d682d3620255954fc578451daa16ec	↑ "Marilyn Monroe: Still Life".
2d7ed66a5ee10a1d74e9c26c90a9a891c56e848e	PBS (July 19, 2006). Checked on May 8, 2011.
20115fd6f70378a8ef92e6dccd1ef855549665c3	↑ "Tony Curtis: 'Marilyn Monroe miscarried my baby'".
6465ba7f1d52493be7060c4775b31d66e5d4f741	The Telegraph (August 7, 2009).
d82207535eaa7d63697d45e9ee4869da2c5e0694	Checked on May 8, 2011.
ac84e68317cb75eeeddc2b29c65234423347338c	↑ Marilyn Monroe - Still Life | American Masters.
d83229a114646967b4de11d3f897cddc29c2fdb0	PBS (July 19, 2006). Verified on September 6, 2012.
44967e18052b915ae5871c1efc763676937e48b7	↑ The Official Web Site of Ella Fitzgerald.
26940995473f92b03f95c769ce7ad34d46df5f26	Verified on September 6, 2012.
8f1c4fb9765ac0b722af4620849d8b3121f4fc86	↑ Marilyn Monroe | Reader's Digest Version.
8008e4b14ff9ebca9c6fd6bcdb4302f70dbed9a6	Rd.com. Verified on September 6, 2012.
1f742b848ceee5fdc0eb16a3969634e959cea42d	↑ Reasons for suicides ↑ Marilyn Monroe's" Flying away " dress sold for $4.6 million ↑ A huge sculpture of Marilyn Monroe has appeared in Chicago: everyone can drown I look under her dress ↑ Happy birthday, Marilyn. guardian.co.uk (May 29, 2001).
d7213dd8ffa605a14d7f766d54dabb4e00f3174e	Checked on September 6, 2012.
4a3c87a864fca2537febe5fc7f2a7d7b4be65763	Marilyn Monroe in Wikicitatnik?
b98df1dc2129dc105a5f8d03727bd85b7a463af4	Marilyn Monroe on Wikimedia Commons?
11e58b7786a9dd3b1abf826c8a675c3f6850526c	Marilyn Monroe (English) on the Internet Movie Database website
6a8819aef31fe3033dcca2a66b5a9d3b8b0096fc	Find and issue links to authoritative sources confirming what has been written in the form of footnotes.
b25c35ad8e36272f39ddf8e129bc97c543e45799	Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Comedy or Musical (1950-1960)
1fe3fdf2df8c9493676b7d7e10665092b024fe5f	Judy Halliday
23329cebf1d6c58b1222f0f75193bfc3d9e30f45	(1950 • * June Ellison (1951) • Susan Hayward (1952) * Ethel Merman (1953) • Judy Garland (1954) * Gene Simmons
74d4a7ed3137c19eb4aa2796cb84901bd5a2b797	(1955 • * Deborah Kerr (1956) • Kay Kendall / The Secret of Elg (1957) • Rosalind Russell (1958) • Marilyn Monroe (1959) * Shirley MacLaine (1960)
e9428275d44d538f136b7113aca6cc294b8cee0f	Full list· (1950-1960) · (1961-1980) · (1981-2000) · (2001 — present time)
00838c1ef8fb27a48cad32fcd5af25b36e4eb344	Notable Names Database · AllMovie · AlloCiné · Internet Movie Database · MusicBrainz
800b85ad9e267c01f42be1b44ee20af2ea3d78d5	Regulatory Control BNC: A11019785 · BNE: XX1036375 · BNF: 11916572r · GND: 118583549 · ISNI: 0000 0003 6863 9110, 0000 0001 2125 1384 · LCCN: n79055651 · NDL: 00621148 · NKC: jn20000701257 · NLA: 35358965 · NLR: 000343620, 000149614 · NTA: 069261164 · NUKAT: n95000730 · LIBRIS: 232535 · SUDOC: 027035271 · VIAF: 27069077 · ULAN: 500342163
4b8a73345d89b7c9e7734eb4e4fae9ee870b476a	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marilyn Monroe&oldid=75560488"
aa0f886f575b8c2a78a42fe2768b610d0b830014	Categories: Personalities alphabetically Born on June 1 Born in 1926 Born in Los Angeles Died on August 5 Died in 1962 Died in Los Angeles Actresses alphabetically Actresses of the USA Actresses of the XX century Singers and singers alphabetically Singers and Singers of the USA Singers and singers of the XX century Marilyn Monroe Artistic pseudonyms Playboy Hollywood Walk of Fame Golden Globe Award winners Died of drug overdose Buried at Westwood Cemetery Graduates of the Acting Studio Actresses who committed suicide
c9b222d848de12925f7a19d34a137cf71cb75664	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with redefinition of the value from Wikidata Wikipedia:Articles with sources from Wikidata Articles with links to Wikicitatnik Wikipedia:Articles without links to sources
e262eaa162dacb43b7c9cc92df2b1bca46181e47	Afrikaans Alemannisch Ar Aragonés العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca bashортortsa Boarisch Žemaitėška Belarusian Belarusian (tarashkevitsa) Bulgarian বাংলা বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Cebuano buryad nohchiyn کوردیی ناوەندی Corsu Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego Avañe'ẽ 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Fiji Hindi עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Ilokano Ido Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Basa Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit of Adygebze Kazakh ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Karachay malkar Ripoarisch Kernowek Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lumbaart Lezgi include limburgs Ligure ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Olyka Mari Macedonian മലയാളം Baso Minangkabau Mongol Kyryk Mary मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Napulitano Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Nederlands Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Novial Occitan Oromo Kapampangan Picard Pälzisch ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Runa Simi Rosinsky Sakha Sardu Sicilianu Scots Srpskohrvatski / srpskohrvatski Simple English Slovenčina Shqip Slovenscina Srpski / Sranantongo srpski Basa Sunda Svenska Kiswahili Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Tagalog Türkçe Tatarcha/tatarça Ukrainian اردو O'zbekcha/Becca Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá 中文 Vahcuengh Bân lâm gú 粵語
f79787e0ddc54e4cd669021f955c3df1c13d44c6	Last modified on this page: 14: 30, January 6, 2016.
c624447c2f4f24e851743620d8aa76eda5ebd397	Opening of the XXX Olympic Games, the new winner of the title "Playboy Playmate of the Year" Miss Muslim World 2014
a0cd53f04b1c1882d5648ac54695753047456779	Today is Thursday, January 7
eecb2fcd6d576aafcd80289d4a096ec70f6798b5	Birthday: 01.06.1926
919feee48cdd0d58a0e2888b1cef904df470f5a4	Age: 36 years
ab1113b6c95ff3684e398e9c18856714c820b94d	Place of birth: Los Angeles, California, USA Date of death: 05.08.1962 year of death: Los Angeles, California, USA
2a7cbc553ad84423a41a47524f860ef73aa54370	Citizenship: USA Height: 162 cm Weight: 56 kg
619475eb9a7a9ee983100cca427fde86d00ba1a1	Original name: Norma Jean Baker Martenson Original name: Norma Jean Mortenso
fa2281b9936ced70ca5fbbcbd3acde7a30530c25	Similar: Marilyn, Monroe, Norma Jean, Marilyn, Monroe, Martenson
425296e13ad94ece69c8b9e4563cfcd1b83809b3	Life History
1e0854d87d7daf8c328c367c9f18f62d109f0a2a	Her parents were Gladys Monroe Baker Mortensen, who worked as an editor in Hollywood, and Edward Mortensen, Gladys ' second husband, an American of Norwegian descent with no fixed place of work.
d7dfedc0afff5ccd55000e23138e8e1da3bf8040	He quietly disappeared from the family shortly before the birth of Norma Jean.
e8d2f6d70675f7515960f139f391ce651d325e55	This gave her the opportunity, at least for a while, to be in a completely different world, different from the one that surrounded her in real reality.
2241b15b7786d664eeb22747622770fc4fac9e45	She imagined that her father looked like Clark Gable; she dreamed of a beautiful life, in which there were necessarily tropical islands, yachts, palaces and beautiful scenes of seduction.
d9751bdb8d50e88ecb25584f08d3404328b0089b	She also quite often had the same dream in which she tore off all her clothes in church, and the shocked audience, silently and admiringly admired her naked splendor.
4307c85d571c5b67daccec24160113e22d24f1d9	Later, Marilyn Monroe liked to tell creepy stories about how she was raped in an orphanage when she was just a child.
7cfe893e831cafb4333836d249bb5a7e3f36c49a	Dougherty also stated that it was he who deprived Norma Jean of her virginity.
2690ba12e98b8568b1c4e83511e806969fd4cc7a	Whatever it was, but Norma Jean was bored with housekeeping, and she was relieved to meet the news that her husband was going overseas.
fd1f34ea62bf65c2d19f46e096fe8d2f40680e5c	This happened in 1944.
da44d840fde6877a1035c6fa36216c1578c73b8a	Norma Jean loved to pose, and the photographs (some called the camera her only faithful lover) showed a beautiful young woman who passionately wanted to be liked and noticed, sensual and easily vulnerable at the same time, a peculiar combination of charm and innocence.
59b8e26c01f1c42e6eaa7c2465b01ae7e91a1055	Norma Jean decided that she could become a star, divorced her husband and became a popular fashion model, and in 1946 she came to film auditions at the Twentieth Century Fox film studio.
b50ae51a9acc793bbada77adef68981575136744	The auditions were extremely successful, and the studio signed a contract with her.
36e0eecb04e2878e3f620ceded7469c5231e8024	She was advised to make her hair lighter and change her name.
5e726fdcb64f6887c328949721cc38b4641a0527	So Norma Jean Mortensen became Marilyn Monroe.
31db9a13dc358a4d3c1a49f519f95dd21a8198db	She constantly thought about sex, imagined how she would do it with all the men with whom fate brought her together.
d8d431d81ad98b225603b7a66a6150890bc579f9	She, however, was not completely promiscuous in her sexual relations and had sex only with those men who liked her.
4c1d88b72b3a0ff69bb9b223d3a9872e2f86d8dd	She usually preferred men who were older than herself.
ae968243dabfb8dc6850bc97a6db1d393cd13d3c	In the late 40s, Hollywood was, according to Monroe, "an overflowing brothel."
838e8a149457da7fe8f737f8b215a2488fbfe64c	She needed the help of someone who would help her get up from the crowd of third rate Hollywood beauties at the film studio.
0717f00101435d9745d3b0b9b89689cd1e8b9451	Marilyn's first patron was 70 year old producer Joe Schenk, a veteran of Hollywood.
03a1034848f8bbb9f02638161251fae6c5c5d4c5	He often invited the aspiring actress to restaurants, as well as to his home and to his office.
d754799dc05cba8837d7f7e2a72197d07ff87ae2	There he sat comfortably in a chair and caressed the breasts of Marilyn, who was kneeling in front of him and performing fellatio.
a4d93b6729691442427ed64dd5a880fca0988f5b	Schenck introduced Marilyn to Harry Cohn, the tyrant owner of the Columbia Pictures film studio.
a7e5656811bc06959a01065c43633725930d3ff3	Marilyn started acting there, but she was fired after finishing work on the first film for allegedly refusing Cohn's sexual claims.
8da69e8ddf42c05c75ee1c47d816b57cbe9d4ec0	Comedian Milton Berle, who achieved success where Cohn failed to do so, later claimed: "She did not try to satisfy me just because I could help her... she did it because she liked me."
e9b17ecc19ed068ceebad2803736af6fed63d508	At that time, Marilyn also liked Fred Karger, who gave her vocal lessons.
1269c5994f025d98578f2fefc0fbfd9c973ec4a9	Fred enjoyed using Marilyn's sexual services with pleasure, but did not reciprocate her feelings.
e13ade8afd006c72e2415c8e1adf2cacdd778972	When 22 year old Marilyn was fired from the Columbia Pictures film studio, she worked for a while in a small bar where she was engaged in striptease.
50bc7710c36a1a17f4a9154696c254299a0393d8	There she had a two week love affair with 18 year old musician Anton LaVey.
470508c7500b93f9a4d43cfac50a24a173f87ece	They had sex in motels, and when they didnot have money, they had sex in Marilyn's car.
670008a7463efc2b44134d21a7c07d396c62fca4	LaVey later wrote that Monroe was sexually passive and received great satisfaction not so much from the sex itself, but from the admiration that men expressed about the beauty of her body.
1e3650e5133ec6af7c41cb9a6b1592d2e9a3e927	Many of Marilyn's biographers tend to agree with him on this.
91ace92de9492070e79aec10552e0aee0259ab81	Fred Giles wrote that she was "too self absorbed for most of her life to respond adequately to everything that concerned men, including even sex."
8bdda704e053f0601869e617c729e37d46acd967	Norman Mailer noted: "It was nice to spend time in bed with Marilyn, but she liked to receive, not invent something new."
4e59d642d2e540dab5de282b11e020ff9c2fcbce	Even after becoming a star, Marilyn showed sometimes touching insecurity.
1a6fb5bb9c69f76e980b49520a25b0208ff84fb5	"I donot even know if I'm doing this right," she whispered after a sexual encounter with actor Marlon Brando.
75b7817e9c500877051e7dc3f07ea87ddb86a3f6	Sometimes she would climb naked into bed with her next partner and ask him: "Do nothing, just hold me tight."
d0bef9870079917cb2cf98bfc872400b34d11481	The writer Bob Slatzer often "held" Marilyn in this way and even claimed later that he was married to Marilyn for a short time in Mexico.
59a8d48e6278a18fdf8814ad1cc321eef15b250f	They divorced very quickly and without sandal, because Marilyn changed her mind about being his wife.
c56a267cb75839c5d61f52184294a89c23f68c21	With most men, however, sex was very simple: "They were overwhelmed with confidence in their abilities, and I did not have it at all.
cd95909814d08829a40ad5d32357f21b20628f3e	They helped me feel better and more confident."
c9e345843122fa8555046f73e2bd2fef199c2011	After Schenck, Johnny Hyde, one of the most famous advertising agents in Hollywood, became Marilyn's patron.
5e5fdde649079ddae38a57b409a4244bbb27a5ec	53 year old Hyde fell in love with Marilyn and asked her to marry him.
e6ec87e2d3ea55fe5829420ae94f8eb77b14c66e	She refused his offer.
79d74daaa922de08ba5d799ed66f002a84eff6b8	He gave her a sense of security, provided her with a new wardrobe and paid for plastic surgery to correct some of the shortcomings of her nose and chin.
67eb694ab2fa5d9ff458012aa739f5f7420ce15a	The most important thing was that Hyde used his influence and gave Marilyn the opportunity to star in the films "Asphalt Jungle" (1950) and "All about Eve" (1950).
9335f07f380a1d2579070ceb52cd6b6506a8403b	Marilyn did not get any satisfaction from having sex with Hyde, but she did not want to offend him and pretended to be completely ecstatic every time.
60a32414a8513294adad6abe38507091039a1bae	When Marilyn signed her first contract, she exclaimed: "And here is the last member that I will have to kiss again!"
0f72bfe9cda0e2a169d5d08fa70648c8a5eb7332	With her friend Shelly Winters, Marilyn once, as if in jest, made a list of famous men whom she would like to seduce.
b4984d4623f304170ba9764e7b801806b7544a08	Later, Shelly accidentally found a photo of the scientist in Marilyn's house.
05086bb2b81d6b624161f193d4e67c0def48d981	On the back of the photo, Einstein's handwriting read: "With respect, love and gratitude."
9d29449809cb175086624190434784077be2b3d3	He was 37 years old.
c975c628996cc26bb86fd35f4eb064c534cb471c	He had just left the big sport, was in great shape and was a great addition to Marilyn, who became a real screen star by 1953 after the release of the films "Gentlemen prefer Blondes" and "How to marry a Millionaire", in which she played the main roles.
21c77f9fc7faefa5bd3b5a52aa44ecc35ed74bd3	Even the appearance of such a sensational calendar on sale, in which Marilyn posed nude (the calendar was made during difficult times for her, when she had absolutely no money), seemed to only help her career, causing increased interest in her from the public.
8c8636e68ea32e9448f019ab27b849200c2fc965	DiMaggio, however, did not want his wife to remain a movie star after their marriage.
dcc188380fc1be1a5d2065227bd11be96c50b934	DiMaggio was a strong, strong willed, silent and proud man.
72bd386bee3ecb4077eeca670aa9e10fe24689d1	He hated Hollywood and the public display of his wife's sexual virtues.
9098a97b946752a44ff25f68635c891983d13c0b	Trying to get rid of the stereotype of a sexy blonde imposed on her by the studio, Marilyn left Hollywood and went to the east coast of the country, where she met a man who was interested, as it seemed to her, not only in her body.
220a496dc70575afd39e4aa4918b5d0df884f01f	This man, the playwright Arthur Miller, was as widely known in radical literary circles as DiMaggio was in the baseball world.
3db1f3716fa28ab11cfa1db05dd7e2b5b1317e97	They were married in 1956.
0cbde5df274ac0cefac8ce50fc574e9a0423f808	Lena Pepitone, who worked as a maid in the Miller house, later described how Marilyn spent time in New York in between filming, rehearsals and psychiatric treatment sessions.
02632701d584ae1cbb25d93405f362bee43dae57	Arthur Miller was working in his bedroom.
67b6a537e4bc4a2b988a1a2807097fd0a1b44183	She drank champagne and listened to Frank Sinatra records for hours.
3d30401ccbecd540903ab180542e963790c6d417	Often she also chatted for a long time on the phone or admired the reflection of her naked body in the mirror.
2fe587116cc37f0d994b1de0aea285f7a315472c	Marilyn was an absolutely free person, without any complexes.
1ae7ed70e24e204f0737e1177fbd374029eace62	She never had her own underwear (she simply did not wear it and therefore did not need it); she rarely took a bath, liked to eat in bed, wiping her hands on the sheets, which had to be changed often, especially when Marilyn had her period.
a47113f6a78e1669f7f928046dfe99c5d6cc4a1c	After one night of almost continuous sex, Marilyn did not allow the maid to replace the sheets, saying: "I want to lie on them all day."
2bb72bde9fc2847f48e84b3a3b2e02a32d5ade72	Soon, Marilyn had two miscarriages, despite the fact that she had a special operation.
206aebbc6ad609de9b9a8bb911cfae1f3765952c	She fell into a state of deep depression.
13e72f54608dd043860159b8b10a820b824924e8	Films with her participation cost producers more and more expensive, because Marilyn began to be chronically late for filming or even disrupt them without appearing on the set. Suffering from insomnia, Marilyn began to use a huge number of powerful sedatives.
7a1135f65a92a3878020009be33b30b5cbad48e6	Miller saved her from certain death several times, preventing her from poisoning herself with these drugs due to an accidental overdose.
7d8d128ed35638a2d7b25b0551b75dc436b902e6	The Millers divorced in 1960 on the day John F. Kennedy became president of the United States.
ff80cf6906c6c6f69e16ce94f281333a2ccd4ea7	Marilyn was almost 35 years old.
35d7e0bf8de787ac0395445e5eebe9a3e00a50d5	She was lonely and terribly afraid of the rapidly approaching, as it seemed to her, old age.
f9507dd7bdfbc6e2c175d97c88b7f17a074d9525	She needed to convince herself that she was still young and beautiful.
c3d4d43556aef3fc99ee07e811683698065f65a8	She began a widely publicized affair with Yves Montand, with whom she co starred in the film "Let's Make Love" (1960).
348b952c1d31bf034301c052dd7d6e6ce46d69aa	Marilyn hoped that their romance would not become just another meaningless love affair for both of them.
ae8237af7cb909fdd669814bc1a31be0fa420ca5	Then began her meetings in dirty hotels with the Danish journalist Hans Jorgen Lemburn, whose hands, as she claimed, made her fall asleep, not get excited.
95f5a425cafe7d5ab3d0c563086df0e13c54ce93	Marilyn began to have sex with her massage therapist Ralph Roberts, as well as with her driver.
a837b125e147722c277952e59d5bc89a0769639e	Sometimes DiMaggio stayed at her house for the night, but they still had completely opposite points of view regarding Marilyn's future career and life.
8363ee7e7798d74d828b63b9338a48df041056c2	Frank Sinatra also became a close friend and lover of Monroe.
f71dd7052b09992d43949054a7f995f8721ce363	Sinatra then introduced her to the Kennedy family.
ff412761069d8d4d5c9f5a51726eded774bd8a41	In 1962, Marilyn once asked her friend Bob Slatzer: "Can you imagine me as the first lady?"
814efc83cfa4f7b9e1a31eea6a460d453683338a	She secretly met with the president at the house of his sister's husband Peter Lawford in Santa Monica, at the Beverly Hills Hotel and on board the presidential plane.
731105f0a95f00ed49bc000182a954370a84e5b2	She bought a house in Los Angeles and began to live in this city again, because at any moment the Lord God himself could "appear there "(John Kennedy).
74eb4497074c88a3bd32a856d7436e49f45bf200	Telling her friends about her sexual relationship with Kennedy, Marilyn, giggling, said that the president's behavior in bed is "very democratic" and "deeply penetrating."
72672284dd7343e152cce0e463b5c8b9015da02c	Marilyn also said that Kennedy liked to caress her, but once refused to make sure with his own hand that she was not wearing underwear this time, when they were sitting next to each other at a banquet.
162d51fe5e4edc4ed2e83d5e4e73b0287aa7c1e6	Kennedy also became annoyed with Marilyn's constant lateness and her frequent phone calls.
6bedae9788337cae279efd077e78b24cdc2ea408	He was afraid of a completely unnecessary scandal for him.
fdbc2d5191e0257d266cf890bb0b96ce7b26511b	Trying to soften the blow, he introduced Marilyn to his brother Bobby.
7d7c5099137268a272bfad070a9c4fcc94e71bfd	When she realized that there was no question of any marriage, and after Robert Kennedy changed his phone number so that she would not call him again, Marilyn even thought about holding a press conference and telling the whole world the truth about her relationship with both brothers.
e36d4d45e6987be4caaf8208a469a63563579995	Was Marilyn's death a suicide or a murder?
5b424070fd9f7ea46aa80c62dea5e07a2fe5a417	In the summer of 1962, Marilyn's mental state was unstable, and her mood quickly changed from fun to despair and vice versa.
7b942e1429603755f7e21ee17c37c6555b372991	She again began to use a large number of various medications and visit a psychiatrist every day.
db067843f185eaa32b73b67ba69e64606909ba6b	She was removed from her last film for the fact that she practically did not appear on the set. Marilyn was also in despair because she could not keep any man around her for a long time.
ab821def2a87c15815c0cb0c59c4b4ce7457ef95	Her life has become aimless and disorderly.
feef40bd3818c3bc8a8a2a3bd11d1093e545627d	The whole world was shocked by the news that one Sunday morning in April, Marilyn Monroe was found dead in her home.
e1cd8c75b4cfc5e6379d2c95ea4c8f486b9a2b05	The authors of this book met with Dr. Hyman Engelberg, who at one time announced the cause of death of the actress.
b4b49a25e35ac044acb0da3c53c445ce612311fe	Engelberg said that he has no doubt that the death of Marilyn Monroe occurred as a result of suicide.
1518ff8fb97821e4d83148cd36996d898cba34be	The irony of fate was that Marilyn Monroe, who was considered the goddess of love, died from a lack of love, which she always needed so much.
75ecce39bef050428aae74b56ef1bc34ae6d7fd8	Timofey Prokofiev: The Gypsy legend of the Olshansky landing Was Visited:295 World stars of the opera and concert scene Visited:242 The most real of the invented detectives Visited:236
faa297c4f97443081292567dd5c6526717cb37ad	The killer of hikers Visited:900 Japanese Combat Techniques Visited:1205 The sexiest Chef Visited:846
62dae90e3d93d8b1967762e0effad9f7b40f4ef1	Harry Winston, American jeweler and businessman Rosanna Arquette, American actress Lyudmila Chursina, actress Eve, singer, rap Hu, Chinese farmer with a skull injury August, Rock band
d94e01dd3f7a16fab10972bbec5de9bad415e5af	Phrases: dao, for a year, a and n, childish, famous, countries, good, feelings, a and po, at the table, the whole world, medicine, calendar, a with n, dream, in, old, medicine, lagoda, respect, men, arthur, care, irony, stories about, star, maybe, death, I, wind
6e53839c3b07877e32d5291c8b2309a32b0ef727	About celebrities: An actress and a sex symbol of all times and peoples
a7896ca87be6a26484a755cb3b8eec725c07e857	The story of Marilyn Monroe.
69e3637c2313719b31217c5653b66426ce2ca6d4	She had everything but happiness
7b2120153a19ee6720d5b12afa0a89f54d4d5a91	Marilyn Monroe: The last birthday
0e7d774a1023443c892f2e30ebe0dcee4bb6b692	Marilyn Monroe: Through the bed to the stars
df4c94b11688703ba870051dd00b4d2748f92162	How much is Marilyn for the people?
7c55f8e11f895f84dcd6a573eb167a59ec517b39	Unknown letters of Marilyn Monroe
de2b1941c6d55bc2e3ded8b22a88aa2ac18d91f3	A part instead of a whole
e5bfe9ddcfdbad7328adc2507c03df6d01b0e30b	50 years without Marilyn Monroe: would she have become a legend if she hadnot died so early?
3140aa7d7093b3abd5f55b3e1594a9ab4496cfb1	Secret materials
14058213868edd309b9f65a0df0249ce091af7ca	Sex symbol of the twentieth century
3a6d29f910cf059c2606c231c7227261097e25c7	Monroe couldnot trust men
72a70b62ac81d2b03c28b8fc724de2fd78c30811	Photos [326]
cb903c493f00165f1b5c86544109c77bc2818bf8	Aphorisms of Marilyn Monroe
63472d418f56b3cd88a268d3aa5e6725977045a5	Marilyn Monroe quotes
dc8745ba30beefa5d028f85ba9b11599a2ac8d7e	House
acc2bc0f82562f3bb610ce1251188bd4f41bd486	Lyrics [1]
cfe484dbb0d548a55a8db4b814e5b2e9282a93dc	Jokes [5]
f0d817d0dcc35a2c09403abc6b1901e5e11b7c2d	Video [114]
071a4e53036533ba55b0ff584c3e5414ffa92193	Forum [18]
c14b935de95769289eda3bf5243b6508cede13b2	News [52]
e71ba6a4ec913b0b7210a4110f5a9839ae023a29	Works in cinema [141]
2d23d06bda9fb221f71d03f130a773cbe20fc80c	about life
5d67bd5844007d8539925d175c9be41e5efda482	[ Irina Gribulina ]
bc1f92f5be11034664c7e2762a6f4422cd5e19db	Hello Irina.
f78b9e44d6a1e5767bce8fe696cda4b904d915f0	I watched a story with your participation in one program.
fb4ff0a791cc12b1f67a2dd4efd58278a0f97319	Where you talk about what co ....
dc069eff58d0b0f8e56cf0d5b7de6cd7d75f3350	cancer and medicine
6f2cff7b55ad4dd8176b678261e6972821e8a970	[ Gary Hackney ]
5976747b40315ca907426fd37e6af1953bfedcad	All types of cancer diseases depend on the type of virus that enters the cell and their number ....
29951d322c876ff9ea9f70ef7d25d96f1054b39a	I am proud of my fellow countryman.
83080d67d164260a2edf3a4152a0d56daf1b3992	[ Denis Matsuev ]
95c6639f7ceacf7c20509b8fc82c050a9726f6f4	I was at his book presentation
cf71f39ece26c5c2891767efe469b426a4659c4d	http://ozero.ru/article/irkuts ....
157b5bccf453b8fa69e7022f4cc0449d111e7dc2	Thanks to The Artist Maxim Galkin
1ae621e2af9c7e1fcb8489fa5575898b5b36d8c5	[ Maxim Galkin ]
395f5b6d9e8467f1de0bdfa12de2e1e326533104	Many thanks to the director, the actors and Maxim Galkin for a good, kind, interesting film.
b8ec5c98087d4f38ff10008d26320e0ac8cbc266	With satisfaction ....
4dc7c9ec434ed06502767136789763ec11d2c4b7	r
9883104eb49b715b354559a063e850c9482dc481	Biography of Marina Devyatova (594)
e223523a58ea5849bdfc3dc7d9cb9d057384dd0a	Biography of Yuri Entin (365)
c99edfa43b9906167cb6b6332266abd3bc2c8836	Author of one novel (238)
a95d78b9e88d9aa4e9a6de522d1a6c847f21a197	The Great Impostor in Pursuit of Respect (416)
13e07d2360d7cdf6f40e05e9a0e41baec854336c	Biography of Yuri Entin (439)
b842e645e8d013377f64ed15783cfc8589fceaea	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [70] mckidd kevin [53] yuriy eliseev [52] yerkes [50] antonio stradivarius [50] strahovsky [50] monica mattos [49] Richard Hatch [48] Paulo falcao [47] petr pallas [47] adidas golf [47] vanasse [45] Putin [43] butenko elena [43] nastya romanova [43] hunter [42] cencic [41] trio of doom [40] kenneth branagh [39] young [38] berezov temirbolat [37] kolesnikov andrey [37] morsy [37] hlebnikov [36] barabash [35] jackson [35] John Clark [34] Eric Clapton [33] Kiselyov Evgeny [32] fat [30]
71ceaae4ea9ccae68fc21108a28e5456141fc50e	For 1 day: 8970
62d9dbe6ddf8fcc2a2748dfee468dc18401aaea6	Lyubov Tolkalina Konchalovskaya [424] Putin [232] MISHKA YAPONCHIK [102] Alexander Kosmodemyansky [79] Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya [74] Hitler [74] sobchak [71] beatty [60] Alla Gerber [56] potupchik [55] romanova yusupova [55] mckidd kevin [53] evstyukhina nadezhda [53] Peskov [52] yuriy eliseev [52] raihelgauz [52] knaster alexander [51] rebrik lilia [51] vitaliy khilko [51] palme [51] quinto [51] razak [50] antonio stradivarius [50] kapica aleksandr [50] strahovsky [50] yerkes [50] miller [50] goldman ron [50] petr pallas [49] lyudovik [49]
d71e24efffd3305d4210624ac01235cd66ab8cee	For 7 days: 23231
7d7719753fa713afc6e9d038443261141c30f0f6	Putin [74177]
b33b564d2ae304afd782b18ed9caa15af8e650a1	sobchak [46512]
01318eed4498ba57b7cb0ffcdd36f1278d786906	hitler [45108]
2244276d578beee7a057bb58025c349e65780000	Stalin [34356]
da5378a53c226da167e20f9c61f85fec1a2d604a	Che Guevara [30524]
6105abc3a84e85c146e39aa981b0919205db5dd2	medvedev [23437]
83f57a1c3f14862d64fa5e35afafdd62da280f29	Mironov [22921]
c5efe349caff81542a7e216397dfec06700139c3	Newton [21615]
596304de0507e854e2f2690ac5efc75d2bdf65af	Ivanov [20176]
09b3ad89747c286b963338543113762cbdbb0bf6	Lyubov Sokolova [23937]
16af40c49911403633a9b8df44d09fb1074e928e	Zeus Pierpoint Basilevich Kendrick Tolkalina Konchalovskaya Putin Medvedeva Warner Bayer Squire Romanov Goiningen Gune Le Petoman Korf Kruglova Schwimmer Burrows Lagrand Arkhipov Guskova Lefebure Monroe BOSS Black Goffin Leopold II Carlton Glashow Hozier Xenophon Evans Keynes Khan Tua Gavrilova Hitler Long Island serial killer Iverson Arbuckle Khitrovo Bushmina Shcherbakov Bosch Dolgushin Shiny Leaf Baisarov Guy Crash Holly Rammstein Whitehead
31a14d0865e753a1507a11d9d57b655124024eda	Timofey Prokofiev: The Gypsy legend of the Olshansky landing / Timofey Prokofiev [295]
8d727331b6db4e181f6b0fae222f6711bb904d6c	The world star of the opera and concert stage/Susan Graham [242]
99eecb3ce9d408746166ad8d9c54135e9bd7360b	The most real of the invented detectives/Sherlock Holmes [236]
ebf47b68ec075d39036e7b55ce2d475d0722832e	Colorful prints by Marisol Deluna/Marisol Deluna [123]
802d91d924788bfbc9405abcec0c470d5ba174c7	A firm position in life and creativity/Ruslan Akhtakhanov [122]
590b9a05c91c9661d7fd8d59198035ed0a162d45	The youngest cooking genius/Flynn McGarry [119]
5aff98a55fd368e130ec0d6622c1652d7b03e14d	Winner of the parody Shnobel Prize/Ravi Batra [109]
41d68a2281b71b847fe6266ebcb50161773dbefa	Manslaughter/Antti Olavi Taskinen [79]
2a2ad904e1c8c0567445568ea902753cf35fbd8c	The smartest tennis player/Marion Bartoli [54]
384d5a64e5f761239c922c735b7cde44b9c9b58a	The author of one novel/Nell Harper Lee[1626]
245be573fb46ef46da8f72e5005aad7f11f21563	Travel in Africa/Mary Kingsley[1384]
bd29489202f7fc5a3c38cb8766e4dacac91ae6a6	The suicidal courage of a machine gunner/Jack Glennon Hanson[1370]
5af2ddee1580c716acfa02071290f461cc8d44ad	The most charming pirate of all time/ Jack Sparrow[1240]
f497a4809e5ba640df722ae334996ca60121c551	Alexander Demyanenko: A hostage of one role/Alexander Demyanenko[1223]
343f73ccd2c44153955f8f9cf78647dc842c4f98	Japanese fighting technique/Bryan Adams[1205]
d16e7e3de008df8117a72f107fa0829e5f7b4730	Geniuses of the advertising business/Jerry Della Femina[984]
40e1944beec87d7c7157bce32456e2ad981e2877	The Hiker's Killer/Ivan Milat[900]
254f1a6ad331def9d558c72873d3f2594126db0e	In the list of '100 Great Economists Before Keynes' / Charles Davenant[878]
c51d8cff503881f4b9fbe782930ebd4e915d9f0b	The sexiest chef/Curtis Stone[846]
597cdf7c31a92e7ff5ed4f7aa881fc5bdfcc81d6	The Virtuoso of Rome/Felice Anerio[827]
952bd7d95e07aef589d3a349fb84ddc570e8fb21	The record holder for the fastest shooting/Bob Munden[813]
3f998191b495d92b4fea5a83bca0bf8b4898904a	Fire baba/Yulia Kogan[705]
c0c88815077cf55f03b89290513b0e644c59a650	Bill Blass: 'Couturier Butterfly' / Bill Blass[698]
890b79777f0fe8db0b6e9eb85f40a7f1d7f8b832	Conservative political views/Norman Stone[685]
a5627fcd812a2e1ecf9b8dbfbd2c2952df5af84e	Tina Malone: Beauty, health and nothing superfluous/Tina Malone[651]
31056e8b543314e04bf682ec28a75f0a11874cee	In the style of minimalism/Neil Barrett[599]
1fad0ebad4b5ea54e5ae2631bb32ef56b79adf35	Denis Matsuev: The simplicity of perfection/Denis Matsuev[586]
034aded8fb806b5ae78899fc3deb2506221cc2d0	Men's Clothing Designer/Petra Ecclestone[584]
fbd55cfc0db567a6ffbae0f27bbf78e61cd563f7	The last battle/Abram Shoikhet[573]
cf2b3f6b941cab63784acabf7c0d13e1dc3364ac	Soap maker from Correggio/Leonardo Cianciulli [7552]
04613a95b4c526c31262898b028a17cbb7057eb2	Tom Berenger: The Forgotten Movie Star/Tom Berenger [3854]
949dd3af811918a8bd548896387e5bc14a5298ce	Perverted love: A mother who killed her children/Marta Galikowska [3619]
5538149ede305ced77bd9202cd43c5f423fae571	Anorexia Victim: A week without food and water/Ellie Litzow [3393]
93780e07dd77a58898b3cf101ba92a24b5fca572	Asexuality: When there is no place for sex in life/Robin Dibben [3297]
4045b37e1c3c43df53c88ea333a0321f9ce48b37	A Pakistani girl survived after 15 blows with an axe/Gul Mina [3245]
f2ef0e214a6682d341ac69213f85489c92773e7a	Alexey Tolstoy: The colors of the personality of the 'red count'/Alexey Tolstoy [3238]
dff7f965f1b845069ab8421857b4febc457e35a0	Faina Ranevskaya: The Queen of sarcasm/Faina Ranevskaya [3132]
0eb13cd69ea312b73344fed0b6925755364656a2	Squeezing out pimples: A fascinating sight?/Sandra Lee [3105]
cbd01e33c9265bc87f2248a68163204eb5a4a8f7	Rare tumors: Craniopharyngioma/Allana Prosser [3080]
88c5c983e2f3d7c93159e60b442a3999c94e345d	Krasnoyarsk has world records on his shoulder/Nikolay Kaklimov [3008]
10d1a21f83609ec4be6f3f9410c4f38210fd5a4b	A girl with an IQ higher than that of Einstein and Hawking/Nicole Barr [2821]
536602a6c25cf2ffebcb8ee797bd39c080a8512d	The most hated person in the United States/Martin Shkreli [2651]
f1598328dd9abeb0c46d560b2370e584f070f764	Andrea Bocelli: See with the inner eye/Andrea Bocelli [2578]
6aa0abd67b22ea996942ccee20758ecd8462ab58	'Fashionable Santa': an unconventional look at the winter wizard/Paul Mason [2458]
15280dabd13eb071d6678f9ef3e48a5b8ff5aabb	Natalia Varley: Strong and beautiful/Natalia Varley [2223]
6a07cf4d34fc7858d72a9bc3bbcb00996a7b2652	The 'alcoholic' secret of longevity of a 105 year old Scottish woman/Ina Carrafers [1990]
258ddb913a3c9a94d1a39918b33950cd7c2d4447	The most curvy model in the world/Tess Holliday [1972]
a23d796afc450431d9247bc7c2f2c038414e8a31	The mother of a transgender man updated a tattoo with his image/Linsday Peace [1874]
389feb2adbf67e14597b3b35770ba8ce67db518f	FGF21 Hormone: Salvation for a sweet tooth/Matthew Potthoff [1814]
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97c8467a2abdbf3bd8649f7b6df0b65f6744980c	The author of one novel (Nell Harper Lee);
9489143cc8ad8f5629f38661df72401b1e147cf0	Geniuses of the advertising business (Jerry Della Femina);
f5f6ca64d040d3a561f93641814a9430763ec60d	Master of tap tapping
42a3ebac7b7d22cf5dc58088220ffa264a1ef417	(Roy Castle ); "Maniac with concrete" (Dmitry Karimov);
02191946290e3c50543a02c15cf6e6e27595563c	Fire Baba (Yulia Kogan);
6a48f78e01aafbb67bd53de9d861e4238693fb0b	The Youngest Cooking Genius (Flynn McGarry);
8149473b32fd3e344789f0839df6e8da4de703fa	The most real of the invented detectives (Sherlock Holmes);
bd1d87ade7bc3b0c72f05ce29d190c5944993a4b	[Pamela Anderson ] Kristina Orbakaite and Pamela Anderson in the film "The War of Formats".
5eb9f4411bec7a9107083ae66b7c1ed2a84cfa9a	[ 03.01.2016 ]
141a9e2b26b47fc7d21925ab1294324df5d8d305	Alexander Demyanenko: A Hostage of one role (Alexander Demyanenko);
e5fb0ae3c2bb3cb5f3c3abf1e71c95b23279e61c	The Last Fight (Abram Shoikhet);
920090b01dd7ee174871cd789d24256b2280caec	Baseball Star (Bob Watson);
7c6f40e7876ebab4ca6d2a8054a1264858473cff	The killer of 12 patients (Maxim Petrov);
136ddc3cb6cbf3313a74c208f1687785c3aec462	In the style of minimalism (Neil Barrett);
5706457cf2302b925a4b67c2704870a482e088cb	Denis Matsuev: The simplicity of perfection (Denis Matsuev);
5f62eaca9f6654463e59b2c06d712d0a94e5dc05	The Sexiest Chef (Curtis Stone);
272eed877d4155f4532121b774849e89f64ac7bf	The most charming pirate of all time ( Jack Sparrow);
8cd337485971d9b83ade1d37e03ca5c94ed295de	[ 04.01.2016 ]
737520fbe65b1702af8e177e79360d7cb4a7c687	Aaron Folsom: Simple but Important Rules (Aaron Folsom);
13bf203fd21fab2e7d4db76b30760cfcc3eb1a35	The rank of captain at the age of 21
e0c953b16ba4cb2eed7f988ae00e36881438488f	(Peter Butov ); Sailing around the world at the age of 17 (Zach Sunderland);
f7ace3d3008af3dfde8196758e35e6d630a303c8	Hollywood PR Woman (Ronnie Sue Chasen);
55a684ea4d702347403b660813937d066151ac74	The killer of hikers (Ivan Milat);
c599ab3ece99e72a33acdf52c80b974cfdc387f2	Men's Clothing designer (Petra Ecclestone);
b02ff1a5bb5e310e025ec3b6ef5ed0485363b0ca	Scientific interest in nuclear physics (John David Jackson);
c6995f479e3aae5ac40ff9624f10d9c4794a3c76	Swim through the Florida Straits without a shark cage (Penny Palfrey);
d3beadb7b7ce4f6340932c23232a15204b3095d3	[ 05.01.2016 ]
ea01f00d1a7e6d1ab91d6c9792570ee714b403d4	In all corners of the globe (Mike Horn);
7666f614a6e6e6ea1cf66bacbf261c5fb0289eec	Actor of films of the category ' B '(Jeff Morrow);
00aebfed0a8274ed28423437ba0ed5cbe360defb	A Life Story (Darwin Martin);
04807261ae46bad9a45ecb3a8f4582ab2aeb1d15	A federal drug dealer (Juan Raul Garza);
f83cdc8c75d2a88d73537f6cc125dcaeaa2e1ac9	The creator of 'Non Standard Analysis' (Abraham Robinson);
e1e92646049516fff87c62410e9e8787d6983fb8	One of the most expensive Fashion Houses ( Hardy Amies);
b1eda8f9fe136f7fb3bc32d388b1ce4678490726	Contemporary composer of the Renaissance (Giovanni Animuccia);
280df4065ff0e8ef6671e74722ac6c708ed64357	Cruel Punishment (Danish Kaneria);
3759bf7142c628f3a6e78873a67db0aef64dc3f1	Tina Malone: Beauty, Health and Nothing Superfluous (Tina Malone);
5e3f53adc209ca4d37e4c14c014254198ebd2eb1	[ 06.01.2016 ]
9018282f0d73d28f003c7e5756629abf71f8d16d	Yanina Zhaimo: Soviet Mary Pickford (Yanina Zhaimo);
a2e334c197bbf367003fc5f903285702bf56d26a	Tap Dancing Master (Roy Castle);
fd248611aef9683a65c18855a8526fe7bc1ec66e	The founder of the division of labor system (Frank Bunker Gilbreth st);
7fa53334369dc585848e11a3d865fbbe7a70dea0	"Maniac with concrete" (Dmitry Karimov);
b06840544e15e37529555eb8b6050a08fb8c8adc	Top scorer of the league (Karim Benzema);
df44d01b7aeb8023fb9910552901b9c364a3963a	The constant success of the brand (Fiorucci);
a1c979c76d3a91cb37012cc981fe218afa399e0b	Author of religious and political burlesques (Evariste Guys);
845b9bc909167ac104e4acfb2d50c539dc779697	Owner of food production concerns (Willard Garfield Weston);
4c20f56af21fee3a2347850a3f578e0f1351cd92	[ 07.01.2016 ]
8ae114ce646a415a4bca3363ef708362fd2b83f3	Manslaughter (Antti Olavi Taskinen); Winner of the parody Shnobel Prize (Ravi Batra);
8c04f62822c98c9f3082abbb3b56bd5ee0b55cf1	The Smartest tennis player (Marion Bartoli);
a9da886d91e2dc3e4861bc285912ce5d4bffa7c0	Colorful prints by Marisol Deluna (Marisol Deluna);
dfa7b9ccdc462ff86b9c29947cca5e139043f657	The world star of the opera and concert stage (Susan Graham);
87ab8c7f4fc44cd347e87d4f9a35e0f202d60a3e	A firm position in life and creativity (Ruslan Akhtakhanov);
6af4dc52cca7e9f4933e794ff896f45eda5c8d33	Timofey Prokofiev: The Gypsy legend of the Olshansky landing (Timofey Prokofiev);
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e577b0e65f997fd0cdd470a5c42c8a43f2b154a2	Marilyn Monroe: "Let me love or let me die" Share:
dabf40dc70811a07aec661ca3d2a77f6af723f5b	During her lifetime, Marilyn Monroe had two names (the real one is Norma Jean Baker), a lot of epithets and even more men.
2fc4cf14ce32dc4b0d74048cce73dfaafae15ab2	But she aimed at the most inaccessible goal.
6e969a3a0a8cd642936380193f2af6bc1ed93801	And therefore the most attractive.
0409de72cb68e8bd73480e874ad9e22d082d08e7	Perhaps only one person out of all the United States could not belong to the predator Marilyn.
8956b081567119c287a9649a359587d0af0ab35e	She was eager to win the president.
340a2d1cc1d5d5654379efe9a56aaa4acf67c78c	And she succeeded.
6b5bcfaad8c7b4945e2afc151ee23197ccb98494	The deal with fate was made, but life is always at stake in such bets.
baffd3bde142cc38b153be326f6b84878d20d947	Text: Natalia Turovskaya "Donot worry, but worry!"
b7e925df077d4e8847ef0f65f8f4b056ea92213c	When once again Jacqueline Kennedy found "accidentally" forgotten women's stockings on the marital bed, she asked her husband as calmly as possible: "Do you know whose these are, John?
9e5d5bf73bfc5f2233ffe434672e13fc60316b12	It doesnot seem to be mine"...
cb9ca6a464d3799ea642ce39ee01524cfa063f02	And received only a charming boyish smile in response.
3a29dec297697c9441a3a092723eca3e58942f90	She was already used to such "gifts".
f14f28e98fb5035e21e3ea852d63bfccefac9ad7	The phone rang in the next room.
4581b4a0ed7aa611d7777a20ac82e42892262a8a	Jacqueline picked up the phone and immediately recognized HER voice.
861593ec41896f0a4acecc763e3e385af2b73d3c	This woman has been harassing her with phone calls for a long time, but today she seems to have already crossed the last line: "Mrs. Kennedy , it seems to be high time for you to pack your things and get the hell out of this house.
6eca788af503d03459db85b9502d47a4c772fa0c	After all, we both know perfectly well who the real first lady is."
072722ecf20277d2c60440faf00d05031c7828bc	Jacqueline slammed down the phone in a rage and resolutely returned to the bedroom.
eefcd80ce7c57a709d78bb6428c8e701365253e6	"That's it, John, I've had enough!
34a1e7f544d79088d60f7a09b586f70b9e55a003	Your Hollywood whore called again!
8cf0f7c7c5f3f52e05a07c92c33e86ad774a0a31	I'll give you a divorce, and you can live openly.
4c62a3acd91cb17b35f1decf2de430c4f7536182	I'm fed up with this pretense, okay?!
2e796f1e51fb2061faae74942752e9a878bead2c	" - " What nonsense, Jackie, calm down.
3abec97b0896a837ecd6f8e2e85c6434b60da3ce	I promise you that I will break up with this woman.
ba07869582bab48401b054d401925155b5d95cfe	Believe me, I've been tired of her for a long time, I only need you."
ff19e557964e5bbdd2a9b86d9f4d18dd40607b9f	The president has fulfilled his promise.
fe906350cc12bdea258800443d46bb5ae916e45d	But not immediately.
db82f6bb69fd1be40151cd3946a70c3ad6e7997a	The motto of his mistress was "Not to worry, but to worry!"
c45d7030d05fbde76f425759df5081148969203e	And she knew how to do it.
1b2b334eb96133787023383cc89028b59459604a	No other woman in the world could repeat this.
769eab3287b89a9d9a2b2d0705ffbcbf6bf71152	I've never understood the expression "sex symbol".
9a752f7779cca8220d723c1dc2e3753e338cd334	A symbol is a thing, after all… I donot like being a thing.
ff371ed565b9ec64cb57e51f2ddc5ba5b5a419a7	But if it is meant to be a symbol, it is better to be a symbol of sex than of anything else.
7aaa2a67fdcf825726302dc8e17dd099dcde9c4d	Gentlemen who prefer blondes They met in 1954, when John Fitzgerald Kennedy was still only a senator from Massachusetts.
a0d7700b2aabdb0b9ec70d49af8b1876c89a6e94	Actor Peter Lawford, who successfully married Kennedy's sister Patricia, tried very hard to become his own in the powerful Kennedy clan.
3d208937961b04553fa31cbacf9084839a81d812	It was not difficult for him to please a promising relative in "amorous" affairs, to which he was very eager, for him.
2f39f77760bb7e5185ec5b5f328ad122cab52220	Peter was "his boyfriend" in Hollywood and more than once took John out to have fun with young artists.
fce4214b814da8238a9c5cc56ec3ff40490d70f1	But this time Lawford has prepared a grand surprise.
e4b08662a4ba3dbdecfd43b9258d18dd9cbe51d5	The most piquant was the fact that the" surprise " was supposed to appear during a party in honor of the newly born senator in front of his wife Jacqueline.
51cec8c0fdbe7a12c5d1d43a643e08b992e2d99b	"Who will it be, Pete?
6466a4de7ca1869011b8fde192f0e51cfea59646	Do I know her?"
9fa1b87a59203bbbb25076e82a75408ede5e6cac	- the hero of the occasion was burning with curiosity.
8d275f079c1fbe9810841af3144f64d1c784f9cf	But Lawford just waved it away and kept his eyes on the door.
abdb1bf10d69ed09fb7e5219fa7172686525049e	When Marilyn Monroe appeared on the doorstep with her second husband, baseball star Joe DiMaggio, Peter gave Kennedy a sign.
ef64fcba5c6e72c5a495c1fa03de4172dc40c59b	The blonde, who flashed brightly in the movie "Niagara", has already managed to drive more than one man crazy.
cdfcf95ee82755e94b3a937a42c6b7b049ae2fdd	Kennedy responded to the guest's studying immodest look with a retaliatory, attacking one.
7760093878f3bdd579ae22a3cb33d26a7c6d8987	Jacqueline didnot get any attention that night.
78d7edee9557727f089fb6045f42dbc1384205ca	All evening, her windy husband hung around Monroe, not stopping to pour her favorite Piper Heidsieck champagne into her glass.
30bddd46898850b55fe456989a060991909a741b	Marilyn was laughing.
45f44bb30da40c1705c5ed101a9a661dd025ba47	DiMaggio was jealous and even made a scandal.
4a05bf8fc5b7b482586d5c059658855d20d860b0	But... the angry baseball player went home alone, and his wife did not want to leave the party.
2b926335853e9a0e4b6af86188213588d1939aec	Everyone who was present that evening at the country house of Peter Lawford witnessed the beginning of the most high profile novel of the twentieth century.
1af9458e660034efedc456ce8c6b2f8ecb9f6213	But the two of them didnot seem to pay any attention to those around them.
b4be7379cf12529a0310105cea904197ae418597	Marilyn later admitted to her close friend Amy Green that she had dreamed of meeting a man like John Kennedy since she was 15 years old.
e1853bf2c278309558754663451a311d4c0bb06f	Soon they could not live without each other for a single day, meeting now at Lawford's house, then in expensive hotels.
bb53f4202114e4eba15f03540768a243b283d330	From happiness, Marilyn wrote naive children's poems:
fdc831c254deb98114a8a7a46668e7ee3dd55e55	"Life, you push me in different directions.
e06e11d87156b15a8074bf57e374869654673e4d	I come alive from the cold, strong as a spider's web in the wind.
d055f3d8b159a34a3bcb9a71d4046ed7bff7ec97	I'm reaching down, but I'm still holding on...
1793aa0faa912f98bdad05a83000385a3290ff1c	" She was touched by a tree broken by a tornado.
1450d8372ad1f9dbf89204ab1d53b180bb2d608f	She felt sorry for stray dogs, and hung out feeders for birds.
ba0cae5ca0835f35df5df035a7e361fdd9839cde	The sincerity and spontaneity of a woman who was a sex symbol for millions amused her lover.
1ef4527fd4e225c976257962cad2b75b46904431	Evil tongues whispered to Kennedy that the actress's past was far from perfect: a crazy mother, an orphanage, work at a military factory, work as a model... and the road to Hollywood was, they say, paved through the bed of more than one producer.
9970c2f6f7ea2fae492d274e30bcb9e7e682af84	What did it matter if she was with him now?
f273a8aa94593ca7320540d1b94a4c809f904fa8	I have never betrayed those I loved.
7479abfa15944b5914630a54887e58e2f4cf977a	The family that she never had and that she always missed so much.
72c803e38d1809e1f11239d4d1f13f94c77a085c	"Candle in the wind" The third desperate attempt to "live like everyone else" for Marilyn Monroe was her marriage to the famous playwright Arthur Miller.
5de26e526ea9862c3d98cfaf5b0d3db9a4a7be1d	He understands my desire for self improvement."
07aba8e6926cc8a432ebcf2fff739d089b344168	At that time, Monroe refused many offers to the cinema, where they wanted to once again exploit her image of baby doll.
17e697d8d9f022e3f956dae4fc79c65f79abb8b6	All her free time she studied in the studio of Mikhail Chekhov and dreamed of playing no less than Grushenka in The Brothers Karamazov.
595779b8ce465378aad7e355b12319d2050ab933	But most importantly, she dreamed of becoming a mother, and Arthur Miller is the only man who also wanted a child together.
d4a5deea726453107fb67a0595c07c7c47f41e8d	Children, especially girls, should always be told that they are beautiful and that everyone loves them.
dd360ee939f09dac2f636433c8dfb7b77ff69adf	If I have a daughter, I will always tell her that she is beautiful, I will comb her hair until it shines and I will not leave her alone for a minute.
d250d91af2bae0bbd8c98b18b25160c996182a5d	But, alas, both of Marilyn's pregnancies ended in miscarriages.
458f43bf2d6530fe1cea113c15987cf84019f60e	To get his wife out of depression, her husband took her to the best psychotherapists.
9978ed83dcf26c2326110d80ec271e93f432f061	The maid Lena Pepitone told the newspaper that in between psychotherapy sessions and filming in New York, " Mrs. Miller abused champagne, constantly played Frank Sinatra records, refused to take a bath and ate in bed, wiping her hands directly on the sheets."
5c3d4fa64ff2b8548fa40151c469e563ae171d06	"Life has passed like a candle in the wind" - Marilyn will initially dedicate her masterpiece to Elton John.
f9ee53127696f041b15e43f3f6c9ac4fab4a88e0	But after the death of Princess Diana, he will rewrite the dedication to Lady Di.
1e94b964b1b6797935e55ed0350b5c0dfe37e2b5	The fact remains that Monroe, who was idolized all over the world, felt lonely and unhappy.
8520e78563366cef5b1689209f80d4209843e49b	The marriage with Arthur Miller was the longest of Marilyn's marriages, but on January 20, 1961, they officially divorced with the wording "did not get along".
4a4bda3f7d0c28a216b23fea72567369dc13b4a9	One day, a phone call rang in her apartment: "Hello, baby!
f07634bbe33a6174e443f39dadec0b2ebd9d1b27	" a familiar male voice with a charming Boston accent sounded on the phone.
dbf76fff336123aa34764024a3bc9dec7602c132	I'm going to become the president of America, but I canot cope without you.
34a51a0b87a8b2a7bd4cf224495cadf6ab27763a	Will you support me in the election race?"
9f2d6580c59441631e9d948a8ccf4cf0e2a6aae8	Marilyn didnot take long to beg.
68e7657e108f0990e1c9aa0b3b6bb28dd90ebb1b	Just think, huge penalties to film companies with which she is bound by contracts.
a05b58c72cde839707745943a39b9b05ac79ac17	After all, her participation in the election campaign of her lover guaranteed him success!
157a20dbc79d0f9ec54b8bbd4566b6da2e580488	Every second man in the States dreamed of spending the night with Monroe, and every second woman aspired to be like her in everything.
909acfb35a99c15855f1a7c20801c96cc90bb53c	She traveled after Kennedy with concerts, urging the "electorate" to vote for the candidate from the Democratic Party.
d26248a3d2d84efa50d9c130b473a2fb12b10b58	And when Kennedy became the 35th president of the United States, Marilyn was sure that this victory rightfully belongs to her.
43eefc14cb3159d615e38e3b1e0623b2c4f21d45	It remained only to take the place of the first lady.
3c50f6f348f08fc26bccef22ddeead7f2937433a	Now they met secretly at the Beverly Hills Hotel or on board the presidential plane.
8b89f9f5bc157f05332b630ef3ad558b254cc6fb	But soon Monroe bought a house in Los Angeles to be closer to her beloved.
34fed4205a3a82f64ff5e18b00186ef3f7771d03	Often, after drinking an extra glass of champagne, Marilyn chatted too much at social events, sharing her impressions of the president and hinting that his behavior in bed was "very democratic".
b548d682cf76819340485f0276887b68d29eb1c2	When Monroe's personal psychotherapist suspected that there was something wrong, his patient's state of mind was terrible.
c5d73b26d291e019472fa8adf316213c7124c3c1	And the inheritance of the actress was, to put it mildly, not good: the great grandfather hanged himself, the grandmother died in a madhouse, where her mother also lived until the end of her days.
a503020dd3e06cea31756a326ab4db4177d3ccb7	In vain.
39e8735c11e00c7d097fcba8e489fbef89025592	In an interview with journalists, John F. Kennedy admitted that " love is not his word."
6a05765ab2a2fe5d99f26dc4432a1dc3fb952ddf	Poor Marilyn refused to believe it.
790e47328addf86cc400e12f278a0a2c488a8b99	By the beginning of 1962, Monroe's psyche was broken by depression, alcohol and tranquilizers.
0c3ca74a4437770abb32a3a0159eee324087eea1	She visited a therapist six times a week, without sleeping pills, she could not sleep anymore.
6217c967608b9866e6666f00279c8a0f5e140f65	"My thoughts are spinning, and my brain is being drilled with a quiet and relentless stream.
bb084f281ef258bb9d3e3143006630f5c5980630	While I'm not gone, let the whiteness of the line be obscured by blackness.
0b0ce59417fe8101f3a5c1ed32a2339b9b790a2f	" Her poems are no longer sad, they are ominous.
aa26bc7979866cfe04d212f1d685c597cb704f3f	Kennedy did not answer the calls of his mistress and did not want to see her again.
10ecb270db898d1391384f28506ff605fc876edf	On the eve of John F. Kennedy's 45th birthday, Marilyn with great difficulty managed to bribe a White House employee to give the president her gift: a gold Rolex watch with an engraving "To John with love from Marilyn" and a desperate inscription on the box "Let me love or let me die".
fa7892ef185489fbcb0fde8df74b13e4284ef9d4	Kennedy asked the employee to throw away the watch and destroy the box.
438bd685f6b2fbada6cb87f50115f7cf09e06e1b	And yet, on May 19, Marilyn arrived at Madison Square Garden, where a gala concert was being prepared to celebrate the birthday of the president of America.
f19ea3ae2cd81108825f0f968ddf8773fd4c3fdf	She ordered a luxurious dress from Jean Louis, who once created the famous toilet for Marlene Dietrich.
788185facef01df89e913e5e04ebbe593c8687f1	The outfit was made of transparent material, studded with sequins, and tightly fitted Marilyn's perfect figure.
50c9f4bbe4440b200c0e0f1fae8ad13ba94e91e8	There was no underwear under the dress.
887632df06ad91e2cd15c58fae3e0f3efad32261	"Ladies and gentlemen, Marilyn Monroe is late!" announced the entertainer, the same Peter Lawford.
725e521bd69b7d76b1daebb05f2e544c09815f00	Throwing off her ermine jacket, Marilyn sang Happy Birthday, Mister President.
d94b8ee3b92e6751c09622da7002b7c3aaac8355	And there was not a man in the audience at that moment who would not envy John Kennedy.
c57a400c9f319cd5a593313f06d904fca49c1f12	"After such a congratulation, I can no longer engage in politics!" said the shocked birthday boy.
dd625c55e2aff6b38e2afa17fac198e43507311e	Jacqueline Kennedy was not in the audience.
1f36a34c7a187fa484c597bec8698d533dc87e08	She was a wise woman and understood when to stay in the shadows so as not to be publicly humiliated.
9da67a6020c9b73fc3467dc715983e805da8d493	The defiant performance was the last point in the novel.
1b6d0c177be36a294c3a303ade61379cbdb02c85	That evening, in the apartments of the Carlisle Hotel, Kennedy announced to Marilyn Monroe that their relationship was over forever.
423a47978eebf0903e446170c1a63c38fc35f033	All my life I belonged only to the viewer.
4b886ace6f64b73259378557e0cd613e700e52a2	Not because I was great, but because no one else needed me.
580813b4b960324452866762a305ce54f06e7390	None of them has been proven to this day.
198cd524d237e4b3f8617975ccdd60ff9f487d9c	Marilyn Monroe's funeral was organized by her second husband Joe DiMaggio.
cab1112ff9aba794050590fffb6a1275ec06dbe1	In November 1963, he followed Marilyn to where they donot come back from...
febc05ac39489a2d88953202a62f1faa3851363d	See also: Ingrid Alberini: The Adventures of an Italian woman in Russia Elvis Presley: Love Me Tenderly Keira Knightley: Pride and prejudice Salvador Dali: A holiday of a lifetime Nikolai Chindyaykin: The Mafia is endless!
de4c4c20830d106b8e5cebba770941ad07a81a16	Pope John: The story of a hoax Boris Moiseev: The Return of the prodigal Son Vladimir Kristovsky: "God also helps idiots like me" Sergey Yesenin: I donot regret, I donot call, I donot cry ...
1873f9d3e1f9e9e1bcbec963c44fa5e8a5d0c827	Daniel Radcliffe: Magic is in the past, it's time for horrors…
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1cb1561ee37403ef49ea07761093fbb5e42d294e	Mythsfactssovetsspravkitestyknooks
322f66542e7054d2622dcd32a557879417bf51ab	Home Myths Famous personalities Merlin Monroe Merlin Monroe.
612a18c3869f70ce162059143ee6d270c9306668	It turns out that we didnot know much about Marilyn Monroe, being content with myths.
741dccafa3cecef1308f7b209b71b8836864e143	Marilyn's grandmother and mother were crazy.
d4e9dcca1d2a07b26745cf7ac60a53dd03bac5eb	This statement is absolutely wrong.
e08d7ad4919bf5a7dc88a04f98659590bef0ad8c	Marilyn's grandfather, who died out of his mind, is also attributed to the list of crazy relatives of Marilyn.
b1769e82cfc383afe6fccb73a72754999c9ca8ff	However, his death, like that of the actress ' grandmother, Della Monroe, was the result of physical ailments.
6afd7c28a51d3bf301308669dbcdc47d45292789	Mental disorders are a side effect of aging of the entire body.
c6c95d71e40660f9f82a240d25797884828e0922	These people who have lived to an advanced age cannot be considered classic lunatics.
732ee410d3d27e310621383f21db622706817851	But the mother of the actress initially did not receive a good upbringing and was not trained in responsibility.
9bef4f0f02bc4d38fb603ee5ab2ef543a0249588	Being in a hospital helped her not to think about how to make a living.
20a365608aa99384c4ce9c3c8f95a41932619355	So she did not try to get out of there, proving her normality to the doctors.
ad8d5c5962db4c8da0fa4cdfa242b13ab1798ba7	And the decision to send the woman for treatment came from her friend Grace.
19595b5ea1fc800f6543f823a8cd921ce6b71c18	She had no children, so she tried to raise the growing Marilyn in her own image and likeness.
bcc9e51b0807d051dda4862b0af7b4d97527d83d	And the myths about the madness of Marilyn's mother could appear on the basis of even annoying coincidences in her life.
81c282c4ab09092884c07b343163fedd08d76e93	For example, her ex husband Mortensen called her.
0204dd8f1b0de0d5a050337a14d7780e7983418a	Everyone thought he was dead, but in fact, a namesake was injured in the accident.
fc0f1fbe6d5834fd9e1910939613c35958cb1635	Doctors also believed that the woman receives signals from the other world, which clearly indicates mental problems.
3bd3fe9ff1e90a8ae254b21bf687d98ac10744f8	In her youth, Marilyn Monroe changed many foster families.
a47a096b6da2b8c04c4d87b23cb72149a90ce2ff	According to this myth, the constant change of place of residence and the cycle of strangers left their mark on the psyche of the actress.
0c0925d2c5bd62a6eaca9074c187ed6599c0fa04	In fact, Monroe has not changed so many families at all.
2caebfa54cd12bedcd60435a5613d10c7a0974d0	And where she lived, with the same Bolenders, she followed strict rules, along with other members of the family.
b25c1ad5f5e7460e56a8249e6892dcc70b60c1e4	And certainly the future star did not starve and did not need.
da3314d1733aace96b527ae652ddc1e2589894c6	And the woman learned pitiful stories about her adolescence from her" half sister " Bebe Goddard.
bbf8556fa1ccf4e34ff51d325cdca3654c658c22	She was the daughter of Doc Goddard, Grace's husband.
b497f6b317b3d7d683196fea2d8b022e6c052888	She was just replacing Marilyn's mother after being sent to the hospital.
373c75fe4b889b675a44df9cb28d897b669f4f53	As a child, Marilyn Monroe was raped.
d66b1b62029e77bc537fc0e336b06c6cbfe52cdc	This statement is quite controversial.
22415242816641501974c8f13c3c0c55e1a1db44	Biographers of the star note that her childhood was, in general, quite cloudless.
5f8cf584a9409ddca4e333c3612e96fe333b81c2	But another unpleasant fact surfaced.
5acba852193b98daedad77efaad0c5250194de55	Unknown to Hollywood, the actress worked as a prostitute.
1ba77d2699ec00a87c1b65c08e10d6663beafc60	It is quite likely that it was about oral sex and not even for money, but for dinners.
ba5b73e18cfbe2cf71a534f900b4735e73e58f1f	Marilyn Monroe is a unique movie star, the likes of which will not be.
baabeb632d3892f175a5f826b16078a4811411cf	Fans of the movie star are subjective, calling her unique and inimitable.
40a6314662ef5c660031840fdd90a2e64c731d7d	In fact, there was another person in Hollywood earlier, whose type and nature of relationships with men, film career and early death resemble Monroe.
6fc040681b30542849feb3a995bdf7dab9724153	We are talking about Jean Harlow, who died in 1937 at the age of 26.
f0c30be5a7d2414378d987445a3560a9b242f061	It's just that people remembered a little more vivid and banal Marilyn who lived later.
fc2624536385e815d3b20f69e2515fcf0ff7f97a	There was something about her that the subsequent blonde "clones"did not have.
cfaa844302eec1f39c5c8056720794d393854cdb	But do not forget that the producers originally sought to mold a new Jean Harlow from Monroe.
08b255eaae568fa745e144ed1647aa5e5ed470da	The stars had a lot in common, Monroe was even offered to star in the biography of this Hollywood star of the 1930s.
93a59a37229ceb791324884fe8fff01341168550	However, she never made it, also dying in the prime of her life.
ca5e1907883a9279a162d74df8d522f8ba199ae4	Marilyn Monroe was stupid.
9765a82382f23115febd9548f7d364c6b43d5d25	Isnot it thanks to this myth that another one has developed, about the stupidity of blondes?
fb5cb56b5571d002e501da4da1cbedb63f3386b8	In fact, biographers easily debunk this statement.
7d60b7d627f61c8599cfc6d72fd0a642d3f57355	It is enough just to study the texts of some business letters written by the actress.
3aeacaa69026456f5d3afb30bfd19250d73833a6	The author's intellect is clearly visible in them.
18afd837597fc8f2d04e032e6f8c75fb8111a99d	Monroe knew the cinema well and reasoned about it sensibly.
d884654396e471549536961243469178eb20bb0d	She was not a certified specialist in her field, but after all, many of her acquaintances were like that, who were not at all reputed to be stupid.
ceb40d26801853c8acaecbce96348ccca4f22f54	And you should not judge an actress by the images she created in the cinema.
4d4ddbc5923041716806385a7a49c85c2eea386b	In those years, the career of a wife and mother was considered successful for women.
e9807c6d7aaa4789831dcaf7b99c4b324a21ad49	Accordingly, they were not supposed to be clever on the screens, no one would understand this.
2bc940a4742b102a8fd6f41f2d65d4fc0fd6cfa5	Those who consider Monroe a dummy should know that she headed her own company "Marilyn Monroe Production".
53519ac4524c608fc4bcb3da0d01cfaa2a7f330b	It was the actress who made an important step to ensure that the studios treated the actors more humanely.
1cb3ee493c1d805eabf6627104fe7d44b22efc50	Before that, the contracts were simply bonded.
591851fe5058551d3046ed87bdd0cf91fcf50b6b	Today, it is believed that the blonde's IQ was 168.
12641a6a4d388f3035af1f713df0b0fcd713e70b	Marilyn Monroe was crazy.
2cd4abe355b7e75f5264f3fdcbfe92ba623f8813	The human psyche is a dark room in which anything can hide.
6c9f4fc9396587a1d451edbb31f9e8e6e2a3aa8b	Each of us has our own secret complexes and secrets.
6e2a34365d0edf130e7f70bec7cf0349c453d6da	It's just that not everyone is under such close attention and is investigated in the same way as Marilyn Monroe.
c1964926c651c7618c731fb4952e0e35a57de31e	Biographer Donald Spoto believes that the actress was quite normal, but she had deep psychological problems.
109e44947601edc15e8423b53de66f82f321d6aa	And the reasons for this are quite understandable.
04f50b075624f8700483460a5447a3fb08c0860e	It is worth starting at least with the fact that Marilyn received an ambiguous upbringing as a child.
4e56afbf45addfeb25994b860243f6a8aca4f4f5	At first, she lived in the Bolender family, in which Puritanism reigned.
3904086422e4642491d90076fb7f2ffa24003066	And her mother and her friend Grace raised a new Jean Harlow from a girl, encouraging her to pay attention to her appearance.
6ed5e38915c863fa594c5d1cf907477c46416adf	But there was no one to teach her how to communicate properly with men.
3181fcc2bcc8f97f5585b197639dba686f056c5c	So a woman was formed, beautiful, sexy, but unsure of herself.
73a40232e464b38ef0cf53cda6798678328239d6	The main tragedy of Marilyn was that she listened too much to other people's opinions.
1fc38a469efd70cbb7884042844d6261afdbac6e	The actress succumbed to the persuasions of those who wanted to make her happy.
fd24cbe1c32112da0a57d47af4fbe3099e231843	But these "assistants" did not do it selflessly, like, for example, third husband Arthur Miller and personal psychiatrist Ralph Greenson.
c6dcd0672a136bad8193f59c35b90be9335e413a	Imperfect upbringing did not give a woman a clue what relationships should be in a normal family.
36c004117f27139fecf5d462d96dee4e5c2efe62	And in those areas that were really important to her, Monroe proved to be reasonable and purposeful.
5296300eaee654ecc34f0594cac837f07bdf6646	She did not stop acting, communicating with the public and continuing to take acting lessons.
25ce0edc4670217f19d6a4e32667ead39ac4ac1c	Marilyn Monroe has disrupted the shooting of her latest film.
f53419d675de141a61b6071fc7b2fff9d6f4ca77	According to the memories of eyewitnesses, the situation was completely ambiguous.
06d1618fce077145fb7897e0d0fb6624fbe5b82f	The shooting of "Cleopatra" turned out to be so ruinous that the film studio was in a big minus.
9d91976cbcbc0ef35888951dd2f77ab8b7fb4202	To compensate for this, it was decided to close one of the projects.
2452b5ddb2820de1d630be1727e89b865b08ea4f	From the outside, everything had to look as if the shooting was disrupted by the fault of the actress, who was Marilyn Monroe.
cef3557e3af9b9e1275a9c7f83e9d4fbbad77efe	But the bosses changed, and it was decided not to substitute the star blonde.
ec4269edaea36684e5ea60ea25e628c2cb6a3a1d	However, the time was lost and there was no one to shoot.
9bf6cc118215d9f0e72c3ea2e35e81436bb22528	Marilyn Monroe was the mistress of both Kennedy brothers.
c2662554a84ba03eb6f7a9fca8be041c03c42b9c	There is nothing more interesting than savoring fried facts - who slept with whom and when.
f6e3cc9f54f8ca142e3b6036b5c2703a9a7f504c	But biographers have to trust the documents.
7a841d4708820da56e357d5a55a09dc14e10816c	Donald Spoto in his book cites documents and evidence that refute this myth.
3a974238c450998dd624be21bc4bdfbd9be272a0	Marilyn was indeed the mistress of President John F. Kennedy.
39936301f9fe6b529066d5d6cb63f7df490d4c42	However, the relationship was of a one time nature and did not develop.
7f4d9ae058a5285395b878c9f0c074c84f25ad39	But with the president's brother, Robert, she had an absolutely business connection.
1ce2d2904c463bffd71dc2d307947b9d9543650c	The transience of the affair with John did not give her any rights to claim marriage with him.
0bda08fec8e03d8b2e1f2c1e9c32269c6ed1168a	And even more so, the actress could not have any compromising material on the government of the country.
cac6edd0ea69724017e66be3a6260819cd82ecdf	After all, she banally spent little time with her brothers.
cc462c8344e685e318601750d046b8c8f2019ee4	Marilyn Monroe had many abortions.
2d1e5d0738a55358511d81ccd8966d2115f9a655	This myth continues the story of the unhappy personal life of the actress, in which, unfortunately, there was no place for children.
e18c988a489dc12bb3212ea6c5cb2e81f4790896	Biographers refute this myth.
4974144eba2b87e58c818040d972e48012f9fa28	When Monroe had her appendicitis removed, she was very worried that the operation would affect her childbearing functions.
a6553716e8172f963af23b2e08f77acc3ef31fa0	She even glued a letter about this to her stomach.
588a7c769c66e9d237884a7a711346d344a37b87	The doctor was so touched that he even invited the gynecologist to the operating room for outside observation.
817bc5e811acc4044401d0029ba47f0e0f7dcee1	In fact, Marilyn had big problems with women's health.
77cdd3171790e9492df56caeb0bbd271574922ef	Most likely, she simply could not get pregnant properly and carry a child.
778092bae385897b9480a22bddc8896abc23fd35	It is believed that she twice unsuccessfully tried to become a mother.
64a2199f71ded4f50c6b3313b61599cb32366ff2	And at the end of her life, those huge doses of drugs that she took to calm her nerves would simply kill the fetus.
a2da1fb244e3d2d9052599a5a491b0ba14d2d4df	Maybe that's how it all happened in reality.
ed91a6d0a77d3159a92cfaf5d76142aedc71ecef	Marilyn Monroe was connected with the mafia.
d991facda9e464a36176a4c85361c44774d9e334	It's no secret that Marilyn was in very close contact with Frank Sinatra, who was suspected not unreasonably in connection with the mafia.
200bc81902abb2d8b22cf6154acd354ad35742aa	But this was a very jealous man who would not share his girlfriend with bandits.
e52e0e05ad2296ef84687efbfc33aee063c257b5	The love affair eventually ended, the couple planned to act in the same film in the future.
5e311ba8cbaebcd5795cb26c6651e607b0abec43	But none of the friends confirmed the connection of the actress with the mafia.
63ed69b14212068480b6d7bece9f866719bcac5c	The last days of her life, the actress was constantly depressed.
0824dd5bd100872682a0a55580e3c60161b1cf74	In fact, this statement is only partially true.
5c018396735f37b763fa3c136579005db12887a1	At the moment when the attacks of the film studios on her escalated, Monroe was abandoned by a psychiatrist.
87b58a0588ac1d9fb3ea79684b990e9165c65469	She was offended by him and was really depressed.
2c8e71385d156364d3231602c56f1434a29bf65e	Donald Spoto believes that the actress did not even think about forgetting herself and killing herself because of this.
712016b9c52d4e23755d0d94a0c15a618d231506	Moreover, she had long wanted to part with Ralph Greenson herself, who occupied too much space in her life and even assigned Eunice Murray, the housekeeper, to her.
a402b1b519d13666c023f2631b89a797be9fadb4	Marilyn Monroe planned to give herself a second chance in returning to Joe DiMaggio, especially since he has become more mature about relationships.
beb8b1f1884c1ef09584624226fe7671e1687c0e	The athlete realized that the vocation of his beloved is a movie, you should not make a housewife out of her.
76bcc9d57e13ad9e459543b62bb5882b6631375e	And the death occurred accidentally, due to an unacceptable combination of two drugs, which the doctors forgot to warn the patient about.
b771428fe669fdf182a8fa16c8ef3e7bd8c31618	Marilyn Monroe was a great partner.
e36d6b5c1235567ff7ef7cdc71b2205620ddc081	Despite all the charming image on the screen, it was very difficult to work with this actress.
ee9d54a7265b37dec42c5f59b4e5ddd0e07b1d97	Tony Curtis, her partner in the film "Only girls in Jazz", said that kissing Monroe is as pleasant as Hitler.
7eee779bd4aa8e92c07afd9234c16dd1520073c5	And the partner in the film "The Misfits" Clark Gable darkly joked that she brought him to a heart attack.
ff9c1190b963ad7b88e3fdc542b015c82cb4d6e5	That joke, thrown by chance, had a fatal effect.
beb627e007955b660cce25a48017c76c52af22b6	Soon, Gable actually suffered a heart attack, which turned into his death.
4fc897f5007157a2f7a108cbe77adb1679ca5eb5	Monroe's signature walk had its own secret.
83b9f901e67e95ca08f3a6cc9902cdcbfca25b64	Everyone remembers the famous gait of the actress, slightly wagging.
1861bf6f96810375efae0a4ef5bb4e5675be8004	It was said that the heels were to blame for this, one of which was slightly shorter than the other.
b7edec687f2cc86e7f407323b6b93118fc646937	In fact, Monroe really walked like that, having achieved this with the help of training.
1712c4a4316b5409b02a25e53dd9036ba0bb1cd2	This corporate identity was mastered by her for the filming of the film "Niagara".
e88f291e481e11968eeca2a89d38ac0bac1b953c	The actress had six toes.
f4be21e6f19837974f9848f7bfd023f846416fc6	This strange one even has myths the basis is in the form of a photo.
c0c1bc3eb4f514298d12d6b45629a687d83e62e4	A picture of a young actress was taken on the yarn.
ba80c405b79ee7ed483b6e674da89a1489164327	It seemed that she had six toes on her feet, but this visual illusion appeared thanks to the sand stuck to her foot.
b5f288cf137a86be93b950575e509f214c71c02d	Marilyn Monroe was a glutton.
eb9261cb42ad18ace08658d5bd6337dbbffa2c75	The actress was not thin, which, according to many, was the result of a good appetite.
f4e1f1dacdde8c14d621913aced120d3f5b16260	But she actually ate little and could eat only orange juice all day.
0bbdbc544a429fa6a5bda3c194a7a677509f95fd	Surprisingly, this did not prevent Monroe from maintaining her appetizing forms.
b3c5caa7b014f65ed76c404b381a952dc74474f7	Marilyn Monroe immediately became an actress.
e6e7d7690903f45b392697e7f252659af7ac5851	Young Norma Jean Dougherty worked in the mid 40s at an ordinary military factory.
2590533d9572152ce9cd52acae750d3ca05b72aa	There she was engaged in painting planes and checking parachutes.
bde2a4ea0246db63b68dc5c0c5e26fc5e4338231	Fortunately for her, the photographer David Conover drew attention to the girl.
cc91c565fe1c9a6768365bec7709b2541a2aba0a	Marilyn Monroe loved diamonds.
a447a53ee166207ce13e5f928264214425aefe65	The fact that she sang "The best friends of girls are diamonds" did not make her a fan of expensive jewelry at all.
576e5c05d9370ebe4818b8006d301b8ed4d1e427	Monroe was calm about them, she had only a diamond ring and a pearl necklace given to her by her second husband, Joe DiMaggio.
7a3bf98ebdd1de5977cac1913b632ee98552a449	Marilyn Monroe was sexy in real life.
a7e31506c68c971ac3053a1eab8adfbdb6e871ff	In fact, the image that we see was different in reality.
ab4bdcc4e32c8aeb12eb7e74ec5fbe7f1423967e	Her first husband, Jim Dougherty, said that he did not understand the general attention to Marilyn.
82f6b8512ff140807fbf8b351526bbde6e0da5fd	In his opinion, it's like being delighted with shoe polish.
fcc2932917e37d94c784b60b5516c9392d3052b7	She herself said that she began to experience orgasms only after 30 years.
acf4848bbfcf7c4ab030e04d2a47495473ff49a4	Men expected that sex with her would be something supernatural, but she had the anatomy of an ordinary woman.
45675c2e9f43037359a1225a36406b16a93e0860	Marilyn Monroe was happy.
3d8bd152098668ad1dbbdde8a67028bdd2d1e515	Marilyn Monroe had many close friends.
1cc64459e188d6ffb210069c4d2d0688d15c1b11	Monroe understood that next to her only those people who need something from her.
12fded17b9d41f10a09b067073c3258116d97e28	There are quite real parameters of the figure from the dressmaker of the actress, 90-57-89, the star weighed 47-56 kilograms, with a height of 166 centimeters.
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2534fc0100f8c3373ea68ab275322e7e0b6c75d2	Interesting facts about Marilyn Monroe
7ae1dc2d94f7186de4a8d3277eb2d16285f6b957	Marilyn Monroe has been gone for half a century, but her persona remains one of the most interesting and intriguing today.
8a538ee37848573176567581f74fa24a76e4fbf6	Many imitators are trying to try on the image of the actress, but they will never have the attractiveness and charm of Marilyn.
edbeb21fc5c8758a4f6993eccc090872cc5fd7d2	And they are unlikely to leave behind so many interesting facts from their personal biography.
c051300e0ad7dfe0a270b0074de9a8ccde86c44a	Before becoming an actress, the future Marilyn Monroe, and in life – Norma Jean Doherty, nee Mortenson, worked for the needs of American industry.
28fa42c001e7201a702810b430c7250a5ddf78b0	At the end of the Second World War, she worked at one of the aviation factories, where she painted planes and checked the serviceability of parachutes.
2e040e7ae641765c7865235dce6f35462bf7095e	There she was noticed by a photographer who was looking for attractive girls for a thematic photo shoot.
e4b42c81d120a369d1739ddd5310fc892961b9b2	He was so impressed by Norma's photogenicity that he suggested that she go into modeling.
8afc1555f8121f60b89e3932e161b2e76725ad6a	It was not necessary to persuade for a long time: the girl broke up with her husband, with a past life, instead of a brown haired woman, she became a blonde and called herself a new sonorous name.
0a589a2aedcae73c5c1e36000192889ee1fd4ca3	The name, by the way, was chosen for a long time.
b5b7c7107c805ac9d7838eae203d568b498a0656	The future actress chose the name Monroe not by chance – she was "closer", because her grandmother wore the same one.
849bafbc254f3af81b7a153b48fb19924f03c1ad	Marilyn Monroe completely debunks the myth of stupid blondes (maybe, after all, because she was an unnatural blonde?..).
4c9401665485c4e419d8ae882e9ca5ae149a740b	An accidentally thrown joke became fatal for the actor: soon he was felled by a heart attack, which led to an early death.
6dcba2369552a3d0f898ad0070dbc4302b4c9431	The most ridiculous myth about Marilyn is connected with the fact that she has not five fingers on her feet, as a person should, but as many as six fingers!
215ecbbf5bb86a71ed8ec47f8ba15d944d9a9734	The beach photo of a very young actress was to blame for everything.
562f59ad3cedbc1c0c23b16cfc312ff904746805	The illusion of the sixth finger was created by sand sticking to Monroe's foot.
278edf8855b41875e7672cbaad3f8837de49db7a	The block share on social networks:
1367983f383499fec9d316e63a9aa7a572734684	Author: Bill4iam
d01b7bc2d8bcb3e8147c5617d5cc44c01b525846	But
0ad6a93d02f3ad22cde1bbf934aadbb8c4d43129	The actors
79d9b68c3c4543906617e3b6e1b1dd0bea5e9d2a	Anthropology
654a5083667369ba4ea98c6fad0fba9b362d84f9	Watermelon
f2a402bb78393638729cbf7fc224ea20c2951a04	Architects
f210f4a3c220b25bd59b0cc181582e5d73e99be3	An airport
6eae3a5b062c6d0d79f070c26e6d62486b40cb46	...
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4e83ab72f5680a7927bc2ee1770585b538110359	Bicycle
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4902a456caa9a4eab463ce526c9df0f6180be184	Greece
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30beee4d06be35af6ee3f0b547f83cf4958f3aa7	Jolie Angelina
57d3522085141bb633484f322c49576e18b0d4d6	Precious stones
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909f99a779adb66a76fc53ab56c7dd1caf35d0fd	Z
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6c39c3308136b190838f63cd28f8e614905cb8dd	Female names
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520a0976b5ef8a559767e69e493ec2fc2c0c4b31	Kiev
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10df1ff3d08f0346d8b542ce674fd4de6ea76d76	Treasure Trove
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7b3d0b443ce4a8405de90ed439b33999c90d489e	Smoking
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7ceab12d0e9c691f3e84513227fc463a57779c36	Lermontov
1ec472c1c4deb9177feb068b602c7384d4245d3f	Ski
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1a0bff19a5f4891dbfd100deb6c51c2b8bd4bf3b	Curiosity
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2bef474e8add043edabbcd740ebfe95a8dfc2afa	Coins
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3bec60bede09f40525581b3eea4523f416f9b7b0	Cartoons
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6b21fb791ac05170893860c248401cd24a59b732	About
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22c43c80b6acba6c8e988834746cb3dad10dc13a	Customs
2a4dba76ead08154f3a1eb6cb751962208044fa9	Vegetables
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18f7a350af28e4ed42fc2cb435bd3578a813cbc0	Lakes
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6a9d220b874dd2322d5e3e5666e7dde03ca51bcf	Beer
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3b2c3fdb3a879c853ab2c0d9791252e894e0208d	Gifts
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08a346fc5fda375ab78493e655b3c22e3f6b2276	Harry Potter
24c7eca570ac21f552bf5c99c3ea6e4b3c61f510	Poets
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85fb53e4bc112a0ed8006205414ef8eb60d3cce7	Professions
9f6ca935b2ccd16a6261ce0a70d4896e8090fcef	Birds
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534946310ce4e69cc69db0afaf5da9c9809ba09e	Bees
06576556d1ad802f247cad11ae748be47b70cd9c	R
13bad3d96fce731bb45838b659f5d70f26588a1a	Ads
5a34cef8639be5fafdd26b0a040a9c596d62442b	Rivers
3030e8ec7633ec1a524bb246aee7dbda6fb3e4bc	Fish
1684e5f7c135012be73b3ac7f25a9ce063ebb1db	Knights
be46f2ffbe68f7cc3624d69a534dd32dd0294a6d	Robots
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7b917079ebf89504c3cfcc83feea4b96f3e3e8e9	Rock music
a479d094b31d9961e5b04672563379e5cced40cc	Ruble
6312c3858424948fff56aaa4ed1b914b483b84ae	Ballpoint pens
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400a8e1a7f1ab4c1a6869bc1a0e227edfc122d85	Earrings
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35b8905ffad96e12ea10d1172bad42655d84c966	Sweetness
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1a533fa9d8f3682f826b6cd9626655f9497a3075	Phone numbers
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822467b4bf1b90ee84ece7dfe0171e0c381e11fd	Scientists
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2029e1ec5f2c2fc3b3183f45093c5caa465dc9b6	Artists (famous)
32096c2e0eff33d844ee6d675407ace18289357d	C
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77dcd849e550afec3c83d38fcc8cbc72c058f4db	Switzerland
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0be7d877af3e4a0fe505d6567a29546bc9a4205d	Chocolate
bc8db4022d462cd852b4cd5f14fb00e048e2704a	Tsch
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d91ebf5887cf9ee3c9f843d1887a6d922dc78c46	Watch
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7303d2c9c8d914ba6bc4e91ab6a8ddd36accf5cc	Albert Einstein
01df788830e8b5a1a6de8529939b017825414cf8	Eiffel Tower
ca73ab65568cd125c2d27a22bbd9e863c10b675d	I
2563456a500b21e09ee9d19f0296da4c033dccb2	Languages of the peoples of the world
2d52658f23e1d93c3a6144473bb460de077de071	Eggs
716966b72d7e3df94873a667c62e30a652fddae7	Copying of the resource materials is allowed only if an active link to the original source is specified...
7f0efec0cddf629555c25c446a1464c715177146	Copyright (c)
81e1ce00373d99fb335f77246eb416f3ac90f654	"201st Entertainment" 2016.
4ba1c7341c9df8808b0098bd38a36eaa5f4c1441	All rights reserved. cs
a3b22f865b42051f2ff8eed458debc46b415c792	Email for feedback: propala Gramota@yandex.ua ;
53a0acfad59379b3e050338bf9f23cfc172ee787	_
c25b83d75a732511ad4dffaa3b6e7f887c85e503	The Civil War in the United States (the War of the North and the South; English American Civil War) was a civil war of 1861-1865 between the union of 20 non-slaveholding states and 4 slave-owning states of the North with 11 slave-owning states of the South.
533662613e5214104742f559233fbd8742e0f39e	The fighting began with the shelling of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861 and ended with the surrender of the remnants of the Southern army under the command of General Stand Watie on June 23, 1865.
0fc82371bc8f8db0dee87e7fa68b15b2193935ba	During the war, there were about 2 thousand small and large battles.
6d0410e06b78dca46630ce50d9b30b439876865b	In this war, more US citizens died than in any other war in which the United States participated.
d0b28c8332be09a9b4e3f34127676463fbebf136	In the first half of the XIX century in the United States, the agrarian slave-owning South and the industrial North existed as separate economic regions.
63b7c5efce7369fb31dd08066120a4bb5e0f40b8	The United States was created as a federation, each state lived its own political and economic life.
ec005dd18ef0630c0cd3f9e77d5226005c9ae69a	Despite the steady growth of the population and the growth of economic development, the integration processes proceeded slowly.
df13315a24cf79c1afda196b86736cef2649667b	In the North, enterprises of mechanical engineering, metalworking, and light industry were concentrated.
c6003a804aebbd576619f607dd6f13826f0b081a	Here, the main labor force was numerous immigrants from various countries who worked in factories, factories and other enterprises.
eacb2fbdd443275ace735dfd300f5249b261e13f	There were enough workers in the North, the demographic situation here was stable and the standard of living was relatively high.
a596f173b25534b78c59069d1f9e1a9c425f1335	The situation is different in the South.
71a5bd956ba25f0923dac484f5344d015f201ce9	During the Mexican-American War, the United States received huge territories in the south, where there was a large amount of free land.
b07249f809cb41912c6481a4a8617a577e41bc76	Planters settled on these lands, who received huge land plots.
2c3780476bf1e6c7fb9facaf4e7be65eaa3e1e33	The land in the south is very fertile, the climate is favorable for agriculture, so the South has become an agricultural region.
d88bc823407d786ac7a49f2dcadf0ded1960dfc4	Crops such as tobacco, sugar cane, cotton and rice were grown here.
0688789fbfc5e8e54c8a8651ce3ccd64a2aae5b7	However, there were not enough workers in the South.
c29d65a9719bd4d492cb4dbfb844369e07630aa7	Most of the immigrants went to the North, so from Africa, since the XVII century, Negro slaves were imported.
bd968d7c8606d8ddd0a46e3bc30f677ec056ccf9	By the beginning of the secession, 1/4 of the white population of the South were slave owners.
08e8a4fa1232920ed2c94dff695afdfb07ff11dc	In the North, a flexible tax policy was implemented, money from state budgets was allocated to charity, the government tried to improve the living conditions of the black population to a certain extent.
68000d324be04ec15695af77d724b0e419c098c0	Nevertheless, both in the North and in the South, Negroes were considered second-class people.
0ce78d4636813f76a33e51e05c65a7cbea3f0ebe	An important role in the politics of the southern states was played by the so — called "elite" - wealthy slave owners who had large land plots in private ownership.
1ebfb35ccaf1851e032117dad879d155e44188ee	The North needed raw materials from the South, especially cotton, and the South needed the machines of the North.
4dec5c0bfd8e1e6ce784f9f9a0f9b8c99c3a02b5	Therefore, for a long time, two different economic regions coexisted peacefully.
6b35a0072482c01e71aa87b99e5962704a00b6ec	However, gradually contradictions grew between them.
5de66f8310c8d65e499e3f66a1401c9626a40f96	Among the most acute conflict issues are the following:
61d2be578361404fe1b380f4b87e3b8d7f7eea6b	Taxes on imported goods (the North sought to make them as high as possible to protect its industry, the South wanted to trade freely with the whole world).
8a31228266a1d090ef7c35e9f94467c83d57f179	Problems around slavery (whether fugitive slaves are considered free in free states, whether those who provide them with asylum are punished, whether southern states can ban free blacks on their territory, etc.).
18643c2bde538948b371d53581e492e1e880b8f9	Political and public organizations that opposed slavery formed the Republican Party in 1854.
52e56b85cb0d9d427488a295dcb0c6a284f19ea5	The victory in the presidential election of 1860 of the candidate of this party, Abraham Lincoln, was a signal of danger for slaveholders and led to secession, secession from the Union.
8e9436c45a865a1eb7f505a52edb18db632ea5f2	Each state elected representatives to the state constitutional Council, who voted for or against secession.
9ec6b4b900a2856568202fce326460ec5d30e772	Following the results of the vote, a "Resolution on secession"was issued.
0ec1a52c795dc3c1b4bc7f7d7203102000495d00	On December 20, 1860, South Carolina was the first to issue such a decree, and on December 24, the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes that led to the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union"was published.
9383f533bd49dda1199121c8b5352a9fa90f206d	The legal justification for such actions was the absence in the US Constitution of a direct ban on the withdrawal of individual states from the United States (although there was also no permission for this).
b7bb7d6a925b136e430c19665799617265a89107	On February 4, 1861, the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States of America opened, at which 6 states announced the formation of a new state — the Confederation of the States of America.
0607c98d8b29c7932e3294938cf1146d1485292d	On March 11, the Congress adopted the Constitution of the Confederate States of America, which replaced the previous Provisional Constitution.
5d0486adbf300901c1519cd43ac43d1d8c923b19	The question of the extension of slavery to new states: The United States annexed new territories, and there were discussions about the constitution of each of the future states, first of all — whether the new state would be free or slave-owning.
f310761da6834d5e8d5afa1a573597ef4ffb2f5f	The coming to power of Lincoln, who announced that henceforth all new states would be free from slavery, meant for the southern states the prospect of remaining in the minority and in the future losing in Congress on all conflicting issues to the North.
314e821af5fb308676190452da97eed706c440e8	These 6 states adopted a constitution and elected former Senator from Mississippi Jefferson Davis as their president, who took office on February 18, 1861.
4b83a89dae53c708f08d66237ad3bd2888f1bf48	On March 1, Texas declared independence, which joined the Confederacy the very next day, and in April May, after the battle for Fort Sumter and the announcement of mobilization in the north, the example of Texas was followed: Virginia (independence-April 17, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 7, 1861), Arkansas (independence-May 6, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 18, 1861), Tennessee (independence-May 7, 1861, joining the KSHA — July 2, 1861), North Carolina (independence-May 20, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 21, 1861).
e25d96c5a5ca4a2d559f171bfbdd5cf58d83a568	The capital of the Confederacy became the Alabama city of Montgomery, and after the annexation of Virginia —Richmond.
59894453cfe324123ce72166ebbc3a2bcbfdcef4	These states occupied 40 % of the entire territory of the United States with a population of 9.1 million people, including over 3.6 million Negroes.
c0d57d11c0a818b14797a7b28b4401025ce7d106	On October 7, an Indian territory became part of the Confederation, the population of which was not loyal either to the Confederation (most of the Indians were expelled from the territories where slave-owning states were formed), or to the US government, which actually authorized the deportation of Indians from Georgia and other southern states.
0396f0064687145583c8ce6a4523e26352827f64	However, the Indians did not want to give up slavery and became part of the Confederacy.
0a59e4dcfac931bee65d17302d20a1cf10f758b4	The Indian Territory consisted of 5 republics according to the number of main Indian tribes: Cherokee (who had the largest number of slaves[1]), Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole.
d0722bd4965d5d780bc79d5192e34fab17606d4e	The CSA Senate was formed by two representatives from each state, as well as one representative from each Indian republic (without the right to vote).
3752b134507962d391908abf870f3daaa95d26f2	23 states remained in the Union, including the slave-owning Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri and Maryland, which, not without a struggle, chose to remain loyal to the federal Union.
8244f5041a37252f0be46afb976966749c0f6b3b	Residents of a number of western counties of Virginia refused to obey the decision to secede from the Union, formed their own authorities and in June 1863 were admitted to the United States as a new state.
fcd8edf1d36d0f9b3f4cd26b062a0e72f2def55b	The population of the Union exceeded 23 million people, almost the entire industry of the country, 70% of railways, 81% of bank deposits, etc. were located on its territory.
b16fbd196b956172b2d1b8375babe7c01b4aebe2	Taking advantage of the fact that the Southerners left their seats in the parliament and the House of Representatives, the Republicans were able to push through bills that were previously blocked by the deputies of the South.
ecaa7c658ae5eeabfda3df64f750020b7a4c1c67	Among them were the "Morill Tariff", the "Morill Act", the "Homestead Act", the "National Banks Act" and the "Revenue Act of 1861".
7f0b3385ccbda82a6ba628775a57129b1ae79685	The government led by the Democratic Party supported the slave trade (although the latter was officially banned as early as 1808).
b5619cefaedf4a91e89ee963d73379d8558bbc3e	In the 50s, about 25 thousand slaves were imported to the United States annually[source not specified 2432 days] - more than before 1808.
3fab909f645a6ac7bcdd662d81dbd47a9117f10a	The slave owners ' stay in power was accompanied by unbridled propaganda of slavery.
a7d02bcbc5c29c6096e46f94276c4c3f8c1cea8d	His supporters argued that slavery is the cornerstone of the US state building, the basis of the greatness and prosperity of the country.
2a0ea170cc485fb63b7faa586f1d24ed1c52c04e	The ideologists of slavery-John Calhoun and others rejected the provision of the "Declaration of Independence" on the equality of all people.
5470b59f860f4889d1a7236e9072b896e46db972	The conflict between the interests of the northern and southern states escalated by 1850 in connection with the annexation of the territories conquered from Mexico.
bd6c0f5a84ee63e57051de2311403898f04db66f	The slaveholders agreed to the admission of California to the Union as a free state (that is, with the prohibition of slavery in it), but as compensation for this, they passed a law obliging the authorities of the northern states to detain fugitive slaves and return them to their owners.
b3adcde7e53102f963844b009b3c5ff844a1cbf4	In 1854, the conflict escalated again due to the formation of the new states of Kansas and Nebraska.
99faf2a0cb837ce33bdb174c22c6fa0227b2f45f	Congress left the issue of slavery on their territory to the discretion of the local population.
dd6cd1be65b012a2d81b375cfe63cfc67983a527	In fact, it was a victory for slavery, which meant the repeal of the Missouri compromise of 1820, which established the northern limit of the spread of slavery.
49069103f5686c2a31f60a18abdfd55714fcf0a9	Politicians dissatisfied with the decision of the Congress, Henry Wilson, Horace Greeley, and others expressed their disappointment in the existing party system and called for the creation of a new party of Northerners.
ac0a70e7b915ae1994c4aa0496ced33cd7268e7f	It adopted the name Republican.
84e78654e5b92634144470cb34903b1f04f10520	From the very beginning, there were disagreements in the Republican Party about its program.
c51336707113ba3155088b9e17dfe895b252ea8c	The conservative wing only wanted a return to the Missouri compromise, while the radicals also demanded the repeal of the fugitive slave law and slavery as such.
d86279a8a12ff92347280bbf1c8c1f7cf27c911e	Slaveholders and their supporters from neighboring Missouri and other slave-owning states went to Kansas in large numbers to participate in the vote and introduce a slave-owning constitution there.
ff0175394d0b5f8bcd42222510eccb2b364ef1ea	However, many people also came from the northern states who wanted to divide the land of Kansas among themselves for small farms.
329823cd12d703a852ef8f27d51edbec8aef75a7	In 1855, armed conflicts began between the opposing groups.
53f1bf8f76cb4577ec5bd50b14ca8fcd7d74440e	Partisan detachments led by John Brown, James Montgomery and others defeated and put to flight their opponents.
1efe84d41b2e5f65cf841eb3483ecf90bdd57911	Progressive forces throughout the country provided moral and material support to opponents of slavery in Kansas, while federal troops sent to the region systematically helped slave owners, which eventually forced Brown to leave Kansas.
286658f80555d8fac02e478790fcaf1c508cbbc5	Let's focus on these three positions and consider each one separately.
c136a62377c045bd3e66a1eeb1bc11274637b446	At the beginning of the war between the North and the South of the United States, Europe sympathized with the South, because the unfair and illegal policy of the North towards the southern states was obvious to a European observer, just as during the American Revolution, most European countries (with the exception of Great Britain itself) sympathized with the American settlers who stood up for their freedom.
57c619c4f9da32d2631a8f3889a98c6207b96b0a	The Proclamation issued by Lincoln on the Emancipation of slaves was, first of all, to increase the political rating of Lincoln himself and the entire North in the eyes of the world community.
d27b701d4a81783c305aa3de215e1927ce9fdd40	And indeed, after the release of the Proclamation, Europe was forced to support the North.
607568f9e8c13730ef266f7cff00988d20b4dd7a	Lincoln seemed to point to slavery as a problem, and declared the struggle for the freedom of the black population an important mission of the northerners.
35ac4101e924580949d08db50ea19b18e6272744	From that moment on, it became politically inconvenient to show your sympathy for the "slave owners".
f7fb38c2a85f0389aca1f3412f7ea378f86f71fc	However, initially, the Lincoln government did not have the idea of urgently ending slavery.
9e050a9bf0c532dbdff143417ee3ff7a07f5f4d7	The proclamation on the emancipation of slaves appeared only on January 1, 1863, and the war began in April 1861. [2]
7bfc410c947b593500ac111a8edd9a8845a3de6f	The text of the Proclamation indicates that the "liberation" itself was a measure aimed primarily at pacifying the South.
05890234d21362443649ccf7a50f5762102c5406	Slaves were used only as a convenient means of influence.
ab7f58ea1046d20b07074f3a1a4d97b68970f98c	Three slave-owning states have never expressed a desire to secede from the United States: Delaware, Kentucky and Missouri.
1a60fa42cb2a3bfaa99c6b7f90b91ba3c647e0f9	The Lincoln Proclamation did not apply to these states.
7c2ee3679d182ee06a532965daa98a93862f950e	Missouri and West Virginia (separated from Virginia in 1863) abolished slavery in their territories during the war.
7e63dae3b3289fcbb4fe1474e7ca48340ca67a0b	In Kentucky and Delaware, slaves were freed only when the XIII Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, abolishing slavery throughout the United States.
9aeb10f91511c84cfd3c818a8bc1caefeae3bdbd	This happened only in December 1865, eight months after the April surrender of the Confederate army and the end of the war. [15]
9a0e9dde17632761066b394d5eb6e5c5e451f993	Why did the Lincoln government finally decide to abolish slavery?
fb210c82e2f0a57bb86708e31da2a9e315928539	After Lincoln became famous all over the world for his Proclamation and gained popularity thanks to this document, it was no longer profitable for him or the ruling cabinet of the North to retreat.
48db53232d07a724a370b3b35b2e40fa301eec19	The work of freeing the slaves had to be brought to an end.
459ec506b6334860b882aa7235670d5e7d8b1bd5	Otherwise, the political image of the Lincoln government would have suffered, which declared itself as fighters for the freedom of Negroes - and did not fulfill its promises.
3ffa98719b3c612c5be53898458cecb5c6b5ff01	So, slavery as such was not decisive for the separation of the South from the North and the emergence of a military conflict.
5edc9e247cb143565357e6e1b54af63086ef5157	Moreover, pragmatic northerners, who put their own well-being and material benefits at the forefront, would not fight for the sake of freeing other people's slaves.
e4929da99fd7b134218aca1b1cb83247f84047b9	The black population of the United States was used to raise the political rating of the Lincoln government, as well as in the hope that blacks would side with the North and join the ranks of the armed forces of the Federation.
c90d4e5be920360680a265e403e664a76ca9bfb9	The fighting began on April 12, 1861, with the battle for Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay, which was forced to surrender after 34 hours of shelling.
1497021265a5718885161f736dfbc9e9b88dc880	In response, Lincoln declared the southern states in a state of rebellion, proclaimed a naval blockade of their coast, called for volunteers in the army, and later introduced conscription.
1163439411b92cc51b3b2d379e78a44b8bbd2e50	At first, the advantage was on the side of the South.
ab1c3909e394f3d573e019a5ed97cef7fa561228	Even before the inauguration of Lincoln, a lot of weapons and ammunition were brought here, seizures of federal arsenals and warehouses were organized.
7cb3b5a77382c0a9af2b46162c5daa3da9bbdd64	The most combat-ready units were located here, which were replenished by hundreds of officers who left the federal army, including T. J. Jackson, J. I. Johnston, R. E. Lee, etc.
121581046a7a66a7fc2d917e586763b7e367cba4	The main goal of the northerners in the war was the preservation of the Union and the integrity of the country, the southerners - the recognition of the independence and sovereignty of the Confederation.
39aa53611f6a8e5aca60582faa5dd2da792db91a	The strategic plans of the parties were similar - an attack on the enemy's capital and the dismemberment of its territory.
a08d1cba04dcb8a354f4416a5c3db6cb91563e5b	The first serious battle took place in Virginia at the Manassas railway station on July 21, 1861, when poorly trained northern troops, crossing Bull Run Creek, attacked the southerners, but were forced to begin a retreat that turned into a flight.
069cf89b7f8faf8ded94e9fc10da4e3a69cb3148	By the fall, the Union had a well-armed army in the eastern theater of operations under the command of General J. B. McClellan, who became commander-in-chief of all armies on November 1.
cc738702a46e346dceb9565a6ffc5dbdf3d5ba14	McClellan turned out to be a mediocre military commander, often avoiding active actions.
94486d292df95ac213dc6dfeed1bb702988acf58	On October 21, his units were defeated at Balls Bluff near the American capital.
cfa02373a41a73f761231ca12ac433355d7777b9	The blockade of the Confederate sea coast was carried out much more successfully.
0032ba59f788242ae4f59eb378c44ef1c30290d9	One of its consequences was the capture on November 8, 1861 of the British steamer Trent, on board of which were emissaries of the southerners, which put the United States on the verge of war with Great Britain.
6dd07453c76b546071fd598084efe57ec4453845	In 1862, the northerners achieved the greatest success in the western theater of military operations.
683f4f162d34b0c6df1c2ec5bd10ed881ff23fca	In February and April, the army of General W. S. Grant, having captured a number of forts, drove the Southerners out of Kentucky, and after a hard-won victory at Shiloh, cleared Tennessee of them.
2c346330c792a08b147394804c9b500030961b9e	By the summer, the state of Missouri was liberated, and Grant's troops entered the northern regions of Mississippi and Alabama.
1a7c48b7ff0c64c469682f0dc3d83b8b439e0362	April 12, 1862 went down in the history of the war thanks to the famous episode with the theft of the locomotive "General" by a group of Northerners volunteers, known as the Great Locomotive Race.
c5ad5a05ce43f617a59d65aae35905ec67e3981f	The capture of April 25, 1862 (during a joint amphibious operation of the units of General B. F. Butler and the ships of Captain D. Farragut)was of great importance New Orleans, an important commercial and strategic center.
edb2f0d73ae9b5ea1f984e7599a2379562eeacac	In the east, McClellan, nicknamed "the sluggard" by Lincoln, was removed from the post of commander-in-chief and sent at the head of one of the armies to attack Richmond.
1a3667bbf87c599647857b7302e6e3ffca5d1e76	The so-called "Campaign on the Peninsula" has begun.
ba6c4073de3e2f3fb5e803989df8714d1ec159bc	McDowell hoped to use numerical superiority and heavy artillery to win the war in one campaign, without harming civilians and without bringing the matter to the liberation of the Negroes.
2018774df957ebd96b38a8857180167bb7c43d39	While McDowell planned to advance on Richmond from the east, other units of the Union Army were to move on Richmond from the north.
09e53a405e34017220b3a535b1fcbd82b9ce8d52	There were about 60,000 of these units, but General Jackson, with a detachment of 17,000 men, managed to delay them in the Valley Campaign, defeat them in several battles and prevent them from reaching Richmond.
705a7cced5b2d6d00c217b05e05bc04c8c592eb8	Meanwhile, in early April, more than 100,000 federal soldiers landed on the Virginia coast, but instead of a frontal attack, McClellan preferred a gradual advance in order to hit the flanks and rear of the enemy.
e996111c0a31e36d439d191f5c0dfa3a3fd8bc04	The Southerners were slowly retreating, Richmond was preparing to evacuate.
29984962a77e55318f7f2a491b3f7917fb96f7d4	In the Battle of Seven Pines, General Johnston was wounded and Robert Lee took command.
fb38796c454d7694ac2da0ea0d8f190559ff5881	This battle was also marked by the first experience of using machine guns in the history of military conflicts.
ac15d0aa6e62fc86a741cfe4a0fc103e0179ec5d	Then, due to the imperfection of the design, they could not somehow significantly affect the course of the battle.
7fb4c874b33be5d5be54cf6c2ed72d072a4a26b7	But in the army of both northerners and southerners, machine guns of different designers began to appear.
9137092ac37ac2e37fbe95402cb2b26faea87655	Of course, they were not the usual models with an automatic reloading system and relative compactness.
29c487da06e8ce4dc47535c7a41eb35f88a0ff0e	Early machine guns in terms of dimensions and characteristics were closer to the Mitralese and Gatling machine gun.
ebacf0ca349e49ce0f610857ca61ee3c670623bc	But the main role was played by the will and determination of Lincoln.
f31f92ebe9a42eb34708f3e48bf0bd9585813c68	On December 30, 1862, he bypassed Congress and signed the "Proclamation on the Abolition of Slavery", which took effect within 48 hours.
318b07e48a93cef2ddd23dcd49a25ab605199b76	Previously, the prevailing opinion in Europe was that the war was going on because of the ambitions of the northerners, who talk about freedom, but themselves do not allow the South to dispose of its own fate.
a57c63e42fdc119fc5ddc178c5dbc7c9e22a768c	Now they have become fighters for a noble cause.
ca7c2d8cf3f2dbec0423ca9f0e5ab608c4b94476	English textile factories suffered from interruptions in cotton, mass layoffs began.
e32e4b419b2441b3e4b6d3ac2b3ae9b9f3f57980	London and Paris were preparing to recognize the Confederation and send a fleet to lift the blockade, but under the pressure of public opinion they were forced to reconsider their plans.
a1916777a448f3eeee69c3702ccd25313e5b5902	About 180 thousand slaves, having learned about the proclamation, fled from their masters and joined the army of the North, served as guides and scouts.
f8c24aa9cd0784fe55fdd6aef4e067027a49afe4	Even earlier, in May 1862, at the initiative of Lincoln, Congress passed the "Homestead Act", which prohibited slavery on new lands and guaranteed everyone a free allotment of 160 acres.
9c403ad5e935dc235ca328ecf5d3bbabed491346	For the European poor, America has become a beacon of hope and a promised land.
4b32377fddf9a0f42bb7b4467033e4d12bfcdcb9	Within two years, 177,000 Germans and 144,000 Irish crossed the ocean and immediately enlisted in Lincoln's army.
19640e0fb0950a3aefb97d84c8aac6ae15987494	On July 1-3, 1863, the Southerners who invaded Pennsylvania suffered a heavy defeat at Gettysburg for the first time.
d484e30c0a7be80768ead21cddd7b5837da61b54	At the same time, General Grant captured the key fortress of Vicksburg in Mississippi, taking about 25 thousand Southerners prisoner and cutting the territory of the Confederacy in two.
f4790b646888694a5025e66b0adceb2b1b26dab1	On November 7, the Confederates were defeated at Rappanahawk Station.
b8f025e0d6934cce23cf75fe1ecc5633dbb5787e	According to military historians, after these defeats, the South lost its chances of victory, since its human and economic reserves were exhausted.
5365bd8155c98e98c6caab6a97763fc550b306ac	From now on, the only question was how long he would last.
4427f2275531e8ac133dddb223ac592a0728abda	On the eastern front, the southerners stubbornly resisted throughout 1864, but in the west, the fall of Atlanta and the "march to the sea" made further struggle useless
e0fb5aef2d6d1d5d6b9e9f3a5d2795467c410d2e	By the spring of 1865, only 54 thousand people remained at the disposal of the commander-in-chief of the Confederacy, General Lee.
8e1426103db829c472c7a254c2f3c033e56142cc	On April 2, Richmond fell, on April 9, Lee surrendered to the commander-in-chief of the North and future president Ulysses Grant at Appomattox.
a045b98504b454c124437baea56e0ce3d45d6a5f	there is a new crisis due to the Kansas Nebraska law[11].
39066b9ab3705e827bc87d981e3212d4523d0310	Nevertheless, in the South, the political crisis of 1820 gave rise to fears that a strong federal government could become a serious threat to slavery[12][13].
5d669deac9a50fd43db9141dec13fc6ed9b591a4	In the 1820s, the economic downturn hit South Carolina the hardest.
c5e8721eb8d9ede50f8664243ce7b961ed361f9d	At that time, the United States pursued a policy of protectionism and high customs tariffs[14], which were unprofitable for a state interested in export import operations in connection with cotton sales on the foreign market.
2bcf1d45719beede541feb18031144e55955f8ce	In 1828, the state authorities declared that tariffs on its territory were being nullified as unconstitutional[15].
8d198b08525db1e0c722926b5b236384b9f6e497	Nevertheless, in 1832, Congress again passed the law on high tariffs.
d976ccf3997309c9319644b15ff75213b8f425b6	Then the most radical part of his opponents called for the withdrawal of South Carolina from the United States.
c7e9890c27e26cc1c55967c4af49d313b36bdf3e	President Jackson regarded the actions of the state authorities as high treason and sent armed forces there.
c0b792c7f1ae0b7d57772919edeba20f77f88c30	The rest of the states, including the southern ones, did not support the rebels, and the authorities of South Carolina wavered.
c987e2cc369318934ff23cefbd7b026996889055	Soon, a compromise was concluded between them and the federal government, which both sides presented as their victory.
efdb45f6abacf28cc13b9f3e67160ae0d751e796	The local authorities pointed to the fact that the tariff was still reduced, and the federal government pointed to the fact that the separation of the state was not allowed.
eb65c3a2df191c4d9447a2353b8c998e87069351	One of the prominent political figures of that time wrote:
62f2a572c21e442071a65f09aaa93597d4b3431c	It seems to me that tariffs are more an excuse than a real reason for the current unsatisfactory state of affairs.
2a5f0218383152c86b077c49892678233ca876d9	The truth can no longer be hidden, the special situation of the southern states and the direction in which their production is developing puts them in opposition to the rest of the Union in respect of taxation and other issues, and the danger of this situation is that if there is no protection for them in the registration of state rights, this will eventually lead to rebellion or, if their interests are sacrificed, to colonization and other schemes that will plunge them and their children into complete squalor.
d7c430be2eabb65458b34346b472e977e1141afe	The original text (English)
02be89ad695882da7a9c342ea057ab5cc9500b98	I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things.
3068574b8835a355248c35a205f8566ebd02eb2a	The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar domestick [sic] institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.[16][17]
c80dc2da40a1ad5f7921490abdd263e2aecfbe38	The problems of tariff policy kept society in suspense until the Civil War, again appearing on the surface of the political life of the South in 1842, 1857 and 1861.
7622362ae802d8f375a86470ee2a14ed8349df54	The victory of the Democrats in the elections of 1856 allowed in 1857 to reduce tariffs to a record 17% (Tariff of 1857).
d4a2cab4dd063c96b00ea686909c96aa5fb2a2f9	Even cheap clothes for slaves in the southern states became profitable to buy in Great Britain.
502e1baefb4e9b468a6ba20cd5ba6b675d48ef1e	In September 1857, a financial panic began in New York.
8e6e54e7650743a410db5c929c7405afada6dea5	A wave of bankruptcies and layoffs swept through the northern states.[18] The key point of the Republican program in the elections in 1860 was the increase in tariffs.
da8f14a2299ad2b9006e54b9bc5a4d6989e63973	After their victory and the withdrawal of the southern Democrats from the US Senate on March 2, 1861 (two days before Lincoln's inauguration), the average tariff level was increased from 15 to 37.5 %[19].
a635daf21a039de9aa757e2006e1928f7af98ff7	In 1831-36.
f11805c5ec16d0487c81e29d86fe77b06e1e1bd5	William Garrison and the American Society of Opponents of Slavery initiated a campaign of petitions to Congress demanding the abolition of slavery in the territory of the Federal District of Columbia and the rest of the territories (in the west) administered by the federal government.
3826be430154e5425d3ec3463b1d622685280237	Hundreds of thousands of such petitions have been submitted to Congress[20].
f8ccffa06e905107d9461f853dc2c7fbd03d3973	Finally, in May 1836, the House of Representatives passed a number of resolutions according to which Congress had no right to interfere in the policy of the states regarding the admission or prohibition of slavery on their territory and should not also make such decisions in other territories, including the District of Columbia.
ce617eaa7b3e6edbadeb0c5055ed4d3844a2d1cd	In addition, Congress henceforth refused to consider any appeals regarding the abolition of slavery.
70b51ce331706d0db0b07ecf31e3d48b4849d528	Many political figures, including former President John Quincy Adams, believed that this resolution contradicted the first Amendment to the US Constitution, which prohibits, in particular, restricting the rights of citizens to apply to Congress[21][22]. The restrictions generated a lot of controversy and were lifted only in 1844[23]
d38b2d48cfcf5b2357a0f45dfd238ff501ad1da9	Economic development in the 50s of the XIX century[edit / edit wiki text]
ff2508ab473f1eebd00ba3541f4be0870c666c57	The article or section contains contradictions and cannot be understood unambiguously.
2ab8061d502ed59de202f0b4de94c4d4bf576c3c	These contradictions should be resolved by using more accurate authoritative sources or quoting them more correctly.
72722e2f2c967e724de453d6263d946e278bb2a4	Since the beginning of the 50s of the XIX century, the industrial development of the United States has been very rapid.
c529745443dfcb5d0817ceb7917fc35ee748dd79	By the end of the 50s, the United States ranked fourth in the world in the production of industrial products.
690524ef696f9ae42ff22d30954e8ffde3e4958b	Steam engines, agricultural and other complex machines began to be manufactured on a significant scale.
e291d3d3d5b315a9c5351c8128a891d57da364b1	By 1860, there were 1,700 factories in the textile industry, where the machines were driven by steam.
f94b44c951f712456b89deb6c49040d73acf30dc	The length of the railway network increased in 1850-1860 from 14 thousand km to 48 thousand km.
ad06a0a63c2697146dbf13db63844f84a2142b3f	During the same time, investment in industry doubled and reached $ 1 billion.
1e387b56e7671825cec3c9d241bc2fa9fe0dad3c	This was facilitated by the increased influx of capital from Europe and the discovery of rich gold deposits in California in 1848.
7c09240a13ddb705e1856d29e88e322348e18769	The transition to factory production was accompanied by the concentration of industry, the displacement of manufacturing and handicraft enterprises.
e6a0b53c90daa22d7900e8fae21f9964037f3cdb	During the period 1850-1860, the number of workers employed in the manufacturing industry increased from 957 thousand to 1311 thousand people (including those employed in the factory, home industry, manufactory and craft).
0b660960a4861ee3c537de1bcb50e7e77bfbc35f	However, despite the rapid growth, by the end of the 50s, American industry still could not meet the needs of its own country.
02700ff0ccc4e384ec08f8eb6c525c544377bc87	The need for rails, machines, machine tools and much more was largely covered by importation from England.
f3b555f3ca3f95ffc71f627fb3540902f47ecf77	The number of US residents increased in ten years — from 1850 to 1860 from 23.1 million to 31.4 million.
7caa495b6ab88317dbb1c5d9cbecb9fba18c54d7	The population of the northwestern states grew especially rapidly; in the decade preceding the Civil War, it increased by 67 %. The population growth was associated with the development of new vast territories.
5e905600a5935bfd46792f36ef2ebad1867b758b	The rapid development of the northwest, accompanied by an increase in the marketability of farming, contributed to the growth of the domestic market for industrial products of the eastern states.
cb56e5ae12310193c2dac35be4669b65387b8edb	The economy of the southern states was of a different nature.
a32f2c9f20ff4f7ad8bf44eefc279f27fe4f03b9	Here, the production of cotton for export became increasingly important: during the period from 1851 to 1859, cotton production increased from 2,799 thousand bales to 4508 thousand bales, that is, by 62 %. The industry of the South was mainly limited to the primary processing of cotton, its cleaning and packaging.
b0bbc7966e9e78baf6badc44ddc3d4ce5aedeac1	The predominance of cotton growing gave the economy of the South a one sided character, hindered the development of industry.
73cafb9303e04871d850082e365851c4eac0b147	The population of the southern states grew extremely slowly.
13a27f2d86c873c0084a4ec8828d2b5fb14b9d99	The slave owning economy was poorly connected with the domestic market, especially since the planters who exported cotton to Europe, mainly to England, preferred to buy the industrial goods they needed there.
809b177682748cd6abb1715c062ef3c61dc16698	As a result, the industrial products of the northeastern states hardly made their way to the markets of the South.
2dd6bbe2849440574c6726c6ed09b6dafea73c8f	This prevented the formation of a nationwide US market.
15c2191feb6ea98b9b871a19a6cea732210a7488	The further development of American capitalism imperiously demanded the abolition of slavery, the complete triumph of free wage labor and the final colonization of the South by the North.
2ea434611302acdecf4a2f395049ff8017144045	The pre war South[edit / edit wiki text]
01899de1cb25c5dec1f4d413ccc7196dc6b5c7cc	Racism[edit / edit wiki text]
46610ff691060f6a32da999609a59a56b71ce0a8	A famous photo from 1863: a slave beaten by an overseer.
5fd773c77d4778585f3407d1e0530f44420483c3	The brutal repression of slaves was a popular topic in the literature of the abolitionists of the North.
47f829a7fb481a5af4f446ed3cdb0d592feac03f	Although only a small part of the population of the South owned slaves, the institution of slavery was defended by Southerners of all classes[24].
d8f1cd1afb04e161bf42085d931b042768803e94	The social structure of the South was based on the use of slave labor on large plantations.
7062ffbb5d1c7aaced272ad5d495b3acb6ec7408	In 1850, the total free population of the southern states was about six million people, of which 350 thousand owned slaves.
5880990a75acb74421d3ca88cff371936d25a5b5	Among the slave owners, 7 % owned the property rights to three quarters of the slaves.
e7b1665432c749c583a140a70db3e94d77f8baa6	The largest slave owners were the highest caste in the social hierarchy.
78b963972df9d1631788b6edd9b39b859ac581ae	Their position depended on the areas occupied for plantations and the number of slaves who worked them.
0c7bc531676d202f1716c3160e065890dbc9f8f5	By the 1850s, the big planters had recomputed the small farmers of the South, and they readily recognized the political leadership of the planters ' elite.
6a0257fc5728265be7cc6ca6d9939df16503e6d5	The development of new lands in the West gave them hopes of ever acquiring plantations and slaves themselves[25].
c6bc3e9028fb9547b98c26bd5a1d717a234a5b13	In addition, small farmers were often rabid racists[26].
7b23b93eaad8cc5659732f3916646efba4c9581e	The principle of the superiority of the white race was shared by all segments of the white population of the South, which gave slavery the appearance of a natural and legitimate social institution necessary in a civilized society.
b37cb9d41c4ebe178443c88b97d7dcb30092d0f6	Racism in the South was also supported by an official system of repression called the "slave code", which stipulated how slaves should talk and behave with whites.
1e60ed6f687780d5fe8b7d8ae438b5c8ee923eab	For example, the white population organized "slave patrols" consisting of several people whose duty was to maintain discipline among the slaves.
e9cfc9bf00c52556820d55c5ea9efac2805b2d6e	Such patrols were legal in the South, and every free white male was required to participate in them.
a0b235dbc7967a0526c747cad69ce9921704917c	Slaves caught without the written permission of the owner outside his possessions were returned to the owner, sometimes being punished for unauthorized absence.
b1d4c8c7b0d15163666582bd504f7460b12cba61	Gather in large groups groups of slaves were also prohibited.
61eb76f6ebfd04c2a538d1c8b208ea6ed9ac51a4	At times, the slaves fought back against armed patrols, who should always have been ready for this.
a31847a383f7809532cbdb63ca3b2db715c5364c	The service of patrolmen and overseers gave the whites the power to stop, search, beat and even kill any slave who found himself outside the possessions of his master.
e372a782fb87f9bfecdaeef0a3b85b2c323b98dc	Such behavior was considered prestigious, and maintaining control over slaves was an important work for the benefit of the entire southern society, which saw one of its foundations in maintaining the fear of breaking the law in slaves.
718c0300299c58277269c5848a4c9a7a316e3630	Economic and political cohesion[edit / edit wiki text]
daf45a3f95ff543e04de245241513e40eab7df09	An important factor in the consolidation of a racist society was the fact that many small farmers were economically dependent on their rich and influential neighbors[27].
286c2a6d428bf390adfec8904974cdb6b1d60b26	They had to apply for agricultural machines, ask for help with the export of crops to the market, borrow money, livestock or feed.
ee9e5eaf0755131dd75c6b8da9a2bed4ddcf9c20	The stable business of merchants also depended on wealthy clients.
2ce4f1c20a7a246d8f907b37b91afab996c37430	This dependence made it impossible for any political activity directed against the rich planters or simply not approved by them.
319aadb5c57e2a8871c5aed9b99e77f17d3e1eca	There was no secret voting at that time (it spread to the United States only in the 1880s), and just the fact of casting a vote for the wrong candidate could make a person an outcast and an outcast.
5c7310862d9d54db2f31777b42d72c822beba046	Since immigration to the South from Europe was limited, kinship relations were common among white Southerners.
98d4222706e3f715f84933b8d51c85561166b7ff	Fortunes were usually inherited in unequal shares, and the eldest son received most of the inheritance.
4018365c0e6f596ab9c5e57193d8dcbae06eabf0	Poor farmers were often cousins or other relatives of their rich neighbors, with whom they maintained relations, including in the military service in the state militia, which also turned southern society into a single military and political force.
994b879b30cf676377b4a704836a9c9de65d0df0	The abolitionist campaign in the Northern press, directed against slavery and the mores of southern society, was also an occasion for the latter to rally against a common enemy, and the economic dependence of the South on northern goods reinforced the willingness of Southerners to protect the interests of the South as a whole as their own.
98d00856c7be24a3f01065ab42e8bb15ee7ec865	The protection of the interests of slaveholders by the southerners was considered as a protection of the constitutional rights and freedoms of the white man.
d6e29bf0e44a6053833b7c4547258fbdbc6c64fb	The victory of the Republican candidate in the elections was regarded by them as a political defeat of the South and an excuse to protect their territory from the federal authorities, which were now dominated by outsiders.
3def2996bb7b5db298874408a285585e8738e310	The growth of the cotton industry required an increasing attraction of slave labor, and this also aggravated the situation in the South[28].
5c97774e9486f75e1a081c87e8d71241bbbd679f	The accelerated population growth of the North was also regarded as a threat in the South.
fe286c627bd0ef2b422cb2a069ae7cdd916505e2	Of the eight European immigrants, seven went to the North, because this was facilitated by the already established migration infrastructure (steamship lines from Europe, customs, migration legislation) and the North was considered more attractive for employment.
dc327b7d86e3507663d953a8fdc6dd8496d30857	The migration of the population within the United States was also not in favor of the South: twice as many white people moved from the South to the North as from the North to the South.
069b2dc2aaddf866ea260b332d952b5bd0c697f8	Southern newspapers wrote that the North and the South are "...not just two different peoples, they are two hostile and rival peoples."[29].
47bcd1e1d2e01e45572b30ff8a3b92cdc184e899	"We donot want a revolution… We are not participating in a quixotic struggle for human rights… We are conservatives.“[29]
141a8cfa7d7f4b4ba32b06f9c04f6cdef980f1f7	The crisis of the plantation economy[edit / edit wiki text]
7c9b301e3a2386cd07f6bf9f9d65add971f5b078	A handful of slave owning planters, who made up less than three percent of the population of 15 southern slave owning states, profited from the production of cotton, which brought huge profits.
85f8558294c6729689dbe272daeb67b18b10710e	Out of 12 million people. about 4 million residents of the slave owning states were slaves.
2bdb8d3263f69dab90da1690d7e3f476880e996c	This plantation system, based on slave labor, was experiencing a deep internal crisis; the Negro slaves resisted exploitation and fought against it with all their might.
963160cf9535b6c604910fc28c3733c130b2e172	Along with uprisings, escapes were a characteristic form of slave resistance.
50ccd875f5fd041be24b0b5641d6a9a5e223d525	Abolitionists came to the aid of the fugitives.
9bcefd56a5b6d37eab1ea996b893c9a5407e37f3	The labor productivity of the Negro slaves was extremely low; in order to force them to work, armed overseers followed their every step[source not specified 2432 days].
bf54dbefed8cd18866ef4c3d9b516e29b0b84a81	Due to the use of slave labor, the introduction of machinery, machines, and advanced agricultural methods slowed down.
dc9a5ff94091678526a5b32dfa91b508db780089	Predatory exploitation depleted the land, making it necessary for the continuation of the economy to cultivate more and more new territories.
6835ce29efdd83508c40bd7ce5a1d0da059d4e54	Therefore, the slaveholders sought to seize new lands in the west and expand the territory of slavery[source not specified 479 days].
786788bee5e1b4415692e62d7df7e60966656008	This desire was met with resistance from the free population of the northern and northwestern states.
1ff0c0f8f5e1428b2d4b183d073a277727587e1d	Interregional contradictions and the formation of mass politics[edit / edit wiki text]
aac55dea78ca5679afaf9e08b7d0b8a467b7feba	The voice of the Free Man was raised not to expand the freedoms of the black man, but to protect the freedom of whites.
8126d0d1300ec75edb3a9262fc1ba43f8d541a2b	The cry of Free Man was raised, not for the extension of liberty to the black man, but for the protection of the liberty of the white.
63e0873ca8577e3497239a5c28901c23869b9bc0	- Frederick Douglass
d81665f544d4f18e5b4e996989a5ecceca693308	By the 1850s, the expansion of voting rights and the spread of mass politics led to the loosening of the former two party system, an unprecedented increase in the participation of the masses in political life and the transformation of politics into one of the most essential components of American mass culture, which is not comparable to modern times.
4395364d543b3d849317c7a9e5dedf0be2cd8247	Politics of that time was one of the entertainment, political events were accompanied by parades, rallies, political leaders were bright personalities and focused on popular values, hopes and interests of the crowd.
860733fcd8d85881494258bb822bf4222540b68e	In 1860, 84% of voters participated in the elections.
00cdbe16a13a72035d45d075b1654200d17ffaf9	In addition to the Republican party, a number of other parties appeared in the mid 1850s, which soon disappeared: anti Nebraskians, fusionists, ignorant, knowing something, moderates, rum democrats, Hindus, etc. By 1860, the Republicans controlled most of the states of the North, the Democrats were both in the North and in the South, besides them there were other parties and coalitions in the South, as a rule, supporting the party of constitutional unity.
486df1e27c92ec59647482d5d03f0c8e36ae72e4	The majority of the population of the southern states was inclined to secede from the United States, but public opinion, although it did not protest against the very idea of secession, did not allow secession without cooperation with other states, and the legislative assemblies of the southern states were dominated by unionists who voted against secession until 1860.
fe7857535224a553ff6e96db4ccf936dd06a636c	Some historians believe that one of the reasons for the war was the collusion of the financial elite of the industrial Northeast with the agrarian Midwest against the South.
a82a26125b2fb6e4c6f46bd71782d0ad4008f333	However, others point out that the majority of small and medium sized businessmen of the North in 1860-61 were against the war[30][31][32].
8ba794ed2c9d705074150a969232f221577dfea1	While in the North in the XIX century the ideology of exploitation of freelance labor became predominant, in the South it was characterized as "dirty mechanics, vile operators, crooked farmers and crazy theorists" [33].
82b10f11ceff0ad659dd8e96c783dbf06f91dcf0	Southerners sharply criticized the laws on the distribution of free land in the West for farms, rightly believing that small farmers would be competitors of large landowners and slave owners[34], while southerners considered slaves and slave farms more civilized than farmers and farms[35].
3a5ed69ceb15b5153599968d259a0d347c6dc502	Religious views on slavery in the North and in the South were diametrically opposed[36][37][38], although both sides based their arguments on the same text of the King James Bible.
f6008ab8f069d16f4af7db7604b36021b3a436f8	Its content was interpreted as applicable directly to American reality, and not in the context of a historical period from which the United States was separated by thousands of years[36][36]. In this interpretation, it was believed that the Bible justifies slavery[36].
efed3ce8ac83d413a3b09398dbe494184936c5ce	For example, the Patriarch Abraham had many slaves (Gen 12:5; 14:14; 24:35-36; 26:13-14, hereinafter, references to the king James Bible), and slavery was later legitimized by Moses (Lev 25:44-46).
2bf287989fdcb5123a82f7400465579f022e1ae9	Jesus never spoke out against slavery and even considered him a model of discipline (Mk 10:44).
ff68479a297b0f8855fb66f5026fe9fda22f254c	The Apostle Paul supported slavery, and demanded that slaves obey their masters (Eph 6:5-9; Col 3:22-25; 1 Tim 6:3; 1 Cor 7:20-24; Phlm 10-20).
5e58aa20c3beb5f6d5e1e8ca090a1b060b99eedf	The curse of ham, Noah racists believed the cause of the subordination of black descendants of ham (Gen 9:18-27), and abolitionists were accused of unbelief and rejection of biblical truths in favor of the secular ideology of the Enlightenment[39].
c73cbfe74201c5ff7dbc589d71ec043f08e53493	The Protestant churches of the United States, not finding unanimity on slavery, split: Methodists in 1844, Baptists in 1845 [40], Presbyterians in 1857[41].
27d0ff4c6c801bdec05becb01d76a8ca64b43c8e	The church schism is considered one of the precursors of the general schism of the nation"[42][43]. The tragedy of the civil war is considered the fact that the most authoritative theologians at that time were the generals of the North and South[44].
5aa629284e2b356be34f1691e96ea1bc5706c86c	The abolitionists, in turn, relied on the movement for the reform of American society, called the Second Great Awakening, which gained strength in the United States in the 1830s 1840s, at the height of industrialization, and also had deep religious roots.
81faed3a654c381dd1c687685eabac4bcb438eb8	The word abolitionist itself had several meanings at that time.
e28f9cf457ae4206cd00eec830f53e4ba41158ef	In addition to radical abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass, who demanded the immediate abolition of slavery, there were moderates who proposed the gradual emancipation of slaves.
399a55f6cbfe60b2752ca387d76f34ebfd6c6bde	Some politicians, including former President John Quincy Adams, opposed slavery, not joining any organized groups and societies.
f9149a9b0859cbce2bdf245eee73ed8edb82a278	In particular, in 1841, Adams represented the interests of slaves in the Supreme Court during the trial against the rebels on board the Spanish schooner Amistad and offered to consider them free.[45].
8bb2b49fbfd8df6f4521ad34c7a81cd8c92e55a0	On the eve of the war, the majority of the US population was considered abolitionists, which was represented by Abraham Lincoln, who protested against the spread of slavery in territories outside the southern states q .
d64c345b0da7842c911f9174aab71cc41362674c	In the South, there was no difference between these groups.
bad3831e7f83e722bda61fc7d98bc998fe54e58d	Anyway, they all believed that everyone is equal for God, black slaves have the same soul as whites, and the enslavement of some people by others is contrary to the will of the Almighty, even if it does not contradict the laws adopted by people[46].
0e915f0ffd6be238a1cdc88604eff2b768d3a6ea	Professing Protestant ideals of self improvement, enterprise and thrift, the Yankees accused slaveholders of depriving slaves of the right to choose their path in life and the fruits of their labor.
d8c31eb95e94ef02d0717fb844004f732ce44309	Capture of a runaway slave by a Southern patrol.
9ae20b1795fd9435ee34d1a4e837a59497467122	An engraving from the Almanac against Slavery (1839)
854138cbf24936f0c761a0ac38248c63e20c6387	In addition, abolitionists believed that slavery posed a threat to the freedom of white Americans, restricting their movement and employment opportunities due to competition from slaves.
2a1e9652253513edf8b6ff2adfd5ffa1e391d3e1	Even more, the contradictions between the North and the South after the adoption of the fugitive slave act (1850), allowed units of the southerners to pursue slaves in the Northern States, and also in the discussion Ostindische manifest (plan of annexation of Cuba as a slave state).
c11d5325f0acd632efbc61d53a13f98da0bb87cf	In the North, the patrols of the South also began to arrest and search the all blacks, believing that if they do not have written permission from his master to the absence from the estate, then it is a runaway slave liable to punishment and return to the South.
16be07039ecf6ec4438673ce569d2585cee9b506	Many free African Americans were thus enslaved in the North.
bb4fdc0026d7e4efecd2e3ef20c92e25d8da790b	In Boston, in 1851 and 1854, self defense detachments were even organized, forcibly preventing gangs of Southerners from grabbing blacks on the streets.
49a36df1040c50888072daa66d6410cf02bbb064	Similar detachments were organized in many other cities of the North.
9efb35cfe15daaeef678839dcb28c9db4da64a82	At the same time, fears were growing in the North that the influx of runaway slaves from the southern states would create serious competition in the segment of low skilled labor for white workers and farmers.
b94461ab2215f950483332a0024d79a45c8aa9e1	As a result, discriminatory "Black Codes" were adopted here, restricting the rights of the black population or prohibiting its settlement altogether.
f45f8780fd924c7826e016c4db9569aecfe6b1a9	The settlement of the Midwest by Northerners, facilitated by the spread of steamboats, railways and telegraph, in the 1830s — 1840s led to a rapid growth of the population and economy of this region.
94abea78f4ac745c0ca0ac1a13f31a35987f3d14	It was covered with small towns and farms, the inhabitants of which idealized small and medium sized businesses, which gave white settlers chances for a prosperous life, owning property and using the fruits of their labor.
7c222321c1eca5b4ae1f483d5f9d112ae675721e	They were close to the ideology of the free Land Party, which held moderate abolitionist views, and they did not want the appearance on their lands of both slaveholders with slaves, and free colored settlers, Chinese from California and blacks from the South.
729132bc4335b783c7c476a5460a950a1e4cf3fb	The Free Land Party did not demand the liberation of the slaves of the South, but defended the territorial restriction of slavery by the southern states[source not specified 479 days].
0de9e0461be63332f7e5a18dc3861f6ff5620700	The question of slavery in the territories acquired from Mexico[edit / edit wiki text]
f19e85627f6cf0af9791471be4a84a8d54626531	Shortly after the outbreak of the Mexican American War, discussions began in the United States about the admission of slavery in the territories that could be annexed as a result of it.
c5a6f6105c3d27e345b2d7d95696b74abde2dece	They lasted for about four years, during which the Mormons settled in Utah, California was settled as a result of the gold rush, and the territories in the Rio Grande basin that Texas claimed were transferred to New Mexico.
efb5aed7282e77233d4e98a04d933af01102adb9	Finally, in 1850, a new compromise was concluded between the North and the South.
f88c649f096ee57c64cd57a1c1ade7c9b7ae16a4	Its terms provided for the prohibition of slavery in California, permission — in Texas and left the issue of slavery to the discretion of local authorities in the newly organized territories of Utah and New Mexico.
f4f9e692610490f7a1507527a0562973cdc87339	The Civil War in Kansas[edit / edit wiki text]
faa8a053a14d198cbdc150c57e16a968d6b42fe8	Main article: The Civil War in Kansas (1854-1858)
9fabd27dfab9964b233ac946d9e9699231bcee46	The ideologists of slavery John Calhoun and others rejected the provision of the "Declaration of Independence" on the equality of all people.
96c266b23c0b9f31ba14c9ad0e87b9a4fd7c5ad9	Slaveholders and their supporters from neighboring Missouri and other slave owning states went to Kansas in large numbers to participate in the vote and introduce a slave owning constitution there.
b2b09b597dec7d342527aca5456fec8bf061d659	In most armed conflicts, the subject of the confrontation was the distribution of land, and not any political or social problems, contradictions between the North and the South, or the issue of slavery.
5eb2bccf7cd74bf537db0bb783239b166232e863	Southerners considered Kansas their territory, which was illegally invaded by northerners who did not care about the legal registration of their property rights, and northerners accused large landowners of southerners that they were acquiring land without having the intention to settle on them.
c69f61f66dc99aeb3c7cdca84ed3132c6ce666b4	But the activities of radical abolitionists, especially John Brown, gave this conflict an ideological orientation.
c8411c85ddc193681aafdb4a86bd1bd5af2be922	Brown considered the Northerners to be the instrument with which God would crush slavery.
d0710842337f23238f31f52dac96c3a1bb0a2484	In this form, the conflict was covered by the American press.
43f5737dc92df6878518b26ae93879db86387428	Both in the North and in the South, the armed conflict in Kansas was perceived as open aggression on the part of an ideological opponent, and the issue of slavery became the main one in the presidential elections of 1856.
546f04f19462e5faaad9cd687a9d2fa960266e8e	Nevertheless, the Republican Party has not yet gathered enough supporters in its two years of existence, and the other parties either held moderate views or supported slavery.
55bcdaead0425324ce47e469fe0aa44e889670da	As a result, the positions of the slaveholders in Congress and the federal government were still very strong, and in 1856 they achieved the election of their protege Buchanan to the post of president.
675fa4d357b55df8d8c32f0621e94130a0800723	The positions of the slaveholders were also strong in the Supreme Court, where they owned the majority of votes.
8171eb8d7f6c55b71ab255824304967d92111024	In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of the Negro Dred Scott, who, having moved with his master to the North, that is, to the borders of the states where slavery was prohibited, on this basis demanded his release;
4faf1afd213254aca05291184bf7e55bbb91dbee	The Supreme Court, in favor of the slaveholders, ruled that the relocation of a slave to a free state does not entail his release.
0cdfbb39ad77e99b8afb675ef749df88a7fbafa9	However, in Kansas, the stubborn resistance of free farmers forced Congress to recognize the state as free from slavery by 1859.
64fa67cd05e5bf22bbf0f642a4e8265327ee255b	The Uprising led by John Brown[edit / edit wiki text]
7d89f99218437b96942bf2e858babdfa1ce935d7	John Brown
f82bb7f4e4dbcbeb49fe58bec5940a406c01ce2b	In 1857, an active figure of the left wing of the abolitionists, John Brown, one of the leaders of the Civil war against slave owners in Kansas, began preparing a negro uprising.
e5dcba4b2f8fa7d6390fca36cd4d47d75fe156f9	Brown thoroughly prepared for the uprising; he studied military affairs, the experience of guerrilla warfare in the mountains, the liberation war of the Negroes of Haiti, went to Europe to get acquainted with the places of the Napoleonic battles.
fb488493bf8a1c63859e2d0d2841e447aa202d98	In the summer of 1859, he moved his preparations to the slave owning state of Virginia.
b552a6d396e44c53645754cc7c16aef5751610b1	In October 1859, Brown, at the head of a handful of brave men (among them were his three sons), captured the arsenal in the town of Harpers Ferry.
9d5e3ca3283d9093365ed1ddeffce823627f2db8	Brown's group held out in the arsenal building for two days.
98ad596069093b5b8ce28976a190fa334111ed5d	His detachment consisted of 22 people whites and Negroes.
36b8ee1ed85e6532d30c11b2c702b1fb12ccfacc	Brown expected massive support from the slaves, but they, being neither aware of the uprising nor organized, did not have time to join his detachment.
1856a4f796a130f09b2ed825266970e0cd79a336	Brown and his supporters were surrounded by local militia forces and a detachment of Marines who arrived from Washington.
83ab4716569ac9a3c53bf239c3b334adb20c0122	In an unequal battle, two of Brown's sons were killed, he himself was captured after being seriously wounded.
df1607a38412412cc3a0af6ccdffa3fddce5cc46	Of all the participants in the uprising, only a few managed to escape.
e5744a14c44f8e66e66bcdf1248b756ec535f45f	Brown's heroic behavior at the trial, the calm courage with which he met the verdict and accepted death on the gallows, made a strong impression on the broad strata of the American people.
a917caef7ce7af1e608d0a04f636dc3386e1c778	Brown's last words became widely known: "I, John Brown, am now absolutely sure that only blood will wash away the great crime of this sinful country;
df74841c359017b94c0e9fedb0b5742142c84b25	I had previously flattered myself in vain that this could be achieved without much bloodshed..."
fe81328adcad0e2e0eaf5e6ae2a40ee6095c6ad6	The news of Brown's execution sparked a slave revolt in Missouri, which was brutally suppressed.
2a99ee9e51375197f9396839405856d5ffab2322	The abolitionists raised their voices in defense of Brown's memory.
9a124367c95e8d4f7c8d36c12c4d8d778f4e1667	The writer Henry Thoreau organized a crowded rally at which he declared that Brown and those who went to his death with him were the best of people.
994d820bb07318b35780df6ed822c89c394c9de9	Less than a year and a half later, hundreds of thousands of farmers and workers with the song "Brown's body is smoldering in the grave, his spirit is walking ahead of us" rose to war for the cause for which John Brown and his associates sacrificed their lives.
f4a7d9a83aacb640747e8c14d536803a0d69adf2	The election of Lincoln as president.
995ae5696442fef11da373939593ce8adad46599	The rebellion of the slave states[edit / edit wiki text]
9bae03c5b171752f9f3afa37ca613ac0c90f60c2	In the presidential elections of 1860, a fierce struggle unfolded.
8c2692e571baf9bed0fc4b97df8c8e30e92c55f7	The Republican Party demanded the restriction of the territory of slavery, the adoption of the homestead law (free allotment of Indian lands to settlers in the West), the introduction of a protectionist tariff.
6c4b7071a994cc3e5084e3484cc8a63bd007dfe9	Its program was supported by large financiers and industrialists, farmers, workers, the urban petty bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.
f070b02686dd125feef4b54f12a091ef40bf3534	Abraham Lincoln[edit / edit wiki text]
6c98e3423b231610ba3472f69fc31afd3fc5a13c	The Republican candidate, lawyer and publicist Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), who was very popular among the masses, was elected to the post of president.
8d0e07a44ebdc4eac409954160d8df9eb29227ef	Lincoln came from a poor farming family in Kentucky.
85ae1ad1f6b746ed674331a422a08fc18a689254	He experienced all the hardships and hardships of working life; he worked as a clerk, a carpenter's assistant, a railway worker, a cargo rafter, at one time owned a small shop, but soon went bankrupt and took the post of postmaster.
0a1242eaf1564863d2d29770d5f1439652904264	Lincoln's political activity began in 1834, when he became a member of the Illinois State Legislature.
6b2b608df2de3f7d5e0ed3739fc45d57d9171ee1	In 1847, Lincoln was elected a member of Congress from the Whig party.
8f6b9fc4b2eb7cafd3c43325d131f122700708ab	Even at that time, he was an opponent of Negro slavery, although he did not demand its immediate destruction.
c5e047e20046d4ec73776ddeb99c1646e73ac77c	Lincoln considered the main political task to preserve the unity of the United States and therefore opposed the separatist actions of the slave owners of the South.
48726265765caa7c5f03310fdda18689182bb7d8	The slaveholders responded to the election of Lincoln as president with an open rebellion, which they had been preparing for a long time.
fd4ac1262871050adad21a2f8c22e03567991e21	On December 20, 1860, the state of South Carolina announced its withdrawal from the Union of States, followed by other slave owning states.
6caf55f1cf2f6656f0c4199b3cb4299b23277597	On February 4, 1861, at a convention in Montgomery, representatives of the six breakaway states formed the Southern Confederacy; a wealthy planter, Jefferson Davis, was elected its president.
8b5d54484369a1a400fe1bda607be19ff5eb8d7b	The city of Richmond was declared the capital of the confederacy.
d8faea2345be812d2f3bb881b822baad6c1efdd5	The constitution adopted by the slave owners in Montgomery was based on racist principles, the slavery of Negroes was proclaimed "the bulwark of civilization".
52c9bf553c7965c7f3bff032b489c712b23818a7	↑ Elizabeth R. Varon, Bruce Levine, Marc Egnal, and Michael Holt at a plenary session of the organization of American Historians, March 17, 2011, reported by David A. Walsh "Highlights from the 2011 Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians in Houston, Texas" HNN online ↑ David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pages 42-50 ↑ The border between "the" free "and" slave owning " states were the southern border of the state of Pennsylvania and the Ohio River F Fehrenbacher pp.
ca2361a2e5cce7385f2e173f8f1d9010cd3d7c8b	15-17.
729ba9b4ff25b0ed266ef6fd87f9f128d46b9bab	Fehrenbacher wrote, «As a racial caste system, slavery was the most distinctive element in the southern social order.
ef303973e638113781662a507775eb0ad475b0eb	The slave production of staple crops dominated southern agriculture and eminently suited the development of a national market economy.» ↑ Fehrenbacher pp.
dfa6fd6cbbfa58f7ed3242c42fbdc00ff421d562	16-18 ↑ Goldstone p.
e35aa86a3960ed6b53e377dd4caca6c390b7c754	13 ↑ McDougall p. 318 ↑ Forbes p.
7f1b2ce63dd7e1ca127501d4811231bfc89faabc	4 ↑ Mason pp.
9290544b1b3c0f3cb15d1a91b49c0801fc8a52b4	3-4 ↑ Freehling p.144-149. ↑ Missouri Compromise ↑ Forbes pp.
7d0c363149a6ec4e4d1c3c999abd00bc2564613e	6-7 ↑ Mason p.
b335dbaefaf02937e5e46e5e87a3e1f28112095f	8 ↑ Remini, Andrew Jackson, v2 pp.
316980f120d638d157fc4153169fd1473ce9f2c0	136—137.
e07bf2e0486b0c6a052f49fa3bb8a478f8014976	Niven pg.
2d133a38caa512a14cb6b1d874a6a4563a0baf6f	135—137.
5aa378694b3dd0b0dbc4acd173258c39abc459ac	Freehling, Prelude to Civil War pg 143 ↑ Craven pg.65. Niven pg.
0d437874e303b7fdc1d8970a31f8e7f0158df1b6	Freehling, Prelude to Civil War pg 143 ↑ Ellis, Richard E.
c981781a05ed90c4358232c1ab1130cd9edd46d7	The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights, and the Nullification Crisis (1987), page 193;
e75b22b4ff0a6ef262416babbed0977ea05cb638	Freehling, William W. Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Crisis in South Carolina 1816-1836. (1965), page 257 ↑ Ellis p. 193.
b4b2d6c210e41f846e3d3af72064a3b61a9f5e1a	Ellis further notes that “Calhoun and the nullifiers were not the first southerners to link slavery with states’ rights.
f041d6d71032e362a9017393c1bee51a2b37fadb	At various points in their careers, John Taylor, John Randolph, and Nathaniel Macon had warned that giving too much power to the federal government, especially on such an open ended issue as internal improvement, could ultimately provide it with the power to emancipate slaves against their owners’ wishes.”
37c89b70021e0da7166278be7030699c2e5b43c3	↑ A House Divided.
9e4ccaa435e96306586658b925fc921d2f887e52	Dickinson College.
714ae4755bb22aabae298c32ac691d4a27eb31fa	Verified on March 4, 2011.
1983124fce2b6152007c6f04482d1aa1d7f0df12	Ла Latov, 2004 ↑ Varon (2008) p. 109.
c6381283cf73662979a2c9a36209d42b924dd1df	Wilentz (2005) p. 451 ↑ Miller (1995) pp. 112, 144—146, pp.
88522c99ffb2f552ca3f270d5a26bf92036ba4d6	209—210.
ccedca3cbc820666e3b7da69b50bcbca4b5b01d8	↑ Wilentz (2005) pp.
f74e1ac05594bde264dfa2da98a7a6ccb4af6dcc	470—472 ↑ Miller, pp. 476, 479—481 ↑ Huston p.
d8f462c256897b750974efde6032c7519bfdd1df	Huston writes, «…on at least three matters southerners were united.
17918edeb46dc93ea0be8a8d565b5ddd745abe43	First, slaves were property.
b636a687a5603a6900512216ce90b96450f05e61	Second, the sanctity of southerners' property rights in slaves was beyond the questioning of anyone inside or outside of the South.
988fbf30456b9bfb181489ab18f1dbebc92fb80f	Third, slavery was the only means of adjusting social relations properly between Europeans and Africans.» ↑ Brinkley Alan.
d79c2292ab25cbcd11401c9e988a19e5f69051df	American History: A Survey.
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a1e213887561e9eb06ff7fb256b3058fb148dee2	— P. 328.
af11afced12c64c6cbab20eedd602dc8405f8163	↑ Moore Barrington.
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2d99f45eb9a4f16f66034142019a4f45b7d9de81	— P. 117.
1e17c67eb0e18a936909be157cc56fd4d6ced7d4	↑ North Douglas C.
7bd4f8bf8743829a0923238546c7593024295e89	The Economic Growth of the United States 1790-1860.
b66c9fcfc4bde1cf07a806d7ed317e5fe3f73a11	— Englewood Cliffs, 1961.
110b918746eddfcd4b4e84e17fefe8fcb3a25669	— P. 130.
1fe25fc1e842f70dd5840c68e63f3e0c2b659321	↑ Elizabeth Fox Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, Slavery in White and Black: Class and Race in the Southern Slaveholders' New World Order (2008) ↑ 1 2 James M. McPherson, "Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question, « Civil War History 29 (Sept. 1983) ↑ Woodworth, ed.
322ee5e6a835496c2e51efb074fd641587dd1872	The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996), 145 151 505 512 554 557 684;
e286af0a4ad999f3e1a666428e8e594c3403a8c3	Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969); for one dissenter see Marc Egnal.
63fdca9e2dd438fa5a7cc8dbec7c1634b0ab7b5a	„The Beards Were Right: Parties in the North, 1840—1860“.
19f87982f291661f6b0103508288eadc4e134de0	Civil War History 47, no.
67122024f6a0e6ac280587f68e677f3d0088d770	1. (2001): 30-56.
c91a988e0c3ed66765976635c1b616b9caa722c1	↑ Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Backg round of the Civil War (1981) p 198 ↑ Also from Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union p 198
0a075faeaeb3d999fbbcebf507a76c2bce0a10a8	Most historians… now see no compelling reason why the divergent economies of the North and South should have led to disunion and civil war; rather, they find stronger practical reasons why the sections, whose economies neatly complemented one another, should have found it advantageous to remain united.
e5de0b9d0aadbcbd270534c55b6328a59d6304fe	Beard oversimplified the controversies relating to federal economic policy, for neither section unanimously supported or opposed measures such as the protective tariff, appropriations for internal improvements, or the creation of a national banking system….
d2f63bf3a2512a89b4b0151623c42c00c701059e	During the 1850s, Federal economic policy gave no substantial cause for southern disaffection, for policy was largely determined by pro Southern Congresses and administrations.
d83af41a82a60ce7dd13c88dc59e7e7306d4eb79	Finally, the characteristic posture of the conservative northeastern business community was far from anti Southern.
194b636fd6ccc91e9ff1f38fb87c85839f24fa75	Most merchants, bankers, and manufacturers were outspoken in their hostility to antislavery agitation and eager for sectional compromise in order to maintain their profitable business connections with the South.
b40396829b72a581ce1353d52a1e428856768253	The conclusion seems inescapable that if economic differences, real though they were, had been all that troubled relations between North and South, there would be no substantial basis for the idea of an irrepressible conflict.
f3dba18de5b4ba904c9e9048ca7044cbe6c183f5	↑ James M. McPherson, Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question Civil War History — Volume 50, Number 4, December 2004, page 421 ↑ Richard Hofstadter, „The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War“, The American Historical Review Vol. 44, No.
1bd0f853876781b38c074a66ff0562e9e5c15c8b	1 (1938), pp.
e29cf097537fe4d0d89d0e4929480f541c517d42	50-55 full text in JSTOR ↑ John Calhoun, Slavery a Positive Good, February 6, 1837 ↑ 1 2 3 4 Noll Mark A. America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln.
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f8db2d4897ec2948ae683bd552dfecea4fdf8944	The US Civil War as a Theological War: Confederate Christian Nationalism and the League of the South.
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171a1b5cb505486cb90089cf400a5691f3d97839	↑ Noll Mark A. America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln.
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cc035b30e5e10dba99f27e098f4bde6c26c86154	↑ Miller, Randall M.; Stout, Harry S.; Wilson, Charles Reagan, eds. title=The Bible and Slavery // Religion and the American Civil War.
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497763caca8863bf14dfe9bcfd8f6f6d1a72ed84	↑ The Amistad Case.
c9b052597e5bc7aaf79afd9c29b643fe3afd7151	National Portrait Gallery.
094c45b837a6f095a5e780e7e207e60fb4ad1f8a	Проверено 16 октября 2007.
44c96417d734f733f31cabd360b21dd16a006e27	Архивировано из первоисточника 15 марта 2012.
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f6758e65b624df35562061427a6e1fc9682867a7	"Sherman's March": how and for what the North and South fought in the United States
636c1a64e0a3ed80bb21a2385bfb71285c82db57	Artem Krechetnikov BBC, Moscow
27e6ec7bebf72c9e3c4746dfb542234268a75246	November 14, 2014
2c151b57a2563d720f1aab1b19a94c78137fa66d	Image caption
ee20d935fe0bc10a708e4d2b12ee35b71c36b04e	General Sherman (leaning on the gun carriage) and his officers in the vicinity of Atlanta (photo 1864 from the Library of Congress)
b914d2fb68b495c8b6e546da44decd3c32a49a0d	150 years ago, on November 15, 1864, a key event of the American Civil War took place: the famous "march to the sea" of the northerners under the command of William Sherman began.
01d5afa063f4671b801a5a8aa98fe45c127a2b92	The starting point of the campaign was the capital of the state of Georgia - Atlanta.
fa7c1904a8d4e73faaf58b81652eea4bd8737a12	Sherman's troops entered Atlanta on September 2, but there was nothing to capture, in fact.
f8debc6c75ad704dc055c1510268985952938d1d	The day before, the commander of the southern defense, General Hood, ordered to blow up 81 wagons of ammunition that could not be taken with them, since the northerners had cut the railway.
8607d3aebf41afe47848eb740d95ab77f4fdf4fe	As a result, a huge fire broke out.
2cd6a0299f0b59d1f6b4eba8ae4e1c023eef0405	The world knows this story from the footage from the movie "Gone with the Wind", where Rhett Butler, whipping a horse, takes Scarlett out of the city through flames and explosions.
c4db6a2b8f58d264eb544facec96c0c0ca430632	From November 15 to December 21, the 60 thousandth army of the Northerners marched in four columns 360 kilometers from Atlanta to Savannah, destroying everything on its way that could be destroyed and set on fire.
d9425161139389820ce19f4a7eb3036121ae08b4	By that time, the war had been waged for 3 years and 7 months with varying success.
28ea8d6b8ec86cfc99ffd9a57f189451cee9f7a7	The purpose of such a radical measure was to economically ruin the South and deprive the enemy of the will to resist.
1e7fbb9a891d89717a22c5b39a56e91bdb7844b0	"The March to the Sea" serves as an illustration of how much mores have changed since then.
7f832043be12729924f5b59687b41253ccb0627b	Nowadays, no army would resort to such tactics, especially on its own land.
961ef5733fe23bda608aa117abae38ed7f4fa5b4	The concepts of humanity and human rights at that time were far from modern ones.
ba3a19147709deb313c1aa7dd6cbdaf77def2348	Sherman forced the captured Southerners to dig up anti personnel mines with shovels, saying that otherwise his soldiers would die, and he was not obliged to feel sorry for the enemies.
2905a72463d6587d3c8087f583ef0b1e2de455f0	Idea or pragmatism?
58bcd7a370fbdaed9410f2c2821155199798853e	The main result of the Civil War was the abolition of slavery.
c4245412d3b85b67c4a203d80a7f8ea4d8f842a3	However, the opinion is that the northerners fought for a high idea,
32416254813f8434b1ecf109dd4a74859c1a1502	it does not fully reflect reality, especially at the first stage.
b84fbff6716c77e34b0e1cb23b136fc5ff4686e3	Indeed, there was an influential abolitionist movement that demanded the abolition of slavery for moral reasons.
25d94fd857f8051d8cccb7675fc194431cf68ab0	It united intellectuals (it is enough to recall "Uncle Tom's Cabin" by Harriet Beecher Stowe), religious moralists and just decent people from all walks of life.
3c48b1d856e963f07d704d1290190fd6ebbfe8b6	Some abolitionists risked their lives to help slaves escape to the free states.
57412cd6fa822a643c3270b612bf3259ecabc097	The southerners regarded this as theft and demanded the extradition of fugitives and the punishment of accomplices, which served as a constant cause for friction.
0c317bb995f31e2d759d102e79238ba5b03f712f	However, many opponents of slavery did not consider blacks to be their equals and did not seek to see them in the North.
ec78f109b0f102b9c4863c99d48c9b25eca1b439	It was even suggested that the fault of the Southerners is precisely that they imported slaves to America and created a problem.
8f4df701e20915684655a34769311e86d004cd4f	Even more were those who, in the spirit of American individualism, believed that Southerners had the right to live as they wanted, and it was not necessary to interfere in their affairs.
e2fe6b9c3295e260af0d98f47a9140095a70fd6e	This point of view was held by most of the political and business elite of the North.
b86dddd431f23e4c0536ca91bb8571a48fec672a	However, over time, contradictions on other issues began to accumulate.
9ba3a49b3e463e5fddfa5af6d06f5ed5eda018c2	After the War of Independence, the rich and educated southern planters for several decades actually played the same role as the nobles in Europe.
906ca6694ef677215d2671eb054ae6b4ddc69eb1	Mainly, presidents, senior officials, generals and diplomats were recruited from them.
e2daa7e05ff7be6e1d9a99712b1bc09c8e4ac3e1	With the economic development of the North, there began to grow dissatisfaction with the fact that the region, which produces most of the GDP, is politically disadvantaged.
8f9e031e774978b1436216dd66cbce0b4b8b8105	General Sherman inspects the fortifications of the northerners (photo 1864 from the Library of Congress)
4695d3d3824a30250d440838284a932cd82bc555	The psychological incompatibility increased.
469c5faa0c8e6a802bf5a59939b9c83cc573a841	In the North, work was in full swing, and the lifestyle of southern planters resembled the life of Russian landowners under serfdom.
b3c3d484462168b7254eab51619cdf9ac63f908f	In the eyes of the heroes of "Gone with the Wind", the Yankees were unpleasant, spiritless, fussy types who thought only about money.
4aad323b3c90c759e462a08a5dea1d0ad3cc0668	They saw the southerners as pampered idlers, drowning in undeserved luxury.
544e07c12ca5682a58b19f66cb9416b2225131b5	In the 1850s, an unsolvable conflict arose over import tariffs.
d10e344f9300e6f1e49893e1f22e47d18b11ef5e	The South, which lived by exporting cotton and tobacco to Europe and importing industrial products, demanded free trade, while the North, which was experiencing an industrial revolution, demanded protectionism.
ff02c0947cf9b60dde922b9f50d93ec7ea17ef82	Another problem was caused by the development of the Wild West, more precisely, questions about whether slavery should be allowed in the new states, and whether it is necessary to sell land there or give it away for free.
ab37f74745d5411416653bfb3b8d7c2cbe39008c	Under the first option, the lion's share of the land would be in the hands of planters who had money and cheap labor.
834c292b76bbed9fa5cce3401b21663521d64d63	The northerners wanted everyone to be able to get an allotment in the new territories and become a farmer.
3a412d3798f61354c4a279408df78d92046f49a8	In addition, the southerners were afraid that the free states would eventually gain a strong majority in Congress and would be able to freely pass the laws they liked.
f2ae016dda2cee74c09da045d2633b8e497e315e	In 1854, after a long struggle, Congress approved the "Kansas Nebraska Act", which allowed the new states to independently decide on the issue of slavery, which temporarily calmed the southerners.
b0e57fa2228885645a86fe18c94ed0c49de99cd2	However, the election of the well known opponent of slavery, Abraham Lincoln, as president in 1860, reawakened their fears.
12fe57a89d114032e44a66864a08e17890c3b863	Secession The US Constitution did not directly allow or prohibit the withdrawal of states from the federation.
b7ed158c1c5e66d395ea2c15a39e87eba579a766	The first, on December 20, 1860, the "Act of Secession" was adopted by South Carolina.
8a719f392324758f747208bdafd2dde530d8256b	During January, it was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana.
c632d5e144fa75bd1c8b37be9a8bd449edce16dc	On February 4, six states convened a Provisional Congress and proclaimed a new independent state: the Confederation of the States of America.
478d53f432fdeaf057eb472bf3dc8061d9a1f105	In the next three and a half months, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina joined him.
4da2e2140feae09f9401548598d9c79d6f562503	These 11 states adopted their constitution declaring slavery eternal, and elected former Senator from Mississippi Jefferson Davis as president.
4befb23b1b45579d104bc05fcd3ca84dd700a123	The capital of the Confederacy was the main city of Virginia, Richmond.
109857ff969a2df58ebf80dd26ac4101a122c754	The state of the Northerners was called the "Union"during the war.
4504c22f642267e44f136b8f88e6db508d40fd84	It included 23 states, including the slave owning Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri and Maryland, which remained loyal to Washington after an internal struggle.
d380f3c0651f8974fe64e805d900820e860a4b49	The Indians, who themselves owned slaves, and most importantly, did not want a mass migration of northern colonists to their lands, sided with the Confederacy.
392b5680d5e4969b690771626d1dff941b7ee832	On March 4, 1861, Lincoln took the presidential oath of office.
1ab3ea5eca603e9e2ec14099cea5760f02e70173	In his inaugural speech, he declared the creation of the Confederation illegal, but promised not to use force against the southern states and not to abolish slavery in those territories where it existed.
24d5f6c266ff2182db1dab03afa615c2caa3031b	The reason for the war was the capture by the Southerners on April 14 of Fort Sumter in South Carolina, which was federal property.
e14695bba754c080844d463819cd1ca98b5073df	When the shelling began, the commander of the garrison, Major Robert Anderson, surrendered without a fight, but demanded that the southerners salute him with a hundred rifle volleys before lowering the US flag.
eba903e7d70217b6562c68e07366fa3f19548028	The bullet accidentally hit the ammunition box, the explosion killed two of Anderson's subordinates, privates Daniel Howe and Edward Galloway.
397e638d529c07a94b4f155aa5dc1d32db59e986	They became the first victims of the Civil War.
72864a717ca27f4c8b9c9e66efe7e02d965555e3	On the evening of the same day, Lincoln signed a declaration on the beginning of hostilities and the recruitment of 75 thousand volunteers.
58daba33c1893adccb2d07cb3687dd88be935594	During the war, the North accounted for 22 million people of the population (9.1 million in the South, including 3.6 million slaves), 60% of the territory, almost all industry, most of the merchant and military fleet, 70% of railways, 81% of bank deposits.
0966653d02156653089dd394cfaf5be235aaf8b7	My highest goal in this struggle is the preservation of the union, not the preservation or destruction of slavery.
e1107bf09756e1d276da017e9f1225bbd5289622	If I could save the union without freeing a single slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some slaves and not freeing others, I would do it.
9d94757f6113b912618308c9190e770c948e6db7	But I do not intend to change my often expressed personal desire that all people everywhere should be free Abraham Lincoln, interview with the New York Times on August 22, 1862
d32b5b6671a570c5f9bccda19dae1d133a6d9646	Nevertheless, the war began unfavorably for him.
4cdcc17e396a87588591fe54fd65ce8d068c516e	In the first major battle of Bull Run in western Virginia on July 21, 1861, the northerners were defeated and fled.
44986d885eda8e186aad00a3e28dbd70aa361468	There was a panic in the capital.
fc093caa4a7184b5aff9b58521a4d04cf33f8b77	On July 25, Congress passed the "Crittenden Johnson resolution", declaring the sole purpose of the war to preserve the territorial integrity of the country and demanding that the Administration not take any action against the institution of slavery.
8886926687f5cb8436688dc16d411ca701b4e681	After the defeat of the Northerners at Bell's Bluff on October 21, the Confederates almost captured Washington.
ebf5b785121ae0eeadd8759d419cba9549b1d29f	For gentlemen from the South, officer service was a hereditary occupation, and in the army of the northerners, command positions up to colonel's were completed by inexperienced volunteers.
68583c159e57c8a32ffce4fc50a58e64c0143ceb	The commander in Chief, General McLellan, became a byword for his indecision.
7a0941bf5e6d59557af96c453c0e1128dd5b4c59	Grant, Sherman and other capable military leaders advanced only during the battles, but the personnel leapfrog continued throughout the war.
f3c4605abd618c34db860671eea1abd138cc65f8	The Southerners were more motivated and united.
9a65472592b595b172bb6ba93b142f7e24cb738a	There were restrictions on civil rights in the North, which, by the way, is still blamed on Abraham Lincoln, but people who considered the war unnecessary could express their opinion.
9c464f8eb71f483ef5abfdd15aab6f4e5f674d0f	In the South, as the Russian military historian Alexander Svechin pointed out, they would simply have been shot for such a thing.
0842ecdc2b4dd2f8fc3319c71141a81c1e19ce99	For the northerners, a compromise was possible under certain circumstances, but not for their opponents.
b59d60affe8fa33f3f5486526dd8d141ce12036f	In the end, the North managed to win the war thanks to economic, numerical and naval superiority.
5814bf912a844bb4d2f899c8694064f30164a910	The ports of the South were blocked, trade died, the population and the army began to suffer from a lack of basic necessities.
f26d5a279adfccf06ce6f31d29a6641e39f94edf	The Confederate flag captured by the Northerners during the "march to the sea", xp stored at the Museum of History in Atlanta.
9857479f914b81882a6554b2e9b0a405b616bafe	In 1884, when the 20th anniversary of those events was celebrated, the owner of the trophy, former private of the 56th New York Regiment Lewis Young, returned it to the southerners as a sign of reconciliation
8ae32bb9bb6a7de412f4e447bd5934dbb9a303ef	Captain Butler from the movie "Gone with the Wind", as you know, made a fortune by risking his life to deliver fabulously expensive goods to the South.
6e022f7aa4840ea9f7f90e6db76c7b8db8f4870f	Revolutionary steps But the main role was played by the will and determination of Lincoln.
f331a025a43cb3dd88baf7cf3a39efc614c60240	Lincoln statue in the US Congress Building
9816578eebb16ef321ed7b748266cbc4c379071c	On the eastern front, the southerners stubbornly resisted throughout 1864, but in the west, the fall of Atlanta and the "march to the sea" made further struggle useless By the spring of 1865, only 54 thousand people remained at the disposal of the commander in chief of the Confederacy, General Lee.
e1042847745ec2746c6a0e2e52e61aa210a11a2a	On April 2, Richmond fell, on April 9, Lee surrendered to the commander in chief of the North and future president Ulysses Grant at Appomattox.
085345d1c34b335c09d4b15494c4f27a475d5a95	The next day, Jefferson Davis and members of his administration were arrested.
921dec61b563154f787deb2b598a524e495d8f1f	On May 13, there was a battle at the Palmito Ranch the last one that the southerners won.
29d8cea5f12112f0ca3b4150e84e0cd06302dfa6	On June 23, General Stand Watie and his part, consisting of Indians, surrendered.
1053f1b6c57557de05299156a799a216c185f97a	The end was put in the war.
fb1a4207b0602846856e1cdc1d82ef6c810842ca	London and Paris supported the South during the Civil War: Britain for economic reasons, Napoleon III, because he hoped to subordinate the Confederation to his influence.
49efee8ccbfbaeb393467438e5b7b6ddc393456f	A number of southern states used to be part of French Louisiana, sold in 1803 by his uncle.
e07209064301426234cd25472e09d006cae8e0e6	Official St. Petersburg, in spite of recent opponents in the Crimean War, sided with the North.
e117849a7533a0a00e88dde90ce83fdd9c774538	The advanced people, who rejoiced at the recent abolition of serfdom, warmly welcomed the fight against slavery across the ocean.
3267455793dfd4ce9d0d48184fd30ff402740593	In Russian diplomatic documents and the press, the Confederation was referred to as the"outraged states".
f3143ce6456d3d22d6ee9933d259ebae713f81dc	From September 1863 to July 1864, the Russian squadrons of Admirals Lesovsky and Popov were in New York and San Francisco.
8c03971b5368f89572e959fc50a70c3a118b0f0d	Popov gave his crews an order to intervene if the southerners tried to attack San Francisco from the sea.
0449be0f839b0903552d436688968ebe3531e539	About 500 American congressmen and officials visited the ships of the New York squadron.
215a0c876e81b9418f82da420eacb4eaf927a123	"Russia and the United States fraternize";
1e3f8b3e654d8d3829b092353897b2538701e375	" The Russian cross is intertwined with stars and stripes";
420c304e66266606a8539aa0ba363e9f88cbf02c	" An enthusiastic popular demonstration on Fifth Avenue, " American newspapers wrote.
90c9567bdb1aa9025b3430a8270f3b8a71a9177f	"The municipality and the upper bourgeoisie shower honors on Russian officers.
14e7e8ea54c79fa7e521e12df1798180748f520d	But French and English sailors are not visible at all on the shore, although up to five thousand of them are located in the cramped space of the local sea parking lot.
c49ee3dfdbd383db86d87b62000d08455d3ebdd9	The officers do not want to play a secondary role at the festivities, where the Russians are the lions, and the sailors are not allowed because the Americans lure them to their service," the London Times reported.
fa04d3f6baa12ab1c3259e3cd52c5109eae79cc1	"President Lincoln would sincerely like the reception to reflect the sincerity and friendliness that our country feels towards Russia," said Secretary of State William Seward.
e998ea82aabc872c35289e9b5c847789ca2d7f76	Forgetting for a while about its Republican and liberal beliefs, the White House expressed solidarity with St. Petersburg on the issue of suppressing the Polish uprising.
3cdc0c844604d9086d51a07c41c4d78f70ac7a05	There has been no trace in history since then of military operations on American territory, except for clashes with Indians and the death in early 1945 of six picnic participants (the pastor's pregnant wife and five teenagers) in Oregon from the explosion of a bomb delivered by a Japanese balloon.
6963a18bd83e2fe6f98c3320940300a189abdf25	Almost four million people took part in the Civil War (2,803,300 from the North and 1,064,200 from the South). 359 thousand northerners and 258 thousand southerners died in battles, died of wounds and diseases, and in total more than 617 thousand people - more than the United States lost in all other wars in which it participated.
02fe2a2157949dd1c06bf7e36d0fc120eb0f779e	Military expenditures and material losses were estimated at 3.5 billion at that time, or about 210 billion modern dollars.
c9578aaa764c3ffeff4d3e5959eeba41c5f81a0d	Military experts consider the Civil War in the United States to be the last war of the old type in the world, when the main types of combat operations were hand to hand and saber cutting.
10a0aa59e344af50d617e8d703d4a20aa65fc09a	However, it also brought some innovations.
34ec7e0e9e23e2e3a5ec6c59160871ac33f859f9	On March 9, 1862, the first battle of ironclad ships in history took place on the Hampton Roads off the coast of Virginia.
afabb0fa8c2f2fd21a6c39da05ccc1ee261f152b	On February 17, 1864, the southern submarine "Hanley", driven by the muscular force of eight sailors rotating the crankshaft, also torpedoed an enemy vessel (the corvette"Huysatonic") for the first time in history.
47e8a5746948b1dfa3ecd14ebcbc2403a4cec6a5	In the Battle of Seven Pines on May 31 - June 1, 1862, both sides used machine guns, although primitive, and did not have a significant impact on the course of the battle.
30861153ca23547da8d4969188b4ddae665ef9a8	In August and September 1863, near Chattanooga, the northerners used barbed wire for military purposes.
515d27814432b4a08d9c1f951926c385d36f8827	For the first time, however, not in the world, but in American history, both sides resorted to forced mobilization (the southerners since April, and the northerners since July 1862).
930a1044d8d2a04592cbe326527a7cf705633b4b	In November 1864, Abraham Lincoln was elected to the next term on the wave of military victories.
ac43fe272865ef414475b24f38f99b697ac1b30b	On April 14, 1865, he was shot in the theater by the actor John Booth, who was avenging the defeat of the South and, pulling the trigger, exclaimed in Latin: "This is the fate of tyrants!"
cf48edaac39a69bd9d7d8ea82fc7d1039a81410e	On December 18, 1865, the abolition of slavery was enshrined in the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution.
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943fc23dd854f963ca7f982687dfc2142e2d4b4b	All about the USA History A brief history of the USA Colonization of North America The War of Independence The Louisiana Purchase Slavery in the USA The Anglo American War of 1812-1815 Prerequisites of the Civil War The Civil War in the USA The Great Depression of the USA in World War II The US Army Why are Americans called Yankees?
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1b748fa2e2d29562e129c4489fce853b0c3bb7ca	Presidents Presidents of the United States 1.
c7b25615f88a42ececf5fd8bd280084f8ac3f94f	George Washington 2.
a6cd3be0f53c3b15e9a1bb40285a8a63005aa885	John Adams 3.
a95d5f19b964295f7fb5f68598e60aa65030287f	Thomas Jefferson 4.
65cf2df2233f269ae125711b93b3faa7b4310f21	James Madison 5.
a058fa3670c1a9b546dc3e1f9c82220fddc044aa	James Monroe 6.
c29b775934d14c02cc0a275f100342932fb1006d	John Quincy Adams 7.
0c005ce9ec30a22ebc8b6a519fe9428e7b624b3b	Andrew Jackson 8.
08a7a5407547665859b69111772e9cef31cbca1e	Martin Van Buren 9.
bbf4e3be3e28224215810f028031d3f47d088e78	William Henry Harrison 10.
45dfd27d5cbca1126dc5e6255e7d72181a5099fd	John Tyler 11.
db55fa423ef305e9d5cf2f58fb5467a81882c50e	James Knox Regiment 12.
bb357ed207f4f8aebf1acf789cd5e64c4e1db6eb	Zachary Taylor 13.
83fdb68f6291208846ff57757af6bcd8aceddcb4	Millard Fillmore 14.
a1d6e69f691b2caa7645f5f1cbb51d0010b3442a	Franklin Pierce 15.
d0b8c88d22afa0867f16dc52b7fc361f1ceee9a1	James Buchanan 16.
c422adad61732d1b7d09b194d9f99904596cb6b2	Abraham Lincoln 17.
9db4363b32e729bf2d699f52ae1c27967313af3b	Andrew Johnson 18.
ea3dc270f4516bf53cb659653e9af9bee9b4f50e	Ulysses Simpson Grant 19.
f7f11c50f06e551cb86fefe830e41cc13aa3328c	Rutherford Burchard Hayes 20.
59f0f0021ad75c07759b46bd6671a790e55f7e40	James Abram Garfield 21.
a1c0d9f1e550e5a0cbd18bbc307ad6b3c1f46888	Chester Alan Arthur 22.
065b6b57dbf06727645e49803085d10ed78313c6	Stephen Grover Cleveland 23.
645dbbd1a7fa45799949fb24fe208aaf5aed68f0	Benjamin Harrison 24.
bb5eddfdd8ed55f54ae8e71fb889d4173422c551	Stephen Grover Cleveland 25.
94c69f77219ec2505f06783f20cb571cb1f8beda	William McKinley 26.
207afad75dcba3c7a60f6f4a7e11973cb4b75075	Theodore Roosevelt 27.
9edf88cf9d8a3e1158142c50a107be46a0b2a39a	William Howard Taft 28.
09c539e770c811b97130e69f25af192f9ae7796d	Thomas Woodrow Wilson 29.
995784016a0bff47a0438e0d1f63513c85a20f34	Warren Gamaliel Harding 30.
39a3ad03c65c86a3476664923e890c6e4b2ec65e	John Calvin Coolidge 31.
215d59a8adbc2e2b3500ef4f5d3470e54bf661c4	Herbert Clark Hoover 32.
aba41d57d678eb98d34b0a5fd9d1cd8cb061c3a1	Franklin Delano Roosevelt 33.
9258767074696ec80ef9003d40a00265c7e0417a	Harry S. Truman 34.
576bd05b1b0c6483a7cccc6d0e7b058064271c1e	Dwight David Eisenhower 35.
684557e17bd0d5c92f0316c3d016b06d9704a815	John Fitzgerald Kennedy 36.
7f23f548a4b8422f4faf5a8b7af96cc9954f27ae	Lyndon Baines Johnson 37.
55496ca7b07af6edd087af7f8b7a0601cefefb71	Richard Milhouse Nixon 38.
17752b6c63339b1d85493aced59cf31390477950	Gerald Rudolph Ford 39.
2bad7fd098d3201f4c02c81c4c15d4c3195dfdb3	Jimmy Carter 40.
0de7d7c78c0087d0074a941f05e5e53900022073	Ronald Reagan 41.
26472ded3ebf4721ceafb15cbc65cd811f72f99a	George Herbert Walker Bush 42.
caf1970d558771695b4313436603976eed5221ac	William (Bill)
18fc0cb4462f55c4d455b61250de224dcacc6f8d	Clinton 43.
24b8cf1fc182890b97149f64a16082f5c65d3e48	George Walker Bush Jr.
4ca2a4c57cf7e276f832bf60f0ceef45426a3cae	Barack Hussein Obama II Interesting facts about US Presidents
b2d04f04b255d1cd7a4e2eb2a46128ef7a24489a	About the dollar The history of the US dollar The evolution of the US dollar The Mystery of the two dollar bill The Anniversary series Myths about 2 dollars The collection of quarters About the dollar
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7367e9d26de2138a420b81ce012c96a86bc2e85b	FAQ What to do after winning a Green Card?
77976b20bb1c86bd11e5b8832319f131e68d3531	How long can a Green Card holder stay outside the United States?
cac3c47daa70a05202ca7aa53975a9836cbbd04e	What is a Re entry Permit and how do I get it?
e02d24a0b01245b7e6eab8476924c153a6b47211	Does participation in the Green Card lottery draw affect the receipt of a nonimmigrant visa?
fd36c4552ad9636c9c03c88726e63f3696dab230	Results of the DV 2016 drawing Help in filling out the Green Card lottery participant questionnaire
e5566b7d1de08ec9397a6f2d5f05843038c4c996	Visa Chances of obtaining a tourist visa to the United States How to get a tourist visa to the United States How to fill out the DS 160 form yourself Business immigration to the United States
3924330f05138008a2dd2874f2edda372687eccf	Life in the USA General information about the USA Minimum wage in the USA in 2014 Minimum wage in the USA in 2015 Average salary in the USA in 2014 Average salary in the USA in 2015 The most popular professions in the USA Food prices in the USA The cost of renting housing in the USA The cost of utilities in the USA The average cost of travel in the USA The average cost of real estate in the USA The main ways to obtain a residence permit in the USA Which city should I choose to move to the USA?
56e00b5d9d7b8e8791038e0257899d3bdb89f33d	How much money do I need to have with me when moving to the United States?
c10934ac46edb702ae1de4b38aa1b94aeee6470f	How to rent an apartment in New York How much do programmers earn in the United States What should you pay attention to when choosing a place of residence in the United States?
df899dd2b145b0d8f17bfb9ef338766c367583a9	What kind of pension is received in the United States?
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424be115a966f91326ad50135a4ce3ada4b46193	States Geography of the United States States of the United States Origin of the names of the American States of Washington (DC) Iowa Idaho Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Wyoming Washington Virginia Vermont Wisconsin Delaware Hawaii Georgia West Virginia Illinois Indiana California Kansas Colorado Kentucky Connecticut Louisiana Massachusetts Minnesota Mississippi Michigan Missouri Montana Maine Maryland Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York New Mexico Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island North Dakota North Carolina Tennessee Texas Florida South Dakota South Carolina Utah
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459b32c1110c758bab325ba0418a43f0102d72ec	The American Civil War
cc1e5e79a6b77c562a5daec566110b59ff70775b	The American Civil War (the War of the North and the South) of 1861-1865 was a war between the abolitionist states of the North and eleven slave owning states of the South.
bf1a3d961e85ce0838165e265acfb47fc3ec1efb	The fighting began with the shelling of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861 and ended with the surrender of the remnants of the Southern army under the command of General K. Smith on May 26, 1865.
c6e3953f6c0cf7fb0c7506a9717581393aae201f	During the war, there were about 2,000 battles.
9c0645fc2f7c2d86b4236895b00f83855b9a5302	Causes of the American Civil War
a65fe148b99ac6024dc31f3966c7bb756794610d	In the first half of the XIX century, two systems developed in the United States - slavery in the south of the country and capitalism in the north.
2c8c33d836b1714a3146e551a87474230cf21dcd	These were two completely different socio economic systems that coexisted in one state.
690bcc0aafab01bfa58a0e98dc1af36af0a37c53	The situation was aggravated by the fact that despite the stable population growth and the growth of economic development, the United States was a federal country.
243ba6f90d7b18552b7f980d85cb38c88c568640	Each state lived its own political and economic life, integration processes proceeded slowly.
adc4212ead0830331f99227efdc578c82e655c93	Therefore, the South, where slavery and the agrarian economic system were widespread, and the industrial North were separated into two separate economic regions.
73083b29ddf995c9411f4a698010abb725b5e074	Entrepreneurs and the bulk of emigrants sought to the North of the United States.
8581e43e01024647a20b6c32db803fc0521763bc	Machine building, metalworking, and light industry enterprises were concentrated in this region.
35d3abbfb76398541517a76486ee384a056eb8fa	Here, the main labor force was numerous emigrants from other countries who worked in factories, factories and other enterprises.
0e6625f9712e96e25fb5a62f2bf7490fdc871e3b	There were enough workers in the North, the demographic situation here was stable and the standard of living was high.
88dceb017fc7da4d0e79144984863b2dcb1cafd0	The situation is completely opposite in the South.
3fc62261891c07e5bbdd3322f3245b150770cbdc	During the Mexican American War, the United States received huge territories in the south, where there was a large amount of free land.
8b78f63e4d2b9ef85367d2b6d8e3e038f35115ec	That is why, unlike the North, the South has become an agrarian region.
93f97c277c27d7550889999e4aedfd2a10e73159	However, there was one big problem in the South - there were not enough workers.
145533948d7b0351688e3ce87a596988421a36aa	Most of the emigrants went to the North, so from Africa since the XVII century, Negro slaves were imported.
8f19e37ea6d8ad63401ddfc1ab32ca54c16242e8	The South was an agricultural "appendage" of the United States, tobacco, sugar cane, cotton and rice were grown here.
ab1fac9c70fef69acebdfff47d339720e275cfda	Therefore, for a long time, two different economic regions coexisted in one country.
9f96ef8f9b752214bd097968522547a087bd61e1	Despite all the differences between the regions, the same social changes were carried out in the South as in the North.
abd72949210b8c8b3cceefbf2d48f9b2224be323	In the North, a flexible tax policy was implemented, money from state budgets was allocated to charity, the government tried to improve the living conditions of the white population to a certain extent.
985246f034a695ba7d6b1245c84e0861ca3e89cf	However, in the conservative and closed South, measures were not taken to emancipate women and equalize the rights of blacks with whites.
c45071699af2017deea5ebe266e33194cc20259b	An important role in the worldview of Southerners was played by the so - called "elite" - wealthy slave owners who had large land plots in private ownership.
228c0293891139f9fee0c3d8a5fd4090ec4afa35	This "elite" played a certain role in the politics of the southern states, as it was interested in maintaining its dominant position.
f975d4bb9401598e4694fcd829da1fc6348e483a	The collapse of the Union
7a6796961990a5deaf9fd6c9bfaaca0cff7e525f	On December 20, 1860, South Carolina set an example, followed by:
4d32c8b7dc82a728b6a2b764a4dcaa50067f6812	Mississippi (January 9, 1861), Florida (January 10, 1861), Alabama (January 11, 1861), Georgia (January 19, 1861), Louisiana (January 26, 1861).
2fb0bc495579cc5d22996f4d5fc9612651e10858	These 6 states formed a new state in February 1861 - the Confederation of the States of America.
f0a16a63b1932ecb5d2ad34150697c6d24a502d6	On March 1, Texas declared independence, which joined the Confederacy the next day, and in April and May, his example was followed:
65b55c64771fbced5d42d6ecf39063d592ae3fdf	Virginia (independence April 17, 1861, joining the CSA May 7, 1861),
df6a03232ac8a5e290d6f991711a09597a3a3160	Arkansas (independence May 6, 1861, joining the KSHA May 18, 1861),
41e66b2d86a4971f953362d76c64f4c2ef97ebe1	Tennessee (independence May 7, 1861, joining the KSHA - July 2, 1861),
e314cea1967ae0df4c0c7092154a17b61a5ff53f	North Carolina (independence May 20, 1861, joining the KSHA May 21, 1861).
76b4bed086eda8c76418f65824872d43ef0c1589	These 11 states adopted a constitution and elected former Senator from Mississippi Jefferson Davis as their president, who, along with other leaders of the country, declared that slavery would exist "forever"on their territory.
267aa9797c2c00805e8ab149579f2eaa2e2188dc	Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy the southern States of America.
478b35065916c03c5084ebc5dd719474dc906f35	The capital of the Confederacy became the Alabama city of Montgomery, and after the annexation of Virginia - Richmond.
3d6820575c402ba027fe7864385491b7e738ca1e	These states occupied 40% of the entire territory of the United States with a population of 9.1 million people, including over 3.6 million Negroes.
975bd6d538946454689eefbca284691da6f2f752	On October 7, an Indian territory became part of the Confederation, the population of which was not loyal either to the Confederation (most of the Indians were expelled from the territories where slave owning states were formed), or to the US government, which actually authorized the deportation of Indians from Georgia and other southern states.
fdb98e5a51ae9beebc00a1643f884a87dd902107	However, the Indians did not want to give up slavery and joined the Confederacy.
e4286b0405e4f251e1b3aaaa4c83f7c28557b471	The Senate of the KSHA was formed by two representatives from each state, as well as one representative from each Indian republic (there were 5 republics in total in the Indian territory according to the number of Indian tribes: Cherokee - the most slaves - Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole).
4584b3409f5cb2624e74622b55d4b84de55b4005	Indian representatives in the Senate did not have the right to vote.
149e5977ff7f3b9a40d2acc6f560105e742b3b66	23 states remained in the Union, including the slave owning Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri and Maryland, which, not without a struggle, chose to remain loyal to the federal Union.
ce1b034743a4ffbfd7535948e082b9b017a2af64	The population of the Union exceeded 22 million people, almost the entire industry of the country was located on its territory - 70% of railways, 81% of bank deposits, etc.
79778fdc76de5750c4fda055c4a337c91b773a00	The first period of the war (April 1861 April 1863)
9eb337269e0e7122a50202225919aa85fedc4bee	The battles of 1861
0545c4e908776236e9706f9869cd92aa2111edd9	The most combat ready units were located here, which were replenished by hundreds of officers who left the federal army, including T. J. Jackson, J. I. Johnston, R. E. Lee, etc.
0d82b6017ffc01eabfa00813fceaf6ca49e60b1f	By the fall, the Union had a well armed army in the eastern theater of operations under the command of General J. B. McClellan, who became commander in chief of all armies on November 1.
1b2f47f12f25356c07d1802c0c4eb370a41a9836	Union and Confederation
5da2eae5c1fdd1c36ed664049850ed1259dc9c2f	The battles of 1862
d4ad8f3693724d0395c9f470eebb9cb79b6f1456	In February and April, the army of General W. S. Grant, having captured a number of forts, drove the Southerners out of Kentucky, and after a hard won victory at Shiloh, cleared Tennessee of them.
a1fcc2f8c90f8c2f1ef5d2aaef7d3b982d1e0da9	In the east, McClellan, nicknamed "the sluggard" by Lincoln, was removed from the post of commander in chief and sent at the head of one of the armies to attack Richmond.
d0ae8441bc92bb774985a9910f05525f75ce7ff1	The so called "Campaign on the Peninsula" has begun.
0d4043dc2be501a2f5dea8f3e56d39fc2a38b307	General Lee managed to stop the northern army in a series of clashes of the Seven Day Battle, and then completely oust it from the peninsula.
f7d4933fc4abcced1c080d713615f4f0cd09ead9	McClellan was removed, and General Pope was appointed in his place.
1129b176f1140156e933ff285b4c194041aeecd4	However, the new commander was defeated in the second Battle of Bul Rana on August 29-30.
cfb551bd8417b869a3bd3ed704516724479219fd	Lee entered Maryland, intending to cut off the communications of the federal army and isolate Washington.
9dc5c5511615143403c742cc849cfb44cb2f8eb1	On September 15, Southern troops under the command of T. J. Jackson occupied Harpers Ferry, capturing its 11 thousandth garrison and significant supplies of equipment.
4c638439de8ace6e27a3b8d361e2c6dce58a40c3	On September 17, at Sharpsburg, Lee's 40,000 strong army was attacked by McClellan's 70,000 strong army.
01f839b2f107f304ad75c1a59bc5f8a592527108	During this "bloodiest day" of the war (known as the Battle of Antietam), both sides lost 4,808 people killed, 18,578 people were wounded.
a9a98616c7614a6ca0acf763bad86529cee8d30f	The battle ended in a draw, but Lee chose to retreat.
21840ea8db1375e12b778a1097199f674bcfae38	The indecision of McClellan, who refused to pursue the enemy, saved the Southerners from defeat.
1203172862a00157e05841992e4c0310e40811cc	McClellan was ousted, replaced by Ambrose Burnside.
bfc1b2fef84a1a13b6041a64f0c03d8e55fabfc8	England and France, who were going to officially recognize the Confederation and intervene in the war on its side, abandoned their intention.
f3b2029a92e94c805726e44f40d101b337356a7a	During the war, Russia took a benevolent position towards the Union, the visit of the Russian squadrons to San Francisco and New York in the autumn of 1863 and in the spring of 1864 became an example of the diplomatic use of naval force.
9b630df625a793d14c100026c157adb13e1f3b0a	On December 30, 1862, Lincoln signed the" Emancipation Proclamation " of slaves from January 1 of the following year.
d4aad4c69ae2490a16721ed8e85602bd18d1b003	This "Proclamation", as well as the decision to recruit Negroes into the army, radically changed the goals of the war - it was now about the destruction of slavery, although only slaves of states hostile to the Union were declared free, and it did not concern slavery on the territory of the Union itself.
da4b75160e6261124cc78c7888de2518271ceabf	The path of slavery to the "free lands" of the West was closed even earlier by the Homestead act adopted in May 1862, which gave every American family the opportunity to receive a land allotment of 160 acres (64 hectares).
2d2b345a4564b63e49dd80221f766dadd3908ac2	The year 1862 was also marked by the first battle of ironclad ships in history, which took place on March 9 off the coast of Virginia.
36118f740966177f7fa5252b70e080c6e16cd4f3	The end of the year turned out badly for the northerners.
6609505b5a80be73564758b6736f78c77ba40b13	Burnside launched a new offensive on Richmond, but was stopped by General Lee's army at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13.
aa3927eae169f7bf50577e8f9a178d33d2b0b148	The superior forces of the federal army were completely defeated, losing twice as many killed and wounded as the enemy.
2202b9f230ba3c336ef9541991c93c14985b2066	Burnside conducted another unsuccessful maneuver, known as the "Mud March", after which he was removed from command.
670ee101d2870024cd0e310e91ab84784f2ac1c3	The second period of the war (May 1863 April 1865)
2fa97581a16a0173b92744d14a5136a2a07654bd	The battles of 1863
4d343fac78cb817f25cb3060395bc5371c2c392e	In January 1863, Joseph Hooker was appointed commander of the federal army.
421170b759c442b26171912e7dadd07264f05af4	He resumed the offensive on Richmond, this time choosing a maneuvering tactic.
f856e6dbe7a9012c28ab3cef8afc4b8129909f36	The beginning of May 1863 was marked by the Battle of Chancellorsville, during which the 130 thousandth army of the northerners was defeated by the 60 thousandth army of General Lee.
9be90c65cb488d355b8e8442722030a69727231c	In this battle, the southerners for the first time successfully used the tactics of attacking in a loose formation.
56d7304831b319e3bfba3b731d8787f092f2e268	The losses of the parties amounted to: the northerners have 17,275, and the southerners have 12,821 people killed and wounded.
809805a07cd3ed44eecc1f2b2418f1625044719a	In this battle, General T. J. Jackson was mortally wounded , who received the nickname "Stone Wall"for his steadfastness in battle.
3c9be3edccc119355dbacbd3559357bbb8335b54	The northerners retreated again, and Lee, bypassing Washington from the north, entered Pennsylvania.
453912930b949a9cef38b71d141f737a590c7d72	In this situation, the outcome of the three day battle for Gettysburg in early July became of great importance.
3dced3dafaa88276af3781bb016ecadf141d55ad	After bloody battles, Lee's troops were stopped and pushed back to Virginia, clearing the Union territory.
24e69d3e75d28d7c3275d7b6ff4841dea3a0b582	On the same day, in the western theater, Grant's army, after a siege of many days and two unsuccessful assaults, captured the fortress of Vicksburg (July 4).
eefa4c8b6bd4b480374abffb05eaaad157bd013b	On July 8, the soldiers of General N. Banks took Port Hudson in Louisiana.
187920d978932f9fddaccbd31808a5195b784031	This established control over the Mississippi River Valley, and the Confederacy was divided into two parts.
ee4ba1cf43c040fee8667b641fa8db9de1202f9f	Despite two terrible defeats, the southerners were not yet broken.
4bd46eea04ce00ffc00ce48db2d6e0159d48016c	In September, General Braxten Bragg's army defeated Admiral Rosencrans ' Army of Ohio at the Battle of Chickamauga and surrounded its remnants in the city of Chattanooga.
0a62d7f8276a8c4c6eb523ed380a51a58df5a0c6	However, General Ulysses Grant managed to unblock the city, and then defeat Bragg's army at the Battle of Chattanooga.
9d3d07ceba38a57f858f24ccac1e1a52dc6f5aa5	In the battles for Chattanooga, the northerners used barbed wire for the first time in history.
11ebd47455046b047a714beccc312d3a1b53594a	The battles of 1864
3aaa942eb2ace3bccb3a9abac69481bea3a4502b	During the war, there was a strategic turning point.
5120b61218b459aa80f0cfd97260f15df9e00df4	The plan of the 1864 campaign was developed by Grant, who led the Union armed forces.
0708cb9395bcc83a3e143f001dd54c6bba20d41c	The main blow was dealt by the 100 thousandth army of General W. T. Sherman, which began the invasion of Georgia in May. Suffering heavy losses and destroying everything in her path, she moved forward and entered Atlanta on September 2.
9034494d9a9f5df2acd08359091c7fa00ff13b5c	Grant himself led the army that opposed Lee's formations in the eastern theater.
9f97b18e29b86c524d9670b7b4622a8eadbce648	On May 4, 1864, Grant's 118 thousandth army entered the Wilderness forest, met the 60 thousandth army of the southerners and a bloody Battle began in the Wilderness.
e341a1562e9e58b18d5570af2225330ac967e151	Grant lost 18,000 men in the battle, the southerners 8,000, but Grant continued the offensive and made an attempt to occupy Spotsilvaini to cut off the North Virginia army from Richmond.
988c688a5665c1c89e651d7da0bc88c099b5e8aa	On May 8-19, the Battle of Spotsilvaini followed, in which Grant lost 18,000 men, but failed to break the Confederate defenses.
92c6319a7ba65b0f9b4ce4cbc95946ca9ccbd1a8	Two weeks later, the Battle of Cold Harbor followed, which turned into a kind of trench warfare.
bb0d612d3a749a6ab874d7cc0f18301a5299b32d	Unable to take the fortified positions of the southerners, Grant made a detour and reached Pittersburg, beginning his siege, which took almost a year.
23e063a46d6d6f41c6520d52f11c15a41e11a9c3	Having regrouped his units, on November 15, Sherman began the famous "march to the sea", which led him to Savannah, which was taken on December 22, 1864.
e849a5b24fd3feae98e8f5721fd0fb0c5c018392	Military successes affected the outcome of the presidential elections of 1864.
4d3120eb2cef07298a7f5e7a80f790b64e6aa8f2	Lincoln, who advocated the conclusion of peace on the terms of the restoration of the Union and the prohibition of slavery, was re elected for a second term.
2139c7304459768d9dfdd32f0abaccd113d131f6	The 1865 campaign
60fd6c3dae2fc3b32d47f316fc3b9ac60a37e308	On February 1, Sherman's army marched north from Savannah to join Grant's main force.
db9797f326fcb2b047328d80ceaefc503716ea86	The advance through South Carolina, accompanied by significant damage to it, ended with the capture of Charleston on February 18.
94137607eebb0ee3267d12538902d9376a300fbc	A month later, the Union armies met in North Carolina.
7eb2785ff85de7c4a0f5b1209690073109d5fa47	By the spring of 1865, Grant had an army of 115,000 men.
c1a5bf8823a4828f8e863a65ab51c7aec21643ac	Lee had only 54,000 men left, and after the unsuccessful battle of Five Fox (April 1), he decided to leave Pittersburg and evacuate Richmond on April 2.
07f95c7dfa9c7fc02c3d2919779bdbff4fab6c64	The retreating remnants of the Southern army surrendered to Grant at Appomattox on April 9, 1865.
2eeeeabb13646cb1f4190a82882e78a91a422d17	The surrender of the remaining units of the Confederate Army lasted until the end of May. After the arrest of Jefferson Davis and members of his government, the Confederacy ceased to exist.
4981a6d64bf2eda2ec98595e5cdf0f6c64a4d419	The life of President Lincoln was also sacrificed on the altar of victory.
7c93627ca9252da66e1e3c1045639a25326a6baf	On April 14, 1865, an attempt was made on him.
23ce5d747387f60fdf2cf64dce9a8a08e2acaba0	Lincoln was mortally wounded and without regaining consciousness, died the next morning.
33730b30bc1434e8dd5bfb717370e19260a0c453	Statistics of the American Civil War
7bd4b41fe206375f522ac8c23184fa2e6015057f	Warring countries
50e51c75bc9eeaedb9879f07d535c2efce882430	The population of 1861.
e8fb423bb385e25b0eaf5146e358f42f8a10e232	Mobilized
3757aaada9f3c9971d70eb0ea678c6c1f935a8cd	Killed
e9496d8086e9731627a24a425c96c92cdc1089ab	Wounded
a530d8ff45a96e99a4f67ecef15ecb7bde36a6f7	Died of wounds
f22a13416e7f78f5e9ce16765caa31333caef341	Died of diseases
2b895f75c4c7002ac16e223160193553c67c6e1a	Died for other reasons
ab3c6647832ccb421a365172c2a95f3e8b125786	22 339 968
fdbd55fa697a6eec6f181f614b4f9b6c2bbaeb33	2 803 300
d7c7aa11df02b9a2e660e579f6d35d942ddc38a8	67 058
ba68a89e757785660fd92f8368dc25bd54e7ff09	275 175
2cc61bf42b870dcd2d7f876f33241a4caf5d0652	43 012
f147060252e7c4f48feed62b4feca69711458e5d	194 368
3feb4b8344b38634b52aa2bc8c344e4324ea079f	54 682
8f0e2c167926834484f21101e1010d6823fcfbbe	KSHA
c8fdfea91f8b48dfa5e188214651301539e1c821	9 103 332
b9e98fb150d9b1f2b3e1314a56e8f8ad101e2260	1 064 200
8740621b14601011625beb57d462f4d9fcb3732e	67 000
7b13b81a8fbac825010d22ebbb57a0db25ade344	137 000
48df01d2dcd99de07469a0083669f08ac81f83f3	27 000
a6e0f9334b38ee4ae4ad84a13e47b2d97208a94e	59 000
bf84198a6746cf9d1ff9003a955186091ec9f3fd	105 000
71fa5dc4ff7248daeb8ecdec569a9955dbf04c7a	IN TOTAL
cfe049da49459968ab755376a6f8f1a67c3f1ea8	31 443 300
f45dba9764e1aab6737bc1be48317ad8dbf1ac74	3 867 50
7cecf63cc98058c6ae1e8649ec8d5f5d62c18d9f	134 058
188e853143018c486b45c5212305c7e0b8879f8b	412 175
7f49356a648fd5d75b3113c17380ca5554eddb0b	70 012
4f86949f46473cc873b03648e6baf6279ff1f508	253 368
eb3232fb2a458ebc96056204bc6b5b5b1d0fe86f	163 796
8ec419441f7a7ddc941901a601f20c9be8652deb	Results of the war
f8e99eb1392085f193d2106d205bffc8262d6b1f	The Civil War remained the bloodiest in the history of the United States (on all fronts of the Second World War, despite its worldwide scale and the destructiveness of weapons of the XX century, American losses were less).
580491b8b57d3dd5bf688d3de6a87e00263f22bc	The losses of the northerners amounted to almost 360,000 people killed and died of wounds and more than 275,000 wounded.
8fa019a5d4983b3310496296f764a6bceb4f5e42	The Confederates lost 258,000 and about 137,000 men, respectively.
55886b7dcbf32c719d32eb34bc174938c3ff440e	The US government's military spending alone has reached $ 3 billion.
bb42ea65d381bc0642e3ae7ad7826ad5c3d0f2fd	The war demonstrated new capabilities of military equipment, influenced the development of military art.
471b0a5bea5e309f7fe2413806f17334a538e23b	The prohibition of slavery was enshrined in the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution, which entered into force on December 18, 1865 (slavery in the rebellious states was abolished in 1863 by presidential decree).
0f7100767ef30b5177891df85b9cbea01b548ba1	The country has created conditions for the accelerated development of industrial and agricultural production, the development of Western lands, and the strengthening of the domestic market.
7b8d8e3848410856f44eae9f204e4d235fd2beb6	Power in the country passed to the bourgeoisie of the northeastern states.
15080bd4d3bb10702f1f82524b8639cb6569c950	The war did not solve all the problems facing the country.
5cd7f77191b1ec27bddec5286f4dd8597d24e153	Some of them were solved during the Reconstruction of the South, which lasted until 1877.
62de9debdc9279766d91e1d63aef965b348cddb7	Other problems, including the granting of equal rights to the black population with whites, remained unresolved for many decades.
7ed23220980604648c018066b4899e3127035e48	A brief History of the United States Colonization of North America The War of Independence of the United States The Louisiana Purchase Slavery in the United States The Anglo American War of 1812-1815 Prerequisites of the American Civil War The American Civil War The Great Depression of the United States in World War II The US Army
87cfb0b7fc566fe67347d03765b0f3a4be203527	History of the United States A brief history of the United States Colonization of North America The War of Independence of the United States The Louisiana Purchase Slavery in the United States The Anglo American War of 1812-1815 Prerequisites of the Civil War in the United States The Civil War in the United States The Great Depression of the United States in World War II The US Army Why are Americans called Yankees?
d4b1a66c44df9dfe816a56be9f286f3dbb91a2f5	All about the USA in contact
c4eed1035f4b134249f811e367b25e4efbf26841	Food prices in the United States
e8743ef91935e5139046a8b3169914418f13ee1d	How to rent an apartment in New York
d547ec16b885db37c7292c7fb7b75e75b4c2d4b2	US Universities
7d92e7d17135a605e671f7e3981bf12a997c6fdc	Average fare in the United States
dd3707d98548f5e1f5fbcc50a670e65a3a092dec	What should I do after winning a Green Card?
759b8ee208ec9b96c91e13565a62932d5e6f61d1	Popular professions in the USA
550d6c4bff456b7c1e996e836da2c778f75216b1	The largest airports in the United States
3def0d8fa29df440b6a56dff154f1f6d06c04856	Famous train stations in the USA
443c648217350d1af457bde0be487234b245c574	The tallest skyscrapers in the United States
dfed000e21fdedfa3a38df23b5f451245b15fae4	The largest stadiums in the United States
d901977830e82a8fc0cb729fbc6570ec0b8a2e9c	The largest US ports
101df5c37f0b49e723b7f2332b7a837092093b13	The most famous bridges in the USA
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114805a94d33fddc10d23ec5f44f3eb53d25b83e	Terms of advertising on the website " All about the USA"
70044f2f72a05282a89ab70e2101d8f979634588	"All about the USA" in social networks:
d8f1094ed6a9bf4d897a0b0661c78a638639b2db	This is the stable version, tested on March 3, 2016.
6873190f500837d646e88f82e1f0c111320fc88b	2 edits are waiting to be checked.
f45b2312658e34394394cecbf4ed62567b0ded78	Clockwise, from the upper left image: Rosecrans on Stone River;
911feb106b471c2bdb197b5392f8be52c4fdea3e	Confederate prisoners at Gettysburg;
e21890a75db44494a485047c3c84abbddf4a12ec	Battle of Fort Hindman Date April 12, 1861 May 9, 1865 (the last clashes on land, May 12-13, at sea June 23, 1865)
7c14e3d9a857aad6c2d05a1244beb4bff3d9b5c6	The place is the territory of the South; in 1863 on the territory of the North
2099785047efb9e737057e47fe0efb177294e88e	The reason is the secession of the slave owning states of the South
d6e33623d1631769fdb1eddafadbbccb964dd35a	The result is a US victory;
ae2881ac7d3a9f1f98f9b0d414362c88a0e816d8	Reconstruction;
80d31783056be3c28486529cb6f806a0dee99d0b	Abolition of slavery
d47de992ad0826b8cb45486015a3f15994b0c657	Opponents
0c0ac740b80f43d58b0ca00f21a393ec12597bc6	(Yankee) KSHA
6f77e6f3203df66e8f73e3fe8fecfb98bfd89d17	(Dixie)
b6eb402e86a9aaa2d3567f76f41ae7f7f86565cf	Commanders
ac6b4ce61bf8582394a08b14a96eeab7b2a97629	Abraham Lincoln †
c0dd7056e9957515dff4d1bf4fcdfe9de9562363	Ulysses Grant
e751d21e9f2213bdfd41908fddb8f0059580436e	William Sherman
8cc66fb30324d86267224a92d192ff445a08e765	Winfield Scott
3e40327df6f48c6742397947a54394b49f3f859b	George McClellan
ac6c2ab5cb345d704d7d5db88a075a03164eba30	Henry Halleck
75aeef2e36e5394133a49fcbe8edd14f52db1110	Jefferson Davis
05797aa31dd8ddbd5b3aabea2330d77c163c48c7	Robert Lee
91bdfe5db0eb5207ee648ee38f03c135b3f88101	Pierre Beauregard
0377da4c1a114a0aa8fc768994684179cd60478b	Joseph Johnston
35e7a8bbea99c1276a6f1592b119b9ecacd6099b	Forces of the parties
1b5458002a0d9d59d6a5be6b432a79c900a32bda	2100 thousand people 1064 thousand people
0f9a484f138885e654b3aaaedd3921e5c8dde2fa	Losses
ee467b70f14ff5c86e958b8c51a0ce27ac339cc0	360 thousand killed,
08281c63e7d2b5da77911f3b01ca82cb9f3d6fa5	275,200 wounded 260 thousand killed,
ad39227a549337c1f0161ded57d6e877993ab606	more than 137 thousand wounded
4fed072b490b2901667ba1ca5c753fdc480f087f	Total losses
e0a0c206dcf8dba37153ef5944db2f136f33da6b	620 thousand killed, more than 412 thousand wounded
26384a6dd6dd2bb0287bd0bf045bd4bad1a5be08	Audio, photo, video on Wikimedia Commons
1457338bdb31f00faaa0b5ba6ed1d8a11051f48c	American Civil War Naval Blockade East West Southeast Trans Mississippi Pacific Coast
e90c11f47332f5a7110b712c428c6bbbdd7c1713	The Civil War in the United States (the War of the North and the South; English American Civil War) was a civil war of 1861-1865 between the union of 20 non slaveholding states and 4 slave owning states of the North with 11 slave owning states of the South.
ad3ba73d9c2e22b9cf2eb6065e3081295a268731	1 Reasons 2 The collapse of the Union 3 The first period of the war (April 1861 — April 1863) 3.1 The battles of 1861 3.1.1 The Struggle for West Virginia 3.1.2 Actions at sea
9e70f586bb9adcbe69cfc23440797a90d80615ab	3.2 Battles of 1862 3.2.1 Shenandoah Valley Campaign 3.2.2 Peninsula Campaign 3.2.3 North Virginia Campaign 3.2.4 Maryland Campaign 3.2.5 Kentucky Campaign 3.2.6 Fredericksburg 3.2.7 Actions at Sea 3.2.8 Slave Emancipation Proclamation
1683cd7f720f04622288a86da19c995b5c2e325d	4 The second period of the war (May 1863 — April 1865) 4.1 The battles of 1863 4.1.1 The Gettysburg Campaign 4.1.2 The Vicksburg Campaign 4.1.3 The Battles in Tennessee 4.1.4 The Bristow Campaign 4.1.5 Actions at sea
977b5a48d9d7ee25b187f8b8c5b175308b317c23	4.2 Battles of 1864 4.2.1 Red River Campaign 4.2.2 Overland Campaign 4.2.3 Battle of Atlanta 4.2.4 Siege of Petersberg 4.2.5 Actions at Sea
2d2631f3a73864e6753f2a6ab922bea35565e682	4.3 The Battles of 1865 4.3.1 Sherman's March to the Sea 4.3.2 The Appomattox Campaign and the end of the War 4.3.3 Actions at Sea 4.3.4 The end of the War
a9675e758f02e938fc67962b66cbf18bc585611e	5 Statistics 6 Civil War weapons 6.1 Small arms 6.1.1 Pistols 6.1.2 Single action revolvers 6.1.3 Carbines 6.1.4 Muskets 6.1.5 Rifles 6.1.6 Buckshot and mitrales
c8f86fba8cf2e1be0eb5a71c76917498048340f8	6.2 Artillery 6.3 Naval equipment
3bb48dfce457b4a11a75aace068bd0f3746e7a58	7 Results 8 In Works of Culture and Art 9 Gallery 10 See also 11 Notes 12 Literature 13 References
b52e7ed9d100b8e1f9a09d5bd7229c8b6ba610ac	Reasons[edit / edit wiki text]
e41601aa5bd7a2ed24965ec9f020891098834a51	Main article: Prerequisites of the Civil War in the United States
965d7b1433cf02df2a8ca22bfdab3a6d1a13821e	In the first half of the XIX century in the United States, the agrarian slave owning South and the industrial North existed as separate economic regions.
9a0c83747e3ef93db69fc278041c6357150a413b	Nevertheless, both in the North and in the South, Negroes were considered second class people.
44a0854bd5347d70b0c6f29dc8cbfde507e8d220	Among the most acute conflict issues are the following: Taxes on imported goods (the North sought to make them as high as possible to protect its industry, the South wanted to trade freely with the whole world).
555c6f920e96a3f42099aaaacf55fec8cd406e94	The question of the extension of slavery to new states: The United States annexed new territories, and there were discussions about the constitution of each of the future states, first of all — whether the new state would be free or slave owning.
860c6bfae19270d84b62487912cad70fd6487819	The collapse of the Union[edit / edit wiki text]
3f74d47f7ea1ff835a73667883be8c734abcdd04	Southern States
af10ef20dd9060bbeead0afbc55381a66af442ef	in
7fafef1793fefc71d1b89ef1b53bcc5e7d8db318	Civil War - - - - South Carolina
cba267312d6b70a7e9fef185409aaa5892d5f67c	Mississippi
30c2d0593c259810fc3d2c445082d53288a6daae	Florida
d1f92d7475bbcca0ddd4c10b283202094097cb17	Alabama
9113c6c0c1f9cb53e3543b53136ba30c51018373	Georgia
b158e01ef568b1ce1ca5b17708b332408b349379	Louisiana
98125dc77105eee722883e53962bb713d1532fbc	Texas
027fb4bdb28984d493fe1f36eee6d83fe2cd8afe	Virginia
2f717ffad4e1a2d3004e0baccfcd94811f656b81	Arkansas
4cc5ea360eb758e7e4e9eb910ba52becc780dd00	Sev.
a223f4f3142eff0523318b1f691ce34cfee66841	Carolina
1f4d4cf915125a317b022e23cf724cfca9f080d2	Tennessee
c8ae595adcbb1b150b7511a1c3826d5b7314e087	Border States - - - - Delaware
1ac1075bc705bc7194b0d33122ad389ecee236bc	Maryland
edfc01b429ba9193c27ecab01ff32e0120585a1a	Zap.
e3b665d0ff0971078778d9f398f70b738676a22d	Kentucky
d961c47cc1343cad81ba8df0145d5e20aa40ac42	Missouri
28480da44c68e00c940b396ef784880f8907ca1b	Territories - - - - Indian Territory
104fd3fd5302e037fb8d66ee6c616a71d0739a71	Arizona
6c998b06bddc916d34c94c2e4290979e7d5eb229	South Carolina was followed by:
a73876346ae4dd6ecaf18ef791c85a4e71b6561e	Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America
29fe7d84bbdde33205686c780f7c52f847e8dbff	On March 1, Texas declared independence, which joined the Confederacy the very next day, and in April May, after the battle for Fort Sumter and the announcement of mobilization in the north, the example of Texas was followed: Virginia (independence April 17, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 7, 1861), Arkansas (independence May 6, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 18, 1861), Tennessee (independence May 7, 1861, joining the KSHA — July 2, 1861), North Carolina (independence May 20, 1861, joining the KSHA — May 21, 1861).
b20164ec4af11698f60137a715416ddfab9cfd96	The first period of the war (April 1861 April 1863)[edit / edit wiki text]
f8025a90666b9cb1494e63becfc60ba2605bd945	Soldier guarding the Arsenal Washington, DC,
1fba4f7fe0a916baa20bc62f5dbba4b25396e553	1862, Matthew Brady
250085876b1ba5e9fd5fc114513bc567132570a5	The battles of 1861[edit / edit wiki text]
ccd11b1b8d3ef4bcbcf4c179225275699dae76a3	In response, Lincoln declared the southern states in a state of rebellion, proclaimed a naval blockade of their coast and issued a proclamation on the recruitment of 75 thousand volunteers into the army.
98701c5ea97f2249fe99ff1a0a16318c121a363b	The recruitment proclamation influenced the position of the wavering states: Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee voted for secession.
c00a6a82630fddfda7753fa179ee4f5e721cf290	The North and the South called for volunteers in the army and at first there were even more willing than required.
e14c199b7f229b28d8a0fd0f9f50322041ea6d91	However, the enthusiasm subsided very quickly, which led to the introduction of draft laws.
84c9dc3d34752688b3459fb4a2a7513c68b1e75a	In April 1862, the South announced the conscription of persons aged 18-35 years, excluding blacks, officials and priests.
e36bcf380d6b4d019ae999bd6c720e3b257caf63	In July, a similar law was issued in the North.
97b408744d27e43786742d374514c149f3988f6d	In addition, many immigrants joined the army of the North: 177 thousand from Germany and 144 thousand from Ireland[2].
5549a2ded1f5f4793aeb6b397909c37343dabc27	On July 16, the federal army marched from Washington and on July 18 met with the Army of the Potomac of the South at the Bull Run River.
06f7b782e35f5130afbd8a836304271a58b8dbab	There was a skirmish between two infantry brigades, known as the Battle of Blackburn's Ford.
62935ce8780b1671d7b090561cdc49d9de3b718d	While the federal commander in chief was considering further steps, the Army of the Potomac was joined by the Army of the Shenandoah and on July 21, 1861, the First Battle of Bull Run took place.
dff9c692f087ddb668624aa1dd3349b299d6dbfc	Poorly trained northern troops, crossing Bull Run Creek, attacked the southerners, but were forced to begin a retreat that turned into a flight.
88314fcaae2b15acf372a3f1ad0d38683f7c04e7	Fearing the transition to the side of the South of three more slave owning states, the US Congress on July 25, 1861, adopted the Crittenden Johnson Resolution declaring the goal of the war to save the Union and requiring the government not to take action against the institution of slavery.
77d2f75fa0e398fb828c251af831cd66fc11d0fc	By the fall, the Union had a well armed army in the eastern theater of operations under the command of General George McClellan, who became commander in chief of all armies on November 1.
6c56385dd703c7b84b30599283ea3a50447b88e5	On October 21, his units were defeated at Bell's Bluff near the American capital.
3d82affa75dae1e3520532c801baf7b2e2f06ff6	Generals of the Army of the North
1124966ffef7c443886944edeedb717055c0ce08	Joseph Hooker
9211c333cc87a7c4ce88c6bd21999054ded13c60	Ambrose Burnside
cca72a2c96831e2d05738f7898692d52615bfda8	Oliver Howard
0388079dc1050efea8974d12f915f5926763784d	John Reynolds
02aca6f7663a4c9263fc3050f4649eb70ca11567	George Mead
9088efc3cf3a606177cb5096fcf2a0dcff230bc0	The struggle for West Virginia[edit / edit wiki text]
712818a61852ac5d679e6e251216b0f8e527c57b	Filippi's West Virginia Campaign • Rich Mountain • Corrick Ford • Cross Lanes • Carnifex Ferry • Cheat Mountain • Greenbrier River • Camp Alegeni
6f6407f1b34062357f563f0fbfa565bfdd4a6d46	One of the first campaigns of the Civil War was the struggle for West Virginia.
0203a6d1c319214bf5529f4a4867d4a69ce194d2	After the secession of Virginia in April 1861, its western districts opposed this step, and the Department of the Ohio was formed to control this territory on May 3, the command of which was entrusted to General McClellan.
67f5987d38ad99a75e14de2f1c8571f2c969619b	He began a campaign to oust the enemy from Virginia: on June 3, the southerners lost a small battle at Philippi, on July 11, McClellan defeated them at Rich Mountain, after which he was called to Washington and appointed commander of the Army of the Potomac.
fd2ecbe26755417b7d311cb9a4030c3c030d1db7	McClellan's place was taken by William Rosecrans.
bd775230cbfe1b57808a2ef6f862c3e1fe746d88	In September, the southerners tried to launch a counterattack by forces commanded by General Lee, but they were unsuccessful in the Battle of Cheat Mountain.
9f10214a8effc7542013e90e8f45b2c9d8b4f147	By December 1861, West Virginia was almost completely under the control of the federal army.
f680e04aa95f63add7befeebb92af191614b1a03	Actions at sea[edit / edit wiki text]
33dcc8c5863e1db1ad7b291dcd2e150780d179a7	At the beginning of the Civil War, the main part of the American navy remained loyal to the federal government, and most of the warships were also located on bases controlled by the northerners.
14853b859fcadb5ae65f66d8aad8212169e955e2	This allowed the federal government to establish a blockade of the Southern coast at the very beginning of the conflict, closing their ports to foreign merchant ships.
4ce0752091a4fbc06f73186c698390bb818441f7	The blockade was especially detrimental to the Confederacy, since the southern states had a very poorly developed industry, and could not independently supply and arm their military machine.
67d57c6b37eebc71f858fd941de28c7029095441	The Confederation was extremely dependent on the supply of industrial products from Europe.
84acc62f3e759ee878c014987db7264f86707279	With the establishment of the blockade, foreign goods and military equipment could only be smuggled into the south, in small quantities.
4dce8f83de703a713c2b254dedbe13bd50057ad6	High speed blockade breaking steamers operating from European colonies in the Caribbean Sea made their way past the blockade squadrons of the northerners at night, delivering cargo to the ports of the southerners.
88a9cc5b021f59d75b0fc25d26b6cad9832845bf	The huge demand for scarce European goods and the accompanying price increase made breaking the blockade an extremely profitable business; however, the captains of the blockade breakers, as a rule, preferred to import not military equipment for the confederate government, but more profitable goods and luxury goods sold to private individuals.
f1f9e5975e322bf4e6ae38c0849ee90e6b7faa38	In addition to the blockade of the coast, the federal navy also assisted the federal army in combat operations off the coast.
af1536f42b80dcc998e17678a3571aadef85f7bf	The most significant naval action in 1861 was the capture of the fortified Strait of Port Royal by the squadron of Commodore Samuel Du Pont, 3-7 November 1861.
4fff66d309f9dd670ebc4c42fdb1a2cba33d5d69	Having suppressed the resistance of the coastal forts, the ships of the northerners forced the Confederate garrison to retreat without a fight; this operation gave the federal fleet a reliable stronghold on the territory of the southern states.
7267ede57a7ea4d2fcff8be5130382e8a777748f	Unable to fight the federal fleet at sea, the southerners tried to rely on qualitatively new technical solutions and began building several large ironclads in the captured naval arsenals of Norfolk and Pensacola (as well as in New Orleans).
452ea76225206b65adf7544488aae702cb7deb92	With the help of ironclads, the southerners hoped to achieve superiority over the wooden fleet of the northerners; this plan, however, was not successful, as the northerners also began to build their own ironclads in response.
c30ea650cbc10f0bd13ff8281afb41ce060a0fa7	In addition, the southerners began to actively use such novelties of naval science as mines and ramming ships to protect their coast.
25cd8f0e5e1e78096bb89997e2f6b03533b62580	The battles of 1862[edit / edit wiki text]
82e09ae17a888f141cf26391e4c672bf557125d8	Federal Invasion of Cumberland Fort Henry Fort Donelson Shiloh Corinth
dcc32dd44fbfe241ecda9eed8df66cc9770ba82f	Of great importance was the capture of New Orleans on April 25, 1862, carried out by a squadron of northerners under the command of Commodore David Farragut.
d2ec0a757f76cfcc823d00469db60dc6d5b59dff	As a result of this battle, the southerners lost one of their largest ports and shipbuilding centers, and were forced to destroy the unfinished ironclads in order to avoid capture.
332a61017f932730318bf6fad9874574009ef31b	Due to this operation, the Northerners strengthened their presence in the Gulf of Mexico, gained a reliable base for blockading the ports remaining in the hands of the Confederates, and — most importantly — gained access to the lower Mississippi.
bce329d187a7c5cfda61612ebd1165bdf8d7881d	This made it possible to organize a successful offensive campaign in 1862-1863, which deprived the southerners of their most important transport artery.
79472772c4fdbdc9061c9bcf210d64f5fe79796a	Shenandoah Valley Campaign[edit / edit wiki text]
aaa7e83d1f84100b8b38824f50fab412fb908335	Shenandoah Valley Campaign (1862) Kernstown
2672bba049708726641ae970c45d74fbd8d04fe3	(1 • * McDowell • Front Royal • Winchester (1) • Cross Case • Republic Port
90c18834fe35c0c72a29e42aee8873fc42886ed5	In the spring, General McClellan began preparing an attack on Richmond from the Virginia Peninsula, the federal Virginia Army was preparing to launch an offensive from the north, and Nathaniel Banks ' detachment entered the Shenandoah Valley in March.
27557ff56919242e3b1b95c7d79e62b78356dc42	The defense of the valley was entrusted to the detachment of Thomas Jackson, numbering about 5,000 people.
b4c3c3172bd8f1e0eca21e83fbd150bc51d75f20	After the first unsuccessful battle, Jackson retreated south along the valley, then attacked and defeated Fremont's detachment.
664735b05f205c3acf5603783549c5634132f275	For about a month, Jackson accumulated forces, and then again attacked Banks and defeated one of his detachments at the Battle of Front Royal.
82de27bb321f39f37fdab6900077aeba10a2b68e	Banks began to retreat to the Hard Drive.
93134b8462b5b81582b208bbadd569604b206386	Jackson caught up with Banks and defeated him again on May 25 at the Battle of Winchester.
7cb50a7657e4a73321def320eaa3d18f17e8deb7	President Lincoln personally sent three armies to encircle Jackson in the valley, but on June 1, Jackson slipped south.
33d57a527a0a0442393ac8eba0634b1bbed9b561	On June 2, two federal armies John Fremont (14,000 men) and James Shields (10,000 people) headed south along the valley, chasing Jackson, who retreated to the Port of Republic.
047454004d93a438f6581b6e9ded867f45489631	On June 8, Richard Ewell stopped Fremont's advance at Cross Keys, and on June 9, Jackson attacked and defeated Shields at Port Republic.
a9c693cae37a6c5cf9205ff3cc2bf307975c1a59	This was the end of the campaign: the federal army left for the north, and Jackson left for Richmond on June 18 to join General Lee's army.
157b810ea99536cd0a160d1428096f4a80ba5bdf	Campaign on the Peninsula[edit / edit wiki text]
e1ea5132add7999aa6bb37df05bea3519f23b212	Main article: The campaign on the peninsula
b7f71463cfd1d623fe293b46a155d6b44983396f	Hampton Roads Peninsula Campaign • Yorktown • Williamsburg • Elthams Landing • Drewris Bluff • Hanover • Seven Pines • Stewart's Raid • Seven Day Battle • (Oak Grove, Geens Mill, Glendale, Malvern Hill)
75d9c34dd85a9ac017d78a313d0f53c8a3c6672e	In the east, McClellan, nicknamed "the slow one" by Lincoln, was removed from the post of commander in chief and sent at the head of one of the armies to attack Richmond.
d37d4f22f241228b349718631c457634d8d18612	McClellan hoped to use numerical superiority and heavy artillery to win the war in one campaign, without harming civilians and without bringing the matter to the liberation of the Negroes.
5b691e21df4feb26af6a553dfe8d958db9bae719	Gatling machine gun and since the Civil War
8114db04597063ea163df963d3dc1d81d3e9253b	More than 100 thousand soldiers of the federal army landed on the Virginia coast, but the southerners, despite the inequality of forces, managed to delay the enemy for a whole month in the battle of Yorktown.
cf278cd039722ab68312631113ac84089886b744	On May 4, 1862, Yorktown was surrendered.
3df8de7872998bfc793c4b24f7c486ff89f53ba2	The Southerners were slowly retreating, and Richmond was preparing to evacuate.
e510f23e8d8db56bc0edbac4594865e5f38d44d1	General Johnston decided to attack the enemy and break up one of his isolated corps, but this goal could not be achieved in the Battle of Seven Pines - Johnston himself was wounded, and General Robert Lee took over the command.
a24eebc9ac3f049dc445ba69744c356fc8ff9fd4	This battle was also marked by the first experience in the history of military conflicts with the use of Gatling buckshot and mitrallez — remote prototypes of machine guns.
c8891fc0e8ed42dbe1ff283c99ef400fbe6671af	But in the army of both northerners and southerners, buckshot shells of different designers began to appear.[3]
9ce50f472177a4ca6b0caa56e8e5d36585c9baa8	When Robert E. Lee took command of the army, General Jackson had just completed the campaign in the Shenandoah Valley and was ready to march on Washington, but Lee called him to Richmond.
2bd24959b4f264eec7b1570a143d36414078e467	On June 23, the commanders of the Army of the South met and discussed the plan of the upcoming offensive.
b5c120ff8d8d3cdc0f38d42c5b331a6ea806f082	It was decided to attack the enemy in positions north of the Chickahominy River.
328b06aa064787d1c10404f50259acd15609fe61	The series of battles that followed went down in history as the Seven Day Battle.
bf963b6fa427ead0582891f538d54892ee5a4e18	On June 26, 1862, Lee's army launched an offensive.
1615afa6fb055064a5fc6a07ad8c83d50bf9c6bc	The battle as a whole went badly, but the command of the Army of the Potomac was alarmed by the activity of the enemy and decided to withdraw the army closer to the bases.
051b69bebe6e2deaa471ff4cbcc9bc540f1e24b4	On June 27, Lee attacked the retreating army and the Battle of Gain's Mill was successful for the South.
a0970d3e6c04656998a8c90be7e440f8420eabb6	Following this, Lee planned to attack McClellan's retreating army scattered on the roads at Glendale, but due to the inconsistency of actions, the Battle of Glendale went unsuccessfully.
e7f694cfcca1b18c67403aa20c2a05639972dcda	This was the only moment in the entire war when Lee had a chance to completely destroy the Army of the Potomac, and this chance was missed.
21106ba4d6976027ae6d307c9fb358503f5a8e63	On July 1, 1862, the Southerners again attacked the enemy at Malvern Hill.
b58fa0c089956b580073f66f3274a3d54b0c309b	The uncoordinated attack of the enemy's strong positions entailed great casualties, but despite this, the retreat of the federal army became irreversible.
1e44d372d2f535a8b5d87130abcfcf2de0f0c87b	This campaign is interesting for the first ever battle of armored ships, which took place on March 9 off the coast of Virginia.
971fb066f7be26b26d6f1d22dd074f216697d02a	Severovirzhinskaya campaign[edit / edit wiki text]
72fe1fb6a6e0499c07905a16cec1f784e4b4d81e	Main article: Severovirzhinskaya campaign
9c7a2d29aa2172e0866a55fb961e03ba7936adb9	North Virginia Campaign Cedar Mountain Manassas Kettle Run Torufair Gap 2nd Bull Run Chantilly
19a97204d1ea78e17e8d82189d05c05b47d20a0d	After McClellan's failures on the Virginia Peninsula, President Lincoln appointed General John Pope to command the newly formed Army of Virginia.
317e1b3403c6e6fb0775226e379ddd4b025bb41e	The army was supposed to protect Washington and the Shenandoah Valley, as well as distract the enemy from McClellan's army on the peninsula.
44ebfe849b1d07753e90cec87a01a78b1d969732	General Lee immediately transferred the army of Jackson to the north, who decided to try to break up the Virginia Army in parts, but after the battle of Cedar Mountain, he abandoned this plan.
3fd16f4dbcdbe5b3af7c8dd8592940e6ec2047da	On August 15, Lee arrived in the combat area.
4484c15af0ddcff0887fc26337ec5ad70bcdcf85	General Jackson made a detour around Pope's right flank, which forced him to retreat to the north.
dbc8f5c6800218470c6ae2a2dc8477d0b964bc49	He managed to draw Pope into the Second Battle of Bull Run (August 29-30), in which the federal army of Virginia was defeated and retreated north.
ef5f6923f500f8debbb46e7f31247db480853a88	The president insisted on a second attack, but Jackson again bypassed Pope's flank in order to cut him off from Washington.
3aa1d86446733b0c25db0579ae8317e8608670fc	This led to the Battle of Chantilly.
df3ff47521f606f36bb9f102358c257399837d88	Jackson failed to achieve his goals, however, and Pope was forced to cancel all offensive measures in order to withdraw the army behind the fortifications of Washington.
79d5e99004efa7eccfa5298e412a3bb589820f65	The Maryland Campaign[edit / edit wiki text]
9d2904dee51d119ffb93ab3a8e2890e6b99f3562	Maryland Campaign Harpers Ferry South Mountain Antietam Shepardstown
3150f4d3736a5170815ef196eb08a2023422f41a	The Battle of Antietam.
9c2478350975e9f6b05c1e7cfe7841e41f1c19d8	The offensive of the Iron Brigade
dd8cca85d1af484407d25cf29c78cffc6cbdfb37	On September 4, 1862, General Lee's army entered Maryland, intending to cut off the communications of the federal army and isolate Washington during the Maryland campaign.
f7dc2051331a3f635bf45e8ee5d843bb3eb20535	On September 7, the army entered the city of Frederick, where Lee ventured to divide the army into parts.
0ace4a7aa59d2c28f783a7e87cab9e93005e026b	By pure chance, the order with the plan of attack ("Special Order 191") fell into the hands of the commander in chief of the federal Army, General McClellan, who immediately threw the Army of the Potomac into an attack on Lee's army scattered across Maryland.
634b61b1e51fec180618222ffd39cc4b98ea5a36	The Southerners began to retreat to Sharpsburg.
68827a2843ea154986b5c0dac47e085984d861a2	In the battle in the Southern Mountains, they managed to delay the enemy for a day.
a607dbdd2eea03d0082a6c12edb95e18dac81679	Meanwhile, on September 15, General Thomas Jackson took Harpers Ferry, capturing its 11 thousandth garrison and significant supplies of equipment.
064e6e8ebed11f3a17d23f41268744f6998ab0c3	He immediately began to transfer his divisions to Sharpsburg.
253499bf35ae4c05600a8278f54f238e531aa75b	He withdrew the army beyond the Potomac, planning to re invade Maryland.
717b1df75ea7f8ec04052cc78155cbf8b16a5233	However, on September 19, Fitzjohn Porter's corps attacked his rearguards at Shepardstown.
69a63a6bf9460b79b249c22630abe20b69ac8632	Believing the report of General Pleasanton, Lee decided that McClellan had begun a pursuit, and canceled the second invasion of Maryland.
3b3a60dd516d41cee7ee7d99fc216e11f1ec3a69	The Washington administration demanded that McClellan launch a decisive counteroffensive, but by the beginning of October, the federal army was still in camps north of the Potomac.
9d6041f4dfd56ef4f0a8cbd1dfcc20ce95c56502	On October 10-12, Southern General Jeb Stewart carried out his second raid around the Army of the Potomac, capturing a lot of food and equipment.
46f9f161b158f9b1d7a0562c67f0ee2dfe030eec	The Federal cavalry could not prevent him.
3729dc223774cfbd2b14da1baef530bf5677f157	After this raid, the president finally lost confidence in McClellan — the general was removed, Ambrose Burnside took his place.
fdbd73c528044d38cb769d0760e5afadd08caaff	The Kentucky Campaign[edit / edit wiki text]
410c087ecf4a204361d93600bfcb37cab9ae90fe	Kentucky Campaign Cumberland Gap Cincinnati Richmond Munfordville Perreville
09d78a9d81ba95e01f7bfb72644950ce6df448f9	Meanwhile, in the summer, the Federal armies were successfully advancing in the West.
310406bfaed868b9dc1af07e441170a536e4410f	The Ohio army of Don Carlos Buell began operations to capture the Tennessee city of Chattanooga.
47b90f6d6a0d047776e0ec61180168187ff40c42	To counter Buell, Braxton Bragg's Mississippi Army was transferred to Tennessee.
af03f1e9dd44b3d19f4fe8ca0d9bb3ba43b15565	Bragg decided to attack Buell with the forces of his army and the army of Edmund Kirby Smith.
404ff8fc3a3b7d8b50f5641ca3b7a5f0228a59d7	However, first of all, it was necessary to eliminate the federal detachment that had captured the Cumberland Gap Gorge.
fecc6ec412faa2cc609d9b806d5c50a5a40db764	Kirby Smith decided to enter Kentucky and cut off the federal detachment in the gorge from communications.
05748a8e0eba02f1fc5f2b57df4326b542732719	This maneuver forced Bragg to invade Kentucky as well, in order to prevent Buell from attacking Smith.
0d2b5f2de53de1b018fc1226ade7da5339d9524f	On August 29, Smith's army defeated a federal detachment at the Battle of Richmond and soon entered Lexington.
099677695a9f1e288ac5205038a077ff3a97c90a	Bragg's army, crossing the Cumberland Plateau, captured Munfordville, thereby cutting off the communication of the Ohio Army with the bases in Louisville.
8612dfe3d4f4f7d3b186ed2182f068c3617c6c12	But the successful start of the campaign was not developed.
ee87cd1a43969a885ff4e2b13920ada6ed2475b5	Bragg had nothing to feed the army in Munfordville, so he withdrew to Bardstown, allowing Buell to retreat unhindered to Louisville.
f5c525fe28a5f56302e2a5e9b2b6127de5e8d43b	Bragg's hopes for a massive influx of state volunteers also did not materialize.
023dea16f22069f142ad6292a8c610582863a1d3	To solve this problem, Bragg decided to establish a government loyal to the Confederacy in Kentucky, but the inauguration of the new president, scheduled for October 4, was disrupted by the sudden offensive of the Ohio Army.
4c4f72285b47fe414901ab62d44bc778b06cdace	Bragg managed to concentrate his army at Perryville and deliver a strong blow to the Ohio army at the Battle of Perryville, but even despite this success, Bragg began to doubt the successful outcome of the campaign and decided to retreat to Knoxville.
ae765fa6a0733b2d80354960963d42885cb3b269	Like Robert E. Lee's Maryland campaign, Bragg's Kentucky campaign made European intervention highly likely and increased the Confederacy's chances of victory, but Bragg's retreat from Kentucky (and Lee's from Maryland) made such a development impossible.
435d47d6b3898cee5ae6a585f23523e3bd344150	Frederiksberg[edit / edit wiki text]
5ba97e7b9b0992d737ec9b606a9639ec7fb29324	The actions at sea in 1862 were marked by the first naval battle in history involving armored ships.
afa67dcfd9b76b865d45b324fdb36f0e54dbd89b	After capturing Norfolk, the southerners raised the skeleton of the large steam frigate Merrimack sunk by the northerners to avoid capture — and rebuilt it into the battleship CSS Virginia.
775154425301f2abd647d3423ef3ada5eee06c80	On March 8, the battleship attacked the federal squadron on the Hampton Roads, sinking two large sailing sloops without much difficulty.
47b9a9da105b79b487bad567e595ba22cc166b98	However, when the Virginia attacked the Northern fleet again the next day, she was met by the federal battleship USS Monitor.
def796a870d06226906a83f4fb351d683dbe4e1a	The battle between the battleships lasted for several hours, and ended in a draw in general — both ships were unable to destroy each other.
766f205d81699478b7cf0a55e84dd27dcf230773	However, it clearly demonstrated the inability of old wooden ships to resist battleships, and marked the beginning of the era of battleships in military shipbuilding.
867c1feb4e1671014eae99b735f722919fc5988d	In April 1862, a federal squadron under the command of David Glasgow Farragut captured New Orleans, as a result of a successful breakthrough into the mouth of the Mississippi River past Forts Jackson and St. Philip.
9a1f8946436e1ca29bb4fda871f755ce20bdff45	Although the Southerners had a fairly good initial position, poor coordination between the Confederate army, navy and state militia made their defense haphazard and ineffective.
cf106b2fefd30db3ba9750d847e91b9847603c84	With the fall of New Orleans, the southerners lost one of their largest ports and shipbuilding centers, and the northerners gained control of the lower reaches of the Mississippi River an important the highest transport artery of the Confederation.
f2106f8f1b920899023911daeca9effa9eca2ff2	With the loss of Pensacola, New Orleans, and then Norfolk, the southerners lost all their main shipbuilding centers, and were forced to abandon plans to create a large fleet.
868d86250606952e7ed9ca023913e9c934bc45d7	At the same time, they managed (under fictitious pretexts) to order a certain number of high speed screw steamers in Britain and France, which they equipped as raiders for actions against the merchant fleet of the northerners.
19d6e5e019a05936e6c7798a6f13038828ee8fc2	Proclamation on the emancipation of slaves[edit / edit wiki text]
5b7934027f340e2d9be6083d81943ba72f4ced7a	Slaves in states hostile to the Union were declared free.
67465abed67f7f19f6709095a9cadfaf36e6db8f	In the eyes of Europe, the proclamation on the emancipation of slaves radically changed the nature and purpose of the war: from that moment on, the struggle was not for the unity of the Union, but for the abolition of slavery.
4018eefbbce7d0d1e0175b8f1c920b0fe9a70e51	Before the proclamation, some European countries were dissatisfied with the actions of the North, primarily with its blockade of the ports of the southern states, which paralyzed the South's trade with Europe.
552b8be3f33b6180e035f26adcb105875aad83b3	For example, in England, due to the cessation of the receipt of American cotton, the textile industry was ruined, hundreds of thousands of people were left without work.
c1250739c2c7affcf75bc29a31cd8bf9555f6638	England and France were going to officially recognize the Confederation as independent.
f14c9d5494ae089b8d612c7f19504b4c02e200bf	Thanks to the proclamation on the emancipation of slaves, Lincoln won the sympathy of European countries.
65652326ba99d531fd0c6d6e5667edf7c1f86f87	Russia, which had liberated its serfs a year earlier, also took a benevolent position towards the Union, the appearance of Russian squadrons in San Francisco and New York in the autumn of 1863 with instructions in case of war with England was an example of the diplomatic use of naval force.
2ff3e73ca9109db3c6de0ecd8cd0367f87d62f9d	Thanks to the appearance of the squadron of Rear Admiral A.
dcf5565419af61bdb375a0e298c0d98ce01cabfc	A. Popov in the Pacific Ocean, England abandoned its intention to intervene in the war on the side of the Confederation and thereby allowed the North to continue the blockade of the ports of the South (by the end of the war, the South eventually faced a catastrophic shortage of ammunition).
496ee72f35030beb2ecbe5dc17648b926fa616fe	In response, the northern states supported Russia in the Polish issue.
80d18b55daf48900e487b5d1ecb15c51297fa7c8	Generals of the Army of the South
884d4fa3e453fa3bec2ee99377ceee05a129c50f	General Lee
04f58ac34b3243d2e704028cab07876f35163b31	Richard Ewell
41c7b72cc87cf2ce7193f9e7aef33e8edc618a39	James Longstreet
2e4041c4b07135e9111c7df9a04630208aa84826	Ambrose Hill
25216061098396be62943069cfdfeee21efa2ecd	Jackson "The Stone Wall"
9ad748894c0cb52d088cccaf71400dbe28f3a8dd	John Hood
6e42fb50ff86697a34e8dd34efab1f7681ab6dca	The second period of the war (May 1863 April 1865)[edit / edit wiki text]
2aa05e65cce94060ee5ac9b6c07fd86613ed3341	The battles of 1863[edit / edit wiki text]
504cb2e761b28d7851f6652540b60a8264382810	The campaign of 1863 became a turning point during the war, although its beginning was unsuccessful for the northerners.
e9ff213b8fecc348fedfae809da9b4f1cb8072b6	In this battle, General T. J. Jackson, one of the best generals of the Confederacy, who received the nickname "Stonewall"for his steadfastness in battle, was mortally wounded.
bc1cf608aa1a73ab7d078d17627c842357489f1d	Gettysburg Campaign[edit / edit wiki text]
2f42ae2d142e4c897bb99d1c28ba3b0c8ccfb87d	Gettysburg Campaign Brandy Station • 2nd Winchester • Eldy • Middleburg • Upperville • Sporting Hill • Stewart Raid • Hanover • Gettysburg • (Kilpatrick Attack • Pickett Attack • Peach Orchard • Little Round Top) • Fairfield) * Carlisle • Hunterstown • Monterey
e2fce57c1d13e6c2f10347bb59ec2cde7d1cda84	Having won another brilliant victory, General Lee decided to make a decisive offensive to the north, to defeat the Union Army in a decisive CP
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40dbc5178e8338744ec2c93f832c7af79f7da9bb	Go to the Main page
5e232b6a59997d202f22721b3c4b410753178d05	Modern journalism Novel " Constellation of Gemini"
e23e207d1c1c9df6470e6412f78aa01e71521502	Sketches of the past and present
4e743d1ad867fbf5e8da874a157f62d51d3ccdf1	Library History of Europe and America of the XIX XX centuries How we made this site
12a60844cc32a0c59902fa2940f91a763c75b1bb	M. V. Guminenko
c0991219524c40a1ea431f517e3cc1b1748d5d95	The War of the North and South of the United States 1861-1865.
c3bf84287c91e2a0df827f177099377fcbaae509	Reasons
bb2559c20ae9d1c1d8e456e5f2f9fd0442ce7f72	Disagreements between the Northern and Southern states have existed since the time when the future US states were only colonies of Great Britain.
4c0455ee5c2245e9c814c45e2fbbcae67f6f66d2	To understand the essence of the conflict that took place between the North and the South in 1861-1865, it is necessary to go back to an earlier period.
76c1ed332f03f1f96012baaf4dc6e60c7bbb302e	The basis for the division of the United States into two separate states was laid by the very specifics of the colonists ' development of the American continent.
a4dcee7dc5ad19b8f9175697144169605c00d4a8	Why was there no unity among the US colonies
e7b13c2bca8d26c23f71f7c13357fae17458d096	Initially, the United States was an association of thirteen colonies, in which people of different ethnicities lived.
765259f37f114fc197aa3398156c6012a03b7ab7	By the 1770s, most of the population of the Southern States was of Celtic origin: the settlers came from the western regions of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
3ad009a144b1e8e065a75ca775c76b2fc2e5ff76	[11]
d894867c9fe49df687a28cd330e8716fb3484965	For contemporaries of the events, this seemed obvious.
21d5b2f5239bf030cd54e95125d465e4007f6f47	Even our Russian I. S. Aksakov, who has never been to America and watched the war between the North and the South from the Old World, formulates his opinion about the Southerners in this way: "The southern States of America, without a doubt, are distinguished by the special character of their inhabitants, most of them are not of Anglo Saxon, but of Roman origin, Latins by faith and with aristocratic traditions.
74bdebe302abeff752cd6b478fe90ffe69abd15c	This circumstance is one of the main springs of this internecine strife."
8f4e345e7cd51e4e633816f5a52a47df465da189	[4]
32b5a925f28686baffa4a145abe802517177c4d0	Unlike the southerners, the settlers of the Northern states were mostly of English, German and Dutch origin.
99a135ba7c1ec7d3ef7a2c15871afbedc7c863f6	Such a division is quite natural, because people of the same culture and the same belief will tend to settle next to each other.
e6bb2d4bd123922ee435f3b864c0ab0d50fa95d9	No Catholic will settle among Protestants if there is an opportunity to settle among Catholics like him.
a16c2b64f37ff9d614b38d97c9bc0227435f4b37	And on the territory of the future United States, it was easy to choose a place for settlement, according to their origin, language, customs and faith.
16329af9b868556a0664e6af0437d33b21cadf32	It so happened that the South was chosen by people close in faith and mentality.
80a6c6617125f89019d5e0b79ba9120437a15ea3	Just as the North united people who were close to each other and far from the mentality of the South.
e822d59bc738309be9ecce42c2cb9817128e6977	Both northerners and southerners stood for freedom, but this word meant different concepts for them.
d891c390f7b3b9bf8d20c2eb72668e2e7ba1b272	For understanding freedom from the point of view of the North, the opinion of the Russian publicist and public figure of the XIX century I. S. Aksakov (1823 - 1886) is very suitable, who writes: "the most diverse and diverse rabble, formed, on the basis of a mutual agreement, into a civil society, alien to all hitherto known laws of civil and social formation, all European class social strata, and set itself a banner: unlimited freedom of the individual!
7867889c7d645d1708ece9ff076169bcdd8d2f24	The principle of personal freedom, devoid of moral content, turned out to be put out of purely material motives, turned only into a means to achieve personal material well being...
2d9d2b0e397cac33912d7324155d77da2ce73a27	" [4]
85e9741acc07ef8248f9a7c7878faee0f58e86f5	Unlike the northerners, for the southerners, freedom meant not only unlimited personal opportunities, but also voluntary cooperation, the ability not to infringe on the freedom and interests of others.
c26b23dcd319fdbcd4b26c2ae6a662cd512ed6f0	This principle was guided not only by individuals.
2c5ea4e63b9150697b2bcb7c384fe27d0240e250	It became fundamental for the unification of the Southern States.
e04c5b518f76ec7d52dc16b9dda4beb76d4630ec	According to the concept of the South, there should have been ties between individual states based on honor, mutual trust and mutual assistance, but at the same time each state should have remained an independent unit, with its own rules and its own government (unlike the North, where the central government sought to dictate its conditions and its will to the states subject to it).
37d9d9393c3731c77193093f9092073eaf5186d5	That is, the Union according to the concept of the South should have existed as a union of states united by obligations to help each other when it is necessary and to recognize each other's freedom and independence.
3a8be9ee42385248df756c949f17652418569050	The South was guided in its worldview by such thinkers as John S. Calhoun (John Caldwell Calhoun - a leading political scientist of South Carolina, the seventh vice president of the United States, 1782 - 1850).
d95baf0a838a81b9ebf07385f713e428e1c949bc	Calhoun considered the union as "a kind of association in which sovereign states were united by high considerations of honest intentions; by the exchange of justice and politeness; by the noble sights of the social system; with enthusiasm and sympathy they shared with the authorities a common fate, honor and glory."
2c168bc8fce4044247964ae4f8c5bc60f1f93c18	The patriarchal, agricultural South was very different from the industrial, business North, not only in its understanding of the essence of the union and individual freedom.
9f8dafa8d76dac46c89710e56d2327f28b786ed0	The very way of life of the South and the North was based on different principles.
7834f98c22c13983e7cec1fb9058731d30aa1ba3	Southern planters built beautiful stone houses following the example of European mansions and settled on land that they hoped to pass on to their descendants, turn into a patrimonial inheritance.
24e791182db733458025526cd47653dee2bb5d0b	It was the land that was the main material value and a symbol of well being.
32529cacdd59c83f52d4972badefb4aac46a4a5c	Southerners spent their time managing their farms, which alternated with receptions, hunts and balls.
fe537eb3c39be6602ce694e9ddd4fcff50a81350	To some extent, the southerners copied the life of the European aristocracy of the earlier, XVIII century.
5e53dc54c8cb8950547fc2b7c364ac8338b7634f	And the generous land and its thoughtful use gave the southerners cotton, sugar cane, tobacco and other agricultural crops, which were sold to northern factories and factories.
24a5f8e74b7ac8e12a0ae1d1ac94426fe6228680	The life of the South was more measured and dependent on seasonal work on the land, in contrast to the life of the North, focused on the year round operation of processing industry enterprises.
eccbf614a6ad63684ef7389bd2048de0ba967ae0	It was in the South that the concepts of "honor" and "duty", close attachment to the family and the state, were developed as moral values that support the spirit of southerners in the most difficult moments of history for them.
f073805ca2adbf0cc58d38d81fca19c5d46f0ac7	While in the North, the business approach prevailed, and the unifying factors were not the family, or even the state, but material income and money.
6963aad4551f440734805ed81d0d3ac7bbbb5ad4	In other words, in the South, it was possible to have respect even in poverty, if a person is honest and respects his dignity, if he is a patriot and stands for his country.
c8314bb8f1ee0105db6ad7292cfac86e51dbac46	And in the North, the basis for respect was material wealth.
d01b34e88a192e4ed9dd09cb9c9a92fb9a151036	If there is no money , there is no respect.
995bdab02a24171bc12a534c73bb67a4e0ffb9a0	If a person cannot earn money, it means that he is unworthy of respect.
d9263ddd82ad869803d0e16cfeda981562918856	Both approaches to life have their advantages and disadvantages.
4168543a381d3ac5fb237cd3a14cf973ca1633ee	But the main thing is a fundamentally different approach, which reliably delimited the North from the South.
b17405e6658f0daa8199359a37caa1acd871254e	Thus, the difference in mentality initially divided the US population into northerners and southerners.
128acab13819b856b71c9803dba70e212f916b23	The United States existed as a union of two separate states, but the central government sat precisely in the North of the United States, and supported, first of all, the pragmatic and business interests of the northerners, and not the more aristocratic ideals of the South.
f090ba91e7709184540fa56f6d0a97faeb1437f1	Why did the North turn out to be the leading political force in the United States?
013480cc94608df3ca66a7ef0ce5c1ef6a94569f	A serious factor that led to the imbalance and the preponderance of the political course of the North was the uneven increase in the population of the States.
7c2aef3b16220d5984b79286c38cf5f4bddca02f	By the time the Constitution was ratified (1790s), the population of the North and the South was approximately equal and, accordingly, there were approximately equal numbers of northerners and southerners in the House of Representatives of the Senate.
1fc8aba5b3bbc03f78e6c2b96d07a853c383f433	Over the next 70 years, the total population of the United States increased by 800%.
e8337e8075ec813f26376a5fcd307f6f69ddc891	For example, the population of the state of New York increased due to the influx of immigrants by 1140% and became two and a half times more than the entire population of the state of Virginia.
e2280cf507b8dc820cb7b45d9649edf81e08d491	This phenomenon is easy to explain: agricultural land is limited, it is impossible to buy land indefinitely.
deb0aed5673e06e3ccd8e8da64743897af1d0020	Free land is running out, it takes a certain number of people to cultivate it, and new settlers need to look for other places if they want to work on the land.
2a4cac669c7f5003a23f527d359b73874c646ced	And the population of industrial cities, where new factories and factories are being built every now and then and workers are needed, can grow faster.
b91928b8367fd1f94af7881e19342a7c0695952b	The industrial North could accept many more emigrants than the agricultural South.
78345417bc581f46971bf735749539cd4d531329	Due to the rapid population growth, the North received more and more votes in the House of Representatives.
8e49eda11ad5b55eb5b11f46283a1c9751f41d6f	And the North sought to maintain this superiority, sometimes even to the detriment of the territorial interests of the state.
89b96ec1a472ce859af6b7f8c7f75a543ee6394f	For example, in 1836, when the question arose about the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United States, the North openly opposed the annexation and refused the Texas government, fearing that the Texas representatives in the Senate would support the southerners.
2d6a47d33995fd129b4945c170aa6d7be81d05e5	Reference: The Republic of Texas was formed as a result of separation from Mexico, existed as an independent state recognized by the world community for 9 years, from 1836 to 1845.
544a65f3dec14ef172f4a91782cd26e6daccd548	The Texans had objective reasons to seek an alliance with the United States.
8642bd893fc220a85e60c93cf5c7ebbd20ff566f	The Mexican government, led by President General Santa Anna, systematically made attempts to regain the territory of Texas.
882b78cf30cd2c70b040cf35e723336a73c227a8	A small Texan population (by 1836 - about 30,000 people) it had neither monetary nor human resources to independently fight against Mexico and its large army (the population of Mexico by the 1830s was more than one and a half million people).
758a1332c2766376e9de99c2b3c2f5b8e0f84b17	[13]
b3389e0abec0e633a3dd8dfbb39f14447b976813	It cannot be said that the State government was not interested in increasing its territory.
44b7b68179268eb320d89c84a9d956e20537b25f	With the annexation of Texas, the States received access to the Gulf of Mexico.
5b290ca1db6e8cd61bd1e5aef7e5eae5410ca300	At one time, State presidents several times proposed to the government of Mexico to buy the territory of East Texas.
0ff7cb26152942c980d05b709ba433575dad6839	In the early 1800s, this was done by President Thomas Jefferson, in 1822 - James Monroe, in 1825 - John Quincy Adams, in 1830 - Andrew Jackson [10].
5f7a4da40a6cd78032656ba5bc913af4c5cf83e8	Many Texans from the very moment of separation from Mexico also advocated joining the United States.
7f3178646035b5f839a4221e61c9325ff7ac25da	But now, in 1836, they were refused.
cc11173fe4cd26fe4c846bd68fb46135d584d2df	This happened, first of all, due to the fact that Texas was already an independent state, determined in its own political and economic preferences.
ed1ab4f03a0cbfe2fca7595fc4ee75e9f2b323ba	Therefore, one of the serious reasons for the delay in the annexation of Texas was the reluctance of the northern government to strengthen the representation of the South in the Senate.
dc39ef9a3cb3d55973b81d02f1b388a7bfe2f458	The number of foreigners in the armies of the North and South during the war also shows how much more actively the northern states were settled.
a113d3a4c1214ae83be1f3750dcc2f3bc47252a9	By 1861, about 4 million people of foreign birth who had recently arrived in the country lived in the northern states.
e085551d20f8b139d44c2667e9f8018b7c021aac	And only a quarter of a million residents of the Southern states were born outside the territory of the South.
d35c5fe805777523da64a98830df3a6ea9db46b3	About one out of every four or five soldiers of the army of the North was of foreign origin, while in the South this ratio was 1 to 20 or even 25.
b82d96a0d03a99e88d5ddac0a9554f820f90e5fa	Only the soldiers of German origin who made up the German regiments in the army of the North were at least 200,000.
942ecfbc697ac37d70b0a3ea21c08e3e83e53905	About 150,000 were of Irish descent, born in Ireland, and at least 50,000 were English speaking Canadians.
600b2629870b018ac5cfeed4f70eef56d30d063e	Of the 583 northern generals, 45 were of foreign origin.
fafcb21bffd02d7ee5fac2c8852b08c01a3a83f9	In the Confederate army, only 15 to 20 thousand soldiers were Irish, and out of 425 generals, only 9 were of foreign origin.
d944755556fafafe2ce39bf28cd8025797f36238	By 1860, there were already 36 states in the Union.
5fda1e70575f9a4aaf8f21307f59b4032080e626	25 of them supported the northern government.
e6f0677d81aa0c593b4f623b7726502ab8d43f32	Only 11 Southern states stood against them.
940f6a60950b7581157cdef82a33e48fab049b82	This ensured the full advantage of the North in the Senate.
52e0e0524e47662bf597d23122def62360c934d4	Reference: Northern States: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Oiho, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin.
de8d3b987e7b2935026d5c09217e6d4181a42d30	Southern States: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina.
2dc7dfc3f94a1391ef84bb69a3f1d339009b98b2	Kentucky and Missouri - the so called "border states" - were claimed by both the Union and the Confederacy.
06e21919904252ea91f15ea6759603a06c7813fb	West Virginia and Nevada received the status of states and joined the Union after the outbreak of the war (in 1863 and 1864, respectively).
429636fe36d8a407bb85cdf266dd235b0a087b1a	So, gradually, the North gained the majority of seats in the US government.
937a3a7cd7313ccdf59693d347956bdd8bf4f853	The resulting imbalance allowed the northern government to impose unfair tariffs on industrial goods that the North sold to the South.
d8b3d526b93c5f562ecf522e4e439efaa266ab57	This was facilitated by the very high customs duties imposed by the North on goods imported from Europe.
bf838ab7305c98182fdbceaaf81707917186cde0	The situation was as follows: European goods due to high customs duties became very expensive, it became economically unprofitable to buy them.
e6bdead0c274aad43833876ffc3d9fba32ebd73c	The same manufactured goods that the North supplied to the South were slightly cheaper, but often of lower quality.
ee764ee0362308d03ef6d4d2bc9967f42dae8786	Southerners had to choose: either quality at a very high price, or a reasonable price and low quality.
e7e8adacad245f75ebfb155b80daad9153fd1bf6	At the same time, it cannot be said that northern goods were so cheap that it was more profitable to buy them.
e39ce82c3975754130973c7f0d02b2e017984ae4	Imagine a situation: you need to buy a shovel for your economic purposes.
901f86be8051d5ce946685b48abb4820ed8dc5e3	An imported shovel costs 100 rubles, and it is of good quality, and the domestic one costs 80 rubles, but it is made of cheap, soft steel.
de309affe29c42168c49d8d5700587ba98b1027b	Imported can last a year, domestic half a year.
0332547609bbd782e1d273eed37d348c84a89e31	If you buy two domestic ones for a year, you will have to pay 160 rubles, while if you buy an imported one, you will get 60 rubles of savings.
b10aa3585253a045132db7325eb775d916ddb92f	Most likely, if you have 100 rubles in your pocket, you will choose an imported shovel.
2774560dc1c6a07473ae9e7fa5e187a935be1663	But in order for the domestic industry not to suffer a loss, the government doubles the tax levies on imported shovels, and the seller, in order not to go broke, is forced to double the price.
e586988b15a890534dc641ce106a59b641d874e7	Now an imported shovel costs not 100, but 200 rubles.
db0a4b92df02dc562e67d26fa9df4a97a69cd701	This allows the domestic manufacturer to slightly raise the price of their bad shovels, for example, from 80 rubles to 100 rubles, because a person who can not immediately give 200 rubles will have to buy a domestic one for 100.
849c8f8fb61e01c1a7dbefdf9a1f15063b140c78	If the Southerners bought industrial goods in Europe, bypassing high customs duties, they could purchase the necessary industrial goods cheaper and of better quality.
bc04f316ccb1f05bf3d8a3f01b326d6b5f82864c	But they were deprived of such an opportunity.
b8bcc5aa4751686dfe1b340e77b82060ce22d456	There is a curious parallel here.
b329fd191fb79b4d703e7b2dfbf49bd93055c759	Let's go back to the time of the War of Independence of the American colonies, which the colonists waged with the troops of Great Britain (1775-1783).
a812bc571b7886c64f6b95fb2b7a3c20fcc11c92	Since the second half of the XVIII century, the British government, led by King George III, issued a series of parliamentary acts to curb foreign trade in the American colonies.
ffc83c6fda815247fd98dd01fba6d6f188efb1de	The Parliament of England forbade the colonies to trade freely with other maritime powers and to develop a manufacturing industry.
1463d45796f0e90c061616aedc731c1fbf4e219a	Even earlier, since the middle of the XVIII century, the English Parliament issued several so called "Navigation Acts", according to which all trade was to be carried out only on British ships and through Great Britain.[14] For the American colonists, such rules were inconvenient.
a06a9f8b1ae716849ac2626ccf2da6f91becfb12	The use of only English ships significantly increased the delivery time of goods.
db89d19371f5c6b6cb9f01565c39e4b813b78253	The Americans already had their own fleet, but by law they had no right to use it.
2ad82c161815e390625a21dc7e54e9935b754fd5	They were forced to suspend trade and wait with their goods when the English ship arrived.
c4fcfb95d1383473e2f83e041031a6c0ce48ac8e	The "Navigation acts" were adopted by the English Parliament so that England could fully control trade and taxes.
5ee683040b3eec34e49f0cf03d50e8c188f8ba4a	In the same way, now, in the first half of the XIX century, the northerners acted in relation to the South, not allowing the southerners to trade with Europe independently and freely buy European goods.
dae2587ae7bfb26f3b16f22ba5c330290929b7f9	In fact, the government of the North of the United States pursued the same policy towards the Southern states that the English metropolis once pursued in relation to all the American colonies of Great Britain.
9c73d75b9831a16a3b97f6c050768c8f5b492f80	The Southerners were not allowed to trade directly with other powers with what the South produced, and at the same time they were forced to buy ready made industrial goods only from the North, and not from Europe.
67013fa160b81ed3c3aa97febd8079e6a26ba790	As an example of the consequences of the introduction of unfair taxes and tariffs imposed by the North, we can cite the Nullification Crisis of the 1830s, when the Southern States tried to limit the effect of tariffs imposed by the North in 1828 and harming the economy of the South.
cd30fe21ee8c52217ae34e74f1062cc16fce5b2b	Three decades before the North South war, this crisis showed that the South was ready to secede.
296f2bff0bb49588465d09f7fbb527058fed81d5	Residents of South Carolina rebelled against unfair tariffs on imported goods, which increased by 45-50 percent.
094748daf96ef6fa3f95376dacb5c7b5feb45c58	South Carolina announced the nullification of tariffs imposed by the North.
603dea263ed47ada98dce019222468bb21df9f30	Other southern states were ready to support her initiative.
84c097119b9a874487e5129d78431b01159e0e0b	During the crisis, on March 2, 1833, Congress, on the proposal of President Jackson, adopted the Force Bill.
1d8ae399ff223d84ceb9ebeb4f3fe0592ac8e846	Under this bill, the president could use military force to collect customs duties on the territory of any state.
282f95fe516ba39bfde612a7fa3a017745c81bd7	General W.'s troops were sent to South Carolina.
102b419f391c4ff848e776afd7cf1a40547c62ce	Scott.
635088a2f0521e45407cbf9d7800da8fbbd12253	In the same year, to calm the conflict, Congress, on the proposal of Henry Clay, decided to gradually reduce tariffs over 10 years.
3a32498f2082eb49f9bd6d6a83e8b74ba5a0e5e3	This compromise made it possible to preserve the Union, from which some Southern states were already ready to withdraw.[5]
9286a1fa565f3b0c01b24d1cf82289cdbb1012cd	Thus, the North and the South, which were completely different from each other, were in very unequal political and economic conditions.
c24a4649b90a288d349a66f00a372e032d1f010a	The North could dictate its political will, and the South was forced to obey, even if the demands of the North were unfair and the North by the middle of the XIX century behaved towards the South in much the same way as Great Britain behaved towards its American colonies on the eve of the War of Independence.
e32ebd04b5557265a8fa84a54e76ee740f5ca673	What can not be called the reasons for the separation of North and South
d2d547cf9c9ef9217ecac7ad43bad5e0b7d3dbf8	Most often, textbooks and reference books recognize the causes of the war between the North and the South:
cec7b38acae29f823cba8e3d1c6d2622b648d3db	- the necessity of the emancipation of the Negroes and the abolition of slavery;
e569ee93ae8c197a2ee5af1139e9cbea8c962d5f	- the desire of the South to settle the Western lands in order to increase the area for cotton crops, which was hindered by the North;
d3d6e92c611507073c9198dff79c47e9c74dfc24	- the backwardness of the agricultural South, which hindered the development of the industrial revolution.
45b0557488adb823f79249830e72dbfd436adb5c	Our Russian publicist and public figure I. S. Aksakov also wrote about this: "Negroes do not constitute a real reason for war.
ad1f5cc66edbf709b2fa0ed1fc62ae535aa74dce	If it were a question of Negroes alone, then with their emancipation the matter would have to end.
72a061759a562895bddd7fa447695c28139547aa	Their emancipation is inevitable for the Southern States; but even if this emancipation were accomplished, the Northern states would also not allow a break.
38a937edede9ed51461371c07556c98a2ab430a1	It is known that some states in which there is no slavery wanted to postpone, but the Federalist army forced them to turn to the Union
418653d1c64b0127af948c3f5c4ebfdd9126b6dc	[Most likely, we are talking about the state of Maryland.
722801a033f9775c1587c14b2194e6fa8e58c00b	Note by M. G.].
314a65b1888db5181b5d47aa8bf2a95163ceb23a	The point, therefore, is to preserve the political organization itself.
b75d75643fcccf08777a3dba2e09b1a6e4a9116f	But even if the Southern States submit, it will no longer be the old, but a new political organization with the principle of violence and coercion, an organization of the union, nourished, so to speak, by internecine discord, baptized in fraternal blood!
c2e9dd0e2e08e90837d991bc83f8109bfa09816b	Reference: The history of the state of Maryland is remarkable.
2a9901e96fef0803633f0b894c73894bcc624b1c	This state, which has not actually been a slave owning state since the 1840s, also wanted to join the Confederacy, but was kept in the Union by force: Federation troops were introduced into its territory.
199e5db564db3715977ff5ae59ac1af881f96f08	By order of Lincoln, the American artillery was located directly on the Capitol Hill of Baltimore (the state capital) and was aimed at the city.
86a9417c279d49ef0f3f740db63c3d0cbf6a5e5a	Under the threat of shelling, the election of a new governor and the legislature was held.
77bfba66f4efbd1a0cf84e1bb67f02cfdd1ae800	Lincoln sent to prison all the supporters of the South in the previous state government, including the mayor of Baltimore, George William Brown.
0252d10f9a7a604db5b11754418f8b01b82fe256	The constitutionality of these actions of Lincoln is still being discussed.
7a60554107407bfe358bedce2bfcb95c90a8ea0d	[9]
e652679bc1d24b2da2b4a893c151501af04d77cd	However, the fact itself is quite eloquent and hardly needs special discussions.
5d15982b8811bd52b15f15e8c3ecab9f36e4c550	Imagine that the Russian government invades its troops, for example, in Bashkiria, removes the government at gunpoint and imprisons its own.
b52856b2c730fa0fc6ff9ad2c1cc897628b06a50	Such an action would clearly indicate a dictate and the imposition of its will on another republic by Russia.
1438a44b891b5f0f2194c71faacb71a1d1ad95d7	However, the actions of the Lincoln government are recognized as only ambiguous.
17472ff764ebc0740959d17919f39560f4851c92	One can argue as much as one likes whether Lincoln's actions were or were not constitutional, but the fact remains that troops were sent to Maryland on his orders, and the new state government was chosen at the threat of using weapons.
263d6dbd8a23e51daf9700b370a8ddc80fc48b31	The proclamation on the emancipation of slaves appeared only on January 1, 1863, and the war began in April 1861.
6917bc6c55256b64ba0e1f9ccb42c33c616f1664	The text of the Proclamation itself does not speak about the complete emancipation of slaves, but only about the measure of suppression of the "revolt" of the Southern states.
a0c335d3791d824615091d0cafc6613dc5443609	Quotes from the Proclamation:
76102c6a6b5b572b16123df5961a7978b9ae1d6a	"...all persons held as slaves in the territory of any state or a certain part of the state, the population of which is in a state of rebellion against the United States, are henceforth and forever declared free...
acc82dcca5bbc69bead38b855e7cd1b094192827	" [2]
1fd21ca0e1a7d67a97816014307517e9c0067fe5	"...on the specified day of the first of January, the executive authorities will determine by a special proclamation the states and, if there are any, parts of the states whose population is in a state of rebellion against the United States...
e4d722793d16e2fe39f9cc5ba75072ab48d9e91b	As we can see, the text of the Proclamation explicitly states that slaves are freed only on the territory of states that are defined as being in a state of "actual armed rebellion".
bbcf6e67d2159b1755ad08805f9254ac1bf36eb3	If the abolition of slavery was really so important, why does the text of the Proclamation not indicate that since January 1, 1863, all slaves in the United States are declared free?
f77d53014e6973a66d27b03ce754ab15bbb9fb27	Why didnot the North, which had the majority of votes in the Senate, abolish slavery earlier, even before the war?
ab9dac3cfb55079397852ce3effd58a4a1c321b9	Three slave owning states have never expressed a desire to secede from the United States: Delaware, Kentucky and Missouri.
76fbf36bdecad93fd12213ba97376b1a6553d2b8	This happened only in December 1865, eight months after the April surrender of the Confederate army and the end of the war.
783b5f89ea53fa9fd895ac1e76a7d4875dd26b4a	[15] Why did the Lincoln government finally decide to abolish slavery?
25806df1a00c95a0a6ace7aa5c1209e5e5bd54a8	Moreover, pragmatic northerners, who put their own well being and material benefits at the forefront, would not fight for the sake of freeing other people's slaves.
77091b7acc991f539c7944e60cc3f6d678c5e824	About the "desire of the South" to seize Western lands
fdfc260d46275abb66915ae0aa3fbf1a57b43fde	When historians say that the southern planters were interested in" seizing " Western lands, they cite as an argument the need to increase the area for cotton crops, which allegedly cannot be grown for a long time in the same place.
caabbdee599c7fa5d8a3ce2485b68d992eb865a8	In particular, we can cite a literal quote by A. Bushkov: "cotton growing exhausted the soil like hell.
d1b0ccfa5046fa69dd04738cdecf53069dc8a537	"[6].
940659eac54e81b643868c86c716ff9ad325dbb2	Let's deal with this issue.
0e74e2f359eee4466198d391c531092fa7e039ba	1. Cotton is an agricultural crop that, unlike many others, depletes the land very little.
c96255669f6b60c6e84415e987019b07b8bc8fc9	Quote from the Agronomist website: "Cotton can be grown in one place for a long time" [8].
6cb489a81240b3542be66b0d3432fb01c451a539	The opinion of plant growers differs in this case from the opinion of historians, and to the exact opposite.
d850c7695d2503e29b66297bdad675ac5924f344	2. It is much easier and cheaper to fertilize the soil than to abandon everything that has already been done, mastered and built on your land, and go to the West, conquer new lands, where you need to start everything from scratch and everything else will have to fight with aggressive Indians of the western territories.
d5042120167e6446bf2ddbd0a8f835d7c8e0eb52	Before the war of 1861, planters in the South bought good land in good places, built solid stone houses with columns, cut alleys and planted ornamental gardens, giving their possessions the appearance of European estates.
c5e6b68cab5f77a2182e4953858ef7867f14121e	They were just the most disinterested in leaving a well equipped, settled place somewhere to the West, where the soil is worse, the areas are drier, and there are more dangers.
9b7e32ba8bf1a7e1e3b2414c1dccf1cb29a891be	In fact, there were serious disagreements between the North and the South on the development of new lands.
bb3c9f9270bea11bc6b61e3f7db91ac513070703	But they were political in nature and stemmed precisely from the desire of both northerners and southerners to have more political influence.
8bc58d6fd0eaa0db3233babe50c4d61cbe810391	The territory of the United States continued to be developed, and the question arose in the US Congress whether to allow the new states to decide for themselves whether slavery would be legalized on their territory, or whether slavery should be banned immediately.
3188a30df73fa2c84bea452a37520397a95ab4d9	It depended on whether the new state would be closer to the South or to the North in terms of lifestyle and method of production.
2fd938695ec3fe48a7dcb4230267bfa05e2582f5	Because of disagreements on the issue of the rights of the new states, conflicts have flared up many times.
66cdeb8352c085c76e3274813772d2430e888f32	An example is the Missouri Compromise of 1820 [12].
93196d3606637860a5e488859e70cbcccc8c981f	It was about the prohibition of slavery in the territories of the developing states of Kansas and Nebraska.
932577743dbf1079fe5e34d2261d625da4c091d5	On May 30, 1854, a bill was passed that provided the population of the future states of Kansas and Nebraska, upon joining the United States, to independently decide on the admission or prohibition of slavery.
4efea66f09a507732ed522326717488c11f3f3d9	As a result of this "compromise", both northerners and southerners hastily tried to send settlers to the territories of the two disputed states who would politically support their side, which led to a number of armed clashes.
bed6e07fa10c3e5002feeb48bc212b3127b38633	The Southerners were interested in the new states taking their side, because politically this could strengthen the very weak influence of the South in the US Senate.
6871d8c3a25627618c8604dfacb377e0d058b924	But in the same way, the northerners sought to establish their influence on the territories of the new states and not allow the position of the South to strengthen in the Senate.
51b6013be6725735044caa08dac43e0e1da6be33	The aspirations of the North and the South in this matter were the same.
faf5528d9fb4fd71c41a8c48b79a47f2376d9956	About the" backward economy " of the South
e120cdc598e33b5d36b9041c8f6c8a781fe3308b	In historical studies of the Soviet period, it is customary to say that the South was "backward" in comparison with the industrially developed North.
2651c2d05a5e5a313939790d8d5533cd7a074686	For example, in the textbook edited by A.V. Ado, we read: "At the same time, the South of the country continued to be an extremely backward area, where slavery prevailed."
bd703dc0b11593277a5a82dd893f2880b8d0f32a	[7]
a08dd8720cddb3838456652187ab184a4c7f56b9	However, in fact, the economically developed North was very much dependent on the" backward " South.
be52962a59bfb4d85fe912b3a625df2a36d9a509	By the 1850s, most of the gross national product was produced in the Southern States.
9761b9a7165d11d1740e3c878794db01b7e17ff0	The main part was made up of cotton, tobacco and sugar.
40d21e727a281246acde68b5beccb433ac682b11	By 1860, 3/4 of the entire federal budget was made up of southern agricultural products.
aac07f052de31c435f49568c5b25eebd62b8af56	Reference: The gross national product (GNP) reflects the total value of final goods and services created not only within the country, but also abroad.
985d2a12fc4660264fb221400c1a72ecce17cae8	Southern raw materials went to the North to support the industrial revolution.
4eeebbd9b72da587f9c35fef9dcd5feea97daa2a	The North was very much dependent on the South.
f03e27c624c1041f2d52135b00a2ebe985f816f6	Almost all the cotton produced in the South was exported from the United States to Europe not directly from the Southern States, but through the North and at a price set by the North.
55aa0f1fc113478b3dca4fc7ff184e5e3b2d7cc9	The dependence of the North on the southern economy can be illustrated by the economic crisis of the 1850s in the United States.
0832e22d5487ddbe118f755074b0c62e621539f3	In 1857, due to various financial machinations of the North related to land speculation and railways, there was a threat of economic collapse.
28d4ed46d09f1ede7d9c09c71533f55cf612dd83	A big scandal occurred due to the theft of a huge amount of money in the largest banks in Ohio and their branches in other states.
b1ea6ffcf429c6df74d9cb25b6c0e6f743a091a4	This led to a severe economic shock in the North.
232f0c82d00b264fb19793789ad34c2cfc6b4548	Banks began to refuse to issue loans.
1738f57dabbb4c8c2ba9ecaa04631726208d1e1b	More than 800 banks in the Northern states went bankrupt due to all the problems and frauds that arose.
7a40f7dcb69449b31ad30efac3f7a76a33b47840	To top it all off, on September 12, 1857, a steamer carrying more than 15 tons of gold from California on its way through Central America was caught in a hurricane and sank near South Carolina.
0ac7ecde1d0851661e21ef1ab961e264e45e0835	At the same time, thanks to the end of the Crimean War, Russia sent a large amount of wheat to the European market, and this greatly cut off the supply of American grain, since it was at a higher price than Russian.
7239e19fa2be387ac9f5f4ab739cba924de85e7d	The demand for American wheat fell just at a time when the North was in great need of money to pay off its debts.
9235d917c2874ac25de1dfc83f572aacbc27ef7a	British investors began to remove their deposits from American banks, as they considered them unreliable.
09e0975e562472d05a88f067282279ef96dc8b14	The agricultural areas of the Northern United States suffered: wheat was grown in the northern states.
59be83768baf51ea9b28c0b32a85a5c0efd36720	Due to the fall in grain prices, the northerners lost one of the main income items.
3116a14f176e914bba9b0bdd14e08b29e23fe554	This led to the fact that the countryside stopped buying industrial goods, and they began to accumulate uselessly in the warehouses of enterprises.
20b3cbfa0f9b7b4326b3bc38f01dd9276a5394fc	Accordingly, wages were no longer issued to workers, and enterprises went bankrupt due to the inability to recoup production costs.
c24333dee24a1cac6c13b22c229123ffd748b6b2	The crisis has affected all segments of the population of the North.
18e7d6df0e108f480925c09dfea7af799e46b9fc	The panic turned into a national depression.
0d9e769563849c2ce8d5cd992a7578ba33ae318a	Northern politicians used this panic to raise tariffs on the sale of southern cotton and tobacco, as this remained the most reliable security.
320d4112170f6d5b84ac0522f588c2ca16f57d83	Both cotton and tobacco of the South were actively bought by Europe and Russia.
a89ccfccf3c63e47b5a9f83c60df685f174fd51d	When, as a result of the war between the North and the South, cotton supplies to Russia stopped, I. S. Aksakov wrote: "...the North American question turns into a cotton question.
a2e0696269a1ed26e4a320e7805e4794f86504be	The American civil strife has had a particularly painful effect not only on the manufacturers, but also on the peasants of our Suzdal land - Vladimir, part of the Kostroma, Yaroslavl and Nizhny Novgorod provinces, and in general our entire industrial manufacturing district."
d654a8e494b3734183bf6fdab61297773d7c62b9	The South did not depend on the financial crisis of the North.
817fc8b484e909572ffaa32a5dad88b0928ec73b	And at a time when the Northern industry was failing, the South was flourishing.
b7cf03b9e20a5a16334d926bfe4dd08403b182cd	The South did not suffer decline, because the fertile land gave cotton, which brought material prosperity.
cbd80ebcfdc6de1ab0ccdea240f954bcc5f99b86	Therefore, cotton producers in the South could not fail to understand that if they managed to get rid of the tariffs imposed on them, forcing them to sell cotton to the North, and not export it to Europe on their own, they would be able to trade directly with European countries and thereby further boost their economy.
baad3f71a8b4112f3076d1e0e72713eabc921315	The so called "economically backward" South in the late 1850s saved the North by providing the northerners with a huge amount of cotton, and this helped to avoid the final collapse.
28b9bff199811b5db657732e78e1fe51c555c428	Cotton turned out to be more reliable than any currency.
83685049cc866ca7c7db7d31004c5ac84d32d295	This allowed Senator James Hammond of South Carolina to say: "When the abuse of loans was disclosed... when thousands of trading houses in the world went bankrupt and hundreds of millions of dollars disappeared in the air, when you entered a dead end, and the threat of revolution loomed, what saved you?
c6ef1f077a640e06e2dbbf459aeac0b677400ef6	Fortunately, the cotton season has started for you, and we poured 1,600,000 bales of cotton on you just in time of crisis to save you from death."
c5baf57a43c80f192020a8ad70acd2f474747238	So, the southern cotton was able to pull the US out of the crisis.
894b6b5d7b71913c8532c2a3b2dacdbd3b8027d4	All the cotton went to the northern factories, and only from there, already at the price of the North and under an agreement with northern businessmen, the cotton was sent to Europe.
0397d31a0aa7fc097de3c2543f6c6df7b65f8360	The South received the minimum price for its cotton, which was set not by itself, but by the North, due to the fact that the majority of votes in the Senate supported exactly those tariffs that were beneficial to the North.
a91c75d5e6c34f9743e670cf7834b14038e6cbbd	As mentioned above, at the same time, the northern factories sold their industrial products to the South at very high prices.
a40aeeddcfe0a19d2ff340db485fecb86ba594aa	It is difficult to understand how it was possible to bring the prosperous agricultural South to the point that even very rich planters were in debt to the North.
634e585a8f2d8a9c7b1adb413e5281d743480683	To do this, you need to imagine how cheap the North took cotton and how expensive it gave the finished products.
64de986db42c7f18f161467614b57ca497ffe521	The South understood that if it was not possible to achieve a reduction in tariffs, or the opportunity to trade directly with Europe, the South could suffer very much economically and politically.
3b5eebd914a0873a48f469cce032ae8367c5a3d1	Conversations about the separation of the South from the North were very active in the Southern states.
7778dde38a96de3ed97ce725e5e2b5587ffbb9e3	This seemed to the Southerners the only way to support the economy of the South and politically achieve equality.
394ee5d5b7a6ab366427199263ecb541f061ac98	The South demanded independent trade with Europe, demanded permission to build a Southern railway from the Mississippi through El Paso to the Pacific Ocean, which would expand the market.
4d8b6917dfca7deabd2dfed5a189fd668d894f85	Cotton remained the most reliable of currencies, and it was possible to believe that if the South had the opportunity to set prices and trade cotton freely, it would be the South that would rule on the North American continent.
8607fd4063dca8a4e08baf17180d533fcfad36d7	But the South could not achieve anything by legislative means.
eca89914826cc7b787dc6b0654d7dd7758650c3a	After all, the majority of votes in the Senate belonged to the North.
3a7e2f9193b03612c4164f47d77e8094c7d9d28a	The northerners did not want the "King Cotton" to take away their political influence.
347a69491131c325efa9bee889de859cb966879e	Thus, it is economical The North dominated the South, pursuing an unfair policy of prices, customs duties and tariffs.
b1daea9e4f1566f03a26f916974538d67c94ef4f	By unfair laws and the threat of using weapons, the northerners forced the South to completely depend on the North.
629672391f8a71051281bab6f2b3494e3fc3f3c7	The same thing was done at the time by the government of George III in relation to the American colonists.
0a701af240cbd44511556e4455519b1552b5c268	Relations were established between the North and the South, similar to the relations between Great Britain and its American colonies at the end of the XVIII century.
03791d65215efd34989faf4593347b96db502fba	Southerners viewed the centralized federal government as a kind of dictator, unfairly suppressing the interests of the South.
5e3461969b6bbef46c9212d87a44b65ec87f80a4	Therefore, in the early 1860s, the southerners decided to separate from their northern neighbors.
1929510d54915dc6ea4767b0d130187454e9c36f	Unconstitutional rebellion
a4872e4d678da494695dc73201a09ea8ff2db913	When adopting the Constitution at the end of the XVIII century (this process lasted for 13 former British colonies from 1787 to 1790), the residents of each state firmly believed that since they voluntarily joined the Union, they had every right to withdraw from the Union at any time.
9e473a9e76e60cbfd73e4a2f98612443c9eb4e37	Each state was to remain a separate legal entity and preserve its sovereignty.
f629ae44b7b3dcfed444d363e626edf411ec69a8	[1]
57e859ce9edcdb71772fe9518c8d6be66d34f26a	The American Constitution, however, did not contain a provision on the self determination of the states.
436158766720a5aa5da00b432b77742cac07042f	In many ways, the Constitution strengthened the Union and prohibited individual states from independently solving external problems.
0b1f58092a251e6c14c7ca4b2fb13b164ea99485	In section 10 of the US Constitution, it is written in particular that none of the states can join any other unions or confederations.
9493bcdce638f45e8f653479244cc4d81b0bef13	And on this basis, the withdrawal of the Southern States from the Union in 1861 and the formation of a Confederation by them was perceived by the North as an unconstitutional rebellion.
a6d3de70c5614ace7710fa5318b904c88626c989	But the question is: do some people have the right to impose their will on others?
d3027bb49b7f18c1bf44cbdf46f2302b8141c706	Especially considering that the Northerners themselves have always stood for unlimited personal freedom?
421f3dd60edc9e78918c511ee58da68cf9b5b484	The population of the states that separated from the Union did not want to be under the rule of the union government, which they no longer trusted.
b4111777159f3307f461d33d80f69c21eda083cf	And no Constitution could have kept the United States from disintegrating into two separate powers.
96a04df662f59c7281772caa7cd3c1c23d7254ce	Is it possible to blame the Southerners for the so - called "unconstitutional rebellion"?
00ad0bfaee9cd3e56e9161d8e25e9d6d3505e3f4	Man is an imperfect creation, and therefore any creation of human hands or human mind should be subjected to critical reflection.
407ecda2f57527ac25add18511e4d676a35a217b	Nothing generated by the human mind can be an absolute and immutable truth.
1391ec8a70f5b65def30530bb4faa7223a6f791c	It can only approach the relative truth, which is more or less likely to be suitable for a given historical moment.
8369b5c57c2de95c7d3f72715443d77206dbb6b6	The cumification of the American Constitution is a negative phenomenon, like the cumification of any work of human hands in general.
1540a5ab5a9639d920c8aed0374c512d9a775b45	Therefore, it is impossible to recognize as an argument that the Southern States did not have the right to secede from the Union, because the Constitution prohibits it.
b9d0dff6635f39561b4c320b68c612b00ea46e8b	The American Constitution was created with specific goals and at a specific historical moment, when its elaboration was necessary to solve specific tasks of protection from external dangers and solving economic problems.
5d63f037f7bcd1e408f1756766a7e901c915bcd4	England recognized the freedom of the United States, but the British could be outraged if the Union they recognized collapsed into separate states.
28770bd668f4a67947b9cfe65896cf5c5a9f6941	The English government would have every reason to say: "We concluded a treaty with the Union, and not with individual colonies."
3a67441e41f5ea968179246017853bf5a12eb6a6	And then a new military threat could arise for the former colonies of Great Britain.
aeb7ad80aba21acc88be76ebe6c3e34f3b1e6f29	At that moment, the Constitution was necessary to seal the Alliance against Great Britain.
c0997011d6a8d957eba664359fa1760864cc831c	But several decades have passed - and the circumstances have changed.
ba53ab30b91d778bd9d7b5a7122f483affec08ae	This does not mean that it is necessary to rebel against any law adopted more than six months ago.
52f70647a75e8c8e889a6b69324a37f8a4679a38	This only means that you need to be critical of any act of human hands and mind and approach it from the point of view of necessity, justice and many other factors.
3bb4bfff1c19d0058b057ef4ac7843d425ce03e6	The very fact that the Confederate States did not have the right to secede from the United States under the Constitution cannot be recognized as an argument " for " or "against", because at the time of the secession of the Southern States, the Constitution was adopted more than 60 years ago, in a completely different political, economic and historical situation.
785768aae7d19003a7a55b54fe60902623341863	The 10th amendment to the Constitution, adopted two years after the ratification of the Constitution, read: "The powers that are not delegated by this Constitution of the United States, and the use of which is not prohibited by it to individual states, are reserved to the states or to the people" [1].
a4251fdd773ae3537d9334c5b05b11f06c7d27a6	This amendment was the basis of the doctrine of states ' rights, which became a slogan for the Southern states who wanted to limit the ever growing powers of the federal government.
586802a1aa2922dbea0103582952de604b938425	However, while the Southern states were part of the United States, they failed to achieve justice.
a5d5652b8b097034c07c000f8bfd37bf57e41999	Therefore, the moment came when, in 1861, eleven Southern states separated from the United States and formed their own Confederate state based on the principles of the unification of independent states.
193f9f8f8eb47c66efcf838449c6e66e6721fab3	The KSA united the following states: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina.
5b96f49b4898a6e42fffad1772c73d5527a2b63a	Not only 11 southern states wanted to secede from the Union.
aa01a1d1ecd9d292e6bb202dd6baf665eb496c9b	Two territories that do not yet have the right of states also applied for membership in the KSHA: Arizona and New Mexico.
b880785f1e4b1999644f0d40af4ba5d3d6c409d9	Also, the KSHA was supported by five "civilized" tribes from the Indian territory: Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creeks and Seminoles.
c0c6cb75b8efe5274ce7766ed0d9ca10d3602fa6	The American Declaration of Independence, adopted in 1776, provides as self evident truths that all people are created equal and are endowed with the inalienable rights to life, freedom and the pursuit of happiness.
b7f7a4091c20badab0b5bd21a3b402cb6eccdd19	And in order to ensure these rights, people unite and " create governments whose just power is based on the consent of the governed."
268f36d4aa22452fa4e33292b24cc4d4c9e610a7	If any government does not fulfill its most important purpose and takes away from its subjects what are their main and inalienable rights, then the people have the right to change or abolish the existing system, and establish a new one that can "best ensure the security and welfare of the people".
1ee60a9255645dceba17190aee78a3f22cf77ad8	After leaving the United States, the Southern States were guided by the principles of the Declaration, wishing to change the government that does not fulfill its purpose in relation to its subjects of the Southern States.
9fd8ada12b1cc9fec0a8c9edf8664eef99626af5	When the South seceded from the United States and was attacked by the North, the southerners considered the conflict as the second American revolution.
76264a48c0c4a96e683cc282c5548c2022da9110	The seal of the Confederacy depicted George Washington the inspirer and prominent figure of the first American Revolution, who led the Continental Army and repulsed the British troops.
26512c004d2a1df8c72bb13d942cfe6297e5e25e	The Lincoln government did not want to give the South the opportunity to live independently.
a747c13ffaa24c833145cbe7219843ebee9afd56	I. S. Aksakov gave an interesting and very precise definition for the northerners, which characterizes their aspirations: "Federalists or unionists, that is, advocates of a violent union of the Northern and Southern states..."
e5dbfc79e35abbd7e917e1f24a7c4fe07b9fda1d	He also said: "The war waged by the northern states with the southern states for the preservation of the integrity of the union shows that violence is now an essential element of the union.
952b5d1214a4491542b157e5454007c643e7e37f	Therefore, this is no longer a natural and voluntary, but a forced and artificial union."
2df5f47559c5bf081e7fb81608ca7ce40e03f530	From this point of view, the separation of the South is understandable and understandable.
5afd658d367241f7481eac3d0b343879f597e35d	Residents of the Southern States rightly believed that they voluntarily entered the Union and had the right to withdraw from it.
d7751021055174da0c833179a62dac3e3faef863	Southerners believed that the Declaration of Independence proclaimed by their ancestors during the first American Revolution was fair for them, and the desire for freedom and happiness was their inalienable right.
b9de373e95051a59dc856b581cae762e6d0b28eb	"The Federation, which, by its very meaning, is based on voluntary consent, a free union, puts forward the beginning of coercion and violence..."
038483ea63b19317555543955fdc18116a12327f	- as I. S. Aksakov said, analyzing the events on the American continent.
c8c56183ddbafbc373ca893680e66d4043ce8511	A sense of patriotism and a desire to protect themselves and their loved ones have become decisive for southerners.
d3c3e2eed1c070de55d3595d6eeebf33f06072e0	And this patriotism almost unanimously raised the people of the Southern States to defend their freedom and statehood.
7f8b9247b9e3f9cae374c89cfea19fa2561a1fff	So, what were the reasons for the war between the North and the South of the United States?
94de990c294da1ecd054455ec6c0e38ece88553b	1. The contradiction between the mentality, way of life, moral and political ideals of the population of the northern and southern states, which did not allow northerners and southerners to become a single people.
557bb31ad32fd1fd5fbe6122e7706341a0a9520c	2. The political dependence of the South on the North.
66e6eaa07c0dc79b18a1967ad153c7daf4cf687f	The increase in the population of the Northern states allowed the northerners to take a majority of seats in the House of Representatives and dictate their will to the population of the southern states by passing laws that infringe on the southerners in political and economic terms.
d4cbe0f4b3047dc6a0fbf07a2f1754716ca09ab7	3. The desire of the South, which has a developed agricultural base, not to depend on the tariffs imposed by the North.
81b2c6423a17569a1f006d44380c50db4851105b	Having an absolute superiority in the raw material base, the South was forced to be in debt to the North due to the fact that the raw materials of the South were sold to the North at a very cheap price, and the industrial goods of the North were sold very expensive in the South.
b6d5f90b4e2c14c28d82c3eeda35a99c37ac8c1f	From the point of view of the southerners, they had every right to part with dependence on the North and build their lives according to their principles and ideals.
f7cb8e22cedf921ee952ea19b5d66411c9350dce	For the North, the secession of several Southern colonies from the United States meant not only economic, but also political problems.
de1f7bc83a52f7fe2086ccb2ec1d54264293fa0c	The power of the northerners could be shaken if they allowed the southern states to secede from the Union.
415ad61aec7c34c7cf9c5f063d7be48b25a336f1	After all, some northern states might want the same thing.
4a30f87a33db41f2850a982889e2cfd86d6105b8	Therefore, the North could not help but start a war, motivating it with the desire to preserve the Union.
584ea88b29f7a1e731d9bf9793b93cfac740ad3e	The government of Abraham Lincoln preferred to preserve the United States by violent methods, ruining and destroying the South, preferred to temporarily destroy the raw material base at all, but not allow the southerners to secede into an independent state.
031c377ec1a75cf171963f18212cf179b3da79be	Not wanting to pay a fair price for the same cotton, the northerners preferred to temporarily lose it altogether.
5451871778ec3504d034a85f7d7d6cae6465a848	They preserved the Union, paying a huge price for it with human lives.
d77fe422dee7ec6e59498650d8a8d6e0ed8fe11d	The war of the North and the South is still considered the bloodiest and most destructive of all wars, that were conducted on the American continent.
19b2a8ef3321bf0de150b6ae75e8c94492598db5	Used literature:
1d8cc5392bf64f3a39a1ad17277bef195c6388a4	Documents and regulations
e19b06f157d3f745da77978c17bfa1cebcf44e59	1. The Constitution of the United States of America // http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/cnstUS.htm
e74d53d0c810727fd3bc9347b26afbc7a84bc2d9	2. Emancipation Proclamation // http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=39&subjectID=3
21c1b6318bc9f87b7c37c872903d6005c787734b	3. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America // http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/
511366e2b094c7fd32ab699accf6f32154f07a25	Sources and research
e73c9c078c8d12cfb9fa0a364d43c7e5f643c18c	4. Aksakov I. S. About the lack of spiritual content in the American nationality // http://dugward.ru/library/aksakovy/iaksakov ob otsutstvii.html
aed23f8451cddce5ee827f914b380315de0f63b6	5. Alentyeva T. V.
b546dc2986523ad545045046bdbddccc151e82f6	The reaction of American society to the nullification crisis of 1828-1833.
5900c2667dde6701e47a6821042997d8bbd879a4	/ / http://www.rusus.ru/?act=read&id=18
1c46cd239b615fdb0ac145e46c4dbc2ebbf914d1	6. Bushkov A.
5a99aee08e9f6732280ee656c170860503e2093a	The Unknown War.
b6cb546f084866ab8f27d5295a76bfbe5287c794	The Secret history of the United States
9ae25b6ac1d80d0fae36d6dd6e2770b34aa4050c	7. The new history of the countries of Europe and America: The first period:
7629ba9b2e4e36623e93c38b2b40b57e9a3027cb	(Studies for universities on spec.
a4c7d90de93045ee110ae5b6130793b09102485d	"History" / G. L. Arsh, V. S. Bondarchuk, L. I. Golman, etc.);
b6ef7de10fb839d442f40a2e48e1b68d47a7f5c9	Edited by A.V. Ado.
3888f5254d9599fb0d851cf42f8f7ce24145aa16	- M.: Higher School, 1986
b1bffdeb73a68309333693e9464ca017d61bc297	8. Cotton / / http://agrofuture.ru/xlopchatnik.html
a16d290b94a7ff21488f0c39ecbda2fed8f7aa1f	9. Abraham Lincoln and Maryland // http://www.abrahamlincolnsclassroom.org/Library/newsletter.asp?ID=108&CRLI=156; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland
347ef7826eb277445c87d497f902c32c063add5d	Hard Road to Texas.
6634766dc67945dc69a256d0363d5ee763107707	Texas Annexation 1836-1845 // http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/exhibits/annexation/index.html
5bd465bbe219f7e6aefb0da38e618575939022b9	McNeill John K.
a7a8787e607177a44cd25250a6788c6584602ce7	A Southern View of History.
550c89b28e5f148f5af6a2281b0c71c075b63759	The War for Southern Independence.
c9bac31a16233c78ed59a60b6a28dea69f8cae24	"The Other Side of the Coin" // http://www.scv674.org/SH Table.htm
a05631f97c885b38662b92031dc162b3f16c7eb2	Missouri Compromise // http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=841
6f8d5818b1abea4a11ffa45b3e51fa5c33741fc6	Rodriguez J.
c574dbd859b44bd1608ea12f9b8948e2d6f98070	La Crisis de Mexico en el siglo XIX // http://www.iih.unam.mx/moderna/ehmc/ehmc10/124.html
ecdb6e597a305942dde5d6bbd30035ed7c8c50e3	The American Revolution: Causes of Conflict // http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/americanrevolution/a/amrevcauses.htm
537787110e42fc99ca77d8930b1821d48d7690a7	15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave and free states
522ea80a8999286149643641eeaf180fbcb84ef5	Author: M. V. Guminenko
a2608cd665c3c86bb3461f8267b9d74cc772b283	© M. V. Guminenko. two thousand eleven
efb17577f02e7444e46ab6a2cea5b5dfefe58671	If you have any questions about the use of the site materials, please contact: Kippari2007@rambler.ru
508ef00c4f50d0c9e97af590118f9efdd83d8c69	Comics (from the English comic — funny) - hand-drawn stories, stories in pictures.
43b8281aadcd27c50f4ac87e53f540f1696dfa28	The comic combines the features of such art forms as literature and fine art.
b01a2a632b1b2678569b60b42c38367eabaf7d72	Among other names of this type of art and its individual varieties are drawn stories, for large — scale comics-graphic novels (they are also graphic novels), for short ones — strips.
8067806f179423a9898a153d80a4aeccd4a4cc0c	In some countries with a developed industry of hand-drawn stories, there is a name for them.
de5ec4c1283f9f23e6fd189399aaecb2086fc603	So, in the French-speaking world, the comic is called fr. bande dessinée (hand-drawn tape) or BD, Japanese comics are called manga.
7dfc02c84bef209512f853e1f1cc1d7a9070d2b0	There are many definitions of a comic book, but all of them, in general, boil down to the fact that a comic book is a series of images in which a story is told.
653cbf6f7832c05290bcb69d8076ab7dcbbc2e70	According to most researchers, a comic book is a unity of narrative and visual action.
3078f91845ad20b3d7fa4678f202e39fcdc2cb37	Comics do not necessarily have text, there are also "dumb" comics with an intuitive plot (for example, "Arzak" by Jean Giraud).
00003ce646dbeefba5e67cc528dcfbeb4284cffc	But most often, direct speech in a comic is transmitted with the help of a philacter — a "word bubble", which, as a rule, is depicted as a cloud coming from the mouth, or, in the case of an image of thoughts, from the character's head.
58be62b6d3f4e5d5763bde38155eca330ff4d1e6	The author's words are usually placed above or below the frames of the comic.
99d6248f469cdf4b57074df407a1e43e7f98a62c	Comics can be any kind of literary genre and drawing style.
d473a04b5e2afdaf168587aaa0af9e8d072b61a7	Even the works of classics of literature are adapted in the form of comics.
1ae98a67d322a29bf3104461cce028430f0cdc41	But historically, the most common genres of comics are adventure and caricature.
1805b040fcabd33f5ce7dc8632ff463f9f044f95	This stereotype has long spoiled the reputation of comics.
1e384161f9195941bb6dac0c62a5761ad578eecd	The drawing in the comic has a certain amount of conventionality.
79d00842290c408819547acc491f9786d6f23390	It is simplified for the speed of drawing and the convenience of perception and identification of the reader with the character.
6ac0db404b6000bdaa12506f26ed70ecc83b2212	In terms of volume, comics range from short "strips" of several (usually 3) pictures to three-dimensional graphic novels and TV series from many issues.
b4b21d423a119dba586e8da5bc336ec5b3a3e561	Comics are closely connected with cinema, and especially with animation.
cdb69dcb8ae98ed2ee4f48afb63aa092313427cf	As the same McCloud notes, " A film on film is a very slow comic.
2a872e3e05fe62c383bb4544b5f597b375f447f5	In English, the word "cartoon" — "caricature" can mean both a comic book and a cartoon
274bc2ff431c66d076d7731bd922aa483b44104c	In fact, almost all Japanese anime cartoons are adaptations of Japanese manga comics.
e930653194191b029368acf511b69498d5508e77	Interestingly, America is not the birthplace of comics.
5d6c7494e2d7505372a1c08deb69cd9a8731f041	Comics are an invention of Europeans.
bcdaa926f9ef7f4ada38c0afa5fed5ea1d3b494c	Although, in fairness, it should be said that drawings with short captions — graphic stories-have been known since the time immemorial of rock art.
de27f04cd359b3b77d360d13a55ab017af918ee0	It is also worth noting that the concept of "Comic Book" is common only in the English-American lexicon.
00f860c5037bb1f6d6c46700083b7ccd4757e01f	And in Russia.
849baccac11f56dee38879d83aea63f030e4882a	In Russia, because the Soviet Union did not form a national definition of this type of art.
8e11561e7f8cd16bae94593d257d94369af8462d	The tradition of stories in pictures dates back to the XVI and XVII centuries, when in Valencia and Barcelona they began to sell pictures for the people, most often on religious topics.
5f3c2c8e847e97e8ad8c4c18e7130760b026091d	This is a retelling of the lives of the saints in a series of small engravings printed on sheets of colored paper ("hallelujah").
6599c4f21bb7ac129ce9d14dc67685ded780b454	Drawings on secular subjects were called" (Spanish aucas) " (from Spanish. jeu de l'oie).
124c3949b77747606bd49f253ffc64440dfe0638	"Hallelujah" in the XVI and XVII centuries were widely distributed in Flanders, France and Germany.
28c781b126055ed101b0c14a4d2c0b1fd64dbc77	In the XIX century, the factory production of stories in pictures was established in Epinal.
299966d5ce8568fbbe10bc3b383a98c45328def4	So, at the Pellerin factory, 600 stories were published, consisting of 16 square pictures with captions (the classic Spanish "hallelujah" consisted of 48 pictures).
4d5901cc8665b0e91243cd40f6315ae2e06b9864	In 1830-1846, the Swiss Rodolphe Toepfer released in Geneva a series of albums about the adventures of Mr. Jabot and Mr. Crepin.
b8f525cf5ab3cc241c25fe49bfee19f4a3bac169	The romantic artist Valentin published albums of pictures based on Perrault's fairy tales.
653fcd9f5956f059f70732c4542bb2cda16e686b	After 1870, illustrated weeklies in Europe began to use one of the forms of popular "Epinal pictures".
0a9d5ebccea81375db8503419377db2a91c2c6ba	Louis Lumiere borrowed the plot of "The Sprinkler" from such picture albums.
62cc6757f9589a25ef365101910588cbc60198e7	115 years ago, on October 18, 1896, the first comics appeared in the New York Journal, bright drawings with short texts that told about brave heroes and their exploits.
e31396aaf9ad6844801b1a2bbb8552df217edde8	But did comics really appear only in 1896?
25c4efdeac8d6de6bc6e0ad54855790a7efe048a	The appearance of modern comics was preceded by the political cartoons of the XVIII century by William Hogarth.
0be65ff496e0b3b64ab0c3f4c37e23a0a6c5bb8d	They were a series of drawings united by a common idea.
443fea89f861c718b36ee0047ac2b489f33d33c9	The next important stage in the development of the art of creating comics was the activity of Rodolf Tepffer and Wilhelm Busch.
23e8c33c466c86a1fe126257c0955027c040b5f3	The first became famous for "The Story of Mr. Vio Bois", the other was brought world fame by the popular poetry series "Max and Moritz", which tells about two tomboys.
b437d8ef9676f256c5d6b2233452111c7ca0121f	"The Bear and the Tiger" was the name of the first American comic book, which was published in 1892.
507fffc92d39a860927190bfb765ada24d3301fc	No less popular was the story "Yellow Kid" about a little boy from China who came to America in search of adventure..
3643940727ca765ef4e564df1d19151c205879dc	The famous creator of comics is Rudolf Derks.
dee155857daad4afc8d919d8a50579aadc85e497	It was he who came up with" bubbles", frames in which the characters ' speech is placed.
db3f4765573c52d60b8675d415c238f9ecebed00	Then follows the rapid development of comics, there are new heroes who live today: Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, Donald Duck, Mickey Mouse, Captain America, Delly and Harvey.
f6b608ba84ba7c20078ebcb9832d7c267dddc2f8	Entire publishing companies specializing in the publication of comics are being created: "Marvel", "DC", "Dark Horse"and" Image Comics".
4f833e59386debecdc8f3d7f0154647b9fa15df2	One of the largest is the company "Marvel".
e4fc18528bf95906226d62f65d524d5013ed75da	She released such masterpieces as" Fantastic Four"," The Incredible Hulk"," X-Men"," Iron Man","Spider-Man".
dfc5e5d442c7aacd05b253ef0737da61bada82ab	So, experts call several outstanding artists the founders of comics.
28f465b63bb82f561e429709c8c1979dfec234c1	In the 18th century, the English painter and graphic artist William Hogarth (1697-1764) wraps a dramatic narrative in a drawing.
6e6ce4a96af44f77aa5e35ef9700b81e7091b4f2	The German poet and graphic artist Wilhelm Busch (1832-1908) supplies his poems with a series of drawings, thereby reflecting the storyline of the poetic narrative.
f73c0936ccb30b11417e254033bf425c688c213f	The stories about the adventures of Max and Moritz, created by him in the middle of the 19th century, are still popular today.
529c76feacee5269387bc3d6043cce684cc9f7dd	The first example of real graphic prose is considered to be a series about the adventures of Dr. Syntax — "The Journey of Dr. Syntax in search of the picturesque" - by the English cartoonist and painter Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827).
c83d2c8652b36669ce843968c87f14aff24725b7	The United States actively picked up the genre, and in 1892 the first American comic book "Bears and the Tiger" was published in the Sunday New York World newspaper.
9c146200eec74edd7b02ce900f5354543f5c0e0c	Some sources call the first comic book "The Yellow Child", which appeared in May 1895 in the same newspaper.
0151a95a497a63d9edb58a6202a72f2e0e284b50	The author of both stories is the artist Richard Outkault, who is called one of the first authors of this genre in the United States.
87c3f50c7cac4901841fb09587b44a3b3cde67dc	The boom came in the 1920s and 1930s, from which the "golden age of comics" in the New World begins.
a20a698f2e7aa0b1dda903323c3ebf56b1f3b918	Comics are becoming an integral part of popular culture, their genres are expanding — fiction, detective stories, horror, super heroes.
fb3dae71e482fdabafd10012aaf68cac2f4ed694	In the heyday of comics, the immortal heroes of the stories "Donald the Duckling" and "Mickey Mouse"were created.
6b692c9b90a42a88c44425616f5ddebe09ae91ea	In the mid-50s of the 20th century ,the "Golden Age of comics " is replaced by the" silver", and then, in the early 70s, the" bronze " age.
b0a9738d8f94e82e2762ec63385c6a4a281f4ab8	The themes of modern comics cover literally the entire spectrum of human life: from love to hate, from war to peace.
14cab2c352857f363d5b4f4af596d97396903d86	It is worth noting that another day dedicated to comics is celebrated in the United States — on the first Saturday of May, the Day of Free Comics (Free Comic Book Day) is held.
7a44d81107aebd9319d59c93a644ba27554dc1e7	In other words, this is a commercial campaign designed to attract new fans of comics.
2ac117cb80d91f73570b6fbec444001e39a762de	The history of comics, no matter how surprising it sounds, has very ancient roots that go back to the times when people lived in caves and hunted mammoths.
5fdf23249dfad7e9fd9ffae32ee87a903a22954c	It was then that the first examples of rock art appeared, in which, along with scenes from real life, the first superheroes appeared, embodied in the images of ancient gods.
c1dc882e6fbe7bdae301b7391a88666c07ec4445	The chronology of the development of such a genre as comics is very long and lengthy, replete with numerous dates, therefore, listing the main milestones in the development of comics, we will limit ourselves to traveling through the XIX and XX centuries, since it was during this period that a qualitative leap in the development of the genre took place and the heroes known to us appeared.
067d17a20d0fe2baf39de48a149e5d8c3c73945e	The history of comics goes back to primitive times
60a22b545ae5ebd8dab5aacc8837fa453bf55b1d	Speaking about comics, we should start with the personality of Rodolphe Tepfer, a French-speaking Swiss artist who became a key figure in the history of the development of modern comics.
d8a73d77d10c631d4c4aa9ac637c16020b1c26b7	At the beginning of the XIX century, he began to consistently illustrate stories by placing text under images.
a7bad2046cb58a9e5bb746f2e4848b0608e84f38	These comics of his were reprinted throughout Europe and the USA.
40f1e0f031aacd04567e11764a1b772531a2d9bb	Due to the lack of copyright laws, pirated issues of "hand-drawn stories" began to be translated and published everywhere around the world.
3991ead21ab58351feb4ca2dc14fee8d3d391fdc	In 1843, satirical drawings that regularly appeared in newspapers and magazines received their name — cartoons.
18f36cdc91922fd58b6cc852f55d829470f10aef	A key figure in the history of the development of comics was Rodolphe Toepfer.
c44285e9829f9db3da787b5321fd56fce6b83d9b	The invention of photogravure in 1873 made newspapers relatively inexpensive and allowed them to be produced with a large number of illustrations.
1c2cf6f7f37cfc60522f4a6f9bf34a8e1bfed5c3	This change in technology was the impetus for the development of comics and their mass production.
6e9d1ff122558b0aad16f932f0c14b5e3d74ece5	The art of comics has received a special development in America.
768539a5ff0ef666380199691bdad1229c89834b	In 1893, Joseph Pulitzer published his first full-page color comic in The New York World, and in the same year other newspapers began printing color comics.
62cdf3096b9e79782564f5899b783ec9a5be6cd3	As a tool of popular culture, involving the use of both artistic and literary skills, the comic successfully reflected the social problems of its time.
1d2124a4ca16cda385736cbbaa174c3165006fa4	By the beginning of the XX century, regular strips appeared in the newspapers of the main cities of the United States.
bc7b0437fc8b2c7949b81c86a1c4f66f9f35dc39	The 1920s and 1930s were a period of active development of the comics industry around the world: in 1929, comics were published, the main character of which was the sailor Popeye.
f06078fb2a9b20314fffb83f2bfa3a03d55489ad	A special feature of this character was the increase in strength after eating spinach.
ffc5910427e8b56524edb1d5b394c5a57d4a4cf8	On June 1, 1938, comics were released, the main character of which was Superman, and in 1939, Batman and the first Human torch appeared on the pages of comics.
8fe7a43e52d93b13dc50d9249b87f25f044b641c	In the second half of the XX century, the comic book is a popular collectible
567e4e0b8047dea8e97dff91f4d3ffeebec02679	During the second half of the XX century, the comic book became a very popular collectible, and American comics of the 1970s became the basis for creating comic book collections.
4447c90822a975655b1438ac0ab511c28eb796da	The founder of the comic book genre in Russia is lubok.
e4a2adae8368644939223c1b2821513971ce2b37	Despite the fact that comics are considered typical representatives of" Western " culture, they have a rather long history in our country.
8364cdb3da8d247b42a5bd44179b212c39daf4a7	The first domestic comics, with a slight stretch, can be attributed to the popular books, which were distributed at the beginning of the XVII century.
e6266edc2ac88db84cbc1aee17653d29d4da6ee5	Such a book was a small scroll, which depicted pictures describing the most relevant event of socio-political life at the moment.
88723bd1f6e4c6c2c7cdb7afb6c87c49ee78ddf5	That is why the name of such books sounded like "funny sheets".
366ccf66c6bdbec6e7ab8420267bcc68bb7079e2	The next stage in the development of Russian comics is associated with the name of Vladimir Dal.
d76ca727ec335dae835b59f4b710f47d319d7cae	His work "The Adventures of Christian Christianovich Violdamur and his Arshet" in many ways resembled modern comics, since the plot, or rather the narrative, was based on a story in pictures.
dd744c4e6c55781dd3c14d1a926869b9c7976658	Such a peculiar form of presentation of the material was not appreciated by Dahl's contemporaries, so the "stories in pictures" did not receive further development.
bc4f1cfbadf72bceec42eed87e2f667bc96024bd	In August 1914, the association "Today's Lubok" appeared in Moscow, the participants of which were such representatives of the national cultural elite as Kazimir Malevich, Aristarkh Lentulov, David Burlyuk, Vladimir Mayakovsky.
ffd023d834ef63b2456b984aca97a55524ab96f7	The society produced propaganda leaflets on military topics, which contained both pictures and text information.
4b43222ecf428ceb896572537083974d25d7ec4a	In the USSR, the comic was not widely distributed.
4a5481af83303cec5cb53db9c3e1364c6361c363	In Soviet Russia, the comic did not receive wide distribution: the domestic ideological services in every possible way prevented the appearance in our country of any elements of "Western" culture, including comics.
99f634ffef038cfeedf9b9bb3b8001db592521dd	However, this did not prevent us from creating our own alternative to comics, which was manifested in the publication of the collections "History in Pictures", the illustrated story "The Adventures of Makar the Ferocious" by Boris Antonovsky, published on the pages of the Leningrad magazine "Hedgehog", Bronislav Malakhovsky's comics "Smart Masha".
a30738f78fdaed82b050fb4df3c7a8e4504f6603	The spread of comic printing led to the fact that in the 1930s the authorities officially banned it, calling comics "a bourgeois American way of fooling young people."
10540662cdfee3846411da93441b48fd458b7493	The children's magazine "Murzilka" continued to be the only source of new stories and illustrations for a long time.
354626be87a52cfe66714a5809711c9d7f38a7b3	Only in 1956, the Central Committee of the Komsomol began to publish a new magazine "Funny Pictures", which actively began to use the genre of comics as the main content.
ec011295c8c46cbaaa0491126c4d6b615c35ecd9	Later in the USSR and Russia there were comics about October that became famous all over the world, a series of comics "The Hare Pc and his imaginary friends: Sch, F, a hot water bottle and a pork chop with peas" and a collection of comics "Cat".
7b9634cb9f049bc49e97118669f048e965a4e0d6	The origin of comics is attributed to ancient times.
46ac56995b0f3924d725e342d018280344a7a439	The paintings found in the ancient graves of 3400 years ago depict scenes of harvesting and grain processing.
25516e69f79a9becfcf330af8a634d725e810e37	Scientists also find similar ancient drawings made with Japanese ink.
b13e33c13e46db37f3f7e64f6a56ba5af2bac286	The history of America, as it turned out, is also baked into the pictures of comics.
8f8335fd1f17e2c4979dc2e5b19da8158cdb3487	According to them, we can learn about the lives of people during the reign of Hernando Cortez.
4572b9cacfcfc8234da1c2308b6f7956df2d7276	During this period, comics began to be supplemented with signatures.
a5208959d3d56936edbd62a39e088e01ba0aa842	The first comics found in Europe describe the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The pictures and texts on them are already combined.
61fde7c21a5bcb67ee08085c984726ac0a8b4561	Since the beginning of the 12th century in Japan, monks were fond of drawing pictures on rolls of paper.
a5180078757257785f88b30c4d5bd775b7886b2f	Since the 19th century, notebooks with funny and popular stories have become widespread.
68fd327cad51b848dd75b3b2067b45f0bf1b8520	Religious stories were also often reflected in drawings made on the stained glass windows of cathedrals.
4ec28cf16f48fe533263ce06b93b64eefcc0aea9	Thanks to Japan, comics began to be printed in US newspapers.
58891370bd0d5690ad6892de8d9d4a8d22d41fb2	In Europe, comics developed in the format of booklets, i.e. long stories with a branched plot were created.
815aa69394df4f99b331ca4d05615bf098ffb30b	World War II had an impact on the development of comics.
21bec97a32fa0a2e803cdfefb0a02223d85b6da9	There was a division of the creators of comics into separate authors-an artist and a writer.
31eb1b4735c4dbbe5d5bd298e709c74e94d87648	After the end of the war, comics are actively developing in Japan.
ebb4d355601c399147323a3298ed9c785195659f	Osamu Tezuka made a great contribution to the development of the Manga style.
7d26ff10b0cee4ae6ecf4e48ba2ef52d6a77bb3c	Comics have become popular in all segments of society.
6e2933f2dedf0764eace3310283a101179d89e0a	They are read with pleasure by both men and women.
257ed6e6a86ab364ff10b4ef6d651205f17db1f6	In the 90s, Japanese Manga comics became widely known outside of Japan.
39ebf1767286638bdff95fcc4cc763453f94ffe2	Rodolphe Toepffer and Wilhelm Busch contributed to the development of comics with their creativity.
25be0a0b24305aa7d193a7691e4949e971a38c32	Rudolf Tepfer was born in the family of an artist.
9ab3f422beb3c730259701a4fdcb641f417d4946	At first, he worked as a teacher, and then he managed to establish his own school.
e63fd1144eee39c6298534bf80fc0a6985f99981	As a professor at the University of Geneva, he taught literature.
e6fcc3f151b3a6637ca49f65ed2096ffefae37ed	In addition to all this, Rudolf was very fond of drawing humorous stories.
e704f9d6df559ac956dd7d4dd7370e5cbcafaaa7	So his work (one of the first) "The History of Monsieur Vieux Bois" was published in 1937.
2d386f158e1efc197d215135bef2a2992b80aee6	These hand-drawn stories are similar in appearance to modern comics: drawings that followed each other, and there were explanatory texts to them.
37a9129fa9dedc9ed6e430c9f1945731da4f0d00	The German poet and artist Wilhelm Busch made a number of comic stories, their pictures were in no way inferior to the texts.
0ba2385e334e3f094ec0c5e00fb845b07ab016cb	Bush was born in the town of Wiedenzal, located near Gonnover.
d9a6eb74256b1f95aa155fa01d2e29c0d8f33e5e	The art academies in which he studied were in Munich, Dusseldorf and Antwerp.
57650cfbd60654b2fdc00ce6b1abc9d8eb1b98b5	After working for some time in the magazines "Munich Lubok" and "Flying Leaf", where he was engaged in drawing pictures for comic stories of other authors, Bush began to write his own texts.
06dac6461b57f8e0fc84d19240cdfe54d43d93d5	Already in 1865, a series of his poems was published under the title "Max and Moritz", which became the most popular.
75cc6381a98b386d0ed5ee0e860e5b22286b109a	The poems were dedicated to two tomboys, who sometimes arranged all sorts of tricks (it is worth noting-quite harmless).
6b36894b65549c10f435319c424199d903df2a12	In addition to "Max and Moritz", Bush created several more series of various illustrations.
ca63f1f879ad22b4dc943693315b6e385e826b14	In 1867 – "Hans Hoekebein, the unfortunate raven", in 1870 - "St. Anthony of Padua", in 1879- "Phipps the Monkey" and many others.
f378d317a4c94ca2dad6ba57d50f4065cdbd155f	One of the first authors of comics, the American Rudolf Derks, inspired by the stories of Max and Moritz, also creates his own comics "Katzenjemer's Children".
fe589c9015583a8a020aec88e289c8ee669e2dfb	The history of creating comics has gone a long way, and today we can buy this magazine with pictures in almost any store.
0dd6fb7d1f50328b996aa22be514c416645c1ea9	Some fans of this genre even collect entire collections of rare copies belonging to the same series.
d5cecdd0b676b6dbb237815582530488b2e0e918	Home Page > Articles > Comic Book History: the birth of Superheroes Comic Book History: the birth of superheroes
0181c9c7078f335530b2c8d69147a902ac590005	Published: October 16, 2015 at 16: 01 Print Save as PDF
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c47e9a8432fb9ca8eb3268d3beb03dce4f09e48d	Gorgeous modular paintings!
a9c0b2ed6a8aa38e365274c4e4276b37057b94c7	The history of "naked" dresses: why did the stars begin to publicly undress
fd03d1fda572b160cf713aaba6a07a018d022133	Where did the nudists come from
f2c27ce577ea33555509f71b52ecee8b18eabe5e	Direct Do you want to know more about Jesus?bog. cvc.is Come to our Christian website.
c6bd1cf299d522d13a63caad06fcd3c1047c52cc	Watch the video with the answer!
e084ec7f8fbf1ecc287f06eaead6b1062f89f56b	Fun lessons with Zdraiverszdraivery.
49a1a72ea8348aa552934dc65b5d9459a48ac4d8	A hypognitive and fascinating resource from the Zdraiver team.
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203a008176ea2780175c1e4f2b034640619be9e5	materials on the topic
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610c4045084fa8f3367fb2c602d4d35b9b4e3d3a	So that life does not seem like honey
c8699fc6bed1e78c30b743b5837f34fd2189b74d	The status of women in the Middle Ages: disenfranchisement, violence and the Inquisition
f21e5b7edf9917ec251d262d6385fa21be83be23	78087 2
0f11acc9e6caf73b9b9b9dd2407fcb376398a7de	excursions
e3ab0e3113b6cc0099c7fa23f947dc05f3e37c5e	The biggest stampedes in history
5158646d04308b0b056ddd95a94d5389d3326055	7182 0
cc12ea15011a43843dd01fa0038fa203d8b72b89	The theory of evolution VS the theory of divine origin.
2a13d132d4757da71e1180295a052b417024308e	Who is right?
873a75c766d458b741aa2a3f0468e7a660c9799c	Anna Klyukina
5c3e4713363c908f7a0a8fbbbb6eb202748d04b7	VS Vsevolod Chaplin
9647ff351d3b255ff44a5663cf75afcb59f46d7d	1506 5
1bf2d50d6f70e5b887190691d2d0e1ea5910b631	More than one generation of teenagers grew up on graphic novels about Superman, Batman, the Hulk, Iron Man.
9201190c0a85e3e6f67de8636ff28b6a17ecf873	Comics have been and remain the subject of a cult, although it is not an easy task to explain why superheroes so excite the minds of young and adults.
78d5db42d70ee85b6ade42ad14704ca99eca6c21	Rock paintings of Hopi Indians in Arizona, USA
bf577c62f818dca7338977bba2d67e8a8db67bf9	The history of comics goes back to primitive times Speaking about comics, we should start with the personality of Rodolphe Tepfer, a French speaking Swiss artist who became a key figure in the history of the development of modern comics.
59a50166418fc57d547b6d4b3b238a2aab1b3563	Due to the lack of copyright laws, pirated issues of "hand drawn stories" began to be translated and published everywhere around the world.
3ccdd276914cc86d732d77aef5bace12294a379b	In 1893, Joseph Pulitzer published his first full page color comic in The New York World, and in the same year other newspapers began printing color comics.
44920c0bd0ced11a2b6e1f96ef808cc61a794796	"The Yellow Kid" ("Yellow kid"), 1898
31d6ad196f9d1a9d6088106c54744c02f1015d39	In the second half of the XX century, the comic book is a popular collectible During the second half of the XX century, the comic book became a very popular collectible, and American comics of the 1970s became the basis for creating comic book collections.
0464cd42644c9ced3682ec4dfa19a142de57e594	The cover of the comic book "Plastic Man", 1943
2a9adc8ee6a07d036483b8e9492cff208af83e56	During this period, comic book heroes appear: 1961 the first issue of the Fantastic Four is published comics about a team of superheroes with various supernatural abilities; 1962 — the time of the birth of Spider Man and the Hulk; 1963 comics about Iron Man, Doctor Strange and the X Men were published; 1966 the appearance of the Black Panther; 1970 — a series of comics about Conan the Barbarian; 1977 the appearance of the comics "Star Wars"; 1984 — the" birth " of the Ninja Turtles.
d2c30cd9c47fe703485a1ee282a1cad8806cabfd	Such a book was a small scroll, which depicted pictures describing the most relevant event of socio political life at the moment.
e52edc8497ecbde6d54f8497a5d8fe70e10c528c	"The strong and brave hero Ilya Muromets".
defc4a291c86822ed1de51c46457d5b7ccd9e421	Splint of 1868
5beda8c568c68d11f0607b5bcb46d529b697af7f	"The story about bagels and about a woman who does not recognize the republic" — a poster from the cycle "Windows of GROWTH".
57ff0d5cd1e66caf442cf44c003ccfafddbcbaa8	August 1920.
53e92d694bb93d1a400f8e9fec5e22c17f265813	The artist is Mikhail Cheremnykh.
1523cfcf4e8025d683c9d9086fc08a900cd195fb	The author of the text is Vladimir Mayakovsky
d69ca5e6d8a5109467677b0fabaefc3026c63c4e	The suffering Middle Ages.
ff167ef78fa2c0b2cb2d2d92bbf64b8633aa0858	Issue #30…
6320458840c42872bd57e448d1a3a5cd894874ef	Both laughter and sin: absurd US laws…
b866331791654d08f511727a627cb061f4eaff6a	The funniest and most ridiculous titles…
9671783f14f996755b18ae32d25cf12bde74ed35	Why is "Well, wait" unpopular with modern children?…
61b6f65379f54bcd0299bb90c69f695ede22c0e7	The best examples of political caricature…
92ff124874c4e2a29674158fe9fcb5a0188911e3	Issue #38…
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403f1afd05cd046b35cc05ac417b9e2b782a6caa	Comic book
40b529253f1cd5c5779b12518a202b0c4052abeb	Comics (from the English comic — funny)
0d536cc7dd5c2b16f94161865557afe637b435ba	- hand drawn stories, stories in pictures.
758b8a3096159508b90112cc37b2f0996f8e9ba4	The comic combines the features of such art forms as literature and fine art. Among other names of this type of art and its individual varieties are drawn stories, for large — scale comics graphic novels (they are also graphic novels), for short ones — strips.
29fbfbf75d42bd801347dd0804cfbb178cf01488	In some countries with a developed industry of hand drawn stories, there is a name for them.
9c18af6238796b8c333d6ea433f6a9da0ec2cb26	So, in the French speaking world, the comic is called fr. bande dessinée (hand drawn tape) or BD, Japanese comics are called manga.
15e20f23f0dd223f65fd37cd3293b9b60571d9b4	1 Definition 2 Standard composition of a comic book 3 History of its origin 3.1 Stories in pictures 3.2 Comics come to the USA 3.3 The Golden Age 3.4 The Silver Age 3.5 The Bronze Age 3.6 The Modern Age 3.7 The development of the comics industry in the USA
24328a2a3744f06a8663b82c55cba55069f0f04a	4 Types of comics 4.1 Comics based on historical events 4.2 Fantastic comics
bb21669542e933fd4f9cce41f8a73a90602e88cc	5 Comics in the USSR and Russia 6 Notes 7 Literature 8 References
8c52c75269fc64db7262c471a37c2a5a0599af1a	Definition[edit / edit wiki text]
5caf4ab26c096431be955b5c0bb3253c6681f2b5	Scott McCloud, author of the book "The Essence of Comics" (English: Understanding comics), offers a brief definition of "sequential images", and a more complete one — "adjacent drawings and other images in a semantic sequence"[1].
a5bc876c2e1dbe6c51f3673813b08a8d69ab75c4	Georges Sadoul defines comics as "stories in pictures"[2].
1f8f42e191b2b64899a2ca0209704e2ec7c865fa	In terms of volume, comics range from short "strips" of several (usually 3) pictures to three dimensional graphic novels and TV series from many issues.
a6f71320d0846ac231ce7aac440dbb930a7fd2c5	Space for a comic book means the same as time for a movie"[1].
ff5106fa41614e2dd72040524738fc42bab9cd86	In English, the word "cartoon" — "caricature" can mean both a comic book and a cartoon In fact, almost all Japanese anime cartoons are adaptations of Japanese manga comics.
1f3f9fcb082ee66b107c0b1be2800ecce01555b2	The standard composition of the comic[edit / edit wiki text]
466aa85aae50dae942cd14a546010b4727da1c69	The cover conveys the main meaning of the comic.
2bf3777400194df9e669e53d639c9a55f668b279	In addition to the drawing, the cover may contain: the name, the company's logo, price, advertising, date, signatures of artists.
6a05525dfcf0b09befc9367d737bd4f3d03b7b89	The cover can be on two sheets, the right side of the cover is "front", the left side is "back".
08e67f647ad2d60e027de6740b0a3cfc218a3432	Frontispiece a drawing in front of the title page.
69fe405cca1cf3308dd837c10a6fc97c32d96a3a	Gives the reader the opportunity to learn more about the comic.
3348a70b87ef7dc1b22ce4cfe23ef36144682a67	The title page — it can contain: a brief introduction, the names of authors, artists, contourers, etc.
ee5165e8e28f5681fa953b7fd53ec5c5042cfc94	It can be accompanied by small illustrations.
7256c113c71659067d75a31ab39191fe3d3e7b2d	The main part is pages, the number of which is unlimited, but in standard comics there are from 20 to 40.
2f41319e7920d08ff9b3dbff9743839dd9f94baa	Pin Up Page — additional drawings from the main artists or from other people who have something to do with the comic, for example, alternative cover versions.
2d8c5497c1d5d6d00279f8ee67111fa57199a35a	The history of the origin[edit / edit wiki text]
c10e443f8cf03b0763f08572ef67f840676a1c9c	Stories in pictures[edit / edit wiki text]
5c80236816b52feab494518d491165797ac2d047	Drawings by Rodolphe Tepfer
3a5395ffddcd4b6add54908d71c61013d5bc8c29	Comics are coming to the USA[edit / edit wiki text]
f9183deaf5cb0d581892b22eeea1ca316cb750b7	Little Sammy Sneezes (1904-06).
72a530877b42bbaf4dac678e3df7d733c71108b0	Artist Winsor McKay
d7d9ef285d3228af207db14615beef22087a11ba	The first American comic strip "Bears and the Tiger" was published in 1892 in the magazine "The San Francisco Examiner" (editor William Randolph Hearst) [2]. The Hearst Printing Trust made extensive use of illustration, and with the advent of comics, they become the favorite weapon of the Hearst press, as well as the press of his rival Joseph Pulitzer.
5bef820bc2db19b29482a6226102a48cf996793a	In 1894, the first machine was installed in the printing house "World", which printed in four colors, and the resulting prints no longer looked like fried eggs with tomatoes.
ba4416c0ef17c93163b91f7e64e18be53b9eee9a	On November 18, "World" released the first really successful comic in the Sunday issue.
05329ff25d857821147455082e8d2809f6365eb2	Richard F. Autcolt, a draftsman for the Electric World newspaper, supplied her with comics in which the main characters were a clown and a shepherd dog.
fd019f7308158682055f55f492756e387d93d16b	So the first comic series appeared in the Sunday newspaper.
0520c4d1230b80b7848b7166a28308af43c5eec8	- Winkler, William Hearst's historiographer[2]
689a6cc96402672441a3a262aba6289b569d587d	Later, Richard F. Outcault released the series "Hogan's Alley".
94f97427dfcedc7019ebf504adc893248fb4a3b6	A minor character in it was a little boy in a yellow suit, who was very fond of New Yorkers.
ab23404617194ccac3ebbbd7f33e4da3730770b3	Outcolt makes him the main character.
77ce8df116696a79e0bcc0a412812b79fad86287	Hearst began to fill the Sunday edition of his newspaper, the Morning Journal, with comics.
998baf35006c7bfe183512c804f7528fc0909358	The" Yellow Baby "in" World " was drawn and colored by George B. Lux[2].
78b6f1b946c9f81d0fc5467d9f4fc404892d65e8	In the fall of 1899, Hearst changed the printing press, which printed 4 pages of color drawings, to a machine that prints 16 pages.
a1d55c53ba7ac396583bebff20960f3363d5b6fd	The Sunday newspaper publishes comics first on 8 pages, and then on 16 [2].
28a4a223093a4429d1ca62339a3e228d946f3e66	One of Hearst's most prominent draughtsmen at that time was Winsor McKay, who was considered more of an expert on political caricature than on comics.
f73e53e40af8034ab73bc84611bd70041d690002	He collaborated in Hearst's New York newspaper "New York American" and in his spare time drew the cartoon "Gertie the Dinosaur".
9d8c5f036acf5ca0d9884bc3f5a7e1065014273a	Thanks to these color series, the newspapers of Hearst and Pulitzer became known as the"yellow press".
e88e2980539b5d837a7201ae236adb89a2ada7cf	- Georges Sadoul[2]
961b6c125b889e6a0de3e8844c77a87269e923e7	The Golden Age[edit / edit wiki text]
36d19fa9702d6d2f20445e3305907386f6c5a6e7	Plastic Man #1 comic book cover, 1943.
5ec3bf3125f4746f1e1b4746de03b1da86c90c65	Plastic was one of the most popular characters of the golden age.
854182911d371b8c750eca78e0babfb0f8a1960d	Main article: The Golden Age of Comics
fac7735bb75ed635878fe778af1cc765ab75c0f9	In the XX century, the comic book became one of the popular genres of popular culture.
026d23e4006009525f9a1f48e30b7fda4d5cb7a4	By this time, comics had mostly lost the comicality for which they received their name.
297dd8f1ffd2fb675f8de23c845681fdd52f5f9c	The main genre of comics has become adventure: action movies, detective stories, horror, science fiction, stories about superheroes.
1bbc945cb439f71eb1a860c9582dac541a9a3511	The Golden Age of Comic Books is the name of a period in the history of American comics that lasted (according to various estimates) from the late 1930s to the mid 1950s.
91f715b59e9cd833a413d2c8aa1769766d4cf700	The first serious steps in the development of the art of graphic novels were made at the beginning of the XX century, in search of new ways of graphic and visual communication and self expression.
cffe7c75c7845c6b3dfe9f5423393a564bd1ac59	At first, the comics were purely humorous in nature.
4b34505003b4fa4f73a1d669569b151860d914a0	This is largely due to the etymology of the English word that determined their name.
425efd44119a260c3dfd95cd995beb66283011fe	This situation radically changed in June 1938, when the character Superman appeared in the United States.
4f995b2d89bc57c521e39ad41328f76589d7c5b1	The beginning of the golden age is considered to be the first appearance of Superman in Action Comics #1, published in 1938 and published by DC Comics.
319c2faa46a464b50cfa656b4129edef990e2fac	The appearance of Superman was very popular, and soon superheroes literally flooded the pages of comics[4].
d96b4e239e08fefb40ef7adb18c5bd9371627242	Other characters that have long been popular are Plastic Man, published by Quality Comics, as well as Detective Spirit under the authorship of cartoonist Will Eisner, which was originally published as an add on, combined with the Sunday edition of the newspaper[5].
a0194a4df4887eff4a2e72aa669ed97e0ba6b46c	In total, more than 400 superheroes were created during this period.
94e57ceebfba99ce5429e8a25a78414a8706e4d3	Most of them strongly resembled Superman and did not survive to this day, but it was then that such heroes as Batman and Captain America were born.
8198307cc455d9d6dd7a0a433301fdec7bb67f44	The Second World War had a serious impact on the content of superhero comics — now the heroes were fighting with the Axis countries, and the covers depicted superheroes fighting with the leader of the Nazi movement.
77c7a92a00b2fb584fd051b3f772633c4da91cc2	After the victory over fascism, superheroes with nuclear abilities began to appear, for example, the Atomic Thunderer and the Atomic Man[6][7][8].
68025e2f2225ba76f46fa42ed2552789ce6aa298	Historians of that time believe that children's characters helped to ease the fear of young readers about the prospects of an atomic war[9].
6c339997de979b886f54c71a6185a839565a0552	In addition, the heroes began to fight the Communists, and some were involved in the Korean War.
b50017249481d1f96d2905a6fb38c3cb231be5b2	However, after the end of the Second World War, the popularity of superheroes began to decline.
a945a417368131ecd57c6d517067c54fba11f017	In general, it was during the golden age that a new and to this day the main direction in comics appeared — superheroes and new worlds.
51d723cab7f8403c5fec603fda8fff9aa3414ae3	The Silver Age[edit / edit wiki text]
3b02814c6e93b7051587a3dced2a7e1f41da7baa	Main article: The Silver Age of Comics
ce77edeb00f60c6f0b27f61aa677b9cf934c1483	The Silver Age of Comic Books is the name of a period in the history of American comics that lasted from 1956 to about 1970, and then was replaced by the Bronze Age[10].
28c08222d387a2a935ee0911466914a11e958b2c	The Silver Age began with the comic book Showcase #4, released by DC Comics in October 1956.
c1d47797f77c7e3b3a9280bed17a0ab0f0d5a250	[11][12] In it, the company introduced a new version of the already existing superhero Flash.
c3985ce8106ae580c16367dc2b25beaddf4a76e6	In the 60s, the Marvel company also enters the world arena.
f8dab40b86408cdcbb8773ce9ccdbcef9c8a01ca	The notorious Stan Lee, Steve Ditko and Jack Kirby create some of the most popular heroes in the history of comics: The Fantastic Four, Spider Man, Hulk, Thor, X Men, Iron Man and many others.
463fa5c2446f9f6ffd8f191bb52fc0303212b366	The main center of the comics industry remains the United States, where they are very popular.
9fdcb9d1bfa9f7db5f8a4a2f5f575eb2e69558f6	The largest world famous companies are Marvel, DC, Dark Horse and Image Comics.
750dcfe5e41ab31a1afc82d482922fd16f384deb	The Bronze Age[edit / edit wiki text]
8a9c4dde56327713a1e18aa7429738f6139a500d	Main article: The Bronze Age of Comics
4db898cdd832163dbc28dc385f46f9fb703fa574	The Bronze Age of Comic Books is the name of a period in the history of American comics, and although there is no exact framework for this period, it is generally assumed that it began in the early 1970s and ended in about 1985.
69f35f960eae0d6bf261831dc351c11e8ad0b2ad	The plots of the comics became more realistic and adult, now they touched on such topical topics as drug use, alcoholism and environmental pollution.
c0b03cb0397296b7ff2126175dcf976965f77683	One event that is most often called the beginning of the Bronze Age was the death of Gwen Stacy, Spider Man's lover in The Amazing Spider Man #121-122, released in 1973.
ad6906ef3150649305bbc96115914829324c393c	[13][14]
5056a95bfe5e90a92561710962e8b03e9852f6b8	The modern age[edit / edit wiki text]
1504f731f3d2e8c770b4a87ca1d071fc6221b551	Main article: The Modern Age of Comics
45da63aceb7489f3bd9d9a7e0566f260907cacfb	The last, currently highlighted, period in the history of the development of comics lasts from the mid 1980s to our time.
8eab7920fbef2a5c39ad5bb5c7bfa1b8d98bbe79	The exact framework, as in the case of the Bronze Age, does not exist.
35d8750c71e35a18d88dc82195172003850a1dee	In addition, there are several versions of the name of the period.
7dde915613b05d17a70ddd6684b0fb288247c184	The modern age is characterized by even greater realism in comics, the appearance of anti heroes and the gloom of the plots.
995bb9bfe901e6fd51f1e8af45ee6c9f518ef3a4	At the end of the XX century, Asian comic genres became very popular: Japanese manga and, somewhat less well known, Chinese manhua and Korean manhwa.
1ade33f2427ab516e403e8c087fba97482cc7db3	The development of manga in Japan began with the end of World War II, but in the West, the Asian comic remained little known until many of the manga were filmed in the form of anime (a genre of Japanese animation).
d59c1836f2fbc2decba563104521d68a7c271ea1	At the beginning of the XXI century, comics received a new incarnation due to new computer technologies used in coloring comics, as well as a number of talented artists, such as Ashley Wood, Todd MacFarlane, Sam Keith, Paolo Rivera, Greg Capullo, Humberto Ramos, Giuseppe Camuncoli, Tomm Moore, etc. Comics began not only to draw with a pencil, but also to write in oil, as well as to combine the first and second in combination with graphic digital technologies.
02eeb6b6f578afb2010c9c80133643936a725387	Many of the comics were filmed in Hollywood, and the films are an incredible success all over the world.
772a82d8fbdc7698c480165ad16344c7819d8b20	The development of the comic book industry in the United States[edit]
8d60adbb0d7663de662c0a6699e8ab515410d94e	March 1897 The newspaper" New York American " was the first mention of the comic book.
552054ac6f42618a56ed971cca00928c2ce074cb	It was the artist Richard Autkolt.
c68c4b309bf0b996046991ab9ca080fda22e241a	Of course, few people paid attention to this new phenomenon, and only in the early twenties began to appear short stories about "Matt and Jeff", "Fax Grand", "Buster Brown" and "Barney Googly" ... 1922 The magazine "Comic Monthly" begins to regularly allocate a column specifically for comics.
a077de5e87b5461fc2a6ebfadba50a5162f6bddf	From 1929 to 1933.
87fa682175644b80911aeb657d0930cb58467a5d	George Delacott printed 36 issues of the comic called "The Funnies" — this was the first color separate edition of the comic. one thousand nine hundred thirty three This idea was picked up by employees of the New York firm Eastern Color Printing Company.
a2e4b0e6ed56e3fa7eae64fad171673020b2d657	They printed a thirty two page comic "Funnies On Parade" with a circulation of 10 thousand copies, which soon grew to a quarter of a million.
2535d7f8f28d10484345d222ed62757a42e96149	Comics began to sell out in a matter of days.
04ff5e5346e70eea9996aafdfbbc430802e920e4	From 1933 to 1940.
308aab9ad8decad9937bfa6879659086575c3246	Comics began to be published regularly in various newspapers and published in separate books.
17b402f454c803bf1a2277d217419b9ba2950a8f	But the most important thing is that the monthly magazine "Famous Funnies" began to be published, the circulation of which was already initially large (400 thousand copies). 1938.
8bd13e0a4ad2053eec0e067cd41134a8388de3c8	The beginning of the "Golden Age".
8f620a75d7a84242fe29fbb74b1cbf5dff3536b8	There was another magazine - "Action Comics" — the main character of which was Superman, and a little later there was a gloomy hero Batman.
f0b4fbdefc72cf6685f8349cfef6bec9774e809a	From 1944 to 1952, a whole flurry of new super comics, such as "Captain America", "Amazing Woman", the series "Military comics", "Police comics" and a whole set of cartoon characters: "Bugs Bunny Rabbit", "Donald Duck", "Mickey Mouse", "Porky Pig", etc.
7f9d2757107fc481a426c732f5e4d5d15fc4e077	A series of patriotic, anti war, anti fascist comics, the first appearances of horror comics with the villain Frankenstein and much more.
3d467eec6bc12894e8ec06eb1c5f1c86e0605597	1953-1959 A slight decline in the sale of comics due to their relatively low quality. 1956 The end of the "Golden Age", the beginning of the "Silver Age".
e7f32c149fd11c6de11df7435c397b78e4471177	1960-1970 Again the rise, and the biggest with the genesis was the appearance in August 1962 of a comic book with Spider Man, it was invented by writer Stan Lee, and drawn by artist Steve Ditko. 1970.
16f82048c85f5907f0a177275f59217f64d60c8b	The end of the "Silver Age", the beginning of the"Bronze Age".
982dcf0a5fa0f408993e44ae5f865d163dae6a47	A new boom has produced the TV series "Conan the Barbarian" based on the novel by Robert Howard.
f624487219782f1166baeb80d6789528e133389e	1970-1980 A furious competition begins in the comics business between the two largest printing companies "Marvel" and "Dell".
f6359060f02426b11d3cca3f7aedeba832c98683	"Dell" begins to reissue comics of the 30s 50s, and "Marvel Comics" responds to this with a series of original and entertaining adventures of Spider Man. 1977.
27b2f27613f6bb2d12660e78521cb1df659c956a	Three months before the release of George Lucas 'sensational science fiction film "Star Wars", the Marvel Comics company began publishing a series of comics based on the scripts of this film.
f20fb411420e0d024c4f27f15003b083803248d9	"Star Wars" exceeded all expectations, breaking all record circulation.
33315ea1a6814be5789523bbf748b6d9605470a1	The agency Warner Communications also did not sleep, attracting readers with the characters of the Hulk, Doctor Strange, Dick Tracy and Flash Gordon.
eca702a22b95efec1d307c9059880e3ccd7748c4	Subsequently, art and animated films were shot based on these comics.
c4273d65299b62ca893c10ed8064e72e6bc4c347	Even the music magazine "Heavy Metal" pleased with the avant garde comic book of the best European artists.
20af3374ab9bc128e79cec28077d8afed4d12612	1980-1990 The comic book industry is in full bloom. 1984 A real sensation was made by "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles", which was released by Mirage Studious, screenwriters Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird.
0a22db39379db71138ea2afa79a60e394c9cf31b	A comic book series is being produced, an animated series of the same name (1987) and a feature film (1991) are being released. 1985 is the end of the "Bronze Age", the beginning of the "Modern Age". 1988.
897d2095d5ea8649c73c2403ae4333a6158d6b03	The company Mirage Studious, sells part of the rights to the Ninja Turtles to Archie Comics.
4609a2b04de21c9106839469102918250db1f74c	The comics under its auspices were called "TMNT Adventures".
4fc3c863f04f88c2da4eb878f5960a3c86a337f9	Actually, this series began the distribution of comics about TMNT in other countries.
2825a634101440fbd946edafd919da1816a92109	In Britain, these comics were produced by the brand "Fleetway Publications".
9d0ba6b4aa61c33310b20e9b0f013c216e353d8f	In Russia, they were published by the Makhaon publishing house.
69116ee443d99e8c157048733d0838a4011619ad	The year 1989 was the fiftieth anniversary of Batman.
db0e8bacb46f03ae6b5c9d2a34d832c0f4f6bc9b	A series of comics was timed to coincide with this year and a feature film "Batman" was shot, in which such famous actors as Michael Keaton (Batman) and Jack Nicholson (The Joker) participated, the film became the highest grossing in the list of American rental in the history of cinema this year. one thousand nine hundred ninety The series "Classics in illustrations" is published, which included "Moby Dick", "The Raven", poems by Edgar Poe," Great Hopes "by Dickens," Alice through the Looking Glass " by Lewis Carroll. 1993.
4841206b23997e308d65b51898976fc018b6833d	Matt Groening (author of the comic book "Life in Hell"), together with colleagues, creates the "Bongo Comics Group".
73fa5b4f82756260a5899cbfa4caa33cd1b44923	They produce many comics based on the animated series "The Simpsons".
2ada76eb362f0746412770f0813e825dda9a72a1	And later "Futurama". 2000.
0f54f7d9deb3721e48055511ce0bc55a07516f9c	Marvel Comics relaunches the most popular classic comics, for the modern generation.
d9e01766e020068b77a5a3a5aba9d9a60e0eebb2	Under the general name Ultimate Marvel (Modern)
0a39fbf0273b6bdf59ba4fa06412047e376bf60a	The company "Dark Horse" begins to print comics based on films such as" Alien"," Predator","Terminator".
5954de314ee94fadddc850fc8a7bdca1ef84eaf9	At a time when comics companies are competing with each other, the Walt Disney Company is engaged in the production of children's stories with Mickey Mouse, Goofy, Donald Duck, Pluto and other characters, being out of competition, as it were.
1b16adb4337d162618526f52e40460d0dac56e79	Rock music is another topic that is found in comics of the 1990s, stories in pictures are published about almost all rock stars.
f2f5c92ff49108cebb8bbb076ad1b693a60e33aa	The comics even reflected almost all the topics and events in the Persian Gulf in 1990, they were especially acutely perceived by Americans.
fd97a3e0511855377ee9aa9419dfaf602f323af8	Comics with a bias towards pornography and violence also appeared.
3baf41e3608915d49053d4624d4263e2aedef123	This attracted the attention of the Institute of American Censorship in the Field of Art. Tough measures were taken — on the covers of the most "bold" comics there are inscriptions "Only for adults" (English adults only!).
136b9dd41f34e7f0868184fa6b4a2b3d893b868b	Types of comics[edit / edit wiki text]
62e674189dc312af2dbef6acdbb712b20e6a1f78	Comics based on historical events[edit / edit wiki text]
709e03e754d154ff7a1f1142b4fa96d57400e50a	Canadian animators, Oscar nominees 2007, Maciek Shcherbowski and Chris Lavis have been leading the popular comic "The Untold Tales of Yuri Gagarin" in the first international free youth lifestyle magazine Vice Magazine for 10 years.
d4fc3c267555d718a9315e6c7bab707c533fe175	The main character of the comic was Yuri Gagarin.
8c1263775c1506326c511dea8c8665f59f27e88d	Fantastic comics[edit / edit wiki text]
26390e785061b854ae79e718bfe9a9bf4ac6aa1c	A kind of comics based on a fantastic theme.
97f0f20d7c66ad6322092b903a1449a1b27a7771	Dmitry Zlotnitsky in his article "Fantastic Comics" in the magazine "World of Fiction" identifies 5 areas of fantastic comics: comics based on famous TV series, comics based on literary works, comics based on game universes, comics based on TV series that have lost popularity
7f571ece765395c821e566f32efa90ad4e40cd97	(comics based on the adventures of Indiana Jones, the comic series Xena, the warrior Queen, comics based on the Red Sonya, mini — series based on Conan, a series of comics about a Highlander by Dynamite Entertainment, comics based on Robotech by Wildstorm 2003, numerous comics based on transformers by Marvel, DreamWave and IDW Publishing) and original comics by the author without connection with existing fantastic works
e33adbff1d0c6685235a07eadfa291594d26640f	(Richard and Wendy Pini ElfQuest - "The Saga of the Forest riders" in 1978, the world of Warlands by DreamWave and Image Comics, the Sojourn series by Crossgen Comics, the world of Soulfire, V for Vendetta and the series about the city between the worlds of GrimJack)[15].
96c594b9ee8232eb00c4aa1c73aec7ce16bf2b4d	Comics in the USSR and Russia[edit / edit wiki text]
ce4431948208d0545a30b8e63501bce6c4d9188a	The poster "Windows of Growth", created by Vladimir Mayakovsky, his propaganda posters used the technique of a comic book
7b1363a4d2443a9fcea67b0bedee9ceb2e715f7d	Main article: The history of comics in Russia
bbb169c13898475613d720ee21a79165ef966b6d	In Soviet Russia, the comic was not widely distributed[16].
dcf627e622c34761bfa2bbad28475f5d76dd26f7	However, some examples still existed.
79f9c39205c53df19436bc4848c55dc8500f463d	Thus, the comic book technique was used by Vladimir Mayakovsky in his propaganda posters of the Window of Satire of GROWTH.
7da72a28453b1e92ea06541bd5953fc304852f53	In 1937, the children's book album "Stories in Pictures" by the artist Nikolai Radlov was published.
d01cd5ac92da35323a6d59c6bf6ffe7845a660b5	In 1955, Yuri Pavlovich Lobachev, the father of Russian (emigrant) and Serbian comics, moved from Romania to the USSR, but after the only permitted attempt in 1966 in the pioneer magazine "Koster", he was forced to return to political caricature.
9e28e2c6c1d7caefcc3fc42efc06e48735a1f758	Small stories in pictures were published in "Funny pictures" for children and in the magazine "Crocodile" for adults, occasionally foreign comics were published in the magazine "Science and Life".
edb16c7e2c4cffef721576aa07b85bed4455fe0a	In 1991-1994, the magazine "Mukha"was published.
14751132839dd0befadc0ba5a83de15bf67efd70	The enterprise of the Russian Union of veterans of Afghanistan "Veles VA"[18][19][20] in 1990-1998, it published comics magazines focused mainly on the patriotic education of young people[21], there were also just entertaining comics; the magazine is considered successful[22][23] and comics are still being reprinted[24].
468f2afe189fb095284a17063793c0bdff10aca0	From 1999 to 2003, the magazine "Magnificent Adventures"was published.
4b8ff610725988a5ed5c3a19c618d1651bfecd9e	However, until the 2010s, comics were not very popular in Russia, and many said that the comic culture in Russia did not develop.
fe482c843b70a92dc9e16df19a1f5739b373838f	In the mid 2010s, Russia is experiencing a comic book boom for the first time in its history[25][26]. Drawn stories are published by more than a dozen publishing houses, among them - "42", XL Media, Bubble, "Comics Art", "Panini", "Abc".
04114ac8db4470f4b75b97614984e10973bdd47f	The most famous foreign graphic novels are published in Russian, specialized comic book stores are emerging.
2c55225ebb0cc5807c57599dcead20721633c1cf	The Commission Comics Festival is held annually.
c05858fbece644289e072d97936e977d90fe5b61	According to a number of publishers, this boom is associated with the success of comic book adaptations and the emergence of comic fandom[25][27].
c6edac511faf62e300d605119e9b2c939b18f6f2	In 2012, the comic book "The Illustrated Constitution of Russia"was published[28][29]. Also, in 2012, the publishing house "Bubble Comics" began publishing four series of its comics: "Major Thunder", "Besoboy", "Red Fury" and "Enok"; two years later, two new series were released - "Exlibrium" and "Meteora".
ab445b149afa68e3d5a5da3b49d1832449364cbb	Portal "Comics" Comics in Wiktionary?
66e26e6fc3dc2d169785d0a3c1ec8ad36e22fd94	A comic book on Wikimedia Commons?
2cba726874937b5f2bdf936eb1f3baf3efffe092	The Comics Project
0fcbb943b0bf932c099995f187f98cc706012aa3	↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 Scott McCloud.
8cdf4b60d0737b3949a3a9f372f047e623771aeb	"The essence of the Comic" ↑ Go to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Zh.
d3800361042e45238736a20fa4aa0ec940c8a5d7	Sadul.
cb9ab6cc87a596228cbfd3cbd44f7fcff7f0c566	The universal history of cinema.
0c8a4725992bcb1c8ff9cb77cb07e936118f8fe9	Volume 1.
e17e28977672b64c9c9ee75820a28debb57c1655	- Moscow: "Art", 1958.
853a5e4888788e83480c624d9ffc0c5b562ddc85	↑ Translation from the "English Russian Dictionary of General Vocabulary "Lingvo Universal" ABBYY Lingvo ↑ Comics Timeline — Infoplease.com ↑ Andelman, Bob, Will Eisner: "A Spirited Life", ISBN 1-59582-011-6 ↑ Comic Books from the Atomic Age, Scientific American magazine ↑ Dagwood Splits the Atom scan ↑ Christopher, Tom, "Atomic Age Comics" ↑ Ferenc M. Szasz, " Atomic Comics: The comic book industry Confronts the Nuclear Age", chapter of the book Atomic Culture: How We Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, authors Scott C. Zeman and Michael A. Amundson (Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 2004), ISBN 0-87081-764-7 ↑ Reynolds, Richard.
c393b16c4806bf036dd5ec4079b88420262600b5	Super Heroes: A Modern Mythology.
5c9cd20df6285051c89f0eee3ea9461743ef4e03	- University Press of Mississippi, 1994.
a665f01279b020e8066363e43adc37aa831f297e	8-9.
c10fe625e998fae48d0f2cba7e9023f0b4f807d1	— ISBN 0878056947.
f9b386d0f296f68db42060311fa5e62335216ee1	↑ CBR News Team DC Flashback: The Flash.
b1de8ec8faf16331e5203a4eaeed5cfe7c3c553b	Comic Book Resources (July 2, 2007).
daecd474b1b34c3ba34d1a4fc09818ce1f7c311a	Accessed June 27, 2008.
8ae9e0e999227233e314ba5f62ef8693be151d21	Archived from the original source on February 9, 2012.
b9f1d2417409e2217ba64dbaa4aebe28d0063e5e	↑ Zicari, Anthony Breaking the Border - Rants and Ramblings.
d69580e3453162a1789f54d3ea70229bd313403c	Comics Bulletin (August 3, 2007).
e99ec51503ea52ef0631de433d37e6e7f76efe10	↑ SpiderFan.org — Comics: Amazing Spider Man (Vol. 1) #121 ↑ The Night Gwen Stacy Died: The End of Innocence and the Birth of the Bronze Age ↑ Dmitry Zlotnicki the Gates of the Worlds: Fantastic comics // the World of fiction.
a09613b985136c5d88c4f6e7509d0fe28a63b355	- May 2007.
bebb3c04e70554b9fbcac824e547127382aa4000	- No.
c9f47d1342f566a39968933e5236696cc45052d7	Вит Vitaly Shishikin On the anger of the day: "Funny pictures".
8a2d6e3b5a3b4deecf706022ca4a38987c894634	Comics in the USSR and Russia / / "The World of Fiction".
04927cc4a7ccfc88158b1e2b88028bfb698809c4	- June 2011.
a85730bf533990050a331786bbecdc55b780a691	94.
3e1ac307237955cec8e270810f188f8f93674d35	Статья Article about the artist on the website "Art and Architecture of the Russian abroad" ↑ Dmitrieva D. G.
7c547dc5719cf18615d7d7439d1374ace4a867e1	The phenomenon of the American superhero in the context of the visual culture of the XX century.
1889860e2025ec48a34283f2b3c86c35c5017514	- dissertation, p .
95f3a1ee5b18006cdd588c8158299495564dc2df	168-170 ↑ Our comics: in Russia, super Putin, and in Ukraine, Rambo Cossacks // Today.ua ↑ Russian comics of the early 90s / / Belarusian newspaper "Virtual Joys" ↑ Veles comics ↑ Kunin A.: "In Russia, I see the future not of comics, but of hand drawn stories" Вол Volkov A., nicknamed "Bitch" ↑ website of the publishing house "Tien", which republishes the comics of the publishing house ↑ Go to: 1 2 The boom of comics in Russia: the opinion of publishers.
b9babb73f3ff35c7ac416160f70b471347f30ea1	The world of fiction No. 128;
709f18068378bd7ec8858b435e40d5f7b75d74d8	April 2014 ↑ Blaster.
fda67dd1380eaaf35f07495deaa334683596d03a	"Comics in Russia".
2b06d9f52f8f4d0226c18a041b2fe783c990e07d	Special opinion ↑ How comics are made and sold in Russia: interview with Artem Gabrelyanov ↑ " About comics.
54febbe6597c29b7f7b60cb9d7c7a1afee748a8d	With love."
e30239ed246edcd4374b7ca85f1b45ecc1bdb9cb	The magazine "Your Leisure" (St. Petersburg) No.
c70b67ccd9ec9415188b026d2a248243f3f00628	09 (April 29, May 12, 2013): "And in 2012 the comic book "The Illustrated Constitution of Russia" was published at all, in 2013 the second edition was published.
4cab8c419cf539aee33c12990af4996712b6c20f	And this means... life goes on!
696fd53dc82863811ec6fa648b7a1c551015d3b5	" ↑ "The comic book Constitution received the "Honorary illiteracy" "Moskovsky Komsomolets" No. 26185 of March 14, 2013: "The comic book Constitution contains many unique pictures."
a4fbf6df5d6241a4ae24286b0c98bcfe55e26de0	Dmitry Zlotnitsky Gates of the Worlds: Fantastic comics / / World of Fiction.
bf2052b34cc4cfcdaeb9932670cb62c9427d1753	Scott McCloud.
2377881f87b028285d7e553f49620f1807eb5c54	"The Essence of the Comic Book" by Evgeny Kharitonov.
a258d0869b4ae53f06e35be5d59bbad323f5bb83	The Ninth Art (The History of a foreign fantastic comic book) is graphic prose.
06016dbc1bb1e7f4c0f4aa247c8174073f8884a0	A guide to the world of fantastic comics The history of foreign comics and its influence on the development of Russian comics The anatomy of the superhero image The revival of the Sci Fi genre in comics | Comixbook Frenkel L. People of Books in the world of comics / / People of Books in the world of books. 2015.
23c7c06c6849102e6c2018ce84f3d3cc8b99f390	No. 114.
3ffc079136596caff137ad7aeeb3591e245d9e3a	(rus.)
c538494f76e26d96a18043775d4bf04c818648b6	[show] Comics Formats Animated comic · Web Comic (Hypercomix · Infinite Canvas · Sprite Comics) · Graphic Novel · Comic Strip (Zombie Strip) · Manga · Manhwa · Manhua · Mobile Comics · Photo Comics · Digital Comics · Trade paperback Creators Comics Artists · Comic Writers Periods Golden Age · Silver Age · Bronze Age · Modern Age Genres Autobiographical Comics * Alternative Comics · Underground Comics · Adult comics · Western comics · Military Comics · Superhero Comics · Crime Comics · Horror Comics · Science Fiction Comics · Romantic Comics · Fantasy Comics · Educational Comics Festivals Comic Con · Boomfest · Comiket · Commission Related concepts Filmstrip · Stories in pictures · Splint · Animation · Superhero · Comic Book adaptations
79f24bb44a30425a583cbf880d17d71356a8c339	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comics&oldid=75832257"
0d207857866f7f935780ae15852b01c3a0ec491d	Category: Comics
f918d2e717e9392e12e6c8ee3d597a5af7b4529d	Hidden categories: Wikipedia:Articles with incomplete sections Articles with links to the Wiktionary Articles with links to projects
b674c2693eb52bc2fff0c00bb53dede88156a52b	Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca Žemaitėška Belarusian Belarusian (tarashkevitsa) Bulgarian Brezhoneg Bosanski ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ Catalàووردیی ناوەندی Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara ─ارسی Suomi Français Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk 贛語 Gàidhlig
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7882ed717a9bece7be9b019decec50fa045e4386	On the pages of our website you will find many interesting stories about how those things were invented, without which our life is already unthinkable.
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0fd813b3b194c1b981647ae10e88e332f38f0259	Comics
b9ea9011b6465882bb4385372d4c5ce847ffa46b	22 Feb, 2015 Author: Yana Shelyakina
ebd0289c4ec5607c5461a35c56923bcf32326bb1	The history of the creation of comics, as a separate genre, begins in the XIX century.
75f6a1c574a9f94f229cde7bba4cd2e38ed286f9	The development of printing technology played an important role here.
b34fe1be5e72ca3019a4afa73405e440265097c3	The political European cartoons that preceded the comics (the end of the XVIII century), as well as the engravings made by William Hogarth, were drawings of one series that make up the story.
6333a30b4954073dc736af00523737f748a8ea20	They are considered to be the ones who invented comics.
7cd922800bb220af959b1db3c748a0af91051718	These hand drawn stories are similar in appearance to modern comics: drawings that followed each other, and there were explanatory texts to them.
9fb6bc7fdd5267072079e2a90b0432d85931561c	The poems were dedicated to two tomboys, who sometimes arranged all sorts of tricks (it is worth noting quite harmless).
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52e04bd1252c8140837f24c87b88bde175ffb98e	"History
5f57ad3413fd69f94bd3ea68b0d10c5d6a64886f	"The history of comics
bdc61091e9e84d510d8a542cab89813500c46b9a	History of Comics
295c7fe8bd2f46773f426671dcdbcb6d334e6f7b	Then follows the rapid development of comics, there are new heroes who live today: Superman, Batman, Spider Man, Donald Duck, Mickey Mouse, Captain America, Delly and Harvey.
0442637bcc1d7a364687b8a8c1a79b898e08b77b	She released such masterpieces as" Fantastic Four"," The Incredible Hulk"," X Men"," Iron Man","Spider Man".
df582cf1ea03956406247fce91a0e582962d6878	And now some crazy numbers:
9ea7fb55621744a06014ea5a8388e0f05679e84f	The first issue of the Superman comic book was purchased this year for $ 1 million, back in 1938 it could be purchased for 10 cents.
6020c4ffb1eb6391bc056b6dd9a2a9d9e92123f8	For 100 thousand euros, we purchased the original title image of the comic book "Black Island".
b6565d93f2c20f061e6454f9894ae7586a1b8b2e	The first edition of Spider Man comics cost 40 thousand dollars, in 1963 its cost was 12 cents.
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9a2418036279daacf03763aa1b62d4b13b6f0466	Interesting facts about toffee
463d897a7d25c410a54cceedfc67d04406c6084f	The Great Deeds of Indira Gandhi
e7e14fde4eb3f40103d92a09ff77a13c103b2682	What else you donot know about skulls...
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9f5f5854d7d4e4e541d7ccced48fe06cea40be92	Pastel on the fabric We decorate ourselves!
e74e1e01320b5a95111efab9e6adb03923cd2c7e	History of Comics The origin of comics is attributed to ancient times.
b3c7a29d14fb947a718d851d68a96654c04ec696	The first comics found in Europe describe the Norman conquest of England in 1066.
33163db7c0d117ce35659cec5398e75ee96ef00b	The pictures and texts on them are already combined.
b24e4d2765551d972f2d387ce943842f5423b28d	Rodolphe Toepfer, together with McCloud called the father of modern comics, in the middle of the 19th century, was the first to use the method of enclosing a picture in a frame and combining drawings with text.
d76ffa030520698413a33f745b68da7d8415158c	In Japan, during the same period, magazines with cartoons became very popular.
28e7b2062e428736f396d3f8e4c88ec5c4aac260	Kitazawa Rakiten and Okamoto Ippei became the first famous artists in Japan to create an entire series of short comics.
668e79ebe11c8f3acf4d78666f025b623916a1ce	There was a division of the creators of comics into separate authors an artist and a writer.
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64ff7fca2f369ef312db06e1af526f696c3517e0	Today, until 03: 41, the twenty fourth day of the lunar cycle, after the twenty fifth.
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7043ee64903799c824962838d4433554800bdc21	Do not forget to make an amendment for your place of residence!
680207f63cc9d203151712235ed8bb99dd34255f	Founding Day of the Communist Party of Vietnam
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785e4756b1504e7c48fe48c6f7633103c60d6e74	In the national calendar, Maxim's day, Maxim the Comforter
ddb8862ee7fc035794e3f319f64ab2df5e4c123d	Name days
6651e94cf42efeb9edda3ac3f0b3e6c304f063c1	Evgeny, Ivan, Ilya, Maxim, Agnia, Anastasia, Anna
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a6e5a3496096c5be6c59bba9e504b54684f93f47	Tomorrow, February 4, Thursday
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cdb7f07d93502e50c52273af8f7f612031633352	— Day of Mercy and National tribute to Heroes
822db980bee28dadc0fb74b160198fe658da911b	Shat tila Ekadashi
464ebcf01974a222caab133c48fc630074a6567e	In the national calendar, Timofey day, Timofey poluzimnik
9b67393f4cc945652d8da5c33a2ede9a880b7901	Gabriel, George, Efim, Ivan, Joseph, Leonty, Makar, Nikolai, Peter, Timothy, Anastasia
e69cd2d66f112510bab57207f4c28af79bc2c59c	Significant events 10 Birthdays 8 Days of death 7
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30d344a1618b83d6433365ecba85a0a863d154da	For example: World AIDS Day
c7f30a8adffce085f8655f9b6ebffa07aab008f4	Home page → US holidays → National Comic Book Day in the USA
6b93c406ef08e4d98162f4ffdeabfb1a3f91e966	National Comic Book Day in the United States
faa0b8d40139d4bfc8c60068fc8e2f34a8683a1f	Read a comic, or two, or...
12303a69d4013d3c7cba8cef68135f31773f2b94	(Photo: karen roach, Shutterstock)
d178e01d1e5201ebcfd12e293ecc78c5e2bd50e7	September 25
65e5b25d27568540232b851f43207efabe43664e	Buy a comic book, or two, or...
985c31b7b04156473a02e132462ec69ba2e9ad35	Read a comic book, or two, or...
38d12531a437cbfed54f28481185566a24a8e1df	In French bande dessinee (or briefly — "BD"), in Italian fumetti, in German bilderbogen, in Serbian — strip, in Japanese — manga, in Chinese — lianhuanhua, in English — comic book (or comics), in Russian — comic.
2a1571d3b9f7f68ff02bb172bbc6e69de650cf65	Today is the day when it's time to talk about comics — a genre of hand drawn literature that has long become part of the book culture and a profitable industry in developed countries.
3a1105ccf3fb95ef27a904ed758669006964a694	Every year, on September 25, Americans and all fans of comics celebrate National Comic Book Day (National Comic Book Day).
0eed2b899d8beb66194659c425d29353d9daaa46	The motto of this day would be made in the epigraph: "Buy a comic book, or two, or...
e3268638fca60c185b35c4a49f8bab5d4c66974c	Read a comic or two, or...".
858173eb1ba818fc5a42c071f9dd221a6b9d230a	On this day, the comic shops urge not to throw the purchased comics, because even the most simple comic, they believe in a few years may become a rarity and decorate any solid collection.
9247c39e7920ee06ad731efbc9bef5b535c02fea	Although, in fairness, it should be said that drawings with short captions — graphic stories have been known since the time immemorial of rock art.
e1846b93b9262636cff7ec7d63215a96f3138fe0	It is also worth noting that the concept of "Comic Book" is common only in the English American lexicon.
7b382062d126d61b99731a014ad99003d695db81	Comics drawings with short captions (Photo: Vectomart, Shutterstock)
7786d20483f5e018ca57cb666282461fb258bf16	In the mid 50s of the 20th century ,the "Golden Age of comics " is replaced by the" silver", and then, in the early 70s, the" bronze " age.
24b3594ab936db96fd991f8b748385eef20f320f	Direct English Language Courses in EF!English with a nose.
6ba5c391ac6a7a692d24103ceb722a74ba8639e8	Schools all over Moscow.
ff4f9f322f2df57e698280e29b7576b84e7571ee	Individual training plan Test lesson Free consultation Start free Examenglishfirst.
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cb45267a779337b6c7ce258f4ad6c624c6e56ec7	Liquidation of the warehouse of army watchDocri zis price!
0fe537c1706caec2198fb7612345cdfc84d0dd33	Sale of protective military watches.
f6826a4d964ad3f787f272cf86981aca065967da	Only 1990 p.!70% discount Reviews about the hours to place an order Delivery and payment zsz22.
b46832ac5ec7847adb52ba42ac7e64b8c6d10e00	Giskry ad Thank you.
fa9274281a165a1a8e0acb55d48d7bed5975ced0	English by the method of intelligence officers!
29ac8e280f46d4166baec9fcded6b624b0e39d18	Scouts master the English language in 1 month with the help of this technique!kurs prosto25.
667fd279323ec2f9fa079a38920ca82986bfdb2a	Freebie!
2ea7ff592e65ea5a06e9233f912a938141c2451e	Confiscate a new watch!
2e10d5c1afe083d056d692a13c32eb6534dea931	The last day!
d092f0fff6d4720037328eae252c320e68cab360	Have time to grab your own!007watches.
6982f64ad076794701364d9008ea54dbed68f66f	Facebook56
46ffcb80f5c21817e0e5120e95c8b8c3c1021eb2	My mir6
90c9d7f4fc727f78d70ccb751e1e34152d53a560	Vk137
3bc931c1a78777ca852b64f88c46e7f7d5ae05fe	Odnoklassniki12
43fe45e765320fa66df826d518d822b9d03d6c2f	Taekwondo in the program of the Paralympics
80948629458e7bcefc36b0ac901d80357bd62635	Other holidays in the"US Holidays" section
901fa4d6a7eea6425164f3487e0a645ab539c618	Add a description
b540e67358e179d40cf1b837b57beccd692721c2	The joints will become young again and will stop hurting, if at night...
764e3857fa44de0f64d0484e66b199a8dac2e9ba	This product will destroy all parasites in 1 night!
737dd512f98e93f42c441a7bdd5323432f98cbe2	Just before going to bed...
4aa2a14760b655de5a4988438027bddf4805e77e	The pain in the joints goes away in an instant!
96462c387cbbdd89cb50cd9df671c347740d6466	No surgeon will tell you this...
136e00171e83a639633f8f0d6a2e29c7fd654b15	Doctors are surprised!
8516b4d9f43030900de0aef442c3d5c00f30d44a	Hypertension goes away instantly!
eec78ecc91479ae5f2302eedb4f4510051fb6809	The old village way...
01b11f31c95465b9778cfc12bdee83ea634ce76f	National Comic Book Day in the United States in numbers
4a298212859151a711e496865fc54e6e08056d2a	106 people have added National Comic Book Day in the United States to their personal calendar.
ace7050a40ebee71d6bd0f8a24ba12d5e138e0ba	Of these, 37 are men and 33 are women.
8e505f594979bf9eb37751a2cc4f7819e17a8165	The others did not specify their gender.
2cd55daf17825eb24e0521fea12c81fe0c846718	Last added:
4781276fe8df3aa10fbd4c6dd1ca3226d8251615	Allah, igrox21, qittt, worldwidegost, marikzmey
07ce9906c593381c799d0d8b85dae3672078ac7e	Related holidays
916e8815a1e55a8846502035186d0f1fc3482fd7	Cat Day in Japan
991a2d83eb53a0fad1027921796ac8b3a3434b31	Unusual holidays
0e55a832cc1ad6ff248332b4501a749d94c89ee6	To begin with, the word "two" in Japanese sounds "neither".
0f5d6807a87f867f9290e8e80c7333c6c8374f9f	In some cases, one of which became the reason for the establishment of an informal Cat Day, "two" can be pronounced playfully — "nyan".
ef4f1e695a72bb59b2d4dba634344d32cd633527	Accidentally or not, but the Japanese believe that the cat does not meow...
fa4dd9f72f1bfe40c038d83238dfecce9dda70c6	World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
807c16a17d605f3fcecd6261c7e9bc5fa2b899d1	We can say that the World Day of Tai Chi and Qigong (World Tai Chi and Qigong Day) became truly world wide in 1999.
1a49060b51c77d52f4f4aa1ce448ce082a4c402f	However, the first public display, which served as an inspiration for the development of global events, took place in 1998 in Kansas State...
0b6cd77ceb00ff85eb45a6e211c704572b71d19b	World Kiss Day
3d6de16d400786d0c72344354b51c78b9f6101e6	Well, kiss me, kiss me, Even to the point of blood, even to the point of pain.
372c586a0113bbb8586538bc359268f50cc91713	The boiling water of the heart streams is not at odds with the cold will.
fe1aa694b9a0fb72b365986ca6956ff72225f6e5	Sergey Yesenin
34c23a80d2da2999af9c9faf66a06a74bc4277da	Today, everyone can "exchange their souls" with full rights — the World Kiss Day is celebrated on July 6...
e3aae6f51ab83be8e73d0092b84cc130f376d325	Pisco Sur Cocktail Day in Peru
91def734561e53ea4188b6110661e6d035e44ab2	How delicious and beloved should a cocktail be for everyone to establish a holiday in honor of it?
6fa543e5838c12546c2098c0989efd55d9d45419	Such a cocktail is available in Peru a cocktail "Pisco sur"...
7858dc45411cc00d661f75893ec565d83c68ca4d	Every year, on the fourth Sunday of July, Peru celebrates the Day of the cocktail "Pisco Sur"
c84af85ddd1f8a53954f17298110e264186a60f7	(National...
0174bbfd9133f501d59f8540804d63e9d4d58325	International Traffic Light Day
a06a1a838765a3b9a700eaefac01dc7c64607598	The International Traffic Light Day is celebrated on August 5 in honor of an event that occurred in 1914.
75f9abb7a7603997d164d0e4d8ff93dec505d5ed	On this day, the first predecessor of modern devices appeared in the American city of Cleveland.
ee9c5173e99292f3d490b8ffcc3d8298dbd8019e	It had red and green lights as well when switching...
f4ffbdf343ba632eecacc99b9d65c62bbb70d606	View all related holidays from the section "Unusual holidays"
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caf8228315d2efde6481c60e5591371f6d1fe042	This drink will "dry" all the fat!
85c213ab4e7f1dc11f9909761b27ff303702dddb	Drink CAREFULLY!
8c3d2cace657916f41ae3ceb7fb1d6301fff9406	-10 kg per week!
e2c75bac0bd46967893d8c242ac6df5bb4f27c69	Read more "
84463428d336874eea788259feaa08844f0da649	FAT from the sides will go away in 7 DAYS!
d22a481971ff24d272aa2365997a8f9f019b2741	Minus 9 cm in the waist, if you drink a glass in the morning...
f72529e94f99a1f07b9f0bc704ed57955afe8ed6	A woman in her 48 years looks like a girl!
e1ea2ef87cc8eb4df82895b3a524b3b8d256378d	"Here's my trick: for the night..."Read more "
69eba1d141d26b4b001514885319f259ac897580	What do Japanese WOMEN use that at 54 they look 20 years old?
79d014ee945f60ac0e69ede29cf834a019e2e514	SEE...
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2d108019b487625f48577241c19c8225cf940df0	In short, mathematics can be described as the science of numbers and figures.
a1a499b205c17d54dafaab116be41b4cb15707fd	Its name comes from the Greek "mathema" - science.
d76063832243de70a9602f8034fd9e872ab66201	The most ancient mathematical activity was counting.
4b9556c2aa905910b3626b47f4263bd56fd5d912	The account was necessary to monitor the livestock and conduct trade.
42a6066200d6cab51e155b0bc8306942ec77b82b	Some primitive tribes counted the number of objects by comparing them with various parts of the body, mainly fingers and toes.
485593f0be1a56a9ed59fd54e3278f916d1d9caa	A rock drawing that has survived to our times from the Stone Age depicts the number 35 in the form of a series of 35 finger sticks lined up in a row.
c20dea5d6777793db1a0adb00a40c39d359af1de	The first significant successes in arithmetic were the conceptualization of numbers and the invention of four basic actions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
22908f750738297948da4353426f44ec396f002d	The first achievements of geometry are associated with such simple concepts as a straight line and a circle.
6163e61695c352b9be1e1611620eddd5f02daac0	The further development of mathematics began around 3000 BC thanks to the Babylonians and Egyptians.
b0b1a0dcdfd09f1670a12ac111126736fe316357	Before mathematics appeared as a theoretical system, the doctrine of number as a certain divine beginning of the world arose, and this, it would seem, not mathematical, but philosophical theoretical teaching played the role of an intermediary between ancient Eastern mathematics as a collection of samples for solving individual practical problems and ancient Greek mathematics as a system of propositions strictly connected with each other by means of proof.
72c7f61fbe3d21f03fb8245a2998e8e6dc0ae895	Arithmetic and simple algebra were used in the exchange of money and calculations for goods, the calculation of simple and compound interest, taxes and the share of the harvest given in favor of the state, the temple or the landowner.
eb54c2284dbc4e60b77ff2e84c7229691350595b	Numerous arithmetic and geometric problems arose in connection with the construction of canals, granaries and other public works.
e9d00374b672ed28e732cbf9ce4370c42921ed1d	A very important task of mathematics was the calculation of the calendar, since the calendar was used to determine the timing of agricultural work and religious holidays.
b236ed7864dec4aaf2f21de6a84ea1461c643177	The division of a circle into 360, and degrees and minutes into 60 parts originate in Babylonian astronomy.
8957503f0e7823753428ee10f9ec712175fedd28	The Babylonians also created a number system that used the base 10 for numbers from 1 to 59.
93af934c2abacd2239aa1bc5e6f3dba7e81a395a	The Babylonians compiled tables of inverse numbers, tables of squares and square roots, as well as tables of cubes and cubic roots. Degrees.
80b90b7e9225179c0e3fdb2777fbe40cf7d28be3	Around 700 BC, the Babylonians began to use mathematics to study the movements of the moon and planets.
432d62f40d0c50b3d2ea9bfc66f572afbaa0374f	This allowed them to predict the positions of the planets, which was important for both astrology and astronomy.
02ca292b25ba6f47978cd197fa06813706a4fcad	In geometry, the Babylonians knew about such relations, for example, as the proportionality of the corresponding sides of such triangles.
25534d7d57617de45e41e38e5556f8d52edde5d2	Our knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics is based mainly on two papyri dating from about 1700 BC. The mathematical information presented in these papyri dates back to an even earlier period-about 3500 BC.
13ef9edf30c07f342f796aba2890a1a161eac5f3	The Egyptians used mathematics to calculate the weight of bodies, the area of crops and the volume of granaries, the size of taxes and the number of stones required for the construction of certain structures.
ed5ef896b2b2c23b262a38280a179a682c7ed220	The Egyptians used a non-positional decimal system, in which the numbers from 1 to 9 were denoted by the corresponding number of vertical dashes, and individual characters were introduced for successive powers of the number 10.
caeb790fe919800be1754a91202ccd764cd50add	By combining these symbols sequentially, any number could be written.
fd6e4dce2b9ad275149896b2624bc312d01ccd96	With the advent of the papyrus, the so-called hieratic cursive writing appeared, which, in turn, contributed to the emergence of a new numerical system.
164657a7fad6b4c7cb23f5ee43ef5f5059a08503	A special identification symbol was used for each of the numbers from 1 to 9 and for each of the first nine multiples of 10, 100, etc.
273229cbde7a0aa968f53702220122e8a1940c35	The geometry of the Egyptians was reduced to calculating the areas of rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, circles, as well as formulas for calculating the volumes of some bodies.
41c8bcc361620d9636aeb1978678c0ef682e21a0	I must say that the mathematics that the Egyptians used in the construction of the pyramids was simple and primitive.
29eba79ceb54e7091241113888b6799b3989cb5b	The tasks and solutions given in the papyri are formulated purely by prescription, without any explanations.
a89906cfa0c9bc4b22d8455fbb601dbe02c21931	The Egyptians dealt only with the simplest types of quadratic equations and arithmetic and geometric progressions, and therefore the general rules that they were able to deduce were also of the simplest kind.
0d468d0b087dbae7bf6187a1ea68511e5b44c22b	Neither Babylonian nor Egyptian mathematicians had common methods; the entire body of mathematical knowledge was a collection of empirical formulas and rules.
703061519500cfe5c9317f4fa296552fba61c9c4	From the point of view of the 20th century, the ancestors of mathematics were the Greeks of the classical period (6-4 centuries BC).
e87afa1e5fafd264ad10084470d5999d0d727046	The Greeks ' insistence on deductive proof was an extraordinary step.
149e7d247ea540af5950faf5058a98d47bb0567e	No other civilization has reached the idea of obtaining conclusions solely on the basis of deductive reasoning based on explicitly formulated axioms.
11b8da83e225ef4c492d83516b036671b244a029	One of the explanations for the commitment of the Greeks to the methods of deduction we find in the structure of Greek society of the classical period.
d4a1c54b8a13129d490381fad45e39a3e6a463ff	Mathematicians and philosophers (often they were the same persons) belonged to the upper strata of society, where any practical activity was considered as an unworthy occupation.
17e83ed5710237811c1edfc382a46de97d3ef1d7	Mathematicians preferred abstract reasoning about numbers and spatial relations to solving practical problems.
aa852d0153133a4d46519441820ce5d0dc182aab	Mathematics was divided into arithmetic-the theoretical aspect and logistics-the computational aspect.
b42b80c38836fc4c30bf8f78c115b760aa47a683	The Attic system, which was in use since the 6th-3rd centuries BC, used a vertical line to denote a unit, and the initial letters of their Greek names to denote the numbers 5, 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000.
b752e128e13c70f76d46947d5ddc5b52b5681fff	In the later Ionic number system, 24 letters of the Greek alphabet and three archaic letters were used to denote numbers.
8478694014946e62532bb275f326bd1c4e719da4	The invention of deductive mathematics is usually attributed to Thales of Miletus (c. 640-546 BC), who, like many ancient Greek mathematicians of the classical period, was also a philosopher.
473190c49a86d137a5981aee48a70bfc3bb98e6e	Another great Greek, whose name is associated with the development of mathematics, was Pythagoras (c. 585-500 BC).
c5c7c9d2474f0fd10d10a148feab0ced46b84631	Pythagoras founded the movement, which flourished in the period of ca. 550-300 BC
6380cedbfb43c32f7aca85b0601fb5a929a1c579	The Pythagoreans created pure mathematics in the form of number theory and geometry.
2c7f00870ee376550f635c156932b2ab5583b70c	They represented integers in the form of configurations of dots or pebbles, classifying these numbers according to the shape of the resulting figures ("curly numbers").
cde6ce26cf7d9f70a4925455a56c70975fb0876a	The word "calculation" (calculation, calculation) originates from the Greek word meaning "pebble".
aa705e24be779b05307f1f43a89ffa9ebab250c4	The Pythagoreans called the numbers 3, 6, 10, etc. triangular, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a triangle, the numbers 4, 9, 16, etc. - square, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a square, etc.
1f0f3b697fdb3df46fdc27988590217b3988b852	Some properties of integers arose from simple geometric configurations.
ecad08a5489087017c6da9c90736810048f7aaa6	For the Pythagoreans, any number represented something more than a quantitative quantity.
2f3c1a0e2bc6213164b48eb4c5a6fb18fd24ce53	For example, the number 2, according to their view, meant a difference and therefore was identified with an opinion.
bdbb93928be6ab3a8028c90610161559e8b06750	The four represented justice, since this is the first number equal to the product of two identical multipliers.
a251d418acff311a25968c34139262aa6e71e9a0	Such triples of numbers as 3, 4 and 5 or 5, 12 and 13 are called Pythagorean numbers.
bf187d7a2d417ec328c7a5ca40d9f025011cea26	They have a geometric interpretation, if two numbers from the triple are equated to the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, then the third number will be equal to the length of its hypotenuse.
e05ee241f2fec37ee96f42080c28436edb857709	This interpretation, apparently, led the Pythagoreans to realize a more general fact, now known as the Pythagorean theorem, according to which in any right triangle the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs.
459d845322a87421e80ceeb3db71257b93b02533	Considering a right-angled triangle with single cathets, the Pythagoreans discovered that the length of its hypotenuse is equal to the root of two, and this threw them into confusion, because they tried in vain to represent the number root of two as the ratio of two integers, which was extremely important for their philosophy.
0d1e9f23cc375e5ca80acad40e06bd2c77225a30	The Pythagoreans called the quantities that cannot be represented as a ratio of integers incommensurable; the modern term is "irrational numbers".
33b0dba5473aa122fe75b64690d31fd5af1f28bb	The Pythagoreans dealt with irrational numbers, representing all quantities with geometric images.
ff55a47f7634abaa1d03998186a99e7d2fb618d5	If we consider 1 and the root of two as the lengths of some segments, then the difference between rational and irrational numbers is smoothed out.
03da7828af8a7502f5ea49701833e6839f686e8e	It is to the Pythagoreans that we owe much of the mathematics that was then systematized and proved in Euclid's "Principles".
a4e60e349c73419ced2d66cb4fa0062cf75040ec	One of the most prominent Pythagoreans was Plato (c. 427-347 BC).
c08b2801156aab50fe872cb5973b398280c77885	Plato was convinced that the physical world is comprehensible only through mathematics.
465ab67e2a876ec2d9bb99882e35d13fc40ef7f0	It is believed that it is to him that the merit of the invention of the analytical method of proof belongs.
3c320135fa74ce3ee9a9147cfb16880080fee3b4	A notable place in the history of mathematics is occupied by Aristotle, a student of Plato.
04adcc52a5e88c0ee0384a17c666fe371ed9ba75	Aristotle laid the foundations of the science of logic and expressed a number of ideas regarding definitions, axioms, infinity and the possibility of geometric constructions.
c331648c1317c5616cb252ae7ad7422400caee61	The greatest of the Greek mathematicians of the classical period, second only to Archimedes in importance of the results obtained, was Eudoxus (c. 408-355 BC).
eb7c4ac2aca6373be357292b270f6a494b167b0e	It was he who introduced the concept of magnitude for such objects as straight lines and angles.
19d7cbbf0e198206c6b11ac413715ab9843bd799	Having the concept of magnitude, Eudoxus logically strictly justified the Pythagorean method of dealing with irrational numbers.
4f36cb0b275e98f032f9a17e6a9c0f654ec3a562	Alexandrian mathematics arose from the merger of classical Greek mathematics with the mathematics of Babylonia and Egypt.
d1ac3d6d070534c373a3ea2cf7f2099e5a5e9168	In general, the mathematicians of the Alexandrian period were more inclined to solve purely technical problems than to philosophy.
ad51797bbe78a6e85d7e6dc5e505a7e909dd1acb	The great Alexandrian mathematicians-Eratosthenes, Archimedes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Diophantus and Papp-demonstrated the power of the Greek genius in theoretical abstraction, but they were just as willing to apply their talent to solving practical problems and purely quantitative problems.
ac9c26c006eb18cf3706f9ce9a01b7f6753e37bd	After the conquest of Egypt by the Romans in 31 BC, the great Greek Alexandrian civilization fell into decline.
7b8ae5e22ef603bd2cd6189be2ce6762ba8daa12	Cicero proudly claimed that, unlike the Greeks, the Romans are not dreamers, and therefore apply their mathematical knowledge in practice, extracting real benefits from them.
01164fedbbac184fc20e8c7ba3b2ac3cc10c66e0	However, the contribution of the Romans to the development of mathematics itself was insignificant.
24ed49cc9de4464664dc7aa49665ae793fccdb2b	The Roman numeral system was based on cumbersome notation of numbers.
37ec67b9fbf1992d9e8a3c7eb9586b19cda3a6dd	The successors of the Greeks in the history of mathematics were the Indians.
c7db9a74a28e14aa2e00175c57b733df4eebad3d	Indian mathematicians did not deal with proofs, but they introduced original concepts and a number of effective methods.
144d3532f4964abbeeeef362569ded9b53843f02	It was they who first introduced zero both as a cardinal number and as a symbol of the absence of units in the corresponding digit.
318690db6e3f2c1e82150c38b7bf8cd519d67c8d	Mahavira (850 A.D.) established rules for operations with zero, believing, however, that dividing a number by zero leaves the number unchanged.
23c151ec10e3335118218ac63b51977b8eb940fc	The correct answer for the case of dividing a number by zero was given by Bhaskara (b. 1114), he also owns the rules of actions on irrational numbers.
0108bd19d33c76ce4c51998cc654d0163207fe08	The Indians introduced the concept of negative numbers (to denote debts).
29b1840b46373e0aed0b7b70de9d135580b997fa	Our modern number system, based on the positional principle of writing numbers and zero as a cardinal number and using the designation of an empty digit, is called Indo-Arabic.
8714ab827f34f495ded833ee52947f173fe4c161	On the wall of a temple built in India around 250 BC, several figures were found that resemble our modern figures in their outlines.
d62ec905a0bc5a9c5ca9205a9ca80330dcb866ac	Europe became acquainted with these works after the Arab conquest of North Africa and Spain, and later the works of the Greeks were translated into Latin.
ba7765ee9305e5200c9f77e29e9cd33450faf827	The civilization that developed in early Medieval Europe (c. 400-1100) was not productive for the exact opposite reason: intellectual life focused almost exclusively on theology and the afterlife.
65044f719cd9700db26ef8ae60b383426fe31e89	The level of mathematical knowledge did not rise above arithmetic and simple sections from the "Principles" of Euclid.
a273df7dab3b5a442046eae3989b58bc331687f8	The most important branch of mathematics in the Middle Ages was considered astrology; astrologers were called mathematicians.
9a09acca5f69f24909cf7b27242b4e91e6afff01	And since medical practice was based mainly on astrological indications or contraindications, doctors had no choice but to become mathematicians.
d7279865543aea4aea9d127adf4e73ad800e4bee	Around 1100, the almost three-century period of mastering the heritage of the Ancient World and the East preserved by the Arabs and Byzantine Greeks began in Western European mathematics.
3d61a38605e2807e132294707aa7408a2be1012f	Since the Arabs owned almost all the works of the ancient Greeks, Europe received an extensive mathematical literature.
e8d25d5d3244c5627312b672000d33a842a1f13c	The translation of these works into Latin contributed to the rise of mathematical research.
0552997badcafd6e6982a070ca7c96d1f13ec866	All the great scientists of that time admitted that they drew inspiration from the writings of the Greeks.
2f499ece83878455f8f890034fe90fd1b77df3ee	The first European mathematician worth mentioning was Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci).
1cf4bfab5614048b5c08bca3efe5dca4d2107a7e	Over the next few centuries, mathematical activity in Europe waned.
c912c9e8da9663bf91dcbee8cf8b4d3f735a6537	The code of mathematical knowledge of that era, compiled by Luca Pacioli in 1494, did not contain any algebraic innovations that Leonardo did not have.
2f4576276f16a46572d674ea0bb531d5f80c7273	Until the beginning of the XVIII century, mathematics was mainly the science of numbers, scalar quantities and relatively simple geometric figures, the quantities studied by it-lengths, areas, volumes are considered as constants.
292bcd29a79d87426f095df826550a2d7049afb5	The emergence of arithmetic, geometry, and later — algebra and trigonometry belongs to this period.
79d74349bf37918ec792f364518b7a0fddc252dc	In the XVII and XVIII centuries, the needs of the rapidly developing natural science and technology (navigation, astronomy, ballistics, hydraulics) led to the introduction of the ideas of motion and change into mathematics, primarily in the form of variables and functional dependencies.
979dd9a545f8a6e0d347eda7b206bca14a052323	This led to the creation of analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus.
4691ba6f6d8ee0b967bf857783f91b62d22ffda2	In the XVIII century. the theory of differential equations and differential geometry arise and develop.
e132ff76a9034b9eb46822aff34b891b2d96da5a	In the XIX-XX centuries. mathematics rises to a new level of abstraction.
ed70c1cddbb05d4b3dfd6a91d631b6f1d6d4ea69	Ordinary quantities and numbers turn out to be only special cases of objects studied by modern algebra, geometry turns to the study of spaces.
3c1ebbac34c7dca218d9fc3a89167c2d3abd31d6	New disciplines are being developed: the theory of functions of a complex variable, group theory, non-Euclidean geometry, set theory, mathematical logic, functional analysis.
1d4265efcb9d734d6a8d36bee1f2bd47ae41d395	Practical mastering of the results of theoretical mathematical research requires obtaining an answer to the problem in numerical form.
d25e14de63ae5f396686fe8abcafb5e359e2f6d4	Therefore, in the twentieth century, numerical methods of mathematics are separated into an independent branch — computational mathematics.
adc5fc6bc979f92e98e6efdb483f61c1f75cb9d0	The desire to simplify and speed up the solutions of a number of time-consuming computational tasks led to the appearance of computers.
8a422074df8d5708961576075032c053cf8da26c	The needs of mathematics itself, the "mathematization" of various fields of science, the penetration of mathematical methods into many spheres of human activity, the rapid progress of computer technology have led to the emergence of a number of new mathematical disciplines: game theory, information theory, graph theory, discrete mathematics, optimal control theory.
7ec39d89cb50fdf68cfba0c9eaae6f9971f7b879	The creation of differential and integral calculus marked the beginning of"higher mathematics".
64de33ccb30cb8eb1336d4b125cf0e67d4b0170c	The methods of mathematical analysis, in contrast to the concept of the limit underlying it, looked clear and understandable.
3e7969064e351d7e508b52da211ed45c598088ed	For many years, mathematicians, including Newton and Leibniz, tried in vain to give an exact definition of the concept of limit.
1310eed0553bbe5abd5ace96a7f4fc55e4ff07e4	And yet, despite numerous doubts about the validity of mathematical analysis, it was increasingly used.
d1ab5e97db13f09e46ad3c18d6bc9e69c9da9e9d	Differential and integral calculus became the cornerstones of mathematical analysis, which eventually included such subjects as the theory of differential equations, ordinary and partial derivatives, infinite series, calculus of variations, differential geometry and much more.
1ab78084bbbe01df71546001371328e472d00f24	By 1800, mathematics rested on two "whales" - on the numerical system and Euclidean geometry.
95814ca3dbc2e1ee8cf40ce01f889bd51c3810ee	Since many properties of the numerical system were proved geometrically, Euclidean geometry was the most reliable part of the building of mathematics.
054ca7b20d1967d8656cc8a8f5740a9edbe93341	Nevertheless, the axiom of parallel ones contained a statement about straight lines extending to infinity, which could not be confirmed by experience.
eadd1cb576404a21f39d3fdbda038c29fb6e6454	Even the version of this axiom belonging to Euclid himself does not at all assert that some straight lines will not intersect.
142664804a37eda9abfc77bc7fdc2ce007b1c0d6	Rather, it formulates a condition under which they will intersect at some endpoint.
3d4f36f8a0b5d1b96b9cee0ac456df8db694a0bd	For centuries, mathematicians have been trying to find a suitable replacement for the axiom of parallel systems.
563c7223cf6755f1c60434656712b1d5220f336e	But there was always a gap in each option.
10032179fe1d2b72e7825d5ca2caf9ca1e21a878	The honor of creating non-Euclidean geometry fell to N. I. Lobachevsky (1792-1856) and Ya. Boyai (1802-1860), each of whom independently published their own original presentation of non-Euclidean geometry.
fad3ebfb1edbc7c63597ba9a5c83ace2aa816dbc	In their geometries, infinitely many parallel lines could be drawn through a given point.
c2893801d4b9ab6a1ca5ced77427d2d14bde667c	In the geometry of B. Riemann (1826-1866), no parallel line can be drawn through a point outside a straight line.
1ed2615bb33b3cd9b1801a0f0bc8e78962c73e91	No one seriously thought about the physical applications of non-Euclidean geometry.
d845d6d6b8669ba8ef4e2066ea251b4169135fd9	The creation of the general theory of relativity by A. Einstein (1879-1955) in 1915 awakened the scientific world to the realization of the reality of non-Euclidean geometry.
7157297ca282cf27e416e297f9d7cc27b5329bf0	Non-Euclidean geometry became the most impressive intellectual achievement of the 19th century.
bd579115993a61b1befc66c990201de223232562	It clearly demonstrated that mathematics can no longer be considered as a set of indisputable truths.
7db1b1d61ecf1b64796fa2dccc7e8b56d15187e1	At best, mathematics can guarantee the validity of a proof based on unreliable axioms.
b4637dde1a36666ae9c2d8e3804d90c00145f6fb	But mathematicians henceforth gained the freedom to explore any ideas that might seem attractive to them.
1e2a91ef5361bac3edcb4e19b87e4e8c448ed855	Each mathematician individually was now free to introduce his own new concepts and establish axioms at his discretion, taking care only that the theorems arising from the axioms did not contradict each other.
e009f817452e0906f68b9376966a5e199bdbea1c	The grandiose expansion of the circle of mathematical research at the end of the last century was essentially a consequence of this new freedom.
d8c3381cfa4196a95f723bbae0f16e7f5d4dfc8a	Until about 1870, mathematicians were convinced that they were acting according to the predestinations of the ancient Greeks, applying deductive reasoning to mathematical axioms, thereby providing their conclusions with no less reliability than that possessed by the axioms.
e905c48ebd2ee9f6d51b80e4d8afc054b58cb877	The creation of non-Euclidean geometry was also accompanied by the realization of the existence of logical gaps in Euclidean geometry.
04a3d4c16cd12795286cd0153a82bb051ac9fd0e	One of the disadvantages of Euclidean Principles was the use of assumptions that were not explicitly formulated.
90ef4b7fa15359ccaf60add5bf6f927c13a364c5	Apparently, Euclid did not question the properties that his geometric figures possessed, but these properties were not included in his axioms.
a835cf48faafd19f4a70f35464134473dbe879ba	In addition, proving the similarity of two triangles, Euclid used the superposition of one triangle on another, implicitly assuming that the properties of the figures do not change when moving.
45f398e51ed3737aaa0a38fe301f278bd9ceef9c	But in addition to such logical gaps, there were several erroneous proofs in the Beginnings.
ad8d2009d98f4e511dc73a0abd7fbc2f4ab97caf	The creation of new algebras, which began with quarternions, gave rise to similar doubts about the logical validity of arithmetic and algebra of an ordinary numerical system.
86573ce5a81f873c78fa43d16f1179ddfe9fbb67	All the numbers previously known to mathematicians had the property of commutativity, i.e. ab = ba.
a62db7f223716860971bbc6c134efb2c294c7b14	Quaternions, which revolutionized the traditional concepts of numbers, were discovered in 1843.Hamilton (1805-1865).
47800da8322be291d47798df7f4208f265ddf949	They turned out to be useful for solving a number of physical and geometric problems, although the commutativity property was not fulfilled for quaternions.
fae24803f96e7bc1be024dbcdfd344deb9e0195f	Quarternions forced mathematicians to realize that, except for the part devoted to integers and far from perfect Euclidean Principles, arithmetic and algebra do not have their own axiomatic basis.
ebb83b9f583177652a36c3b91e39f6f4a4223d3b	Mathematicians freely handled negative and complex numbers and performed algebraic operations, guided only by the fact that they work successfully.
0a524fa08d8ede4986faca7695c399ab69fb770c	Logical rigor gave way to a demonstration of practical usefulness.
e5b25ebad3a10ec2b4d8798158c95c25bb999895	In the XX century, new mathematical theories were created, such as topology, mathematical logic, and the old ones were radically transformed, the language of mathematics itself changed, so that the mathematics of the XIX century. to read modern books, you would have to relearn again.
09c62389f9029c72bf7df18efcacec5432488e62	it is occupied by Aristotle, a disciple of Plato.
f05c322f2b4cda8409c2e3ad419318ae78109f34	The greatest of the Greek mathematicians of the classical period, second in importance to the results obtained only to Archimedes, was Eudoxus (c. 408-355 BC).
d980a982aed3cce92828105e7466fc61b71083dc	The works of Evdox made it possible to establish the deductive structure of mathematics on the basis of explicitly formulated axioms.
d0838581dc6b7ab0d71fe79247ea17d1c28ec122	He also took the first step in creating mathematical analysis, since it was he who invented the method of calculating areas and volumes, called the "exhaustion method".
98d706ec0a2d41c39195ee3c99a438a5d30a7310	This method consists in constructing inscribed and described flat figures or spatial bodies that fill ("exhaust") the area or volume of the figure or body that is the subject of the study.
1fcd46749349783c8091df535b6ad0b392ed48c8	Eudoxus also belongs to the first astronomical theory explaining the observed motion of the planets.
f30182236dda36c8badf3433a2156d84bb72c7c3	The theory proposed by Eudoxus was purely mathematical; it showed how combinations of rotating spheres with different radii and axes of rotation could explain the seemingly irregular movements of the Sun, Moon and planets.
1d3eb978acd356f9a4a6b92865e761f0189c54fb	Around 300 BC, the results of many Greek mathematicians were brought together into a single whole by Euclid, who wrote the mathematical masterpiece of the Beginning.
05b6a028c3b5a9148e9f6d0bfc5107e339dafa9d	From a few shrewdly selected axioms, Euclid derived about 500 theorems that covered all the most important results of the classical period.
cd7eb06bb7558f59cb56c9861f65099afb7571d0	Euclid began his essay with the definition of such terms as a straight line, an angle and a circle.
b883b2d91d7c1fe74ceda49bc8bcba9c7f7f4fee	Then he formulated ten self evident truths, such as "the whole is greater than any of the parts".
bc38139481ceb317992aad01fc94c6b9eaa3f4e6	And from these ten axioms, Euclid was able to deduce all the theorems.
8a999fe92be46609bd64fe8530d4437ec89ce20b	For mathematicians, the text of Euclid's Principles served as a model of rigor for a long time, until in the 19th century it was discovered that there were serious shortcomings in it, such as the unconscious use of explicitly unformulated assumptions.
f76ba033260f99c59ffe3041b05c457073cba6cf	Apollonius (c. 262-200 BC) lived in the Alexandrian period, but his main work is sustained in the spirit of classical traditions.
6844666aca88cedf2b290407c0d2175f25664ac4	His proposed analysis of conic sections - a circle, an ellipse, a parabola and a hyperbola was the culmination of the development of Greek geometry.
bbb97acb56a33fdbb6bf5ca0536650d681b0aaf1	Apollonius also became the founder of quantitative mathematical astronomy.
537625f6a20b261e394d9da6da718375ebe36ed7	The Alexandrian period.
1797621074ff6c40b8007b539210f3c2d65f05b5	During this period, which began around 300 BC, the character of Greek mathematics changed.
32b2c5a2a8963dbe79195f0d8f79a4af4654b516	Alexandrian mathematics arose as a result of the merger of classical Greek mathematics with the mathematics of Babylonia and Egypt.
fb7a3bc43bb8b55bec18c679b15dc919b2923719	The great Alexandrian mathematicians Eratosthenes, Archimedes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Diophantus and Papp demonstrated the power of the Greek genius in theoretical abstraction, but they were just as willing to apply their talent to solving practical problems and purely quantitative problems.
2fb9076f61ef708498a23982df2c15de5a892ce7	Eratosthenes (c. 275-194 BC) found a simple method for accurately calculating the circumference of the Earth, he also owns a calendar in which every fourth year has one day more than the others.
0a993ad5e0e43a705380c30a570d351670959b9c	The astronomer Aristarchus (c. 310-230 BC) wrote an essay On the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon, which contained one of the first attempts to determine these sizes and distances; by its nature, Aristarchus ' work was geometric.
f30de9d8a77186674d1a44950ea17f7f11c9de7e	The greatest mathematician of antiquity was Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC).
31d7e33270b256bdb3d03d53964103f250342e80	He owns the formulations of many theorems about the areas and volumes of complex figures and bodies, which he proved quite strictly by the method of exhaustion.
725c399aabc1e43b29cf75233a0b8942968226dd	Archimedes always tried to get exact solutions and found upper and lower bounds for irrational numbers.
f9c9b6241088ddf186f033eb8965f7ca0ab34763	For example, working with the correct 96 square, he perfectly proved that the exact value of the number ? it is located between 31/7 and 310/71.
d00a362106a738fafa90ac1610c40b45a8b97101	Archimedes also proved several theorems containing new results of geometric algebra.
0e3d631363147ecd4d8634638ae20bfc88bc7ab6	He is responsible for the formulation of the problem of dissecting the ball with a plane so that the volumes of the segments are located among themselves in a given ratio.
4b971641ddd4dab38e5f5a6d088bc364054a996d	Archimedes solved this problem by finding the intersection of a parabola and an isosceles hyperbola.
b9b88fa97ac6934490c093b252b0a0d4352f417f	Archimedes was the greatest mathematical physicist of antiquity.
2c497b0291e3f815ffc134c37d5de876dbac5641	To prove the theorems of mechanics, he used geometric considerations.
5c42a3d74abd4dc808a7d403bdaa3bad14c68ac1	His essay On floating bodies laid the foundations of hydrostatics.
cac5248aa3a15089f0e58f4ef7449044c4d6dada	According to legend, Archimedes discovered a law bearing his name, according to which a repulsive force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by him acts on a body immersed in water, while bathing, while in the bathroom, and unable to cope with the joy of discovery that seized him, he ran naked into the street shouting: "Eureka!"("Opened!")
4aca00ab4c38794ef45b24e62de784c4ddcae626	In the time of Archimedes, they were no longer limited to geometric constructions that could be carried out only with the help of compasses and a ruler.
9f06291c857938bbd35ac2585ac70ecaa8742171	Archimedes used a spiral in his constructions, and Diocles (the end of the 2nd century BC) solved the problem of doubling the cube with the help of a curve introduced by him, called a cissoid.
5250143a998b3bf6408d4c150f113163629af30e	In the Alexandrian period, arithmetic and algebra were considered independently of geometry.
a71a05fef93d271a8d41fb3a51ff109b347d5af0	The Greeks of the classical period had a logically sound theory of integers, but the Alexandrian Greeks, having adopted Babylonian and Egyptian arithmetic and algebra, largely lost their already developed ideas about mathematical rigor.
0d3666fb8d269009fb3ccd8813ecedef31ae9d82	Heron of Alexandria, who lived between 100 BC and 100 AD, transformed a significant part of the geometric algebra of the Greeks into frankly lax computational procedures.
c364f190b9da0e44ab277ab68fdec00a2cf7c527	However, when proving new theorems of Euclidean geometry, he was still guided by the standards of logical rigor of the classical period.
7fd735254fdf9ffe6c80d8c04b7f2235edd1b724	The first rather voluminous book in which arithmetic was presented independently of geometry was an Introduction to arithmetic by Nicomachus (c. 100 AD).
d71b054b90a2128f68647c7f57f6270666018912	In the history of arithmetic, its role is comparable to the role of Euclid's Principles in the history of geometry.
ead9f82c960e9fc7b18d99612fb279e1910033bd	For more than 1000 years, it served as a standard textbook, since it clearly, clearly and comprehensively expounded the doctrine of integers (simple, composite, mutually simple, as well as proportions).
43b920065c45616516b29c86f40ee8d604d9a02c	Repeating many Pythagorean statements, the Introduction of Nicomachus at the same time went further, since Nicomachus saw more general relations, although he cited them without proof.
84a03cbbad275837122f75f49a097162aaf9c1ed	A significant milestone in the algebra of the Alexandrian Greeks was the work of Diophantus (ca. 250).
472389cbcf4382f6a2339b105c3f269c5792b5b9	One of his main achievements is connected with the introduction of the principles of symbolism into algebra.
c62c3a6f4185cf2f163d9763e58c0dd452abcbac	In his works, Diophantus did not offer general methods, he dealt with specific positive rational numbers, and not with their letter designations.
96411ff06830b8696e0f219933b24c3d2e1ae9d6	He laid the foundations of the so called Diophantine analysis the study of indefinite equations.
3affaf92db8768fdfa8784203b7e69b7f25d0ef0	The highest achievement of the Alexandrian mathematicians was the creation of quantitative astronomy.
683e8beb851a40e7f493a57d3a6ebb05f5f5309e	To Hipparchus (c. 161-126 BC) we owe the invention of trigonometry.
74e88e07da32c9ee277b87548b259b147427400b	His method was based on a theorem stating that in such triangles, the ratio of the lengths of any two sides of one of them is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the two corresponding sides of the other.
6d90165ba5115c5dbb5194ff1dade1318401aaf5	In particular, the ratio of the length of the cathet lying against the acute angle A in a right triangle to the length of the hypotenuse should be the same for all right triangles having the same acute angle A.
4b23ed155f98c2111fba34b33dacdd0ad2d22566	This ratio is known as the sine of the angle A.
f875860c4bfaa1f535da0c3692294f0d371485f0	The ratios of the lengths of the other sides of a right triangle are called the cosine and tangent of the angle A. Hipparchus invented a method for calculating such ratios and compiled their tables.
f7b7ad6ac6797b3719c9b8dff97bcde1fcf39fce	With these tables and easily measurable distances on the Earth's surface, he was able to calculate the length of its great circle and the distance to the Moon.
bba157893ff41b5ce706faa9435e5eb8c571c6df	According to his calculations, the radius of the Moon was one third of the Earth's radius; according to modern data, the ratio of the radii of the Moon and the Earth is 27/1000.
0018e828d1525da37308c8f5dc86abd7c26361b4	Hipparchus determined the duration of the solar year with an error of only 61/2 minutes; it is believed that it was he who introduced the latitudes and longitudes.
e23dda22ae766f159033711d2a1f0f5aea97b682	Greek trigonometry and its applications in astronomy reached their peak in the Almagest of the Egyptian Claudius Ptolemy (died 168 AD).
dbec26b5a65a285294c57e7d597dc7872a8922da	The theory of the motion of celestial bodies was presented in the Almagest, which prevailed until the 16th century, when it was replaced by the theory of Copernicus.
4592853d9d7a39bff412be45ca08d5227ae90988	Ptolemy sought to build the simplest mathematical model, realizing that his theory was just a convenient mathematical description of astronomical phenomena, consistent with observations.
40f8b342506632cab24ec01d092d29f4ec16e903	The Copernican theory prevailed precisely because it turned out to be simpler as a model.
fdd9516b6dcf4b1a47d16e30d28e1ad77d195602	The decline of Greece.
664477eb543b95c6715af1138db0f478633fd726	Its main feature was the additive principle.
afaad2090dbd4c74b6476aad2b07bdf8a8af5e03	Even the subtractive principle, for example, writing the number 9 in the form of IX, came into wide use only after the invention of typesetting letters in the 15th century.
1764a329b3d302a21296f2d1d3f657c5cbc9c8f0	The Roman notation of numbers was used in some European schools until about 1600, and in accounting a century later.
0f8558a6dca2c91f7af4c2641c7042bed82492c7	* 2.
6daaa6767f5fee73c430d2d86a82d2a3d645b757	THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE* Medieval Europe.
7b3f883867df6005d0b9038c25c674244cda642c	The Roman civilization did not leave a noticeable trace in mathematics, because it was too concerned with solving practical problems.
59ace054b660f4a1dc3dcaf0f30c825dcf4422c2	Civilization, with the early Medieval Europe (c. 400-1100) was not productive for the exact opposite reason: intellectual life focused almost exclusively on theology and the afterlife.
8d0d99b26f0309ff904eadf7b4fcfd120140a3a3	The level of mathematical knowledge did not rise above arithmetic and simple sections from the Principles of Euclid.
080260f102d77cd37a2a5fe2bc97d775bd0c85ce	Around 1100, the almost three century period of mastering the heritage of the Ancient World and the East preserved by the Arabs and Byzantine Greeks began in Western European mathematics.
a614ab0287d5a746550775870dc25d254c88db17	In his work The Book of Abacus (1202), he introduced Europeans to Indo Arabic numerals and calculation methods, as well as Arabic algebra.
641877e4747895e0c2cf5b4c3cbb987488e0f40f	Rebirth.
ae1a82013ccc49227e0ce3a65eb8ec392a531e0b	Among the best geometers of the Renaissance were artists who developed the idea of perspective, which required geometry with converging parallel lines.
c2d2f9512125886816730c63d6876db94c3f6c79	The artist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) introduced the concepts of projection and section.
aa414e3c40249f9041ae00a6c8ecca610b65afaf	Rectilinear rays of light from the observer's eye to various points of the depicted scene form a projection; the cross section is obtained when the plane passes through the projection.
f2fc696598456e0b14a75c9517089f34c8babb9f	In order for the painted picture to look realistic, it had to be such a cross section.
1ee41bc5ea9bb6bec5187ff48e6c67b8e0b47e83	The concepts of projection and section gave rise to purely mathematical questions.
49198fe370296f0a356daa5d1471f0b80197ad7a	For example, what are the general geometric properties of the section and the original scene, what are the properties of two different sections of the same projection formed by two different planes intersecting the projection at different angles?
747e602e85be13bf70788dd556e922615f83fd9f	From such questions, projective geometry arose.
5e7773d1bf7e095a52e825c1971297d9ecad0944	Its founder is Zh.
983efb1f4e91f2b2f27935f42616d2e43545ed40	Desargues (1593-1662), using proofs based on projection and section, unified the approach to various types of conic sections, which the great Greek geometer Apollonius considered separately.
dc1b2f1ae5cf990b0ba4173bd23e1f0c0b182f20	* 3.
538fb9a88b2b2762652d7f5d6248be6e923170c2	THE BEGINNING OF MODERN MATHEMATICS* The beginning of the 16th century in Western Europe was marked by important achievements in algebra and arithmetic.
4e76e967d87d8bc757708cd9cd72d7fef9c0c9e8	Decimals and the rules of arithmetic operations with them were introduced into circulation.
1c4ac0d12b4800af82d68c03c61f4edf6598cc02	The real triumph was the invention of logarithms in 1614 by J. R. R. Tolkien.
65caf653fe884c00a6e52f1570f55068d5c321ee	Neperom.
9a4c6e959fd555f779eca7b3f9ba535c4d09673b	By the end of the 17th century, the understanding of logarithms as exponents of a power with any positive number other than one as the base was finally formed.
2b923183b514e1b1f8babac1d6e607d24eeb25fc	Since the beginning of the 16th century, irrational numbers have become more widely used.
bbd8bf1bdd4cc888091551ba25b72a949d9a45a4	B. Pascal (1623-1662) and I. Barrow (1630-1677), a teacher of I. Newton at the University of Cambridge, argued that such a number as can be interpreted only as a geometric quantity.
fe1e5e76b8218682cb6a4ada2236c0a5ad80d67e	However, in the same years, R. Descartes (1596-1650) and J. Wallis (1616-1703) believed that irrational numbers are permissible by themselves, without reference to geometry.
52b5138716bbce59a3bb5c42ad814ad81c4e4336	In the 16th century, disputes continued over the legality of the introduction of negative numbers.
d14ea1a580991881b1a4490b3cce55c48f64bb2c	Even less acceptable were the complex numbers that arose when solving quadratic equations, such as those called "imaginary"by Descartes.
12dcb6a931028b2bcc3ab248a5f81279eea1693d	These numbers were under suspicion even in the 18th century, although L. Euler (1707-1783) successfully used them.
5e0ce8968568509ecccb68751cef84b27ad5c68f	Complex numbers were finally recognized only at the beginning of the 19th century, when mathematicians got used to their geometric representation.
6cd3cb2e4110586c61e73471f1c1577fc54ad4e9	Achievements in algebra.
ae2d450f06410a08f166ba5aa344cf8291e8673a	In the 16th century, Italian mathematicians N. Tartaglia (1499-1577), S. Dal Ferro (1465-1526), L. Ferrari (1522-1565) and D. Cardano (1501-1576) found general solutions of equations of the third and fourth degrees.
759f3dca384ff394a0184e894b9c224806431561	To make algebraic reasoning and its recording more accurate, many symbols were introduced, including +, -, ?, , =, > and <. The most significant innovation was the systematic use of the French mathematician F.Vietom (1540-1603) letters for the designation of unknown and constant quantities.
0f9d6a9ea48fe28fa8b6ae2d7d5fe8d5691ebe55	This innovation allowed him to find a single method for solving equations of the second, third and fourth degrees.
8853444afee25513944c584832127a0df566767a	Then the mathematicians turned to equations whose degrees are higher than the fourth.
65bfd568b48125b4b8602a65fce01a4e5472e306	Working on this problem, Cardano, Descartes and I. Newton (1643-1727) published (without proof) a number of results concerning the number and type of roots of the equation.
29989fa90c3a5f802174d75d94fd6264fb5b7e04	Newton discovered the relation between the roots and the discriminant [b^2-4ac] of the quadratic equation, namely, that the equation ax^2 + bx + c = 0 has equal real, different real or complex conjugate roots, depending on whether the discriminant b^2-4ac is zero, greater than or less than zero.
8358181a6f757f223d50a2597d6b141c88684e0e	In 1799, K. Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) proved the so called basic theorem of algebra: every polynomial of the nth degree has exactly n roots.
0e260845c92995de2761c8ce3668bf0845bbf3d2	The main task of algebra - the search for a general solution of algebraic equations - continued to occupy mathematicians in the early 19th century.
e953a7bf1a529ecbe2269b551b11dc95200d187d	When talking about the General solution of the second degree equation ax^2 + bx + c = 0, mean that each of the two roots can be expressed using a finite number of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and extraction of roots produced on the coefficients a, b and C. Young Norwegian mathematician N. Abel (1802-1829) proved that it is impossible to obtain the General solution of equations of degree higher than 4 with a finite number of algebraic operations.
0e9de084869ca2568d196e7a6c502fd82aea72fe	However, there are many equations of a special form of degree higher than 4 that allow such a solution.
1f1d33c39f2be40404362171c7e91a677575ead1	On the eve of his death in a duel, the young French mathematician E. Galois (1811-1832) gave a decisive answer to the question of which equations are solvable in radicals, i.e. the roots of which equations can be expressed in terms of their coefficients using a finite number of algebraic operations.
525b5ab2cea9efb9820ba8988e5b8e7ea344869e	In Galois theory, substitutions or permutations of roots were used and the concept of a group was introduced, which has found wide application in many areas of mathematics.
39e99cea2b664613003b66526e8e12a020db2b4f	The development of group theory is a good example of the continuity of creative work in mathematics.
8cfea5df00def4c989ce13955fc2a91ebcb89b05	Galois built his theory based on the work of Abel, Abel relied on the work of J.Lagrange (1736-1813).
e2ec77fd2e2859df0a93d9d01b2f8d9544cbab35	In turn, many outstanding mathematicians, including Gauss and A. Legendre (1752-1833), implicitly used the concept of a group in their works.
18628a6a959c9dfea147de68e982558ad6b81891	Newton was not overly modest when he stated: "If I saw further than others, it was because I stood on the shoulders of giants."
8c3395f4eabc69f0642f1aeb131aa736ecf7b8ff	Analytical geometry.
1ac53473195015fa1d0935dc47fafddb477328ff	Analytical, or coordinate, geometry was created independently by P. Fermat (1601-1665) and R. Descartes in order to expand the possibilities of Euclidean geometry in construction problems.
786ed87a721dec4982b5e265270a21acadd4fd1b	However, Fermat considered his works only as a reformulation of the work of Apollonius.
6555ca642c288394af107f79bcd0011b21c8cdbb	The real discovery - the realization of the full power of algebraic methods - belongs to Descartes.
fc711078a0024aaba411a3fa46a81da0012080c3	Euclidean geometric algebra for each construction required the invention of its original method and could not offer the quantitative information necessary for science.
f69fe19c2660c9f10a9455606fd682d887db3106	Descartes solved this problem: he formulated geometric problems algebraically, solved an algebraic equation, and only then built the desired solution - a segment that had the appropriate length.
0ae4ac4a13b51d7c2621b7943bdcfb3155975333	Analytic geometry itself arose when Descartes began to consider indefinite construction problems, the solutions of which are not one, but many possible lengths.
4d890d6a664cb9951ff751f4b9379ca30050ca62	Analytical geometry uses algebraic equations to represent and study curves and surfaces.
7492179d25355c0d2d5657f7ab7d8b5cd15bde78	Descartes considered acceptable a curve that can be written using a single algebraic equation with respect to x and y.
e62b1d036115f2ebe48aa718c6210d2cff93f06e	This approach was an important step forward, because it not only included such curves as the conchoid and the cissoid among the permissible ones, but also significantly expanded the area of curves.
e903c94c2a75e258d76898f43ca5e6f74e62aef6	As a result, in the 17th and 18th centuries. many new important curves, such as the cycloid and the chain line, have entered scientific use.
7aa9e0be37d2ebe0530983e6ce326635a2697d1f	It seems that the first mathematician who used equations to prove the properties of conic sections was J. R. R. Tolkien.
d6abaa0a7d690ea30d7fb83417bbb5142f5d9f25	Wallis.
a4e821643484f14f9f9896593467ae28ec191c86	By 1865, he had algebraically obtained all the results presented in the V Book of Euclid's Principles.
08a181f6bfdad77ff48ef4e3d84e63216c13429f	Analytic geometry has completely changed the roles of geometry and algebra.
b8916f747740bfa4dd36e8d83a457e43970f0f7f	As the great French mathematician Lagrange noted, " while algebra and geometry were moving each in their own way, their progress was slow, and their applications were limited.
f183713182407e0e3fa8851889ca02effea55804	But when these sciences combined their efforts, they borrowed new vital forces from each other and since then they have been moving towards perfection with rapid steps."
d98a24878a8fefb8c3444b80ed6ab8ffe1d8fca6	Mathematical analysis.
27cae59641589bfd041c32b10b76e4a9729af654	The founders of modern science - Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton approached the study of nature as mathematicians.
a05b993ea5baba4e9b0ed4bbde19c37947fb1a8e	Studying motion, mathematicians have developed such a fundamental concept as a function, or a relation between variables, for example , d = kt^2, where d is the distance traveled by a freely falling body, and t is the number of seconds that the body is in free fall.
fa4cb14f439f176ef1f4f497f96ed392c89ff333	The concept of a function immediately became central to determining the speed at a given time and the acceleration of a moving body.
15a488c27fa03bdeb038d5d605276d53f79f47e0	The mathematical difficulty of this problem was that at any moment a body passes a zero distance in a zero period of time. therefore, determining the value of the speed at a time by dividing the path by time, we will come to the mathematically meaningless expression 0/0.
7ff49bc8c0b6d2ccc767bfe882159f914337e324	The problem of determining and calculating the instantaneous rates of change of various quantities attracted the attention of almost all mathematicians of the 17th century, including Barrow, Fermat, Descartes and Wallis.
5a85589b3772ab05c4e22e3f38bc7a06b89adcdc	The disparate ideas and methods proposed by them were combined into a systematic, universally applicable formal method by Newton and G. Leibniz (1646-1716), the creators of differential calculus.
ed18daf8994240971cc6b2bee75c421b06334d93	On the issue of priority in the development of this calculus, there were heated debates between them, with Newton accusing Leibniz of plagiarism.
479d44b4e6e1972dc0c47c4e1791e46aaf6114d3	However, as the research of historians of science has shown, Leibniz created mathematical analysis independently of Newton.
754ae8750bf9087720646e325deaf62519ef3655	As a result of the conflict, the exchange of ideas between mathematicians of continental Europe and England was interrupted for many years to the detriment of the English side.
4cb993aa7066ce27c32a7fb879f2ddd581a3ea57	English mathematicians continued to develop the ideas of analysis in the geometric direction, while the mathematicians of continental Europe, including I. Bernoulli (1667-1748), Euler and Lagrange achieved incomparably greater success following the algebraic, or analytical, approach.
60c279ba962b020849c9a38c5e108bb224e09ae7	The basis of all mathematical analysis is the concept of a limit.
0f9d6e64f16d5534170992025d79db841eb68f00	The speed at a time is defined as the limit to which the average speed d/t tends, when the value of t is getting closer to zero.
921cfd29fc3f8c8071e3c9aaaab39e6cbb1fb50e	Differential calculus provides a convenient general method for calculating the rate of change of the function f (x) for any value of x.
7362fbb8c10e297e7a291601240c484c37c30d28	This speed is called the derivative.
4fc36b1147636adf0651dbe85249794cd3edc0db	From the generality of the notation f (x), it can be seen that the concept of a derivative is applicable not only in problems related to the need to find speed or acceleration, but also in relation to any functional dependence, for example, to some relation from economic theory.
10fcd1e934c1dc9a1489e2dd886a3ef7f6fcfe88	One of the main applications of differential calculus is the so called maximum and minimum problems; another important range of problems is finding the tangent to a given curve.
92df4d342f0e79f10c8bc7a9ec0037cca32ec895	It turned out that using a derivative specially invented for working with motion problems, it is also possible to find areas and volumes bounded by curves and surfaces, respectively.
43d6e989a406371b12bcc656fd1524f4117dae1d	The methods of Euclidean geometry did not have the proper generality and did not allow obtaining the required quantitative results.
7fd3212ec8db649c87aaeb32d650bd6e62969bb6	The efforts of mathematicians of the 17th century created numerous special methods that allowed finding the areas of figures bounded by curves of one kind or another, and in some cases the connection of these problems with the problems of finding the rate of change of functions was noted.
b7e3187815a9cb4ec310a4f67bf0f9c09c40bc3b	But, as in the case of differential calculus, it was Newton and Leibniz who realized the generality of the method and thereby laid the foundations of integral calculus.
acbc0fe91944e5a8031e3a5bfcc630ac6673a5fa	The Newton Leibniz method begins by replacing the curve bounding the area to be determined with a sequence of polylines approaching it, similar to how it was done in the exhaustion method invented by the Greeks.
1466cbb6124ab4b992b3284a025e906d6ee1a9c9	The exact area is equal to the limit of the sum of the areas of n rectangles when n turns to infinity.
38a29c62691d9d77a9c538a3c0cbefcec2ac1d0f	Newton showed that this limit can be found by reversing the process of finding the rate of change of the function.
410c41a5a253f089ae1c75daf07b98b4624b1687	The operation that is the reverse of differentiation is called integration.
e8dc9151b6c7b3d3e8f202628dcb0c4abcac6e9d	The statement that summation can be carried out by reversing differentiation is called the main theorem of mathematical analysis.
3869ad2f5b6a645096f080d4ac577d89f6680f60	Just as differentiation is applicable to a much broader class of problems than the search for velocities and accelerations, integration is applicable to any problem related to summation, for example, to physical problems for adding forces.
3ddddcc6d88ca5c17107512c7ae0f398f90f3813	* 4.
43fc99a0708af8daf0fb22dcc4ea183ffc57a32d	MODERN MATHEMATICS* The creation of differential and integral calculus marked the beginning of"higher mathematics".
b04872145d678c6435a6479591ea3a4a1b46b47a	A strict definition of the limit was obtained only in the 19th century.
dc43d87ccf44fa841f09e87311adf495a852ca9c	Non Euclidean geometry.
27ac8d94996a610e9ccc08419d0877330224f175	The honor of creating non Euclidean geometry fell to N. I. Lobachevsky (1792-1856) and Ya.
f84229ca44fd8880587b706c77055529e762e97f	Boyai (1802-1860), each of whom independently published their own original presentation of non Euclidean geometry.
7b574f9fd357a4565e576c033cf289c02272726e	No one seriously thought about the physical applications of non Euclidean geometry.
b5bae088285570b57ec6602fe0d4976cc25bac1e	The creation of the general theory of relativity by A. Einstein (1879-1955) in 1915 awakened the scientific world to the realization of the reality of non Euclidean geometry.
6bb0f7dd4394eff279cb530e00ff75658b77b59e	Non Euclidean geometry became the most impressive intellectual achievement of the 19th century.
13beb222faa8cc64c17e13a9269de6e06ec16d01	Non Euclidean geometry and quaternions (algebra in which the property of commutativity does not hold) made mathematicians realize that what they took for abstract and logically consistent statements is actually based on an empirical and pragmatic basis.
30f41e569572ecc3dbc82114cbaa9da8623d295d	The creation of non Euclidean geometry was also accompanied by the realization of the existence of logical gaps in Euclidean geometry.
3738f3e4984b945b3b8e89f2db92c247ed01dc6e	I. The history of the development of mathematics.
e77edc20ae9f72b069991ce3ac4c129f58de27e9	1. Introduction.
b7d4770ecc0aaf8699b07c0b16da0224290b211b	Until the beginning of the XVIII century, mathematics was mainly the science of numbers, scalar quantities and relatively simple geometric figures, the quantities studied by it lengths, areas, volumes are considered as constants.
66de9638bcddbd917794ce12ffe853b79e3b38f6	The field of application of mathematics was accounting, trade, surveying, architecture, astronomy.
5b1bf2fcc7bcbdbe7ac84641bd734cda17eff8e4	In the XIX XX centuries. mathematics rises to a new level of abstraction.
8a71441a07e3e30bb943c32db760f1c121029aa9	New disciplines are being developed: the theory of functions of a complex variable, group theory, non Euclidean geometry, set theory, mathematical logic, functional analysis.
9ca9164ab3da085bc90499c625c28d85b19cb26b	The desire to simplify and speed up the solutions of a number of time consuming computational tasks led to the appearance of computers.
b0b56dc7afb9c13c684cf291498ab9b9e83b5f0a	Starting the study of this section, you can recall the words with which the famous French mathematician of the XVIII century.
098645154fd5de0d1f6369cedf59eda4c30ab09d	Joseph Louis Lagrange (who already had a degree in mathematics at the age of 19) appealed to young mathematicians:
7991d4fb78b9fb099ef3a5d5637d8961c6930e0b	"Read it, understanding will come later."
83ec26276f226961e02ae7413095d25fe70209a0	2. The state of science in different historical periods.
8c18d6fb1e02eaa891a4621fae9f898e3d19894f	1.1.
5ddef47e495a5af07ada4806910a9bab362e7e20	The origin of mathematics
36c686e24637676fe12dfe83b76e2e2bc61c638f	It is impossible to accurately date the emergence of the most important concepts —an integer, a quantity, a figure—.
ee1805af3d85fc2c798a06be54c5c3468e09ce1f	When writing appeared, the idea of them was already formed.
63dc319e0aa4b82a980dec7738e93c2682c2d553	By this time, various systems of written numbering of integers were also developed.
f7178253edd9ee529c4724fee4c770c910e4bd68	/ 2000-1700 BC — / the first mathematical texts that have come down to us: two Egyptian papyri and numerous clay tablets from ancient Babylon containing formulations and solutions of problems.
3e241d8a6f03445b80e94c7ae17e6afcd3d939c4	The Egyptians used decimal non positional numbering and fractions with the numerator 1 ("basic" fractions).
14578a5d9d8747b4eecd4de700383a35b5702e43	The Babylonians had a sexagesimal positional number system without zero and systematic sexagesimal fractions.
9aa419a629ad1254fd9d4083e50236c840a5f921	Later, in the middle of the first millennium BC, the Babylonians introduced a sign to indicate a missed sexagesimal digit.
1f66b51a04b820f1776338877e70eacb80de08b0	Geometry in Babylon and Egypt was primarily computational.
6ed50b742fc08bbb19dbffbeff8e2a57f6111a2a	So, the rules for calculating the areas of a triangle by side and height, a circle by its radius were known (the Babylonians took the number 3 as /p/, and the Egyptians took the number 3.16), as well as the volumes of a pyramid and a truncated pyramid with a square base.
4d267577eaeda58fea629251ad7dc561312f3733	The Babylonians knew that in a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs, as well as the inverse sentence.
b0602c669e70b791dfd9ebcb57b28ca9f8516e4d	Apparently, both of these proposals were discovered by them using examples and they did not yet know how to prove them in a general form.
ee945238cb92f7a9c8b0463c35d4b96d997b48b7	The most remarkable achievement of this period is the creation of elements of algebra in ancient Babylon and the discovery of the rule for solving quadratic equations.
cecd0706f6b12f47c8a0ba30f3d86e995f08d85a	The Babylonians were also able to find approximate values of square roots from non square numbers.
ac2b51c8f267759a029c844e364c598e4180b8d1	They knew the rules for summing an arithmetic progression and a series of squares of natural numbers.
f814077501bf2c47c058fb081fae5afc04af5fdc	Mathematical knowledge was presented in this era in the form of recipes, the correctness of which was not proved; usually the same type of numerical examples and their solutions were given.
416de3138d9e128d2f8cdfb193cc40dec18c57b5	There was no mathematics as a science yet.
3183f3359bab4ba663b063efb1668834de0661f0	1.2.
24b3a136b949d0db35e4240b542fc9f0f5e16af1	The emergence of mathematics as a science.
25474ab781f2122f540e26afecc4767eccaea27e	Construction of the first mathematical theories (mathematics of Ancient Greece)
1629db18da090e7a2f848527f16e1dee5c6b1fd2	/ VI century BC - / systematic introduction of logical proofs, which was a turning point in the development of mathematics.
97916382cb74545d4bb40703d55c463e25e2c318	In the Pythagorean scientific school, the construction of geometry as an abstract science was begun, the truths of which are deduced from a few initial axioms with the help of proofs.
470dd04f245fea8cd76f53f66a57f914f536e143	The first mathematical theories go back to the Pythagoreans: planimetry of rectilinear figures (including a strict proof of the famous Pythagorean theorem) and elements of number theory (introduction of the concepts of prime numbers, mutually prime numbers, the study of divisibility, the construction of perfect numbers).
43c856dc2e3df54d410e91f1e76da7596386cc29	At the same school, three of the five regular bodies were discovered: a cube, a tetrahedron and a dodecahedron.
191dc17ebb77c7a863a32450566d78e367dbcc6f	/ V century BC - /In the Pythagorean school, the greatest discovery was made about the incommensurability of the side of a square and its diagonal.
99b4edd9e341b5a1ea8139bb5a1c6e71d41ecb51	It showed that rational numbers (i.e. integers and fractions) are not enough to measure geometric quantities and substantiate the doctrine of similarity.
bd5b0d3e8b1776e607d6688d9cee5bfd3ddba507	Thanks to this discovery, it became necessary to create a theory of relations of both commensurate and incommensurable quantities.
a7f7d882bc775e878a8176bbd2af9c0d47876727	/ V century BC/(the second half) - the so called geometric algebra was created, which made it possible in a general way to solve problems that are reduced to a quadratic equation or a sequence of such equations, purely geometrically, using a compass and ruler.
584692d894fa7b5dfdf27dacee7883bbe0df6b1d	Geometric algebra played the role of our letter algebra in ancient mathematics, but its apparatus was much less convenient.
185a86e679f91f428d0d3ffc60d4a4cf51693eac	At the same time, three famous problems of antiquity were formulated:
fe563f94b135cb08310a8e7e992ba063f5a2809a	1) doubling the cube (build a cube with a volume twice as large as this one),
db0e48fcf23c70d3407526aa086f97688936c209	2) 2) trisection of the angle (divide an arbitrary angle into three equal parts) and
77414e5b7f5d23a960258ae2be93affdd4abd29d	3) 3) quadrature of the circle (build a square equal to this circle).
dc067f9425734d6a6aab71be6e0c3eb1b26a9153	All these constructions, as it was proved in the XIX century, are impossible with the help of a compass and a ruler.
100b84217e6ee944060538e185a6c52c05f4738b	The ancients used new curves to solve them: conic sections (ellipse, hyperbola and parabola) and quadraris (the first transcendental curve).
277aaaa939db1727ea37f621313960101f0ad1d6	In search of the quadrature of the circle, Hippocrates of Chios discovered quadratable lunules (called Hippocratic ones), t, E. figures bounded by arcs of circles for which it is possible to construct squares equal to them.
170bd174ec35cf950554b7e7c86025cc73af9254	At the end of the V century.
96c0279aa91786902313c111849ebd7a2b92ed70	Hippocrates compiled the first "Beginnings" — a systematic presentation of the foundations of mathematics of his time.
5ae2d4cf5f5391dde514dd5437bbdf6b0d4e5094	This work has not reached us.
e4ad08e262f63b5f6eaaaf0c3c29c213e34a7081	/ IV century BC/(first half) - the Athenian mathematician Theaetetus undertook a study of algebraic irrationalities and began to classify them.
8169ed5d362caeec9981ec77853b767885886d68	Defined the simplest classes of quadratic irrationalities,
0d4398e3018331cd41637ac6902e9286590fe281	such as:, _ ±_, __,// which were later described in Euclid's "Principles".
cd4beb87548417361ac153078a9c2265562590b0	He also showed that _ is irrational if it is not a cube.
367462ad1b9f0bd63e7a53e71158aeb55229b2cf	He also owns the discovery of the octahedron and icosahedron.
ef2889955a33653ba21cdececfaa6038a04ccfca	/ IV century BC/(middle) - the mathematician and astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus created a general theory of relations for any homogeneous quantities (both commensurate and incommensurable).
112a71d805457613120566f19120e74ff258a7e5	This theory coincides, in essence, with the theory of real numbers proposed at the end of the XIX century by R. Dedekind.
5075485d1d809c4f05a1d578e40005c24b0b392f	To determine the areas and volumes, Evdox developed the so called "exhaustion method".
e5a6d04e110685311d93adf03bb01dc09a891665	Both theories were based on the general doctrine of quantities, and for the first time the most important axiom, now known as the axioms of Archimedes, was formulated:
61edc76b636e9b49813f484edf9728a9a536a678	if a>b, then you can repeat b as many times as/nb>a.
42099b4af021e53fd8fd4e056c2568d7c2e3ffa8	/
179b8169e811c7d2aee694e90fd4e310374fa14b	With the help of new methods, Eudoxus proved for the first time that the cone is equal to the cylinder having the same base and height, and the pyramid is equal to the corresponding prism.
a93394eb089c16d729f0637ebd7151a752e118d8	He also proved that the areas of two circles are related as the squares of their diameters.
b843a898a67cae855172fae82f75a94f2db321d3	300 BC - / Euclid created the "Beginnings", in which he summed up all the previous development of ancient mathematics.
4c12956e235f03bbc3b26b87e5c27b605006ee98	The deductive method of presenting the "Principles" has become a model for building a mathematical theory.
5cb4962cd3a34cf69bc1b0e1605377f3f313662b	The Principles systematically describe geometry, elements of number theory, algebra, the theory of relations and the method of exhaustion.
e6278e194d53b9a6f81141c41fe46cc357f375a7	Here we formulate Euclid's algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers, we prove that the product of the numbers/ab/is divisible by a prime number /p/ if and only if one of the factors is divisible by /p,/ and also that there are infinitely many primes.
8baddca9193dea0973a49bdbc91b3c9d6633538f	For the first time, a strict derivation of the formula for the sum of a finite number of terms of a geometric progression is found in the" Beginnings " and it is shown that there are only five regular polyhedra: a cube, a tetrahedron, an octahedron, a dodecahedron and an icosahedron.
1a4b4b554b3eb24b8785e905e7235f15f602522c	/III century BC//// e//.
8226675068b8d7a7f385fdbb59b9ee5e1d01f9db	— / Archimedes developed methods for finding areas and volumes, as well as methods for determining tangents and the largest and smallest values of quantities, which he applied to solve problems of statics, hydrostatics and the theory of equilibrium of floating bodies.
0da72b446858966c401f31bd05873f480f03f352	The methods of Archimedes formed the basis of differential and integral calculus, created in the XVII century.
494b6d01d27043166c65931bc6f9032bf63a0f93	Archimedes found all semi regular polyhedra.
32e9f3162106d7ebebf552b2af4c428db1eb26c2	With the help of conic sections, he solved cubic equations of the form
2f7d7aee42313b7caabdd1f7ef78d3bca9dd9a60	/x//^2 //(a±x)=//b/
e88d249d96ffbbfa34b7846be4207ca140020749	and I conducted a complete study of them.
261c8687fb682a83c81f49d099b513754c120a44	/ Ill// - II centuries BC - / Apollonius systematically and comprehensively studied conic sections.
4e2486d6bc40a065e18002d4ce06706ca34562cc	His books on conic sections served as the basis for the creation of analytical geometry by R. Descartes and P. Fermat (XVII century), projective geometry by V. Pascal and J. Desargues (XVII century), and also were a mathematical apparatus for the research on mechanics and astronomy of I. Kepler, G. Galileo and I. Newton.
b3208354a19f062e294d9444e508e56aa4807191	/I// - II**centuries AD — / wide development of computational algebraic methods in ancient mathematics.
234bff1682e04a4b30385d0dfaf4eddbeb448fac	/I V./(end) - Menelaus created a systematic course of spherical geometry, modeled on the" Principles " of Euclid, and developed spherical trigonometry.
ecf25ecbc51e7056ab8ebdcb607a3cc3e96963df	/II c.
111d2043a5f6c1fd6da4b17c56649dad805c3bc8	- /Ptolemy, in his astronomical works, expounded planar and spherical trigonometry; he derived a formula equivalent to the formula
7b4c91669b5b79a344d05fa9464c4c024539f177	sin(a± b)
209e1a68b47928289c2800bf7296d737c791c475	= = sin a. cos b± cos a. sin b, and compiled detailed tables of chords (instead of the sine line, the ancients considered the entire chord).
afdab4840d5c8456b2052eac0593535349051a71	In the tables, Ptolemy used the symbol to indicate the missing sexagesimal digit.
4a3ab8dd78ac1b3f7bd63a4b2df5be7bb053d069	It is possible that this symbol was the prototype of zero.
8e6394dc479c9bfbea8ac6ef552c200014834420	/ Ill/ / century AD — / Diophantus of Alexandria wrote "Arithmetic", in which he expanded the numerical domain to the field of rational numbers, formulated the rule of multiplication of relative numbers, introduced algebraic symbolism: signs for the first six positive and negative degrees of the unknown, for subtraction and equality.
1d0b7dac0ef345ce3a0f976230ff5faecb1292e7	There are also rules for transferring terms from one part of the equation to another and bringing similar ones.
7c81d014727b849c0bc571fd7924301d519c068c	In "Arithmetic" the problems of solving indefinite equations in rational numbers are considered and methods for finding rational solutions of indefinite equations of the second and third degree are given.
d1d5944f6b97ee887df3e432750b8fd86df5683d	1.3. Mathematics of the countries of the Far, Middle and Middle East
90f7f14342bb1efbff9f271d12701fb68549776a	/ II century BC - / creation of the oldest extant Chinese mathematical treatise "Mathematics in nine books", which contained information on arithmetic and geometry.
c24d71e37e65aabc0aafe73e680b0688bcda6efd	When solving problems in the treatise, the Pythagorean theorem was used.
d181fcd2e0cc9d0120f9569c884acc5a97fa1d09	The most remarkable in it is a uniform method for solving a system of linear equations.
1807a3c017304625d8eff1c874096ab2e5f055d9	At the same time, negative numbers appear, for which the rules of addition and subtraction are formulated.
671254d6cc0214292163f95bdcadd0d29f59b48d	The treatise also describes the calculation algorithm .square and cubic roots, similar to the modern one.
9300a4610821e7acbfd44a7132ad8986d1bf28ca	This algorithm was transferred in the VII XIII centuries to the case of calculating the roots of the general equation of the third and fourth degrees.
f0323849d5f01c2450d09bf06714c3f3ecb82708	It coincides mainly with the so called Gorner scheme, obtained in Europe in the XIX century.
f11bc8f5f050c290bc656f0d5a15a1ba13b10a36	/ Ill/ / century AD - /**there are named decimals in Sun Tzu's treatise.
e9915a29df96f83607aaa21edb954616a6eb1166	/V VI centuries.
abc3b5539551d0e927eb6b964d80ac1b7e1f58b0	- /creation of a decimal positional number system in India and the introduction of zero as a special digit into it.
6a13e5f0b59a54d3875302f7d0a7da2d924484d1	/ 499 - /in the astronomical treatise of Ariabhata, he solved an indefinite equation in integers
780f391af627965a92e1d820d0538f1b0c51071f	/ah+bw=c.
c64b8480a468e7f8b15abd0cb49a4f9a451af542	///
5805728df19148e2b0433cdae990e77c7a59ae02	/ Around 628 - / Brahmagupta, operating with negative numbers, gave a single rule for solving any quadratic equation, formulated rules for actions with zero, which thanks to this became a number equal to other numbers.
0c5af330c697e640d453491df97f7e8f3ac24b1a	Brahmagupta used algebraic symbols: special signs for unknowns and their degrees, signs for the square root, for addition and subtraction operations.
7eac79babc2d6e9197f61d8c3db469c087e4945c	/ IX c.
38563d43d41d58e09a9ec831396055ea58987136	- /Muhammad al Khorezmi explained the rules of operations with numbers written in the decimal positional system, and studied quadratic equations.
bceda991052e56cc2e73f55ec33c358b169c9d97	The words "algebra" and" algorithm " first appeared in the translation of his treatises.
40bae574ac541c426fd6db912b13a16759d2f051	The first of them meant the operation of transferring terms from one part of the equation to another, and the second the distorted name of the author (al Khorezmi Algorithmi), it was originally used only to denote the rules of calculation according to the decimal positional system.
8b3d21b0bc2a8d2643f9e4e8f34829534ebfe8e4	/ XI century.
68f0f1267687d2915df16cc9a3fc33b1dc686a26	- /the mathematician and poet Omar Khayyam in a treatise on algebra solved geometrically cubic equations (according to the method of Archimedes).
345918a7c5616a6b9acd8d9b28d2695fbe2139bb	Commenting on Euclid's "Beginnings", he brought the concepts of relation and number closer together.
cb4b598e857f5dc5d789bf3548f8e2bac8cea033	By the time of Khayyam, the formula for raising a binomial to any positive integer was known .the degree and method of extracting the root of any degree.
52754b346b01eb57189d4065b0be46f431bcf4a4	/XII century.
051ffc530f23f686c039a09a701d533dbc44a4fc	- /Bhaskara akarya formulated all the rules for actions with negative numbers.
387811bb4c4009b1986fd45d94fc4fd78a34ed65	Bhaskara knew that due to the two digit nature of the square root, a square equation can have two solutions.
9607c6cb2945ff373c992da797464c1151ec595a	/XIII century.
296ae1395187b3d08b5936ec1db727786e4eb7f3	- /Nasiraddin Tuey wrote a treatise on spherical geometry and trigonometry, which contained the doctrine of solving triangles.
0a3f34bf866ff91895b1a2485cc9c0954cdc2655	The treatise played a crucial role for the development of trigonometry in Europe.
642adff95e6b807c149a957459a2885fb1510555	/XV century.
cfce85a14d90838ac82b7dad15c88a20c8d3dc1f	- /Jamshid al Kashi, who worked at the Ulugbek Observatory near Samarkand, introduced and used decimal fractions: the decimal positional system was extended to record any real numbers.
73d719367731351edadaec3347dd0a588b4500f3	He calculated the number pc with an accuracy of 17 decimal places.
62e821193436e75c800d2e0a9c2f8385186f13ed	1.4. Mathematics of the European Middle Ages and the Renaissance
7e84aaa8094e03d42fdcbcf0c5564d3695c622f1	/XII XIII centuries.
058fe66507b0a64910a3878b97b459fe991b07bd	- /Arabic and Greek works on mathematics have been translated into Latin.
dda352b7051fbaf541ee4663bfed74414f98a0be	Gradually, the decimal positional system spread in Europe.
553b4b8f5f084121966827ed0b7329632a712e8c	- /Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) outlined a new positional numbering, gave information on algebra and arithmetic, considered various numerical series.
888f2e1542c7bff31112c37e935fe6985731989d	/XTV//—XV centuries.
ea505b9972cc5dd1331bae6b6d7f85cc89d7452d	- /the algebraic symbolism has been improved, notations for the degree, for the radical and for the degrees of the unknown have been introduced.
0c1b0a018c2371225c01a07592b6ff95d68abe48	/XVI century.
1002c488f9c641fb39009a80408ba5395c19a8f7	— / the first major success of European mathematics: S. Ferro, N. Tartaglia and J. Cardano solved the equation of the third degree in radicals and Cardano's student, L. Ferrari, solved the equation of the fourth degree.
80e2201937e1a9bab0e8387d2d62f65a2557e4e8	/ 1572 - / in" Algebra " R. Bombelli for the first time considered imaginary numbers /a+b_/and formulated rules for actions with them.
50b6fe907bf89584ffd99f5f1cb433821cf186af	He interpreted these numbers themselves as symbols convenient for obtaining results relative to real numbers.
a927db6ca8c62edaf687013edd9329412d6fe388	/1585 - / p.
fabb03f51dc99979fd0f9813e9af9e03bff33036	Stevin entered decimals.
dc1be099f7010838aba91b9f7320304943d11660	/ XVI century./ (the second half) - F. Viet introduced letter designations for unknown and constant quantities and created a mathematical formula.
d6b152375651a8eed2bdefe62f1cc8c2356c7436	1.5.
f0d95555cec2865eb50a9b85a23b75b3bdf88a68	The period of mathematics of variables (XVII XVIII centuries)
e80c39debf08ffdafb19ebc8a66479cdf96da1e6	In the/ XVII century.
94d672f2d8ac6fa1ab90a46dd6ebe6b36ff64572	/ the mechanics of terrestrial and celestial bodies made great progress, and in this connection there were problems of studying the dependencies of some quantities on others, problems of determining velocities, accelerations, areas of curved figures, centers of gravity, etc.
b1b99f03316f2cb831bce0178d0c123395402d3d	There was no ready made analytical apparatus for solving these problems in mathematics.
8c42c6596b8ff3eb840a7b781c8091163afc01ae	Scientists began to look for ways to study variables in mathematics, using the creations of ancient mathematicians.
842b1ff7132d48827549326cd8fee86277b3b6f4	As a result, the function (the term of G. Leibniz) has become the same basic object of mathematics as a number and a quantity.
713082f331a73fbc0f43a1e6c1c4cd3d52a92439	/1614 - / J. Neper introduced logarithms and published the first logarithmic tables.
16d056626c8199efb99cf13c87f905611250faca	A little later, the tables of logarithms were published by I. Burgi.
cd83de77b838b377b0596761b71d2e9f7a934e79	/1636-1637 - / p.
893309d725f6b210d5e3d419e35d354914415094	Descartes and P. Fermat introduced the coordinate method into mathematics, which made it possible to reduce geometric problems to algebraic ones.
bef42614343ebb330e212a52a60503ec3512c13a	Independently of each other, Descartes and Fermat constructed analytical geometry using a new method.
736cd1f9df3620ad5b2c7484e4e6d5763e376a88	Descartes gave algebraic symbolism a modern look.
443088a428d2bf64a1fc6c5ca131b42ab59a941e	/ 1608-1660 - / development of the analysis of infinitesimals (methods for determining volumes, areas, centers of gravity, tangents, extremes, velocities, accelerations) in the works of I. Kepler, B. Cavalieri, E. Torricelli, P. Fermat, B. Pascal, J. Wallis, I. Barrow, et al.
050d2541968f58545cfda865ea8dc97f331feb26	/40 —50s of the XVII century .
65bf3d10606804ef650ef947f22ce6ea2b6684be	- / P. Fermat formulated the famous problems of number theory, which for 200 years remained central in this science.
fade163356dd265f4b4aa856e7b9d0ee0dd833c9	/1665 - / B. Pascal in the" Treatise on the Arithmetic Triangle", deducing the properties of binomial coefficients and the relations between them, formulated and applied the principle of complete mathematical induction.
39366ebed9db57eff934eeb62398e8f467d6a1f8	/ 60-80 ies of the XVII century .
9fee3e8bed6cf5072d73761d51e9dd40dea2749e	— / I. Newton (since 1665) and G. Leibniz (since 1673) independently created differential and integral calculus and introduced into mathematics the most important analytical apparatus for the representation and study of functions — power series.
e06279d8127c57e09516ed3cf72055d78c9e7f83	Newton extended the formula for raising a binomial to a power to the case when the exponent is any rational number.
a5ef5c6caca8ae13f800972b6e63c8bb4f42d156	/ 1687 - / the book of I. Newton "Mathematical principles of Natural Philosophy" was published, in which the mathematical construction of the foundations of classical mechanics of terrestrial and celestial bodies was given.
9b089e6c8b59988203cd8bf70fc841030d007345	/17//13//d.
45804b86c177d24ad592bddd80a6411ea17a3810	— / a work by J. Bernoulli containing the simplest form of the law of large numbers, one of the basic laws of probability theory, was published (posthumously).
a471cf1d36522e5f9d664386c3db10697b5d32c9	/40s of the XVIII century — L. / Euler developed the doctrine of the functions of both real and complex variables.
e9fc16f064a6a328927216bfacc2fe745a55755e	He studied in detail the elementary functions */x/**/^n /**/, /**/a^x, log x, sin x, cos x/*/, / found expressions for* * them in the form of infinite series and determined the logarithms of negative and imaginary numbers.
40222df54793a8dbbfd5d3f295d44658470270ac	/ 30-60s of the XVIII century — - / L. Euler proved the basic theorems of elementary number theory, studied quadratic deductions and discovered the quadratic law of reciprocity — one of the main ones in higher arithmetic.
2b685ef5bda793c4c435c91ce6f2049541d93df7	Euler proved a special case of Fermat's great theorem, namely that the equation
5eff26ccc96f95021dfaafa43698d6dd3f0facaf	*x**^n +**y**^n =**z^n*
4d294c79e398297676841208e0fdb2e815774185	for n=3 and n=4, it has no solutions in integers.
39f565dfa75d4967e7ecc73b38412532acbc1bcd	At the same time, he considered expressions of the form */t+n_/* as new integers, which was the first generalization of the concept of an integer.
1ca8abe08e600ee77efff2e39edc14b02b3a0806	/1770/—/1771 G. - / J. Lagrange analyzed all the methods for solving equations of the first four degrees in radicals and showed why all these methods are not suitable for solving equations of the fifth degree.
12f8581f3c8681e16f50657bde3f33bfab3c9bf8	He discovered that the solvability of equations in radicals depends on the properties of the group of permutations of the roots of this equation, and thus drew attention to the importance of studying groups.
ad031cd730a44a58063597f3bd05cb3015867eac	/1796 - / k.
708e311ef3f982872caa1d9fd9ed949e89717fdc	Gauss showed that if n is a prime number, then a regular n square can be constructed using a compass and a ruler when /n/ has the form *_ + 1*.
33ab7c7e0bd1d136b65a0ffe800b768bb7aacf4d	/1799 - / k.
3f171e92a2506cf4dfbe28429f0f20dffe0485ec	Wessel gave a geometric interpretation of complex numbers.
c5c7931a36e291405c8a8b747c449650ef3c9f97	However, his works remained unknown.
6d32c4c03c1b4d8bf905621905b56a73710b6b3b	In 1806, a similar geometric interpretation was proposed by J. Argan.
d8282e79db24ecb0f4e66de13192d0064e4ebf42	Complex numbers received universal recognition in mathematics only after the works of K. Gauss in 1832.
48b523e00a1d49952fdd4a856cfc7eb2126ea0e5	/1801 - / k.
b0c25048da062b22be625e270c6cd24fec8f901f	Gauss created the foundations of number theory.
96ebbfeed5d5784288ff094d5dec296c60d951ce	He first developed the theory of comparisons, proved the main theorems of this theory, studied the theory of quadratic residues to the end, and outlined the theory of the equations of division of the circle.
b76502d00fd2ea41f01fcafaad394acae27ed1af	/1821-1823 - / Fr. Cauchy developed the theory of limits and based on it built the doctrine of functions, defined the concept of the sum of a series, the continuity of a function, and later put the doctrine of limits as the basis of all mathematical analysis.
9a474d2b11bfb62751749fc25b3c42f73aaff6c5	Cauchy also developed the foundations of the theories of functions of a complex variable (1825).
ad625513dd121201f1036407926a6f9873075566	/1824-1826 - / N. Abel proved that algebraic equations of degree n ?
9490a98da8d7432e04b4020490627c4c4fc26482	5 are generally undecidable in radicals.
c33f4632d55bf558586a86ba13b979e8fb63d70a	/1827 - / k.
cbec9db26690ff254b08a054c7a25024229a7d41	Gauss developed the so called internal geometry of surfaces, in which each surface acts as a carrier of properties of a special geometry.
705eaaa05846a4182ab4d85ed477f28e06958de7	/1829-1830— / N. I. Lobachevsky published his first works on non Euclidean geometry, which opened a new era in the history of geometry.
8c1b868abbcdf9c400d454f9819124a656a1ced4	Independently of N. I. Lobachevsky, the system of non Euclidean geometry was built by Ya.
f5c3116e63ee704a41dac38d3dd306fea10c5623	Bolyai (1831).
9cadb2f4b220dc231f54091a41ee325e0b335403	/ 1830-1832 — / E. Galois found a criterion for whether this equation is solved with numerical coefficients in radicals.
b12703b2b3573873d06abb35a85332337fc24900	At the same time, he developed methods of group and field theory, which have become of great importance in mathematics and its applications.
d3e058af99817bb597bb5b00fe0476720253b13f	1832 in connection with his research on the theory of numbers, K. Gauss extended the concept of an integer to the complex numbers a+ bi, where a and b are integers.
d5961ae00350526436f576d90d5c74f9ff9ce5f9	He transferred the algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor to new numbers and developed all the arithmetic of complex integers.
453b66b82eb2c687ec7f85c6426487636103ad67	/1840-1851 - / U. Hamilton generalized the concept of a complex number by constructing quaternions numbers of the form */a+/ / bi+/ /cj+/ / dk/*/, / where /i/ / ^2 / / =j^2 =k//^2 //=//-1//, a, //b//, c,//d— / are real numbers.
f1ca9ec12f8adb3c1d3860fbaabf7d80f0dc9933	It turned out that not all the laws of ordinary arithmetic are fulfilled for these numbers.
a69895ac2650b849c7403cdf7b6ebfcbed151815	Thus, the multiplication of quaternions does not have the property of displacement/./
a1742df774efd674683e1d02bfc44a7aee7b1490	/1847 E//./Kummer using the introduction so for ideal numbers, I built the arithmetic of integers of the fields of division of the circle.
97e5132760b88cb9e0ca0391ae14b51d7c80ab29	This gave him the opportunity to prove Fermat's great theorem for all n<100).
0448e4052838208e9014c4294a0bb8f9e6446fba	/ 1849 — / P. L. Chebyshev obtained the first accurate results after Euclid on the distribution of prime numbers in a natural series.
894ab14e016da7876e70bd0f744b3f4111296b95	/1864 - / B. Riemann, generalizing the ideas of Gauss on the internal geometry of surfaces, gave a way to construct all possible metric non Euclidean geometries.
a389e532ffb328cc16c5da052844c495e0ed3a49	Riemannian geometries later became the main mathematical apparatus of the general theory of relativity.
e723c0eab72ddb76386b13da9cab8515630a9aa1	A special case of Riemannian geometries is the Euclidean geometry and the Lobachevsky geometry.
c476b823596eae950e3113ca317ac5e497f06713	/1871-1889 - / p.
6426572cc014b43fa9eb860ac6aab48484a54fd3	Dedekind, E. I. Zolotarev and L. Kronecker independently and by different methods constructed the arithmetic of integers of any field of algebraic numbers.
d0cd78753217b51a56e02bad900a6617523dda2a	At the same time, Dedekind introduced with the help of axiom systems such basic concepts of modern algebra as a ring, a module and an ideal.
acc87d8f49fe2f76ad914d19ecd72e286cf7b8d1	/1881-1882 - / p.
506dba7726db7d0c4ac0b7155991c7a5d2247350	Dedekind, G. Kantor and K. Weierstrass constructed the theory of real numbers in three different ways.
e5d85ca318359ea1fddedeb7dba62779c19c6f46	Soon, in the works of Dedekind and especially Cantor, a new important field of modern mathematics appeared — set theory.
8d48a3c9303471b40cc73e7509a5e88cb54ce738	/1899 - / d.
412100769f447070f59887ab6ff25ee6cc065798	Hilbert, in the Foundations of Geometry, constructed a complete axiomatics of Euclid's geometry and analyzed the relations between various groups of axioms.
9f18c3dae744e0425f4109393e551bd48325c580	Since that time, the axiomatic method has received great development in mathematics.
0ef6413d6b45c385cf71a543fcf1e5cc403dc8a7	3. Modern questions of mathematics.
d6ff228559ddb6d8531ad5ced62d122385fe1de7	The concepts, methods and constructions of modern mathematics are very general in nature.
dc9eb6bf78b482eed7e285bf073d220c44b96dd4	Accordingly, the field of application of mathematical methods has expanded enormously.
fdcbc6aaeaa09f7f149c986078895f282262385b	Mathematical methods have penetrated almost all departments of physics, chemistry, and in recent decades — biology, medicine, linguistics, economics.
f33a5dd01dc18b49380b030093c07b31fb68f52e	Mathematics itself has expanded enormously quantitatively and has undergone profound qualitative changes.
be0a57a5ce89a4e45a39844c35c4addcf874b95e	In general, it has risen to a higher level of abstraction.
0eba54a48cdce81693d878df725fc3f564db764b	The prerequisites for the transformation of mathematics into a theoretical science first appeared in ancient Greece.
265dbc872e0e6360c69fa9f94ec3a1c0fc400bb3	The Pythagorean school played an important role in the formation of ancient Greek mathematics.
2f081f16173ab84e42bb7d544859a21a206ade87	For the Pythagorians, any number represented something more than a quantitative quantity.
73a2636b27dae3599c112f82d2ba584fc207985c	The Pythagorians also discovered that the sum of some pairs of square numbers is again a square number.
45182bae11d91a435153956693218d3ffbb72156	For example, the sum of 9 and 16 is 25, and the sum of 25 and 144 is 169.
dffdac5b5a1636cf6e597e04446af55e01c95a97	They have a geometric interpretation: if two numbers from the triple are equated to the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, then the third number will be equal to the length of its hypotenuse.
39410cdec2e75ba0ff319a57af6d63aaa70c6a01	This interpretation, apparently, led the Pythagorians to realize a more general fact, now known as the Pythagorean theorem, according to which in any right triangle the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs.
1d5013dcfd70e4393e180deed6b3b9a011320915	However, the question may arise: why, when investigating when and how mathematics as a science arose, do we turn to ancient Greek thinkers, while already before the Greeks, in Babylon and Egypt?
67840f64760aa6bb5394f82dfb81b057c7725a1e	Indeed, mathematics originated in the Ancient East, apparently long before the Greeks.
d499051322a8f91822fd1dc2a7721a251dfa6fc8	But the peculiarity of ancient Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics was the lack of a unified system of proofs in it, which first appeared among the Greeks.
4e1eb1e8410b07921174d24bfa17869a8c91bbe5	"The big difference between Greek and Ancient Eastern science is precisely that Greek mathematics is a system of knowledge skillfully constructed using the deductive method, while ancient Eastern texts of mathematical content contain only interesting instructions, recipes and often examples of how to solve a certain problem."
4b93f4f6278c3d7c7f66c38e7909117e689b29a0	Ancient Eastern mathematics is a set of certain rules of calculation; the fact that the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians could perform very complex computational operations does not change anything in the general nature of their mathematics.
27e9559dc8d3f65ca59863ecb045a592ccd5ca1c	These features of ancient Eastern mathematics are explained by the fact that it was practically applied in nature; with the help of arithmetic, Egyptian scribes solved problems "about calculating wages, about bread or beer, etc.", and with the help of geometry they calculated areas or volumes.
3d9dbcff21287508545ad46c1c0a377ffab9b3b7	In both cases, the computer had to know the rules by which the calculation should be performed.
1a0c410c6fb23aa61c1f568207acd7bd1d8a6811	In this respect, special texts are characteristic, intended for scribes who were engaged in solving mathematical problems.
d0d3b3cf544c89272a25535775d98541519bd820	The scribes had to know all the numerical "coefficients" they needed for calculations.
b95525577d9d1a650d42d7c5129d168e96906ff8	The lists of" coefficients "contain" coefficients " for "bricks", for "walls", then for "triangle", for "circle segment", then for "copper", "silver", "gold", for "cargo ship", for "diagonal", etc.
cd786b36d9ee3ec0a1485a31f40a2bdd735675f7	It should be noted that in Ancient Greece, as well as in Babylon and Egypt, computing techniques were developed, without which it was impossible to solve practical problems of construction, military affairs, trade, navigation, etc. But it is important to keep in mind that the Greeks themselves called the methods of computational arithmetic and algebra logistics (logistika counting art, number technique) and distinguished logistics as the art of calculation from theoretical mathematics.
6d2ff87e6c132ec93bb9caee6d8a95837eeb36a9	The rules of calculation were developed in Greece in the same way as in the East, and, of course, the Greeks could borrow a lot from both the Egyptians and the Babylonians.
7aad12d63e8c5505b15a4ebbcc399a3f9bcf5682	About the logistics of the Greeks, as well as about mathematical calculations in the East, we can say that it was practically applied.
a7e0f7bc4b1e9181806826cfe091d9ea192cdba5	The logistics included: counting, arithmetic operations with integers up to the extraction of square and cubic roots, actions on a counting device — an abacus, operations with fractions and methods of numerical solution of problems for equations of the first and second degree.
d9e85ac88e14bd0dffd306d4a7c5e4344b8bac74	In logistics, the applications of arithmetic to land surveying and other tasks of everyday life were also considered.
438c826dd24d5bdd18f7a42ab16cdc5decf734a8	The Greeks themselves distinguished logistics from theoretical arithmetic, which they called simply arithmetic.
b04c96a45cb0f6e1d17bcad966e002574d52c872	The rules of logistics were stated dogmatically and, generally speaking, were not provided with evidence in the same way as was customary in the Egyptian papyri.
2a69e1b0c63db4d0f2dfbde85df7efc48b0828f2	Thus, in Greece there was both practically applied mathematics (the art of numeracy), similar to the Egyptian and Babylonian, and theoretical mathematics, which assumed a systematic connection of mathematical statements, a strict transition from one sentence to another with the help of proof.
6da1c8362fcf6e0230b692c94e428a2aa5d68479	It was mathematics as a systematic theory that was first created in Greece.
826aa013941e0a5cd943eb2c20a8a09939128f04	It must be assumed that the formation of mathematics as a systematic theory was a long process: from the first Greek mathematicians (the end of the VI V century BC) to the III century BC, more than two hundred years of rapid development of Greek science passed.
43dd72bb7c420c2055dfa6fce92cd1f18c1f6376	However, already in the early Pythagoreans, i.e. at the first stages of the formation of Greek mathematics, we can find such specific features that fundamentally distinguish their approach to mathematics from the ancient Eastern one.
6a60bbe729634f8a4cead40a981ef649f6701971	First of all, such a feature is a new understanding of the meaning and purpose of mathematical knowledge, a different understanding of the number: with the help of the number, the Pythagoreans do not just solve practical problems, but want to explain the nature of everything that exists.
011ef298c8447f5f5afcaf48538a0323d0e65a65	Therefore, they strive to comprehend the essence of numbers and numerical relations, because through it they hope to understand the essence of the universe.
5021f033a8661e4b39e4cbb283b708e64ba73138	This is how the first attempt in history to comprehend the number as a world creating and meaning forming element arises.
2a1a74fc42df3f3ce1de09b6cc9181d36d25bb68	What the Babylonians and Egyptians used only as a means, the Pythagoreans turned into a special subject of research, i.e., into the goal of the latter.
3a8395aac2484c74ee5805d1962d2ca9cc1ef7b9	The Pythagoreans were the first to elevate mathematics to a previously unknown rank: they began to consider numbers and numerical relations as the key to understanding the universe and its structure.
ee5f8f405e197cab679bdef67d97a84187ba7cc3	For the first time, they came to the conclusion that "the book of nature is written in the language of mathematics."
225d10e11100a229a7cfb1f768fa547860f06b8d	It is not surprising that the thinkers who for the first time tried not just to technically operate with numbers (i.e. calculate), but to understand the very essence of a number, the essence of a set and the nature of the relations of various sets to each other, solved this problem initially in the form of explaining the entire structure of the universe with the help of a number as an initial.
3fa020213b7bcbb92880976920b7d956173aac3f	The history of mathematics
eddbbe7a021c6e2156c4a2e73a3820f09b6e001a	BABYLONIA AND EGYPT Babylonia.
29e5cf7fb9cf5a1b618493a549f95831fff1292d	The source of our knowledge about the Babylonian civilization is well preserved clay tablets covered with so called cuneiform texts that date from 2000 BC to 300 AD.Mathematics on cuneiform tablets was mainly related to farming.
ee14af172ffb1ef51379a2df7c09302597fb81d1	*The symbol for one was repeated the required number of times for numbers from *1 to 9.
4c0b5306dce5eb8798f5842e9c8027d2db2dd893	To denote the numbers from 11 to 59, the Babylonians used a combination of the symbol of the number 10 and the symbol of one.
1de5d7bdc72f9d59694b4e03627aa4323c606326	To denote numbers starting from 60 and more, the Babylonians introduced a positional number system with a base of 60.
dceec3323217b25c719027a58d980b9225fe79a8	* A significant advance was the positional principle, according to which the same numeric sign (symbol) *has different values depending on the place where it is located.
4486976b5dbeb1b955d37c5a67fccf953187d6f1	An example is the values of the six in the (modern) entry of the number 606.
46c54adc5f2051833ac6527417a6c90fafa7d969	However, there was no zero in the number system of the ancient Babylonians, which is why the same set of characters could mean both the number 65 (60 + 5) and the number 3605 (602 + 0 + 5).
9c9d8fc30ec63753a67208935c692375f8785892	There were ambiguities in the interpretation of fractions.
d8fc66b327cdb9afe9ac0b607a085eb3c06c90b8	For example, the same symbols could mean both the number 21, and the fraction 21/60 and (20/60 + 1/602).
9dad8f26cb2127d2c5fe5277d56654b262df42f1	Ambiguity was resolved depending on the specific context.
0d16e7ad0b37dbbeb10ccef6c06b5f2ff60111f7	The Babylonians compiled tables of inverse numbers (which were used when performing division), tables of squares and square roots, as well as tables of cubes and cubic roots.
292b2d1cf8091385d23af7532af186d959c84b1b	Cuneiform texts devoted to solving algebraic and geometric problems indicate that they used a quadratic formula for solving quadratic equations and could solve some special types of problems that included up to ten equations with ten unknowns, as well as certain varieties of cubic equations and equations of the fourth degree.
40594afcef33e104ee311502470e7ba1835c40c0	The clay tablets depict only the tasks and the main steps of the procedures for solving them.
77e48f1f118bc3d63218cc6687b19a69b541c6ce	Since geometric terminology was used to denote unknown quantities, the solution methods mainly consisted in geometric actions with lines and areas.
a40967f5e54329a2c41c6f9bc171075387bef1d3	As for algebraic problems, they were formulated and solved in verbal notation.
9701a50a3f8fe8d01e8663cb5a9d8c8451840b7d	They knew the Pythagorean theorem and that an angle inscribed in a semicircle would only be a straight line.
91ea1409a789ab3ab161f4a59dc2189bbb04e337	They also had rules for calculating the areas of simple flat shapes, including regular polygons, and the volumes of simple bodies.
d8283b0e3e54adfb5adc14f464e88b34d71ba7d0	The Babylonians considered the number "pi" to be equal to 3.
ad2700cfd80861a968a6dea3a97a65cf56aabac0	* Egypt.* Our knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics is based mainly on two papyri dating from about 1700 BC.
73f7eefeadabf91c972b934549e0990bf569bdfe	The mathematical information presented in these papyri dates back to an even earlier period about 3500 BC.
7ce9bfda423d7d6144784c015708bc53c41cbd08	In the papyri, you can also find tasks related to determining the amount of grain needed to prepare a given number of beer mugs, as well as more complex tasks related to the difference in grain varieties: conversion coefficients were calculated for these cases.
99c760d9053779f0bada02d7e4ce3cf5106e020f	But the main field of application of mathematics was astronomy, more precisely, calculations related to the calendar.
f244037220563a59426934bac2da6bf137eb2384	The calendar was used to determine the dates of religious holidays and predict the annual flooding of the Nile.
61b9d9514164c2611290a982148e83386d232538	However, the level of development of astronomy in ancient Egypt was much inferior to the level of its development in Babylon.
9ed4191d5aaf129cb557fc3330768143720867c0	The ancient Egyptian script was based on hieroglyphs.
bd146c2777bd928bf61ac2dd02dc38e1df497e22	The number system of that period was also inferior to the Babylonian one.
5fc072e0743490d99a1dca1951005f5464082efa	The Egyptians used a non positional decimal system, in which the numbers from 1 to 9 were denoted by the corresponding number of vertical dashes, and individual characters were introduced for successive powers of the number 10.
a5fbe1a20736b0bb785aa1559232c7ea58287995	With the advent of the papyrus, the so called hieratic cursive writing appeared, which, in turn, contributed to the emergence of a new numerical system.
ebd3e6f4bafa1c8f66dab39f166514d54ee1e78c	Fractions were written as the sum of fractions with a numerator equal to one.
0f3492aa30cb3f281c32e437da7558cd527017c8	The Egyptians performed all four arithmetic operations with such fractions, but the procedure for such calculations remained very cumbersome.
a6302f7c37468b496199ff63e8d2aa0b5d349774	Neither Babylonian nor Egyptian mathematicians had common methods - the entire body of mathematical knowledge was a collection of empirical formulas and rules.
bb12ce3321571fc958da6c35bbe8bdfdc437e6ce	Although the Maya who lived in Central America did not have an impact on the development of mathematics, their achievements dating back to about IV b deserve attention.
64b7d63e766642a42d1b04615d23455d8274ba7c	The Maya, apparently, were the first to use a special symbol to denote zero in their twenty digit system.
e1eff4cf979e3ad1b51042fe4f0577d70d8f8c92	They had two number systems: one used hieroglyphs, and in the other, more common, a dot denoted one, a horizontal line the number 5, and a symbol denoted zero.
05283b5f5be36a935c9bdc656e45695a52b38c4c	Positional notation began with the number 20, and the numbers were written vertically from top to bottom GREEK MATHEMATICS Classical Greece.
f938acd4ac3056a5afcf7ee96bec1622d51b1eec	From the point of view of the XX century. the ancestors of mathematics were the Greeks of the classical period (VI IV centuries BC).
ba1d48fe763bf9175b3a8beec4570bc29b35db45	Mathematics, which existed in an earlier period, was a set of empirical conclusions.
115cfdc2f37e6c9d326daa52fc4f315ccab10064	On the contrary, in deductive reasoning, a new statement is deduced from the accepted premises in a way that excludes the possibility of its rejection.
7008908808353e15c28ed38b39c9b30e45321bf8	The Greeks insisted on deductive proof, and this was an extraordinary step.
206b894d3a6636f51c9124992c4d7ddfc2d645e9	One of the explanations for the commitment of the Greeks to the methods of deduction is found in the structure of Greek society of the classical period.
1f90786b37a27bd6b0a26c6820d9e611233ebedc	Mathematics was divided into arithmetic - the theoretical aspect and logistics - the computational aspect.
0ee36c52f8b60f4a8be681ba898eb3828b02a117	Logistics were provided to freeborn lower classes and slaves.
f8689294177d415061bf0132a77d57f2f1720dce	The Greek number system was based on the use of letters of the alphabet.
89fb589a8d2d4612bd5bd8befdb84187cb408093	The Attic system, which was in use since the VI III centuries BC, used a vertical line to denote a unit, and the initial letters of their Greek names to denote the numbers 5, 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000.
ecedb3885522ced51dab97387df4753565c408e9	In the later, Ionic number system, 24 letters of the Greek alphabet and three archaic letters were used to denote numbers.
7f936e6ed0a6934346852237452a3c1b993c470b	Multiples of 1000 to 9000 were designated in the same way as the first nine integers from 1 to 9, but a vertical line was placed before each letter.
dd64ca2a7b6991561835a431f3e87c66e4b5c5d0	Tens of thousands were denoted by the letter M (from the Greek mirioi - 10,000), after which the number by which ten thousand had to be multiplied was put.
42ddc56861d1cffa7da64a478a7d41e4443d1204	The deductive character of Greek mathematics was fully formed by the time of Plato and Aristotle.
ac140adf50b4deacd28f8f764a933712a1f5c62a	It has been suggested that Thales used deduction to prove some results in geometry, although this is doubtful.
96eec7d3d96f265d7906c0fdfef904d929bbd32a	It is believed that he could have become acquainted with Babylonian and Egyptian mathematics during his long wanderings.
e8bf0d28e9eb5eb058461043b46c211736be4cb4	Pythagoras founded the movement, which flourished in the period of ca. 550-300 BC.
9f8dd71bb45bd1297ec48c952f17a4845e9ace8e	The Pythagorians created pure mathematics in the form of number theory and geometry.
a12484fe10e9e7e9021aff696a3536d2085b540c	The Pythagorians called the numbers 3, 6, 10, etc. triangular, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a triangle, the numbers 4, 9, 16, etc. square, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a square, etc. Some properties of integers arose from simple geometric configurations.
237db51ea64c9e9008b0d5c011fa007f1bb33320	For example, the Pythagorians discovered that the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is always equal to some square number.
ba659db26729848319a54640318cf1ee8e05c9cc	They discovered that if (in modern notation) n2 is a square number, then n2 + 2n +1 = (n + 1)2.
806b0053f6004c47fc7bd67a2167fa78189d4af8	The Pythagorians called a number equal to the sum of all its own divisors, except for this number itself, perfect.
0eab4917f925f256574a60ca8dfa373a722d89a3	Examples of perfect numbers are integers such as 6, 28 and 496.
aa0d0bdc8249e813f39231965a8c3d7b45e79035	The Pythagorians called two numbers friendly if each of the numbers is equal to the sum of the divisors of the other; for example, 220 and 284 are friendly numbers (and here the number itself is excluded from its own divisors).
2f7043744045bcd58d5a45f7f45c6b5a8b8005a9	Encyclopedia of Circumnavigation
389e4814e7f3130a75551d4182fbab010ac7fa68	MATHEMATICS HISTORY
d87e83c1e86d46e7e5db3666820e98b8a392a051	* MATHEMATICS HISTORY.
5de4a7be09d112a9b2402209f64205af9cc09bd9	* The most ancient mathematical activity was counting.
3872a72b3f532bca3deed5fb87bdd029bd11e2ed	Some primitive tribes counted the number of objects, correlating them with various parts of the body, mainly fingers and toes.
b7720c845cdf244ab9261390278787373035a1fd	Further development of mathematics began around 3000 BC thanks to the Babylonians and Egyptians.
702400b531e7de3ad127c50ae849daa15703a6f5	BABYLONIA AND EGYPT
a997d646af58ee5488017a1aa686cfa3bebebe66	Babylonia.
f902503ae80cfb8a7108809a4af3de62dc87253d	The symbol for one was repeated the required number of times for numbers from 1 to 9.
8d752b5144c177dd005f92418b6ed078d715de27	A significant advance was the positional principle, according to which the same numeric sign (symbol) has different values depending on the place where it is located.
7f63ac7903857c7660c76db63564df0ce3611164	However, there was no zero in the number system of the ancient Babylonians, which is why the same set of characters could mean both the number 65 (60 + 5) and the number 3605 (60^2 + 0 + 5).
806a641998d4d315d6f761e5d638e0fe893cd0cb	For example, the same symbols could mean both the number 21, and the fraction 21/60 and
56271aa6b6f98467b650699dd2004c3b0dcd60c5	(20/60 + 1/60^2 ). Ambiguity was resolved depending on the specific context.
5603fec7133e51c7024d3dedf7dbbebb72e2c7a4	The Babylonians compiled tables of inverse numbers, tables of squares and square roots, as well as tables of cubes and cubic roots.
96650fab93195aeeabd10b94dee19e6cbda48ba3	Degrees. numbers <http://www.krugosvet.ru/images/1001544 image002.gif>.
59d55f727f60b7f20583d21f4b2020670e914fe2	They knew the Pythagorean theorem and that the angle inscribed in a semicircle is a straight line.
b599b67bd5469d0cd203c488360b3cf2ab2f6243	The Babylonians considered the number /p/ to be equal to 3.
ceff43d66988723e72d54cec908dc6d3af1e7fc5	Egypt.
1645513751e3a6b7025b7b866ce9cd5206875b9c	Our knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics is based mainly on two papyri dating from about 1700 BC.
b016f22e392eb492f13c65207f73b511553f3007	In the papyri, you can also find problems related to determining the amount of grain needed to prepare a given number of beer mugs, as well as more complex problems related to the difference in grain varieties; conversion coefficients were calculated for these cases.
fb4fe9ec0785814dde689a87754c7fbcd3d6d997	But the main field of application of mathematics was astronomy, or rather calculations related to the calendar.
96814d6462ab0e2f6422b9dfbfc3447b6a565efb	A special identification symbol was used for each of the numbers from 1 to 9 and for each of the first nine multiples of 10, 100, etc. Fractions were written as the sum of fractions with a numerator equal to one.
771be4d562dac7e1fe506135c58d747a8cc9509b	Although the Maya who lived in Central America did not influence the development of mathematics, their achievements dating back to about the 4th century are noteworthy.
5dc5b4a987fbab3fc148a2ac578ada27842bede2	Positional designations began with the number 20, and the numbers were written vertically from top to bottom.
8030f0747f0f0668b86357787a0c2ceffe4e5342	GREEK MATHEMATICS
7d1290fd0a38bf0c9edab54f4b8153b1c28a4ebc	Classical Greece.
14c58a034922238214abdc7b6641fb6ae8e864ab	The mathematics that existed in the earlier period was a set of empirical conclusions.
f059b9f6c5186fae9f24094b4a35e81c8c0753c3	Mathematics was divided into arithmetic the theoretical aspect and logistics the computational aspect.
7b59e62c8365db7aeb2002de220d9c7f956654af	The Attic system, which was in use since the 6th 3rd centuries BC, used a vertical line to denote a unit, and the initial letters of their Greek names to denote the numbers 5, 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000.
12b487d820de8d54f6e5055e2de681d8b1d3f5e7	Tens of thousands were denoted by the letter M (from the Greek "myrioi" - 10,000), after which the number by which ten thousand had to be multiplied was put.
c90e856394e5d843246e18650b1557e9b9612cd0	Pythagoras founded the movement, which flourished in the period of ca. 550-300 BC The Pythagoreans created pure mathematics in the form of number theory and geometry.
0294da619c6fb155d6fc33c5845a38eab17b3666	The Pythagoreans called the numbers 3, 6, 10, etc. triangular, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a triangle, the numbers 4, 9, 16, etc. - square, since the corresponding number of stones can be arranged in the form of a square, etc. Some properties of integers arose from simple geometric configurations.
87d38dadc63fd4bd72ff6e040f178721e3b84bf7	For example, the Pythagoreans discovered that the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is always equal to some square number.
6401bd72259ae7a8fcd564cd0146bc1b806f8657	They discovered that if (in modern notation) /n/^2 is a square number, then n^2 + 2n +1 = (n + 1)^2 .
104aee998154c596c7aa05c8b5b14291facf93cf	The Pythagoreans called a number equal to the sum of all its own divisors, except for this number itself, perfect.
2ea75edcf96b42356989f9ef920e1a1082ec9168	The Pythagoreans called two numbers friendly if each of the numbers is equal to the sum of the divisors of the other; for example, 220 and 284 are friendly numbers (and here the number itself is excluded from its own divisors).
7f5d92bbf4d431d642a3571c88cc3660905a5fa8	The Pythagoreans also discovered that the sum of some pairs of square numbers is again a square number.
e9c1aa0618ba77941fd4f316d35be83a400aa9c7	Considering a right angled triangle with single cathets, the Pythagoreans discovered that the length of its hypotenuse is equal to the root of two, and this threw them into confusion, because they tried in vain to represent the number root of two as the ratio of two integers, which was extremely important for their philosophy.
015374ea76618ab3ce8b2afbf36ffd324070a7cf	Around 300 BC, Euclid proved that the number of the root of two is incommensurable.
65c0554ebcc9bfffa09fdd3ea2bc8c9ba7a6f321	The product of the numbers root of three and root of four is the area of a rectangle with sides of length root of three and root of four.
7a8eb4ba697cdf6578827a5f215b105ed8a84b6e	Even today, we sometimes talk about the number 25 as a square of 5, and about the number 27 as a cube of 3.
fab89597e96df48007092311e1a339133027d485	The ancient Greeks solved equations with unknowns by means of geometric constructions.
4c0877028101198442e33664512009f2faa462ac	Special constructions were developed for performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of segments, extracting square roots from the lengths of segments; now this method is called geometric algebra.
eef8551de3594a0bc33589e4b18e7966be1aee0f	Bringing the problems to a geometric form had a number of important consequences.
287a0c5251e5d2b88f7f2fd9d1a44500b38bd39c	In particular, numbers were considered separately from geometry, since it was possible to work with incommensurable relations only with the help of geometric methods.
3bd5f54b86deea2c9e36781af5c9b1c8c0daaba4	Geometry became the basis of almost all rigorous mathematics until at least 1600.
4f3d5c7bd1b0b91f62373819ef79bc46dd2aec03	And even in the 18th century, when algebra and mathematical analysis were already sufficiently developed, strict mathematics was interpreted as geometry, and the word " geometer "was equivalent to the word"mathematician".
46b35be8f995e916abc6531b7c72530203f91dc4	There is reason to believe that it was they who discovered what are now known as theorems about triangles, parallel lines, polygons, circles, spheres and regular polyhedra.
04236abbb3e512f13b1e00f81262798dc1281086	(The analytical method begins with a statement that needs to be proved, and then sequentially the consequences are deduced from it until some known fact is reached; the proof is obtained using the reverse procedure.)
c4d6ba0a035987cc9894f8dc083e2c6b3d49d0a9	It is generally believed that the followers of Plato invented a method of proof called "proof from the contrary".
d2dda9563167be5750b005189932b39c4fe874f4	Around 300 BC, the results of many Greek mathematicians were combined into a single whole by Euclid, who wrote the mathematical masterpiece "Beginnings".
df53ff8df296a0b11a4560bf767443d3a6a001da	For mathematicians, the text of Euclid's "Principles" served as a model of rigor for a long time, until in the 19th century it was discovered that there were serious shortcomings in it, such as the unconscious use of explicitly unformulated assumptions.
1e1530565b48cb82864ae33315de1b7928431872	His proposed analysis of conic sections – a circle, an ellipse, a parabola and a hyperbola was the culmination of the development of Greek geometry.
a0b3f7dabefe02848df78eaf06208b90a6cbcbee	The astronomer Aristarchus (c. 310-230 BC) wrote an essay "On the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon", which contained one of the first attempts to determine these sizes and distances; by its nature, Aristarchus ' work was geometric.
ef4996fcb9520165e72942d775c829d110e3ffac	For example, working with the correct 96 square, he perfectly proved that the exact value of the number " p " is between 3^1 /_7 and 3^10 /_71 .
68d4a252ba040eecb2b526f3afe7323703247c99	His essay "On Floating bodies" laid the foundations of hydrostatics.
cd9d4db535bfc4ebf357f967c4a510b967c86fa1	The first fairly voluminous book in which arithmetic was expounded independently of geometry was "Introduction to Arithmetic" by Nicomachus (ca.100 AD).
3abe46ce714efb176a942e312bbd0799b51c6c17	In the history of arithmetic, its role is comparable to the role of Euclid's "Principles" in the history of geometry.
de42eb94a61e1eb91bcf5a1e96dfe677ed83cad2	Repeating many Pythagorean statements, the" Introduction " of Nicomachus at the same time went further, since Nicomachus saw more general relations, although he cited them without proof.
effb861abcbeb90fa7203b904aa5ab800de4e9a0	Hipparchus determined the duration of the solar year with an error of only 6 ^ 1 /_2 minutes; it is believed that it was he who introduced the latitudes and longitudes.
23e3597120790b0af08d33bf4581adeea7abc914	INDIA AND THE ARABS
833a954b0ca82e0ba392aadde3cfea62739b16a6	The earliest use of them is found in Brahmagupta (ca. 630).
768b2a8b13fed97c7c70845a4c1671574fa0b104	Ariabhata (p. 476) went further than Diophantus in the use of continuous fractions in solving indefinite equations.
fdb4243ab0e3b7680cecc916c1c12b560fa3135f	Our modern number system, based on the positional principle of writing numbers and zero as a cardinal number and using the designation of an empty digit, is called Indo Arabic.
f70354dbb3ee5ea2aba087886d1c757396f84610	About 800 Indian mathematics reached Baghdad.
8dcab5e8d6008f2a1904257bde36a3d956816af8	The term "algebra" comes from the beginning of the title of the book / Al Jabr wa l mukabala/ (/Completion and Opposition/), written in 830 by the astronomer and mathematician al Khorezmi.
83d44bb950859e05979ce182a0e33899060e8d0e	In his essay, he paid tribute to the merits of Indian mathematics.
1fdff9f7512b399429a0ef9daacd9b329f7ebf56	The algebra of al Khorezmi was based on the works of Brahmagupta, but Babylonian and Greek influences are clearly discernible in it.
8ca6858f0d4d106bec8fbef8ac2a70d7cb511a4c	Another prominent Arab mathematician Ibn al Haysam (c. 965-1039) developed a method for obtaining algebraic solutions of square and cubic equations.
84485eac5da3eac27b6c5f3bebeda255305eb891	Arab mathematicians, including Omar Khayyam, were able to solve some cubic equations using geometric methods, using conic sections.
32230fd582f976ca485f5b9efd949510968b0f99	Arab astronomers introduced the concept of tangent and cotangent into trigonometry.
b0b965e8edbebd99acd127113e3ca9dc933c4979	Nasiraddin Tusi (1201-1274) in his Treatise on the Complete Quadrilateral systematically outlined planar and spherical geometry and was the first to consider trigonometry separately from astronomy.
e1f8e3548104acf06fe0205a3eaceafcfeeb3acc	Yet the most important contribution of the Arabs to mathematics was their translations and commentaries on the great works of the Greeks.
e0bef72e2373bb3846eea200320f72de716e66c2	THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE
6627e2bd9c9dd54bcbf9544a5fc35bdd00aa873b	Medieval Europe.
2901829eae27377007d9c3eb7fc631c0532585c7	In his essay /The Book of Abacus/ (1202), he introduced Europeans to Indo Arabic numerals and calculation methods, as well as Arabic algebra.
3aa76a90087592feed214311a098524dcb550d39	THE BEGINNING OF MODERN MATHEMATICS
f96f0b75580b1549227639e1f27619b0aafb2339	The beginning of the 16th century in Western Europe was marked by important achievements in algebra and arithmetic.
ac94c4eae78ce4a516f576161b045f39302b1a3f	B. Pascal (1623-1662) and I. Barrow (1630-1677), a teacher of I. Newton at the University of Cambridge, argued that such a number as the root of three can be interpreted only as a geometric quantity.
4a7f0d689c5f51eef7277fa17e10ed9426748d09	Even less acceptable were the complex numbers that arose when solving quadratic equations, such as the sum of five and the root of "minus five", which Descartes called "imaginary".
de0aa9cd4e9a455f4f591af1d1fd75d8be4540a7	To make algebraic reasoning and its recording more accurate, many symbols were introduced, including the plus and minus signs, the square root sign radical, the signs "more" and "less".
02bb470080c0168615238e0a1cbec3c1d8e757e6	The most significant innovation was the systematic use of the French mathematician F.Vietom (1540-1603) letters for the designation of unknown and constant quantities.
a4a5b293149d29c1446f13291911e474d6e67093	Newton discovered the relation between the roots and the discriminant [b^2-4ac] of the quadratic equation, namely, that the equation ax^2 + bx + c = 0 has equal real, different real or complex conjugate roots, depending on whether the discriminant b^2-4ac is equal to zero, greater than or less than zero.
105787ff1a87eb667a999cfa50d62f4f9964f777	The main task of algebra – the search for a general solution of algebraic equations – continued to occupy mathematicians in the early 19th century.
2fae503429fafda15f4c41e618f53dd050a798e6	The real discovery – the realization of the full power of algebraic methods – belongs to Descartes.
d5babbe431a123cd3ca249565e14fbaac3daa736	Descartes solved this problem: he formulated geometric problems algebraically, solved an algebraic equation, and only then built the desired solution – a segment that had the appropriate length.
5422a742113999a3f4374baa4729a56966172277	By 1865, he had algebraically obtained all the results presented in the V book of Euclid's "Principles".
2a9e1cdfe6d555df234677866e0c73d468705c34	The founders of modern science – Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton approached the study of nature as mathematicians.
8838fd4ce7b7b4bf1169f54711d5c81cdad8f767	The mathematical difficulty of this problem was that at any moment a body passes a zero distance in a zero period of time.
41bade0f9ef5348674ab0e5ee8356422c1f113fd	Therefore, determining the value of the speed at a time by dividing the path by time, we will come to a mathematically meaningless expression 0/0.
1e8afcf0ba0d5d9fb0252ff8a305ab0cd3a22b7a	English mathematicians continued to develop the ideas of analysis in the geometric direction, while mathematicians of continental Europe, including I. Bernoulli (1667-1748), Euler and Lagrange achieved incomparably great success following the algebraic, or analytical, approach.
4a67de050a3f7d8c513f3bb7240233fd8b2d20ca	The speed at a time is defined as the limit to which the average speed d/t tends, when the value of t is getting closer to zero
9ee91a221247e8b152679021b0a2889746960614	Differential calculus provides a general method that is convenient in calculations for finding the rate of change of the function f (x) for any value of x.
f5c9fad9ccda81ecdba44e676cd07042a52e9c8c	The Lancasters (in their coat of arms a scarlet rose) were a side branch of the royal Plantagenet dynasty (1154-1399) and relied on the barons of the north of England, Wales and Ireland.
c792394e17b1f951e9e7056af03dd07a8c64ffc1	The Yorks (in their coat of arms a white rose) relied on the feudal lords of the economically more developed south-east of England.
2da33ee2c91d49cd89f3cbdcf0eec712496681e8	The middle nobility, merchants and wealthy citizens also supported the Yorks.
2d2acf54dd8d61c954c357409139e8d70f15dd75	The war that broke out between the supporters of the Lancasters and the Yorks was called the War of the Roses.
34fc527006272102ce94c9b8e1828d3a61f363af	Contemporaries did not name the events of the third quarter of the XV century.
e1de99fba15a43f4c193b9fea5d00e0599f8deb5	The War of the Roses.
62ec6196ad51c7212061688b2d9dd2252274a769	The only known usage of that time is "Cousin Wars".
23852e790d6ea2e0fe99a64cbc1415228c31a10f	The idea that a civil conflict is denoted by two opposing emblems of roses arose at the end of the XV century.
c900c4c15930c79ea113147fcb7cccc55d817d7a	The white rose was one of the main emblems of Edward IV and the House of York, the use of the red rose as a symbol of the Lancastrians and, as a result, the emergence of the thesis of competing emblems dates only to 1485.
5bcb95dd4dcee8ca6877f9dc2b4c3340ff2fa054	Thanks to Henry Tudor, the idea of their unification became a common place of English propaganda.
78fcf6a2b13d8be37ed651949c50c67f57109e22	Despite the romantic name, this war was characterized by rare cruelty.
8ce1b0892391c1a0b0b56bdacff2c6d9b1ad6305	The chivalrous ideals of honor and loyalty were forgotten.
f725bec59547eca19244c6071828dda1debdd932	Many barons, pursuing personal gain, violated the oath of vassal loyalty and easily moved from one warring party to another, depending on where they were promised a more generous reward.
9c0af112042b9b38bfe5290d44430c5e109dac86	The war was won by the Yorks, then the Lancasters.
ee53e7d82f5cce2e68c5456e0dab57d34ec5e958	The reasons for the war were the difficult economic situation of England (the crisis of a large patrimonial economy and a drop in its profitability), the defeat of England in the Hundred Years ' War (1453), which deprived the feudal lords of the opportunity to plunder the lands of France; the suppression of the Jack Cade uprising in 1451 (see Cade Jack's uprising) and, together with it, the forces that opposed feudal anarchy.
fee6de95729e4b8f5d9b75cb464aea8da56ec81f	The reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of a significant part of English society with the failures in the Hundred Years ' War and the policy pursued by the wife of King Henry VI, Queen Margaret and her favorites (the king himself was a weak-willed person, moreover, sometimes fell into madness).
1ce8453c85bd407d8865d51b5274bd55c4fda27a	The opposition was led by Duke Richard of York, who demanded for himself first the regency over the incapacitated king, and later the English crown.
35849ce96e39d722cb3477acd65f27595f840b86	The basis for this claim was that Henry VI was the great-grandson of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of King Edward III, and the Duke of York was the great-great-grandson of Lionel, the third son of this king (in the female line, in the male line he was the grandson of Edmund, the fifth son of Edward III); in addition, Henry VI's grandfather Henry IV seized the throne in 1399, forcibly forcing King Richard II to abdicate, which made the legitimacy of the entire Lancaster dynasty questionable.
bef4b4c79cda170ed890e101ecc15b37839b4a0b	The fuel element was numerous professional soldiers who, after the defeat in the war with France, were out of work and, being in large numbers within England, posed a serious danger to the royal power.
d62afc9956555646fe581d405835a52073253423	War was a familiar trade for these people, so they willingly hired themselves into the service of large English barons, who significantly replenished their armies at their expense.
fe95efb54194e938086732c7a0549253b3048149	Thus, the authority and power of the king were significantly undermined by the increased military power of the nobles.
3f440e14f461ff1df0c9c367ab95a347d7664e4a	The conflict involved mainly representatives of the English feudal aristocracy with detachments of their servants and supporters, as well as a small number of foreign mercenaries.
16e659bee7bc078e7fb9a6e367ae17a0e3668fc9	Thus, the wars were waged by large barons, mainly of the border regions, with the help of private armies that were not in the public service.
fa894fc59a67b3ef11b172f1281e57b553d78494	The conflicts of large feudal lords to some extent differed from other wars of the era, both internal (civil) and external, in that the barons tried not to touch ordinary people, because they needed supporters who supported their struggle against other feudal lords; and also because they were interested in the prosperity of the kingdom.
e365b0901c7970dd3206a69d81643fc5290b2bae	Philippe de Comines notes in his memoirs: "The British did not kill anyone after winning a battle, especially ordinary people.
75679940c9cf906422a2649e758185d312d3b343	On the contrary, each of the opposing sides tried to win the favor of the commoners.
78a51ec7eb52095385b55195209069b7a536a79f	All the troubles fell mainly to the soldiers and the nobility.
c4e96ac3343119f38a88e0a4e355ab2a66ba64ae	Support for the opposing sides was largely determined by dynastic factors.
8224ddf01acbe2e58478c7142907778556c2e016	The so-called system of "bastard feudalism" was one of the main factors that influenced the decline of the authority and influence of the royal power and the escalation of the armed conflict.
43623d26b72a97f957f8629da2fa8ed4c052caca	Service to the seigneur in exchange for lands and gifts remained as important as before, but it was determined not by the feudal tradition, but by the support of the feudal lord of any of the opposing factions, which, in turn, patronized him for this.
b6e4b117d7f9373f5164b5c9d8c635179942fdbb	The transition to the service of feudal lords to large magnates due to personal ambitions, thirst for profit and profitable marriages gave rise to the growth of treason and betrayal, which often decided the outcome of many battles.
232241f9b57c075fdec40d1bef907f2ac7d7fcc4	The armies of the parties were represented by numerous feudal detachments of professional soldiers, as well as detachments of soldiers called up for war by special royal orders, which gave the right to the bearer of the document to summon and arm soldiers on behalf of the king or a major magnate.
5250f2d3c798fed146b89af84364ecaee8457030	The warriors from the lower social strata were mainly archers and bilmen (warriors armed with traditional English weapons-a kind of guizarma).
32ee95af5179fcd38ed2cdd537e8af0eadcf9341	The number of archers traditionally exceeded the number of men-at-arms in the proportion of 3:1.
fdcc83ba99a4359081d782c3c3a8762f57752620	According to tradition, the soldiers fought on foot, the cavalry was used only for reconnaissance and collecting provisions and forage, as well as for movement.
15d2b59a4d5a92c53d4b1eb70ac871b833997870	In battles, military leaders often also dismounted to inspire their supporters.
87f6ec9a61911e6276dc5ea56b37ad59792144a5	Artillery, including hand-held firearms, began to appear in large numbers in the armies of the factions.
b9fc1ba7f796af631aac424a2df4a1bb6e868e3a	Initially, Richard, Duke of York, fought for control of a weak king.
886be222e6def1ebc3bc50f8fe7aec1ab3123196	He opposed the group that ruled on behalf of the feeble-minded King Henry VI, important members of which were Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Henry VI's wife Margaret of Anjou.
d5aeee7c747cc3a796d8d380767e94cb2bd9d32b	He succeeded in establishing a protectorate over the king, but he was soon removed from the court of Henry VI.
7b1d7ea26620458b72d3f551b8c2804047a118e5	The beginning of open wars. the action was initiated by the Battle of St. Albans (May 22, 1455), when Richard, Duke of York, defeated the Lancastrian supporters.
441af1408f0462cb42b3d59111fcd8382945ae48	At the Battle of St. Albans on May 22, 1455, he defeated the supporters of the Scarlet Rose.
11e51bbf3324cf6df41832e239555081e1e68329	Richard managed to restore his influence at court, and he was appointed protector (ruler) of the kingdom.
1009107ae276049d0c8617beb718d83977152ebf	Soon removed from power, he again rebelled and declared his claims to the English throne.
ae1f45418a03dc863d488fcb0d7052563bd460a5	With an army of his followers, he won victories over the enemy at Blore Heath (September 23, 1459) and North Hampton (July 10, 1460); during the latter, he captured the king, after which he forced the upper house to recognize himself as the protector of the state and heir to the throne.
8065df1c8d1f5b242790775a4438f0cdafb33b38	However, in 1460, Richard York died at the Battle of Wakefield.
5d603a64285be37e0d57d31a98eabf35ac477750	Queen Margaret fled to the north and returned from there with an army.
f56b69d1886afd7beac8de131a33a7ebfab1350c	But Queen Margaret, the wife of Henry VI, with her followers unexpectedly attacked him at Wakefield (December 30, 1460).
382b684dda4da35511b9ea1e4cf29033e7b91ba3	Richard was defeated and died in battle.
185e3948aae5fc617be6180262495f846b0f668e	By order of the queen, his severed head, crowned with a crown of gilded paper, was displayed above the gates of the city of York.
f71ac19cf4815704e4ac18be36d65749477675f0	The chivalrous custom of sparing the vanquished was violated — the Queen ordered the execution of all Yorkist supporters who surrendered.
1c20e51c531a28f97dcbbaf70d31ad77635e55cc	His son Edward, with the support of the Earl of Warwick, defeated the supporters of the Lancastrian dynasty at Mortimer's Cross (February 2, 1461) and Towton (March 29, 1461).
9928d8fefd6b46f5370c9e321e8d002e51157e21	Henry VI was deposed; he and Margaret fled to Scotland.
b8324f9c593341dd7f45ca0e7b334727c095b131	The winner was crowned in Westminster as King Edward IV.
64f37873e90dc305205af2f511bab6072989e42f	In 1464, 2 rebellions broke out in the north of England, suppressed by John Neville, Marquess of Montague.
ff57457219f43e4ce1a672d339cb360bbd9a880c	In 1464, Edward IV defeated the Lancastrian supporters in the north of England.
a906fff91bf07375af969d4728b7119361734609	Henry VI was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
77c448e4f57bb6d995c6a345efe1eb85709a9735	The desire of Edward IV to strengthen his power and weaken the power of the barons led to the transition of his former supporters, led by Warwick, to the side of Henry VI.
a1c64f6f218324fd7eb60e1bd972ae7f8b7ee568	In 1467-1470, relations between Edward IV and the Earl of Warwick gradually deteriorated, eventually leading to the transition of Warwick, along with the Duke of Clarence (Edward IV's younger brother), to the Lancastrian side (1470).
dc3973b0dac4a8b2ef8c82f60f3b084c0fa746cc	Edward was forced to flee England, and Henry VI was restored to the throne in 1470.
9480681877345b900eb7607c0d48dc2c3b74b9e0	In 1471, Edward IV, who returned with an army, defeated the troops of Warwick and Margaret.
a711a1da8ba3809f06d406c005fe09cceae60425	Warwick himself and Henry VI's young son Edward, Prince of Wales, fell in battle.
746b99c4d80abe6bbeccb0fc3d631910edda4da5	Henry VI was again deposed, captured and brought to London, where he died (presumably killed) in the Tower of London.
83cacad2acd9fa6f42dfbbe288c339cb5111c0c6	Queen Margaret survived, finding refuge outside the country — a few years later she was bought out of captivity by the French king.
a8f77fd92fa2e4c7a3fc5b4dc0528f62f6e0f90e	The restoration of Edward IV to the throne is considered by some researchers to be the end of the War of the Roses.
306db9b6a19d73895fab4431f415ed8b3d449f46	Strengthening his power, Edward IV brutally dealt with the Lancastrians and rebellious Yorkists.
939742df0be5f94186f06d6aeed5b118a3216219	The closest associate of Edward IV was his younger brother Richard of Gloucester.
dd050f9921643e7fcca1fa91e18e5b9c6de0ce29	Short in stature, with a sedentary left arm from birth, he nevertheless fought bravely in battles and commanded troops.
9a6998b20fdd6e426d1252fe5d6239dd45306ce0	Richard remained loyal to his brother even in the days of defeat.
513e0fb357c275536907d5b6144a479b85349df9	After the death of Edward IV in 1485, the eldest of his sons, the twelve — year-old Edward V, was supposed to inherit the throne, but Richard removed him from power and first declared himself the protector of the young king, and later declared his nephews illegitimate and himself took the crown under the name of Richard III.
ddbd9332597c2ca60f2a5ddf9b612996eb663ae6	Both princes-Edward V and his ten-year-old brother-were imprisoned in the Tower of London.
33ac1352fee164f86b39f939f33e57c50c5de0d7	At first, the boys were still seen playing in the courtyard of the Tower, but when they disappeared, rumors began to spread that they were killed by order of the king.
95131ca71726004eeac04fb511a316d015bce3e0	Richard III did nothing to refute these rumors.
37ad60e3b44af6e90592e839cc92d828a5c7e423	The mystery of the disappearance and death of the young princes remains unsolved to this day.
feb1c673bb6758336d91e3b3644076141ab9b0a7	Richard III tried to pursue a reasonable policy, began to restore the country ravaged by war.
f5f483409062aeee6edf2f8005e9659f74add455	His short and dramatic reign was filled with a struggle with overt and hidden opposition.
8168814ad45b73bec263b9824a875e405fe57b75	However, his attempts to strengthen his power caused the discontent of large feudal lords.
84f49183b64b93852603abab7b91f8a74c7ec440	The executions and confiscations carried out by Richard III against his opponents led to general dissatisfaction with his rule.
98fa000ee8c7e32737e160f1a3ab811d9e3be64b	In 1485, a Lancastrian force (mostly French mercenaries) led by Henry Tudor (John of Gaunt's great-great-grandson in the female line) landed in Wales.
d14e5090081ff8b53d60205d3eba1bc599bb6e97	Supporters of the Lancastrians and Yorks united around a distant relative of the Lancastrians-Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who lived in exile in France.
a645318d4b2784544a77e99a6d2765c9fcc808f7	Richard III hastily gathered his troops and moved to meet him.
af1915a6b29ca01da623ed6148529c629017147e	At the decisive moment of the battle of Bosworth in 1485, Richard III was betrayed by his entourage, and his personal courage could no longer affect anything.
e2a4783866201793afc4c0d8d0439a2a2e5f61c1	When a horse was brought to him to escape, Richard refused to run, saying that he would die a king.
e794549040e1f9c1eb503065dadef0b94522b60f	Already surrounded by enemies, he continued to fight.
1683ddd473013d04df06d9ba8c6fa134ea0e28b6	When he was dealt a fatal blow on the head with a battle axe, the crown fell off his helmet, and immediately on the battlefield it was placed on the head of Henry Tudor.
bfedc00aa7d1c21c93c188c5f2871c87b7758684	Traditionally, the ascension to the throne of Henry VII marks the end of the War of the Roses, but some researchers are inclined to extend this period until the Battle of Stoke (1487), when the army of another pretender to the throne, Lambert Simnel, and his supporter the Earl of Lincoln, whom Richard III once appointed as his successor to the English throne, was defeated.
4302c37fb5bcc8704715dd3809fbae9d7d75af2c	The appearance of other contenders for the English throne (Perkin Warbeck declared himself Richard III in 1491) allows us to extend the period of the War of the Roses even further.
54bd9fa6d015335a87ad3664e0f5d58ff3bf8aca	In general, military operations were interspersed with long periods of relative calm.
91976b708cf7ecf9adf42fefb278c781cbfdf6b7	Thus ended the War of the Roses, which lasted three decades (1455-1485).
411d28319b363ea0686c2343b8f5f159d41de442	Most of the ancient noble families died in the battles.
93d4de1d16cd88c112db66c7ac241b41e75db844	England was ruled by Henry VII, the founder of the new Tudor dynasty (1485-1603).
ec4e2fcbe33b56554a5fb08c7b9cc266d3786cdf	Trying to reconcile the Lancasters and the Yorks, Henry VII married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth and combined both roses in his coat of arms.
782e04080c155ed68753b51d41dca76c563f125a	When he came to power, Henry VII did everything to discredit his former enemy, presenting him as an evil hunchback who paved the way to the throne over the corpses of his relatives.
fb0956aea2f97e5e959937c69234f75200fd4ad0	The accusation of the cold-blooded murder of his young nephews fell especially heavily on Richard.
778d2a884d20a25319f5b854e13e3574d345bc8b	There is no direct evidence of his guilt, and the death of the offspring of the House of York was much more profitable for Henry VII himself than for Richard
8c328c642dc43ae835788aaed2e458575ecbcadf	The history of the War of the Roses became the source of the historical chronicles of W. Shakespeare "Henry VI" and "Richard III", as well as the novel"Black Arrow" by R. L. Stevenson.
df00e5d2c5e1a48631a91818a02855995f1b7498	The War of the Roses was the last rampant feudal anarchy before the establishment of absolutism in England.
620217243ca6a3ad90da8dcfe558ccd30c756ffe	Although historians are still debating the true extent of the conflict's impact on medieval English life, there is little doubt[3] that the War of the Roses led to a political upheaval and a change in the established balance of power.
2ae0d298ce1946e70a7db74f560d59fd57324e78	The most obvious result was the collapse of the Plantagenet dynasty and its replacement by the new Tudors, who changed England over the following years.
2039e5a01b233433b420d197a6d38159b0b80669	In the struggle, both dynasties were exhausted and died.
b66ba028e2c574fcf27408a55426f46092ee143d	In the following years, the remnants of the Plantagenet factions, left without direct access to the throne, dispersed into different positions, as the monarchs continuously pushed them against each other.
61f01d16af80221d6ef67dec6b1edf5f7309c2ac	The War of the Roses actually drew a line under the English Middle Ages.
58b16115d7e77082d20b057281681f68c4571fc3	It continued the changes in feudal English society initiated by the appearance of the Black Death, which included the weakening of the feudal power of the nobility and the strengthening of the position of the merchant class, as well as the growth of a strong, centralized monarchy under the leadership of the Tudor dynasty.
25f56e8c11c5859f296993856b7b5c5299a24132	The accession of the Tudors in 1485 is considered the beginning of a New Time in English history.
96fef80b532f9ace217798cd055b6206424c9df0	Of course, the effect of the war on the merchants and working classes was much less than in the protracted wars in France and elsewhere in Europe, which were filled with mercenaries directly interested in continuing the war.
d6bc34d5c88ef0e3b1ac03e516a2b91145b47ec6	Although there were several long sieges, they were in relatively remote and sparsely populated areas.
eb8eb60326672b61429cd883d0f1fc925f63e1b0	In heavily populated areas belonging to both factions, the opponents, in order to prevent the collapse of the country, sought a quick solution to the conflict in the form of a general battle.
4a709953848024030aa6d83d7e2b609e366fbf73	The war was disastrous for the already diminishing influence of England in France, and by the end of the struggle there were no possessions left except Calais, and eventually lost during the reign of Mary I.
ab3356a454cb0c9a0a89defc7dc2d6470c472f9b	Although later English rulers continued to campaign on the continent, the territory of England did not increase in any way.
b0113837cd1b4b7276c4b250df09db805041aeac	Various European duchies and kingdoms played an important role in the war, especially the kings of France and the dukes of Burgundy, who helped the Yorks and Lancasters in their struggle against each other.
e5fdc9caca72f41497d88e5812902f08e1521187	By providing them with armed forces and financial assistance, as well as offering refuge to the defeated nobility and pretenders, they thereby wanted to prevent the emergence of a strong and united England, which would become their opponent.
068838ee02eaab0a9e03cfec3d6c2fec8de9f529	The post-war period was also a "funeral march" for the permanent baronial armies that fueled the conflict.
690043bd67b1b2d7601bc523eebb0518062403cd	Henry VII, fearing further struggle, kept the barons under strict control, forbidding them to train, hire, arm and supply armies, so that they could not start a war with each other or with the king.
e1c23725f76386852fc10fec422a01ac67c81b28	As a result, the military power of the barons decreased, and the Tudor court became a place where baronial quarrels were resolved by the will of the monarch.
7e2d91708b9a9f335fc06c1bdbb91662a7b285dc	On the battlefields, scaffolds and in prison casemates, not only the descendants of the Plantagenets died, but also a significant part of the English lords and chivalry.
acb843d398270fd7d738df87fb854b8bd07162bf	For example, in the period from 1425 to 1449, before the outbreak of war, many noble dynasties disappeared, which continued during the war from 1450 to 1474[4].
eccb89814c282c6738e8dcd3f6acb56c41e7f08f	The death in battles of the most ambitious part of the nobility led to a decrease in the desire of its remnants to risk their lives and titles.
ba59a4759996916f5020b9ed5fd48ebc42f9c695	The war brought strife to the population of England, the oppression of taxes, the plundering of the treasury, the lawlessness of large feudal lords, the decline of trade, direct looting and requisitioning.
87738a3b1d935a521b146e1358b1bd7f63c92eae	During the wars, a significant part of the feudal aristocracy was exterminated, numerous confiscations of land holdings undermined its power.
0743ae9d547b2ebe5c859f26af1b9a09126130d9	The importance of the gentry and the emerging bourgeois elements interested in strengthening the royal power increased.
0b9c4697122d92e5fcdd6a34643f6ecae5d33092	This contributed to the establishment of Tudor absolutism.
65b8b670057067592a50502f83d035432ee62628	In world fiction, this significant event is reflected in the story "The Black Arrow" by R. L. Stevenson, Shakespeare's plays "Henry VI, part two", "Henry VI, part three" and "Richard III", the novel" Betrothed to a Rose " by Simone Vilar.
50b57efbd3e09e619bb5d56de0cfa4a419acae04	The war also had a great influence on the plot of George Martin's epic "A Song of Ice and Fire", where fictional Lannisters and Starks appear instead of Lancasters and Yorks, and the course of the war differs from reality.
a472a0b3e7e01e498e823a1e6ea6f440405fe266	There is a computer game War of the Roses based on the events.
6747b325e38059a41b8474ded10e4bdac9183af4	Philippa Gregory's The Cousins'book series War ("The War of the Cousins") illustrates the events during the War of the Roses.
f0db641c689d257a8cd3ba867f9b1845b04daf89	On July 16, 2013, BBC1 started showing the series " The White Queen "based on the book of the same name from the series"The War of the Cousins".
ae3a7fddb313064a29b3583c0a355bf03ef078e3	This part tells the story of three women who were close to power: Elizabeth Woodville (wife of King Edward IV), Margaret Beaufort, Anne Neville (daughter of the Earl of Warwick).
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8d357d367f4f503bf3815bada639346c907ad711	Preface of the Article
c9438199efad75febfb65f878f678aff873a834c	Aa Ab Ab Ag Ad Az Ay Ak Al Am An Ap Ar As At Au Af Ah Ac Ach Ae Ay Ay Ba Be Bj Bz Bi Bl Bo Br Bu Bh By B Be Byu Va Vv Vd Ve
2a7d55da8c353d07720e5a9f6607902f9d4ef361	Home>Russian Historical Encyclopedia>Volume I>The Scarlet and White Rose Wars
b07f6251e99a2be4357f5d9d8ec8ee5bdb711dd7	The Golden and White Roses of the War
bf4398c616c932bf15cc96aecaa636000be88d85	The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) — internecine feudal (civil) wars, which were a manifestation of the deep crisis experienced by England in the second half of the XV century, and resulted in a protracted struggle for the English throne between two coalitions of aristocratic families — the "parties" of York and Lancaster.
4629da4c11413c17abe97420691ca1275ec90f58	The Wars of the Roses consisted of several battles between the troops of York and Lancaster and a series of usurpations of the English throne.
13082409b32a3b8021fca7ae38d6e400fd92b4a3	Historiography
0e1e514f98a15b0e97a21569c8c270f782ae2f2e	Until now, there is no consensus in historiography regarding the dating, nature and causes of the War of the Roses.
65be5184ba822fc79b9a0efba7ba8f9f235a5c73	Modern British historiography is characterized by a tendency to define the Wars of the Roses as a series of loosely connected battles and usurpations of the throne, which practically did not affect the lives of contemporaries.
e519afe2fe2540bc0accbdf08fcae9eefc6fc700	An important role is given to the importance of the personalities of the English monarchs of that time — the incapable Henry VI and the ambitious Richard III. Russian historiography considers the War of the Roses as a manifestation of a general crisis that engulfed not only the political, but also the social and economic spheres of life in England of the XV century.
dc8998e8817076249df048f12a586cd9185154c8	In accordance with how the nature of the War of the Roses is understood, the dating is also given: 1450-1487 (MacFarlane), 1452-1497 (Goodman, Brown), 1459-1487 (Pollard), 1437-1509 (Carpenter).
50dcaeaa04958b1484ea6aca44dcd8ed927523ad	The number of wars is usually defined as 2 or 3, which, as a rule, coincide in time with the periods of active hostilities.
1617a1d5d3aafbd0f87e43492585e0423c9c3869	The main difference is made between the struggle for the throne between the Yorks and Lancasters (before 1471) and between the Yorks and the Tudors (1483-1485/87).
41013d9a6d63a17a4dde73829e565126e6b1bef1	The formal reason for the War of the Roses was the controversial claims of the Lancastrian dynasty to the English throne.
cf29c42df678b1f7a0257e76f52e2142a9668d72	Henry VI was the great grandson of John of Gaunt, the third son of King Edward III, and York was the great grandson of Lionel, the second son of this king, besides the first representative of the Lancastrian dynasty — Henry IV seized the throne in 1399, forcibly forcing King Richard II to abdicate.
5c08cb1b8ac0dbaf9bef24dc0142766aeb69666a	However, the War of the Roses began in difficult conditions for England: 1) defeat in the Hundred Years ' War (1453);
b443a190856a5a3e5b1d5daae139befb6ae2991b	2) suppression of the Jack Cade Rebellion (1450);
6cd1d104cf7ffc235548322f5732235c30284882	3) the weakness of the central government due to the inability of King Henry VI to manage the kingdom and the resulting substitution of the power of the king by the power of a narrow group of people who made decisions for him;
6e587874b2b8b57f5b6199e0d506d2d2da94cfcc	4) difficult economic situation.
55a85d37f3b958e3512f90c34cb5ec9c51a47f9a	An important role in the emergence and duration of the War of the Roses was played by both objective reasons (the system of social ties within the nobility) and subjective factors — conflicts of aristocratic clans.
cd7bf00186aee1cbecdadabe8d724e72d49cb062	Course of action
c0e646f0d28ff094cce394e017019b202825e8c0	He opposed the group that ruled on behalf of the feeble minded King Henry VI, important members of which were Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Henry VI's wife Margaret of Anjou.
311ba374b7b773b4e1fb76f0d30c0c0a16bd8658	After being removed from power, Richard declared his claims to the English throne and rebelled.
1019fecb49589976fd0523f0af986b2a09a78057	The Yorkists won victories at the battles of Blore Heath (23.09.1459) and at Northampton (10.07.1460), which allowed to conclude an agreement under which Richard was recognized as the heir of Henry VI and again appointed protector (October 1460).
e06473585cb7e776bcd6aba9f6db5651a3fd8bff	Margaret of Anjou, the wife of King Henry VI, led the forces of Lancastrian supporters.
ecd2132e57c7ccff077213592815e8192b1001bf	The Yorkists were defeated at the battles of Wakefield (10.12.1460) and St. Albans (17.02.1461).
47ded239a3a840ed9e21253e9a012bef1a195b36	Richard, the leader of the Yorkists, died along with the Earl of Salisbury.
552f9988277c1988f65a2b19fe9a6f546de07d71	He was replaced by his eldest son Edward, who, with the support of the Earl of Warwick, the heir to the Earl of Salisbury, defeated the Lancastrians at the battles of Mortimer Cross (02.02.1461) and at Towton (29.03.1461).
d95bc4749fb9825ceb54fbce2db54ec7c94683cf	Henry VI was deposed, and Edward IV (1461-1483) was crowned in June 1461.
033698b77c4053edaab4cee39e8063742dfbafb3	However, the war did not end there.
d93af930cb7d6e957d606edee50d9c5650da0cdc	The deposed King Henry VI was captured again in 1465 and was imprisoned in the Tower of London.
b6097fb5b21e0733959f360e7bd9e4794daa5e76	Edward had to flee the country, in Burgundy, and Henry VI was restored to the throne (1470-1471).
75b2e093e41e4b93ad5c866ea17a005641bdb56b	Upon returning from Burgundy Edward's victories at Barnet (14 April 1471) and Tewkesbury (may 04, 1471) over the forces of Warwick and Margaret, wife of Henry VI, the last landed in England with the support of the French king Louis XI. Warwick and the son of Henry VI were killed, and Henry VI himself was again deposed and imprisoned in the Tower, where he soon died.
9110987e4cb2b84f765f3a06260cdb77f4a96897	After the death of Edward VI (1483), the throne passed
2c9d9a65ca5ed4ae3c44c06ae72087c5aca0cb91	White rose — heraldic emblem of the house of Yorkalaya rose heraldic Scarlet rose — heraldic emblem of the House of Lancaster
47f0de7cafcc98a9b36dd1146d7da6b8b0c965e7	to his infant son, Edward V, however, the latter's uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, deposed the child on the grounds that he was illegitimate, and imprisoned him together with his brother in the Tower, where the children soon died.
e16f7f1a3a650d9f5ae61ce3a0e8daf2e0941674	The opponents united around Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancasters.
dc62c0bc2fd1efb9df2b606c2f3a1bff8e3be584	At the Battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485), Richard III was defeated and killed.
e317f2a7e4baa3e67e38086814a64c0e73d07c9e	The king was Henry VII Tudor, who marked the beginning of the Tudor dynasty.
1735c100c42e2b3bd4340ff7ae3a15413c24b3bd	By marrying Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV, he united the Lancaster and York dynasties.
612e12d29278b5519294bc25cdaddffec6d0f1c6	Results
7564481a8a7f427f9c141d42fed3085a5b3e3318	As a result of the War of the Roses, there was a change of dynasties in England, since both branches of the Plantagenet dynasty (Lancasters and Yorks) were destroyed and had no direct heirs.
10f9d707b0b5dca4cceb43e2bedba281ed757ab7	During the War of the Roses, a significant part of the old aristocracy was exterminated (although recently researchers have been talking about the psychological effect that losses had on the surviving representatives of this stratum), which allowed the royal power to "close" the entire system of social ties, to concentrate power in its own hands.
5edbc7fade693fe63b3a82ba29b3f0f190c53a60	Окончание Войны Алой и Белой Розы обычно рассматривается как конец периода Средневековья в Англии.
21e19b16de4fe142be67ebc41009c7952dce8f36	Лит.: Браун Е. Д. Джентри в эпоху войн Роз: опыт социокультурного анализа.
9e5037f07187fe59e1e6acf32b7bfcd02c3643df	Москва, (Дисс.), 2003;
996ac7a3c682651fd3c63a1da024e082b53c2648	Кузнецов Е. В. Общественно политическая борьба в Англии II половины XV века.
34389aa462810c507155d7b49764e32e36144ee0	Горький, 1959;
fd95dae326ef0e0028e243245f62acc87eab361e	Сливко С. А. Социальная борьба в Англии в конце XV в. и формирование английского абсолютизма.
044a42599d13aa411c3751d64b448bded9ae4402	Омск, 1965;
db46c46b8d9867dc655c4ed68748e53b5898c220	Carpenter C.
f98bd85e947b769038876bdf53c3f77dc65a9c8b	The Wars of the Roses.
8f572e2a7266383ebc7ebea83e58b014bf14d4c5	Politics and the Constitution in England, c.
dc841c35361c6b95fdf53143f7d2dfad24d4ae93	1437–1509.
8cce004c87666165f05b2b23ef0bfe218612d4de	Cambridge, 1997;
1c5d2817f76955d95a598ef3df2cb92e5d1e54f9	Conflicts, Consequences and the Crown in the Late Middle Ages / Ed. by L. Clark.
78eeb043b434505098fe599e4e55da7f43d90114	Woodbridge, 2007;
6d729b67c0d4a35041e98e851b161cfc65edfb82	Goodman A. Lander J. R. Crown and Nobility 1450–1509.
673c0bf077c71db17b7213c1d327345aec246f5d	Montreal, 1976;
f215a667b8716da3bf1cff77a61962842c85c9a4	McFarlane K. B. England in the Fifteenth Century.
af51afeb0b1c03bc990e71a5179adeec85b35b39	London, 1981;
da725eea7e31d3aeda8a72198a958c66121eeddb	Murph R. C. Rewriting the Wars of the Roses: the 17th Century Royalist Histories of John Trussell, Sir Francis Biondi and William Habington.
0ad34abb7eab9dfccb64fc6304f58cc68f0eca09	London, 2007;
b7be0bf133c9d82a7973c540c5294941472b6a4d	Pollard A. J.
1ad0c8359d03b1c3e1d2aad79e07c863d584ea3b	Basingstoke, 1988;
4848b1baedc3882f17885db255fd7e9f64d33c5a	Ross Ch.
01f45d781d9f8bad072e2b6127ead66be34779bd	London, 1987;
164e3848036aabdabf9deed53683777556fe1f62	Wagner J.
ee802727c881eda4e9771348bd9bb743cff017e1	A. The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Roses.
19e7ba343319b98aa6c9a8e91a382b7a38718311	Santa Barbara, 2001;
93efae5f4e4b75da954d6a24f8108e293243f11a	The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97.
146382346c064e68606b3343ae3b23b4d8fe52c1	New York, 1981;
92d7e97e34ca1612ca3347687f34a4410d9b65bf	The Wars of the Roses / Ed.
f80ffdb79a3b68c4b9b9aa905dc5233076b21b69	Pollard A. J. Basingstoke & New York, 1995.
ecf5760ead782157773ee3e4d4c73c6e8a6dfbdb	А. А. Анисимова.
144013b45d7874deab22b3f6eb37858543020574	РВИО Медиатека Лента времени Личности Библиотека Лекториум Учителям Ученым Любознательным
8d6e11896fd80bd1050bbd1a13a33c44201f11e5	The War of the Roses
4b597c51ccd2f13cdef17997886be456c4f559ce	The current version of the page has not yet been checked by experienced participants and may differ significantly from the version checked on November 24, 2015; checks require 3 edits.
6bb7c524abb62a7ce92a2bd80ba1219cd8b211a0	Representation of an unreliable scene in the Temple Garden in part I of the play "Henry VI", where supporters of warring factions choose red and white roses Date May 22, 1455-1485
0d869c223d59d592abd6b47868006b9ebb0782d4	Place England, Wales, Calais
71c7ed781ff753b9073829a73248aa24a8506aa8	The result is the coming to power of the Tudors
f952d4e92d5c97950fcf0c2cb02a743c5727f3fe	Lancasters
3d26fc0a807111846c0ea70bb69aab3051282812	and their supporters are Yorks
36508043b2a4d8047c12b47785471098cb183742	and their supporters
2f48f1f46ba07110eddb2108eb269703833693a5	Henry VI (1453-1471)
a5b894c10490f694ff1f6cbd33a321421669ded1	Margaret of Anjou (1453-1471)
f9e53de98465ea859e02202cc50a13aceca7534d	Edward of Westminster † (1471)
4b1149833acb1a2599f6c802686ebaa61500aefc	Henry Tudor (1483-1485) Richard of York † (1453-1460)
dcf472b3974e6f95a267134a14feffb036743b28	Edward IV (1460-1483)
44c9d5a20cebfd50ea0ddd9e94bb46eacc07dbe5	Richard III † (1483-1485)
c28dc852ccaa57ea2a29aec6b1428837e65c3e83	unknown unknown
71d45ce22c8c5068130f971d4801148506d32bfd	This term has other meanings, see the English Civil War.
fd884266087b17141b883ccb72832d9c765ab8e9	The War of the Roses[1] or the War (s) of the Roses [2] (English War(s) of the Roses) is a series of armed dynastic conflicts between groups of the English nobility in 1455-1485 in a power struggle between supporters of two branches of the Plantagenet dynasty — Lancasters and Yorks.
834770f59fa3494f482955f293805aa1d65c635b	Despite the chronological framework of the conflict established in the historical literature (1455-1485), some war related clashes took place both before and after the war.
d79d60e7d68ac050e7fd0dc0b70aa197ab03fe17	The war ended with the victory of Henry Tudor of the house of Lancaster, who founded a dynasty that ruled England and Wales for 117 years.
c3127c7f83cad621bcad92b6f4e212cdaf883239	The war brought significant destruction and disasters to the population of England, during the conflict a large number of representatives of the English feudal aristocracy died.
4b0dce50e00ffcc5fd1b36d924f5bd9a4fb3fa62	1 The causes of war 2 Names and symbols 3 The social composition of the participants in the conflict.
dbb7583e84f10307ad182182503d29bdce788199	Armed forces of the parties 4 Main events of the war 4.1 Chronology of battles
11d1e48d85bd8e291358fd2536a1969ee184eb51	5 Results of the war 6 Chronicles 7 Family Tree 8 The War of the Roses in Art 9 Notes 10 Literature 11 References
9167a7fce860c4ab10b5aa1722c4e509693dbbae	The reasons for the war[edit / edit wiki text]
8b6bd5102c8bd94ac4dfffe45e0b3afdf94cac61	The reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of a significant part of English society with the failures in the Hundred Years ' War and the policy pursued by the wife of King Henry VI, Queen Margaret and her favorites (the king himself was a weak willed person, moreover, sometimes fell into madness).
75665a54f030f8fbd5c777d332636a4ca7eb578b	The basis for this claim was that Henry VI was the great grandson of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of King Edward III, and the Duke of York was the great great grandson of Lionel, the third son of this king (in the female line, in the male line he was the grandson of Edmund, the fifth son of Edward III); in addition, Henry VI's grandfather Henry IV seized the throne in 1399, forcibly forcing King Richard II to abdicate, which made the legitimacy of the entire Lancaster dynasty questionable.
ca2b0bfd9ac05f86bd6418bca6897a7052b5bb95	Names and symbols[edit / edit wiki text]
80b3c7f10b18de70aa483d361a4394320be4034c	Emblems
a4457a8fa711b34269f5ef6d20eb3bfbcb05fcda	Yorkies
eeee29feda96700a18478504f487b23578cad028	The Tudors
924b143a00183c8ead61fbf50f720cf033f2522c	The name "war of the Roses" was not used during the war.
be49db65fceabcdd9d4b023ea9b496327cf34d61	Roses were the distinctive badges of the two warring parties.
2d2dd536118c7ab0aa8ef34e7f68c76f84854c5e	It is not known exactly who used them for the first time.
1629e3c150f92a0e4517361a4ca9af87860bfb5e	If the White rose, symbolizing the Virgin, was used as a distinctive sign by the first Duke of York Edmund Langley in the XIV century,then nothing is known about the use of Scarlet by Lancastrians before the war.
db3f7814a560f61f489568f5302c3c374c297e0d	Perhaps it was invented in contrast to the enemy's emblem.
e3b113c18f104e4a8232e4618096d3bc6670e869	The term came into use in the XIX century, after the publication of the story "Anna of Geierstein" by Sir Walter Scott, who chose the name based on a fictional scene in part I of William Shakespeare's play "Henry VI", where the opposing parties choose roses of different colors in the Temple Church.
bb607160beb350534b5ab08d91a7c5a35c6da685	Although roses were sometimes used as symbols during the war, most participants used symbols associated with their feudal lords or protectors.
9b8a50c66be662f14bf093fdad796a2629966f13	For example, Henry's forces in Bosworth fought under the banner of the red dragon, while the York army used the personal symbol of Richard III the white boar.
d706d65ef63af770d91657522f50c49614a3c4d5	Evidence of the importance of rose symbols increased when King Henry VII at the end of the war combined the red and white roses of the factions into a single red and white Tudor Rose.
b0f35f87f7b71ddcc004f33631b46e388f70efa6	The names of the competing factions have little in common with the cities of York and Lancaster, or the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire, even though cricket or rugby league matches between these two counties are often described using the cliche "War of the Roses".
2811417a165838d3ed714bb257547f40439b3e21	In fact, the provinces and castles belonging to the dukes of Lancaster were mainly in Gloucestershire, North Wales and Cheshire, while the Yorkist possessions were widespread throughout England, although many were in the Welsh Mark (which Richard of York inherited when he became Earl of March).
e15e4014f6975352b4694e320b9d6ff87137bdf1	The social composition of the participants in the conflict.
341339e250cc756463e22ecf87806f96f33de2d0	Armed forces of the parties[edit / edit wiki text]
7f082baf6df31d19db01a7261f2f538b35952060	The so called system of "bastard feudalism" was one of the main factors that influenced the decline of the authority and influence of the royal power and the escalation of the armed conflict.
b478d413ecc60c397db65327620a1828ba48d9ba	The warriors from the lower social strata were mainly archers and bilmen (warriors armed with traditional English weapons a kind of guizarma).
5f90aaae9f06cabbb1eda4e2cb6d1e600c0a62f4	The number of archers traditionally exceeded the number of men at arms in the proportion of 3:1.
05a7808bf867a9034ea5d5b3ee672b0bbd93304c	Artillery, including hand held firearms, began to appear in large numbers in the armies of the factions.
6bdd7b086e4344c5807cc627a26e7fb0e4096838	The main events of the war[edit / edit wiki text]
4a1cba860ce0b06b628360b5a759d0bcd6b685f8	Main events and participants
d2e72d7d6017192318b9cd8142d3a8220562f6ea	The confrontation turned into an open war in 1455, when the Yorkists celebrated the victory in the First Battle of St. Albans, after which the English Parliament declared Richard York the protector of the kingdom and the heir of Henry VI.
ec207f791ae161c545a779bbb6ecd3cc97ef6b47	The White Rose Party was led by his son Edward, who in 1461 was crowned in London as Edward IV.
e364dfecde001d37837ae8b14485e0da802169a0	In the same year, the Yorkists won victories at Mortimer Cross and at Towton.
e0c10de7590a92067529286a6569c1b1cc404228	As a result of the last battle, the main forces of the Lancastrians were defeated, and King Henry VI and Queen Margaret fled the country (the king was soon caught and imprisoned in the Tower).
4eca96caa3a0c8f04c9cbf4e3b95e76cf7c0024e	Active hostilities resumed in 1470, when the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence (the younger brother of Edward IV), who had defected to the Lancastrians, returned Henry VI to the throne.
92fa8634cba46571ab34e40d6ac7c6a76829e9f7	Edward IV and his other brother, the Duke of Gloucester, fled to Burgundy, from where they returned in 1471.
c8f59a2a74578fe176f41fe3b4fcbeea9a2b1d83	The Duke of Clarence again defected to his brother's side — and the Yorkists won victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
98c1d7279fe95cc39a9e88803101a4321db6d429	In the first of these battles, the Earl of Warwick was killed, and in the second, Prince Edward, the only son of Henry VI, was killed, which, together with the death (probably murder) of Henry himself in the Tower of London in the same year, was the end of the Lancastrian dynasty.
20e85d2543cd6a9c3ad18eadcd66e0418b15f3fb	Edward IV, the first king of the York dynasty, reigned peacefully until his death, which followed unexpectedly for everyone in 1483, when his son Edward V became king for a short time.
a078ca2674e9570dd594423f7a0abe666a4b3cce	However, the Royal Council announced his illegitimate
f4638a478f252bcbf8c250cae244b8c4f454dd4d	(the late king was a great lover of the female gender and, in addition to the official wife was secretly engaged to another woman or even several; in addition, Thomas more and Shakespeare mentions went in society rumours that Edward was not the son of the Duke of York, and a simple Archer), and brother of Edward IV, Richard of Gloucester was crowned in the same year as Richard III. His short and dramatic reign was filled with a struggle with overt and hidden opposition.
5ab28c8238f0b56a58e69af43a3e6088495be3e7	In this struggle, the king was initially lucky, but the number of opponents only increased.
0e92dc5bdf14570f91c4bbf36c2a769acb66b2fc	In 1485, a Lancastrian force (mostly French mercenaries) led by Henry Tudor (John of Gaunt's great great grandson in the female line) landed in Wales.
5b61e1dbf0e4afd8418ad3f181443370d632af87	In the battle of Bosworth, Richard III was killed, and the crown passed to Henry Tudor, who was crowned as Henry VII — the founder of the Tudor dynasty.
0121d9ad998c35c1b34f9d08bff3bc613a62451f	In 1487, the Earl of Lincoln (Richard III's nephew) tried to return the crown to the Yorks, but was killed at the Battle of Stoke Field.
d7445e873c2b7ae70c2f8ef3be3a5a5b7657399b	Chronology of battles[edit / edit wiki text]
2e3ae8b52b61cf2bef1db604275a2abd31c41d3a	Date Battle Forces of the Parties / Warlords Losses Lancasters Yorks Lancasters Yorks
d316164d216e3d837abccd6df94be57494c4bda5	22 May 1455 First Battle of St Albans 2000-3000 men
43b17b9a5b0f0cc403571299b00b7a1142b13f34	Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset 7,000
8d095cdc342915fb0eb7ed62fe3d69cd8c4ab3d4	Richard, Duke of York
4ac6a630ac8c83edaf248b1eda636e6f13d1220a	Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick less than 100 people
da513575c645a66acc7f8b286bb35956fb5cbca6	Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset
96e7ccc85ad0c58ce33e5af04009aabd2d73fb3c	Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland
5eef4de572c820826cb13c207e9eda02a74e915b	Thomas Clifford less than 100 men 23 September 1459 Battle of Blore Heath 6000-8000 men
6510ba7dabd907d67acdb9248088663be800fe7d	James Touchett, Baron Audley
c4ace4e0a004c2d42cd3907fb8741624e620dcf8	John Sutton, Baron Dudley 3000-4000 people
59beb318e23a8f10f0da3c26c1a9e977ecd3450b	Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury about 2000 people
16d46279e981ae18b7c4c4ac9a73dbf58429052d	James Touchett, Baron Audley about 1000 men 12 October 1459 Battle of Ludford Bridge unknown
8c0c7c60dc5e0513d7604ad0e02a8b998a479d4e	Henry VI 20,000-30,000 people
16398f903f192ae146544cb96a80063d213d48e8	Richard, Duke of York unknown
442de6ea356c563b2a2eaeb809c83cae7bf39085	(the battle did not take place) January 1460 Battle of Sandwich unknown
e1a1e0895e294d3dc3567f16e9bdeb2e1c40ad64	Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset unknown unknown unknown 10 July 1460 Battle of Northampton 10,000-15,000 men
992a0fd3f87c6caa8ccf64a6ec4fca3805674682	King Henry VI
afb8fd233bf4540d604ff2d0319d186ab44d6fb5	Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham 20,000-30,000
b581b206ee91bf815739ef36cc89980ec429ba9b	Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick about 300 people
ae8646087485e50b35d9f094d3829576ec77aca2	Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham
f1bdcfba4dc46efea0ec7490aa455439d9bec8f9	Thomas Percy, Baron Egremont unknown 30 December 1460 Battle of Wakefield about 18,000 men
4f6541bd8a93ed4479efaa9a62a2612115061ea3	Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset
4da458d0be641afb90af01a3afbb84658b939514	Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland 5000-9000 people
671e39215f5754fa5d797964d43b10cd16a7c959	Richard, Duke of York about 200 people to 2500 people
f06dde0462d2da3a0111cf13ef2511074ba92afa	Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury
cc07794face9fab926f2872f969971813fc542c5	Edmund, Earl of Rutland 2 February 1461 Battle of Mortimer's Cross unknown
71f2335bbccd5c2e6c299befa606ec25563e6b06	Owen Tudor
0a5b9563d22ee131c0bba483f170fc22401cf5a1	Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke unknown
744f8c99bf66771f91d0ef47f2c4c612084108eb	Edward, Earl of March up to 4000 people
60b8b5a487cb0b4bf46067f15e540837221981ca	Owen Tudor unknown 17 February 1461 Second Battle of St Albans about 15,000 men
4671e7b249e465497ba7e81a5dabe00dd60c61de	Queen Margaret about 10,000 people
7468333904fd438f96fc6528cdc91415c0c013cc	Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick about 2,000 men about 4,000 men 28 March 1461 Battle of Ferrybridge unknown
238a4eaca95cab62f85f011e69e59b1fb9f1468e	John Clifford
7323858a91f544e88407b44c31075d03b17f9036	John Neville unknown
f2a1bf253f4461c8dfcc29af3a276b11178ef775	Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick unknown
f6416817c7676eedf110a4f6b9b6f1d806530dbe	John Clifford about 3,000 men 29 March 1461 Battle of Towton about 42,000 men
44e8e47309d4a151c1e728e65f3e5b47bdb06c1f	Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland about 36,000 people
749348aa039bb30ad9d92a3e6ae2a087a2af3eb2	Edward IV
74fc61421a433b4d6086d19ebffebc8d49af7e40	Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick
39b2713571589f0b7ce9cf350a497a8af2fe7a52	William Neville, Baron Fauconberg about 20,000 people
254d09864744bfe61f84654d785d6ae010e6a426	Richard Percy
38c0522f460624597766991b064ec0bedc15dada	John Neville 8,000-12,000 men 25 April 1464 Battle of Hedgley Moor 5,000 men
c3991c8582bc9c0ad45d002d78dfa391672c0e93	Ralph Percy 6000 people
ca9cc03a58f462daef02e725fc7782fce5144236	John Neville, Marquess of Montagu unknown
d6861f5320e9a300c447692057e8844ca98412bd	Ralph Percy unknown 15 May 1464 Battle of Exham unknown
b86dab46b25df77cbf85f26ff304c50fa8ccce39	Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset 4,000
e4fae819380c68b163b7eb21e052198754345667	Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset unknown 29 July 1469 Battle of Edgecote Moor unknown
926be1c025b735214ccfa5f3df662e4812d47e15	William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke unknown unknown
15fca72ddbc5fbe96ad178ba928f13f7af23c642	William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke
2c200cbddeccf96a2bada813bac89ceb9aed932c	Richard Herbert 12 March 1470 Battle of Loscot Field 30,000 men
fab12524cd4362103ced65075dff18215c90e5cd	Robert Wells unknown
1eab49f4bbc7a08a01b20247686917792b4e4357	Edward IV unknown unknown 14 April 1471 Battle of Barnet 9,000 men
f560a08c0164df0d84d1fa098be6a51aceaa59a9	John de Vere, Earl of Oxford 7,000-15,000
f79bfcc6a089dcf50ba4890c38f56727d87bbacd	King Edward IV
8504441e6dcf9403c192da80a057daf71ad703cb	Richard, Duke of Gloucester about 1000 people
0a1b43347586bf938367402168db60e1c31c1edf	John Neville, Marquess of Montagu about 500 men 4 May 1471 Battle of Tewkesbury 3000-5000 men
90de7c41f12b512e5da3e0badf20e6ce22d49e70	Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset 3500-4000 people
b83a7a95a05fe37db8b4595f52a8056984cffebb	Richard, Duke of Gloucester about 2000 people
81720175311c7eaf0cbb90f3915175abe24054f8	Edward, Prince of Wales
d8d7503276bc64cbb04594bb9c1249cc53dda62e	John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset unknown 22 August 1485 Battle of Bosworth 11,000 men
e06bb0f7aea2823465ec231dace573eb647872ba	Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond
4555c803ac0cc634d9ea049dfe4c37133e95973a	William Stanley 10,000 people
10de7d4c753ac12ab5748ead1005e01591364932	King Richard III more than 100 people 1000 people
0e39dd28afc7d193da8543d4cafedf9d5236b97e	King Richard III 16 June 1487 Battle of Stoke Field 12,000 men
837bfe97f335f1a8442b0d0d8e3571f9f89df862	King Henry VII 8000 people
450902ca3446020007fe0f4904db5a9c3576027f	John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln 3,000 men 4,000 men
b4fd17350a50432974945714e05e3fabd1c8796a	John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln
057309bed497b7fe1bfc50fcaa478fc384b81f92	The results of the war[edit / edit wiki text]
0387561b3ffe35d10d4bae91eabeb95199dce10e	King Louis XI of France, who supported the Lancasters.
ee46e97866c3b7e25612666ff2ff5c20d420b897	Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who supported the Yorks.
30872ae5cec3dec2985fdec01e9fbbc4a53fe069	On the other hand, it is also suggested that the terrible impact of the war was exaggerated by Henry VII in order to extol his achievements in ending it and ensuring peace.
c42e5aab0eb53bd3f17672e73a6a4a4063c8bb80	The post war period was also a "funeral march" for the permanent baronial armies that fueled the conflict.
5064b6a7fed66e057c43cc600b0bd29ed05c6a85	Chronicles[edit / edit wiki text]
1ede87087d95bdfeed135bc18dfa9b1cf34c415c	The most important places of the War of the Roses
7d00b6cc58f4e4d76f56dad4a25542e83769402a	During the war, the following chronicles were kept:
3f7d498d3a3f5eb9c4fb320804e7be338092294e	Benet's Chronicle Gregory's Chronicle (1189-1469) Short English Chronicle (-1465) Harding's Chronicle: first version for Henry VII (1457) Harding's Chronicle: second version for Richard, duke of York and Edward IV (1460 and c. 1464) Harding's Chronicle: second 'Yorkist' version revised for Lancastrains during Henry VI's Readeption (see Peverley's article).
dcd695ccb6839c82e1ac7467b2778e21652d5489	Capgrave (1464)
32ef81f82a4aa6df52583fd0885a3ae8b799c5f3	Commynes(1464—1498)
496e7cc7de0642852239fe0ab374dd13720eb71b	Chronicle of the Lincolnshire Rebellion (1470) History of the arrival of Edward IV in England (1471) Vaurin (-1471) English Chronicle, also known as the Davies Chronicle (1461) Brief Latin Chronicle (1422-1471) Fabian (-1485) Rouse (1480/86) Croyland Chronicle (1149-1486) Warkworth Chronicle (1500?)
24bd1a5980e904d6487fd9dc5a11c47da54fdbc9	Family tree[edit / edit wiki text]
60d6efa8ee928d773c9c46a3aec19e8ad210abcb	People who have taken the side of the conflict are painted red for Lancasters, and blue for Yorks
3e1630284f21c200f421550e8f285b7f627b6549	Edward III
121e24de2dca63bd686f9060fbabdb77755fad8d	Edward the Black Prince
22a47a02915a11ccb3b0f7bd28fda446db756673	Edmund Langley
714c91e8cee6a430c0eb9d682cf871714a186437	Lionel Antwerp
96c4cc02720aba62e9efcce9b32751e5b799f60d	John Gaunt
5ce2b6ef0687f625312309fe778052a3de529315	Philippa Plantagenet
c7adb2380fdc87b78b1e9e9eccf60a6ccfa9f0f4	Richard II
8409f1f426d79bb015df378515efced6608aa31c	Roger Mortimer
c5a15856470abe8ceeaa1a36e358c2ae7861c93d	Elizabeth Mortimer
da62872ea44112b24df928a0a618eefd3be9ffff	Joanna Beaufort
62944e69bebc0631a9ff91a0c85b7e8c039ae3f1	Henry IV Bolingbroke
7f275e703ae32b2cadd3074ceaaf128e7280f487	John Beaufort
2658ed09b02d5bbcffebb99023c650b3ff3cf370	Richard Conisburg
dd07cb6149e6630f78fb171239b5293bd8661a21	Anna Mortimer
4380cafdc5922330c14a48dccdf8d50a09af7779	Henry Percy
b0dd4521f1f3b72f45e84161a1eefcf86b6c0c34	Eleanor Neville
12d116067afa28e6f948708d21201e6ddccb4379	William Neville
28046421c3b6e99d6840f1d80f6361d95bee2893	Richard Neville
0978744875f165a4daacb79168921f4d49637772	Henry V
f3c570b9ae4a169477270c0ab7a140888b156eed	Catherine of Valois
f84d506b66654df99d47ef22197ff0246189d023	Edmund Beaufort
160466439c3f4f658b8fb676b6786bd57e428e0b	Richard Plantagenet
68345a66b7b227b0df71cde04a3c254b99265e10	Cecilia Neville
4576a1f98772fc5aae7bdf05ac3f361242c2fef7	Thomas Neville
031799cd1ce3402fc23aefaf593dbdb5a21e4d15	John Neville
9c0a408188753754426ae5c2606ff745c4f9f5be	Marguerite of Anjou
26ed5251f0cab69a873976c5877f7c9623c33961	Henry VI
4c1ed67e09b472579764e114fc561b4085fa68af	Edmund Tudor
1aa0bbb4c298f3780894a50f24959bf58a7bccc3	Margaret Beaufort
18d3deef5dfb40c3d806f8dee6127ad945b6d896	Henry Beaufort
a3a9602b5ff570755b8b1c018c229da91a512728	Richard III
7f45cc4b7971ba31a4423ba4ba5cefd25dd0ec45	George Plantagenet
ea9f5645da1846b97ce23f67ef8cf926a52213c0	Isabella Neville
faf3c28eaaa4b1db4e476b0021562f9ed843e840	Anna Neville
4a2f3597697f7d5f787aa4542de2d6aaaac6f063	Edward of Westminster
8d7401121da8cc685492ad576ccc9717ac62d176	Edward V
439f8d505573d838a37a9c6d801e846e213e44bb	Elizabeth of York
fa549fd1f7fd2dcf431f40ebb45b75ab38163b4a	Henry VII Tudor
f6c19410e6556d7398d0853bf8b3d58e65a8b3d5	The War of the Roses in art[edit / edit wiki text]
bd3fe37e2cf235338063753b8615ec2ead676223	Война The War of the Roses (1455-1485).
4534a9d4d6c577c605ff86cd9bb925936ae6cd14	Lopatin V. V., Nechaeva I. V., Cheltsova L. K. Uppercase or lowercase?
4c66aca57fcbc20bb96376302f81307850def906	Spelling dictionary.
1e883bef474da2c8b2114041d998484ad3a177ef	- Moscow: Eksmo, 2009.
7175ea6446e8aaf5a488e38aa4b0f5b5eb98adf0	- p. 108 — - 512 p.
fee7f1d724297fdd77cd9da8c3ffa8f221261d9e	Уст Ustinov V. G.
763b82b85f68875e502ca7852599e55f77196724	The Hundred year War and the Wars of the Roses.
5586f437ba591fd0ad107bc03fe90e88e364cbe2	5. ↑ BBC War of the Roses discussion, In our Time Radio 4 18 May 2000.
2cd826be72311d0c8cd89ba0e909d0ca95473382	Accessed 1 May 2010 ↑ Terence Wise and G.A. Embleton.
0b8175237a4b0679da120796b443ff623f5f3f65	The Wars of the Roses, Osprey Men at Arms series, p.4, from K.B. MacFarlane.
d65d0868eea98a71b024cf86d9f6bae3ff91e10a	The Nobility of Later Medieval England, Oxford University Press
d344918dc550f2276aa905ce1009ccb2373c0670	The War of the Roses on Wikimedia Commons?
96fe36ff020885f28e983d85cffcf1501ae022eb	White and scarlet roses // Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 vols.
e92fad940f0aedceff880a49138c71b3f9281501	Norwich d.
cb2a83c514a4fad2661cb70cca3b41cc9e5eee05	The history of England and Shakespeare's kings.
f2bcadc966135c4e3e9d9e04408d456133beb732	- M.: Astrel, 2012 — - 414, [2] p.
287510d528ca9cef73acdb9601c0dc268efe8a60	— ISBN 978-5-271-43630-7.
3e29db07f964679823ee5961c12fa31679d2aac6	Ustinov V. G. Wars of Roses.
e13f0a6651284d7fbf0f8b8890b596da005a3991	Yorkies vs Lancasters.
3a385470e92e4853426ccafb7a5944aacfcabb1a	- Moscow: Veche, 2012 — - 432 p.
633211ebdf59a7286b9493c043d3a40c572b1139	— (History files). - 2000 copies.
2a93aa2882d24c44c1f74efd8299b2b7cc65bdab	— ISBN 978-5-9533-5294-9.
5179ba4035051aa991d6bfd0da683140f1ee24e6	Ustinov V. G.
07a84746e80f6237fde414784103cfc666ba8f6a	The Hundred year war and the Wars of Roses.
be2ce068604e57844b1b4d5535c9c463dc4b47f5	- Moscow: AST: Astrel, Keeper, 2007 — - 637 p.
4db28bbf31e9f0f7b6024d6eedb57dd6c6ac0544	— (Historical Library). - 1500 copies.
1b02fc27551e4f88b1def2f99baa576fb4bdf421	— ISBN 978-5-17-042765-9.
07c60c6076aa4820ee4e8cf82279b9cb939620db	Brown, Elena.
40bd6c3ffee414a80def43313dc15ba91c2b476c	The Wars of the Roses. postnauka.ru (28.06.2013).
6a7bb319930df5048f0f762bfd7cd29b7c1000f3	The Scarlet Rose of Lancaster · The White Rose of York
c67dd20ee842986086a0a915ddc2a279490130ed	Key
b1e34dacd105c345104f36e570b6054d98c6a0f0	figures English monarchs Henry VI · Edward IV · Edward V · Richard III · Henry VII Lancasters
ec8d5613795e33fcf411663daffa15566bebf788	Margaret of Anjou · Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland · Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland · Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick · Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset · Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset · Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset · George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence · Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford · John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford · Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham · Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent
ebc43cff039a7945c74d01db6ab5da53e6eed715	Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York * Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick · Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury · John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu · William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent · Thomas Neville · Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham · Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent
b5629a77a048d09de04cf200cf373ba3f0f0291d	Battles of the Lancastrian Victory
7d86a8ad2edc8de159013307251fc003e01dd25e	Battle of Ludford Bridge · Battle of Wakefield · Second Battle of St Albans · Battle of Ferrybridge (draw) · Battle of Edgecote Moor · Battle of Bosworth · Battle of Stoke Field
90e99dfd9174ed0b5ba4c6dbc8ed660e5939c390	Yorkist Victories
e3bafe5d92cd27589fe9e0b03a197e88a2d9a15b	The First Battle of St Albans · The Battle of Blore Heath · The Battle of Sandwich · The Battle of Northampton · The Battle of Mortimer's Cross · The Battle of Ferrybridge (draw) · Battle of Towton · Battle of Hegley Moor · Battle of Hexham · Battle of Lusecote Field · Battle of Barnet · Battle of Tewkesbury
02ea6983617c061d613dc881b8f2a7a2fb844db2	See also The Act of Consent · The enmity of the Percy and Neville families · The heirs of Edward III
40d92a82d7e907dca1e04c6ac763b84283970520	History of England Heptarchy · Kingdom of England · Kingdom of Great Britain · United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland · United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Ancient Britain
ca8b7cc58a355f5b287860c322a6217394af9bbc	Prehistoric Britain * Celtic Britain · Roman Conquest · Roman Britain · Ancient North
d807ee209543d46b9f1545d6c20eb0ed7732b6dd	Medieval England
08717306adc2dfe7fd4997e906793d86c56707b2	The Anglo Saxon period · The Norman Conquest · The Anglo Norman Monarchy · The Plantagenet Era · The War of the Roses · The Tudor Period
a8efdf17d5e31c63a83da472cba402f0fcc76174	New time
ff5e2a313c0d0daf29c0302952e567a1d724e052	The Reformation · The Elizabethan Era · The Jacobean Era · The Carolingian Era · The English Revolution · The English Republic · The Stuart Restoration · The Glorious Revolution
85c8cc76c9da40f91645d40d082526ea97c80a42	History of Great Britain
f6186c5a26424104f06307fceff4d7990ad7e8d2	Education of Great Britain · The British Empire · The Georgian Era · The Regency · Victorian Era · Edwardian Era · The Windsor Dynasty
6ead8fe3ad9a5297369c1e86a97f2e63670ea923	Portal "England" • Portal "Great Britain"
1ee4a37037970fb93e0d154b3a4d1d8bb491f521	Source — "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The War of the Roses&oldid=75029645"
1e186b3ce8387d949ecd42eaa90705ece12c8875	Categories: The War of the Roses Wars of the XV century Civil wars
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0fc4ee6e60cc0436d14016a494e3e1be51a61a68	The Scarlet and White Rose War
c3660c21d187a2689e96c0af93c49e531b23a6ff	1455-1485
96fd2eda23b35082219b4fc06545b533ebf0c174	HISTORICAL SOURCES
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66198e142b8e7666a544497ef5009dc487bc0d48	THE WAR OF 1812
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63eb36c6c7da19c3d86c189c9adce66693d6380e	THE WAR OF THE ROSES
21a33462af0640183c507d93e2e5cf838800c2e9	The War of the Roses is an internecine war of feudal clans for the English throne.
439513c6ab14a5cb3982268e94fd63e566505aa8	Two branches of the Plantagenet dynasty fought - Lancaster (coat of arms with a scarlet rose) and York (coat of arms with a white rose).
01c988800a249e69feb1d40d66e2097f303aa6f2	The war, which lasted thirty years (1455-1485), brought to power a distant relative of the Lancastrians, Henry VII Tudor.
2a220bff1a3270566668f330bcdeb22dcfb823b0	After marrying the York heiress Elizabeth, Henry VII combined the scarlet and white rose in his coat of arms and founded the ruling Tudor dynasty.
4897e85f8c8cfe96eb4ebe43f21c7ff0794a352c	THE WAR OF THE ROSES 1455-85, an internecine war in England, for the throne between two branches of the Plantagenet dynasty the Lancasters (in the coat of arms of the scarlet rose) and the Yorks (in the coat of arms of the white rose).
f24a63c180e8b951e5a73e4c0cbdf3eb872fe7d4	The death in the war of the main representatives of both dynasties and a significant part of the nobility facilitated the establishment of Tudor absolutism.
84df26b5105ac942ee478b7afe060040a3d4ca2d	+ + +
97390fc707b0859569dfa8a73fbcb6efdfc101c8	The Wars of Roses (1455-85), bloody internecine conflicts between feudal cliques in England, which took the form of a struggle for the throne between two lines of the royal Plantagenet dynasty: the Lancasters (in the coat of arms of the scarlet rose) and the Yorks (in the coat of arms of the white rose).
81994742648b7e99c673564d1d8b8facc0404f0b	Causes of the war
8ade757afc21704914631e072ffed9cd2b18f37c	The Lancastrians relied mainly on the barons of the backward north, Wales and Ireland, the Yorks — on the feudal lords of the economically more developed south east of England.
ccfaa54c0add6a57857c284ca5acd4c304801329	The middle nobility, merchants and wealthy citizens, interested in the free development of trade and crafts, the elimination of feudal anarchy and the establishment of firm power, supported the Yorks.
c22081f5071615dfd4f5ef9750585ee75f1830d9	Under the feeble minded King Henry VI of Lancaster (1422-61) , the country was ruled by a clique of several large feudal lords, which aroused discontent in the rest of the population.
32e33bb34e64a592b0feef12e1aa6d3d64e83de7	Taking advantage of this discontent, Richard, Duke of York, gathered his vassals around him and went with them to London.
2004676d1e26f1909348ccd780cc489d60a5f2cc	Richard was completely defeated and fell in battle.
e1ad226ac9e52ea419acd9b798ce7eb984556126	His enemies cut off his head and put it on the wall of York in a paper crown.
c781a7e3cb643c507e215ac13a546ad1432cd4e9	The winner was King Edward IV.
59705286a3ecb1f6b7a54a39ed3afe9d344ddd87	However, the war continued.
64bf11000496028d177a4182ac19c667e0f45424	The desire of Edward IV to strengthen his power and restrict the freedoms of the feudal nobility led to an uprising of his former supporters led by Warwick (1470).
4a110168deafa281e4fa23bf194686d3f4759074	Edward fled from England, Henry VI was restored to the throne in October 1470.
ded43c55fe4dc2ffd3c866dd129369d100640f0d	In 1471, Edward IV, at Barnet (April 14) and Tewkesbury (May 4), defeated the army of Warwick and the army of Henry VI's wife Margaret, who landed in England with the support of the French king Louis XI. Warwick was assassinated, Henry VI was deposed again in April 1471 and died (presumably murdered) in the Tower of London on 21 May 1471.
d4eebd3477da1aa5dd8ba1b9edf6c10e56e520ec	The end of the war
6b8c6a66a1c3e65371fb40b2a0773a3d18a48401	After the victory, in order to strengthen his power, Edward IV began brutal reprisals both with representatives of the Lancastrian dynasty, and with the rebellious Yorks and their supporters.
66aafed9c7167ef91a03be025d6c32d2f83a4bb7	After the death of Edward IV on April 9, 1483, the throne passed to his infant son Edward V, but the power was seized by Edward IV's younger brother, the future king Richard III, who first declared himself the protector of the infant king, and then deposed him and ordered him to be strangled in the Tower together with his younger brother Richard (August (?) 1483).
8d9e738d4516b15ffb4cb4806ced916787c5e041	Richard III's attempts to strengthen his power caused rebellions of feudal magnates.
95d5d3cf1bf4341515d56092174e9001ce42983c	Executions and confiscation of property restored supporters of both groups against him.
1868004a299a23456f861ca2cfa11aba41063451	Both the Lancastrian and Yorkist dynasties united around Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancasters, who lived in France at the court of King Charles VIII.
8017090e142fddaf74d2ed37b52b2cf4e5fce0e5	On August 7 or 8, 1485, Henry landed at Milford Haven, passed through Wales unhindered, and joined his supporters.
4f7947d926101a5f9cf7baa29dd0109bcacefa08	From their combined army, Richard III was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth on August 22, 1485; he himself was killed.
850745878d99619ab261d3098839189b8ea9f710	Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor dynasty, became king.
17779802e38e4bf47e4af7fabe7b39efdd72d0cb	After marrying Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth, the heiress of York, he combined the scarlet and white roses in his coat of arms.
edc62e7d352219a4920ed3f1090bdc88006fa670	It was conducted with terrible ferocity and was accompanied by numerous murders and executions.
a01510587b08bb5f65bc5a62cf9d735548d8aeb0	At the same time, land holdings increased and the influence of the new nobility and the merchant merchant layer increased, which became the mainstay of Tudor absolutism.
7cb9c1b09bc25380b6d0c2db1e4d8fc49c0532e0	Literature:
0b420db21bde371376ea505417b39399d9e801c0	Jones W. G. York and Lancaster (1399-1485).
20cf5deaf8c90f311ad27db89257dbaf399fb6e9	London, 1914.
a82c6b1e83c1d68eae98998ef7181221e685f8b3	Goodman A.
9d9e9bfcf7156af26cb5dfeac96e9588c839c02b	The wars of the Roses: Military activity and English society, 1452-1497.
e9390d12a5d1a35c1149e9b6d11cb1576b6cc361	London, 1981.
ef45428acbbf13679d491793a0e25581f425c2f8	Ross C.
c011252dc92896f359fb51f4a7329883fc3c5bda	The wars of Roses: a concise history.
ef04a5bf35fcf94139a39db33e339bc1f2c036c1	London, 1986.
9988208761db394264e3265b319441a68bdd2b32	The wars of the Roses: From Richard II to the fall of Richard III at Bosworth field seen through the eyes of their contemporaries.
c9bc73157bc92f7d6813733f0d14e3786306b495	/ Ed. by Hallam E. London, 1988.
eea932883337470b5092476e797ed9447d35cd02	The wars of the Roses.
2cef2c56e906d5641f736e5e28984c2785fb3fac	London, 1988.
06dfc277abef18a9eac5c14fff9a38640767b4b4	Read more:
5d6205d10aec66b309ae7589acc468117bec0d6f	England in the XV century (chronological table).
5104cfcca2d27d578de69300f3a5f1523f1a9ee1	CHRONOS has been in existence since January 20, 2000,
973f083f240944f051b4f5d6ff25c886169779df	Editor Vyacheslav Rumyantsev
3d927560f7eacbd42e46c1cd303254f242774e7c	When quoting, let's link to CHRONOS
c487c8c20e116b00af01e518489dfd92de03476e	Civilization War
a7fb08b2e0fe19307300bb1961e27d6eedea3cf9	Civilization and War
2df3c74d51dae5d9b8227aa79d9f7697916728e9	Site comments
53ff08e88f8804f7371b78e9ef454249412b6b2b	Home "England of the Middle Ages" The War of the Scarlet and White Roses " Myths of the war of the Scarlet and White Roses
56ce0a0ab73707cc6062b1fa52514fa083f075b3	Myths of the War of the Roses
f67a419b008a44a8995d238de81acf92e9a9cee5	The Civil War, which went down in history as the Wars of the Roses, took place between Yorkshire and Lancashire, whose symbols were the white and scarlet rose.
4bc0666bb69774224d49951a4ec155595ce756c2	It lasted for 30 long years and caused huge damage to the population and devastation of the lands on which this population lived.
c772bb492ac9a3602bbe6c4956d1da5924c43e59	During the war, so many representatives of the aristocracy were exterminated that Henry VII had to re create this social layer.
900c23697728850e4ec86f8efc1ba9d43786ad9f	Henry VII was the king who brought peace and prosperity to the kingdom, unlike his predecessor, the usurper Richard III, who stole the throne through deception and a series of low murders.
80d4c22b6fd3fc69ab89a3981796a9526a8f558a	At that time, the big bow dominated the battlefield, and among the soldiers were knights and heavily armed horsemen, covered from head to toe with bulky plate armor, riding war horses, also clad in armor.
ac49cc7d1cfd20205905a7d128aaa9c1bc0df53a	A familiar picture, perhaps not containing a word of truth.
ba280b8e5277a5729b52104c40eaa2e697fa9fee	Edward IV, king who ruled in England in 1464-83.
d48d6bb8d5d6e9400e59814d82708a7482258612	He seized the throne with the help of Duke Warwick, whom he later killed in battle.
7c293193b434bf0ba4fa22e3ee7dc74b753d9a6d	In the same year, on his orders, Henry VI was assassinated in prison.
5962b379c60051c304a3828bfca3f48f18d4ba38	The moral principles of Edward VI were very confused and unstable, greed is huge.
026629c42a982d8164fe06a2a7f439be406d6e8e	The way in which Ong arranged his wedding discredited him completely.
f8f0c3346c50d5834bfb2eaa67bb9cb711a399a3	He achieved financial independence from parliament through a brief war with France in 1475.
762024fc87093c4cedd4ce8a57ea44586744fcf9	Subsequently, he received an annual subsidy of 20,000 crowns from Louis XI.
92ba27a2f7d289234f71ca4c47c12fb9ecf13d89	In the XVI century, the history of England was rewritten to please Henry Tudor in order to help establish the Tudor dynasty on the throne after the period of unrest that followed the War of the Roses.
9836111a11be26ff70f94de9ed0f7813bcea2322	As a result, a lot of widely spread, but completely wrong opinions about the events of this war have survived to this day.
04071a81f3be132636e610146bed2227922e0402	Before I venture to make a general conclusion, I would like to consider the ingrained misconceptions mentioned in general terms at the beginning of the chapter.
ed56ca6e02a2da9186c67f3fe0005035aa4af7d8	A civil war is a war in which citizens of a country kill their own compatriots.
d03d3ce391d9ab533398e2702b51599db75e902a	By this definition, the war of the roses may well be classified as a civil war.
a72e49ae19155e6b182b2aae6a96002b0ae5cafe	In fact, this war was a manifestation of the dynastic struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster and affected only the aristocratic families of these houses, as well as their adherents and successors.
198d8c788914c83a2be316c1d8229a7ef9151a42	These campaigns were more of a protracted power struggle between two political parties than a civil war.
5ae345fb3841a076719fd85265157cb883f9507a	Both parties recognized the need to unite the kingdom and the existing system of government, represented by the king, the Council and the parliament.
924484c307cf8846f367f5edb16792ed0250d109	None of the parties sought to destroy or weaken the royal power, as was the case during the civil wars on the continent.
49ce89c60cabf5bb292cc278a372bca48abb9f0a	Each of the factions only wanted to gain power in the Council and thereby rule the country.
4883547a1b7c821335c6d40f78f2ebeb6f5c3961	King Edward told me that when he was finally convinced of his victory at the end of the battle, he jumped on his horse and shouted an order to spare the commoners and put the noble knights to death.
325b629d76b6f843612dce8a3593dcea789d0f9e	Of the latter, few managed to escape.
137bd5f4a432a9035ff8eab2cc8cef04b560473e	The English kingdom had one advantage over other kingdoms: the countryside, as a rule, was not ravaged, the inhabitants were not destroyed, the buildings were not destroyed or burned.
0f6a24439be9f7dd9ca8003ba488572b99a9ffa9	It is believed that the war of the Roses lasted for 30 years: from 1455 to 1485.
2cf6aa0e5646c322b0d8e97a0cb1ca4a781ef91a	This figure can be divided into three periods of the peak of the conflict: 1455-64, 1469-71, 1483-87.
71d5a21679b109c0717c14ac9ca5b0367b3b1938	The actual time of the campaign is 428 days.
cfbc64972aeac3a78ff67df431ed124b062694bb	The confrontation broke through with another fight, after which everything very quickly subsided.
a57f3c6f9a5155f78c5b1deed57aae33db4e86fc	The longest hike from Wakefield to Towton lasted 4 months.
50305fe98c476accb5928b0f80b7b4f9425b7d63	Even Edward's campaign to seize the throne took only 2 months, from the moment he landed at Ravenspur to the battle of Tewkesbury.
5d08f6f15181459626a9ddda7509d1762091da8d	Taking into account the above facts, it can be understood that the long bloody battles and other horrors associated with the civil war were not characteristic of the war of the roses.
6fbcb59ad9b654ba24427092c854a74e76fa8682	Modern historians believe that the idea of looted lands, devastated by the civil war, was fixed in history thanks to the efforts of Tudor supporters.
2c8d40bd66da45524a2c71f78100b03ac0ad2d47	They created this image in order to strengthen the contrast between the devastation that reigned in the country before the accession of Henry VII to the throne, and the peace and prosperity that came to the land of England under the new king.
8c8228e5aeffd8bf0174e6580fdac9321b70a9d2	The aristocracy suffered very much.
d5b8764573264b827b2908167c454bdbdea0a20b	Although this is still a question: is it so strong?
4874711ebc1c77cbdd2015772817b962897a9299	Yes, many knights were killed.
0ebde0017d2b92d04f3aea8e1842d90c6184ad82	But their families were not destroyed, as is often claimed.
6a3d1da606fae4c86242c9e7734fd8ca97dd6702	The old nobility actually survived the war.
499506d9db253a2d3f9ea9f30364d223d1da93cc	K. B. McFarlane cites a figure of 25 percent, indicating the rate of extinction of noble families.
98e9f17d27ef121b38a09219e8bce2e2aa51bdcf	Of course, 25 percent is a high mortality rate.
6c870ec75068085f72fd66081377916387e18be8	Undoubtedly, the nobility was dying out.
051cc0eafb69276545007cf3f485a6cc7a56ac65	Such a great decline was caused by the lack of male heirs, as well as the fact that many lives were taken by the war.
d2e304e81f639dd41be1484666b3a9f7a0c4cd3f	The noble families really suffered cruelly: of the 16 names of dukes and earls that existed in the last decade of the reign of Henry VII, only two remained unharmed — William, Earl of Arundel, who did not take part in either the war or the political struggle, and Ralph Neville, the second Duke of Westmorland.
e4202437650d731c457c1003ee27d6e6b7cf32cf	There is also confusion about the names of the two parties — the Yorks and the Lancasters.
05f9791d0c4d2d5a37a53aed485266ed5292aff1	At that time, the York dynasty had the most supporters in the midlands of England, and the Lancastrians dominated in Yorkshire!
7e8d5e4bb4ce6bf22d007169a8bc5d99ea609470	It is important to remember that the Yorks and Lancasters are the names of two competing dynasties that have little in common with geographical names.
e2178dc0d5a92d2d7df45fb083b527eceeb19226	We should not be confused by the confrontation of two modern English counties of the same name, which in no way relates to the events described.
7671a715966c0db725b02699dce996a1fda26743	It should be noted that even the name of the war is wrong.
c418874c0b7f55deca3d7e2bf8ce45078e78fc31	The noisy quarrels of the major barons of that period were given such a sonorous name many years later.
8c9bf51ae4fc2990906f53cc7a45529582e64502	Probably, the name was coined by Sir Walter Scott in the XIX century.
2ed01a625f2124977704d4ef5f0c8ca32470bbdf	Shakespeare's play "Henry VI"played a role in the rooting of delusion.
cd856fe66c78a55e3c67a9a5a6593bd470bc78e4	It has a famous scene where the warring representatives of the nobility collect red and white roses in the Temple garden.
b1b27ac869fbf73e188c2f0811ef8ef536480128	The quarrels between the noble families continued.
d3d08197c55bef964b849aea516b88777989b80f	One of the most confusing circumstances was that families often became allies of yesterday's rivals by marrying representatives of the opposite side, after which titles and estates passed into the hands of recent enemies thanks to heiresses.
c843ccef97e052e6e2f14b137fc5970e4f9e8b03	I hope that the brief description of the events offered here and the famous figures who took part in them will help to understand who fought with whom, where, when and for what.
184f67708ea1e9f756df886db6b06bc731382ebf	To send a comment, you need to log in.
96ecca34a7686276dd433f828f6a32d8c3aa2d07	England Middle Ages King Arthur and the Anglo Saxon Wars
06ea6afca7910b8eda70e79604bb21cb51aaf210	English Knights 1200-1300
98779e9b450c9381c62c65d3d16b9b7489f6b886	Scottish Knights 1513-1552
a89033e845c6c62bd2030e75989ef1a9b535a137	Army of the 20th century Special Forces of the Airborne Forces 1945-1984
a7fa40b9c702814144d73ace810a64dec89d2a2a	Soviet Army 1970-1990
6a6e0e20395963f5c905cfab9a1dc177b5e9d0fc	Military Sniper
2d1369c02c9cc4295ef3f513f9f8deed87cae556	British Grenadier Guards
99de303e4703964b86cc5ec58dcb449cf1326d36	Israeli tank forces in the Yom Kippur War…
19c626c00b43a8abb49c0638685de74e4f08394a	Barbarian Picts
5fdf693c388ab15cf6f265f06c921ce6c0417cdb	Celts
5257ae998f1f5c261732fc70e618227c3dc51a20	Sarmatians
0f2339e906d3c0cff86470ff900cba1a8f49888d	Byzantium Army of the Byzantine Empire 430-1118
cf5fe06ba0b7ff1d805f989815e2a2b410149a79	Byzantium is under attack by Muslims.
9bdd513c55d511455367e1cf8387703599e42d16	Battle of the…
5b004f03faf534babf75ef09b870b25cef2c45c5	Constantinople 1453 Collapse…
18d8e61988407b560e10519290669cd2c0ad4460	Germany XX century Military leaders of the Wehrmacht 1933-1945
780f1cf3d623116e8ceab49843fb6156b94ca632	Infantryman of the Wehrmacht 1933-1940
6040aab1a48c6eb6c38422f166158ff163793702	Waffen SS Soldiers
76d54534105441c6e1d010ec4f0a8cada3e60e33	Partisans and punishers
5580db9cb6861b6c7a07d4e25b30db79a3791210	German Military Police 1939-1945
e654fbf745eec5ca63e473654c8e6b9dcc5b4200	Far East Samurai 940-1561
4d5f0d5a6ae51832ffb4222f066df286814ec438	Samurai 1577-1638
bd7ed15c3191209dce5c514329654967e499843d	Ninja 1460-1650
314eacdf962428107299c34481904652763eb851	Ancient World Ancient armies of the Middle East 3500…
120df8ea213fb646b8e0577d64124d9ea752afd4	Ancient Persia
791c8609e4dbe8c46a25d95b3eacbc5f4fd69fb5	Scythians 700-304 BC
e2d12a98cf61a59e6b981a657d98b083db781771	Steppe horse archers 600 BC…
a5f8850c33f220640b7e8e4fd535269e67f29238	Ancient Greece The Macedonian Phalanx
d31825784cefbf66b4f877fe38351d357fe52800	Sparta
bfb1ab69d829c1dab41f2496fb8da2c8ab8f095a	Campaigns of Alexander the Great
3b119f924102739455d0e1dc5e643df796f44afa	The Army of Alexander the Great
132d326397ed28994350fcd983f8dfc57b58f616	Troy
3848cfa06ea93f17bda581bd772ad63da96cb518	Siege engines of Greece and Rome
cee6668115537a0a5151dd0a430c37b9988277c4	Crusades European Knights in the Holy Land…
a65fff997c7b2e8dfb64de1c94ac80fbd5d8b9b5	Knights of Christ
81d3a0422b83604a9db85b30375023a63dd106dc	Crusaders in the Baltic States
3f297d0d74a74592e6f98d6c4677d4060e5e6fb0	Muslim Armies of the Moors 643-1492
94f95d5e9da17b598d2a87407ed25dd7f33a289c	Janissaries
d5016cf66df95941affc99ae769853e18ee224dd	Tamerlane and his army
00ece17be007e61636a6301c39d01691ce3ad96f	Caliphates 862-1098
19f9373e3595b35434bfe2d959cd4c858e6812c4	New time English Heavy Cavalry of Wellington
9d52c14f00ab7d313231e78a862f9f5b12dc23af	The Conquistadors
139bd3a8b05bf7ecffdeb09e5835f300cbd1d94a	Pirates 1660-1730
cf15b330a994416a7d6e66926df1c910f4bea1d4	Russian Army Russian men at arms 1250-1500
12b897d709be096fc9c97e43d6fdaa030188290d	Russian Infantry 1799-1814
d644eb6fd3a4016aeb4bbffc0f0918b89debb904	Russian Cavalry 1799-1814
c41589f677c1703b1cbd96104a50099b7a64c445	The Red Army 1917-1922
1a093f28ee43624165b47cccd58dd5b32389d945	War at sea Kriegsmarine submarines
c29fc576ce6fc630234dcc8d867c8709c05d64df	Kriegsmarine battleships
257a7076a12655d89913db5306aa7136d98f3cdb	Scandinavian Viking Warriors
8f771fe19f9ea85378091aed90d0c4ff2ce9efba	Viking Martial Art 793-1066
2a84d416c1db3b0d7db6ed2edd69bd245c3a8b65	The Scandinavian Knights 1100-1300
89fa097823b7a91c2de1456c7bc8e5b5f0aa5b25	The Scandinavian Knights 1300-1500
147a5628f699d5973a99658fe9b2f6b29842c29e	The Middle Ages of the Hussite Wars 1419-1436
87f4b9455ee03bcdbf25e3090e94c83ad98c7b02	Jousting tournaments
66c6771367fe8afe4f2124777c4898272805ad84	Medieval heraldry
6183f4025b5c12811fca0002da2e851b9b9f8cb8	France Middle Ages Carolingians
cb1f65a4598f2ef59cf6adc1be4ecfd82c9b633c	The Army of Medieval France
97abe72b81d15a5f8334c6729207340ca09dd8ec	French Knights 1300-1500
7edf87ce26b03964ce847a3a4346e5eeaf3975f4	The Napoleonic Era Napoleon's Artillery 1792-1815
4e53e08b2196e5baf6e234dee128c7866c5f8ec1	Napoleon's Guard 1799-1815
ea129ef022d559be6cf54120b18b189796513e0e	Napoleon's Honor Guard
8cb7fff5074d121992b890b1b712691c9e07fffb	Napoleon's Line Cavalry
1b6baa39d7156e80d7cf6457f129581711e4f46b	Napoleon's Dragoons and Lancers
abf4224e69ed9d8e3b974d724aaec2f4138ffa89	Napoleon's Cuirassiers
d7b8f24cf8c63c75b41ffe7b770091f0a78b2a3c	The Age of Rome Gladiators
d3439cd1a3425e3c18bde7aa4b3733f7dc2a10bc	Punic Wars
a2d91c087e525b8b3d922771b98f0aaeb778232f	The Roman Empire — The Northern Border
54fa700dac4f21c94d15d5ff514da3a4d6a81822	Military clothing of Rome 200-400 years
71f097ee5c5a0fede89f13917aa41243a94eac70	Roman cavalry during the decline of the Empire…
1816cfcb538052a630c823c3dfdf504454fd1a10	Articles Novorossiya 1800-1825
55ed3c6b6619ca4884f998d84a5827b361d45db5	Copyright © 2011-2014.
070e30de3e5acb2d9e8665943449ae14fb770f00	All Rights Reserved.
f7c526c871c009c5cf87761363067ad79d18bc07	11 queries.
8ae373960a55ff5e8087f08c28139f2d5463e2f0	0,992 seconds.
1bc484532031ce8bf04815ea79f85973318dbb83	Knowledge of the laws does not consist in remembering their words,
421d4ef814c43bd07c9782204018056310e7b15e	it's about understanding their meaning.
acaadfcd759cc7def822c319caa03d8ae91dd235	Cicero
7ac9476fb0f9a6b919203616b37333fdd6384361	Financial law The system of financial law
c62c6d273234d350c28471283b2ecc38a43e2f36	Principles of financial law
f8f8b6df85d0d3415428079ae381bebbd680d7e3	The method of financial law
feb2f9d8bea8079bfb0af67606704bc63f3723a9	Budget law Budget system
f08503fc3d8781339c994059f2f104ff3f69a9b6	Budget process
121bb28fb91677f5fd8aba96e4b5dd83c5d9e2c6	Principles of the budget system
8614bcb59526e2020769b2f284b92aeb685d4742	Tax system Taxes, fees, duties
ce28d03349b7f5214e6b8d46ec1ab8b8d8a8312d	Tax legal relations
f7439eecceae8dab286c9e8990043d028a33bebc	Tax policy
874fe735545a3db3a6f39022bf6b2782b4ea9098	Cash circulation Cash payments
1d553d429168fc6e9884b3155233c3e3092af92a	Non cash payments
2c4a23482cb0593281a98ffbaebc28f2b05165b3	Currency transactions
24f562ed670f3e1092f44d0e9a237154993a5ada	Financial theory Theory of State and Law History of Tax Law Sociology and Culture Fundamentals of Political Science Fundamentals of State Law of the Russian Federation Useful Information Currency Dynamics Legal sphere of Society Fundamentals of Administrative Law Historical excursion
83bc8b7ad238bdb6a35955d90ce6f4e808958b4a	The Foundation of Rome
803676dae2d098ff0b4b6c10baf27b735b40f783	Ancient China
c732152e1036890d222255b8a70bf3d12c04f170	Persia
b6b4ba388ade3db9de4016cf90c4ddf5c6775484	Roman Republic
805604992a36e1d6a7ba783d25c9b2851b5dd28e	Ancient India
dfc253cfccf2a3ee39e50bdebb0165a133554ad0	The Arab Caliphate
e318f788dc692ea9286b975dab4f5d2131651fc5	Phoenicia and Carthage
d327de4c8e5dfa6d7624b671b1cd389b1e244802	Athens and Sparta
c23df23b9fd5ae2fb7b038fcf2ea36bd0d41a1cb	Sumer and Akkad
f3fab30891c3ac441fab558da6736a915278da9c	The Greco Persian Wars
f5e3aefc73df03d7b0e4b8b0dee77b3543fbd022	Assyria
e1a15d1cb1a3dd34a60cee8e2f055246083806d4	Royal Rome
da21a7057d492a3e682e56ae7af2ca641508fdb2	History of South America
d617a05b191c3d40eaa7f432bba8ffcfeaa3671f	The Rise of Spartacus
dbf452fd5bae2d292d83a662a947a70ad447aca6	Reconquista
0cc143df172bc9d97ac2afc252d045f1f4ead4c5	Vikings
3183bb168ae8161ed9e72203d2a562107e24fcb7	Kievan Rus
13a3c688ce86c09a20417e60056657cbd9f32af9	William the Conqueror
6b18551bbcf489d5c4907192f2af435bd4604595	Vladimir Suzdal Principality
3b2043ffd23e3c7ca315f5231e29682e626ef66d	Russia and the Nomads
f8e8073d301df413470888f27ba54d7e61394f77	Tatar Mongol invasion
9c5f52bb818274df04025a2ac738cee17361d9b5	Medieval Italy
f1b734f5a33b6fc98e5cb3d6bdb94faf01c13839	Medieval India
8ea1578e46fd2dfd1252a61ebe754ccf04a90049	The Crusades
f7a1112d2cc0b952f4523c5c6940f7431a14f7ed	Kulikovskaya Battle
e7a0c4f7f251a867054c8fa5b2574194eafc3eb5	Ferdinand and Isabella
4a82bbc02bb62b7fca95db603a872b1a955844e1	The Reformation
c13405123f6e48436a59fcf59953b442159cdada	Elizabeth I of the Tudor dynasty
d5df455ce7515047fcb84cdc55e152960115a78d	Louis XIV
6aa218682121e43d5def972e0d44d7df07988a74	Pereyaslavskaya Rada
a33fdaca17209ef30953ec59f22c12746f95e6ef	The Time of Troubles
53de46de1035960fae90aa75dd7ea2a35d3b2555	Peter's reforms
52a441439814c5a33209a0951136393f81f109a2	Palace coups
3d81601b9c7cc6647c8953170aa36eb4c8f9049a	Frederick the Great
5c3c2153ac73aab706bd36d59f04c84c2e61db4f	USA.
6dad587842f1b138fed795a6e191471922427874	The War of Independence
a05994714fff670dfd17b402b030e344997f6b3a	The War of the Spanish Succession
225a9c567c744acae88a9d1d30cfdc3389dc76ed	Pugachev's Uprising
e769502ab49f09859260815a7892853373a0eb65	Opium wars
d2a7eea482fedfd67f3d28ed189e0cb4259c4fd4	Abolition of serfdom
66a49d6bbf216c2263f22605ff173619d1c6f2f0	Europe in the second half of the 19th century
456e0e17885246442bb541f3800852c17e90a49e	Russian Japanese War
709b75a7428527a89b90a9a3885de4ea0de87e34	World War I
b40e1977ae40db5dc39567a8890ac456dbf3f721	The revolutions of 17
ab94603f9dbf62f9531a28b7bda2d9962d9571ac	Civil War
6b26d81ecd3744381ec12d00a8b689b271fbb04e	NEP
3f64771de9047fd176f2b8aacc238b959ce9682e	Education of the USSR
fb88db80509a178a820cb784e0c4304a84a9f951	Industrialization
74c36cc95bbbf4bba03f0ef81bb8629e5ec81852	The Great Patriotic War
33d48bf57f8f892c133ab9d4cfe8b6ee2cbb381a	The Thaw of N. S. Khrushchev
99ff739749f4604dc52fe3d68dc22439a7dedd5b	The Cold War
02223256c1879c2b068c724fa41db94e01d8f8b9	Stagnation
fb55fccb62945478240aec2836e68f102764be75	Gorbachev's Perestroika
d2e6b3becf16f356a6cfc0be2d0b2d5a46764a5e	The collapse of the socialist camp
9c326404cfb163a6770e4ffe819da0338e7fb7f3	Radical reforms of the nineties
fb1f2a2c086eb7f1497db433c0389cb759469a77	The European Union
32e359a70973b78ed5c2620ad9b5065d20d056f0	Geopolitics Investing in railway transport in Tsarist Russia Finance News
5ec37e8598bd71954a72032fd9e500ea96c33dde	Recommended business resources:
391d0b137027ae15649ecfe1dece445324a8f25a	25.04.2012
d9b4bdf4a54b14c1fd036d430854b3a94cfef1b7	Some experts believe that the growth of the euro (by 2.95% in the first quarter of this year) was a temporary phenomenon.
2b25b26c435dd7ef6e722e6e20578bab729c5936	15.04.2012
d63c1671c7e0400bdbc743cebaca4dd3c30cee4b	The Ministry of Finance intends to prepare a bill that will reduce the turnover of cash in Russia.
7061223aaa2d229c0d7587d5d617af4c1239aa42	The head of the Ministry of Finance A. Siluanov referred to the world experience, which supports this proposal of his.
c18896f678e3638e09eded47f70e9f732252dcb0	07.04.2012
ee0e2c768900e9272c05ec9c972a1af2d09bbbd8	The economy of the CIS countries did not give up to the crisis.
2d92cb74d935c4cfe4c22d7ec14c05aef3d9e0d5	The Eurasian Development Bank held an annual "Macro monitoring of the CIS".
c8fbf8dc6b7555a44ee2e8d9fa2589214450640b	The main indicators of the current study were pleasantly surprised.
9953c91cca3c1eeafb0b5012fadb4a96d0460b0c	The experts were particularly pleased with the high growth rates in agriculture.
104c7fcd15faf84d21fe0c0bea1c0ae44067f682	01.01.2012
88e2a13fcf1489fab12151fc6b80275d3f37389f	Russia is becoming a world leader in trade.
ba4c652e03084d2c59bce46c4fdc54ad74348daf	According to the forecast of HSBC bank, Russian trade will overtake the world in terms of growth rates: until 2017, it will grow by 6% per year, and after that — by 7.56%.
2282beadfc4f937fcbf267e50d4e4d439d78e0f8	02.12.2011
5ea5b43c168ce75e0deebf95d37f5234a23e31a1	The market turnover of the Russian segment of forex brokers is at least $ 500 billion.
b3bb44b3becd4efe149861574c0ebf4a6e26e413	Several hundred thousand people work in this market.
39174b20b5923f647709655d7811a4c01ce75b89	After the end of the Hundred Years ' War, thousands of people who had fought in France returned to England, disappointed by its defeat.
e3d877b8ccdf59329762b7fce5f1877374fcc679	The situation in England sharply worsened, any weakening of the royal power threatened internal turmoil.
223b05dbb1d027f0879467fbca1834206913e040	Under King Henry VI of the Lancaster dynasty, his wife, Queen Margaret of Anjou, a Frenchwoman, really ruled the country.
dc0a17dd12cef6503a5a78779fe97a310a107905	This caused the displeasure of the Duke of York, the king's closest relative.
c21cc3c2f3ba33a65fe22fe8871aa6cde9d73ad5	The Yorks (in their coat of arms a white rose) relied on the feudal lords of the economically more developed south east of England.
005ee340c212b18bb5addf9feea207e49d8f673e	Richard, Duke of York, defeated the Lancastrian supporters in 1455, and in 1460 captured Henry VI and forced the Upper House of Parliament to recognize himself as the protector of the state and heir to the throne.
91137b3aac342096487d1d2b9f65d4b078edfac0	In 1461, Edward, the eldest son of the murdered Richard, defeated the Lancastrian supporters with the support of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick.
a00016d4e1e8b653061d5ad82ebd589311416a31	The new king also ordered the heads of all the noble prisoners to be cut off.
8118e47500c8e4b87c5727b38f8e6a7a4961a88e	The head of the king's father was removed from the city gates of York, replacing it with the heads of the executed.
510ec3570edbc2cdf4154493a75818612c82bcfd	By the decision of the parliament, the "living and dead" Lancastrians were declared traitors.
a941a1dccb7a007d61fbf1cdc86a36deebf21ba5	The desire of Edward IV to strengthen his power and weaken the power of the barons led to the transition of his former supporters, led by Warwick, to the side of Henry VI. Edward was forced to flee England, and Henry VI was restored to the throne in 1470.
77a87ac7ea9f3b4f7a307540c2530a7be8b0a301	After the death of Edward IV in 1485, the eldest of his sons, the twelve — year old Edward V, was supposed to inherit the throne, but Richard removed him from power and first declared himself the protector of the young king, and later declared his nephews illegitimate and himself took the crown under the name of Richard III. Both princes Edward V and his ten year old brother were imprisoned in the Tower of London.
dd1acfa6f8252f32a8c9eb8da02e5e0c7f3bb94d	Supporters of the Lancastrians and Yorks united around a distant relative of the Lancastrians Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who lived in exile in France.
6393aab104c5df612badf95088456dd72c5ebd73	In 1485, he landed with an army on the British coast.
e5a3c55e34f4ac274c940ee87622283e2d06666d	The accusation of the cold blooded murder of his young nephews fell especially heavily on Richard.
9f98ebc08bf1d7d7ccb49942d9b0cba017540fc7	There is no direct evidence of his guilt, and the death of the offspring of the House of York was much more profitable for Henry VII himself than for Richard The mystery of the disappearance and death of the young princes remains unsolved to this day.
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5f6fd2d9e2e02c58fc8e622ffa49c3bf6fec32b0	The information posted on the resource is valid as of the date of publication.
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